Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia 9789811622090, 9789811622106

Table of contents :
Contents
About the Editor
About the Authors
Contributors
Introduction
Part I: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Concepts and Applications
1 Technology Application in the Tourism Industry in Asia: Theories and Practices
Introduction
Theoretical Background
Why Apply Technologies?
Advertising and Promotion
Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Procedure
Competitive Benefits
Change in the Tourism Industry with Technology Applications
Major Examples in Asia Applying Technologies in the Tourism Industry
India
China
Sri Lanka
Japan
Hong Kong
Maldives
Indonesia
United Arab Emirates (UAE)
Vietnam
Thailand
Information Technology in Tourism Education
Conclusion
References
2 Information and Communication Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry
Introduction
Computer Reservation Systems and Global Distribution Systems
ICT and Travel Intermediaries
ICT and Airlines
ICT and Surface Transport
ICT and Hospitality
ICT and Tourist Experience
ICT and Destination Management
ICT and Sustainable Tourism
New Trends in ICT and Tourism
Augmented and Virtual Reality (AR and VR)
Artificial Intelligence
Machine Language
Chatbot
Facial Recognition
Robot
Social Media Listening Tools
Internet of Things
Personalization
Real-Time Information
In-Flight Experience
Streamlined Operations
Safety and Security
Tourist Experience
Maintenance
Voice Technology
Wi-Fi Connectivity
Wearable Technology
Mobile Apps
Redefining Travel with Big Data Analytics
Personalization
Competitive Differentiation
Improving Pricing Strategy
Improving Marketing Strategy
Real-Time Assistance
Ability to Meet Future Needs
Blockchain Technology
5G Technology
Digital Divide in Tourism
Conclusion
References
3 The Internet Influences Asian Tourism
Introduction
Management of Innovative Culture
Research Analysis on the Asian Market
Malaysia
Indonesia
South Korea
Philippines
Conclusion
References
Part II: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Marketing Contexts
4 Technology in Tourism Marketing
Introduction
Industrial Revolutions and Tourism
Digital Transformation and the Impact of Internet in Tourism
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in Tourism
Social Networks in Tourism
Smart Tourism and Tourism 4.0
New Technological Trends in Tourism
Internet of Things (IoT)
Big Data
Cloud Computing
Near-Field Communication (NFC)
Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR), and Mix Reality (MR)
Cryptocurrencies, Blockchain, and Creative Business Models
Artificial Intelligence and Robot Technologies
Examples of Smart Tourism Technologies
Smart Restaurants
Smart Guest Rooms
Smart Conference Rooms
Smart Tours
Drones
Chatbot (Chat Box)
iBeacons
Kiosks
Websites
Mobile Application
Mobile Payment
Smart Environment
Innovation in Tourism Marketing
Digital Marketing and Digital Marketing Tools in Tourism
Social Network Marketing
Social Media Marketing
Buzz Marketing
Viral Marketing
e-WOM Marketing
Influencer Marketing
Mobile Marketing
E-mail Marketing
Affiliate Marketing
Search Engine Marketing (SEM-SEA-SEO)
Digital Content Marketing
Pay per Click Advertising (PPC)
Online Advertising
Online Display Advertising (ODA)
Game Advertising (In-Game Advertising)
Omni-channel Digital Marketing
Online Marketing and Virtual Support Assistants
Future Trends in Tourism Marketing
Conclusion
References
5 Digital Marketing and Digital Marketing Applications in the Asian Tourism Industry
Introduction
The Journey of Marketing to Digital and 4Ps
Digital Marketing Applications
Search Engine Marketing
Content Marketing
Influencer Marketing
Omni-Channel Marketing
Digital Marketing Applications in the Asian Tourism Industry
Conclusion
References
6 Travel Agency Tourist Tracking System
Introduction
Background
Findings and Discussions
Conclusion
References
Part III: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Customer Perceptions
7 Generation Y´s Perception of Travel Mobile Applications
Introduction
Travel Mobil Applications
Background
Performance Expectancy
Social Influence
Facilitating Conditions
Mobile Application
Respondent Demographic Profile (Table 7.2)
Perception of Travel Mobile Application
Performance Expectancy
Effort Expectancy
Social Influence
Facilitating Condition
Conclusion
References
8 Factors Influencing Tourist Perception on GrabCar Ride-Sharing Application Services
Introduction
Background
Measurement
Profile of Respondents
Profile of Respondents
Perceived Reliability on Application
Convenient Booking
Cheaper Fare on Application
Quality
Intention to Ride
Descriptive Statistic (Perceived Reliability on Cheaper Fare on Application, Application, Quality, Convenient Booking, and Int...
Conclusion
References
Part IV: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Decision-Making
9 Semantic-Based Technology in Shaping the Strategy of Tourism in Malaysia
Introduction
Tourism Industry in Malaysia
Tourist Source of Information
Tourists Spending Pattern
Tourist and Tourism Industry
The Landscape of Internet Use and Its Trends in Malaysia
Internet Users in Malaysia
Devices, Sites, and Applications Accessed by Internet Users in Malaysia
Types of Online Activities Accessed by Internet Users in Malaysia
Semantic-Based Technology
Application of Semantic Web
Semantic Web Components
Technology and Tourism Industry in Malaysia
Semantic Web as Recommender Tools in the Tourism Industry
Identification of Approach (Classical Approach and Non-classical Approach)
Establishment of the Data Model
The Need for Semantic Technology for the Tourism Industry in Malaysia
Conclusion
References
Part V: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Tourist Experience
10 The Impact of Technology Applications in Tourists´ Experiences
Introduction
The Concept of Experience
The Elements of Psychological, Economic, and Sociological Experience
Psychological Basis of Experience
Economic Basis of Experience
Sociological Basis of Experience
Experiential Value
Experiential Value Models
Pine and Gilmore´s Experiential Value Model
Schmitt´s Experiential Value Model
Aho´s Experiential Value Model
Emotional Impact
Information
Developing Talents
Realization of Change
The Stages of Customer Experience
Consumption Experience
Product Experience
Service Experience
Tourism/Tourist Experiences
The Impact of Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism
Social Media
Mobile Applications
Virtual Reality (VR)
Augmented Reality (AR)
Gamification
Recommender Systems
Conclusion
References
Part VI: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Customer Relations
11 Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Customer Relations
Introduction
Concept of Customer Relations
Components of Customer Relationship
Human
Process
Technology
CRM and Types of Customer Relationship Management
Analytical CRM
Operational CRM
Strategic CRM
Collaborative CRM
The Importance of Customer Relations in the Tourism Industry
Factors That Ensure Customer Relatons Applications to Be Successful in Tourism Business
Literature of Writing for Customer Relations in Tourism Business
The Importance of Technology in Customer Relations
Technology Applications in Customer Relations in Tourism
Examples of Technology Applications in Customer Relations in the Asian Tourism Industry
Using Artificial Intelligence and Robots in Customer Relations in Hospitality Enterprises, Singapore
The Internet of Things in Customer Relations in Hospitality Enterprises in Japan
The Internet of Things in Customer Relations in Airlines, Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates
Big Data Analysis in Customer Relations in North Korea
Blockchain-Based Loyalty Programs in Customer Relations in Dubai
Conclusion
References
Part VII: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Tourist Loyalty
12 Creating Loyal Customers with Digital Marketing Applications: The 5A Model
Introduction
Customer Loyalty
The New Customer Path: From AIDA to 5A
Digital Subcultures
Four Basic Skills in Building Loyalty in the Digital Age
Automation
Proactive Personalization
Contextual Interaction
Journey Innovation
Digital Marketing Applications in the Asian Tourism Industry
Conclusion
References
13 Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Tourist Loyalty
Introduction
Tourist Loyalty
Importance of Tourist Loyalty
Key Factors Effective in Providing Tourist Loyalty
Loyalty Types
Cognitive Loyalty
Emotional Loyalty
Behaviorally Progressive Loyalty
Operational Loyalty
Approaches in Loyalty
Behavioral Approach
Attitude Approach
Unified (Mixed) Loyalty Approach
Loyalty Levels
No Loyalty
Spurious Loyalty
Latent Loyalty
Absolute (Strong) Loyalty
Tools That Can Be Used in Creating Tourist Loyalty
Relational Marketing
Information Technologies and Data-Based Marketing
Loyalty Programs
Loyalty Cards
Customer Clubs
Frequency Programs
Technology Practices Providing Tourist Loyalty in and Around the Asian Tourism Industry
Application 1: The Reztoran, Turkey
Reservation in Reztoran
Reztoran Loyalty Program
Application 2: Miles & Smiles, Turkey
Earning Miles with Miles & Smiles
Miles & Smiles Loyalty Program
Application 3: Yatra.com, India
Yatra eCash Loyalty Program
Application 4: Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC), India
IRCTC Package Tours
Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC), Shubh Yatra Loyalty Program
Application 5: ONYX Hospitality Group, Thailand
ONYX Rewards Loyalty Program
Application 6: Vega Izmailovo Hotel and Convention Center, Moscow, Russia
Conclusion
References
Part VIII: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Tourist Behavior
14 Paper to Paperless: Adoption of Digital Examination and Behavioral Intention Among Tourism Students
Introduction
Conventional Versus Innovative Practice in Student Evaluation
Digital Innovation for Sustainable Higher Education
Technology Adoption
Demographic Profile of the Respondents
Testing of Hypotheses
Discussion and Implications
References
Part IX: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: The Aviation Industry
15 Technology Application Usage in Aviation Industry in Asia
Introduction
Innovation and Innovative Technology
Technological Innovations in Aviation Industry
Types of Technology Used in Aviation Industry
Use of Technology in Aviation Industry in Asia
Technology Used in Aircraft
Flight Management System
Fuel-Efficient Technologies: Flexible Navigation System, Winglets, COO, and CDO
Biometric
Virtual Reality
Cloud Solutions
BAGTAG Device
Onboard Translation Technology
Augmented Reality
Internet of Things
Unassisted Baggage Drop
BlipTrack
B4 you Board and FlySmart
Mobile Passport Control for Declaration of Customs
Indoors
Driverless Airport Shuttle
Brake to Vacate Technology (BTV)
Hybrid Electric Propulsion
Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)
Transponder SSR
Mode C and Mode S Transponder
Electronic Flight Instrument System
Inertial Reference System
Flight Director
Beacon Technology in Airport: Location-Based Information
Passenger Processing Solutions
Passport Kiosks
Three-Dimensional Screener for Bag Check: 3D CT Technology
Facial Recognition Technology
Backscatter X-Ray Scanner or Millimeter Wave Scanner
Explosives Trace Detection Machine/ETD
CLEAR´s Eye Scanner and Fingerprints for Speedy Check-Ins
Integrated Airport Command and Control Centers
Advanced Checkpoint Screening Technology
Robotics
Trax Watch
Common Use Gate System
Self-Cleaning Seats
Smart Gate System
QSuite
Tom Smart Faucets
Bunk Beds (Sleeping Berths in-Flight)
Advanced Aircraft Interior Technology
Full Fly by Wire
Emission Control
Visibility Measuring System (RVR)
Voice Check-in
Anti-Theft Baggage Technology
Deloitte and McLaren Digital Technology
Enhanced Video Analytics for Airport Operators
One Pilot Operation
Remote ATC: Budapest Airport
Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast or Contract (ADS-B and ADS-C)
Dassault Falcon 8X
FaclonEye Combined Vision System
Cabin Systems
X-Tend Seats
Green Cabin
Family Seats
Advanced Noise Control Technology
One for all Concept
Digital Twin System
Self-Driving Wheelchairs
Drones as Maintenance Tools
Solar-Powered Airports
Solar-/Electric-Powered Aircrafts
Curvaceous Aircraft Design
Prescriptive Maintenance Looms
Detachable Cabins: Airbus
Other Technologies
Technology Usage in Aviation Industry in Asia
Conclusion
References
16 Tourism Policies and Technological Strategies Adopted by Airlines in Malaysia
Introduction
Background
Conclusion
References
17 Technological Development of Methods for Organisation of Airborne Meals in Airlines
Introduction
Concept of In-Flight Catering
History of Catering
In-Flight Catering Requirements
Characteristics of Activities of LLP ``Almaty Catering Services´´
Concept of Automation and Integrated Systems
Analysis
Participants
Interview
Participants
Observation
Observation Participants
Comparison
Comparison Participants
Findings
Analysis
Interview
Observation
Comparison (Table 17.6)
Theme 1. Old Building and Equipment
Themes 2 and 3. Unnecessary Use of Manual Labor and Manual Order Delivery to Departments
Theme 4. Computerization and Integrated Systems
Conclusion
References
Part X: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Destination Promotion
18 Technology and Destination Promotion in Asian Tourism: Challenges, Changes, and Bearing
Introduction
Place - Location - Destination
Concept
What Does Tourism Destination Imply?
Destination Promotion
Backdrop
Approaches
Perception
Tourism Destination Promotion in Asia: Agents and Their Roles, Tools, and Stages
Technology Innovations´ Bearings Over Changes in Tourism Destinations´ Promotion
General Perspective
Early Perspective
Modern Perspective
The Twenty-First-Century Perspective
Challenges
Conclusion
References
19 Promotion of Tourism Using Digital Technology: An Analysis of Kerala Tourism
Introduction
Smart Promotion of Destinations
Role of Social Media in COVID-19 Crisis Management
Smart Promotion of Tourism by Kerala Tourism
Official Website and Mobile App
Promotion on Social Media
Influencer Marketing: The Kerala Blog Express
Smart Crisis Management
Digital Destination Promotion by Private Tourism Operators
Conclusion
References
20 Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Destination Promotion
Introduction
The Concept of Destination Promotion
The Importance of Technology in Destination Promotion
The Impact of Technology Usage in Destination Promotion
Digital Promoters of Destinations
The Earlier-Core Promoter: Destination Website (Web 1.0)
The New Trend Promoters: Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality
The Near Future Promoters: Artificial Intelligence and Internet of Things
Conclusion
References
Part XI: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Smart Tourism
21 Technology in Smart Tourism: Concepts and Applications
Introduction
Media in Information Technology
LTE and Wi-Fi
Near-Field Communication (NFC)
Protocol TCP/IP
Information Technology Infrastructure (ITI)
Artificial Intelligence
Augmented Reality Marketing (ARM)
Big Data
Blockchain
Cloud Computing
Chatbot
Emerging Technology
High-Performance Computing System
Internet of Things
Payment Gateway
Benefits of a Business Entity Using a Payment Gateway
Automatic Payments
Many Ways to Pay
Improve Brand
Recognition Technology
Wireless Connectivity
Information Technology (IT) in Tourism and Hospitality
Conclusion and Implications
References
22 Exploring Information Technology in Smart Tourism in Indonesia
Introduction
Discussions
Conclusion
References
Part XII: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Smart City Involvement
23 Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Artificial Intelligence and Blockchain in Smart City Involvement
Introduction
The Asian Tourism Industry
Technology Application and Tourism Industry
Benefits of Smart City Involvement in Tourism Industry
Cases
Case of Malaysia
Sunway City Kuala Lumpur as an Example of Smart Sustainable City
Challenges of Smart City Involvement in Tourism Industry
Future Technologies and Tourism Industry
Conclusion
References
24 Smart City Applications in Asian Capital Cities
Introduction
Concept of the Smart City
Elements of the Smart City
Smart Economy
Smart Citizen
Smart Governance
Smart Mobility
Smart Environment
Smart Living
The Smart City Technologies
Smart Transportation
Smart Security
Smart Energy
Smart Water
Smart Waste Management
Smart Buildings
Smart Health
Smart Education
Smart Economy
Smart Tourism
The Smart City Applications in the World
Evaluation of Asian Capitals
Conclusion
References
25 Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Smart City Involvement
Introduction
Concept of Smart City
ICT Infrastructure
Integrated City Management Framework
Smart Users
Dimensions of Smart City
Smart Infrastructure
Smart Transportation
Smart Environment
Smart Services
Smart Governance
Smart People
Smart Life
Smart Economy
Use of Technology in Tourism Within Smart Cities
WSNs
The Internet of Things
Cloud Computing
SIS Computing
Big Data
Tourism in Asia
Smart Cities in Asia
Bangalore
Chongqing
Seoul
Singapore
Hong Kong
Conclusion and Some Suggestions
References
Part XIII: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Cross Country Cases
26 Use of Innovative Technologies in the Promotion and Marketing of Asian Tourism Destinations: Sample of Turkey Destination
Introduction
Innovative Technologies Employed in Marketing and Branding of Turkey Destination
Use of Websites Among Innovative Technologies Used for Promotion and Marketing of Turkey Destination
Use of Social Media Tools in the Promotion and Marketing of Turkey Destination
Use of Websites in Promotion and Marketing Activities of Hospitality Businesses in Turkey
Use of Social Media Tools in Promotion and Marketing Activities of Hospitality Businesses in Turkey
Competitiveness of Using Innovative Technologies in Marketing of Turkey Destination
Conclusion
References
27 Technology Application in Turkey´s Tourism Industry
Introduction
Technology Application´s Examples
Mobile Devices (Smart Phone, Tablet, Computer, etc.) and Mobile Applications
Websites
Social Networks (Social Media: Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube, and Pinterest)
Location-Based Services
NFC (Near Field Communication)
Virtual Reality
Augmented Reality (AR)
Use of Technology in the Tourism Sector in Turkey
Historical and Natural Areas
Museums
Smart Destinations and Businesses
Hotel Examples
Website Examples
Airports
Conclusion
References
28 Medical Tourism and the Application of Technology
Introduction
Medical Tourism Versus Health Tourism
Medical Tourism and Destination Image
Medical Tourism and Mobility Across International Borders
Short Temporary Visits Abroad
Long-Term Residents
Common Borders
Outsourced Patients
Medical Tourism and Cross-Border
Medical Tourism and the Globalization Effects
Technology Application in Medical Tourism in Turkey
The Turkish Medical Tourism Experience for Asia
Overview (Fig. 28.1)
Conclusion
References
29 A Conceptual Framework for the Factors Affecting the Innovation Orientation of Syrian Construction Firms and the Indirect E...
Introduction
Syria
Background Information
Syrian Arab Republic´s Construction Industry
Syrian Arab Republic´s Tourism Industry
Innovation Orientation ``Creation vs Adoption´´
Justification for New Ideas
Innovation Function
Activities, Tools, and Approaches That Are Involved
Nature of Innovation
Digital Innovation´s Barriers
Technological Barriers
Financial Barriers
Management Barriers
Process Barriers
Psychological Barriers
Cultural Barriers
Environmental Barriers
Governmental Barriers
Firm Size as Moderator
Models of Research That Are Most Similar
The Primary Relationship´s Theoretical Rationale
Proposed Framework and Hypotheses
Summary and Conclusion
References
30 A Pilot Study on the Indirect Effect of Syrian Construction Firms´ Innovation Orientation on the Tourism Industry
Introduction
Syrian Arab Republic´s Construction Industry
Syrian Arab Republic´s Tourism Industry
Digital Innovation Barriers
Innovation Orientation ``Creation vs Adoption´´
Design of Research Methodology
Study Population
Sample Size
Survey´s Distribution Media
Survey´s Instrument
Measuring General Information
The Innovation Barrier Measurements
Innovation Orientation Measurements
Pilot Study
Summary and Conclusion
References
31 Technology Application in Medical Tourism in Malaysia
Introduction
Trends of the Global Medical Tourism Developments
Medical Tourism in Malaysia
Technology Applications in Medical Tourism Sector in Malaysia
The Hospital Information System (HIS)
The Websites
Electronic Medical Record (EMR)
Telehealth
Conclusion
References
32 The Rhapsody of Mobile Applications: A Case Study of Malaysian Travellers
Introduction
Technology Adoption in Tourism Industry
Mobile Applications in Tourism
E-Hailing
Klook
E-Wallet
Online Food Apps
Conclusion
References
33 Promoting Cultural Events in Indonesia Through Millennials: Lesson Learnt from Yogyakarta
Introduction
Who Is Generation Y?
Keraton of Yogyakarta (Royal Palace of Yogyakarta)
Cooperating with the Millennials
Confine Intertwine Concept of Yogyakarta
Lessons Learnt
Conclusion
References
34 Technology Application in the Hong Kong Tourism and Hospitality Industry
Introduction
Information Technology (IT) Applications
Online Marketing in Tourism Industry
Tourism in Hong Kong
Smart Tourism Concept
The Internet and Websites
Mobile Technology
Technology Adopted by the Hong Kong Tourism Board
Recent Activities in Some Hotels in Hong Kong
Use of Big Data in Hong Kong Tourism
Virtual Reality
Smart Rooms
Conclusion
References
35 Costs and Benefits of Adopting ICTs in Tourism Enterprises: Case study in Travel Agents and Tour Operators in Phnom Penh
Introduction
ICTs in Travel Agents and Tour Operators
Roles of ICTs in Tourism Enterprise
Cost Advantage
Product Leadership
Customer Focus
Business Process
Adopting ICTs in Tourism Enterprises
Factors Affecting ICT Adoption
Research Findings and Discussions
ICT Infrastructures and Their Functions
SWOT Analysis of ICT Adoption
Factors Affecting ICT Adoption
Conclusion and Implications
Implications
Adopt More ICTs into Organization and Operation
Reinvent Structure into EC-able Intermediary
Utilize More Digital Marketing
Stay Alert to Alternative and New Modern Technology
Adopt Customers Focused Strategies
Create Market Niche
Corporate or Join Venture with IT Company
Wholesale Products and Services
References
36 Technology Application in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry: The Contexts of India and Bangladesh
Introduction
Technological Expansion through the Ages: A Historical Development
Technological Application in Tourism and Hospitality Sector in India: Recent Trends and Challenges
Websites and Apps
Social Media and Internet Marketing
Mobile Technology
Augmented Reality
Blockchain Technology
Artificial Intelligence
The Application of Information and Communication Technology in Tourism and Hospitality Sector in India: Present Scenario in In...
Changes and Future Predictions of Hospitality Industry with the Application of Innovative Technologies in India
Recommendations for India to Overcome Technological Challenges
Technology Application in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Bangladesh: Recent Trends
Websites and Apps
Social Media and Internet Banking
Mobile Technology
Augmented Reality
Blockchain Technology
Artificial Intelligence
Machine Learning
The Application of ICT in Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Bangladesh: Present Scenario in Bangladesh
Changes and Future Predictions of the Tourism and Hospitality Industry with the Application of Innovative Technologies in Bang...
Recommendations for Bangladesh to Overcome Technological Challenges
Conclusion
References
37 Indigenous Tourism: A Shift Toward Innovative Technology Application
Introduction
The ``Indigenousness´´
The ``Indigenousness´´ and Tourism
Indigenous Tourism
Drawbacks in Indigenous Tourism
Technology-Supported Indigenous Tourism
Technology Supported Indigenous Tourism and Poverty Alleviation
Indigenous People in Bangladesh
Features and State of the Indigenous Peoples in Bangladesh
Chakma
Marma
Tripura
Tanchangya
Mro
Bawm
Kheyang
Khumi
Chak
Lushai
Pangkhua
Santals
Khasi
The Jaintia
Garo
Manipuri
Keot (Kaibarta)
The Muslim Tribes ``Pangal´´ or ``Pangan´´
National and International Organization for Indigenous People
Current Scenario of Indigenous Tourism Capitals in Bangladesh
Technology-Supported Indigenous Tourism, Poverty Alleviation: What Happens in Bangladesh?
Conclusion
References
38 Technological Mediation in Tourism: A New Era Begins in Pakistan
Introduction
Pakistan and Mobile Tourism Shopping
Theoretical Background
Mobile Tourism Shopping and Innovation Diffusion Theory
Mobile Tourism Shopping and Technology Acceptance
Development of Hypotheses
Perceived Relative Strengths
Compatibility
Social Presence (SP)
Perceived Enjoyment (PEJ)
Perceived Ease of Use (E)
Perceived Usefulness (U)
Mediating Role of E, U, and PEJ
Methodology and the Measurement Development
Data Collection and the Method of Sampling
Sample´s Demographic Characteristics
Survey Instrument
Common Method Bias (CMB)
Results and Discussion
Measurement Model
Structural Model Results
Mediation Analysis
Discussion
Implications and Conclusion
Theoretical Implications of Mobile Tourism Shopping
Managerial Implications of Mobile Tourism Shopping
Social Implications of Mobile Tourism Shopping
Conclusion, Limitations, and Future Research Directions
References
39 Technology in Tourism and Hospitality in Pakistan: The Tourist Experience Perspective
Introduction
Spiritual Tourism
Archaeological and Ancient Tourism
Ecotourism
Adventure Tourism
Pakistan´s Ranking in World Tourism
Role of Tourism in Employment Generation and Gross Domestic Production (GDP) of Pakistan
Worldwide Tourists in Pakistan
Theoretical Background
Constructive Factors
Tradition Tourism
Religious/Spiritual/Pilgrimage Tourism
Social Tourism
Wildlife Tourism
Athletic Tourism
Negative Factors
Complications in Tourism Industry
Nonavailability of Tourism Body
Low Priority of Tourism Sector
Protection of Tourists
Complications in Getting Visas
Deprived Coordination Among Departments
Private Sector Contributions
Ineffectiveness of Tourism Institutions
Nonavailability of Criteria and Certifications
Lack of Proper Marketing and Promotion
Adverse Image
Nonexistence of e-Tourism
Online Site
Cell Phone Application
Extranet Application
Insufficient Usage of Information Technology
Ineffective Participation in Global Tourism
Decrepit Tourism Structure
Deficiency of Human Resource Development
Proposals for Tourism Development
Enforcement of Law and Order
Health Services
Capacity Building for Tourism-Associated Employees
Formation of Code of Conduct
Elevation from Media
Specialized Education and Skills Development
Tourism Infrastructure Development
Strategy Preparation and Implementation
Upgradation of Standards
Protection of Beaches
Public and Private Sector Collaboration
Technology Revolutionizing Hospitality and Tourism in Pakistan
Conclusion
References
40 Use of Technology in Tourism: Challenges in Pakistan
Introduction
Challenges of Using Technology in Tourism
Biometric Tourist Facilities
5G Internet Facilities
Digital Divide
Technology Enterprises
Instrument Development
Relevancy of the Participants
Data Collection and Sample
Analysis of Data
Conclusion, Limitations, and Future Research Directions
References
41 Technology Influenced Tourism and Hospitality Services in Bangladesh
Introduction
Central Research Argument and Findings
Nature of Domestic and Foreign Tourists in the Concerned Areas
Mostly Visited Places of Chattogram and Cox´s Bazar
Available Technological Aids in the Concerned Areas
Accommodation as a Service
Restaurants as a Service
Health Service
Security Threat
Law Enforcement Efficiency
Beauty Parlor and Shopping Complexes
Lack of Sustainable Tourism Planning
Flexible Immigration and Transportation
Lack of Law Enforcement and Banking Facilities
Lack of International Standard Recreational Facilities
Comfortable Tourism
Lack of Proper Government Policies
Recommendations/Policy Prescriptions
Technological Aid
Promotional e-Branding
Rational Accommodation Service
Diverse Cuisine
Restroom Facilities and Safe Sanitation
Security Service within off-Peak Hours and Areas
Preparedness Regarding Fluctuations
Complain Box and Tourist Aid Booths
Availability of Tourist Police Services
Better Recreational Facilities
Cultural Acceptance
Sustainable Tourism Planning
Professional Tourist Guide
Application-Based Transportation System
Conclusion
References
42 Mobile Applications and Tourism Experiences: Some Netnographic Explanations from Bangladesh
Introduction
Mobile Applications (Apps) and their Uses in the Tourism Industry of Bangladesh
Online Travel Assistant Apps for Tourists
Ghurbo
ShareTrip
Amy
Transport Assistant and Ticketing Apps for Tourists
Pathao.com
Uber
Shohoz
OBHAI
BDTICKETS
Biman Bangladesh Airlines
Rail Sheba
Accommodation Assistant Apps for Tourists
Jovago
Airbnb
Booking.com
Restaurant and Food Delivery Apps for Tourists
Hungrynaki.com
Uber Eats
Foodpanda
Financial Assistant Apps for Tourists
bKash
Nagad
Rocket
Safety and Security Assistant Apps for Tourists
BD Police Helpline
BD 999
Shopping Assistant Apps for Tourists
Chaldal.com
Sheba.xyz
Bikroy.com
Rokomary.com
Aarong
AjkerDeal
Evaly
Pickaboo
Shajgoj
Daraz
Media and Entertainment Assistant App
Bioscope
Bongo
Toffee
Bangla Newspapers
The Daily Star
Bangladesh as the Promising Field of Mobile Applications
Review Comments on Mobile Applications in Bangladesh
Mobile Applications and its Contribution for Tourism Development and Promotion
Conclusion
References
43 Medical Tourism in Bangladesh and Innovative Technology Application
Introduction
Health Tourism vs. Medical Tourism
What Is Medical in Tourism?
Medical Tourism from the Asian Perspective
What Are the Negativities That Medical Tourists Need to Be Aware of?
What Is Innovative Technology Application in Medical Tourism?
Medical Tourism in India
Medical Tourism in India and Technology Diffusion in the Indian Medical Tourism Business
Use of Information Technology in Medical Care and Health Sector in India
Datamate Mediware
Total Clinic Automation System (TCAS)
Administrator Plus
Prospects of Medical Tourism in Bangladesh
Bangladesh´s Advancement in Medical and Healthcare Sector
Barriers of Medical Tourism Business in Bangladesh
Medical Tourism in Bangladesh and Technology Diffusion in the Bangladeshi Medical Tourism Business
Use of Information Technology in Medical Care and Health Sector in Bangladesh
Medical Helpline
Bangladesh Electronic Medical Record
Meditor Health Application
Doctor Bhai (Doctor Brother) Application
Augmedix Medicare
Conclusion
References
44 Legislations and Technology Applications for Passport, Visa, and Immigration for Tourists in Bangladesh
Introduction
The Necessity of Knowing About Visa Process
The Necessity of Knowing About Immigration Process
Visa Application Process of Bangladesh
Passports and Visas
Technology and Passport-Visa-Immigration
Biometric Passport or e-Passport
Online Visa
General Requirement of Visa
Requirements According to Type of Visa
Some Visa and Passport System Issues
Positive Sides of Visa Process and Passport
Problems of Visa and Passport
Immigration Process of Bangladesh
Immigration Requirements
Immigration Area at the Airport and Required Steps
Problems Regarding Immigration Process
Other Legislations
Customs Requirements
Requirements of Public Health
Data Source
Sample Size
Questionnaire Used
Method of Data Collection
Mode of Data Analysis
Qualitative Analysis
Reliability of the Scale
Regression Analysis
Residual Plot
Results and Analysis
Cronbach´s Alpha
Regression Analysis
Residual Plot
Conclusion
References
45 Big Data in the Hospitality Industry: Context, Opportunities, and Challenges in Sri Lanka
Introduction
Big Data: The Definition
Big Data: Key Features
Big Data: Impact and Opportunities
Big Data: Challenges
Human Resource Challenges
Technological Challenges
Organizational Challenges
Process Challenges
Information Management Challenges
Big Data in the Hospitality Industry
Big Data Analytics: The Context, Opportunities, and Challenges in Sri Lanka
Lessons from Other Industries
Conclusion and Implications
References
Part XIV: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: The Purposes of Social Media
46 Use of Social Media for Employment Opportunities in Kazakhstan: Case Study of a Czech Restaurant in Almaty, Kazakhstan
Introduction
Understanding of the Importance of Using Social Media as a Recruitment Tool
Analysis of Foreign Survey
Advantages of Using Social Media
Definition of Recruitment
The ``Kolkovna´´ Restaurant
Theoretical Framework
Findings
Creating Guidelines of Using Social Media as a New Recruitment Tool
Write a Marketed Job Advertisement
Write a Portrait of an Ideal Candidate
Publish an Advert
Promote It
Find a Way to Filter Candidates
Screening Social Media Profile and Collecting Data
Interview
Conclusion
References
47 Social Media and Small and Medium Enterprises in the Malaysian Tourism Industry
Introduction
Background of the Study
Social Media
Social Media Marketing
Tourism Industry in Malaysia
Budget Accommodation Services
The Use of Social Media in Tourism Marketing
SMEs´ Tourism Marketing Strategies via Social Media
Start with Plan
Identify Audience
Have Basic Knowledge to Employ Social Media
Decide the Right Platforms for Business
Use the Right Tools
Build Relationship
Update Social Site Regularly
Share Visual Component
Quality Versus Quantity
Building Online Community Through Social Media
Diversifying Marketing Medium
Increasing Communication Skills
Monitor and Respond to All Conversation
Accepting Customer´s Thanks
Thanking Customers Who Share Your Content
Showing Gratitude for a Purchase
Handling Angry Customer
Graciously Receiving Feedback
Social Media Marketing During COVID-19
Up-to-Date Information
Share Benefit Content Related to Health
Using Organic Channels to Keep the Brand ``Lights on´´
Keep Customers Informed
Conclusion
Future Studies
References
48 The Influence of Social Media in Youth Destination Selection for Visiting Pulau Langkawi, Kedah, in Malaysia
Introduction
Background
Findings
Reliability Analysis
Respondents´ Background
Common Information of Respondents
Usefulness of Social Media
Usage Habits of Social Media
Types of Social Media
Youth Destination Selections
Descriptive Statistic
Conclusion and Recommendation
References
49 Evaluation of Social Media Related to the Promotion and Marketing of Public Recreation Areas
Introduction
Relationship Between Recreation and Tourism in Public Areas
Classification of Leisure and Recreational Activities in Public Areas
Resource-Centered Leisure and Recreation Activity Area
National Parks
Protected Areas
Forests
User-Centered Leisure and Recreation Activity Areas
Archaeology and Historical Areas
Parks
Squares
Trip and Promenade Areas
Museums
Promoting and Marketing of Public Leisure and Recreation Activity Areas
Evaluation of the Role of Social Media in the Promotion and Marketing of Public Recreation Areas
Conclusion and Recommendations
References
50 Generation Y´s Intention for Sharing Travel Interactive Media and Instagram Communication Attributes
Introduction
Travel Media Sharing
Background
Frequency Analysis (Table 50.1)
Descriptive Analysis
Reliability Analysis
Correlation Analysis (Table 50.4)
Conclusion
References
Part XV: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Issues and Challenges
51 Issues and Challenges in Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry
Introduction
Innovation Adoption Theories and Asian Tourism
Nature of Innovation
Innovation Acceptance Theories
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU)
Behavioral Intention (BI) and Behavior
TAM and the Tourism Industry
The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)
UTAUT and the Tourism Industry
Conclusion
References
52 The Evolution of Technology Application Intervention and Future Development in the Asian Tourism Industry
Introduction
Innovation, Evolution, and Trends of Technology in Asian Tourism Industry
Technology Application in Asian Tourism Industry
Travellers´ Behaviour
Locals´ Perception toward Technology Innovation
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Consumer Acceptance of Technology in Tourism Industry
Issues and Challenges in Technology Application in Tourism Industry
Conclusion
References
53 Tourism, Health Promoting Food Domain and Technology Applications: Individual´s Genes Reservoir, Environmental Change and F...
Introduction
Traveling and Its Impact
Culinary Tourism
Culinary Tourism in Asia
Individual´s Health Profile and Tourism
Human Body as a Living Entity
Immune Response and Health Concerns
Type of Illnesses
Travelling Food Advice
Factors Determining Tourist Destinations
Newly Evolving Scientific Understanding in Context of Natural Health and Individual´s Safety
Environment, Food, and Cultural Practices: Key Modulators Driving the Health Profile
Desi Food Types with Cooking Scheme Preserving Their Novel Nutritional, Therapeutic and Prophylactic Potentials
Main Components of Desi Cuisine
Tea (Chai)
Snacks
Main Dish
General Desi Cooking Scheme
``Daal´´ (Pulses)
``Saabzi´´ (Vegetables); ``Salaan´´ (Desi Curry) with Meat and Vegetable or Without Vegetables, Rice with Pulses, Vegetable, o...
``Qeema,´´ ``Koftey,´´ ``Kebab,´´ and Other Minced Meat Dishes
Prolonged Cooking Food Items (e.g. ``Nihari,´´ ``Paye,´´ ``Shabdeeq´´ ``Shooley,´´ ``Hareesa,´´ ``Haleem,´´ etc.)
``Saag´´ (Fried Cooked Green Leafy Vegetables)
Poor Person´s Meal
Sauces and Yogurt Mix
Pickles and Their Types
Pickles in Oil
Pickles in Lemon Juice
Pickles in Vinegar with Vegetables
Pickles in Water with Vegetables
``Roti´´ (Bread)
Dried Food Commodities
Mouth Fresheners
Sweets and Desserts
Novelty Associated with Desi Food Items prepared by Indigenously Evolved Cooking Recipes
Historical Places: Cultural Traits (e.g., Costumes and Handicrafts)
COVID-19 Pandemic and Safety Concerns: A Long-Standing Challenge for the Tourism Industry
Proposal for Technological Modulation Driving Tourists´ Safety Effective Against COVID-19 Illness
Conclusion
Merits and Limitations
References
Part XVI: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Sustainability Concerns
54 Innovative Technology Uses in Sustainable Destination Management in Asia
Introduction
Sustainability
Sustainable Tourism
Sustainable Tourism Management
Sustainable Destination Management
Innovative Technology
Technology Innovation in the Tourism Industry
Innovative Technology in Sustainable Destination Management
Innovative Technology Uses in Sustainable Destination Management in Asia
Innovative Technologies for Sustainable Aviation
E-Fan X Demonstrator
Layer Ingesting Propulsor
Trent XWB Engine - Rolls-Royce
Flexible Navigation System, Winglets, CCO, and CDO
Optimized Runway Delivery Tool (ORD)
CFM International LEAP-1B Engine
Innovative Technology in Sustainable Travel Management
Traffic Management System
Personal Intelligent Travel Assistant
Geo-localization
Internet of Things (IoT)
City Guide Technology
Google Trekker/Street
Walk and City Connect
Global Pocket Wi-Fi
Near Field Communication Technology
Globetouch
Innovative Technology in Sustainable Hospitality Management (Hotels and Restaurants)
Cloud/SaaS (Software as a Service)
Be Your Own Concierge
Smart Rooms
Predictive Maintenance
Social Listening
The Sharing Economy
Chatbots and Artificial Intelligence
Menu Order Application
Wastage and Footprint Tracking
Eco-friendly Technologies
Innovative Technology in Sustainable MICE Tourism
Hotel Footprinting Tool
EventCheck
Recycling Technologies
Facial Recognition
Augmented Reality (AR)
Zero Waste Technology
Innovative Technology in Sustainable Promotion of Destination
Artificial Intelligence
Google Maps and Real-Time Tracking
Mixed Reality Technology
Blockchain
Ease of Planning Applications
Social Media Marketing
Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Blogs and Vlogs
Sustainable Destination Management in Asia
Conclusion
References
55 Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Sustainability Concern
Introduction
Sustainable Tourism: Concepts and Features
Technology and Tourism
Digitalization and Tourism
Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality
Smart Technology and Tourism
Asia and Tourism
Discussion and Conclusion
References
Part XVII: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Economic Development
56 Socio-economic Benefits from Applying Innovative Technologies in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Asia
Introduction
Tourism in South Asia
Benefits of Tourism
Social Benefits
Economic Benefits
Health Outcomes
Technological Advancements in the Tourism Industry and Its Roles
Technological Innovations for the Tourism Industry
Role of Virtual Communities in Tourism
Challenges to the Industry
Conclusion
References
Part XVIII: Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: The Future
57 Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Driving Tourism 4.0: An Exploration
Introduction
Information and Communications Technology, Smart Tourism, and the Emerging Role of Social Media
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence for Destination Sustainability
Artificial Intelligence for Business Sustainability
Artificial Intelligence for Tourism Experience Management
Artificial Intelligence for Forecasting
Robotics and Service Robots
Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Changing the Asian Tourism Industry
Challenges Ahead
Recent Developments
Conclusion
References
58 The Future and Challenges of Applying Innovative Technologies in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Asia
Introduction
Technology and Current Challenges for Tourism
The Benefits of Technology in the Tourism Industry
The Role of Technology in Safety and Security for Tourist
Challenges of Tourism in the South Asian Region after the Application of Innovative Technology
Impact of Innovative Technology on the Tourism Industry
Impact of One-Touch Digital Innovation on the Asian Tourism Markets
Vitality, Reality, and Tourism
Mobile Technology and Tourism
Conclusion
References
59 Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: The Future
Introduction
Characteristics of 5G and Changes in Society
Ultrahigh Speed: Maximum Transmission Speed Is 10 Gbps
Ultralow Delay: Delay of about 1 Millisecond
Multiple Simultaneous Connections: One Million Units/km2 Number of Connected Devices
Emergency Medical Care
Agriculture
Construction Industry
Natural Disaster Countermeasures
Living in Rural Areas
Everyday Shopping
Sports
Changes in Tourism by 5G
Conclusion
References
Index

Citation preview

Azizul Hassan Editor

Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia

Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia

Azizul Hassan Editor

Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia With 127 Figures and 108 Tables

Editor Azizul Hassan Tourism Consultants Network The Tourism Society London, UK

ISBN 978-981-16-2209-0 ISBN 978-981-16-2210-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Contents

Volume 1 Part I Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Concepts and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2

3

Technology Application in the Tourism Industry in Asia: Theories and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anukrati Sharma and Shruti Arora

3

Information and Communication Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Saroop Roy B. R.

19

The Internet Influences Asian Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishnan Umachandran and Mohamed Mohamed Tolba Said

Part II Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Marketing Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Technology in Tourism Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kaplan Uğurlu

5

Digital Marketing and Digital Marketing Applications in the Asian Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eray Polat

6

Travel Agency Tourist Tracking System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zurida Ishak, Ahmad Albattat, and Wilson Ven Kim Lim

Part III Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Customer Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1

Generation Y’s Perception of Travel Mobile Applications . . . . . . . Ahmad Albattat

49

67 69

115

131

145 147 v

vi

8

Contents

Factors Influencing Tourist Perception on GrabCar Ride-Sharing Application Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nurul Farah Izzah Zailani and Ahmad Albattat

Part IV Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Decision-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Semantic-Based Technology in Shaping the Strategy of Tourism in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mohammad FakhrulNizam Mohammad, Nor Aida Abdul Rahman, and Fernando Mayor-Vitoria

Part V Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Tourist Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

The Impact of Technology Applications in Tourists’ Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seda Yetimoğlu

Part VI Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Customer Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Customer Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meral Üzülmez

Part VII Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Tourist Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

13

179 181

203 205

231 233

255

Creating Loyal Customers with Digital Marketing Applications: The 5A Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eray Polat

257

Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Tourist Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gamze Eryilmaz

275

Part VIII Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Tourist Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

165

Paper to Paperless: Adoption of Digital Examination and Behavioral Intention Among Tourism Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Senthilkumaran Piramanayagam and Raghavendra G

299 301

Contents

vii

Part IX Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: The Aviation Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

311

15

Technology Application Usage in Aviation Industry in Asia Sachin Soonthodu, Ishrat N. Wahab, and Azizul Hassan

.....

313

16

Tourism Policies and Technological Strategies Adopted by Airlines in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. M. Ferdous Azam, Ahmad Albattat, and Jacquline Tham

343

17

Technological Development of Methods for Organisation of Airborne Meals in Airlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Christian Kahl, Aigerim Kadyrgaliyeva, Vera Kim, Renata Ualgaliyeva, and Tamila Arab Syrlybayeva

Part X Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Destination Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

19

20

375

Technology and Destination Promotion in Asian Tourism: Challenges, Changes, and Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Samik Ray

377

Promotion of Tourism Using Digital Technology: An Analysis of Kerala Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deleep Devasia and Sanoop Kumar P. V.

403

Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Destination Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aslı Özge Özgen Çiğdemli

423

Part XI Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Smart Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Technology in Smart Tourism: Concepts and Applications . . . . . . Hengky Sumisto Halim

22

Exploring Information Technology in Smart Tourism in Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hengky Sumisto Halim

Part XII Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Smart City Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

353

Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Artificial Intelligence and Blockchain in Smart City Involvement . . . . . . . . Shehnaz Tehseen, Eiad Yafi, Zuhaib Hassan Qureshi, and Raouf Ahmad Rather

449 451

471

491 493

viii

Contents

24

Smart City Applications in Asian Capital Cities Seden Doğan and Yasin Keleş

..............

507

25

Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Smart City Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aysen Ercan İştin

533

Volume 2 Part XIII Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Cross Country Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Use of Innovative Technologies in the Promotion and Marketing of Asian Tourism Destinations: Sample of Turkey Destination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Murat Ödemiş

557

559

27

Technology Application in Turkey’s Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . Uğur Akdu and Serap Akdu

579

28

Medical Tourism and the Application of Technology . . . . . . . . . . . Ozlem Ozbek and Azizul Hassan

607

29

A Conceptual Framework for the Factors Affecting the Innovation Orientation of Syrian Construction Firms and the Indirect Effect on the Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alaa J. Kadi, Ernawati Mustafa Kamal, Nor’Aini Yusof, and Razan AlSakka

30

A Pilot Study on the Indirect Effect of Syrian Construction Firms’ Innovation Orientation on the Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alaa J. Kadi, Ernawati Mustafa Kamal, Nor’Aini Yusof, and Razan AlSakka

629

645

31

Technology Application in Medical Tourism in Malaysia Fatiha Bouziane, Abdelkader Laallam, and Azizul Hassan

.......

669

32

The Rhapsody of Mobile Applications: A Case Study of Malaysian Travellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sharina Osman and Shamzani Affendy Mohd Din

681

Promoting Cultural Events in Indonesia Through Millennials: Lesson Learnt from Yogyakarta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Putu Diah Sastri Pitanatri and Sabda Elisa Priyanto

699

Technology Application in the Hong Kong Tourism and Hospitality Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Md. Alauddin, Julie Juan Li, and Md. Aktar Kamal

725

33

34

Contents

35

36

37

38

39

Costs and Benefits of Adopting ICTs in Tourism Enterprises: Case study in Travel Agents and Tour Operators in Phnom Penh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lim Sengtong, Nhem Sochea, and Ou Phichhang

ix

741

Technology Application in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry: The Contexts of India and Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yeasmin Islam, Rupa Sinha, and Azizul Hassan

763

Indigenous Tourism: A Shift Toward Innovative Technology Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Azizul Hassan, Nazmoon Akhter, and Isha Sharma

787

Technological Mediation in Tourism: A New Era Begins in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muhammad Jawad and Munazza Naz

815

Technology in Tourism and Hospitality in Pakistan: The Tourist Experience Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muhammad Jawad and Azizul Hassan

849

40

Use of Technology in Tourism: Challenges in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . Kalsoom B. and Mehtab Alam

41

Technology Influenced Tourism and Hospitality Services in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iffat Anjum

899

Mobile Applications and Tourism Experiences: Some Netnographic Explanations from Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Azizul Hassan and Md. Ashikur Rahman Avi

927

Medical Tourism in Bangladesh and Innovative Technology Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Md. Ashikur Rahman Avi and Azizul Hassan

953

Legislations and Technology Applications for Passport, Visa, and Immigration for Tourists in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mallika Roy, Fariha Azad, and Nusrat Quaderi

977

42

43

44

45

877

Big Data in the Hospitality Industry: Context, Opportunities, and Challenges in Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003 Samsudeen Sabraz Nawaz, Mubarak Kaldeen, and Azizul Hassan

x

Contents

Part XIV Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: The Purposes of Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1019

46

Use of Social Media for Employment Opportunities in Kazakhstan: Case Study of a Czech Restaurant in Almaty, Kazakhstan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 Christian Kahl, Akhmediyar Zhabaidilda, Diana Mussabek, Elmira Medinova, and Symbat Myrzatay

47

Social Media and Small and Medium Enterprises in the Malaysian Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041 Noraihan Mohamad

48

The Influence of Social Media in Youth Destination Selection for Visiting Pulau Langkawi, Kedah, in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065 Nur Amirah Binti Mazme and Ahmad Albattat

49

Evaluation of Social Media Related to the Promotion and Marketing of Public Recreation Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081 İlke Başarangil

50

Generation Y’s Intention for Sharing Travel Interactive Media and Instagram Communication Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109 Zakmalisa Erna Md Zaki and Ahmad Albattat

Part XV Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Issues and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1123

51

Issues and Challenges in Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125 Chathura Jayawardena, Ahmad Albattat, and Adam Amril Jaharadak

52

The Evolution of Technology Application Intervention and Future Development in the Asian Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143 Khoo Wei Wen, Ahmad Albattat, and Ali Khatibi

53

Tourism, Health Promoting Food Domain and Technology Applications: Individual’s Genes Reservoir, Environmental Change and Food in Natural Health Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159 Faiza Abdur Rab and Azizul Hassan

Part XVI Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Sustainability Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

1201

Innovative Technology Uses in Sustainable Destination Management in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203 Sachin Soonthodu and Ishrat N. Wahab

Contents

55

Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Sustainability Concern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227 Aysen Ercan İştin and Yusuf Emre Karakaş

Part XVII Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Economic Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

xi

1249

Socio-economic Benefits from Applying Innovative Technologies in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1251 Muhammad Saeed Meo, Sumayya Chughtai, Vina Javed Khan, Mohd Zaini Abd Karim, and Shahan Mehmood Cheema

Part XVIII Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: The Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1263

57

Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Driving Tourism 4.0: An Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1265 Himanshi Dhoundiyal and Priyakrushna Mohanty

58

The Future and Challenges of Applying Innovative Technologies in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287 Muhammad Saeed Meo, Shamsa Kanwal, Shahzad Ali, Mohd Zaini Abd Karim, and Aamir Zamir Kamboh

59

Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: The Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1299 Shunsaku Hashimoto

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1311

About the Editor

Dr. Azizul Hassan Tourism Consultants Network The Tourism Society London, UK Azizul Hassan (e-mail: [email protected]) is a member of the Tourism Consultants Network of the UK Tourism Society. He earned his PhD from the United Kingdom. Dr. Hassan has been working for the tourism industry as a consultant, academic, and researcher for over two decades. His research interest areas are technology-supported marketing for tourism and hospitality, immersive technology applications in the tourism and hospitality industry, and technology influenced marketing suggestions for sustainable tourism and hospitality industry in developing countries. Dr. Hassan has authored over two hundred articles and book chapters in leading tourism outlets. He is also part of the editorial team of over thirty book projects from Routledge, Springer, CAB International, and Emerald Group Publishing Limited. He is a regular reviewer of a number of international journals.

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About the Authors

Abdelkader Laallam is a PhD candidate from IIUM Institute of Islamic Banking and Finance, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. His research interest includes corporate governance, financial and business economics, Islamic finance, Islamic economics, intellectual capital, knowledge management, and technology management. He has edited book chapters published by IGI Global. His articles have been published in International Journal of Economics and Business Research, International Journal of Economic Policy in Emerging Economies, and ISRA International Journal of Islamic Finance. Adam Amril Jaharadak is an associate professor and the dean of School of Graduate Studies, at Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. Jaharadak is a senior lecturer who has been lecturing, consulting, and supervising for more than 20 years. Jaharadak is the head of Curriculum Committee, auditor, and examiner, assisting the university in quality process of developing, monitoring, and accreditation of new programs. He holds a doctoral degree in Computer Science from Management and Science University (MSU). He is an active reviewer of Management and Science Journal. He was the Co-General Chair for International Conference of Computer and Informatics Engineering (IC2IE2018) and Organizing Committee (Technical) for International Symposium on Biometrics and Security Technology (ISBAST14). His research focuses on ICT, IOT, image processing, halal, cyber security, and big data. His latest work has been published in the refereed international journals, conference proceedings, and book chapters. Ahmad Albattat is a senior lecturer in Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. He is a visiting professor and external examiner in Medan Academy of Tourism (Akpar Medan). He holds a doctoral degree in Hospitality Management from Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM). He worked as an assistant professor, Ammon Applied University College, Amman, Jordan; a senior lecturer and research coordinator in School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia; and a researcher at Sustainable Tourism Research Cluster (STRC), xv

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About the Authors

Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. He was working for the Jordanian hospitality industry for 17 years. He has participated and presented research papers in a number of academic conferences held in Malaysia, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Jordan. He is an active member of Scientific and Editorial Review Board on Hospitality management, hotel, tourism, events, emergency planning, disaster management, human resource for Journal of Tourism Management; Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management (JHMM); Current Issues in Tourism (CIT); Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism (APJIHT); International Journal of Economics and Management (IJEAM); Almatourism – Journal of Tourism, Culture and Territorial Development; International Journal of Tourism and Sustainable Community Development. His latest works have been published in the refereed international journals, conference proceedings, books, and book chapters. Aigerim Kadyrgaliyeva opened a Chilean clothes shop. She graduated from Almaty Management University with a bachelor’s degree in Restaurant and Hotel Management in 2019. Participated for 6 months in student exchange program in UniKL, Malaysia, where she focused on studying marketing, business planning, and French language. As well, she had internships at RIXOS Hotel Almaty in Catering Department, and the pizza restaurant. In addition, she worked part-time at courses of oratory. As part of a final project on the fourth year, Kadyrgaliyeva did a research at LLC Almaty Catering Services on the subject “Development of methods for organization of airborne meals in airlines.” Akhmediyar Zhabaidilda has his bachelor’s degree in hospitality management from Almaty Management University. His main focus was on Hotel Operations and Revenue Management. As a part of his studies he participated in an international exchange program in IESEG School of Management, Lille, France. He studied Human Resources Management with a concentration in intercultural communications and negotiations. He is taking part in a hospitality internship at the Westin Savannah Harbor Golf Resort & Spa in Savannah, Georgia, in the United States of America. He is interning in two different departments: one in Accounting focusing on Accounts Receivable/Accounts Payable and in Front Office (Front Desk). Alaa J. Kadi is the founder and CEO of Olya Research & Training Institute, Penang Malaysia. He holds two bachelor’s degrees: the first in Architecture (Hons) from Damascus University Syria, and the second English Translation Degree from Damascus Open University. He got his MBA in SMEs and Family business development orientation from Joint program between University Autonoma Barcelona, in Barcelona, Spain, and Higher Institute of Business administration in Damascus, Syria. He obtained his PhD from University of Science Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia. Before pursuing PhD in USM, he had experienced working with governmental bodies in Syria especially Historical Mosques and building administration, which follows the Ministry of Islamic Waqf. After Graduating

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from USM, Dr. Kadi established his own research and training center (Olya) with several reputed formal academic bodies in Malaysia, focusing on literature review and bibliometric studies and most of social studies areas and especially in digital innovation in construction industry especially BIM. Ali Khatibi is the senior vice president, dean of Post Graduate Centre (PGC), and professor of Marketing at the Management and Science University and served in various senior positions. He is honored as the senior research fellow and serves as the adjunct professor in China, Singapore, Australia, and Germany. He developed and promoted the new discipline of marketing, DNA marketing, and Web marketing. He won the Gold and Silver Medals for the invention and innovation research – Malaysia, listed in Who’s Who in the world USA for past 7 years and working with ABEST – Japan to develop Asia’s management games. His research and teaching interests span a range of areas including marketing, TQM, business applications of IT, multimedia, and Web Marketing; e-business; IT management and outsourcing. He has successfully supervised research degree students (36 PhDs, 46 masters, and more than 200 MBAs). He obtained external and internal competitive research grants from Malaysia, Japan, South Korea, and the UK, and served as a reviewer for national and international research grant applications. He has more than 250 publications and published a few books such as Principles of marketing, Internet Marketing and Consumer Behavior, and awarded best paper and gold medals for his contributions. He is in the board of PhD examiners in Malaysia, the UK, China, India, and Australia. Anukrati Sharma is an associate professor in the Department of Commerce and Management, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India. She has edited and authored several books and has attended a number of national and international conferences, presenting over 45 papers. She has been invited to talks, lectures, and panel discussions by different universities. Dr. Sharma handles training sessions at the Rajasthan Police Academy, Jaipur, India. Her special interest areas are tourism, tourism marketing, strategic management, and international business management. Aamir Zamir Kamboh is a PhD candidate from Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM). His core areas of research interest are marketing, digital marketing, and e-commerce. Aslı Özge Özgen Çiğdemli has been working as assistant professor at School of Tourism and Hotel Management of Şırnak University, Turkey, from 2017. In 2006, she graduated from the Department of International Relations, Faculty of Political Sciences of Ankara University. She completed her master’s degree in 2010 in International Relations from the at Süleyman Demirel University with the thesis titled “European Union Immigration Policies: Historical Background and Current Situation.” In 2016, she completed her PhD from the Department of Hospitality and

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About the Authors

Tourism Management of the Mediterranean University. The PhD thesis was titled “The Comparative Analysis of Mediterranean Cruise Destinations: The Position of Turkey.” ÇİĞDEMLİ worked at the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Trade between 2009 and 2017, and her main areas of interest are tourism marketing, tourism policy, cruise tourism, consumer behavior in tourism, and strategic marketing management. Aysen Ercan İştin is an assistant professor. İştin completed her undergraduate education in 2010 at Mustafa Kemal University, Department of Tourism and Hotel Management. In addition, she completed her master’s degree in 2014 at Akdeniz University, Department of Tourism and Hotel Management and her PhD degree in 2018 at Mersin University, Department of Tourism Management. She, who started to work as a research assistant in 2017, was appointed as an assistant professor in 2018 in the Department of Tourism and Hotel Management at Şırnak University. She carries on her career as the Head of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department in the same university. She instructs undergraduate and graduate levels in the fields of management and organization and issues related to tourism businesses. She has articles, books chapters, and papers in the same fields and carries on her studies. Azizul Hassan is a member of the Tourism Consultants Network of the UK Tourism Society. He earned his PhD from the United Kingdom. Dr. Hassan has been working for the tourism industry as a consultant, academic, and researcher for over two decades. His research interest areas are technology-supported marketing for tourism and hospitality, immersive technology applications in the tourism and hospitality industry, and technology inf luenced marketing suggestions for sustainable tourism and hospitality industry in developing countries. Dr. Hassan has authored over two hundred articles and book chapters in leading tourism outlets. He is also part of the editorial team of over thirty book projects from Routledge, Springer, CAB International, and Emerald Group Publishing Limited. He is a regular reviewer of a number of international journals. Chathura Jayawardena is a PhD candidate in Management and Science University (MSU), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. His doctoral degree investigates Leadership and Innovation adoption perspective of Digital Transformation in Hotel Industry in Sri Lanka. He holds a master’s degree of Business Administration from University of Sunderland, United Kingdom. He is working as a Director of Abans Information Systems, which is a large conglomerate in Sri Lanka. He has over 18 years of professional working in the areas of ICT project management, brand management, marketing, and international trading. He is an active member of Charted Institute of Marketing, UK, and holds active Membership in Retail and ICT fellowships in Sri Lanka. Christian Kahl is associate professor of management administration at the School of Economics and Management at the Beijing Jiao Tong University in China. Over the past 15 years he gained educational, teaching, research, and management

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experiences worldwide. He worked in UK, Germany, Malaysia, Kazakhstan, and PR China. His research projects are at the gap of fresh graduate student and their start in their work life, especially in a cultural context. He also does research in HRM, OB, and qualitative research methods. Kahl supervised more than 50 students’ dissertation and published various academic research in journals, book chapters, and current publishing books. Deleep Devasia is assistant professor of Travel and Tourism with 13 years of academic experience in Travel and Tourism. He holds a Master of Tourism Administration degree from the University of Kerala in 2003. Availing UGC Junior Research Fellowship (JRF) he proceeded to complete MPhil and PhD in Tourism. He has several research papers and national/international seminar papers to his credit. He also serves as Chairman/Member of Board of Studies and Faculty of many universities in India. At present he serves as assistant professor and head of the Department of Tourism and Hotel Management at Government Arts and Science College Kondotty. He authored one book and several book chapters. Diana Mussabek is the SMM manager at an IT Company called 1Fit. Also she is working on the publication of a book, which is related to the Kazakh culture. She graduated with honors from Almaty Management University with a degree in “Restaurant and Hotel business.” Her core subjects are marketing, management, human resources, and tourism. She studied multitasking, strategic planning, communication skills, leadership while having practice at the Ritz-Carlton Almaty. In 2017 she participated in the program Work & Travel USA and discovered for herself the West Coast and East Southern American culture. In 2018 she worked at SMMPro IT Company and in addition took online courses in Social Media Marketing, Graphic Design. She acquired main skills in the following disciplines as SEO (search engine optimization), photography, branding, sales funnel management, print design, photoshop, and illustrator. Eiad Yafi (PhD in Computer Science) is a full-time assistant professor at the Malaysian Institute of Information Technology, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Broadly, his research focuses on Knowledge Discovery using Data Mining and Process Mining techniques. He is also an active researcher in the areas of Information and Communication Technologies for Development and Human Computer Interactions. His many research articles have been published in the prominent Social Media + Society journal and ACM CHI and ICTD tier-1 conferences. He is also a senior IEEE member and an ACM and ACM SIGCHI member. He is an editorial board member of few journals such as International Journal of Entrepreneurship, Journal of Information and Communication Technology (JICT), and Pakistan Journal of Engineering and Technology and Science (PJETS). In 2018, he was a recipient of one of Facebook Crisis Informatics Research award for the information research carried out at Za’atari refugees camp in Jordan.

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About the Authors

Elmira Medinova is a user experience and user interface designer at an IT company Codebusters, where she creates and develops IT products such as mobile apps, online learning platforms, design systems, websites. Before eventually becoming a UI/UX designer she received her Hospitality Management bachelor’s degree from Almaty Management University. She studied critical thinking, thinking outside the box, communication, and teamwork. Medinova participated in Work & Travel USA program for exchange students in 2016 and 2017. In April 2018 she left Kazakhstan for a gap year, traveling South East Asia and working remotely as a web and graphic designer. She lived with locals and volunteered in UNESCO World Heritage town Luang Prabang, Laos, and Sihanoukville, East part of Cambodia. She helped Lao and Khmer people to promote their new restaurants, bars, also to develop and grow relationships with customers. Eray Polat is an assistant professor in the Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department at Gumushane University in Turkey. He received his BSc in Tourism and Hotel Management from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, and in Science Education from Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir. His MSc and PhD degrees are in Tourism Management from Balıkesir University, Balıkesir. His teaching and research are related to tourism management, tourism ethics, and consumer behavior. Ernawati Mustafa Kamal is senior lecturer in construction project management at School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia. She holds a bachelor’s degree of Science (Housing, Building & Planning) in Construction Management and Master of Science (Project Management) from Universiti Sains Malaysia. She obtained her PhD from University of Reading, United Kingdom. Before joining USM, she had experienced working with property developer firm. She teaches both undergraduate and master’s degree students in subjects related to construction and project management. She has also secured grants from the Ministry of Higher Education and National Real Estate Research Coordinator (NAPREC) under the Valuation Department, Universiti Sains Malaysia, and international grant funded by European Commission Research and Innovation. She is also a visiting research fellow at Liverpool John Moores University, Manchester Metropolitan University, and an academic visitor in the Department of Building, School of Design and Environment at National University of Singapore. Faiza Abdur Rab is working as an assistant professor in the Department of Food Science and Technology at University of Karachi, Pakistan. She has research and teaching experience extended over about two and a half decades. She is the recipient of several internationally well-reputed fellowships, awards, and prizes (e.g., an award for outstanding performance from Radio Pakistan Corporation, UNESCO Fellowship award, Netherlands Fellowship Programme Award, Full PhD Tuition Fee Scholarship Award under Developing Solutions Scheme by University of

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Nottingham, UK, University of Karachi’s Overseas PhD Scholarship Award, British Mycological Society [BMS] Berkeley Award, National Institutes of Health (NIH) US Department of Health and Human Services 3rd Prize, National Book Foundation Contest 2008–2009, Government of Pakistan). Rab is the author on several research papers and a book. Her name has been included in the Directory of Productive Scientists of Pakistan published by Pakistan Council of Science and Technology, Government of Pakistan, in 2017. Her published work reveals extremely novel approach on driving the illness manifestations based upon alternative narrative; the concept is built on her doctoral research work done under the supervision of Professor Simon Avery at University of Nottingham, United Kingdom, with the support of NIH(US) research grant revealing one of the novelist findings of this era in the area of molecular biology involved in Evolutionary Genetics. Rab reported several diet preparations proven to be helpful in the prevention and cure of several diseases, including COVID-19, while decreasing its risk of complications and death rate. She is a regular reviewer of well-respected scientific journals (e.g., PLOS One published by public Library of Science and The Journal of Nutrition published by American Society of Nutrition). Fariha Azad is pursuing her master’s degree in Economics from University of Chittagong. She achieved board scholarship for holding the seventh position in Chittagong Board for her scholastic academic result in higher secondary level in Bangladesh. She has recently graduated with good academic result from the Department of Economics in University of Chittagong. She has a research interest in economic development and tourism. She is working as a joint secretary in Young Economists’ society. She works as an active citizen of British council. She was a runner up of inter-faculty debate championship held in the faculty of social science. She has also participated in many seminars regarding budget analysis and Sustainable Development Goals. Fernando Mayor-Vitoria is a PhD holder in Economics from the Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain. He also holds an engineering degree in Telecoms and Industrial Organization and MEng in Textile. Also, he did his MBA Executive from FUNDESEM Business School. Since 2015, he is a professor at the Economics and Social Science Department of the Polytechnic University of Valencia (www.upv. es) and a professor at the Business Department of the Valencia International University (www.universidadviu.es). He has participated in several international congresses such as EURO 2019 (30th European Conference on Operational Research), and he has published different researches involving multicriteria decision-making methodologies, big data, sustainability, and project finance. Moreover, he has published chapters and books involving business strategies and internationalization. Apart from his academic career, he is working for almost 20 years in the private sector carrying on logistic international projects worldwide in different business sectors like textile, footwear, and lighting.

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About the Authors

Fatiha Bouziane is a lecturer at Khemis Miliana University in Algeria, and a PhD candidate at University of Algiers, Algeria, and a visiting student at the International Islamic University Malaysia. She is a fluent speaker of the Arabic, the French, and the English. Her PhD research uniquely aligns rural development with sustainable development and poverty contexts in Algeria. Prior to this, she completed her master’s in Management also from the same university. She served the University of Chlef as a teacher. She presented research papers at the University of Khemis Miliana and the University of Djelfa. She has research interests in rural development, agriculture, environment, tourism, and local development through tourism initiatives. Gamze Eryılmaz completed her undergraduate education in 2012 at Mersin University, Department of Tourism and Hotel Management. In addition, she completed her master’s degree in 2014 and PhD in 2018 at Mersin University, Department of Tourism Management. Eryılmaz started to work as an assistant professor in 2019 at the Department of Travel Management and Tourist Guiding, Collage of Tourism and Hotel Management, İskenderun Technical University. In the same year, she started to work in the Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts at the Faculty of Tourism, Iskenderun Technical University. She carries on her career as Dean Vice in the same faculty. She instructs undergraduate and graduate levels in the fields of tourism marketing, marketing researches, general tourism, and data analysis. Hengky Sumisto Halim is an associate professor in Bina Darma University and is an independent senior researcher. He is a director of Tourism and Hospitality of Kent Polytechnic Indonesia, as well as a director of the research center of Prasetiya Mandiri, which covers a number of universities in Lampung, Bogor, and Palembang. He was a research fellow of International Telecommunication Union. Besides, he is a research fellow of Center of University-Industry Collaboration. Halim holds a PhD from the Bogor Agricultural University of Indonesia. His main research area is ecotourism and sustainable tourism along the coastline include landscaping, zoning, cultural and handicraft industries. He is regular reviewer of Tourism Management, International Journal of Culture, Tourism, and Hospitality Research, as well as a number international peer-reviewed journal. Himanshi Dhoundiyal is working as University Research Scholar (URS) under the supervision of Dr. Anoop Kumar at the Institute of Hotel & Tourism Management, MD University, Rohtak. She has completed her master’s degree in Tourism and Hospitality Management from the same department. Her research interests are sustainable management, event management, destination development, and current scenarios in travel industry. Her doctoral research focuses on the study of employees working in travel industry.

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Iffat Anjum is an assistant professor in the Department of International Relations, Bangladesh University of Professionals. Anjum has completed her post-graduation from the Department of International Relations, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh, in 2016. After that, she has been entrusted to work as a lecturer in the Department of International Relations, Bangladesh Military Academy, and Bangladesh University of Professionals since 2017. She fosters a key research interest in international security, gender and international relations, global environmental politics, and international political economy. She has also worked with international research entities like Goethe Institute Bangladesh and Transparency International Bangladesh and has converged around publishing her research compositions on security, gender, and public policies. İlke Başarangil is working as an associate professor in the Department of Tourism Guidance at Kırklareli University, Turkey. She graduated from Erciyes University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences – Nevşehir Tourism and Hotel Management with a bachelor’s degree in 2000. Her professional career in tourism began with internships during bachelor’s education, and afterward she worked at national/international hotel chains such as Club Calimera Hyos Village, Tropicana Garden Hotel, and Dinler Hotel between 1997 and 2001. She received a master’s degree in tourism and hotel management from Mersin University Social Science Institute in 2004, and she completed her PhD at Anadolu University in 2013. Her research interests include leisure and recreation, entertainment marketing, tourism marketing, and destination marketing. Isha Sharma is an independent researcher based in New Delhi, India. Her areas of research interests are indigenous tourism with particular reference to race, commercialization, sponsorship, and visualization. She has extensive expertise in tourism consultancy. Sharma has a good record of publication.

Ishrat N. Wahab completed her master’s in Tourism Administration from Garden City College, Bangalore, during which she was the topper of her batch. She is Assistant Professor and HoD of Tourism, at Garden City University, Bangalore, and is pursuing her PhD on the topic “Analysis of Tourism Potential in Karnataka: A Study of Selected Tourist Destinations.” She is a member of the Federation of Karnataka Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FKCCI) and Travel Agents Association of India (TAAI). She has collaborated with Incredible India, the Department of Tourism – Government of Karnataka and Gujarat Tourism, for joint projects. Her research papers are published in journals with high Impact Factor, UGC-listed journals, and peer-reviewed journals. She has co-authored a chapter in the international book titled GIS Applications in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry,” published by IGI Global Publishers, USA. Wahab is also the Chief Editor of the peer-reviewed journal Compass (ISSN 2394-0646), and a mentor and contributor to the travel magazine Welcome on Board.

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About the Authors

Jacquline Tham is working as a senior lecturer in Management and Science University (MSU), Malaysia. Her doctoral research was related to virtual banking strategy, and her research interests are in financial, management, operations, economics, as well as marketing-related areas. She has 20 years of experience in corporate planning and project management with various multinational companies. Throughout the years, she has highly accomplished a verifiable track record in fields such as analysis, business process mapping and reengineering, and the development of interactive prototypes. Julie Juan Li is chair professor of marketing at City University of Hong Kong. She received the BA, MS, and PhD degrees from Beijing University, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, and the University of Hong Kong, respectively. Her research interests include marketing strategies, knowledge creation, innovation, and interorganizational relationships, with a particular focus on marketing channels in emerging economies. Her articles have been published in top-tier journals such as Journal of Marketing, Strategic Management Journal, Journal of International Business Studies, and Journal of Operations Management. Her work also appears in the referred journals such as Journal of Retailing, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of International Marketing and Industrial Marketing Management. Kalsoom B. is an assistant professor at Centre for Policy Studies, COMSATS University, Pakistan. Key competent areas in research are evidence-based opportunity mapping and Spatial distribution of public facilities, inequality, explicit planning of public facilities at regional and local levels – Big data, Urban Sustainability, Foresight & Public Policy – Public Sector Governance, Public Management & Reforms – Governance, Inter-provincial & Local Government – Public Services Ethics, Social Equity, Inequality – Crowdsourcing, Social Innovation in Public Sector – Behavioral Insights in Public Sector, Outsourcing, Collaborative Management. She has more than 15 years of extensive experience in teaching and research. Her recent research findings appear in various international, national journals and conference proceedings on issues of public sector reforms, public policy, governance, sustainable management, and foreign affairs of China in higher education. Kaplan Uğurlu is an assistant professor of Faculty of Tourism at Kırklareli University in Kırklareli, Turkey. He has been working in Turkey for 8 years as an academician. He has worked as a senior manager for more than 20 years in the tourism sector. He is specialized in marketing, finance, accounting, cost controlling, and hotel openings. After his bachelor’s degree at Uludag University, Turkey (BSc in Tourism and Hotel Management), he completed his master’s degree at the University of Surrey, England (MSc in International Hotel Management), and received his PhD at Marmara University, Turkey (PhD in Production Management and Marketing). He has more than 40 papers presented and published in national and international

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congresses, journals, and books. His academic research interests include tourism and hotel management, tourism and hotel marketing, accounting, and finance. Khoo Wei Wen is a postgraduate student pursuing master’s in Management at Management and Science University, Malaysia. Her research focuses on labor force, and technology advancement and trends in hotel industry. Her previous work regarding experiential learning has been presented in a conference “8th Youth APacCHRIE 2017, at Bali, Indonesia.” She enjoys seeking for new and exciting task in fulfilling her aims. Krishnan Umachandran has 32 years of industrial experience, evolved to be a consultant for spectrum of industries ranging from beverages, batteries, chemicals, ceramic tiles, leather, electricity, manufacturing, facilities, IT, ITES, to tourism, etc. He has been teaching at the PG Centre for Personnel Management & Industrial Relations in Maas School of Social Work since 1999. His interests include pedagogy development, market promotions, customer retention, and linking leadershipmanagement-organization development. Lim Sengtong manages a start-up named 12Explore, a digital local experience reservation platform that connects local activities with tourists and vice versa. He holds a Tourism Management degree from Royal University of Phnom Penh, Cambodia. He posts a very strong interests in technology and innovation, and tourism. Mallika Roy is a research fellow at the Department of Economics and Finance of City University of Hong Kong. She achieved Prestigious Prime Minister Gold Medal Award Bangladesh for her scholastic academic result. She is working as an assistant professor (on study leave) at the Department of Economics, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her research interests include macroeconomics, economic growth, and development. She has a teaching experience of 8 years. She worked in Islamia University College and BGC Trust University Bangladesh as a lecturer. After joining University of Chittagong, she worked at University of Professional (BUP) Bangladesh, Premier University, and BGC Trust University Bangladesh as an adjunct faculty. A good number of her research papers are published in national and international journals. She also published several newspaper articles. She attended many webinars as invited speaker and plenary speaker. She participated in an international webinar as a moderator and plenary speaker. She also attended a good number of national and international workshops. She also attended an international workshop organized by CLIMB project, Winrock International. Md. Aktar Kamal has been working as Assistant Professor of Management in Bangladesh University of Professionals. He has completed his BBA, MBA, and

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About the Authors

MPhil degrees on Management Studies from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. He is now doing MSc in International Tourism and Convention Management from the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong. His research contribution and interests are in the field of service quality, hospitality and tourism management, human capital engagement, and social capital. Md. Alauddin has been working as assistant professor (Study Leave) of Marketing in International Islamic University Chittagong (IIUC), Bangladesh. He has completed his BBA, MBA, and MPhil degrees on Marketing from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. He is now doing PhD in marketing from the City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. His research contribution and interests are in the field of service quality, tourism marketing, strategic marketing, branding, and customer engagement. Md. Ashikur Rahman Avi is an academician and researcher of the Tourism and Hospitality industry. He has been teaching at the university level since 2017. Presently, Avi is working as a faculty member and researcher of Tourism and Hospitality Management Department at the Pabna University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh. Previously he had an appointment as a lecturer in the Department of International Tourism and Hospitality Management at the Primeasia University for almost 3 years. Avi did both bachelor and master degrees in Tourism and Hospitality Management from the University of Dhaka. He received the “Dean’s Honor Award 2015” for his outstanding result at master level. His research interests include destination development, sustainable tourism management, tourism and technology, rural tourism, marine and coastal tourism, medical tourism, tourism planning, and tourism marketing. Mehtab Alam is an MPhil scholar from Riphah Institute of Public Policy, Riphah International University Islamabad, Pakistan. As a core area of public policy, soft image and image development of Pakistan were the primary parts of research completed for Master of Philosophy (MPhil) degree. He obtained Master of Arts degree in English Language and Literature and also holds a Bachelor of Education from Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad. In addition to this, he serves in various public and private institutions which include the National Assembly, Parliament of Pakistan as Research Associate, and Ministry of Foreign Affairs on assignments/tasks of image development. As a writing specialist he also served in Skyscrapers Pvt. Ltd. Over the years, his interest in research is developed and allows him to keep in touch with the advancement in research on various topics and subjects. These incorporated the field of social, communication, and management sciences, and issues of international concerns like public diplomacy, foreign policy, and climate change. During the time, Alam interacted with highly qualified and experienced individuals from various backgrounds. Alam has several article/chapter publications.

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Meral Üzülmez is assistant professor of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts at the Kadirli School of Applied Disciplines of the Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Turkey. She completed her undergraduate education in 2012 at the Department of Tourism and Hotel Management of the Afyon Kocatepe University. In 2014, she completed her master’s degree from the Department of Tourism and Hotel Management of the Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University. She did her PhD in 2018 in the Department of Tourism Management, Mersin University. Her research interests include gastronomy, local foods, Turkish cuisine, sustainable tourism, and tourism management. Mohamed Mohamed Tolba Said is Egyptian Assistant Professor of Education and Islamic Sciences, academic coordinator, and editorial team member of several national and international peer-reviewed academic journals. Earlier, Said was an assistant professor and academic coordinator for Islamic Education Unit, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, “Kulliyyah” (Faculty) of Education (KOED), International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). He is an expert in Islamic Education, Islamic Thought, Islamic Civilization, Southeast Asia Studies, Arab and Malay Manuscripts. He lectures undergraduate and postgraduate students, involved with the courses of Aqidah Islamiyyah, Da’wah and Leadership, Islamic Theological Thought, Introduction to Fiqh Al-Jinayat, Quranic and Prophetic texts, Tafsir Ayat and Ahadith al-Ahkam, Ethics in Education, and Textbook Development for Islamic Education. Mohammad Fakhrulnizam Mohammad is a lecturer at Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology (UniKL MIAT), Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Malaysia. He has several years of industrial experiences in information technology, data networking, IT project, and IT vendor management for banking operations. In education sector, he has more than 6 years of experience in conducting research in the areas of information system, project management, and halal and supply chain while also teaching subjects such as project management and management of information system. He is a member of Technological Association Malaysia and Chartered Member of the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transportation in Malaysia. He is pursuing his studies at doctorate level in Information Systems at the Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology of Universiti Putra Malaysia. His interests are in knowledge management, quality management, project management and monitoring, and Halal technology. Mohd Zaini Abd Karim is professor of economics at the Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School of Business, Universiti Utara Malaysia. He received his PhD in Economics from the Sam M. Walton College of Business, University of Arkansas at Fayetteville. He has served Universiti Utara Malaysia as the Dean of Academic Development, Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Economics, and Director of the Institute for Economic Research. He is the Chief Editor of Journal of business

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Management and Accounting, Editorial board member of the International Journal of Banking and Finance (IJBF), Journal of Business and Finance, Journal of Business Strategy, Finance and Management, and Editorial Advisory Board of Journal of Emerging Issues in Economics, Finance and Banking (JEIEFB). He has also served SAGE Open as Article Editor. His research interests include economic efficiency and productivity studies, economics of banking and financial markets, and trade and development economics. He has presented academic papers at regional, national, and international seminars/conferences in which he has won several awards for best conference paper. His work has been published in various ISI-indexed journals such as Global Economic Review, Singapore Economic Review, The European Journal of Finance, Current Issues in Tourism, International Journal of Tourism Research, Prague Economic Papers, and Studies in Higher Education, Housing Studies, and Global Business Review. His works have also been published in books volume published by Physica-Verlag, Praeger, Malaysian Strategic Research Centre, and Water Watch. He has also been an ad-hoc reviewer for numerous ISI-indexed journals such as Review of Industrial Organization, Journal of Economics and Business, Economic Modelling, Economic Change and Restructuring, Current Issues in Tourism, International Journal of Finance and Economics, International Review of Economics and Finance, Asia Pacific Management Review, International Economic Journal, and International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management. Mubarak Kaldeen is a senior lecturer at the Department of Marketing Management, Faculty of Management and Commerce, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka. He is a Commonwealth fellow (UK) and holds his PhD in Tourism Marketing from Malaysia. His core subjects are tourism marketing, marketing communications, and human resource management. He has edited three books and published 30 research papers in national and international journals. He is an editor of SEUSL Journal of Marketing and co-editor of Journal of Tourism Economic and Applied Research. Kaldeen has attended a number of national and international conferences. Muhammad Jawad is an assistant professor in Fatima Jinnah Women University, Pakistan. Jawad performed duties as a post-doctoral researcher in University of York, UK, for 2 years. He did his PhD in Leadership and Management Studies from National Defense University, Pakistan. Jawad worked as associate dean at University of Lahore. He has 32 national and international publications in worldrenowned journals, and he is an associate editor and editorial member of several ESCI and SSCI journals. Jawad represents his university in national and international conferences and workshops. Muhammad Saeed Meo is the founder of Meo School of Research, working as a senior lecturer at Superior University Lahore Pakistan and a PhD scholar at UUM.

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He has vast experience of research. He has published research papers in well-reputed impact factor and Scopus journals (including Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, Resource Policy, Tourism Economics, Asian Women, European Journal of International Management, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, Data in Brief, and South Asian Journal of Business Studies) and some in Pakistan Higher Education Commission–recognized journals (and publishers including Elsevier, Springer, Taylor & Francis, Sage Publications, Inderscience Publishers, Emerald). Furthermore, he is a regular reviewer of world-renowned SSCI and Scopus index journals like Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, Current Issues in Tourism, Anatolia, International Journal of Tourism Policy, Advances in Systems Science and Applications, Financial Innovation, and Investment Management and Financial Innovations. He has also more than 100 econometric and research tips and tricks of video lectures on YouTube (see Meo school of research). Furthermore, he is working on natural resources such as environmental issues, water scarcity, temperature, and CO2 emissions with the collaboration of world best scholars. Munazza Naz is working as Assistant Professor in Fatima Jinnah Women University, Pakistan. Previously, Dr. Naz performed her duties as Post-Doctoral researcher in University of York, UK for two years. She did her PhD in Mathematical Sciences from Quid-i-Azam University, Pakistan. She has 32 national and international publications in world renowned journals. Murat Ödemiş is an assistant professor at the Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Tourism Faculty, Gümüşhane University, Turkey. He holds a PhD in the Marketing Philosophies in Turkey. His main interest areas include tourism marketing, marketing philosophies, strategic management in tourism businesses, brand management, sustainable tourism, cultural tourism, ecotourism, and e-tourism. He has written three book chapters until now. These book chapters are the “Control of the Other Costs in Tourism Businesses”; “The Concept of Sustainable Tourism, Its Historical Development and Examination Through Indicators”; and “Sustainable Promotion and Marketing in Gümüşhane.” Besides, he has written in national and international proceedings and articles. These studies were generally written in the areas of strategic management and marketing, and sustainable tourism. Nazmoon Akhter is a lecturer of Faculty of Business Administration in BGC Trust University Bangladesh for 5 years. She has completed her BBA and MBA in Finance from University of Chittagong. Her interested areas in research world are corporate finance, economics, marketing, branding, tourism, and human resource management. She can operate various software, especially SPSS and STATA. She published a good number of her research papers in national and international journals.

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Nhem Sochea is a lecturer and researcher in the Department of Tourism, Royal University of Phnom Penh, Cambodia. He holds a Master of Tourism Management degree from Victoria University of Wellington in New Zealand for which he was awarded a New Zealand ASEAN Scholarship by New Zealand Foreign Affairs & Trade. He has a strong interest in ICT for Sustainable Tourism, Community-Based Ecotourism, and Tourism Supply Chain Management. Nor Aida Abdul Rahman is an associate professor at Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology (UniKL MIAT), Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Malaysia. She served as the head of Aviation Management at Universiti Kuala Lumpur. She has worked as internal and external trainer in management, supply chain, Halal logistics, and postgraduate research. She has written three books on postgraduate research. Her research work has appeared in several reputable academic journals, book chapters, and refereed conference proceedings. She holds her PhD in Management (supply chain management) from Brunel University, London, UK. She is also serving as External Academic Advisor in college, a chartered member for Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport Malaysia (CILTM), HRDF-Certified Trainer, Chairman (Academic Committee) for Malaysian Association of Transportation, Logistics and Supply Chain Schools (MyATLAS), Vice President (Research Journal) for Institute for Research in Management and Engineering UK (INRME), JAKIM Halal-certified Trainer, UniKL Halal Professional Board, and a member of Academy of Marketing, UK. Noraihan Mohamad is a senior lecturer at School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management and Science University (MSU). She has a bachelor’s degree in Tourism Management majoring in Marketing, a Master of Science degree in Media Management, and PhD in Media Management from Universiti Utara Malaysia (UUM), Sintok. She has more than 8 years of experience in social sciences research in the areas of tourism, media, communication, education, and politic. Her main research interests are tourism social media, social media marketing, media management, and consumer behavior. Nor’Aini Yusof is professor in the Construction Management Program, at the Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia, where she has been a faculty member since 1992. Her research interests lie in the area of innovation and sustainable development, ranging from concept to practice in real estate and construction sectors. She has collaborated actively with researchers in other disciplines, particularly project and real estate management on issues at the construction and occupancy phases. Her articles have appeared in both national and international journals, and she has reviewed scientific papers for journals and grant funders. Dr. Yusof serves as a panel of expert for the National Real Estate Research Coordinator (NAPREC) and an editorial member of Journal of Construction in Developing Countries and PSU Research Review: An International Journal – Prince Sultan University, Saudi Arabia.

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She supervises master and PhD students. At the time of writing, she has graduated 13 PhD students. Nur Amirah Binti Mazme is program manager in event management, School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. She worked as Lecturer of Event Management for Hospitality and Tourism Management department for 3 years. She holds a Master’s in Mass Communication from University of Technology Mara (UiTM). She has participated and presented research papers in a number of academic conferences held in Malaysia and Indonesia. She is an active member of Asia Pacific International Events Management (APIEM) given by APIEM Centre of Excellence accreditation. Her latest works have been published in the refereed international journals and conference proceedings. Nurul Farah Izzah Zailani is lecturer in Hospitality Department, School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. She is holding the position of Program Manager of Hospitality and Outdoor Recreation in developing the academic structure and management in the school. She holds a Master’s in Tourism Management from Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia. Her latest work regarding pull and push factors, service quality, and tourist satisfaction has been published in several Scopus journals. She has participated and presented research papers in international academic conferences. Nusrat Quaderi is pursuing her master’s degree in Economics from University of Chittagong. She participated in Budget Olympiad 2018 at national level held in University of Dhaka. She was acquired 15th position among 100 finalists from all over the country. She has recently graduated with good academic result in Economics from University of Chittagong. She has a research interest for economic development and tourism. She also has interest in the area of National budget. She also participated in a workshop about Sustainable Development Goals. Ou Phichhang is a lecturer and the deputy head of International Business Management Department, Royal University of Phnom Penh. He has taught courses of ICT for business and tourism, operations management, and financial management since he graduated a doctorate degree of Management Science in 2012 from the University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, China. Ozlem Ozbek is an assistant professor in the Department of Tourism and Hotel Management at Bandirma Onyedi Eylul University, Turkey. By profession, she is a tourist guide. Ozbek’s major research interests are technology-based marketing, augmented reality marketing in tourism destinations, touristic product

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diversification, service quality of tour guides, and destination management. Her master thesis was titled “Within the Scope of Touristic Product Diversification, Ecotourism Routes in Konya,” where she researched alternative ecotourism routes with map references and proposed promoting the new routes with destination stakeholders. Her PhD thesis topic was “Usage of Augmented Reality Applications in Destination Marketing – The Case of Travel Agencies.” This thesis was one of the promising research studies about augmented reality marketing for tourism in Turkey. She has published on ecotourism, religious tourism, and cultural heritage management in several conference proceedings, journals, and books. Priyakrushna Mohanty is a UGC senior research fellow under the guidance of Dr. Anu Chandran at the Department of Tourism Studies, Pondicherry University, India. He is an awardee of the prestigious Travel Corporation (India) Gold Medal for his outstanding performance in master’s degree in Tourism Studies from Pondicherry University, India. He also holds a master’s degree in Commerce along with three PG Diploma degrees in Rural Development, Research Methodology, and Teaching Skills. Mohanty has served the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Ltd. for 2 years following which he was recruited as a Guest Faculty in the Department of Tourism Studies, Pondicherry University. He has published more than 15 articles and chapters in both international and national journals and in edited books. Mohanty is passionate about academic areas of tourism sustainability, sustainable livelihood, technology, and tourism along with gender issues in tourism development. Putu Diah Sastri Pitanatri is a lecturer in Bali Tourism Polytechnic. In addition to being active in various national and international associations, Pitanatri has written several books including Homestay: A Mosaics of Community Based Tourism in 2018, which was edited with I. Wayan Mertha, and Culinary Tourism: A New Attributes of Ubud in 2016 co-authored with I. Nyoman Darma Putra. She has also received first place in Win Way Award (2018) as the best lecturer under the Ministry of Tourism Republic of Indonesia.

Raghavendra G is an assistant professor at Welcomgroup Graduate School of Hotel Administration, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India. He teaches information technology, digital marketing, and social media marketing. He is pursuing his research in technology adoption among geriatric adults. He has extensive knowledge in information technology and app development. Raouf Ahmad Rather, MBA, PhD, is a research assistant at the Department of Management Studies, South Campus, University of Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, India. He rather works on research in the area of customer engagement, co-creation, service innovation, brand identification, and loyalty, while pursuing his PhD in

About the Authors

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Marketing Management at the Business School, University of Jammu, India. His work to date is published in journals, including Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management; Journal of Global Marketing; European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation; International Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Systems; South Asian Journal of Tourism and Heritage; International Journal on Customer Relations; and Pacific Business Review International. He is the editorial coordinator of Journal of Tourism and Management Research. Razan AlSakka is a graduate assistant in University of Science Malaysia. She holds a bachelor’s degree in Architecture (Hons.) from Damascus University, Syria. She is pursuing her master’s degree in Architecture in Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM). She is focusing on environmental and green studies and especially in digital innovation in construction industry especially BIM. Renata Ualgaliyeva is working as a ticketing agent at Air Astana. She graduated from Almaty Management University in Restaurant and Hotel Management in 2019. Ualgaliyeva participated for 6 months in student exchange program in Groupe ESC Troyes, France, and focused her study on e-tourism, management accounting, and development strategy. During university years she had internships at RIXOS Hotel in Reservation Department and Almaty Hotel in Marketing Department. In addition, she worked part-time as SMM manager of Instagram pages go.almaty, go.astana, and customer relations manager of kuda.almaty, kuda.astana. As part of a final project on the fourth year she did a research at LLC Almaty Catering Services on the topic “Development of Methods for Organization of Airborne Meals in Airlines.” Rupa Sinha is working as an assistant professor at the School of Hospitality and Tourism Studies, SRM University, India. Sinha completed MBA in Tourism Administration from the University of Burdwan, WB, and qualified UGC_ NET in Tourism Administration and Management. She has attended and presented research paper in a number of national and national conference at Viswa Bharati, Pondicherry University, Karnataka University, AIMS Delhi, NSHM – Durgapur, etc. So far, she has some publication in reputed journals and edited books, among which some are into queues and some are into preparation. Areas of her research include cultural and heritage tourism development and community development, which will add some social values. S. M. Ferdous Azam is working as senior lecturer in Management and Science University (MSU), Malaysia. His doctoral research was related to the financial economics, management practice, and Malaysian small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Also, he has presented his research works in many international conferences as well as published numerous articles in international refereed journals in the area of finance, economics, marketing, businesses and management, small and medium enterprises, e-commerce, etc. Moreover, he has several years of teaching

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experience in various subjects related to the finance, economics, management, and research methodology in three different universities. Sabda Elisa Priyanto is a lecturer in the Department of Tourism and Hospitality in Ambarrukmo Institute of Tourism (STIPRAM) Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Previously, he worked as a consultant in a tour and travel agency and as a tourist guide. He researches mainly in the area of tourism, tourist behavior, tourism impact, rural tourism, and tourism destination management. A major thrust of his research involves issues about the behavior of millennials generation tourist and the use of technology. He is pursuing PhD in Tourism Studies at Graduate School, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Sachin Soonthodu, assistant professor, Department of Tourism, Garden City University, has pursued Master of Business Administration (Tourism) from Mangalore University. He has qualified UGC-NET in 2009 and K-SET in 2015, and has more than 10 years of experience in teaching both at graduate and postgraduate levels. He was the principal investigator for the Minor Research Project funded by UGC. He also served as the visiting faculty for the International Air Transport Association (IATA) study centers in Bangalore. He has published a book titled Kodagu, the Unseen South and is associated with research on temples of Kodagu District of Karnataka. He has co-authored a chapter in the international book titled GIS Applications in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry, published by IGI Global Publishers, USA. His key skills include travel and tourism management, tourism geography, Indian architecture, airline and cargo management, marketing management, and business administration. His passion includes research in Indian architecture, travel, photography, and blogging.

Shahan Mehmood Cheema is working as an assistant program leader of the Research Degrees Programme, the Superior College, Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Cheema is responsible for all of the research activities and supervising the work of the interdisciplinary students. With a PhD in Business Administrations, Dr. Cheema has published extensively in the areas of consumer behavior, underground economy, and management. Samik Ray is an ex-faculty of the Department of Folklore, University of Kalyani; Travel and Tourism Management in MPTI (Kolkata); and WTCC School of Trade and Commerce (Kolkata). He is also an ex-trainer and Faculty of Regional Level Guide Training (Government of India, Department of Tourism). He is working as Regional Level Guide (RLG) (Government of India, Department of Tourism) and Editor of “Tourism Theory and Practice.” He is the author of several essays on tourism studies and management, social science, and literary criticism. He received National Tourism Award in the category of “The Best Tourist Guide.”

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Samsudeen Sabraz Nawaz is senior lecturer in Management and IT at the Department of MIT, Faculty of Management and Commerce, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka (SEUSL). Nawaz is reading his PhD in IT at Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology from where he holds MSc in IS with Best Performance Award. His areas of expertise are in business informatics and focuses on digitalreadiness and innovation adoption research. Serving as Editor in Chief of SEUSL Journal of IS & IT, he has published more than 25 research articles in international journals and presented in international conferences and has edited many conference proceedings in the University. Sanoop Kumar P. V. is assistant professor in travel and tourism with many years of academic experience in the field. He has several research papers and national/ international seminar papers to his credit. He serves as Member – Academic Council, Chairman – Board of Examiners and Member of the Board of Studies, and Faculty of different universities in India. He serves as Assistant Professor of Travel and Tourism department at Pazhassiraja College, Wayanad, affiliated to the University of Calicut. He is doing PhD at School of Tourism Studies, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam. He authored one book and several book chapters. Saroop Roy B. R. took his master’s degree in Tourism Administration from University of Kerala after finishing his B. Tech in Electronics and Communication Engineering. Starting his career in tourism field as trainee at Thenmala Ecotourism Promotion Society in 2000, he became the Kerala Coordinator of EQUATIONS, a Bangalore-based research, campaign, and advocacy organization on tourism policies and issues for 8 years. In 2011, he joined Kerala Institute of Tourism and Travel Studies (KITTS) as Assistant Professor in Travel and Tourism. He is also the Coordinator of Centre for Responsible Tourism at KITTS. His expertise includes areas in tourism policy formulation, ecotourism, responsible tourism, rural tourism, and community-linked tourism projects. He participated in the SBSTTA 13 Meeting of the Convention on Biological Diversity held at Rome in February 2008. He also led the Indian delegation of Ecotourism practitioners to attend the South African and Indian Practitioners’ Workshop to exchange lessons and best practices on using Nature Tourism as a force for Poverty Alleviation at Johannesburg in May 2008. He has played a significant role in the formulation and implementation of Responsible Tourism Initiative in the state of Kerala. On the policy front, he was the acting committee member of the Kerala Tourism Policy 2012, Revamping of Homestay Classification Scheme for Kerala 2015, and preparation of Charter for Green Carpet initiative for Kerala Tourism 2016. He co-authored the book An Introduction to Business of Tourism published by SAGE India in May 2017, bringing out various dimensions of tourism with an academic perspective. Seda Yetimoğlu is a research fellow and PhD candidate at Necmettin Erbakan University, Faculty of Tourism in Konya, Turkey. After receiving her BA degree

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in 2008, from the Department of Tourist Guidance, Nevşehir Tourism and Hotel Management School Erciyes University, she worked as a freelance tour guide in tourism industry from 2009 to 2012. She received her MA degree from the Tourism Management Department, Necmettin Erbakan University. The author’s research interests include tourism marketing, marketing strategies, experiential marketing, hospitality management, and gastronomy tourism. Seden Doğan is an associate professor at the Faculty of Tourism in Ondokuz Mayis University in Turkey. She is a visiting scholar at the University of South Florida for post-doctoral research. After she worked in different hotels and travel agencies in Antalya/Turkey between 1998 and 2013, she worked as a lecturer at Adnan Menderes University between 2013 and 2017. She earned her PhD in Tourism and Hotel Management from Akdeniz University in Antalya/Turkey. Her main areas of research are Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism, Digitalization in Tourism and Industry 4.0 Applications in Tourism. She authored and co-authored 32 research papers, 16 conference papers, and 7 book chapters. She also serves as an assistant editor for Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology (JHTT) and as general secretary for International Federation for Information Technologies and Travel & Tourism (IFITT) Turkey Chapter. Senthilkumaran Piramanayagam is professor of tourism and hospitality at Welcomgroup Graduate School of Hotel Administration, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India. He teaches Tourism Policy and Planning, Research Methods, Tourism Marketing, and Data Analytics to the post graduate students of Tourism and Hospitality. His research interests include qualitative and experimental research in tourism and hospitality. He has extensive knowledge in data analytics and is proficient in statistical software used in social science research. Serap Akdu completed her undergraduate education in 2006 from Gazi University, Faculty of Commerce and Tourism Education, Travel Management and Tourism Guidance Teaching Department. In 2009, she completed her master’s degree from Gazi University, Institute of Educational Sciences, Department of Tourism Management Education. In 2017, she completed her doctorate from Gümüşhane University, Institute of Social Sciences, Department of Business Administration. Akdu prepared her doctoral thesis on service error compensation in the tourism sector. She has research interests in service error compensation, tourism planning, sustainable tourism, social sustainability, accessible tourism also alternative tourism types such as medical tourism, health tourism, creative tourism, and gastronomy tourism. Akdu is working as an assistant professor at Gumushane University, Tourism Faculty, Department of Tourism Guidance in Turkey.

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Shahzad Ali working as a program manager at the Department of Management Sciences, the Superior College, Lahore, Pakistan. Ali is pursuing PhD at the Universiti Utara Malaysia. Shamzani Affendy Mohd Din graduated with bachelor’s degree of engineering (Civil)(Hons.) and a master degree of engineering in Civil-Environmental Management from Universiti Teknologi, Malaysia, in 1999 and 2001 respectively. He has served 11 years with the Department of Building Technology and Engineering and 8 years with the Department of Applied Arts & Design at Kulliyyah of Architecture & Environmental Design, International Islamic University, Malaysia, since November 2001. He obtained his PhD in Civil Engineering from Cardiff School of Engineering, Cardiff University, UK, in March 2007 and has been promoted to the post of assistant professor in 2008. In 2012, he has been appointed as one of the group experts to review the National Ambient Air Quality Standard Malaysia (NAAQSM) by the Department of Environmental (DOE), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Malaysia. On consultancy area, he has been appointed as Civil & Infrastructure consultant for Master Plan of Bako, Sarawak, under the State of Sarawak, Economy Planning Unit (EPU), and he also has been appointed as Design Advisor for DSA Development Sdn Bhd for an RM2 Billion GDV Development at Bukit Tinggi, Pahang Darul Makmur in 2016. In 2017, he has been appointed as the Advisory Committee for Car Museum project of IIUM under Endowment Trust Fund (ETF) and as Project Director for the Multi-Storey Mechanical Parking at Lot 43 by Jalan Tun Razak, in front Tan & Tan Building, Kuala Lumpur. His latest appointment was as Green Building Consultant for IIUM Library by IIUM Development Division, Project Management Consultant for Salaam Group in Djibouti in 2018, and also as Senior Advisor for Athena Energy Pte. Ltd. based in Singapore in 2020. Shamsa Kanwal is doing her PhD from School of Economics, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan. She has vast experience in macroeconomics research. She has various research publications in world reputed journals. Her area of interest is macroeconomics. Sharina Osman is a senior lecturer and the head of tourism section at Universiti Kuala Lumpur Business School. She holds a PhD in Management from University of Exeter, United Kingdom, in 2017; Master of Human Resource Management and BBA (Marketing) Honors from Northern University, Malaysia. Her research interest is around identity, image and reputation, organizational culture, gastronomic tourism, tourism destination identity and branding, participative tourism development, and e-tourism. Osman carries with her an array of experience which ranges from human resources to marketing (image and branding) and tourism. Being in an

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academic and research environment, coupled with vast hands-on experience in the industry, she helps organizations in competency and capacity building through trainings and consultations. She believes in interacting and outcome-based learning; she has conducted many workshops to different sectors including government and private at both local and international levels such as Nepal Telecom, Majapahit Tourism Academy, Stiepari Semarang, Ministry of Education, and Universiti Kuala Lumpur. Shehnaz Tehseen (PhD in Management) is working as a full-time senior lecturer at the Department of Management, Sunway University Business School, Sunway University, Malaysia. Her research interests lie in the areas of entrepreneurship, ethnic entrepreneurship, SMEs, cultural orientations, innovation, entrepreneurial competencies, retail sector, human resource management, strategic management, marketing, tourism, and organizational behavior. She is an active researcher with more than 40 publications. She is also an editorial team member of some international journals including Journal of Management Sciences, Durreesamin Journal, and Journal of Global Business Insights. Shunsaku Hashimoto is a full professor and associate dean in Faculty of Global and Regional Studies at University of the Ryukyus, Japan. He is a member of Executive Committee of THERAA (Tourism and Hospitality Educators and Researchers Association of Asia). His main research area is organizational behavior in service organizations. His background is on both practical and academic areas. After graduation, he worked in a hotel for 6 years. Then went to the post graduate course in University of Strathclyde to learn Hotel Management. After finishing the course, he worked as a manager in The Hotel New Otani Osaka and worked as a consultant in Drake Beam Morin Japan. Then he moved to Okinawa and is working as a professor in University of the Ryukyus. Hashimoto has a good track of publication. Shruti Arora is working as a guest faculty in the Department of Commerce and Management, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India, and had an experience of 12 years in education industry. Her core subjects are Marketing, General Management, International Business Management, and Customer Relationship Management. She has attended various international conferences, and her publications include various research papers in international journals, peer-reviewed journals, with one chapter in edited book in Routledge Advances in Event Research Series in 2018 and the other chapter in Emerald Handbook of ICT in Tourism and Hospitality in 2020. She has authored a book titled Event Management and Marketing: Theory, Practical Approaches and Planning in 2018 and an co-edited book entitled Event Tourism in Asian Countries: Challenges and Prospects under Apple Academic Press, CRC Press, in 2020.

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Sumayya Chughtai is financial economist working as an assistant professor at International Islamic University, Pakistan. She has vast experience in financial research. She has various research publications in world reputed journals. Her area of interest is financial markets. Symbat Myrzatay is a member of a cabin crew in Air Astana Airlines. She has her undergraduate degree in Restaurant and Hotel Business from Almaty Management University in 2018. Her main subjects were Marketing, Strategic Management, Facility Management, and Revenue Management. While studying she was an intern in five-star Hotels like Ritz-Carlton and Rixos, took a part in USA Work and Travel Exchange Program, and gained experience in restaurants of America. She was a member of a Prashkevich’s Marketing team and learned how to introduce marketing tools into enterprises and studied ABC analysis of the menu, check flow analysis, and was an exemplary student. Tamila Arab Syrlybayeva is an SMM manager of Instagram job search pages: joburo.almaty, joburo.astana. She graduated from Almaty Management University with a bachelor’s degree in Restaurant and Hotel Management in 2019. Participated for 6 months in a student exchange program in Groupe ESC Troyes, France, and focused on e-tourism, management accounting, and development strategy. Syrlybayeva had internships at RIXOS Hotel in Housekeeping Department and at Chocofamily in Marketing Department. She worked part-time as copywriter for reviews on Instagram page kuda.almaty. After graduating she worked as marketer in Rahat Palace Hotel, where she also got experience in design and photography. As part of a final project on the fourth year, she did a research at LLC Almaty Catering Services on the topic “Development of Methods for Organization of Airborne Meals in Airlines.” Uğur Akdu holds a bachelor’s degree from Gazi University, Faculty of Commerce and Tourism Education in 2006; master’s from Gazi University, Institute of Education Sciences in 2009; and PhD from Akdeniz University, Institute of Social Sciences in 2014 – all relating to tourism and hospitality management and education. He is an assistant professor at Gumushane University, Tourism Faculty, Department of Tourism Guidance in Turkey. His research focuses on tourism marketing, health tourism, alternative tourism types, sustainable tourism, and current tourism research. Vera Kim has graduated from Almaty Management University with a bachelor’s degree in “Hospitality Management.” While studying in the university, she was an intern at RIXOS Hotel Almaty. Her diploma subject was “Development of Methods for Organization of Airborne Meals in Airlines,” and for that she took internship in

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Almaty Catering Services. After graduation, she started learning Chinese language in order to pursue a career of interpreter. She gained a lot of experience while working with foreign medicine specialists from China. Kim also had internship at UChina Almaty, a company that specializes in sending students to study in China. Kim is planning on getting a second degree in China in international management. Vina Javed Khan is doing PhD from University of Wollongong, Australia. She has numerous publications in well-reputed JCR impactor journals. Her area of interest is financial markets. Wilson Ven Kim Lim is a final year student for Bachelor in Mobile and Wireless Technology, Faculty of Information Sciences and Engineering, Management and Science University, Malaysia. His research interests include Malaysia tourism industry, mobile application, GPS, and the approaching technology of Industry 4.0. Yasin Keleş is an associate professor at Faculty of Tourism in Ondokuz Mayis University in Turkey. He holds a PhD in the field of Tourism Management Education from Gazi University’s Educational Science Institute in 2014. His main areas of research are tourism education, tourism planning, and tourism management. He has about 50 research and conference papers, 7 book chapters, and has also edited one book. He is the editor of the Guncel Turizm Arastirmalari Dergisi (GUNTAD) and co-editor of the Turist Rehberligi Dergisi (JOTOG) in Turkey. Yeasmin Islam is an assistant professor in School of Business and Economics, United International University. She has research interest in management, human resource, entrepreneurship, international business, and tourism management. Islam has presented few papers in reputed international business conferences in home and abroad. She has also published two articles in peer-reviewed journals and one book review. Yusuf Emre Karakaş works as an assistant professor at the Department of Travel and Tourism Management, Faculty of Business and Management Sciences, the University of Malatya Turgut Özal, Turkey. He received his bachelor’s degree in Tourism Management at Akdeniz University in 2006. He completed his MA in Tourism and Management at Akdeniz University in 2012 and his PhD in Production Management and Marketing at Inonu University in 2018. He worked as a business development and a trainer in the past decade. In addition, he provided consultancy services to companies in a different sector. His fields of studies are entrepreneurship, marketing, tourism marketing, and tourism. He has published articles, books, chapters, and papers.

About the Authors

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Zakmalisa Erna Md Zaki is the deputy dean of student affairs in School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. She worked as Program Manager for Hospitality and Tourism Management Department for 4 years. She holds a master’s degree in Hospitality Management from University of Technology Mara (UiTM). She has participated and presented research papers in a number of academic conferences held in Malaysia and Indonesia. She is an active member of Asia Pacific International Events Management (APIEM) given by APIEM Centre of Excellence accreditation. Her latest works have been published in the refereed international journals and conference proceedings. Zuhaib Hassan Qureshi is a PhD scholar and is pursuing his PhD (Management) from University of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. His research interests lie in the areas of entrepreneurship, marketing, SMEs, information technology, cultural orientations, tourism, ethnic entrepreneurship, innovation, entrepreneurial competencies, retail sector, service sector, human resource management, strategic management, and organizational behavior. He is also an author of the book entitled The Effective ICT for Administration published by a German publishing house: Scholar’s Press in November 2016. His work has appeared in Asia-Pacific Journal of Business Administration, International Journal of Entrepreneurship, Saudi Journal of Business and Management Studies, International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management. He is also an active member of Review Board at “International Journal of Entrepreneurship” since 2018. Zurida Ishak is a senior lecturer at Faculty of Information Sciences and Engineering, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. She is a leader for Big Data Research Group and a cluster leader for Computer Forensic. She holds a doctoral degree in Information Science from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). She worked as a tutor at University Technology MARA for 2 years and 15 years in Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. She has participated and presented research papers in a number of academic conferences held in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore, and the USA. She is an active member of Malaysian Board of Technology (MBOT) and a Program Committee for Asia Digital Art and Design Association (ADADA), Malaysia. She is also active as a reviewer for conference publication and journals. She has also won several awards for research innovation nationally and internationally. Her latest works have been published in the refereed international journals, conference proceedings, and book chapters.

Contributors

Faiza Abdur Rab Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan Serap Akdu Department of Tourism Guidance, Tourism Faculty, Gumushane University, Gümüşhane, Turkey Uğur Akdu Department of Tourism Guidance, Tourism Faculty, Gumushane University, Gümüşhane, Turkey Nazmoon Akhter Faculty of Business Administration, BGC Trust University, Chattogram, Bangladesh Mehtab Alam Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan Md. Alauddin Department of Marketing, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong Department of Business Administration, International Islamic University Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh Ahmad Albattat Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia Shahzad Ali Department of Management Sciences, The Superior College, Lahore, Pakistan Razan AlSakka School of Housing, Building, and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia Iffat Anjum Department of International Relations, Bangladesh University of Professionals, Dhaka, Bangladesh Shruti Arora Guest Faculty, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India Md. Ashikur Rahman Avi Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Pabna University of Science and Technology, Pabna, Bangladesh Fariha Azad Master of Social Sciences, Department of Economics, University of Chittagong, Chattogram, Bangladesh xliii

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Contributors

S. M. Ferdous Azam Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia Kalsoom B. Center for Policy Studies, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan Saroop Roy B. R. Centre for Responsible Tourism, Kerala Institute of Tourism and Travel Studies (KITTS), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India İlke Başarangil Department of Tourism Guidance, Tourism Faculty, Kırklareli University, Kırklareli, Turkey Fatiha Bouziane University of Khemis-Miliana, Khemis-Miliana, Algeria Shahan Mehmood Cheema Department of Management Sciences, The Superior College, Lahore, Pakistan Sumayya Chughtai International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan Deleep Devasia Department of Tourism and Hotel Management, Govt. Arts and Science College, Kondotty, Calicut University, Malappuram, Kerala, India Himanshi Dhoundiyal Research Scholar, Institute of Hotel & Tourism Management, M.D. University, Rohtak, India Shamzani Affendy Mohd Din Department of Applied Arts & Design, Kulliyyah of Architecture & Environmental Design, International Islamic University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Seden Doğan Faculty of Tourism, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey Aysen Ercan İştin School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, University of Şırnak, Şırnak, Turkey Gamze Eryilmaz Faculty of Tourism, University of Iskenderun Technical, Iskenderun/Hatay, Turkey Raghavendra G Welcomgroup Graduate School of Hotel Administration, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India Hengky Sumisto Halim Bina Darma University, Palembang, Indonesia Shunsaku Hashimoto Faculty of Global and Regional Studies, University of the Ryukyus, Ryukyus, Japan Azizul Hassan Tourism Consultants Network, The Tourism Society, London, UK Zurida Ishak Faculty of Information Sciences and Engineering, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia Yeasmin Islam United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh Adam Amril Jaharadak Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia Muhammad Jawad Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Contributors

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Chathura Jayawardena Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia Alaa J. Kadi Olya Research & Training Center, Penang, Malaysia Aigerim Kadyrgaliyeva Almaty Management University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Christian Kahl School of Economics and Management, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China Mubarak Kaldeen Department of Marketing Management, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka Ernawati Mustafa Kamal School of Housing, Building, and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia Md. Aktar Kamal International Tourism and Convention Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong Department of Management Studies, Faculty of Business Studies (FBS), Bangladesh University of Professionals, Dhaka, Bangladesh Aamir Zamir Kamboh Department of Management Sciences, The Superior College, Lahore, Pakistan Shamsa Kanwal School of economics, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan Yusuf Emre Karakaş Department of Tourism Management, University of Malatya Turgut Özal, Malatya, Turkey Mohd Zaini Abd Karim Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School of Business, Universiti Utara, Changlun, Malaysia Yasin Keleş Faculty of Tourism, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey Vina Javed Khan University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia Ali Khatibi Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia Vera Kim Almaty Management University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Sanoop Kumar P. V. Department of Tourism and Travel Management, Pazhassiraja College, Pulpally, Calicut University, Malappuram, Kerala, India Abdelkader Laallam Karabuk University, Karabuk, Turkey Julie Juan Li Department of Marketing, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong Wilson Ven Kim Lim Faculty of Information Sciences and Engineering, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia Fernando Mayor-Vitoria Department of Economics and Social Science, The Polytechnic University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain

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Contributors

Nur Amirah Binti Mazme School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia Elmira Medinova Almaty Management University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Muhammad Saeed Meo Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School of Business, Universiti Utara, Changlun, Malaysia Department of Management Sciences, The Superior College, Lahore, Pakistan Noraihan Mohamad School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia Mohammad FakhrulNizam Mohammad Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology (UniKL MIAT), Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Malaysia Priyakrushna Mohanty Department of Tourism Studies, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India Diana Mussabek Almaty Management University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Symbat Myrzatay Almaty Management University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Samsudeen Sabraz Nawaz Department of MIT, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka Munazza Naz Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan Murat Ödemiş Tourism Faculty, Gumushane University, Gümüşhane, Turkey Sharina Osman Business School, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Ozlem Ozbek Bandırma Onyedi Eylul University, Bandırma, Turkey Aslı Özge Özgen Çiğdemli Department of Recreation Management, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Osmaniye, Turkey Ou Phichhang Department of International Business Management, Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia Senthilkumaran Piramanayagam Welcomgroup Graduate School of Hotel Administration, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India Putu Diah Sastri Pitanatri School of Postgraduate of Tourism Studies, Universitas Gadjah Mada Indonesia & Hospitality Department Bali Tourism Polytechnic Indonesia, Bali, Indonesia Eray Polat Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Gumushane University, Gümüşhane, Turkey Sabda Elisa Priyanto School of Postgraduate of Tourism Studies, Universitas Gadjah Mada Indonesia & Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Ambarrukmo Institute of Tourism (STIPRAM), Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Contributors

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Nusrat Quaderi Master of Social Sciences, Department of Economics, University of Chittagong, Chattogram, Bangladesh Zuhaib Hassan Qureshi Universiti Kuala Lumpur Business School, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Nor Aida Abdul Rahman Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology (UniKL MIAT), Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Malaysia Raouf Ahmad Rather Department of Management Studies (South Campus), University of Kashmir, Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, India Samik Ray Regional Level Guide, Department of Tourism, Government of India, Kolkata, India Mallika Roy Department of Economics and Finance, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong Department of Economics, University of Chittagong, Chattogram, Bangladesh Mohamed Mohamed Tolba Said Education and Islamic Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Jalan Gombak, Selangor, Malaysia Lim Sengtong 12Explore, Phnom Penh, Cambodia Anukrati Sharma Head & Associate Professor, Department of Commerce & Management, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India Isha Sharma Independent Researcher, New Delhi, India Rupa Sinha School of Hospitality & Tourism Studies, SRM University, Sikkim, India Nhem Sochea Department of Tourism, Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia Sachin Soonthodu Department of Tourism Studies, School of Professional Studies, Garden City University, Bangalore, India Tamila Arab Syrlybayeva Almaty Management University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Shehnaz Tehseen Department of Management, Sunway University Business School (SUBS), Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia Jacquline Tham Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia Renata Ualgaliyeva Almaty Management University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Kaplan Uğurlu Faculty of Tourism, Kırklareli University, Kırklareli, Turkey Krishnan Umachandran NELCAST Limited, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India Meral Üzülmez Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Osmaniye, Turkey

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Contributors

Ishrat N. Wahab Department of Tourism Studies, School of Professional Studies, Garden City University, Bangalore, India Khoo Wei Wen Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia Eiad Yafi School of Computer Science, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, New South Wales, Australia Seda Yetimoğlu Faculty of Tourism, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey Nor’Aini Yusof School of Housing, Building, and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia Nurul Farah Izzah Zailani School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management and Science University, Selangor, Malaysia Zakmalisa Erna Md Zaki School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management & Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia Akhmediyar Zhabaidilda Almaty Management University, Almaty, Kazakhstan

Introduction

In the most recent time, the tourism industry has witnessed a rapid development and implementation of cutting-edge and innovative technologies. Advances in technology have literally changed the way tourists used to travel, and such new developments can promise even more exciting and interactive experiences. At the present time, undoubtedly technology and tourism have become the perfect and effective combination. Such combination can play useful roles in traveling, choose destinations for holiday, all of the doings during and after vacation. The effects of technology have become so dominating that most of the tourists at present plan their trips on the Internet and a few others take support from travel agencies. Following Seabra, Pereira, Silva, Abrantes, Reis, and Paiva (2020), Gen C Traveller (2018) and Pacific Asia Travel Association (2014), in this shift of paradigm from conventional to technological, millennials are playing an important and significant role. They are both technology savvy and like traveling. Such interest of the millennials gives rise to a relatively newer context where blogs and apps, with the support of the social media, are playing an effective part regarding trip planning, arrangements, and relevant activities. In the same line, realizing the ongoing trends, the tourism industry has also become more aware in redesigning both its product and service offers and its business models for attracting such coveted target. Examples are the low-cost airliners, budget accommodation and transportation supports (i.e., Airbnb or Uber, etc.), cheap package holidays and so on. Such ubiquitous scenario of the present time was unimaginable even a few years ago. The interaction of technology with tourism has expanded beyond tourist experience or the process of improvements. Rather, this interaction structurally transforms the tourism system itself. The tourism industry stays within the midst of a profound metamorphosis. Several mitigating factors still exist and newer and innovative technological solutions appear as some major actors. Technology improves the processes and deliveries of tourism products and service offers, better customer loyalty through networking and building new tourism business models. All of such changes generate benefits for the tourists and the tourism industry, allowing them to simplify, and very often to enrich, the whole travel planning process in more realistic and manageable approaches. In the coming decades, the tourism industry can possibly see more platforms within which it can respond to the technological knowledge or curiosity demands of xlix

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a tourist in more sustainable manners. Technology in tourism will also be able to wipe out the barriers of distance through functions, services and products discovery. Some of the technological advancements have already left marks in the tourism industry and will bring substantial interim changes in the industry. In this process, mobile technology is the key feature and revolutionary technological solution for this industry. The revolution of Industry 4.0 brings notable transformations in the tourism systems design that suite the technologically oriented consumers (Bilotta et al., 2020). Smartphones appeared as a comprehensive support for tourists and the majority of the tourists use Smartphones for dealing with their vacation activities. Intelligent automation’s application in the tourism industry with the support of Artificial Intelligence (AI)-driven advancements and associated technologies will increase more in the future (Tussyadiah, 2020). The next useful technologies can be Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR), which already have entered the tourism world with immense possibilities to offer (Jung and Han, 2014; Jung et al., 2015). A growing number of tourism companies are using these technologies, meaning that vacation experience can become completely virtual. The Internet of Things (IoT) promises to bring significant updates to the tourism industry through the integration of sensors connected to the Internet inside items like suitcases, cars, buildings, and so on (Almobaideen et al., 2017). Virtual assistants are also making changes in the tourism industry. Tourists have become more familiar with Alexa and Siri, the virtual assistants for meeting their information needs as well as opening e-mail or even turning the radio on, and more. Big Data is the next advancement that is initiating interest in the tourism industry. Big Data is yet to show its opportunities completely, but researchers suggest that with the use of social Big Data, managers can become able for establishing spatially explicit management policies to consider pressures of tourism on individual protected areas (Chun et al., 2020). Because Blockchain technology is associated with finance and banking, it may have a favorable impact on the tourism industry. Blockchain is effective in identifying passengers at the airport, guaranteeing tourist opinions’ transparency, followed by secure and easy payments and many more. The ability of Blockchain to increase the disintermediation level in tourism shows this technology’s most beneficial influence on the industry (Rashideh, 2020). Also, 5G networks are making tourism technologies more powerful with the promise of wider coverage, much faster loading and downloading speeds, and more stable connections. With the application and successful adoption of more technological advancements, the tourism industry can possibly divert to immersive tourism, where turning the tourist into the experience’s protagonist will become a reality. The tourism industry at present is significantly influenced and getting changed by the application of technology in both its fundamental and strategic activities. This is driven by the industry’s inherent competition and the evolving innovative ideas and practices. The application of technology thus becomes inevitable for following the competitive environment and for sidestepping the changing disruption. Both tourists as customers and as businesses can benefit from developed communication, reservations, guest service systems, and so on. In such way, the application of technology can

Introduction

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support the Asian tourism industry to replace relatively expensive features with technological innovations. The use of cutting-edge technology can have significant advantages since it enables improvements in the tourism industry. However, technology can also be the reason of product and service disruption and can produce a completely new set of unintentional consequences. In their strategically selected cases’ autoethnographic account, Oktadiana and Pearce (2020) sought for understanding tourist technology user difficulties and uncovered technology design’s several uncomfortable and annoying facets (i.e., problems to have the Internet access, scheduling advice and language difficulties). Oktadiana and Pearce (2020) discovered that the absence of touch in tourist-technology interfaces causes consumers to feel somewhat disconnected. On such ground, theoretical explanation and understanding render importance to learn the factors and contexts of technology acceptance or diffusion. There are some specific theories and concepts of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) that are widely applied in tourism research. A few research studies demonstrate that the application of ICT is beneficial for production and performance (Bharadwaj et al., 1999; Hitt and Brynjolfsson, 1996). The acceptance by users and the usage setup of ICT systems are usually problematic in organizations (Van de Ven, 1986; Rogers, 1995) since most ICT system implementations include both people and organizational changes (Burns et al., 1991; Bullen and Bennet, 1990; Grudin, 1989; Orlikowski, 1993; Kwon and Zmud, 1987). The issues and challenges associated with the adoption and implementation of ICT systems are persuading scholars, researchers, and practitioners to seek ways of understanding and managing the phenomena and processes related to this topic that spawns over extensive literature studies in the subject area (Jeyaraj et al., 2006). Through the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Davis (1989) offered a theoretical model that aimed for predicting and explaining ICT usage behavior, meaning what causes potential adopters to accept or reject information technology (IT) use. Conceptually, TAM relied on the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). In TAM, two of the theoretical constructs, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, are the fundamental determinants of system use, which predict attitudes toward the use of the system, meaning the user’s willingness in using the system. According to (Davis, 1989, p. 320), “perceived usefulness” denotes “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance,” and “perceived ease of use” denotes “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort.” The use of TAM in research studies was done mainly in three specific ways: for comparing diverse adoption models, for developing TAM’s extension, or for replicating the model. For example, empirically the ability of TRA and TAM for predicting and explaining the acceptance and rejection by users of the voluntary usage of computer-based technology was performed by Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw (1989). TAM2, a theoretical extension of TAM that explains perceived usefulness and usage intentions with the support of social influence and cognitive instrumental processes, was developed and tested by Venkatesh and Davis (2000). Davis’ (1989) study was replicated by Adams, Nelson, and Todd (1992).

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The Theory of Reasoned Actions (TRA) originated from social psychology, and it is regarded as a special case of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 2010). TRA was developed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) for defining the links between individuals’ beliefs, attitudes, norms, intentions, and behaviors. This theory accepts that an individual’s behavior is determined by the person’s behavioral intention for performing it. Also, the intention itself is determined by the attitudes of that person and subjective norms to the behavior. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975, p. 302) referred subjective norm to “the person’s perception that most people who are important to him think he should or should not perform the behavior in question.” The book of Ajzen and Fishbein’s (1980) focused on both predicting and understanding human behavior for helping to solve applied problems and to make policy decisions. These authors opined that TRA can be applied, for instance, at the time to study consumer behavior, the occupational orientations of women, or behaviors of family planning. The Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) in Rogers’ (1983) book Diffusion of Innovations is widely applied in research studies. DOI is the general theory that presents how a new idea spreads and gets adopted in a community. DOI also seeks to explain how such adoption is shaped by the opinion leaders and communication channels. The first process model that is the five-stage model to implement and adopt innovation in organizations was proposed by Rogers (1983). Many other researchers like Moore and Benbasat (1991, p. 192) applied DOI for developing “an instrument designed to measure the various perceptions that an individual may have of adopting an information technology (IT) innovation.” Such instrument was intended to appear as a tool to study an organization’s initial adoption and subsequent diffusion of IT innovations. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) was presented by Ajzen (1991) and concentrates on cognitive self-regulation. This theory has partial similarity to the TRA model but differs in that it considers an additional construct named perceived behavioral control. Perceived behavioral control shows the control perception over the performance of a specific behavior. In TRA, an individual’s behaviors and choices are determined by rational considerations as individual intentions determine behavior. An individual’s motivations and plans for committing a particular act are referred through intentions. Such intention also shows an individual’s attitudes and the extent to which an individual perceives a particular act as favorable or desirable. This theory proposes that personal attitudes, sense of control, and social pressures govern the behavior of humans. Ajzen (1991) reviewed that the TPB was used in research studies that examined leisure behavior or the drinking problem, where this theory offered valuable information for understanding such behaviors or for implementing effective interventions for changing them. Mathieson (1991) and Taylor and Todd (1995) in their studies made a comparison of TPB’s and TAM’s ability to explain behavior and predict an individual’s intention for using ICT, respectively. The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) was developed by Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, and Davis (2003). This unified model was developed by reviewing eight models that explain ICT usage (i.e., TAM, TRA, TPB, DOI, the motivational model, the model of PC utilization, a model combining TAM

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and TPB, and the social cognitive theory). The aim of UTAUT is to explain a user’s intentions for using ICT and the subsequent user behavior. UTAUT considers four constructs as both user acceptance’s and usage behavior’s direct determinants: effort expectancy, performance expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions. On the other side, the four key moderating variables are: age, gender, experience, and voluntariness of use. The authors opined that UTAUT offers a tool for managers to assess a technology introduction’s likelihood of success of and to understand the drivers of acceptance for designing interventions as marketing or training. Thus, UTAUT concentrates on users having less willingness for adopting and using new systems. The Model of the IT Implementation Process was offered by Cooper and Zmud (1990) as a further development of Kwon and Zmud’s (1978) model of the IT Implementation Process. This model relies on the innovation, technological diffusion, and organizational change literature. This model’s main objective is to provide a framework for coordinating and guiding ICT implementation research. This approach involves a phase of implementation that starts with an analysis of organizational needs and progresses to a complete and efficient use of technology in everyday practice. Such model also determines five contextual factors that can have effects on products and processes at each implementation stage: the characteristics of the user community, the technology being adopted, the task, the organization, and the organizational environment. The Information Systems Success Model was developed by DeLone and McLean (1992) after reviewing earlier research studies. The authors thus introduced factors’ comprehensive taxonomy that contributes to the success of information systems. Literature studies on information system success were examined by these authors, who followed the categorization of success measures to six major categories: information quality, system quality, organizational impact, use, individual impact, and user satisfaction. Such categories are both interdependent and interrelated, and offer a comprehensive view of the information system’s success. This model targets guiding future research efforts. The above-mentioned are thus the most common and widely applied theories focused on the acceptance and adoption of technology. The individual’s level is focused upon in most of the theories (i.e., TAM, TRA, TPB, and UTAUT). Still, some of the theories focus on the level of organizations (the Model of the IT Implementation Process) or on the social system level (i.e., DOI focuses both on group and organizational levels). However, major theories like DOI, TAM, TPB, TRA, and UTAUT have some limitations: first, for paying limited attention to social and organizational factors; second, for marginally considering learning concepts or theories; and third, for executing these studies in line with a single restrictive methodological approach that was rather unnecessary. The assessment that these theories pay limited attention toward contextual factors has been raised by many researchers (Bagozzi, 2007; Attewell, 1992; Fichman, 1992; Lyytinen and Damsgaard, 2001; Legris et al., 2003; Salovaara and Tamminen, 2009). For example, these main theories make assumptions that individuals can

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make decisions independently whether for using the system or not. However, in traditional organizations, the implementation of ICT is centrally coordinated and harmonized, and individuals also very often have little to say about ICT’s organization-wide adoption (Gallivan, 2001; Lee et al., 2003). Thus, ICT-related power relation use factors in organizations are particularly neglected. Additionally, social networks, ICT system growth, and group interaction have become crucial challenges. However, ICT systems are designed for both single and multiple users, and in today’s global and interorganizational contexts, numerous users use them in a process-oriented manner (Benbasat and Barki, 2007). Thus, researchers like Benbasat and Barki (2007) and Lyytinen (2010) opined that the application of ICT systems has changed far from the earlier days of TAM as well as this model does not address social perspectives such as group interactions and work coordination. For instance, Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), as well as their colleagues, used TRA for explaining voting in American elections, weight loss, changing the behavior of alcoholics, consumer behavior, family planning behaviors, and women’s occupational orientations. TPB was also applied in the same conditions, for examining issues of leisure and drinking behavior (Ajzen, 1991). According to Lyytinen and Damsgaard (2001), such type of human behavior is different from human behavior in organizational change processes, and thus the drivers of motivation and the background of the behavior are far more dissimilar. In addition, Gallivan (2001) argued that DOI theory was developed for a more general perspective on the basis of voluntary adoption decisions. A good number of research studies have been conducted outlining the general contributions and importance of technologies in tourism on the basis of these theories and concepts. For example, Xiang (2018) featured the knowledge created in the last two decades into two different eras: first, “Digitization (1997–2006)”; and second, “Age of Acceleration (2007–2016)” that reflected the common understanding of the ways within which technology transformed the economy and society. Also, Sigala (2018) argued that technologies are transforming tourism marketing and management from a utilitarian and static sense toward a transformative conceptualization. In this transformation, tourism actors and markets both shape and are shaped by technology. Thus, Sigala (2018) unraveled technology’s transformative power on tourism resources and actors; the ways actors interact for (co-)creating and also (co-)destructing tourism values; and the perspective in which actors interact from a linear supply chain tourism “industry” toward a complex socio-technical smart tourism ecosystem. Through these research studies, the application of technology in the tourism industry is commonly done to fulfill information needs, to study behavior and performance, and to manage operation and innovation process across the world. Thus, an understanding of theories relevant to research tourism is useful because both the global and the Asian tourism industries are getting exposed to innovative technologies more than ever before. There is still much to learn about how technology may be used in the Asian tourist setting to create value, advertise products, manage customers, and gain a competitive edge. Considering the ongoing trend of technology application in the tourism industry in Asia, more research attempts are

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required aiming toward exploring diverse aspects. However, researching the tourism industry of Asia so far has attracted some contributions but not sufficiently. Tourism in Asia needs a rethought and Winter (2007), in this context, witnessed a surge in the “of Asian origin” tourist movement supported by the fastest-growing tourist population, but very little attention has been received for “tourism in Asia by Asian tourists.” A facility development boom that was predominantly directed toward the Northeast Asian tourism industry was criticized by Winter (2007) for being too Western-focused. Thus, Winter (2007) examined diverse implications arising from this situation. Chiao, Yang, and Ong (2020), in an editorial, argued that research studies to examine Asian tourism markets and destinations burgeoned that paralleled this region’s middle-class and economic growth. Still with such burgeoning, existing studies are mostly replicating models and theories from the Western tourism literature and very few attempts for interpreting tourism in and from Asia within an indigenous lens have been made. Hall and Page (2017) outlined tourism in most of the Asian countries. However, the application of technology in the Asian tourism industry was not emphasized in their mostly regional case-studybased publication. These above-mentioned publications on tourism in Asia justify the essentiality of a book when Asia is witnessing a tremendous growth in technology application in its tourism industry. This book is thus designed to support research studies on the Asian tourism industry and enhance and enrich the existing inadequate knowledge base. The book provides the latest research studies covering the perspectives, innovativeness, theories, issues, complexities, opportunities, and challenges and the comprehensive and extensive efforts by the contributors to cover technology application in the Asian tourism industry. This book aims to both understand and assess the most recent changes and applications of technology in this particular industry in Asia in three main thematic areas: first, theoretical and generic purpose; second, business process with value creation and competitive advantage; and finally, cross-country examples from Asia. From a comprehensive viewpoint of tourism as an industry, this book includes the following key components: travel services with travel organizers and transportation, hospitality with accommodation and food services, leisure with attractions and destinations, tourism economy with tourism management, events and conferences, etc. (Page, 2011; Ivanovic et al., 2009). This book comes with 59 chapters in 18 parts: concepts and applications, marketing contexts, customer perceptions, decision-making, tourist experience, customer relations, tourist loyalty, tourist behavior, the aviation industry, destination promotion, smart tourism, smart city involvement, cross-country cases, purposes of the social media, issues and challenges, sustainability concerns, economic development, and the future of technology application in the Asian tourism industry. Contents of these chapters also cover distinct topics such as mobile computing, new product designs, and innovative technology usages in tourism promotion, technology-driven sustainable tourism development, location-based apps, mobility, and accessibility, as well as the most contemporary issues like COVID-19 and so on. A brief summary of each of the chapters follows.

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In ▶ Chap. 1, Sharma and Arora briefly elaborate the application of technology in the Asian tourism industry. The authors argue that the contribution of technology has been increasing, which leads to offer more exciting and interactive experiences. Technology has merged well with tourism with the support of many different apps. The authors also bring the Theory of Information Technology (IT) in their discussions that helps in adopting modern technologies to match the global competitive environment. The research also reviews relevant literature studies of IT applications and their contributions toward the tourism industry. The chapter presents that the application of IT is becoming critical. It is followed by the most required information, studying the innovation process, behavior, and performance. The authors conclude by citing some major examples in Asia that the application of IT can help to promote, market, and process customer management, value, and competitive advantage. In ▶ Chap. 2, Roy analyzes Information and Communication Technology (ICT) application in the Asian tourism industry. The author opined that tourism is one of the fastest-growing industry in the world and the volume of tourism either equals to or sometimes surpasses other major industries like food production, oil export, or automobiles. On top of this, tourism has appeared as the influential trade player and dependable revenue source for many developing countries. According to the author, the tourism industry has been utilizing ICT applications at least for a few decades after realizing their potentials. The author also informs that from the time when the American Airlines installed the first automated booking system in 1946, ICT application in tourism has actually been diversified to provide a large information source to tourists and faster and better services for customers, and to improve the relationship between distribution channels, enabling the promotion and distribution of products directly to the customers. The author critically opines that the introduction of ICT supported by the use of the Internet, e-business applications, and even AI is benefitting the tourism industry and has encouraged small tourism business enterprises to rely more on ICT for both product branding and marketing. ICT enables tourists to review the desired services and products for making the best destination or packaging choice. For instance, the author presents the example of robots that already have taken the position of waiters in hotels in many Asian countries, including India. This chapter thus investigates the historic evolutionary role that ICT has been playing in the Asian tourism industry as well as identifies the barriers and digital divide for its application. In ▶ Chap. 3, covering Malaysia, Indonesia, South Korea, and the Philippines, Umachandran and Said explain the growth of the tourism market, its developmental potential, business opportunities for various destinations, and its stakeholders. The chapter explains how social media is having a rapid impact on the hospitality sector through its broad reach and peer reviews of travel agencies, lodging establishments, and transportation providers via online technologies, messaging platforms with voice commands, Machine Learning, AI, etc. Social networking may therefore guarantee genuine and endless traveler satisfaction. The chapter also argues that tourism destinations need to connect the power of tourism and have backup with creative upgraded amenities with low carbon emission, climate sustainable actions,

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and environment-friendly and socially respectful sustainable development. The authors summon that well-planned and effectively managed tourism can generate prospective outcomes, which is the key for future. The authors then suggest that a set of strategy for capacity building programs for all tourism staff members should be adopted for technology-driven tourism businesses. In ▶ Chap. 4, Uğurlu offers benefits, contributions, and usage areas of technology-induced tourism, travel, and hospitality industry. The author understands that ICT has substantially influenced the hospitality and tourism industry over the last decade, and they continue to remain as the main drivers for tourism. The chapter outlines that technology has helped in reducing costs, enhancing operational efficiency, and improving services and customer experience. Information technologies in the forms of websites and social networks are facilitated by the Internet in the tourism industry. Thus, marketing strategies for tourism products have become easier to implement, with improved quality for serving customer needs effectively. Thus, the chapter finds out that ICT and smart technology appear to offer new opportunities for business mainly in four different aspects: gaining a competitive advantage, improving productivity, developing new businesses, and facilitating new ways of management. The chapter suggests that almost all tourism product characteristics and tourism marketing specifics are importantly influenced by ICT. In ▶ Chap. 5, Polat provides a conceptual framework for digital marketing, which has become increasingly pronounced in recent years. In doing so, the evolution of the marketing mix and digital marketing practices are discussed in detail. The chapter then presents examples of digital marketing practices carried out by tourism enterprises in Asian countries. After the relevant literature studies are examined, the author affirms that in the context of the Asian tourism industry, this area has been left under-researched. Findings of the chapter show that digital marketing applications in Asian countries are not yet implemented sufficiently and need to be developed. The chapter stresses on the Y- and Z-Generation tourists, who are more deeply related to technology that is important at present. In ▶ Chap. 6, Zurida, Albattat, and Lim discuss the Travel Agency Tourist Tracking System, a newly developed application to support tourists and tour guides. According to the authors, this project aims to help the tourism industry in ensuring safety, increasing the productivity of the travel agency, and solving problems. This project is a mobile application developed for the Android O/S that enables travel agencies to manage their itinerary, users, and group tours. The authors think that the first problem that the tourism industry currently faces occurs when the tourist is missing from the group due to curiosity or for not paying attention to the tour guide. The second problem is the diverse messaging-type chats as used in different countries. The authors present some examples: China mostly uses WeChat and QQ, Taiwan mostly uses Line and Kakao Talk, and Korea uses Kakao Talk. This is rather a hassle for tour guides to contact their tourists as they originate from different countries. There needs to be a one-stop application for the travel agency, tourist, and tour guide for the whole trip information. As per the authors, the objectives of this project are, first, to develop a tracking system with notifications when a tourist goes out of the range of the tour guide, and second, to create a built-in messaging feature.

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Also, as per the authors, the scope of this project is divided into three type of users. First, the administration, which is able to edit, add, and remove all the information, including tour, itinerary, and user, in the database. Second, the tourists, who are able to use this app for group messaging for their current group tour and for checking their itinerary. As the final and third, the most important feature of this application is to increase the awareness of tourists and tour guides by sending out notifications for both users whenever a tourist goes out of the range of the tour guide: tourists are able to check their itinerary and group messages, and receive notification when going out of range; and the tour guide is able to check the itinerary, tourists, and group messages, track tourists’ location, and receive notification when a tourist is out of range. Data for this research was collected using survey and application tests. Findings of this research affirm the usefulness of this application. The authors suggest that more technologies need to be invented for the tourism industry for enhancing user experiences and to pursue Tourism 4.0. In ▶ Chap. 7, Albattat analyzes Generation Y’s Perception of Travel Mobile Applications in the Malaysian perspective. The chapter argues that amazing developments in mobile technology have positively influenced the hospitality and tourism industry. Mobile applications have offered new channels for interaction and marketing for destination marketing organizations in tourism and hospitality businesses. In addition, mobile technology offers users further capacities to create their experiences with the support of in-depth information access beyond time and location. Thus, this research identifies Generation Y’s perception of travel mobile applications and their relationship with their usage behavior. Results of the research show that performance expectations, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions have a significant and positive relationship with use behavior among Generation Y. Findings of this research also show that these variables affect the perception of Generation Y in the use of travel mobile applications and direct influence on travelers’ intention that leads to Generation Y’s perception of travel mobile applications. As for the managerial implications, the results of this research can enable hoteliers, tour operators, stakeholders, and the government to analyze user perception in using travel mobile applications and also provide support in removing flaws while enhancing the technology system applications. To draw in more clients who place a strong emphasis on high social standing and image, mobile applications’ designations must be distinctive. Utilizing such mobile applications can help businesses increase their reputation by fostering favorable word-of-mouth among potential users. This can encourage the community to share useful information with others because users do not have to go through the fuss in finding a solution to their information technology issues. This research suggests that software developers need to develop user-friendly applications to allow consumers to continue to use these mobile applications. In ▶ Chap. 8, Zailani and Albattat analyze the factors that influence tourists’ perception of the GrabCar ride-sharing application service in Malaysia. The online transportation application GrabCar is the case study of this research. Respondents of this research were 244 individuals from the Shah Alam area of Malaysia. The chapter’s objectives include determining the elements that affect visitors’ perceptions of ride-sharing application services, as well as their intentions to ride and

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attitudes toward these services in Shah Alam, Malaysia. This quantitative research uses a questionnaire as designed with the use of Google Forms. Results find the relationship between reliability on the intention to ride on the GrabCar application, the benefits of GrabCar in online transportation booking, and the fare difference between GrabCar and other online public transportation companies. In ▶ Chap. 9, Mohammad, Rahman, and Mayor-Vitoria discuss the semanticbased technology that can shape the tourism strategy in Malaysia. The authors argue that as the cost of traveling has become more reasonable and affordable, the tourism industry has rapidly changed to incorporate technology applications. Technology adoption has enabled the tourism industry to become more competitive, creative, and innovative. The availability of relevant data has also been made easier, and with the support of tourism industry data, massive benefits can also be generated through technology. As a result, this chapter narrates the semantic-based technology that can influence the decision made by tourists in changing the landscape of the tourism industry in Malaysia. Thus, this chapter appears as an early step to initiate discussion from a different angle of the semantic-based technology toward the tourism industry, especially in Malaysia. This chapter covers three specific discussion areas to explore the scenario of tourists’ preferences in Malaysia, the emergence of the Internet use, and the overview of the semantic in web applications. This chapter offers an added set of thoughts on web applications of the future as required to be developed for the Malaysian tourism industry. This chapter suggests that tourists are becoming more dependent on technology to support their travel decision-making needs. In ▶ Chap. 10, Yetimoğlu argues that emerging technologies in recent years have significantly changed the dynamic nature of tourist experience. Especially through digital technologies such as the social media and mobile tools, consumers can be informed and have access to a wide range of information online. The chapter also stresses that the contribution of technology toward tourist or consumer experiences is a gospel truth in this era. The author thinks that this theoretical research is an important contribution to tourism and hospitality literature studies. In ▶ Chap. 11, ÜZÜLMEZ discusses technology application for customer relations in the Asian tourism industry. The chapter understands that strategies that are created through tourism businesses necessitate the implementation of new management approaches and techniques for ensuring customer loyalty and for increasing the number of customers in the long term. The chapter argues that one of the most recent approaches and techniques that can be mentioned is customer relations, which brings the customer at the center and provides customer satisfaction. Customer relations accommodate all the transactions that are developed between the business and the customer prior to, during, and after sales. This is defined as the process to better understand the customer whenever a business develops a relationship with the customer. In the most recent times, the reasons for the frequent use of customer relations by tourism businesses are divided into two aspects: structural change, and technological developments in demand and competition. Thus, technological developments can possibly determine the movement of customer relations’ development. This results in technological developments and better business through database technology, interactive media tools, and bespoke serial production technologies. The

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use of the Internet (i.e., e-mail, web, etc.) is widespread in line with ICT. This is an important element of customer relations applications, and in such perspective, technological practices or developments can play a critical role with new methods, approaches, and techniques (i.e., relational marketing, personalized mass production) that have recently emerged in production, marketing, and sales. Results of this research show that the most effective technological applications can implement customer relations applications. This attachment of technology creates tourism businesses to find the most profitable customers for them, reducing the operating and marketing costs by keeping these loyal customers, and thus increase profitability. Findings of this research reveal technological applications of customer relations in the Asian tourism market and the effect of technology on customer relations. In ▶ Chap. 12, Polat examines the steps that are taken toward creating loyal customers through digital marketing activities. In the chapter, the 5A (Awareness, Appeal, Ask, Act, and Advocacy) model is identified as an important premise that can be expressed as the updated version of the AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action) model. According to the author, this 5A model is frequently used in traditional marketing activities to date, on the axis of digital marketing activities. The chapter also focuses on identifying the subcultures that are crucial in terms of digital marketing for businesses to be more profitable and why. At the final stage, the chapter presents information about the practices in the tourism sector of Asian countries. ▶ Chapter 13 is written by ERYILMAZ and is about technology application for tourist loyalty in the Asian tourism industry. The author argues that even with available substitutes, loyalty is the preferred product or service that continues to be repurchased consistently. In such framework, tourists typically prefer similar destination, transport, accommodation, and food and beverage businesses when purchasing. Thus, satisfied tourists appear as loyal customers because high satisfaction can be replaced by high loyalty. In this context, the key ground for tourist loyalty formation is satisfaction. In these days, one of the key elements to offer customer satisfaction is to get benefit from innovations and conveniences purchase by technology at the maximum level. The situation does not merely increase service quality that tourists receive but also offers tourist satisfaction, which leads a tourist to get benefit from the same service again. Such concepts rely on the interrelationship among input, process, and output. With such formation, tourist loyalty can be regarded as an essential element. Thus, for ensuring tourist loyalty, all types of tourism businesses need to apply effective technology. The research finds that many of such technologies are featured as smart technology applications in common. Some of these technology applications in tourism are alternative payment methods, the Internet, mobile interactions, AI, tour systems, etc. Thus, this research concludes by stating that tourist loyalty is an essential tourist behavior that can rely on the use of these applications. ▶ Chapter 14 is contributed by Piramanayagam and Raghavendra G. This chapter explains the adoption of digital examination and behavioral intention among tourism students. According to the authors, the effects of ICT are able to bring changes in the existing tourism learning and teaching. The authors inform that educational

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institutions are emphasizing more on moving from a pen-and-paper approach toward a few other reliable options for conducting examinations, followed by more security and efficiency. In such scenario, Digital Exam Pad (e-Pad) as an innovative device allows students with identical experience and convenience that a pen-and-paper examination tends to provide. This research identifies the antecedents that influence tourism students’ adoption and behavioral intention for using e-Pad through the Technology Acceptance Model. A structured questionnaire was used to gather information for this study from the tourism students of an Indian private university. The result of the Structural Equation Model outlines that perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use of e-Pad have a positive impact on students’ attitude toward using e-Pad for their examination. Also, students’ attitude toward the e-Pad has a positive effect on the tourism students’ intention in using the e-Pad for their examination in the future. In ▶ Chap. 15, Soonthodu, Wahab, and Hassan elaborately analyze the application of technology in the Asian aviation industry. The authors believe that technological innovation in the aviation industry has emerged as a tool for customer loyalty and satisfaction. As a result, the use of three-dimensional screeners during security checks, Blockchain, AR, facial recognition technology, customer-friendly airport designs, and airliner fuel efficiency are all part of the systematic travel mode. The global aviation industry is embracing innovative technology to transform aviation into a safe and systematic mode of travel. The authors also believe that the application of innovative technologies is considered as a cost-cutting strategy in the aviation industry to maximize resource utilization as well as to minimize the touch of humans through digital interfaces. As a result, the basic purpose of technology application is to reduce the likely air hazards when technology tends to play a major role to strategize revenue maximization, reduce operational cost, and reach out to a larger market. The chapter outlines that in the last decade, Asia is able to showcase the potential to appear as a hub for the growing aviation industry. Major airports in Asia are using technology (robots, intelligent gate systems, etc.) to reduce the number of contacts with humans during check-in and check-out. This study shows that Asia is seeing significant expansion in the aviation sector, which has been happening steadily for at least a decade. Technology is a significant factor in this growth. The chapter offers some helpful recommendations for using cuttingedge technology across airports, airlines, planes, and passengers to make flying easier, more enjoyable, smarter, and safer than before. In ▶ Chap. 16, Azam, Albattat, and Tham discuss the tourism policies and technological strategies that have been adopted by airlines in Malaysia. This chapter very particularly examines the policies and measures adopted by the airlines in Malaysia and informs that the rebirth of these carriers took place after the tragic event of the terrorist attack in New York on September 11, 2001. Taking the example of Air Asia, the authors inform that this has succeeded to turn around the airline industry with a steady growth and profits after having a track record of achieving success during an extraordinarily difficult period for the airline industry. These difficulties are the outcome of the adverse effects of terrorist attacks, the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), tsunami

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incidence, rising fuel prices and insurance premiums, and many others. The authors mention that the Air Asia group strategically focuses on offering high-frequency services on point-to-point short-haul routes within a 3.5-h flight time both from its international and from its domestic hubs. All of these are made available with the application of technology for meeting its commitment for “Easy to Book, Easy to Pay, Easy to Fly” as well by reducing cost and increasing customers and market shares. The authors find that with such efforts, Air Asia cost per available seat kilometer (ASK) decreases each year and its cost per ASK stays as the lowest in the world. Air Asia has adopted the models of the highly successful Southwest Airlines from the United States and Ryan Air and EasyJet from Europe but still emphasized more on technology application. The authors also find that the success and proven low-cost model of Air Asia in Malaysia is replicated across the border, and in 2004, Air Asia was successful in forming two successful joint ventures in Thailand and Indonesia as a low-fare airline. ▶ Chapter 17 covers the technological development of methods for organizing airborne meals in airlines. This chapter is contributed by Kahl, Kadyrgaliyeva, Kim, Ualgaliyeva, and Syrlybayeva and reviews the present situation of flight catering in Almaty. The case of this research is the LLP “Almaty Catering Services,” which is the only existing catering enterprise for flights departing from Almaty International Airport. The aim of this chapter is to offer suggestions for the general betterment of productivity through new technology and integrated system implementation. This research is valid, because in earlier times, both automation and computerization in the production of in-flight catering did not receive adequate attention, both in Kazakhstan and abroad. This study faces the challenge to obtain necessary data and information because of the lack of available literature studies. This research relies on primary information in the form of a series of studies: analysis, interview, observation, and comparison. Also, it analyzes the present enterprise state, SWOT analysis, and a series of interviews with division managers and top management. Results suggest identifying the key obstacles that the enterprises face in their activities and developing a further action plan for conducting field research. In this study, observations identify the demand to implement automation and computerization systems in the work process. The study compares the characteristics of production volume released by people and equipment. The research also places a strong emphasis on performing benchmarking of overseas firms that provide on-board meals. In ▶ Chap. 18, Ray focuses on the transformation of destination promotion activities, their impacts, major challenges, and capacities to bring changes in the Asian tourism perspective. The chapter criticizes the increasing practices of uploading and sharing information and experiences about a destination on varied digital or social media in the twenty-first century. This practice actually results in tourism destination promotion to become more technology driven. Comprehending the neo socio-technological reality, a majority of tourism destination promoters set to utilize digital or social media in promotional activities using B2B, B2C, and B2S (“S” means ground service providers) social networks to receive and develop a better perception of the destination image. The chapter affirms that promotion then

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becomes more authentic, cost-effective, and faster than the pre-digital era. Thus, paradigm shifts in promotional concepts and practices become apparent, from product orientation to tourist orientation, entrepreneurs’ control to social media users’ opinion dependent promotion, deliberately manufactured or reconstructed imaging to authentic traditional versions. The chapter finds that Asian destination promotion is not an exception to this trend. In ▶ Chap. 19, Devasia and Kumar discuss the promotion of tourism through digital technology use in Kerala, India. The chapter describes the concept of smart promotion of tourism in the digital marketing era in Kerala, which is a rather popular tourist destination in India. The chapter also argues that travel and tourism are in the forerun to embrace technological applications. The application of digital technology in tourism (i.e., e-marketing, e-commerce, travel automation, travel information provision, etc.) results in incremental and revolutionary changes in the industry. The chapter shows that web presence becomes inseparable for most tourism service providers with online booking, online reviews, digital marketing and promotion, and so on. With the support of digital technology application, the tourism industry and businesses in India are also showing a tremendous change in the recent years, where Kerala is branded as “God’s own country.” The chapter finds that tourism in Kerala is having a steady growth in recent years. As a result, this chapter starts with a conceptual analysis of diverse digital marketing approaches for smart promotion of tourism destinations. The chapter includes smart tourism promotion by the Destination Management Organisation (DMO) of Kerala with the approaches of digital promotion by private stakeholders of the destination. The research concludes by viewing smart promotion that enables Kerala to promote tourism consistently. ▶ Chapter 20 is written by ÇİĞDEMLİ and deals with destination promotion and technology application in the Asian tourism industry. The chapter argues that destination promotion activities aim to stimulate the behavior of tourists for purchasing tourist products. The processes of visitors’ purchase decisions are strongly impacted by personalized experiences and technology advancements. The chapter informs that the advancement of the Internet has allowed tourists to easily and quickly share their comments about the product they experience. The author also understands that tourists are the subject for both remarketing destinations and consuming tourist products with the support of their comments shared on social networks. Technology allows the creation of contents that ensures active participation and interaction between the visitor and the destination in the digitalized world. This also creates added value for the tourism product when potential visitors are offered with the opportunity for accessing more reliable and accurate information about the previously experienced product. Technology in the consumer market structure causes the transformation and change for applying diverse strategies for destination marketing and positive image creation about the destination by destination marketing organizations. In the global digital environment, marketing activities are carried out through specific channels (i.e., search-engine-based marketing, e-mail marketing, mobile marketing, digital content marketing, omni-channel digital marketing, influencer marketing, chatbots). Apart from these, new approaches like AR, VR, Blockchain, and the IoT have emerged. This research shows that in the Asian

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tourism market, cultural elements are used extensively for destination marketing. This allures many destination tourism organizations to make the best use of digital marketing tools. This research presents a relevant example of the Singapore Tourism Board that applies VR videos for destination promotion. The research offers some analytical explanations and suggestions for the application of technology in the Asian tourism market. ▶ Chapter 21 is contributed by Halim and deals with the concepts and applications of technology in smart tourism. The author argues that tourism competitiveness development is mainly determined by the support of technology applications on the ground of tourism information communication between tourists. For the purpose, the ease of access, ranging from transportation’s order transaction information (aircraft transportation, ships, and online taxis) to accommodation (resort or five-star hotel), destinations, and events, is considered. The chapter aims to discuss the concept of smart tourism supported by information and communication technology. The author mentions that the two parameters are an element of the strength of the attraction of cultural tourism, tourist sites, which are equipped with the potential for handicrafts supported by the potential strength of culinary tourism (gastronomy). This chapter also analyzes the potential of information technology to increase tourism competitiveness and hospitality with ease and friendliness, which contributes to strengthening the factor of choice of tourists for tourist travel decisions. In relation to this, the author suggests that the strength of future tourism market trends is the outcome of industrial innovation and shifting of tourist behavior due to communication technology support. All of these commonly increase smart tourism potential. Again in ▶ Chap. 22, Halim explores information technology use in smart tourism in Indonesia. The author argues that at present, the development of computer information technology (IT) is rather quick and most of the tourism and hospitality industry enterprises utilize these technologies on the basis of smart tourism and hospitality (STH). The chapter carried out a focus group discussion where the respondents opined that a number of hoteliers and tourism businesses do not use all parts of information technology in their efforts toward developing the competitiveness of smart tourism and hospitality industry. The reason for this is the limitation of human resources that have mastered such technologies. The chapter finds that many of the information technologies are not optimally utilized by smart tourism and hospitality businesses. Thus, the author predicts that in the future, this chapter will appear as a reference for business development in smart tourism as digital information technology will enhance the competitiveness of STH in coming years. In ▶ Chap. 23, Tehseen, Yafi, Qureshi, and Rather describe the features of the smart city and its advantages for tourists. This chapter provides implications for the Asian tourism industry through the involvement of the smart city. It also discusses how new technologies such as IoT, AI, and Blockchain enhance the overall urban planning and contribute to building smarter smart cities. Improvement of services in the tourism industry such as logistics, ticketing, and lodging requires a real-time analysis of data from the Internet of Everything (IOE). The chapter also presents and discusses the co-relationship between smart cities and sustainable tourism and the challenges faced, such as crowd management, congestion, quality of services,

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environment and infrastructure, and cities’ resilience to manmade and natural disasters. In ▶ Chap. 24, Doğan and Keleş aim to present the main components of smart city applications in the capital cities. The chapter argues that the integration of IoT and placing of sensors in different ways in the cities depending on the developments in ICT has enabled the emergence of a new city concept. The chapter terms this new concept as the “smart city.” The chapter identifies that technologies used in smart cities are city control centers, smart networks, autonomous vehicles, Smartphone applications, online communities, and sensors. Smart applications have become widespread in several cities in the world and thus the cities have become smart. The top ten smart cities in the world announced by IESE Cities in Motion are New York, London, Paris, Tokyo, Reykjavik, Singapore, Seoul, Toronto, Hong Kong, and Amsterdam. Only four cities in the list are located in Asia. In this direction, this chapter examines the capital cities in Asia in terms of the smart city concept, determines their shortcomings compared to other smart cities in the world, and offers some suggestions. Results reveal benefits and challenges related to the smart city concept and its future directions. ▶ Chapter 25 is contributed by İştin and covers technology application and smart city involvement in the Asian tourism industry. The author opines that the concept of smart city refers to an environment where technology integrates with the city. Also, smart cities can offer various services to their citizens and find solutions to social problems by using information and communication technologies and the Internet. It is inevitable to apply the “smart” adjective for tourism, followed by the consideration of the intensive use of information in the tourism industry and the dependence of tourism on information and communication technologies. Countries in Asia have made enormous efforts in creating a smart tourism agenda, where China and South Korea offer considerable funds to enterprises for creating the technological infrastructure to support smart tourism. Thus, the aim of the research is to examine smart city applications within the tourism destinations in Asia, to explore the importance of smart cities in terms of tourism, and to recommend destination administrations and destinations. This chapter suggests that advice on attractions and food and beverages on smart apps is required by citizens and tourists and also to increase experiences by offering location-based and customized interactive services. This research also finds that tourists can share their travel experiences with smart apps and thus can help other tourists in the decision-making process. In ▶ Chap. 26, Ödemiş illustrates that innovative technologies are mainly used in marketing and branding of destinations in Turkey. These technologies are transformed into a competitive element and these stay at the forefront of marketing of tourism destinations in Turkey. The chapter argues that websites and social media tools (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram) are effective in the promotion and marketing of tourism destinations in Turkey. The chapter also describes the advantages that are brought about by the active use of cutting-edge technology by Turkish hospitality companies (websites and social media platforms). Results show that the effectiveness of the innovative technologies used in booking, room sales, and hotel preferences has been appraised by the relevant researches. The chapter reexamines

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the competitive position of destinations in Turkey and makes some suggestions to use innovative technologies more effectively. In ▶ Chap. 27, Akdu and Akdu believe that at present, a large number of economic sectors offer innovations for making peoples’ lives easier in this digitalized world with the support of technological developments. This leads to faster, more interactive, and easier-to-reach services to offer. Also, people can reach and experience diverse things in more time and in cost-effective ways that were inaccessible before. The authors also believe that the tourism industry in this digital world has the capacity to offer many opportunities to people. Destinations want to avoid competitors in an intensely competitive environment by differentiating their services, increase the pleasure that people receive from their holiday experiences worldwide, and offer their touristic values with different methods for achieving goals by using various digital technologies. Thus, the chapter concentrates on technology and digital innovation as applied in Turkey’s tourism sector. The chapter finds that technologies need to be applied in the Turkish tourism industry. The issues of medical tourism and the use of technology are covered in ▶ Chap. 28. The chapter is contributed by Ozbek and Hassan. The chapter considers medical tourism in Turkey and summons that medical tourism happens when people living in one country travel to another having an aim to receive medical services and treatments. This tourism type includes almost all forms of medical and surgical procedures. One of the basic features of medical tourism is the medical tourists’ affordability, which has been widely addressed in the recent years. In order to benefit from medical tourism, many countries in the world, including the European countries, are applying innovative technologies and adopting flexible and friendly immigration policies for easier cross-border movements. Other than these, inter-country cooperation is also strengthened for both expertise and capacities enhancements. All of such initiatives commonly push forward the general medical tourism development. This research for such reason aims to analyze medical tourism from the crossborder context, followed by the supportive policy framework of innovative technology application. This research includes cross-country cases and collects data and information from secondary sources such as both published and online resources. Results of this research present that medical tourism is advancing as such by mainly benefitting from innovative technology application and cross-border migration policies. The research suggests that the Turkish medical tourism experience can benefit Asian countries when an effective role play of the government and the application of relevant technologies become important. In ▶ Chap. 29, Kadi, Kamal, Yusof, and AlSakka examine the effects of influencing factors on the technology attitude of Syrian construction firms during the war years and suggest a conceptual framework explaining the potential relationships. The chapter counts the influences of eight major barriers: technological, financial, process, psychological, management, culture, environmental, and governmental barriers. The authors believe that the results of the chapter can help local firms and authorities to understand the structure of the barriers and consequently can guide them for future developments and improvements that are variedly needed for the post-war era of the country’s reconstruction and particularly the tourism industry.

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▶ Chapter 30 is written again by Kadi, Kamal, Yusof, and AlSakka, where they scrutinize the influencing factors’ effect on the technology attitude of Syrian construction firms during the war years. This research also suggests a conceptual framework that shows the potential relationships. In order to reach the aim, this research considers the influence of eight major barriers: technological, financial, process, psychological, management, culture, environmental, and governmental barriers. In this research, pilot test stays as an essential tool to check the questionnaire’s reliability and the result of Cronbach’s alpha test. The authors believe that outcomes of this research can help local firms and authorities to understand the barriers’ structures and guide them for further developments as beneficial for the post-war era of the country’s tourism industry’s reconstruction. In ▶ Chap. 31, Bouziane Laallam and Hassan aim at providing a review of technology applications in medical tourism in Malaysia. Results show that Malaysia as a medical tourism destination has made tremendous developments in recent years. The country has a considerable number of services and products for medical tourists that actually allure them to travel to the country. According to the authors, onlinebased medical tourism products and services can be well accepted by the medical tourists. The existing medical tourism products and services in Malaysia are rapidly turning into the leading and most competitive in Asia as well as in the entire world. The chapter points out that Malaysia has the potential of being one of the best medical tourism destinations in the world due to its location, infrastructure, and longstanding history in tourism. In this new era of multimedia and information technology, the advancement and incorporation of technology in healthcare and medical treatment is becoming imperative and a source of competitive advantage. ▶ Chapter 32 is contributed by Osman and Din. This chapter argues that the rapid popularity of technology has been able to transform the tourism industry and to challenge many tourism businesses’ value proposition. By this, tourism as a service industry is particularly affected, where technology has disrupted the earlier order of things and fully reinvented the ways to travel. Such technological development aims toward benefitting the tourism industry when mobile technologies have profoundly changed tourists’ experiences and tourism products’ distribution channel. Existing mobile applications for tourists can access information virtually at any time and from any place in the world. With such information, tourists become able to make travel plans and arrangements like accommodation reservation, flight trackers, food ordering, destination guides, online travel agencies, attraction guides, payments, etc. This research, after comparing several research studies, on different mobile technology applications, offers insights on the adoption of these applications from tourists’ contexts. The chapter analyzes diverse mobile application types and the extent to which they are perceived by tourists. Results of the research explore mixed responses, with concerns to limit the level of mobile application adoption. ▶ Chapter 33 is the contribution of Pitanatri and Priyanto. In this chapter, the authors present that as a world cultural tourism destination, Yogyakarta in Indonesia has become popular for authenticity-seeking visitors. In comparison to Bali, which is also a very popular spot for international tourists, Yogyakarta is infamous for its “Keraton” (Royal Family of Yogyakarta). The reason for such infamousness is the

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prevalence of “Keraton,” which makes cultural events relatively rigid because it follows the royal rules. As a result, cultural events that take place in this destination are mainly dominated and driven by the millennials. Putting aside the generation gap, these millennials, with the support of technology applications and digital marketing, are able to meet such rigid rules. Still, cultural events that are held at this destination mostly appear as successful. This research, with the use of case studies of many cultural events that are already held, discusses the issues, challenges, and success stories of the technology-literate millennials. With the in-depth discussion and collaborative literature reviews, results of this research approve that cultural tourism and technology cannot have dichotomy. Rather, cultural tourism and technology need to support the preservation of culture. In ▶ Chap. 34, Alauddin, Li, and Kamal focus on technology application in the Hong Kong tourism and hospitality industry and cover how the country uses the technology to develop the tourism and hospitality industry. This chapter argues that tourism and hospitality is considered as a fast growing industry in all over the world. This industry has benefited greatly from the use of information technology. The function of information technology has moved from supporting operations to facilitating strategic decision-making in various facets of business and commerce, notably in the tourism and hospitality industry. Hong Kong is famous for its tourist attractions globally. There are many islands and sight-seeing spots in Hong Kong which attract many foreign tourists, and the country uses the latest technology to attract them. The chapter traces out that it is quite impossible in the present time to develop the tourism industry without the application of information technology. In ▶ Chap. 35, Sengtong Sochea and Phichhang research the costs and benefits of adopting ICT from Travel Agents and Tour Operators (TATOs) in Phnom Penh. This study also investigated the present ICT infrastructures in TATOs, SWOT analysis of ICTs, adoption factors of ICT, and lastly the strategies TATOs could adopt to cope with the growth of ICT development. This research indicates that only a small number of TATOs have adopted ICT, and have a general knowledge and understanding of ICTs. The study further shows that the level of ICT infrastructure in the current situation of TATOs is still on the surface level and outdated, and that despite many challenges in ICT adoption, in return, ICT brings considerable benefits. In ▶ Chap. 36, Islam, Sinha, and Hassan argue that technology application in the tourism and hospitality industry has both direct and indirect influences on tourist experience in Asia, and Bangladesh and West Bengal in India, in particular. The application of technology has become an inimitable dimension that transforms tourists to become more focused on technology and to collect more information on the products or services they tend to purchase. A considerable number of research studies are done on tourist experiences in the tourism and hospitality industry. Still, the application of technology as related to generating tourist experience in this industry remains as a welcoming ground for more contributions. This is a literature-review-based chapter that jointly concentrates on tourist experiences generated from using innovative tourism and hospitality technologies in Asia. Also, this chapter outlines that the number of technology-relying tourists is on the rise and the trend for developing tourist-friendly technology-based applications has become

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dominant. Results of this research identify a sharp challenge in fulfilling the desired level of tourist experience when an uneven situation in terms of both availability and the use of innovative tourism and hospitality technologies persists. Results also indicate a gap between tourist expectations and the experiences they receive. In order to make the Asian tourism and hospitality industry capable of producing better creative technology-generated tourist experiences, this research advises concentrating on effective strategy design and implementation. In ▶ Chap. 37, Hassan, Akhter, and Sharma, while taking Bangladesh as the case, critically discuss indigenous tourism. This research shows relevant concerns with innovative-technology-supported indigenous tourism fairs that can help indigenous tourism in terms of poverty alleviation of the indigenous people. The study at a later stage offers some basic marketing and promotion ideas that can support this concept. Results identified that indigenous tourism suffers from diverse issues, mostly political. However, the application of innovative technologies can support in alleviating poverty. Results show that good marketing communication and effective market planning in relation to the application of innovative technologies can significantly have positive influences on indigenous tourism promotion and poverty alleviation. Also, indigenous tourism can help to alleviate poverty when effective and innovative technology applications are attached to it. This research suggests some generic marketing techniques, with an example of a technology-supported indigenous tourism fair, and concludes that indigenous tourism has immense prospects. Still, the application of effective and good technologies is essential to bring the best out of it. In ▶ Chap. 38, Jawad accepts customer adoption of technology-based (i.e., mobile, website, software, channels) tourism applications as dynamic and that it has been left as an ignored area in the context of tourism research in developed and developing countries. To fill out this identified research gap, this study constitutes the parameters after proposing the multimediation technologies elements to promote tourism in developing and developed countries. This research explicitly applies PLSSEM (partial-least-squares structural equation modeling) on 786 respondents (mobile, website, software, and channels) who recently purchased and utilized tourism products using different advanced devices. The chapter finds out that social presence, directly and indirectly, persuades tourist intentions toward technologybased tourism products. Additionally, the findings show that visitors’ perceptions of technical compatibility and the relative benefits of technology-based tourism items have no impact on their intention to recognize. In ▶ Chap. 39, Jawad and Hassan briefly describe the relevant elements that comprise the tourist experience. With the background of the tourism and hospitality industry of Pakistan, this chapter offers some guidelines for technology integration and their outcomes. The chapter suggests that technology application in tourism and hospitality can be classified into different categories in terms of attributes and development. Findings of the chapter, after a comprehensive analysis of all elements, show that technology can comprehensively change the pace and structure of the tourism and hospitality industry. The chapter also finds out that technology application enhances market competitiveness, environment friendliness, and employment of local people both directly and indirectly. The authors particularly emphasize on

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positive relationships to Pakistani hotels and the involvement and role play of relevant public agencies that can allow better experiences to tourists. In ▶ Chap. 40, Sumra and Alam write about the use and challenges of technology in the Pakistani tourism industry. The authors state that traveling is a meaningful human interaction among people, stakeholders, and tourists. As far as the advancement of technologies creates impediments, tourists are offered with unique experiences. The authors thus contribute this research to study the use of technology in the Pakistani tourism industry by employing a survey approach for expanding the knowledge about the role of tourism to integrate resources and exchange services. This shows that the application of effective scientific knowledge of technology is influential in maintaining tourism discords. Still, some challenges show that disparities still persist in excess of technology-based services, operative use of informatics, and the skills pertaining to computing devices. Results show that the potential of the Pakistani tourism industry is acknowledged and well-supported by reputable organizations/stakeholders connected with this industry. Thus, the study suggests that employing technological instruments in the tourism industry can be positive for both actors and services belonging to the industry. Such action can also reshape digital tools and their valuable services to reduce the challenges of hospitality and integration of technology into the tourism industry. In ▶ Chap. 41, Anjum questions about the existing tourism services and technology application in Bangladesh to attain a global tourist destination standard. Thus, the chapter unravels this central query that is related to tourism services in Bangladesh and their resonance with the criteria (i.e., technology application) of a standardized international tourist destination. The author opines that the majestic natural bestowments of Bangladesh have enchanted both national and international tourists for a long time. The economy of Bangladesh has also been noticeably advancing in the last few years owing to these magnificent footslogging locations. The chapter identifies Paharpur Vihara, Historic Mosque City of Bagerhat, and the splendid Sundarbans as UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites that have enriched the tourism industry of the country. Still, with these elegant and unprecedented appeals, Bangladesh has hardly been able to stay in the topmost tourist-friendly destinations of this world. This research thus weighs the accreditation of “standard tourist destination” as relevant to “available tourism services in Bangladesh.” This research identifies the availability of health, restaurant, and catering services, the Internet facility, personal security, beauty parlor-saloon, and shopping complex accessibility (for both national and international tourists) as determinants of tourism services. This research inspects such determinants in selected tourist spots of Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar as the legendary excursive places of the country. Results of this research suggest creating links with the existing socio-cultural and administrative loopholes of the tourism industry of Bangladesh through a few proposed policy prescriptions for further developments and focusing on applying innovative technologies. In ▶ Chap. 42, Hassan and Avi critically analyze mobile applications and tourism experiences through netnographic explanations from Bangladesh. The authors emphasize on mobile applications (apps) that support tourists in many different ways by covering many facets of tourism product and service demands. The chapter

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takes up the relevant example of Bangladesh, which has recently experienced a rapid rise in Internet-based mobile telephony. The authors understand that researching the effects of mobile apps on tourist service offers is not common. This results in a research gap in this identified research area in the particular perspective of Bangladesh. The chapter reveals that mobile apps are affecting tourism product and service offers in Bangladesh. This netnography-based research explores the trends of mobile apps use for tourism services and products in tourism experience creation because online users commonly review comments for both accessing and purchasing tourism products and services. Findings of this research outline that very particular experiences are generated from using mobile tourism products and services apps, and in Bangladesh, these apps are contributing to a positive tourism experience. Results also explore that tourist satisfaction stays higher from using attractive and useful mobile apps as well as the diversities in mobile apps are useful. Results also show that Smartphone-based mobile apps use has witnessed a sharp rise in Bangladesh and thus the research concludes that mobile apps can offer a positive tourist service experience. ▶ Chapter 43 addresses the spaces to apply innovative technology in medical tourism. This chapter, written by Avi and Hassan, notes that conventionally, medical tourism accommodates fun, leisure, and relaxation activities with health or wellness services as designed for the consumer well-being. Tourists as patients in medical tourism search for relatively cheaper expenses for the treatment of health-related issues and medical, dental, or surgical procedures. Medical tourists thus normally visit countries or areas that are capable of offering better services. The interest of medical tourists can be influenced by economic, social, or political issues-oriented global marketplaces. As a result, medical tourism with tourist-friendly financial and socio-political factors can give rise to numerous niche markets, which leads to both products and services diversification. Medical tourism products can vary from superficial treatments like massages or facials to riskier or invasive surgical procedures like organ transplantation or heart surgery. This research brings out both the global and the Asian trends of medical tourism. The research also attaches innovative technologies in relation to medical tourism promotion in selected countries such as India and Bangladesh. Results offer critical discussions with logical arguments for viewing the application of innovative technologies as the most effective facilitator of medical tourism in Asia. This chapter concludes with the statement that the acceptance of more innovative technologies can have positive effects on this tourism type. ▶ Chapter 44 by Roy, Azad, and Quaderi covers technology applications for passport, visa, and immigration for tourists in Bangladesh. The authors believe that tourism is one of the promising industries in Bangladesh when the country has abundances of tourism products and services. For the socio-economic development through tourism, the government, Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC), and the Ministry of Civil Aviation need to play effective roles both for policy formulation and for the overall development of the tourism industry. The chapter finds that unclear and complicated travel procedures, followed by inadequate infrastructure and transport facilities, poor management quality and service, negative image arising from safety and security concerns are some major constraints for tourism in

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Bangladesh. The chapter thus emphasizes on tourism legislation, visa and immigration policies, and tourism performances in the context of Bangladesh. The chapter reviews policies for tourism management, analyzes major tourism policies, assesses tourism performance, and prescribes some suggestions. The chapter then collects survey data from foreigners for measuring their satisfaction with regard to immigration, visa, and legislation services, and finally, focuses on some important variables such as visa restrictions, visa availability, and so on to perform a regression analysis for linking these factors with foreign tourist satisfaction. Findings of this research outline the demand for a valid and invaluable set of tourism policies. This chapter offers a blend of legal, immigration, and visa policy analysis that offers fresh perspectives, suggestions, and possibilities for enhancing global cooperation and assistance. In ▶ Chap. 45, Nawaz, Kaldeen, and Hassan contend that Big Data is a revolution for the twenty-first century that aims to elevate working, living, and cognitive processes by enhancing decision-making abilities. This encompasses a huge amount of data collected from a variety of technological surfaces and stored on a number of platforms, thus enabling easy accessibility for an organization. Also, this has a collection of novel technologies and architectures that pulls out the real economic value of such a huge volume of data. The chapter summons that the application of Big Data has spread in all fields, including science and engineering. For governments and businesses, this Big Data is a valuable asset. Hence, it is a worthy effort to define it with its main features, opportunities, and the challenges that an organization might experience in terms of people, technology, organization, process, and management of data. Motivated by this objective, this chapter defines what Big Data is, the impact it has on its implementers, the opportunities provided for the adopters, and the challenges faced when an organization endeavors to implement or adopt this trending technology. ▶ Chapter 46 is contributed by Kahl, Zhabaidilda, Mussabek, Medinova, and Myrzatay. This chapter addresses the ways in which the social media can support in finding the right employer in Almaty of Kazakhstan. A new employee looks through thousands of resumes, which is followed by subsequent interviews and work-related tests The authors question the efficiency of such selection and then emphasize on reconsidering and modernizing the involvement process of Generation Y and Z in the labor market. This research was carried out in some well-reputed restaurants in Almaty, Kazakhstan, where the researchers tested whether the social media is able to replace the classic recruitment process, and whether it is impractical to modernize the present recruitment system. Thus, this research conducts a recruiting experiment with the use of the social media and offers instructions on using the social media in the recruitment process. As a result, the recruiting process is analyzed along with the job opening and guidelines to use new tools. Both researchers and restaurant staff participated in this experiment, which involved developing and testing a social media recruiting strategy. The result was self-reflection. Results of this research developed a recruitment system where the social media stays as a significant element of the recruitment process. On such ground, this research suggests applying the social media in recruiting as an added tool for increasing the efficiency of the hiring

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process and for reducing the turnover rate by selecting the appropriate candidate for the relevant opening. In ▶ Chap. 47, in the Malaysian tourism context, Mohamad discusses the ways through which the social media can act as a new medium of marketing for tourism business. The chapter informs that using the marketing features of the social media, many existing business organizations focus on online platforms for marketing their products or services. Such features of the social media are: usability, relative advantages, low cost, quick access, and wide coverage. These features of the social media can offer wider spaces and opportunities for small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to stay competitive in the global tourism market. Also, the current ICT can create easier accessibility through the social media in any part of the world with the use of devices such as Smartphones and tablets. The author believes that the findings of this research thus can be beneficial for tourism SMEs to become familiar with current technological shifts and to get benefits from these shifts. In ▶ Chap. 48, Mazme and Albattat notify that Pulau Langkawi has great opportunities in the tourism industry that are yet to be fully exploited. This chapter aims to look at the social media influence on the youth’s destination choice to visit Pulau Langkawi, Kedah. The chapter identifies any influence that the social media has made on the youth’s destination choice to visit Pulau Langkawi, Kedah. Results demonstrate the value of social media in drawing tourists. Social media platforms, which provide consumers a wide range of options, aid in destination selection. Thus, the social media can help them with decision-making. The authors agree that the expansion of the social media within the tourism industry has provided further motivation toward destination information search and image evolution. ▶ Chapter 49 is contributed by BAŞARANGİL. The ground of this chapter is the Turkish tourism industry. According to the chapter, local administrations and ministries in Turkey are planning to create public leisure spaces on Facebook where users often can upload images. The chapter agrees that millions of photos are shared on the social media each day that can have capacities for marketing and promotion. Still, a large number of users do not scan the addresses of websites of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and General Directorate of Protection and National Parks. Rather, they share these park areas on social networking sites such as Facebook. In such situation, the demand for the publicity of public recreation areas in Turkey on Facebook marketing increases. This chapter carries out a literature search on recreation and tourism relations in public spaces and public recreation activity. Also, in the research, national parks, nature parks, and public recreation areas in Turkey are observed in terms of Facebook pages with an advertising and marketing perspective. Each of the park’s Facebook pages is evaluated in terms of park photos, location maps, and recreational opportunities. Results of this research identify the fewer number of pages of the parks on the social media and offer various suggestions for tourism marketers and managers. This chapter offers solutions for reducing the negative features of national parks and then discusses successful marketing and promotion strategies for Turkey’s social media. In ▶ Chap. 50, Zaki and Albattat seek to pinpoint the aspects of Instagram communication that have the strongest bearing on the desire to post interactive

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travel media. These aspects include participation, dialogue, and persuasion. Persuasion has the strongest association with the desire to share interactive travel media, according to the research findings. Instagram is valuable for more than just information dissemination; by learning more about Generation Y’s motivations for producing interactive travel media, for example, tourism organizations may help to advance the travel and tourism sector and provide economic benefits. As would be predicted, this chapter’s findings are helpful in understanding contemporary technology developments and what draws tourists from Generation Y to particular destinations. In ▶ Chap. 51, Jayawardena, Albattat, and Jaharadak notify that in recent years, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), in particular, have been identified as the most used innovation adoption theories over other predecessor frameworks. The conceptual framework of each of these models outlines the behavioral components that allow for the diffusion of each innovation into the context that is necessary to coordinate technology-based consumer experiences or to develop business processes in contemporary business environment. The chapter signifies a theoretical and empirical outlook of both TAM and UTUAT in the Asian tourism industry, accompanied by the effects of innovation, to address the existing challenges. Findings show that diverse macro-dynamics studies in innovation adoption are becoming popular in the Asian region and the Southeast, and South Asian countries like China, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, and Singapore are leading with many studies, followed by Western and Central Asian countries. In ▶ Chap. 52, Wen, Albattat, and Khatibi provide a comprehensive review of technologies interventions and impacts on the tourism industry. Besides, the chapter also explains the use of technology in the Asian tourism industry. The chapter states that as technology has advanced, it has become customary for travelers to look up places and attractions online. Information about the perception of people toward the existence of new technology can be gained online. This chapter presents the future development and modification of the tourism industry structure and the challenges faced by the employee after technologies are applied in the industry. The chapter finds that the existence of technology has caused some kind of worries in service deliveries among the employers, employees, and consumers. ▶ Chapter 53 by Rab and Hassan studies tourism, health-promoting food domain, and technology applications on the perspectives of individual’s Genes Reservoir Environment Change and Food in Natural Health. The authors inform that tourism as one of the major revenue-generating industries in many countries has been able to attract many people. Among these people, some tend to travel to developed countries for experiencing modern lifestyles, while some travel for enjoying the historic cultural civilization and the cultural diversities in terms of clothing and food. According to the authors, one of the main factors for consideration in tourism planning is the health and safety concern. Traveling can stress the human body and make it more prone to catch contagious diseases. The most recent COVID-19 health emergency is an example that the authors mention that halted economical activities and created more pressures on tourists. This research thus highlights the

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primary information of cultural features and health-related issues during traveling or the time tourists stay in the destinations. The authors also suggest diets for the purpose while presenting a general cooking scheme or methods as evolved in the subcontinent. The authors believe that this can be helpful in ensuring a safe journey and particularly in preventing and curing COVID-19 illness. This research explains the integration of technology use to offer safer and cost-effective options for tourism in some relatively unexplored global regions of Asia. In ▶ Chap. 54, Soonthodu and Wahab discuss the use of innovative technologies for sustainable destination management in Asia. The authors argue that the rapid change in ICT has influenced innovative ideas in the tourism industry. The application of innovative technologies plays a crucial role in achieving sustainability and sustainable development of a tourist destination. As a result, tourism stakeholders utilize many different innovative techniques for promoting destinations as unique and sustainable travel products, which has a greater influence on the socio-cultural, economic, and environmental sustainability. Tourism is responsible for leaving effects on the nature when both domestic and international tourism activities generate considerable carbon footprint in the form of greenhouse gas emissions. The authors state that the increase in carbon emissions due to excessive tourism activities has become a global concern. Thus, for controlling over-tourism and destination degradation, tourism promoters focus on sustainable destination management. The authors identify smart destinations, IoT, virtual tours, and mobile applications as some examples to turn destinations as tourist-friendly. The chapter terms Asia as the emerging hub for international tourism, having exotic tourist sites, cultural diversity, landscapes and landforms, and rich natural resources. However, the authors opine that over-tourism is a potential threat toward tourism activities promotion in this region and suggest travel agencies’ and tour operators’ role in implementing innovative technology for successful sustainable destination management in Asia. The chapter lists various innovative technologies for the local government, administrative authorities, and other stakeholders to understand and explore how innovative technology promotes sustainable destination development in Asia. The chapter suggests, in such perspectives, to focus on innovative technology implications for sustainable destination management in Asia. ▶ Chapter 55 is contributed by İştin and Karakaş and addresses the sustainability concern for technology application in the Asian tourism industry. The authors inform that locations can use tourist resources efficiently and pass them on to future generations by implementing modern information technology advancements. From this context, technology can be viewed as having strategic importance in the production, development, marketing, and future existence of a destination or a tourism product in sustainable tourism. Also, developed technological innovations in the service sector such as tourism can also offer renewable products when value addition stays as the core of the innovation process. As a result, this can sustain the positive economic impacts of tourism by developing a new product and using the resources without creating environmental adverse effects. In this perspective, the aim of this research is to examine sustainable tourism practices in tourism destinations in Asia and to explore the importance of technological applications in sustainable

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tourism. The chapter makes some suggestions for destinations to develop technology-based sustainable tourism applications. Results show that the use of information technologies can create alternative tourism types such as soft tourism, which is developed as an alternative to the environmental destruction of mass tourism. Also, rural tourism and farm tourism within the scope of ecotourism can create economic opportunities. ▶ Chapter 56 is written by Meo, Chughtai, Khan, Karim, and Cheema and discusses the socio-economic benefits of innovative technology application in the Asian tourism and hospitality industry. According to the authors, the nature of competition in this industry has been altered by the application of technology. Thus, the management of technology is rapidly getting dispersed throughout the tourism industry, leaving impacts on the relevant industries. Even with the increasing adoption of technology, there is lack of a clear understanding about the process within which technology and tourism industry partners can co-create and share technology-enabled value. Also, technology adoption has offered both challenges and opportunities for the tourism industry. As a result, this chapter provides a framework to utilize the innovative management methods in tourism. Through the use of cutting-edge technology in the tourism industry, this chapter also adopts a strategic viewpoint and discusses socioeconomic advantages. In ▶ Chap. 57, Dhoundiyal and Mohanty discuss Artificial Intelligence (AI) and robotics driving Tourism 4.0, with particular emphasis on Asia. The authors inform that Tourism 4.0 is opening up possibilities across the world, which is fueled by the colossal amount of data generated from the mobility of tourists across the world. According to the authors, this is some massive technological revolution in place. On this ground, in the era of Tourism 4.0, AI and robotics are emerging out to be the game changers. This research thus aims at presenting the diverse areas of AI and robotics that are driving the tourism industry to a more sustainable future. The authors also discuss some of the challenges. Then, the authors conclude by stating that with new integrations to AI and robotics, the tourism industry can attain new heights of service delivery, customization, and experience management, followed by accurate forecasting techniques in the future. ▶ Chapter 58 is contributed by Meo, Kanwal, Ali, Karim, and Kamboh and discusses the future and challenges of applying innovative technologies in the Asian tourism and hospitality industry. The authors believe that in the last few decades, technological innovation has been staying as a major actor in the tourism and hospitality. Technology reduces costs by the employment of machines and thus can replace expensive human labor and enhance operational efficiency, experiences, and customer services. This chapter explains the challenges and future of applying technological innovations in Asia through answering some specific questions such as: first, whether the developing technological innovation can support the Asian tourism and hospitality businesses; second, whether technology can attach this Asian market to the reset of the world; third, whether this application of technology in Asia can transmit the culture and conservative Asian tradition and ideas through the eroding values of previous generations; fourth, whether the reduced travel costs can be harmful for Asia? The chapter also assesses the effects of applying increased

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technological innovation in tourism on the environment. This chapter thus comprehensively addresses the queries of these particular questions. The application of tourism innovation that alters and saturates the market in the future is clear from the chapter. In the final ▶ Chap. 59, Hashimoto informs that 2019 was the first year of starting 5G. The author also informs that with the introduction of 5G, the communication speed has increased remarkably. As a result, the chapter critically explains the ways in which the introduction of 5G with the change in the Internet speed affected tourism. The chapter finds that with the support of 5G, hotel reservation sites can develop their video presentations that can convey the hotel’s attractiveness more realistically. However, the chapter also reveals the inconvenient part of 5G, where a large gap between hotels would be created. This book thus is a useful addition toward the very limited knowledge of technology application in the tourism industry in Asia. This also highlights technology in a comprehensive manner that is impacting the tourism industry in Asia as well as the constraints it is facing. COVID-19 is one of the most contemporary examples. The pre-, during, and post-COVID-19 contexts in the tourism industry will largely differ. The introduction and use of more cutting-edge technology are dependent on tourists’ attitudes and abilities, as was described in several chapters of this book. The book very narrowly covers the wider effects of COVID-19, value addition, experience co-creation from using innovative technologies, as well as more cross-country cases of the Asian tourism and hospitality industry. These are rather limitations of this book. Even with these limitations, this book can be a reading companion mainly of the tourism students in higher academic institutions. This book can also be read by the relevant policy planners and industry professionals. In addition to them, academics and researchers with a strong interest in the Asian tourist business can benefit from the contents of this book. Readers are expected to realize the importance of technologies in tourism in Asia. Thus, future research initiatives can possibly focus on the aforesaid limitations of this book to diversify the research agendas. Azizul Hassan References Adams, D. A., Nelson, R. R., & Todd, P. A. (1992). Perceived usefulness, ease of use, and usage of information technology. A replication. MIS Quarterly, 16(2), 227–247. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational behavior and human. Decision Processes, 50, 179–211. Ajzen, I. (2010). The theory of planned behavior. Retrieved from: http://www. people.umass.edu/aizen/tpb.html. Accessed 13 Oct 2020. Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980) Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Attewell, P. (1992). Technology diffusion and organizational learning: The case of business computing. Organization Science, 3(1), 1–19.

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Page, S. J. (2011). Tourism management. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Rashideh, W. (2020). Blockchain technology framework: Current and future perspectives for the tourism industry. Tourism Management, 80, 104125. Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th ed.). New York: Free Press. Salovaara, A., & Tamminen, S. (2009). Acceptance or appropriation? A designoriented critique of technology acceptance models. In P. Saariluoma & H. Isomäki (Eds.), Future interaction design II (pp. 157–173). London: Springer. Seabra, C., Pereira, A., Silva, C., Abrantes, J. L., Reis, M., & Paiva, O. (2020). Destination image perceived by domestic tourists: The influence of generation gap. European Journal of Tourism Research, 25, 1–22. Sigala, M. (2018). New technologies in tourism: From multi-disciplinary to antidisciplinary advances and trajectories. Tourism Management Perspectives, 25, 151–155. Taylor, S., & Todd, P. A. (1995). Understanding information technology usage: A test of competing models. Information Systems Research, 6(2), 144–176. Tussyadiah, I. (2020). A review of research into automation in tourism: Launching the Annals of Tourism Research Curated Collection on Artificial Intelligence and Robotics in Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 81, 102883. Van den Ven, A. H. (1986). Central problems in the management of innovations. Management Science, 32(5), 590–607. Venkatesh, V., & Davis, F. D. (2000). A theoretical extension of the technology acceptance model: Four longitudinal field studies. Management Science, 46(2), 186–204. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G. B., & Davis, F. D. (2003). User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly, 27(3), 425– 478. Winter, T. (2007). Rethinking tourism in Asia. Annals of Tourism Research, 34(1), 27–44. Xiang, Z. (2018). From digitization to the age of acceleration: On information technology and tourism. Tourism Management Perspectives, 25, 147–150.

Part I Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Concepts and Applications

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Technology Application in the Tourism Industry in Asia: Theories and Practices Anukrati Sharma and Shruti Arora

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Why Apply Technologies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Advertising and Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Competitive Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Change in the Tourism Industry with Technology Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major Examples in Asia Applying Technologies in the Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maldives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . United Arab Emirates (UAE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Information Technology in Tourism Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

The ever-flourishing tourism industry is one of the considerable contributors to the economy of developed and developing nations. With the technological advancement in this industry, it has changed the way we travel with more A. Sharma (*) Head & Associate Professor, Department of Commerce & Management, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India S. Arora Guest Faculty, University of Kota, Kota, Rajasthan, India © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_1

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interactive and exciting experience. Today, nobody is suspicious that there is a perfect combination of technology, tourism. The technological revolution has augmented customer’s expectations with an emphasis on the look for convenience. From tour apps to online check-ins, traveling might be so much more inopportune without technology to attach us to the rest of the world. Information technology (IT) theories and their applications help to embrace present-day innovations and collect the advantages accessible from such expansion. To coordinate with the worldwide cutthroat competitive environment and to move further according to the changes, the utilization of innovation and information technology is predictable. This investigation reviews various kinds of literature from research papers, articles, books, newspapers, and studies, the significance and benefits of IT applications, and how they contribute to the tourism industry. The chapter showed that IT is increasingly becoming critical and most generally used in satisfying the information required, innovation process, and studying behavior and performance. The applications or uses of IT are utilized in the promotion and showcasing customer management process, esteem creation, and competitive benefit. Keywords

Tourism · Hospitality · Information technology · Asia

Introduction The tourism sector is primarily one of the world’s emerging industries. Technology plays a crucial position in tourism services in terms of web-based applications. The developments of technologies encourage the tourism destination and hospitality industry to optimize their decision-making in business development and boost the tourist experience. The progression of the Internet, the smartphone, Web 2.0 applications, and other technologies now provide major expediency and savings to travel consumers. It is so customary that as per the Google Travel study, 74% of the vacationers set up their visits with the assistance of the Internet, as just 13% still use travel services to arrange them (Vidal, 2019). Consumer-related websites are playing a significant role in developing relations and getting feedback around the globe. Technology has helped lessen charges, beautify operational efficiency, and improve offerings and customer understanding. Together customers and businesses can gain from advanced messages, reservations, and visitor service systems. Technology has facilitated both the tourism industries because it replaced high-price human labor with technological labor. The domestic and inbound entertainment markets rely heavily on hospitality as a component of tourism. Consistent travel demand allows the hospitality business to forecast demand and identify opportunities to increase customer spending, resulting in an influx of secondary monetary effects (Robinson et al., 2013). The hospitality industry involves two segments: the lodging sector and the food and beverage sector.

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The effect of e-tourism and digitalized tourism actions are escalating, inclusive of online reservations, travel blogs, e-tour guides, and online platforms for offerings. The embracing of different technologies has sly effects on the tourism industry by altering the aggressive scope. The changes wreaked by technology are extensive and influence every aspect of the twenty-first century. With the growing attractiveness of online evaluation and social media platforms, tourist or hospitality guests now can research and see what others have posted. These applications have become active gateways to global opinion. One of the main factors in the digital age is the security of the tourist in provisions of identities, address information, or economic data. Biometric verification offers the safest technique of proving individuality presently accessible in the tourism industry. With facial recognition and fingerprint-activated room entry, these technology applications help in the hospitality industry. Both tourism and hospitality are information-intensive industries (Cox et al., 2009) with a brilliant large-scale chain (Stiakakis & Georgiadis, 2011) in which information plays a significant part. Statistics are created, examined, stored, recovered, and relocated as part of the daily operations of all tourism businesses. Statistics are created, examined, stored, recovered, and relocated as part of the daily operations of all tourism businesses. In today’s environment, information technology and telecommunications drive the tourism business. Tour operators, travel companies, rental agencies, and hotels are all division of the tourist industry. They go through the process of making the impact that is commonly known as information and communication technology (ICT). Southeast Asia’s brisk improvement has prompted a vertical push in income, which has empowered its resident to experience entertainment journeys on long excursions and micro-outings. Technology applications play a significant role as more vacationers are making their bookings through the web. In step with a 2017 Meltwater Report on the virtual disturbance of the hospitality industry, by 2025, Southeast Asia’s Internet travel spending is predicted to attain US$76 billion. Booking.com, Agoda, and Expedia are some of the most well-known online travel agencies in the area. Traveloka, Southeast Asia’s unicorn start-up, is a prominent travel booking platform. Customers may find thousands of travel items and activities on Traveloka, which has more than 40 million dynamic users in Southeast Asia.

Theoretical Background There are some theories on ICT framework execution and adoption broadly used in tourism and hospitality research. These theories have been dominating this academic domain for the last few decades. The summary is as follows (Table 1.1): Technological advancement is encouraging innovation, growth, and globalization in the tourism industry. For example, to book a flight or train ticket back in the year 2000, it would have taken a long time physically to book the reservation, and the cost of the ticket would have more than today in real terms. There was a shortage of in-flight time pass activity like music and the availability of magazines. But now, in the digital era, the whole trip can be considered in a few seconds with a few taps of

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Table 1.1 Theories on ICT system implementation and adoption Theory 1. Technology acceptance model (TAM) TAM TRA and TAM (comparison) TAM, TPB, and the decomposed theory of planned behavior (comparison) Extension called TAM2 TAM and TPB (comparison) TAM (replication) 2. Theory of reasoned actions (TRA) TRA and TAM (comparison) TRA TRA and DOI (combination) TRA 3. Diffusion of innovations (DOI) DOI DOI TRA and DOI (combination) 4. Theory of planned behavior (TPB) TAM, TPB, and the decomposed theory of planned behavior (comparison) TPB TAM and TPB (comparison) 5. Unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) UTAUT combines eight models: TRA, TAM, and TPB 6. Model of the ICT implementation process 7. Information systems success model

Author Davis, 1989 Davis et al., 1989 Taylor & Todd, 1995 Venkatesh & Davis, 2000 Mathieson, 1991 Adams et al., 1992 Davis et al., 1989 Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975 Karahanna et al., 1999 Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980

Rogers, 1983, 1995 Moore & Benbasat, 1991 Karahanna et al., 1999 Taylor & Todd, 1995 Ajzen, 1991 Mathieson, 1991 Venkatesh et al., 2003 Cooper & Zmud, 1990 DeLone & McLean, 1992

Source: Korpelainen (2011)

the finger. All credit to technology applications, traveling today is more reasonable, easily reached, and suitable than ever before. Several technology advancements, such as artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), smart devices, robotics, drones, sensors, and augmented reality, are bringing about the expected improvement and development in the tourism industry’s service requirements. Daily, people employ technology in a variety of ways. Computers, mobile phones, and other electronic devices are flattering and progressively more reasonable. They are used as information-processing tools. Humans are continually evolving dependent on IT-enabled devices for moving out even easy tasks. The tourism industry is always tackled with new challenges and opportunities in terms of technology as traveler’s experiences are shifted from offline to online. Information

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technology and telecommunications are driving the tourism business in today’s world. The expanding impact of this, which is commonly referred to as information and communication technology, is felt by the whole tourist industry, including tour operators, travel agencies, rental agencies, cruisers, and lodgings (Khan & Hossain, 2018). Now the consumers worldwide make use of technology applications and are not reliant on travel agencies any longer to gaze for information and motivation for their holiday destination (Buhalis & Wagner, 2013). Tichaawa (2017) figures out that to increase their competitive position in the market, the tourism industry ought to join the ICT system strategically in their business practice to expand their performance, serve their target markets, work on their adequacy, boost their productivity, improve their services, and uphold their long-term profitability. Sairam, Suresh, Hegde, and Shaikh (2016) present an android cell-phone application for a layman to design and improve an event whether big or small in a difficult situation. This application will help in arranging an effective and entertaining event. This demonstrates that there might be an expedient growth in technology. According to Twist (2016) various technologies, such as social media, have converted the global world into a local area, including everybody to everyone. Some contend that this has made us significantly less agreeable, hindering eye to eye and actual communication, yet the thought that globalization and technology permit us to triumph over the restrictions of physical distance through our fingertips presents infinite possibilities for the travel and tourism industry to thrive. Websites, reservation systems, apps, and the usage of social media all allow interacting and hooking up with clients on a variety of levels to permit an enhanced tour experience. The Internet and Web 1.0, yet in addition Web 2.0 and the whole social media climate, have had a giant impact and modified to tourism industries a lot (Law et al., 2014). According to Karimidizboni (2013), the long-term impact of technology on tourism in recent years has resulted in significant changes in people’s perceptions of the nature of tourism, as well as its economic consequences, in the tourist industry as a whole. Today the need for technology applications is required at every stage of the tourism industry (Table 1.2). Usually, online travel shopper is displayed in excess of 38,983 micro-moments in 60 days and visits for most of the 18 websites through a couple of gadgets across 8 periods before making a hotel booking (Starkov, 2019). At the present time, hospitality is being changed into a 100% computerized technology-empowered industry through online, mobile, cloud, IoT, and AI gear and programs. Digital technology is forming its direction into every module of the business like hotel

Table 1.2 The need for technology applications Pre-consumption Planning, decision-making, booking, making the comparison of services, travel websites, apps Source: developed by the authors, 2020

During NFC, GPS (navigation), maps, self-guided tours

Post-consumption Customer reviews, social media, feedback, sharing experiences

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operations, visitor administrations, communications, income control, distribution, CRM, and advertising. Nowadays, just fulfilling a customer is not enough relatively. It is getting more important to cheer the customers and retain them as regulars. By appealing to customer delight, they muscularly connect with the company and become more loyal over time. It is essential to create experiences and offer some personalized services to the customers that may be remembered, and this could best be viable via artificial intelligence. The changes made by technology affect every aspect of the twenty-first century routine. Hospitality is the industry where from begin to stop, the understanding is currently possible by technical factors, many of which go reasonably unobserved. With the growing recognition of online evaluations, hospitality guests now can investigate any location to see what others have posted. Mutually, evaluated websites and web-based media platforms have formed into dynamic gateways to the overall assessment, and voyagers utilize these expansively to assist them with choosing where to book (Williams & Savage, 2019). The present boom in Internet of Things (IoT) technology is twisting the capabilities of the hospitality management business. To maintain a competitive position in the market, hospitality service providers (HSP) must be on the cutting edge of IoT technology. Incorporating IoT technology into the hospitality industry qualifies hotels as smart houses, which are critical components of smart cities (Mohanty et al., 2016). The availability of technological resources offers the tourism industry various opportunities and more tweaked contributions than before to a pool of customers, while keeping up with dynamic connections at a reasonable cost and without obviously changing the prevalence of information conveyed.

Why Apply Technologies? Technology is the essential part of supply chain management now for almost every product and service. Life cannot be assumed without technology in any way. In the tourism industry, it is more important from the beginning. Now because of the pandemic, it is the most essential part to run the tourism industry. The advancement of technology, with its general convenience and intuitive nature, has altered customer behavior and mentalities toward traditional tourism service models (Khan & Hossain, 2018). Technology is overruling in the achievement of hospitality and tourism. Today’s tourism is being altered into a 100% computerized technology fueled by online, mobile, cloud, IoT, and AI tools and applications. These applications are advancing into each element of the business like hotel operations, guest services, interactions, revenue management, CRM, and marketing. Mil and Özdoğan (2015) state that during the last 50 years, technological developments have occurred that make life simpler and added services by tourism companies. Tourism or hospitality businesses that neglect to adjust to the changes in the technical environment surely wind up fizzling and closing down. Information technology (IT) has expansively changed the function of each player in the value formation process in the tourism market. The adoption of technical application benefits at various levels is like the following (Fig. 1.1):

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Benefits

Operational benefits

Tactical benefits

Strategic Benefits

Fig. 1.1 Benefits of technology applications. (Source: developed by the authors, 2020)

The hospitality industry and tourism have utilized technological prospects to allocate thoughts to different organizations. It has additionally assisted with holding mutually people isolated by topographical areas, just as those from different traditions. The hospitality industry in Asia has embraced growth for certain technological changes such as the introduction of hotel metasearch engines, OTAs, in-room mobile available technology, chatbots, online evaluation, testimonial pages, and so on, demonstrating that the industry is committed to providing flawless and memorable stay experiences to modern-day travelers. This continent’s tech-savvy millennial visitor market is booming. According to Yüksek (2013), technical improvements have a significant impact on the quality of services provided, boost their competitiveness, and are effective in promoting activities. It seems challenging to attract tourists toward the urban areas and cities during and post-COVID-19. Most of the tourists will not prefer to visit the massive crowd and famous tourist destinations. For this, Asian countries need to switch their focus on rural tourism development. The way out is to market more the homestay system rather than hotels. As most tourists are only aware of the famous tourist destinations and hotels, it is now more critical to market and promote rural areas and homestay. Only technology, social media, digital marketing, and virtual tours can be helpful in these promotions. There was a time when the tourism promoters have preferred traditional marketing like mouth marketing. COVID-19 changed the scenario and the world by understanding the importance of technology applications in tourism.

Advertising and Promotion The tourism industry is an aggressive industry. There is an enormous rivalry in the industry, and many regions are challenging with each other to draw the tourist (Khatri, 2018). Earlier the development of technology was very thorny for both industries to market their offerings to its customers. It was very extensive as customers are always actually apart and long way off. However, the upcoming information technology has made the business effortless in addition to boosting the customer base. The organization promotes their hospitality services and tourism products through the Internet. This stage has partnered with the world. Individuals can share their perspectives and evaluations without meeting genuinely. These days, online media such as Facebook,

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Twitter, Instagram, etc. are the wellspring of information that equally tourism industry has used to attain clients throughout the globe leading to the arrival of tourists, therefore, boosting the level of their profits (Alexis & Buhalis, 2007). ICT grants polygonal communication styles in destination marketing (Choi et al., 2017). Nowadays augmented reality (AR) has been gradually more implemented by various industries as a promotion tool. It is critical for a business to efficiently make the most of online marketing and advertising, to assist in the pragmatism of their customers, predominantly at the same time, as the competitors are doing the same thing.

Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Procedure In the tourism sector, CRM is crucial and widely employed. Information technology may assist in the development of hospitality networks that structure a physical and virtual environment for the delivery of offerings to evolving customer needs (Breukel & Go, 2009); smart tourism can be defined as an individual tourist support system within the information service system (Li et al., 2017). Another critical aspect of this process is value creation, which refers to the activities by which a company can increase the worth of its goods or services to consumers, while maintaining appropriate connections.

Competitive Benefits Absolute confidence in the marketplace is continuously extremely competitive. That’s why keeping up with the trendy traits in technology is essential for the hospitality and tourism industry. New technologies add value to their visitors’ stories, and this opportunity can act as an aggressive gain.

Change in the Tourism Industry with Technology Applications Technology is moving forward at a rapid rate than earlier, and this is shifting the outlook of customers as well as the hospitality industry conducting its business. The end number of innovations in technology has now created a wave in tourism. It can increase the effectiveness of business operations and also develop a better customer experience, but it is challenging to keep the latest with the emerging travel technology applications. These industries are changing and rapidly becoming super high-tech. Some of the newest technology applications are as follows (Fig. 1.2): Another technical application that is used is Web 2.0, which is regarded as a tool for group association because it allows Internet users to actively contribute, while also working as a team. Internet users are intended to create, overload, and disseminate the knowledge and realities that are disseminated via the Internet (Sigala, 2007). Wikis, blogs, social networking, podcasting, and content hosting services

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Feedback / blogs on social media

Chatbot

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Robots for services and infrared sensors

Recognition of Image

Contactless Payments

Smat Phones Voice Search & Voice Control

Technology trends in Hospitality industry

Virtual Reality

Smart Hotels

Wi -Fi infrastructure overhauls

Internet of Things (IoT) Dizitised room keys

NFC Technology (Near field communication)

Fig. 1.2 Latest trends used in the tourism industry. (Source: developed by the authors, 2020)

are examples of Web 2.0 technologies. YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter are just a few of the most popular websites. Asian tech companies are quick to see the advantages of the hospitality industry. Alibaba has superior face for two Marriott hotels in China, while Oyo, South Asia’s largest hotel chain, has hired Able Plus, an Internet of Things business, to administer its hotels and assets with its technology and artificial intelligence. Meanwhile, chatbots on hotel websites help overcome issues such as finding service employees willing to perform repeated jobs and, more importantly, foreign labor restrictions. Furniture in Japan can be returned to its original location after being used. Hatten Group, a Malaysian hospitality company, created a blockchain prize mechanism that allows users to collect tokens in substitute for hotel packages and stays.

Major Examples in Asia Applying Technologies in the Tourism Industry The Asian tourism industry is on a continued shift in terms of applying the most innovative technologies. Tourist demands in these industries vary which leads to the escalation and intensity of sharper competitions (Sharma et al., 2020; Hassan & Sharma, 2019). Conventionally, some of the major tourist destinations in Asia

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welcome and apply the most innovative and useful technologies. These destinations understand that tourist preferences are changing. This all is because of the speedy expansion of modern technology that introduces ease to every feature of the present life and atmosphere, together with the well-organized operations of private businesses and government/nongovernment organizations alike. All the Asian countries use one or the other technological application to attract tourists and provide a better quality of services. Few of the Asian destinations that have a reputation of applying technological innovations as well as destinations that are rising are as follows:

India As increasingly more people come online, use of smartphone increases; sensors and use of digital bills have essentially changed the dynamics of the industry at massive scale. Chatbots are supporting clients to book online tickets. There is evidence that the niche of tourism markets in India is applying innovative technologies (Hassan & Sharma, 2017).

China China National Tourism Administration has deliberated to offer online booking services, electronic excursion guides, and free Wi-Fi to all travelers. One of the most important inn groups in China, Huazhu Group, is making fewer contact payments and check-in/out with facial detection and even orders robot deliverance of products from outside the hotel with “check-in in 30 seconds” platform that verifies.

Sri Lanka In Sri Lanka, technology tracking systems that can check for issues like water wastage and temperature changes are used. Google’s Alexa or Apple’s Siri voiceactivated smart systems ought to streamline the guest in-room experience.

Japan Tokyo has a renowned technology district, and its reputation for devices and sensory overload is well-deserved. In the meantime, as the creation of robotics into the hospitality industry continues to be in its untimely tiers, it will come as a marvel to very few that Japan is leading the way in this particular forte. Indeed, Japan is dominating the technological improvement of robots internationally, suddenly welcoming humanoids into the ordinary lifestyles. Facial recognition technology is used in preference to digital room keys.

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Hong Kong At present time, hotel guests are not lenient any longer and anticipate offering them a rich and unblemished experience at every step during their stay. So they made the world’s first AI (Gaia) assistant helping staff serve the twenty-first-century guest. It catches signals from room keys using Bluetooth beacons in the hotel to set up where guests are and utilizes them to provide staff details of precisely who is moving toward them and to be prepared to serve them.

Maldives An ultra-luxurious destination drives the promotion of Maldives through 360-degree videos, augmented reality videos, influencer marketing, and mobiles, considering the impact of false news and storytelling.

Indonesia Foreign visitors try to book their travel packages in Indonesia through digital applications ahead, together with the payments, through their gadgets. Tiket.com is one of the leading OTAs in Indonesia for train ticket booking, hotels, and flights.

United Arab Emirates (UAE) Dubai has instigated several new fashions, styles, and technologies in tourism together with integrated mobile apps, audio tours, digital reputation animation, and more. The “Visit Dubai” mobile application is developed for tourists to explore Dubai itinerary. In Dubai, the Emaar Hospitality Group was one of the foremost to initiate in-room iPads for guests to do the whole thing from booking a dinner to controlling their atmosphere and even drawing the curtains.

Vietnam Artificial intelligence and facial identification are used in Vietnam to enhance safety, avoid crime, and make customized services to tourists.

Thailand To attract tourist in Thailand, online marketing and digital marketing are very cool mainly on social media and product reviews on web pages. Artificial intelligence (AI) in Thailand is affecting ahead at full steam.

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As the tourism industry keeps on growing in Asia, the hospitality industry is also advancing to become equally popular. Various towns and cities across Asia must consider the kind of surroundings that are most appealing to draw tourists from across the globe, like if someone to experience life in a fast-paced city, then Shanghai or Beijing is most suited or a more soothing destination such as Mauritius or Thailand. The web technologies can provide undersized tourism businesses in rising destinations straight contact to a worldwide market of travel consumers for the first time, immensely growing their scenario.

Information Technology in Tourism Education In COVID-19 suppose your life without the Internet? Without any conferences? Without any classes? Without applications such as Zoom, Google Meet, etc.? The answer is surely a big NO. We are in the habit of using these applications in our daily lives. Almost every person increases their screen time. In such a case, the universities, colleges, and education institutions can’t imagine tourism education without using technology education. While discussing any course, the first and the foremost thing which strikes in one’s mind is designing the course, in short, the curriculum of the course. When it comes to tourism education, it becomes more essential. The tourism industry, compared to other industries, is ever-changing and more demanding. This industry cannot survive without the newness and uniqueness in the cutthroat competition. Thus, the students also need to be more updated on who are pursuing courses in tourism. The pandemic made the academicians, subject experts, and practitioners rethink the scope of tourism courses post-COVID-19. This sounds so true now to involve more and more usage of information technology now in the curriculum design. The pandemic COVID-19 made us understand the importance of information technology not only for travel and tourism but also for education. Smith and Cooper (2000) consider that the program must be context-related relatively than context-bound. They further stated that it is mandated that to see the relevance of the curriculum and at the same time to time, revisions should be done. This statement recommends academicians reorganize suitable curriculum designs having the obligatory content, including the teaching and training, with information technology. Education tourism programs are as much important as tourism education. The educational institutions are not taking part in the initiatives in the education tourism programs (Sharma, 2015).

Conclusion The tourism industry certainly ranks among the largest in the world in terms of potential. However, the expectations of this industry will mostly be determined by who makes the wisest utilization of technology between competitors. Tourism

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organization can deliver better services to their clients and run their business more efficiently by combining communications with latest technology. For tourism businesses to be successful, these innovative and efficient technologies are of crucial importance. Now in the pandemic situation, undoubtedly, learning through online classes and videos is part of life. Thus, it is not wrong to state that technology is used everywhere in the tourism industry. During the pandemic period, the stakeholders need to be more attentive toward the best usages of technology applications for the promotion and marketing of tourist destinations. This pandemic time should be used for creating a future more secure with the help of technological advancement. As a stakeholder of the tourism industry, this is the time when we need to be more conscious about the reimagining and rebranding of tourist destinations. It is the time that must be used in the policies which can make a balance between the explored and unexplored destinations to a certain extent. Hopefully, many of the problems will be resolved during this pandemic, such as over-tourism, eco-imbalance, etc. Asian countries need to promote and implement the responsible tourism factor in the potential tourists’ minds from today itself. For this, during the pandemic, the easiest way is to use social media and digital marketing. By improving and modifying the content and using influential marketing, Asian countries can see considerable changes in the future.

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Computer Reservation Systems and Global Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICT and Travel Intermediaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICT and Airlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICT and Surface Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICT and Hospitality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICT and Tourist Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICT and Destination Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICT and Sustainable Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New Trends in ICT and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Augmented and Virtual Reality (AR and VR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voice Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wi-Fi Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wearable Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Apps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Redefining Travel with Big Data Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blockchain Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5G Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Divide in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Tourism becomes a major player in global trade and also a major income source for several developing countries. Tourism is one industry that has adopted the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in its services realizing its S. R. B. R. (*) Centre for Responsible Tourism, Kerala Institute of Tourism and Travel Studies (KITTS), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_2

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potential in enhancing the business prospects since mid of the last century. It was in 1946 that the first automated booking system was installed by the American Airlines. Since then, the use of ICT in tourism has diversified for providing large source of information to tourists and better and faster service to its customers, improving relationship between distribution channels, and enabling promotion and distribution of products directly to its customers. The advent of information technology during the years has seen tourism industry capitalizing the use of Internet, eBusiness applications, and even artificial intelligence. This has encouraged small players to launch business in tourism and depend on ICT for their product branding and marketing. The tourists themselves have online platforms to review the products and make the best choice of the destinations and packages. Robots have already taken up the role of waiters in hotels in many Asian countries including India. Recognizing the importance of ICT in tourism, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) had chosen the theme for World Tourism Day 2018 as “Tourism and the Digital Transformation.” This paper looks into the historic evolution of ICT in tourism, its application in different areas of the tourism industry especially in the Asian context, barriers in adopting to new technology, and the digital divide in tourism. Keywords

ICT · Computer reservation system · Augmented reality · Virtual reality · Internet · Artificial intelligence

Introduction The rapid change in the information and communication technology (ICT) is also fostering changes in the way the travel and tourism industry interacts with its customers. The industry has adopted various digital technologies as a response to meet the demands of the customers as well as to improve their operational efficiencies. The beginning of IT application in travel industry dates back to 1946 with the American Airlines installing the first automated booking system. In 1949, Société Internationale de Télécommunications Aéronautiques (SITA) was established with 11 airlines, and in 1950, it became the first generation of world’s largest network having its first telecommunications center in Rome, where information were transmitted manually by using perforated tape and teleprinters (SITA, n.d.).

Computer Reservation Systems and Global Distribution Systems By the early 1950s, the aviation industry faced difficulties in airline reservations, and in 1953, Trans-Canada Air Lines (TCA) designed a computer-based system called ReserVec. Contemporarily, American Airlines and International Business Machines (IBM) joined hands for developing a new computer-based system for handling

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ticketing, airline reservations, seat inventories, schedules, and passenger name records (PNRs). By 1964, a new system termed the Semi-Automatic Business Research Environment (SABRE) was rolled out to all American Airlines offices. Subsequently other airlines also developed similar online computer reservation systems (CRS) (Benckendorff et al., 2014). In 1968, the Delta Automated Travel Account System (DATAS) was launched by the Delta Air Lines. In 1971, the United Airlines followed the Apollo reservation system, while the Trans World Airlines followed the Programmed Airline Reservations System (PARS) (Christopherson Business Travel, 2013). The airlines did their majority of business through travel agencies, and it became difficult for travel agencies to install different CRS in their offices. In 1975, although an effort called joint industry computer reservation systems was made to bring together different airline computer reservation systems, it failed. The world’s first multi-airline system, Travicom, was created in 1976 at the United Kingdom. The Europeans were mainly depending on the videotext technology rather than CRS to process travel agents’ bookings then (Sheldon, 1997). Sabre and Apollo also added other airlines to their systems in the same year and leased these to travel agents. At this point a distinction between computer reservation system and global distribution system (GDS) happened, and the reservation system used by airlines came to be called computer reservation system and that by the travel agents as global distribution system. By the 1980s, US travel agents had a choice of five GDS systems to do their booking. In 1987, Amadeus was established by a European consortium of airlines, and Travicom was replaced by Galileo. In 1988, Singapore Airlines and Cathay Pacific Airlines joined together to launch the Abacus system (Benckendorff et al., 2014). In 1990, DATAS and PARS merged together to form Worldspan. In 2006 and 2007, Galileo and Worldspan were acquired by a travel company called Travelport.

ICT and Travel Intermediaries The GDS helps the travel agencies to know the availability of seats in airlines and rooms in hotels; to do reservations and get passenger information, access rates, and conditions of service offered; and to do eTicketing and inventory management. The secondary functions of GDS include booking ancillary service and provide information on passenger documents like visa, passports, health, customs, currency, taxes, etc. and integrated travel management by back-office integration, financial management, eCommerce tools, etc. Tour operators use GDS systems for selling their packages. They also depend on ICT for package creation as well as to have systems to do the distribution of packages, reservations, as well as customer management. ICT helps them in facilitating negotiations with destination suppliers to reduce rates based on volumes. Emails, file transfers, and video conferencing mechanisms are used for negotiation process. Softwares are developed to create and distribute tour itineraries and packages. These softwares contain options for itinerary creation, pricing, distribution, booking, customer and vendor details, reports on sales, etc. ICT helps tour operators

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in marketing with the help of online brochures. Desktop publishing softwares like Adobe Photoshop and PageMaker are used for the purpose. Now most of the tour operators create their own websites to market their products. Social media sites like YouTube and Facebook are also used for marketing their products. In addition to this, travel intermediaries require ICT support for their back-office systems for helping them in accounting, managing human resources, customer relationship, effective communication, as well as for settlement of transactions. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is a system, where back-office systems are integrated into cross-functional systems. EPR systems help in productivity by reducing data entry, developing targeted marketing with the help of reporting tools, supporting customer satisfaction, improving supplier relationships, and doing trend analysis based on the real-time data. The popular ERP systems include SABRE Red Suite, Travel IntraNet Application (TINA), Abacus PowerSuite, etc.

ICT and Airlines Airlines depend on ICT for a wide range of its activities including marketing, distribution, customer service, and operations. Airline reservation system (ARS) is the most important application of ICT. ARS is mainly used by the airline staff, and this helps them in getting flight schedules and availability in response to passenger and intermediary requests and providing accurate fares and rules, storage of passenger information, and electronic ticketing. However, eTicket allows passengers to do online check-in and obtain boarding pass. The decision support system (DSS) helps the airline managers to take decisions on airline activities like fleet management, flight scheduling systems, crew scheduling systems, and revenue management with the help of ICT. The marketing and customer relations management system helps in direct bookings with the help of Internet booking engines, operate efficiently customer loyalty programs known as frequent-flyer programs by analyzing the database of passengers, and provide better customer service with the help of emails, websites, mobile apps, and social media. The ICT also help airlines in departure control systems on check-ins, issuing boarding pass, seat allocation, checked baggage, load control and balance of the aircraft, passenger identification, etc. In addition to this, ICT gives support in gate control at the airports as each flight requires a gate assigned for arrival and departure. The flight dispatchers which prepare a flight plan for each journey is supported by ICT tools to monitor all aspects of flight progress. The ICT systems also monitor the meteorological conditions as well as the aircraft’s position relative to other obstacles. Various in-flight technologies are used to meet the customer demands as well as ensuring safety. This includes in-flight entertainment systems like video screens on the seatbacks, communication facilities like Wi-Fi, phones, geographic information systems that show the location of the aircraft, etc. As part of the crew support system, IT-enabled support is provided to cabin crews. Pilots and other cabin crew are given tablets that contain essential information like passenger list as well as to keep information on

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customer requests, frequent-flyer membership, etc. Wireless point of sale machines are used for selling beverages and duty-free products on board. At the airports, ICT helps in passenger processing which includes pre-arrival, check-ins, security and immigration, boarding, stop over, and arrival. ICT also plays a major role in baggage and cargo handling as well as air traffic control.

ICT and Surface Transport Surface transport mainly include the road, rail, and water transport system used by the tourists to reach the destination as well as to travel within the destinations. In the case of land transport system, the role of ITC comes into play in the implementation of intelligent transport systems (ITS). These transport systems can connect and manage all land transport systems especially road and highway systems. The ITS will be able to detect hazards in the roads and inform drivers in advance, enabling drivers to make better choices on routes, give information on availability of parking space, give warnings on road congestions, allowing vehicles to communicate each other and with the infrastructure around, etc. ICT also plays a role in the implementation of automated traffic management systems which manage the smooth flow of road traffic. Now there are electronic tolls which reduce the time to cross a toll and electronic road pricing systems which allow differential pricing at tolls at different time of the day. The travel information system (TIS) and vehicle information and communication system (VICS) which provide real-time information related to traffic congestion, accident locations, parking lots, etc. are facilitated by ICT. The route guidance system which relies on geographical information system is commonly used by the drivers of road transport. The vehicle rental companies use ICT mainly for reservation systems, vehicle inventory control, as well as for vehicle-sharing purpose. Rail transport uses ICT for the online ticketing and reservation systems, signal controls, safety measures, video surveillance, remote monitoring, etc. RFID-based freight consignment tracking is implemented to improve railway freight services. Also, the water transport system depends on ICT for reservations, passenger area management by which travelers are provided with more information, wayfinder systems which helps passengers to find way within a big ship, entertainment facilities for passengers, and in navigation systems.

ICT and Hospitality The application of ICT in the hospitality industry is mainly confined to four areas – front office, back office, guest-related interface, and restaurant and banquet management. Property management systems (PMS) are installed in accommodation units to handle some of the above aspects. The major functions of PMS include reservations management, opening of guest folio, billing, and room management. In addition to this, PMS offer some specialized functions like travel agent accounting, scheduling of banquet rooms, and amenity management which includes sports

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facilities, spa, gymnasium, etc. ICT can bring efficiency in processing large volumes of information related to human resources, accounts, inventory, and purchase through back-office software. As part of guest-related interface, ICT support is given for customer relations management, providing guest room amenities like electronic locking systems, entertainment devices, Wi-Fi connectivity, and guest services technology like in-room electronic refreshment centers, smart room service carts, etc. Other ICT applications in the accommodation include marketing and promotion through websites, establishing private branch exchanges for communications and energy management systems. The food service sector also depends on ICT for various applications. Point of sale (POS) systems increase the efficiency of food delivery and track and analyze sales. The restaurant management system looks into purchase and inventory control of food items, menu and recipe, as well as food costing.

ICT and Tourist Experience The application of ICT for tourists includes providing information to them, giving better experience through technology interface and in visitor management at the destination. The information can be provided through visitor information centers where digital presentations could be made. According to Sripanuk (1993), there are seven roles for the use of technology in giving tourists a different experience. Benckendorff et al. (2014) added three more roles to it. Technology adopts the role of “enabler” by innovations that stimulate travel demand like travel technologies, mobile devices, social media, etc. In the role of “creator,” new tourism experiences and setting are created as in the case of computer-aided design (CAD) simulations or roller coasters. When it takes the role of “attractor,” technology itself become the focus of attraction as in the case of science museums or planetarium. In the role of “enhancer,” technology can improve the experience of the tourists as in the case of mobile devices or GPS. While applying technology for security and environment management systems, it takes the role of “protector.” When technology is used for interpretation purpose, it takes the role of “educator.” When actual resources are not available for visitor experience, technology can do the role of a “substitute,” e.g., virtual reality. Technology takes the role of a “facilitator” for industry by providing support systems like Internet, back-office systems, etc. It takes the role of “reminder” when mobile phones or digital cameras are used for recording the experiences. Sometimes technology fails and then it takes the role of a “destroyer.” For managing visitors, automated ticketing systems could be engaged. Visitors could be provided with better orientation at the destination through technology like GPS and electronic displays instead of normal signage. ICT also plays the role of ancillary purchases like parking, accommodation, food and beverages, photos, etc. with the help of smart cards or wearable devices. Technology can also play a huge role in crowd management as well as ensuring safety and security at the destinations. Most of the destinations have started using CCTVs and secured entry gates as part of security measures.

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ICT and Destination Management Destinations need destination management system (DMS) to coordinate the activities with various stakeholders at the destination. DMS is a comprehensive electronic database on the facilities of a destination and their customers which could be accessed by various stakeholders of tourism industry. DMS helps to promote destinations through diverse platforms comprising web, call centers, digital, smart devices, and kiosks to provide visitors with real-time and detailed information at numerous locations. Currently, more and more travelers are seeking travel information through web-based portals, an application of ICT developed by destination management organizations (DMOs). These portals provide dynamic package offers to the customers by combining diverse travel elements, priced and bundled in real time, in response to the booking agent or the consumer requests. The web portals give provision for customers for seeking air ticket availability and for booking them online, as well as downloading mobile applications that come with comprehensive mobile destination guide providing general information, facts, attractions, activities, events, festivals, etc. and travel planners that allow customers to mix, match, and organize their trips. DMOs can use the web portals as well as other social media platforms for eMarketing. Thus, eMarketing involves “pay per click” advertising; banner ads; promoting websites through search engine optimization; using websites that support customers to gather travel information, review posting, and opinions like TripAdvisor; getting blogs to mention information about destinations; making customers subscribe to Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds; etc.

ICT and Sustainable Tourism Sustainable tourism is outlined as tourism that addresses the requirements of tourists, the industry, the environment, and host communities while taking into consideration present and future economic, social, and environmental consequences (World Tourism Organization, 2005). The ICT is playing a role in ensuring sustainability in the tourism industry also. On the environmental sustainability part, softwares have been developed to assess the carbon emission due to different tourism activities. These softwares can guide travel companies and tourists in selecting air routes that consume less fuel. Technology has reached a stage that lighter aircrafts are built so that fuel consumption is reduced. Energy-efficient buildings are designed with the help of technological developments resulting in reduction of usage of energy for lights and room heating. A good amount of water is saved with the help of devices that could control the excess usage of water. The water used in swimming pools is treated and reused in most of the accommodation units. There are also technology developments to treat waste as well as sewage water efficiently. Destination management systems have been developed so that the sensitive ecological regions as well as heritage sites are protected from overcrowding. ICT also helps in promoting local culture and traditions and thereby ensuring a social responsibility in tourism. The

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technology developments have also helped in developing a good human capital for tourism industry. The online courses provided by various platforms have played an important role in uplifting the quality of staff and their service in the destinations.

New Trends in ICT and Tourism The nature of tourism has changed with the new trends of ICT development. All stakeholders of tourism industry are successfully using these new developments to their advantage. This has fundamentally changed the way in which how tourists experience travel, destinations promote themselves, and the tourism industry rates their success. The last one decade has seen significant changes in the ICT development and its application in tourism and travel industry. The section below details out the various development of ICT in relation to tourism and travel industry and also the application of these technologies by the industry in Asian region.

Augmented and Virtual Reality (AR and VR) Augmented reality (AR) is the real-time integration of digital data with the user’s environment. It works with the current environment and adds additional information on top of it (WhatIs.com, n.d.-a). Virtual reality (VR) is a completely artificial world generated using software and presented to the user in such a way that the user suspends their disbelief and accepts it as genuine. Virtual reality is typically experienced on a computer using two of the five senses: sound and sight (WhatIs.com, n.d.-b). There has been an increased use of augmented and virtual reality by the tourism industry in the past few years for enhancing the customer experiences as well as marketing and promotional campaigns. AR has excessive potentials to augment travelers’ experiences with innovative mobile apps providing navigation, useful information, translations, guides, etc. Hospitality industry uses AR for creating tours of all-around room with rates, accommodation details, etc. On the advertisement front, it helps to realize information on a new level by creating printed flyers’ 3D animations. AR may be able to convert a city map into a multi-language interactive guide to help the tourists in an unfamiliar destination (Think Mobiles, n.d.). Virtual tours allow travelers for experiencing a destination for holiday beforehand their trip booking (CNBC, 2016). Airlines and hotels started using VR technology for showing travelers the cabins in advance for increasing sales of ticket/room booking or ancillary services. Google Earth VR helps one fly around the earth to visit any place with large detail. Tourists can enter a setting that recreates a historical scene or structure, giving them the feeling of being transported back in time. Ancient structures or monuments that have been severely damaged or even destroyed can be recreated to their former state using virtual reality. Many visitors will be able to visit sites that are closed to the general public owing to sensitivity or delicate nature, such as an old tomb, a privately held region, or a conserved natural environment, thanks to travel VR (Omnivirt,

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2018). Walt Disney CEO Bob Iger stated that he prefers AR to virtual reality headsets. His claim is that AR is more social, conversational, and anxious than traditional reality (Think Mobiles, n.d.). Japan National Tourism Organization released a 360 degree VR 3-minute video introducing 16 destinations providing a simulated experience of visiting Japan in 2018 (Japan National Tourism Organization, 2018). A light show theme park at Haining, near Shanghai in China, uses VR technology and features virtual models and animals that wear the up-to-date leather fashion items. Also, the Guangzhou zoo allows visitors to know more about numerous species in a VR zone. In addition, in Guizhou province, an aquarium has a wall of virtual jellyfish that are touch sensitive. Baidu’s Encyclopedia Digital Museum has created virtual forms of Beijing’s National Museum, the Forbidden City, China’s ancient Terracotta Army, and numerous sculptures and art venues allowing users to experience them without having to physically visit (Digital Crew, n.d.). The Singapore Tourism Board (STB) created an AR camera filter on Facebook, which allows users to find the most exciting locations around Singapore in 2019 (The Drum, 2019). According to Asian Journeys (2019), BALIKSG, a smartphone app, was launched in 2019 as part of the Singapore bicentennial commemoration. This app has a new augmented reality path that takes the users on a tour down the Singapore River and around Fort Canning. Thus, the users can experience and rediscover important events as witnessing the signing of the 1819 treaty at the Padang, listening to a conversation between Sir Stamford Raffles and Major William Farquhar when they set foot on the shores, and also revisiting Fort Canning back when this was known as Bukit Larangan and Government Hill. The Rift in Mid Valley Megamall and VAR LIVE in MyTOWN Shopping Centre, Kuala Lumpur, are said to be Malaysia’s largest hybrid theme parks to date, with over 20 high-tech game attractions using virtual and augmented reality technology ranging from free-roaming terminators, thrill rides, laser battles, treasure and historical gateway, dodge ball, motor racing, river ride, hurricane trap, puzzled maze, haunting cabins, shooting competition, and vibrated wall climbing (MIDA, 2020). In India, the Karnataka Tourism Department had started a project in 2018 to get a layer of augmented reality for 20 heritage tourism sites in the state. The project budgeted at Rs. 1200 million, which includes technological and physical amenities, is being implemented by private entities (ET Tech.com, 2018). SunExpress airlines of Turkey has revealed a new virtual reality (VR) experience to enhance the onboard experience for passengers; this features a branded cabin atmosphere within the VR experience, many LEGO City VR movies, and a magazine that folds out into a poster in each seat (Future Travel Experience, 2019a).

Artificial Intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is a technique for programming a computer, a computercontrolled robot, or software for thinking intelligently in the same way as intelligent humans do (Tutorialspoint, n.d.). In 1956, John McCarthy used this term and defined

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it as “the science and engineering of making intelligent machines” (McCarthy, 2007: p.2). The travel and tourism industry has started banking on AI on many of its novel technologies and innovations. Now let us look at the applications in which AI is used in the travel and tourism industry

Machine Language Machine learning (ML) is an AI application that offers systems the capacity for automatically learning and improving from experience without being unambiguously programmed (Expert System, n.d.-a). The hotel industry and airlines are able to make recommendations that help personalize offers on products based on the tourists’ past preferences. For this it depends on tourist’s data from various functional sources and analyzes his/her overall behavior and trends for offering products that suit them. Amadeus is functioning on to support the mixing of ML technology to enhance its Amadeus Airline Platform and other solutions to offer airlines business advices on flight management, merchandising, scheduling, digital experience, and advanced revenue management technology (The Blue Swan Daily, 2019a). Dorchester Collection hotel chain from Brunei has made the use of the Metis AI platform for sorting through data collected via surveys, online reviews, etc. and analyzing this to draw conclusions about overall performance (Revfine, n.d.-a). Arbitrip, an online booking tool from Tel Aviv based Arigato Advanced Travel Technology, developed a “price monitoring” feature using ML algorithms for studying booking requirements and user preferences and can now automatically rebook rooms in hotels for businesses in case better room becomes available or the price decreases (The Blue Swan Daily, 2019b). Chatbot A chatbot is artificial intelligence software that can mimic a natural language discussion (or chat) with a user via messaging apps, websites, mobile apps, or the telephone (Expert System, n.d.-b). Currently, in chatbots, there are more than 4 million active users per month. Chatbots are used as mobile travel companions for providing answers to issues such as knowing the baggage allowance, nearest business lounge, gate numbers, and how long it can take to the airport (Marktechpost, 2018). Hello Hipmunk, a personal virtual travel assistant, has merged with messaging platforms, such as Facebook, Slack, and Skype, and provides all-around assistance to provide instant and contextually pertinent advice (Analytics India Magazine, 2018). Roomfilla, whose base of properties located mostly in Southeast Asia, offers a chatbot for vacation rentals, connecting up owners with travelers (Chatbot Pack, n.d.). Miko, a supersmart chatbot, part of the Japan Trip Navigator acts like a virtual travel concierge that helps tourists to identify the most demanded tourist attractions. The chatbot answers questions using Japan Tourism Board’s knowledge resources and from the input of information and images from other travelers who use the app (Microsoft Asia News Center, 2018). Hong Kong-based TravelFlan uses personalized chatbots to drive revenue creation from flight, air, hotel, and local experience

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bookings. About 70% of TravelFlan’s business come from China, while 20% is from South Korea, and 10% from Southeast Asia. Every Samsung Galaxy phone in Korea comes with preinstalled TravelFlan’s product (Technode, 2020). VirtualSpirits chatbot introduced by Flying Carpet, one of the largest online travel agencies in Israel, could attend to more travelers, answer their questions, and point them to the right information and offers (Virtual Spirits, n.d.). Amanda, the chatbot from Amadeus that makes about 120 conversations per hour or answers over 1,000 questions from travel agents, offers 24/7 responses, and makes interaction in three languages, is now available in more than 80 countries including Malaysia and the Philippines in Asia (The Blue Swan Daily, 2019c). In Singapore, the Andaz Singapore is the first hotel for launching the chatbot system ConcierGO; it is designed for improving the experience of guests through technology with the support of the Singapore Tourism Board (Travel Weekly Asia, 2018). Asiana Airlines of South Korea, which launched its AI-enabled chatbot, Aaron in 2017, is rapidly growing in popularity with a 300 percent increase in users per annum. With the success rate, the airline is planning to introduce AI in many areas, including reservation, customer guidance, and analyzing the aircraft operation environment (Korea IT Times Global News Network, 2020). Japanese-based Bespoke launched chatbot adviser Bebot to inform passengers about the updates on the coronavirus outbreak including news, statistics, government’s contact information, transmission rates, etc. Passengers can make query to the chatbot on diverse virus-related and health questions, including preventative measures, symptoms, and treatment procedures (Airport Technology, 2020). AI chatbot “AskDisha” (Digital Interaction to Seek Help Anytime) was launched by the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Limited (IRCTC) in 2018 for improving customer services of railway passengers. The chatbot is able for making quick answers to customer queries, offering round-the-clock customer support and multitask, so as to provide customer with a stress-free experience (NDTV Profit, 2018). The Indian companies MakeMyTrip and Goibibo which merged in 2017 have AI-powered chatbots named Gia and Myra, respectively. This is reported that the customers are able to book tickets on MakeMyTrip, with their voice using chatbots (Business Line, 2019).

Facial Recognition Facial recognition is another development of AI that helps in scrutiny of travel documents of travelers. AI when combined with blockchain helps in easy identification of customers at airports, immigration, customs, restaurants, and entertainment facilities with a simple facial scan (Mindtree, 2018). According to SITA, 77% of airports and 71% of airlines intend to invest in biometric face recognition technology globally, with the Asia Pacific (APAC) region leading the way (Apex, 2019). In the current COVID-19 scenario, keeping in mind the requirement for social distancing and a totally contactless travel experience, facial recognition technology is gaining momentum. Even touchscreen technology is now being spurned in favor of facial recognition to ensure that passengers need not to touch anything as they travel.

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The customs agency is planning to deploy an electronic customs process system with facial recognition at six major Japanese airports’ customs inspection facilities: New Chitose Airport, Haneda Airport, Narita International Airport, Kansai International Airport, Chubu International Airport, and Fukuoka Airport. Thus, the customs procedures at the airport would ease and hasten as the face recognition technology can check the identities of travelers while using such system passing through exit gates and electronic declaration terminals (Future Travel Experience, 2019b). At Senai International Airport in Johor, Malaysian low-cost airline AirAsia has already piloted face recognition security checks for flight boarding and plans for rolling out the technology in other Malaysian airports (Biometric Update.com, 2019). The Hong Kong International Airport (HKIA) has started using single token identity with the help of biometrics for passing through numerous checkpoints with facial recognition. In September 2018, the Airport Authority of Hong Kong installed the automated eSecurity gates that can process security checks in around 20 seconds (Biometric Update.com, 2019). Sydney Airport pursued facial recognition trial with Qantas Airways and also tested the technology for checking in, dropping baggage, lounge access, and processing boarding since 2018 (Airport Review, 2019). At the Dubai International Airport, 12.3 million passengers used the biometric tunnel and the smart gates in 2019 that registered an increase of 7.4 percent over the last year. The passengers had to only show their faces as they walked through the tunnel to complete their passport control formalities (Gulf News, 2020).

Robot A robot is a machine that uses artificial intelligence to do one or more activities automatically and precisely. Robotic technology is promptly gaining in acceptance in the travel industry owing to changing consumer habits with regard to tourism. Hotels and airports have started using robots for customer service. Many of them can communicate in and understand multiple languages. The Nagasaki-based Henn-na Hotel is credited as being the world’s first robotstaffed hotel. Using speech, facial recognition, and AI technologies, robots are employed on the front desk, as customer information points, and for storage reasons (Revfine, n.d.-b). In March, 2018, a high-tech hotel in Chengdu, China, employed intelligent robots which are capable to keep customers company and to entertain them with storytelling and singing (China Plus, 2018). In December 2018, Alibaba opened its first robotized future hotel FlyZoo in Hangzhou, China. This hotel boasts a 1-meter-tall robot that serves as a concierge, escorting guests to their rooms, giving room service, doing laundry, and even serving as a server in the hotel restaurant. The bartender is a robotic arm capable of mixing over 20 distinct drink combinations (Daxue Consulting, 2019). A robotic suitcase, Travelmate, is developed to follow its owner autonomously, with the help of 360 degree turning competences and collision detection technology so that it need not be carried anymore. The San Francisco-based start-up Travelmate Robotics announced the global debut of its autonomous suitcase in Korea in

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November 2017 (The Investor, 2017). As part of increasing the airport security, robots are used for assisting human staff members. Knightscope robots are used in a few airports for the aim to detect hidden items and concealed weapons that are not allowed on flights. There are also robot luggage porters and butlers (Revfine, n.d.-b). “Yoyo,” an intellectual robot tour guide, was placed to be used in a picturesque place in Changsha, Hunan Province, in China in April 2018. The robot showed the tourists around giving brief introduction of the scenic spot, answered questions from tourists using voice recognition software, as well as sang and danced to amuse visitors (China Plus, 2018). In Guangdong Province, China, the world’s first ever “robot restaurant complex” has opened, with over 40 robots capable to serve and prepare over 200 meals. Robot waiters take orders from guests, and then food is either brought in on a tray or from a skyrail directly to their tables (World Economic Forum, 2020). China’s first fully robot-operated restaurant was opened earlier in January 2020 by Country Garden Holdings Co. Ltd. in Guangzhou. Robot waiters greet customers at the entrance, guide them to their seats, suggest specials of the day, and finally take orders (Gizmochina, 2020). In the Japanese Dawn Ver café opened in 2018, robots are instructed to move, observe, and talk to customers and carry objects of paralyzed people, who can only move their eyes (BBC News, 2018). Robots have already taken up the role of waiters in hotels even in India. A 74-seater restaurant, named “Robot,” which serve food to the customers was launched at Mahabalipuram in 2018 year (Business Line, 2018). Taiwanese carrier EVA Air has launched a robot named “Pepper” at both Taipei Taoyuan and Taipei Songshan Airports that provides information and directions to travelers (Business Traveller, 2019a). In the COVID-19 situation, disinfection robots have been implemented at Hamad International Airport in Qatar. Disinfectant robots are completely autonomous mobile machines that produce concentrated UV-C light and are effective at killing infectious germs. The robots are also used in high-traffic areas to help prevent the spread of diseases (Future Travel Experience, 2020). In AIDA Cruises and Costa Cruises ships, “Pepper,” a robot, provides guests with information and helps navigate their way around the decks (The Telegraph, 2018).

Social Media Listening Tools There are also a number of social media listening tools developed using AI to tackle the problems of a tourist. If the customer posts on social media stating the frustration during pre-, during, or post travel, the listening tool analyzes the customer’s intent and gives out real-time interventions that could deliver a positive effect. Additional information, assisting the client in comprehending the issue, providing more alternatives that can suit the customer’s needs, and offering a discount on the next purchase are all possible interventions (Mindtree, 2018). The airline sector in the Asian region has been using social media effectively and depends heavily on the social media listening tools to answer the queries or give feedback to customers. There is significant number of retweets in the twitter accounts held by the Cathay Pacific Airlines, Qatar Airways, as well as Singapore Airlines, which is a testimony to this (Locowise, 2015).

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Internet of Things The Internet has played a big role in the revolution of travel and tourism industry in the last two decades in restructuring its operations and providing personalized guest experience. The Internet of Things (IoT) is a straightforward idea that entails linking all digital items to the Internet in order to make them “smart” (eZee Absolute, 2020). The Internet of Things has aided the travel and hotel sector in improving client experiences and lowering operating expenses.

Personalization With the aid of IoT technology, guests’ specific requirements such as adjusting room temperature; controlling TV, elevators, and heaters; turning lighting on and off; scheduling wake-up calls; customizing meal selection; and so on may be met. Hotels may send electronic key cards to visitors’ cellphones, allowing them to check in and out, interact with their room’s temperature, and operate the television (Skift, 2016). The products that are used in hospitality industry using IoT include the following: • Amazon Alexa allows guests to voice control various smart gadgets in their rooms, including lighting, thermostats, blinds, and TVs, as well as request room service tailored to their preferences for a more customized experience. • Mount Kelvin, which allows visitors to customize their in-room tastes and comforts by using wireless switches, smartphone apps, or voice control devices to manage lighting, heating, curtains, and air conditioning. • Flic that offers a wireless Bluetooth button with customizable options to notify the concerned departments in a hotel for services like ordering for coffee, towels, linen, etc. • Nest Thermostats (Google Nest) are smart thermostats that cool or heat hotel rooms based on the preferences of guests from anywhere in the hotel. • Valpas is a bed bug preventive device that detects and eliminates bed bugs. In Japan, the &And Hostel in Akihabara has created an IoT service that allows guests to manage the temperature and humidity of their rooms while they are gone and alerts the hotel if anything is wrong. The IoT facility also aids with check-in and checkout, TV and air conditioning management, and voice control via a smart speaker, which provides information such as shower availability and the location of nearby convenience stores (Tokyo Weekender, 2018). In August 2017, the first AI voice control hotel in China opened in Hangzhou. By speaking to an intelligent speaker, guests may control the lights, curtains, and television in their hotel room, as well as obtain information about meal times, summon room service, and even order a cab (China Plus, 2018). Swissôtel The Stamford in Singapore has developed a hotel room control system that allows visitors to change the lighting and temperature and make room service orders with a single button press. This can also inform hotel personnel if a room is occupied, allowing them to react to visitor requests more

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quickly, improve operations, and conserve energy (HT Hospitality Technology, 2018). Le Meridian Goa, Calangute, has created an IoT-enabled hotel in India that decreases energy usage, while providing an outstanding guest experience (eZee Absolute, 2020).

Real-Time Information Real-time information-like procedures for flight change, booking connecting flights, providing directions on gates at airports, and information on security checks are provided to various smart devices the travelers carry with the help of IoT applications. In April 2017, Malaysia Airlines announced its plans to launch a satellitebased system that would provide real-time flight tracking data across the world (IoT Hub, 2017). Following the loss of a Malaysia Airlines aircraft on its way from Kuala Lumpur to Beijing in 2014, the system was created. In-Flight Experience The cabin crew is given information on passengers’ anxiety levels, heart rates, body temperatures, and hydration levels, among other things, so that they may provide comfort to them via IoT sensors implanted in the plane’s seats. The FlightBeat project, which was created by Dutch students in collaboration with KLM Airlines, employed ECG-embedded cabin seats to send passenger data to a flight attendant’s tablet device in real time. Similarly, British airlines developed the “Happiness Blanket” test to see how biometric data might be used to distinguish service. Passengers were requested to wear portable neurosensors connected to a headband, and the blanket would change red if the people produced worried or nervous impulses and blue if they felt calm and relaxed, providing the cabin staff with an easy representation of passengers who required care (Travelport Locomote, n.d.). Similar improvements have not been witnessed in the Asian region’s flight operations. Streamlined Operations With the aid of IoT, airport operations are simplified on a daily basis. Passengers may use their smartphones to track their belongings. The luggage will be able to track down the travelers and send signals to their gadgets. Sensors and RFID tags on baggage will let travelers quickly identify their belongings. Delta Airlines was the first airline in the United States to adopt RFID luggage monitoring in 2016 (Travelport Locomote, n.d.). The Hong Kong International Airport has already deployed an RFID-embedded baggage loading device that uses IoT technology to detect, record, and verify the proper baggage to be loaded onto planes, as well as send out notifications in the event of mismatches (Future IOT, 2018). Taiwan’s high-speed rail system has used IoT technology to monitor different aspects including trains and tracks, resulting in almost 99 percent of train arrivals and departures occurring within 6 seconds of the scheduled time. In a full year of service, Siemens’ 16 IoT-enabled trains travelling several times daily from Moscow to St. Petersburg had suffered only 9 delays (Breadware, 2019).

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Safety and Security With the centralized management of IoT-enabled cameras and sensors, hotels and airlines may deploy security procedures. With the aid of sensors in shipments, hotels can even follow supply chain operations. Dubai International Airport was one of Asia’s first airports to use “smart” security gates with automated identification, reducing traveler wait times (Internet of Business, n.d.). ChillTravel, a Uruguayan start-up, has released two tools that let travelers track their checked bags. “Chill Wrap,” a “smart skin” for checked luggage composed of an ultra-resistant wrap that is difficult to cut in order to remove it, protects against damage and airport robbers. Because the wrap is equipped with Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) technology, the traveler can track their bags and get notifications at the baggage belt. “Chill Tracker,” a small BLE tracker, is meant to ensure the recovery of lost things at airports and flights, such as wallets, tablets, computers, phones, passports, glasses, and other personal items. When the lost item is returned to the airport’s lost and found office, the tracker notifies the owner that the item has been found (Apex, 2017). Tourist Experience With the IoT technology, tourists will be capable to find and locate travel-related information on places to visit in nearby locations such as parks, gardens, or other sightseeing points they need from their smartphones. Sensors will be installed everywhere in the city to help locate bus stops and parking lots as well as for collecting data about travelers’ habits and their reactions toward diverse attractions, defining patterns and enhancing tourists’ experience. Maintenance With the aid of sensors on jet engines and airplane parts, the maintenance personnel of aircrafts may be given real-time information about the aircraft parts and systems, as well as when the things need to be changed or repaired. After implementing IoT to accomplish predictive maintenance for its aircrafts, Cathay Pacific has saved hundreds of thousands of dollars in operating and reactive repair expenses for each aircraft (Computerweekly.com, 2018). IoT applications can be utilized to reduce total airplane fuel costs and usage. AirAsia is implementing IoT technology to enhance its fuel management program, expecting to save between US$30 and US$50 million by 2021 (Travelport Locomote, n.d.). Malaysia Airlines has introduced AMOS, a system that controls more than 100 end-to-end engineering procedures, helping the airline’s engineering department to better manage costs and enhance efficiency in aviation maintenance (Malaysia Airlines, 2019).

Voice Technology As more consumers migrate from typing to voice interactions, another significant trend is speech technologies. Voice-activated gadgets are being tested by an increasing number of hotels and airlines. Amazon Echo with Alexa, Google Home with

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Google Assistant, and Apple HomePod with Siri are the most popular speech AI systems. There are also smartphone assistants, such as Microsoft’s Cortana and Samsung’s Bixby (Gonzalo, 2018). According to Microsoft data, travelers in the United Kingdom are increasingly using their Cortana digital assistant on mobile devices to explore lodgings, with flight searches up 277 percent and hotel searches up 343 percent year over year (Hotel News Resource, 2018). An interactive translating device called “Pocketalk” has been introduced by All Nippon Airways at 50 airports in Japan that can translate up to 74 languages including numerous dialects and commonly applied idiomatic phrases. The ground staff of the airlines use a device to communicate with passengers. The microphone of the device processes what a passenger is saying and translate it into Japanese for the staff member (Business Traveller, 2019b). In the COVID-19 situation, Etihad Airways will be putting a new piece of equipment to the test that uses speech recognition to help detect people with medical symptoms by monitoring body temperatures, heart rates, and breathing rates without contaminating surfaces with viruses or germs (What’s On, 2020).

Wi-Fi Connectivity Wi-Fi connectivity has become an important element for communication for the traveler. While travelling, they need to get connected to get details about the destinations, options for stays and food, as well as for booking purpose. The business tourists want to be connected to Internet wherever they move. Some are interested to share their experience through social media. All this require uninterrupted Wi-Fi connectivity. THAI Airways had started providing in-flight Wi-Fi Internet service on its Airbus A380-800 and A330-300 (33H) flights starting from February 2014 on payment basis (THAI, n.d.). Singapore Airlines is providing unlimited Wi-Fi for its first class and suite passengers from 1 August 2019 (Get Connected, 2019). Currently many other airlines in the Asian region including Air Asia, Air China, All Nippon Airways, China Eastern Airways, Emirates, Etihad Airways, Garuda, Gulf Air, Hong Kong Airlines, Philippine Airlines, Qatar Airways, Saudi Arabian Airlines, and Turkish Airlines have started providing Wi-Fi connectivity either free of charge or on payment basis (eDreams, 2018). The connectivity at sea was slow and costly for a long time, but the tide is turning now. The cruise liners are providing Internet packages like Voom on Royal Caribbean ships and Xcelerate from Celebrity Cruises which has speeds high enough to stream movies. Carnival has launched MedallionNet in 2019, which is one of the fastest Internet connection at sea (The Telegraph, 2018).

Wearable Technology Wearable technology refers to electronic devices that may be worn on the body as an accessory or as part of the fabric of clothes. Wearable technology comes in various forms, but activity trackers and smart watches are two of the most

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popular (Investopedia, n.d.). The travel industry including cruises, airlines, resorts, theme parks, etc. that has consistent interaction with their customers has benefitted the most out of the technology. The Walt Disney Company has implemented a wearable, customized, RFID-equipped MagicBand that links to the theme park infrastructure and works as the visitors’ hotel key or theme park ticket, allowing users to skip long lines and therefore eliminate wait times (Travel Weekly, 2017). As part of an initiative to optimize efficiency, staff members at San Diego International Airport have been equipped with smartwatches. The nearest staff members will be alerted via their smartwatch so that they can quickly respond, when an IT issue is reported (Future Travel Experience, 2017a). United Airlines was the first airline to provide a Fitbit Ionic wristwatch app that allows passengers to get flight status information and their boarding ticket (Future Travel Experience, 2017b). Spryng, a smart accessory that is supposed to assist business class transiting customers feel more refreshed, has been launched at SriLankan Airlines’ Serendib Lounge at Colombo’s Bandaranaike International Airport (BIA) in collaboration with MAS Holdings. Spryng is a wireless, active pneumatic compression wrap that helps relieve muscular soreness by boosting blood circulation and improving cellular oxygen supply by simulating natural muscle contractions in the calves. The airlines want to make this service available aboard (Future Travel Experience, 2019c). All Nippon Airways of Japan has introduced a hearable device, called BONX Grip, designed to simplify communication between flight attendants on board in May 2019. The device has replaced the role of intercom in facilitating communication between flight attendants of wide-body aircraft like Airbus A380 and give them more options as they work together to meet passenger needs (Future Travel Experience, 2019d). Jet Airways became the first airline in India in April 2015 to offer an app for the Apple Watch by which passengers who already have the carrier’s iPhone could synchronize it with their Apple Watch to access features, such as real-time flight status, alerts for upcoming trips, and special offers from the airline (Future Travel Experience, 2015a). Singapore Airlines also launched the Apple Watch app, with a feature called “glance view” that offers trip real-time information and reminders as when check-in counters remain open (Future Travel Experience, 2015b). At Tokyo Haneda Airport, Japan Airlines provided its gate agents with smart watches that allow them to receive location-specific assignments from the control desk, which can track their locations via iBeacons (Future Travel Experience, 2014). In the COVID-19 scenario, Qatar’s Hamad International Airport has launched the smart screening helmet, a wearable intelligent helmet that utilizes infrared thermal imaging, AI, and augmented reality to enable the execution of mobile deploymentbased control scenarios. The helmet is safe and portable and enables contactless measurement of temperature (Future Travel Experience, 2020). Most of the cruise liners that operate in the Asian region uses wearable technology for various operations. The WOWbands Royal Caribbean which look like watch straps use radio frequency technology to open the cabin door. Also, Carnival Corporation’s wearable Ocean Medallion having the size of a coin

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can be worn as a necklace or a bracelet along with the Ocean Compass app can unlock the cabin door as one approach and can order drink, food, and retail items on demand. It also helps parents track their children where they are at the moment. The Ocean Medallion also can create links to any credit card which helps in making payments easy. MSC for Me of MSC Cruises is an interactive wristband, which provides 130 smart features that includes speedy reservation service and digital wayfinder. The wearable bracelet (cruise card) interacts with many thousands of sensors on board and monitors children in real time and knows where they are for parents. The interactive bracelet helps staff members to quickly know who the passenger is and their first language that adds a pleasure to the customer service. Also, the bracelet can also be used for making payments for various purchases (The Telegraph, 2018).

Mobile Apps A mobile application is a piece of software that runs on a mobile device like a smartphone or tablet computer (Techopedia, n.d.). There has been a huge increase in the number of people using travel apps in their mobile phones. According to a poll conducted by Travelport Digital, 25% of respondents had at least one mobile travel app loaded on their cellphones (TravelBizmonitor.com, 2018). The tourism and travel industry is also responding favorable by coming up with new mobile apps. Malaysia Airlines launched three mobile applications in 2018, namely, MHguardian that enables guardians or parents to track unaccompanied minors in their travel with the airlines, MHfeedback that allows customers to share their feedback and their experience with the airlines anonymously and Facebook messenger, and BOT MHChat which allows the passengers of Malaysian Airlines to book, make payment, and retrieve their flight itineraries (Malaysia Airlines, 2018). In 2018, the Russian airline Aeroflot added a bankcard recognition module to its mobile applications, allowing customers to enter all card data just by putting the card in front of the camera on their device. Document scanning and identification are also included in the mobile app, allowing you to recognize ID papers and utilize them to automatically fill in passenger data boxes (The Blue Swan Daily, 2018). In 2019, Singapore Airlines released its new mobile app “Capture and Discover,” which includes a search function that uses image recognition, speech, and natural language (English only) processing to identify user intent, match it to a destination that the airline flies to, and display relevant information about the destination. The app also features a “measure your baggage” feature that helps passengers determine if their luggage fits under cabin baggage restrictions (Business Traveller, 2019c). In 2014, Emirates introduced a smartphone application called “the Journey Manager” to allow the airline’s airport employees to obtain real-time information that would allow them for responding to passenger demands more quickly. Following that, Emirates continued to develop mobile applications with innovative features such as the ability to preview the seat and overall onboard product via 3D cabin models before travelling, bid on tickets for

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highly sought after sports and cultural events sponsored by Emirates around the world, navigate through Emirates’ hub, Dubai International Airport, and easily find the way to the gate (Emirates, 2018). In July 2019, All Nippon Airways, a Japanese airline, added push notification capabilities to its smartphone app to convey flight information, such as delays and cancellations (The Blue Swan Daily, 2019d). The Vietnamese International low-cost carrier launched the “VietJet Sky Club,” an integrated program, which shortens the process of booking and includes bank’s wider network in the payment as a part of its improved mobile app in July 2019. The app also helps customers for checking in online and receiving information on changing flight hours over the program (The Blue Swan Daily, 2019e). In light of the COVID-19 situation, the AirAsia Group announced intentions to implement contactless processes, such as contactless payment choices, kiosks, and increased functionality on its mobile app (The Blue Swan Daily, 2020). Users can get real-time flight information, use one-touch Wi-Fi, navigate with Google Indoor Maps, connect to Android devices, access the must try and must buy service for F&B and retail, receive notifications based on their location, and provide feedback about their experience with the new app introduced by Bangalore International Airport Limited (BIAL) (Future Travel Experience, n.d.). Passengers can make dinner reservations from anywhere on the ship using mobile phone applications like Carnival Corporation’s Ocean Compass, MSC for Me, Royal Caribbean’s Royal iQ, and NCL’s iConcierge (The Telegraph, 2018).

Redefining Travel with Big Data Analytics Big data assists in the analysis of traveler patterns by gathering data from many sources, allowing travel and tourism firms to make quick choices in response to changing client demand. According to The State of Data in Travel Survey 2017, 65 percent of travel companies have a dedicated data analysis team, with 75 percent planning to expand their data analytics expenditure in 2017 (ClickZ Marketing Technology Transformation, 2017). Big data technologies like Hadoop and cloud-based analytics give ample data storage capacity and show data gathered from a variety of sources in an organized style (Future Market Insights, n.d.). The big data analytics help the travel industry business in the following ways.

Personalization The big data analytics help in providing the tourists personalized service based on analyzing the large quantity of personal data on the customer’s behaviors and preferences based on the previous interactions in the social media platforms. This will result in more loyal consumers, which will lead to greater sales for the business (Alexsoft, 2018). InterContinental Hotels Group (IHG) and Amadeus collaborated to create IHG Concerto, a cloud-based guest reservation system that allows them to

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promote direct bookings by giving tailored offers based on previous reservations and suggesting a larger range of booking choices.

Competitive Differentiation Big data analysis helps the travel companies to understand why customers are preferring their company to other competitors. When the companies differentiate their products and services from their competitors, they will stand out. These differentiations can be used to design new products or promotions that appeal specifically to consumers. For example, a hotel may utilize big data to automatically provide accommodation alternatives to a customer if he misses a connecting flight. Amadeus, a global distribution system (GDS), provides tools like “extreme search” and “featured results” that let travelers obtain extremely precise answers to questions like “When are the cheapest tickets to Madrid available?” or “Can I go someplace for $500?” without having to submit a lengthy query (Exastax, 2017). Improving Pricing Strategy Big data analytics can provide a real-time view of the current offers tracking, indexing, and analyzing competitors’ prices. This would help companies to come up with track changes in pricing and consistent pricing strategy. In addition to this, dynamic analyses can be applied for presenting a consistent price information. Data scientists and analysts work for global hotel chains like Marriott International and AccorHotels to create and apply pricing models based on data on hotels and rivals. In 2014, Starwood Hotels, now merged with Marriott International, invested more than $50 million to introduce its revenue optimizing system for leveraging data analytics for pricing rooms accordingly (Alexsoft, 2018). KAYAK employs analytical models in air travel to guarantee that prices listed on its website are consistent with those on airline websites and has recently launched flight price forecasting, which forecasts whether the price of a certain trip will rise or fall over the following 7 days (Exastax, 2017). Improving Marketing Strategy Big data analytics enable the travel and tourism industry to assess the level of acceptance for a service or a product by potential customers and thereby enable the company to refine its marketing strategy. This would also help the digital marketers to design the right marketing strategies and also maximize their return on interest through personalized marketing messages. Radisson Hotel Group has taken a data-driven approach to track market trends and analyze customer buying behavior and patterns for developing its marketing, communication, and brand strategy (Alexsoft, 2018). Real-Time Assistance The travel and tourism industry while capturing big data through mobile devices is able to get the current locations of the travelers. This helps the companies in providing assistance and recommendations to the travelers. The traveler could be advised on the nearby attractions, hotels, or restaurants.

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Ability to Meet Future Needs By analyzing big data, the travel company can analyze the future needs of the prospective travelers. The tourism organizations in the country can know about the prospective customers to different destinations so that resources could be allocated in the most effective way. A cruise liner may be able to decide on the stop over for the trip based on customer preferences. An airline will be able to decide on the frequency flights to a particular destination.

Blockchain Technology Blockchain is a system that records all of a network’s transactions between participants in a public ledger. Each register is encrypted and organized into blocks that form a chain making the term of blockchain. The main characteristics of blockchain technology is that the data is decentralized, immutable, and secured. This makes payments more securable and traceable (We are marketing, 2018). Microsoft and KPMG developed “KrisPay,” a digital wallet that allows Singapore Airlines customers to turn their frequent-flyer programs into payments (Bit Deal, 2019). In the tourism industry, many people travel based on the reviews written on websites. The reader may not be able to know who wrote this or the accuracy of the post. With the usage of blockchain, the information shown in the network is public and more authentic resulting in increased public trust. When blockchain is used in the airline industry, all information about passengers is recorded in a public ledger, and airlines may obtain different papers required for travel when passengers arrive at the airport, avoiding long lineups for the authentication procedure (Bit Deal, 2019). The blockchain technology also helps in tracking the baggage’s location at all times during travel. This technology also facilitates loyalty programs created by travel firms to ensure repeat customers by allowing customers to check their points and exchange them for the cryptocurrency if required. “Trippki” aims to create a loyalty program by applying blockchain allowing both companies and customers in the tourism industry to get in with each other’s direct contact (We are marketing, 2018). The technology also helps in avoiding middlemen in travel and tourism industry. Winding Tree, a start-up headquartered in Switzerland, is working on a decentralized travel reservation platform that aims to cut out the middlemen and significantly reduce the price up to 20% (We are marketing, 2018). The United Arab Emirate’s national airline Etihad Airways is partnering with Winding Tree to allow the airline to bypass third-party operators that presently manage its inventories as baggage tracking, flight times, and travel itineraries (Coindesk, 2019). The TUI Group has developed “Bed-Swap,” an in-house blockchain initiative that allows stocks to be moved between multiple points of sale and selling margins to be loosened according to current demand levels (Revfine, 2019). ShoCard and SITA are currently in the early stages of developing a platform for identity management using blockchain technology that eases the identification of individuals in hotels or airport checkpoints (We are marketing, 2018).

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5G Technology 5G refers to the fifth generation of mobile networks, which are intended to link practically everyone and everything, including machines, gadgets, and objects (Qualcomm, n.d.). The new technology would considerably reduce the latency time because of poor network, and the transmission of data is expected to be ten times quicker than 4G technology. It would also reduce time for communicating two devices to less than 1 millisecond and connect about one million devices per square kilometer (Tourism Review News, 2019). The new-generation network will be able to provide passenger information more accurately and in time in the transportation sector. Airlines install 5G infrastructure to enhance the existing Wi-Fi connectivity in their aircraft. As part of its aviation infrastructure expansion, China is pushing with 5G projects. In January 2020, Guangzhou Baiyun Airport became China’s first 5G-covered commercial airport, with a 5G base station that tested at rates of 1.14 gigabits per second (World Aviation Festival, 2020). The AI and the IoT application already adopted by the tourism industry will become more efficient with 5G technology. The technology will have huge implications on cultural experiences. Museums would be able to digitize and virtually store cultural resources. In the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, using 5G technology, a remote-controlled robotic arm was able to restore an art object with great accuracy (Tourism Review News, 2019).

Digital Divide in Tourism Digital divide is defined as “the gap between individuals, households, businesses and geographic areas at different socio-economic levels with regard both to their opportunities to access ICTs and to their use of the Internet for a wide variety of activities” (OECD, 2001: p.5). The international or global digital divide, which refers to the disparity in ICT access and usage between developed and developing societies, and the domestic or social digital divide, which deals with the gap between information included and excluded in each country, are the two main dimensions of the digital divide (Norris, 2001). Differences in GDP and income, human capital and digital skills, telecommunication infrastructure and connectivity, policy and regulatory mechanisms, and sociodemographic features can all contribute to the global digital divide. Gender, age, color and ethnicity, education, literacy, language, disability, place of residence, and geographical location are all factors that influence the domestic or social digital divide in various local communities and regions (urban vs. rural areas). Another type of digital divide is the horizontal or second-level split, which is based on variations in ICT users’ quality and intensity of usage, such as between productive and consuming users or power and passive users (Cho, 2004). We have seen how information technology has transformed the travel and tourism industry in the last one decade. There is not even one sector in the industry, which has not relied on this technological transformation. While the application of technology is growing globally and especially in the developed countries, we need to

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understand that there is a digital divide in tourism globally, which is reflected in Asian countries also. Only less than 10 out of 50 odd countries in Asia, Japan, China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, Israel, United Arab Emirates, and India, are using the ICT in the tourism industry. Even though these countries are using ICT, the extent to which they have made its applications in different areas of the tourism industry is also varying. The use of ICT by tourists is also increasing day by day across the globe for information search and vacation planning. This also varies with the people in developed areas as well as underdeveloped areas. Tourists in developed areas use the ICT to access travel-related data for decision-making, while the people in underdeveloped areas may not have access to Internet facilities. Even, tourists having access to ICTs may not use it because of lack of knowledge, skill, or technical reasons. Tourists who are not skilled at using the Internet face difficulty in online bookings through travel portals. On the tourism business part, destination management organizations and enterprises on the higher end or developed areas have started using the ICT facilities for the marketing and promotion to showcase their products. While on the other side, tourism destinations in underdeveloped areas as well as small and medium enterprises are cut off from ICT facilities and are excluded from the electronic distribution channels and e-commerce.

Conclusion Tourism in the coming years will be quite different from the last two decades with the technology developments disrupting the way the industry functions, bringing new challenges as well as opportunities in doing business. With the Asian countries taking up these challenges and offering new user-centric innovations, there is no doubt that new technological developments would bring many more potential travelers to the tourism fold. On addressing the issue of digital divide in tourism, it is important that both the tourists and relevant businesses advance their skills in ICT and use the available online resources and also create opportunities for small enterprises to enhance their ICT skills to place them to compete their tourism products in the global market.

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arbitrip-launches-new-price-monitoring-feature-that-automatically-re-books-a-hotel-room-ifthe-price-decreases/. Accessed 26 July 2020. The Blue Swan Daily. (2019c). Amanda the travel agency chatbot is answering more than 1,000 queries per day for Amadeus. Retrieved from: https://blueswandaily.com/amanda-the-travel-agencychatbot-is-answering-more-than-1000-queries-per-day-for-amadeus/. Accessed 26 July 2020. The Blue Swan Daily. (2019d). All Nippon Airways adds functions to ANA application. Retrieved from: https://blueswandaily.com/all-nippon-airways-adds-functions-to-ana-application/. Accessed 25 July 2020. The Blue Swan Daily. (2019e). VietJet Air launches ‘VietJet Sky Club’ programme to upgraded mobile app. Retrieved from: https://blueswandaily.com/vietjet-air-launches-vietjet-sky-clubprogramme-to-upgraded-mobile-app/. Accessed 25 July 2020. The Blue Swan Daily. (2020). AirAsia implements contactless procedures at airports in response to COVID-19. Retrieved from: https://blueswandaily.com/airasia-implements-contactless-proce dures-at-airports-in-response-to-covid-19/. Accessed 25 July 2020. The Drum. (2019). Singapore Tourism Board kicks off 2019 with Facebook AR filter and new Action Seekers film. Retrieved from: https://www.thedrum.com/news/2019/01/08/singa pore-tourism-board-kicks-2019-with-facebook-ar-filter-and-new-action-seekers. Accessed 17 July 2020. The Investor. (2017). Autonomous suitcase Travelmate makes global debut in Korea. Retrieved from: http://www.theinvestor.co.kr/view.php?ud¼20171122000780. Accessed 11 July 2020. The Telegraph. (2018). 11 new tech features that are transforming cruise ships – including geo-locators for your kids. Retrieved from: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/cruises/articles/ cruise-ship-technology-innovation/. Accessed 31 July 2020. Think Mobiles. (n.d.). Augmented reality in tourism. Retrieved from: https://thinkmobiles.com/ blog/augmented-reality-tourism/. Accessed 14 July 2020. Tokyo Weekender (2018). Experience the future of hospitality at this IoT smart hostel. Retrieved from: https://www.tokyoweekender.com/2018/01/experience-future-hospitality-iot-smart-hos tel/. Accessed 18 July 2020. Tourism Review News. (2019). 5G Technology potential in the tourism sector. Retrieved from: https://bit.ly/30lqaDV. Accessed 31 July 2020. Travel Weekly. (2017). Dressing for access: Wearable technology and travel. Retrieved from: https://www.travelweekly.com/Travel-News/Travel-Technology/Dressing-for-access-Wear able-technology-travel. Accessed 14 July 2020. Travel Weekly Asia. (2018). Andaz Singapore launches chatbot programme supported by STB. Retrieved from: https://www.travelweekly-asia.com/Travel-News/Hotel-News/Andaz-Singa pore-launches-chatbot-programme-supported-by-STB. Accessed 12 July 2020. TravelBizmonitor.com. (2018). Mobile travel trends 2018. Retrieved from: http://www. travelbizmonitor.com/Data-Analysis/mobile-travel-trends-2018-35565. Accessed 16 July 2020. Travelport Locomote. (n.d.). Top 5 Internet of things innovations in corporate travel. Retrieved from: https://blog.locomote.com/top-5-internet-of-things-innovations-in-corporate-travel. Accessed 17 July 2020. Tutorialspoint. (n.d.). Artificial intelligence – overview. Retrieved from: https://www.tutorialspoint. com/artificial_intelligence/artificial_intelligence_overview.htm. Accessed 15 July 2020. Virtual Spirits. (n.d.). Travel Chatbot for flying carpet, Israel’s leading online travel agency. Chatbots customer stories. Retrieved from: https://www.virtualspirits.com/chatbot-successstories-flying-carpet-travel-agency.aspx. Accessed 23 July 2020. We are marketing. (2018). What we can expect from blockchain in the tourism industry. Retrieved from: https://www.wearemarketing.com/blog/what-we-can-expect-from-blockchain-in-the-tour ism-industry.html#:~:text¼Blockchain%20and%20tourism%20have%20the,information%20to %20the%20different%20firms. Accessed 31 July 2020. What’s On. (2020). Etihad is trialling new tech that could spot early Covid-19 signs. Retrieved from: https://whatson.ae/2020/04/etihad-is-trialling-new-tech-that-could-spot-early-covid-19signs/. Accessed 26 July 2020.

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WhatIs.com. (n.d.-a). Augmented reality. Retrieved from: https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/ augmented-reality-AR. Accessed 14 July 2020. WhatIs.com. (n.d.-b). Virtual reality. Retrieved from: https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/ virtual-reality. Accessed 12 July 2020. World Aviation Festival. (2020). 5G takes off at world’s airports and in the skies. Retrieved from: https://worldaviationfestivalblog.com/5g-takes-off-at-worlds-airports-and-in-the-skies/. Accessed 31 July 2020. World Economic Forum. (2020). Welcome to China’s latest ‘robot restaurant’. Retrieved from: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/07/china-robots-ai-restaurant-hospitality/#:~:text¼The% 20world’s%20first%20ever%20’robot,and%20cooking%20over%20200%20dishes. Accessed 31 July 2020. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2005). Making tourism more sustainable – a guide for policy makers. UNWTO.

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The Internet Influences Asian Tourism Krishnan Umachandran and Mohamed Mohamed Tolba Said

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Management of Innovative Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Analysis on the Asian Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Becoming one of the notable and major recklessly rising economic sectors in Asia is tourism, which has grown incessantly over many decades as of now. The countries in this region have continuously been building on infrastructure which is ICT-ready, attracting tourists by harmonizing bargains and prospecting through tourist funds. Growth of tourism is always driven by improved communication, transportation, and innovated upgradation of travel products. Mobile Internet technologies have impacted the travel agencies, hotels, and airlines to provide a wider range of new experience with the customers. Mobile applications and cashless mobile payment have created data-driven services which are driving and changing the processes in hotels, restaurants, retailers, money exchangers, and banks. The expansion of tourism business has wide prospects that will endure a generation of incredible business opportunities for various destinations and its stakeholders. Social media is rapidly impacting the hospitality industry, through K. Umachandran (*) NELCAST Limited, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India M. M. T. Said Education and Islamic Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Jalan Gombak, Selangor, Malaysia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_3

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wide reach and peer reviews of the tourist operators, hotels, and transporters via online technologies, messaging systems with voice commands, and AI-machine learning to ensure authentic and unlimited traveler satisfaction. Winning destinations are those who connect the power of tourism and backup with creative upgraded amenities which contribute to their evolutions by low carbon emission, climate sustainable actions, and environment friendly and socially respectful sustainable development. Well-planned and effectively managed tourism can generate prospective outcome through people preparation, which is the key for the future. Widespread approach toward capacity-building programs targeting all tourist personnel and length and breadth of the spectrum should be involved to become more effective in the use of tourism-driven technology products. The study covers Malaysia, Indonesia, South Korea, and the Philippines. Keywords

Tourism strategic planning · Experience management · Economic development · Tourist product and services · Cultural tourism

Introduction Tourism is vital with innovative prospects, offering an increasingly wide variety of products and services that would consolidate it, as an industry (Northwest Territories Industry, Tourism and Investment, 2003). Today consumers are driving businesses to adopt mobile Internet technologies so that the enterprises leverage big data generated via the power of on-demand computing. The use of smartphones and mobile Internet generates market of high economic value. Smart applications have been developed expecting that the users can feel through the benefits of emerging technology applications such as virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and artificial intelligence (AI) in tourism business as a sales promo. In most cases, e-commerce allows tourists to electronically exchange goods and services with no barriers of time and distance and more options to compare and take opinion from reviews of best offer-discounts-deals. The operators can capitalize on huge customer base sales increase as the scope is wide for order booking and can be anytime and always an open-shop; business reach is phenomenal and transaction is quick. As argued, e-commerce platform thus facilitates the service provider and tourists with an ease to connect over the Internet (Umachandran et al., 2017). The impact of digital transformation on the aviation, travel, and tourism industry includes various platforms such as economy and societal perceptions. Identifying the target group for selling and purchasing tour products is diversified; hence a smart active way to reach them is through their mobile phones using Internet technology to interface people and product or service. The uprising of the IT has redesigned the communication arrangement by making it quicker, extensive, and further available for everyone. Internet has shaped an immense probability and prospects in various sectors such as business and leisure through networking of like communities. The wider application

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of Internet-supported activities will surely bring global connection (Hasan, 2015). Creative tourism a solution for mass cultural projection and exemplification has been sprouting in various countries. They include factors such as enhancing the quality of life, widening the long-term vision, creating better identity and image, facilitating good connection between stakeholders, and using public spaces to host creative events (Buaban, 2016). Skilled value co-creation is the connection enabled by human actors essentially vital to the role of tourism. Hospitality industries should intelligently create innovative technologies that can align and work through the existing systems with emerging technologies and applications which interoperate with cloud-delivered third-party solutions for better service through online leisure/ unmanaged business travel which has greater potential to outperform. Tourism data does not provide the full picture of its economic significance, but its expansion deals employment opportunities, with sufficient training which when positioned can offer opportunities and extend the income range beyond individual earners to the wider community (Dilys & Urquhart, 2001). The tourism segment provides intensive prospective openings for engendering revenue and occupational benefit disbursement reasonably to the small-scale entrepreneurs and supports services including infrastructure building, banking, and handcrafts. The climate is a one of the greatest facilitator for perennial flourishing of the business. Asia’s beautiful landscape, and vigorous wide-ranging cultural charms, is an epitome for tourism. Therefore, sightseeing destinations are networked as a system with participants supplying amenities to holidaymakers, supplemented by a technological setup intended at building a digital environment that connects collaboration, information sharing, and open innovation (Marine-Roig & Clavé, 2015). Collaboration transversely across nationalities produces new interactions and points to better paybacks than each business can individually obtain by itself. The destination attractions are natural and ethnic components, which are legacy or ancient assets, backed up with amenities, arrangement, cordialities, recreational, conveyance, approachability, cost viability, and affordance which are required for empathetic tourism planning and development (Yoon, 2002). Tourism is experiencing a transformation that needs an alteration in contemporary settings, oscillating from charms, boardinghouses, up to market promotions (Jaelani, 2017). Hotel businesses by themselves do not have an excessive standing in the arena of innovation, but by using novelties due to conservative and capital-intensive push, they can open up horizons which would have a return on investments over a period of 25 years. Hence easing the inhibiting factors and physical development initiatives for want of budget hotels, lesser taxation magnitude with diversity, complication of conveyance, and luxury duties condense the small and medium investors with grim chances in the tourism segment (Government of India, 2014). The role of tourism includes lodging, food and drinks, refreshment and showbiz, conveyance, and travel amenities. Tourist operators have a limited capacity in terms of resources, flexible processes, and self-derived mechanisms with complexity in information extraction. But to arrive at an unbiased decision, the data needs to be a structured one from a defined process contemplating from all the data and documents (Zapata et al., 2017). Hence smart tourism business models are to be derived from technology elements

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which encompass the smart tourism framework and includes all connected benefits of interconnectivity and interoperability of emerging technologies to revalidate the procedures and data through pioneering features in the offered products/services. Smart tourism business management approaches should provide insights into planning, operating, and sustenance of tourism activity with more earning and lesser efforts on duplicating or non-value adding tourists facilitating compositions. Considerable potential areas for expansion of tourism which are of high value such as mountain sightseeing, skiing or river rafting, thrill vacation, etc. can be established and exploited. High-value tourism requires knitted partnering with the small and medium investors for cordiality business, edifying quality constructions and pinned up promotions (Government of India, 2014). Smart tourism competitiveness has gained momentum with embedded or enhanced interoperable technologies and integrates purposes that have the capability to accomplish results using big data and cause a value addition to account holders. Smart tourism business can be IoT evolved with concentration on various parameters affecting mobility, convenience (to use, pay, and options), and safety (assured widely accepted reliable means of operations). Tourism intended to endorse vigorous competition will ensure widening of the consumer population, enhancing extensions all over the country, improving safe topographies, and meaningfully increasing fund flow (World Economic Forum, 2017). Structural model of tourism destination competitiveness covers travel growth influences, eco-friendly attitudes, and place preferences, to touch landmarks through viable approaches both directly and indirectly by facilitating factor relationships (Yoon, 2002), as in Fig. 3.1. Smart tourism business marketing model depends more on the interdisciplinary policy-making encompassing a variety of actors integrating technologies and business convergence. Creative tourism supports destination as a worthy place and attracts the response for explicit ethnic attractions to impalpable influences, assimilating to designate certain quality enriched to a place, such as openness, diversity, atmosphere, street culture, and environmental quality (Buaban, 2016). Digitalization in the tourism industry achieves lower marketing expenses among trip operators, boarding, lodging, and facility services such as airlines, travel

Fig. 3.1 Structural model of tourism destination competitiveness. (Source: Yoon, 2002)

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agents, and supplementary associates, and thus increases their revenue regardless of the infrastructure; the price tag of allocating travel amenities would still endure to decrease with the continuous occurrence of novel solutions (Petković et al., 2018). Cost cutting is probable to continue as key spring of protecting revenue. Extraordinary increase in fuel prices and the recession’s slowdown have affected the hospitality business’s fund flow performance, but timely technology adaptation has benefitted all well-managed streamlining of operations that lead to balance costs and returns with value addition and good customer connect. Tourism is an unstable business, highly vulnerable to happenings such as civil disturbances, foreign currency exchange rate fluctuations, and natural cataclysms, which are difficult to be controlled (Dilys & Urquhart, 2001). Events are the outfits for cultural development, liveliness, and city promotion; they are the catalysts to take part spatially and orchestrate temporally with proliferation of festivals, music, cultural, and sporting events at a regular and continuous basis (Richards & Marques, 2018). On a short term, to increase or enhance cognizance through exhaustive multimedia advertisement, road shows, etc. would require additional investments in design and development campaigns, which however, on a long term, would facilitate planning; evolving promotion campaigns keeping in view of tourism markets such as shoreline tourism, pastoral tourism, ethnic tourism, carnivals and book fairs, etc. can be a result of intensified market promotion and revamp branding (Government of India, 2007). The Asian tourism market has exposed the sturdiest annual report growth in traveler influxes (Reisinger & Turner, 2002). The constant rise of the middle-income segment and amplified plough in of cash into the travel business fuels’ growth support market openness, air connectivity, and travel facilitation (Hecker, 2018). The increase in tourism during the recent years has used growth-oriented models of tourism, opting for lesser populated tourist spaces having least instabilities to move and develop availability of amenities (Richards & Marques, 2018). Well-maintained roads connect people to public amenities within the minimum possible travel frequencies, reduced transportation costs, and accident risks. Government agencies must ensure cost-effective strategies with sufficient resources and good infrastructure conditions toward maintenance of road networks (World Bank, 2016). Tourism depends on various factors including the state support for evolving, and sustaining the tourist spots mostly by big players such as the national or international, predominantly, is regulated by the tourist circuit, with accessibility to hotels, appealing to travelers of all income, prefixed travel routes and decent conveyance setup, quietness encouraging safe condition, and executive constraints. Encouragement through recognition of other/new agents in promoting travel business trying to bring joint undertakings between the local operators and established agencies other than the existing will maximize tourism revenue. To make tourism more viable and facilitating its encouraging influence is by facilitating the integrating tourists to nurture simultaneously with local residents and preserve the values of identity and social harmony (Richards & Marques, 2018). The interface between native suppliers and global sightseers is affected by commercial practices and dealings, which profile the requirement that can be serviced by the host, to overcome the potential cultural differences (Reisinger & Turner, 2002). In addition, working around to provide free

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access than restricting the travel on the ground of protected area permits for foreign tourists to articulate a practical approach that would facilitate more inclusiveness for marketing tourism (Government of India, 2014). With no barriers to travel, countries safely boost monetary growth, employment opportunities, and broadmindedness among nations. Wanderlust brings an exclusive occasion for many nations to profit from the travel and tourism business, while also safeguarding the safety of boundaries and people (World Economic Forum, 2017). Emerging technologies alter the arrangement and procedure of a business and bring opportunities and doubly assure the investors; through it tourism can expect to become a viable one with built-in capabilities and contributions toward commercial growth (Kim & Kim, 2017). Success in tourism development and management requires tourism stakeholders’ opinions and attitudes to wade through extremely competitive travel spots, amicably favorite, and facilitates for the expansion of destination charms, revenue incomes, and improvement approaches for mass affordability and appropriately matching the combination for growth (Yoon, 2002). Strategies for campaign setting include target market strategy, destination and product development strategy, promotion strategy, distribution strategy, public-private sector partnership strategy, baseline indicators and targets, special campaign budget, preparation for pitch presentation, and institutional arrangements (Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 2015). The World Economic Forum Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (WEF TTCI), as in Fig. 3.1, had identified that the facilitation, development, and functioning of tourism in any country depend on tourism regulations agenda, commercial settings, organization, and social, cultural and ecological resources (European Travel Commission, 2014). From 140 countries globally, the WEF TTCI survey identified 13 destination countries, as competitive on relative success, as referred in Fig. 3.2. They moved away from depending only upon the renowned and branded operators

Fig. 3.2 Competitiveness ranking. (Source: European Travel Commission, 2014)

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and enjoy the real experiences/substance, and to be free from value consciousness to differentiate between the costs and benefits of service, customers can wisely decide to choose and opt packages and tour suiting to them and their tastes of rejuvenation (Dirin et al., 2018). Tourism industry is shifting at an extraordinary pace, while to continue as economical, the agents should customize and implement new technologies to ensure tourist’s satisfaction (Hecker, 2018). Tourism aided with information technology, however distinctly, are two different bodies of function; the important connecting point is the monetary link which make it a prospective for a global network, though separate but together can change the way societies operate. It is quite a discomfort for tourists to access desktop gadgets even while traveling in unacquainted surroundings to relevant digital services and guidance; hence smartphone platforms are good for the tourism market (Petković et al., 2018). Following decades of abundance, even the luxury industry has entered a pivotal phase. Travel is a sociocultural commercial sensation which requires the drives of people to see various places outside their customary location for a selfseeking commitment or occupation. It is becoming a complex omni-channel industry to tackle in an e-commerce mode (Dirin et al., 2018). Digitalization provides equal and creative thrust to major tourism developments as permanent and priority tasks by raising the public awareness about process and coexistence of tourists stakeholders emphasizing for a safe and sustainable tourism, with sufficient care for the place, people at work and their education for living by cooperating with the tourism activity at local, regional, national and international levels by individual, private and institutional partnerships in co-shaping the strategic orientations (Association of Accredited Public Policy Advocates to the European Union, 2012). The best tourism marketing efforts in product marketing need to unceasingly improve and see the prospect of progressively classy, networked, knowledgeable, sensitive, and purposive visitors. Overcrowding affects smooth flow of visitors over time, across various sites, pricing, and accommodation and mitigates restrictions on diverse interests such as affluence, convenience, and awareness processing for certain ethics and values in that part of the areas. Mobile devices with their smaller screens are positive with progressive sensing and geographic positioning services which efficiently assist the tourists in managing their daily needs (Dirin et al., 2018). Mobile technology is a vital cause of worthy living, tracks business and dispersion into regular life, and facilitates businesses surpassing expectations; therefore tourism cannot be excluded. Mobile technology is expected to resolve challenges that contain detailed and incessant assessment of the influence of travel, analyzing common exchanges among travelers and surroundings, observing and checking mutual interactions at the travel spots, and facilitating travel planning and development with exact reciprocation to the tourist’s needs and prospects (Kim & Kim, 2017). The remarkable development of social media and user-generated content (UGC) on the Internet delivers an enormous magnitude of data that permits the establishment of the authentic understanding of tourists views and their expression of treatment on a realistic scale of judgment (Marine-Roig & Clavé, 2015). Brand image is a composite of people’s perceptions of thoughts, novelties, experiences, facilities, products, supports, guidelines, frameworks, attitudes, and arrangements, on good culture,

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tourism, and investments reflecting to become its principal asset (Barbados Ministry, 2014). Culture tourism involves greater resources, including physical labor, sponsorships, and merchandising to boost the tourists’ returns increasingly becoming a regular income (Richards & Marques, 2018). There are different types of emerging travelers, such as “explorer” that values more self-actualization and adventure sighting; “follower” that enjoys the instant with loved ones; “connector” that is about creating a position; and “opportunist” that likes to travel to pamper themselves but also tempted by promotions (Hecker, 2018). To understand the complex environment and navigate it, it is required to map out the opportunities and obstacles the digital era present to the industry (Dirin et al., 2018). Security breaches and accidents create serious financial and reputation damage to the tourism industry. Business model in tourism sectors will revolutionize the overall service industry (Petković et al., 2018). Tourism should learn and feature a set of perceptive, convincing, and well-defined tactical interpolations accomplishing into a novel facet of superiority in the foreign reserves (Barbados Ministry, 2014). The testimony of success in tourism industry depends on the country’s awesome scenic, active townships and warm societies but also requires a valuable support through active engagement of government’s positive inclination toward the sector (Association of Accredited Public Policy Advocates to the European Union, 2012). All interventions to protect the rich biological diversities will overcome the differences in the socioeconomic, climate, and global biogeochemical and can perhaps hasten the biodiversity alterations in the future thus justifying and acclimatizing events to have substantial influences on the quality of human life (Adom et al., 2019). Maintaining market direction through unceasing improvement of current tourism arrangement and deliverables and making a convincing novel travel setup with projects to ignite an honest trigger of imagination, the tourism marketing efforts can be compounded to implement policy decisions enabling the environment for necessary tourism development through investment to recoup from the severity of any risk in the organization’s ability to compete (Barbados Ministry, 2014). Information technology supports access to all the information needed by tourists, thereby encouraging them to visit, see, wander, and enjoy places which have been previously “undiscovered” to get some kind of meaningful experience (Indonesia Ministry, 2012). Technology keeps progressing; and tourism is in the beginning of the digital revolution. To encourage the industry to cash in on new opportunities and keep up with new entrepreneurs’ massive investments made by the disruptive models of tourist operators, digitalization creatively remodels by bringing a clear depth of tourist’s commitment and payment options, which otherwise are an unassured and vague business for committed action (Dirin et al., 2018). Social networks and their information can be used to predict a relation they store toward tourism expectations and possibly demonstrate the influence of social relations though individual advertising and promotional tweets generated leading to a certain confirmation of truth subsequently assuring for an upcoming drive (Zapata et al., 2017). A progressively successful, budgeted, and sensitive customer anticipation for private and timely interface and communications is pushing commercial airlines, boarding, lodging, and travel agents to exploit the use of social networks through

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cloud mobile analytics and enhance their business performance and retain the share for sustainability. Shifting gears to change the trend from a stagnation phase in the life cycle of old-style sightseeing activity, it has to orchestrate a renaissance, or else it will pull into a steep decline. Significant tourist charms, with national and international involvement, with promotional activities can entice a huge quantity of travelers, who can be shipped through leased flights. Fascinating sightseers is a penetratingly modest task to be transformed into paces, reasonable for justifiable returns to the civic and the local setting, and needs more recognition, engagement, and higher level of priority and involvement (Government of India, 2014). In such a situation, digital marketing is a lethal combination for handling these reality issues requires a race to rejuvenate with Marketing, ICTs, Broadcasting media study and proposal of act should indulge every inferences or probable approaches, as connected each other (Barbados Ministry, 2014). Advanced data analytics will position businesses to proactively recognize areas to lessen the incurring wastes, like purchase optimization. Computing through cloud can deliver on-demand entry to the modern software paraphernalia, storing, and methods transversely over sections and layouts. Price signals and notices are gradually shifting from desktops to mobile devices. Applications using emerging technologies like context-location-aware services through mobile gadgets and tablets are establishing themselves to lead their position in appreciating the travel experience to an exponential level.

Management of Innovative Culture There is huge competition in the service innovation and tourism, for sustained and improved market positions and reputations; innovations will determine the success of the novelty. Innovation is making new opportunities for additional value-added product/process; market reach, organizational, and resource optimizations are possible through innovative application of information technologies into tourism industry through mobile technology development and online applications of tour and hotel booking for deriving instant guest satisfaction (Gyurácz-Németh et al., 2013). Customer delight would develop the emphasis on the courtesy of the hotel and endure to advance the delivery quality, service ease, and additionally improvement of customer gratification. The profile of the tourists visiting the region requires to be recorded. A well-constructed database contributes over scattered initiatives as a strong backbone for intelligent information management and feedback system (Government of India, 2014). Process innovations will reduce unit production and distribution costs and increase value or manufacturing or delivering of novel or significantly value-added products. Novel technology innovation and techniques and hardware and software supporting activities such as calculation, accounting, maintenance, or buying will considerably enrich productivity. Big data analytic process uses algorithms successively operating on powerful big data supportive platforms to expose possibilities masked in voluminous data, which are deciphered through patterns and correlation techniques largely in the form of streaming and batch,

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which are the alternative paradigms (Marine-Roig & Clavé, 2015). Converting big data into smart data, restaurants can achieve higher levels of operational efficiency, innovation, and diagnostic and can offer evidence-based identification of overcrowding risks. The key ingredients to success and KPI are striven to achieve specific and quantifiable indicators for evaluation, Fig. 3.2, as criteria at the end of every performance cycle. In the process of the performance measurement, Fig. 3.3, the tourist operators must alter in accord to the authentic state and regulate the process of management structure aided with data expertise, advancing the effectiveness to guarantee the correctness of the evaluation (Xiaoli, 2017). Interest in tourist trips includes activities undertaken, accommodations used, transportation used to travel to and within the country, use of travel agents, sources of information about the visit, length of stay and expenditure in each country visited, awareness of the positioning and branding of ASEAN as a destination, perceived strengths and weaknesses relative to other regional destinations outside ASEAN, and interest in returning again for a visit during festivals (Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 2015). Hospitality automation with robotics and artificial intelligence is required as a business of helping people to feel comfortable and relaxed and to enjoy themselves with reduction in lead time of service, take repeatability with speed and consistency at ease, operate anytime and every time, overcome human fatigue, and offer a better management of service capability and return on investment (Korhonen, 2016) (Fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.3 Quantifiable indicators for evaluation. (Source: Xiaoli, 2017)

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Fig. 3.4 Satisfactory underperformance in marketing of tourism. (Source: Umachandran, 2014)

Recent technological advances have enhanced mobility and widened tourism destinations. The tourist operations have continuously grown rapidly, efficiently, and safely beyond borders to many parts of the world. Tourist spots of ecological competitiveness in charms and incomes can be amplified by suitable administrative efforts and can also be improved over specific conservational promotional events; the thoughts and possibility of such can be applied on the context for evolving and gauging tourist spot competitiveness. Supplementary and suitable administrative exertions, publicizing events, superiority of delivery, and eco-friendly controls can benefit to generate and mix worthiness in tourism offerings and their fund flow so that travel destinations can realize well-positioned market standings (Yoon, 2002). Government authorities in tourism development should service a diversity of paraphernalia to increase their affordability, such as refining the countryside and permanency of procedure on travel permits or visa’s issued, and dip the red-tape problems during such process (World Economic Forum, 2017). Countries are leveraging technologies on Visa Entitlement Verification Online (VEVO) through biometric verification, online submission of visa applications, streamlining delivery systems, end-to-end visa processing, travel authorization, automating border entry processes, etc., and to implement, they organize workshops for agents through online training for application service to consumers and 24
7 support to handheld issues that may arise during then (OCED, 2014). Governments will have to continuously engage in strategy design, conception of physical setup in connectivity, and perchance in lodging, till the investing segment feels self-assured of capitalizing on a big scale, and manpower skill development through work force such as trip operators, translators, transporters, and facilitators in the hospitality sector (Government of India, 2014). Tourism systems are becoming outdated and unable to cope with demand requiring advances in technology to provide new solutions. Combining the opportunities of cashless transactions and biometrics for security provides solutions to handle congestion and ease of identity management during journey as the mere existence of crowds can make security more difficult for tourists. Tourism sector

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impacts direct, indirect, and induced economic returns at national, regional, and global levels through jobs, GDP, foreign exchange, and investment. Across the globe, Asia is an important tourist market, and China continues to rank in outbound travel expenditure. Smartphone usage and mobile payment throughout the world have facilitated more than 60% tourists through Alipay and WeChat Pay in Asia that projected them as clear market leaders (World Travel and Tourism Council, 2019).

Research Analysis on the Asian Market Extensive research includes gauging traveler’s delight, and anticipated tourist spots characterize for better empathy of complete “competitiveness” through consumer and secondary surveys published online by tourists, tour operators, travel agents, and airlines, in the identified major markets and segments of Malaysia, Indonesia, South Korea, and the Philippines.

Malaysia Malaysia is in Southeast Asia, an attracting tourist spot focused on increasing domestic sightseeing from international visitor influx to the nation, through market promotion across the world. Tourism came into prominence in the 6th to 8th Malaysia’s 5-year plan. The period 1991–1995 was the 6th plan where the increasing emphasis was to develop a more distinct image and identity reflecting “way of life” (Chheang, 2013). Subsequently in the next 5-year plan (1996–2000), i.e., the 6th plan, rustic, community-nature-based travel is recognized as newfangled products for promotion. Later in the 8th plan (2001–2005), Malaysia’s increasing acceptance to diversity of thinking and action resulted in portraying confidence which started to yield benefits by drawing global tourist attraction as a sought-after destination (Government of India, 2007). Malaysia is rich with natural and cultural wonders with forested land area of about 75%, while its virgin rainforest is 60% (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, 2010). In 1992, the National Tourism Policy Study (NTPS) suggested comprehensive policies for the forecasting, expansion, and promotion of leisure industry, thus leading to create engagement, encourage impartial financial and social progress, accelerate blending ethnic exchange, and reinforce countrywide harmony. NTPS recommended new product development areas such as fly-drive vacations, riverine ecotourism, agro-ethnic-heritage tourism, etc.; later their theme pulled up more capital investments in endorsing Malaysia as a shopping haven, mostly through the thrice a year jumbo sale festivals (Government of India, 2007). Raising Malaysia’s huge ecotourism potential contains vigilant arrangement and effective application of the National Ecotourism Plan accepted to deliver strategy and growth procedures in line with the inclusive justifiable development of the nation and sponsor ecotourism as an instrument for maintenance of nature. However, the impairments for supportable expansion embrace considerate ecosystem/biodiversity, clearance of solid/liquid surplus, green initiatives such as carbon release and

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production, human resource training, natural sightseer facilitators, and native contribution, generating mindfulness amid the locals/implementers, reaching out the importance of sustainable development, and preserving the environment (AsiaPacific Economic Cooperation, 2010). To woo the younger generation tourists, Malaysia tourism went online. Its “Truly Asia” international campaign was a real success with multiracial, multiethnic, and ecotourism attractions and went for a decade long campaign as a destination which offered all the aspects of Asia (Government of India, 2007).

Indonesia Indonesia, profoundly varying on its environmental assets to run its growth, is positioned over 13,000 islands and has over 17 % of the earth’s species, gifted with assorted natural resources of 11% flowering plants, 12% of mammals, 17% birds, and at least 37% fish. The central government of Indonesia supports tourism activities to recognize, progress, and endorse probable tourist spots, in addition to Bali, by increasing the awareness of nature protection and aiming to attract special tourists. The sociopolitical climate greatly affects its image abroad (Chheang, 2013). Dependent on infrastructures as well as the safety of the destination, Indonesia is affected by unstable economic and political condition which is quite unfavorable to compete in attracting tourists. However, in the new era of change from exploitation, conspiracy and partiality to a spotless, obvious, and competence base are resolute for the contribution of the native locals in sightseeing activities; safeguarding and employing the best benefit, people raise their quality of service delivery (Government of India, 2007). Indonesia paid significantly extra care to these shortages to adopt a constant development and imminent expansion. It needs to handle the weakness and inherent problems in major infrastructure with absence of acquiescence in aviation safety, security standards, deprived aviation, and air routing setup and services, along with scarce training and administration of people resources (Ricardianto et al., 2017). Indonesia is a late entrant into the sightseeing business relatively to its adjacent nations; in the early 1990s, it started to combine its actions to encourage Indonesian tourism worldwide. The first integrated campaign “Visit Indonesia” was in 1991 through the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Later in 2008, the Indonesian ministry again declared “Visit Indonesia Year” motto and took to branding its thought of Garuda Pancasila as the Indonesian style; this also commemorated the 100 years of Indonesia’s national awakening in 1908. With more bundling, the effectiveness and significance did not turn out to become success (Government of India, 2007).

South Korea Koreans are recognized for their temperateness and friendliness to overseas travelers; hence the Korean Tourism Organization invested a great deal of money, time, and effort actively in tourism fairs, marketing campaigns, and ethnic functions

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endorsing its excellent international access and transportation system (Government of India, 2007). Korean overseas tourism growth happened when the rise in income of the nation went elevated and the foreign currency exchange rate was fortunate. The pop culture has spread overseas and gained popularity in the global market. Medical tourism (cosmetic) and fashion and style products such as cosmetics and beauty industry were directly exaggerated by the Korean wave. The incoming sightseeing demand for foreign visitors was mainly from the USA, China, Japan, and Hong Kong. Korean dramas engrossed Japanese interest in 1990, which was the initiating point for the Korean wave vacation industry that Japanese people went on to Korea and got to see the drama shooting places. Similarly, the USA and Australia which encourage good-looking travel inducements like the film shooting spot then developed to evolve as a fascinating tourist attraction. In addition, there was Korean food, shopping, exquisiteness, therapeutic care, natural ecosystem visit, fan meeting of Korean wave trip, and recreational visits that raised the number of stay days; accordingly the sightseeing agendas are established, and delivery of high value addition was created (Bae et al., 2017). Korea has 5000 years of history and culture, with beautiful scenery, delightful cuisine, excellent shopping, and an exorbitant nightlife. Its capital city, Seoul, claims to have numerous galleries; cultural, ethnic, and armed museums made it as a very prospecting sightseer spot (Government of India, 2007).

Philippines Traveler influxes were first noted in 1960 for its lovely beaches, flawless climate, its public, the ecstatic temperament, and love of being types every holiday in the Philippines a memorable experience. Interestingly, the arrival trend reflected directly on the revenue growth of the Philippine GDP and indicated that the tourist arrivals increased as the economic infrastructure engine of economic growth in the Philippines (Chheang, 2013). The Philippine Tourist and Travel Association (PTTA) was a private establishment in 1950, with a vision to improve the convenience to tourist spots, mark travel as an improved and more sensible vocation, inspire a culture of sightseeing among local inhabitants, and cumulatively respect vacation industry as a vigorous and able tool to the socioeconomic expansion. Later PTTA became its implementing arm through Republic Act No. 1478 in the year 1956, and subsequently the Board of Travel and Tourist Industry was formed under the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) as a policy-making body for travel and tourism. From 1980 to 1986, the political turmoil and disturbances to peace eventually affected the tourism industry. The reorganization of DOT as the chief government authority offered to inspire, endorse, and advance sightseeing as a chief socioeconomic initiative. The later initiatives 1992–1998 stimulated the expansion to ecotourism as an integral part of the sustainable framework (Pilapil-Añasco & Lizada, 2017). International leisure industry has extended swiftly through Asia Pacific in recent periods. Philippines was unequal preceding the 2008 slowdown and does not imitate to overall trends. There was a growth in the visitors of 1.53% in 2008 and was

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revised to a goal of five million tourists by 2010 directing that sightseeing industry employability to double to six million and tourists to constitute 13.6% of GDP. Now 45% of tourists travel for holiday purposes, 26.5% to visit friends and relatives, and 16.9% for business. There is a bumpy spread from Metro Manila, Luzon, Cebu Province, and Boracay Island as preferred destinations. The government is now capitalizing heavily in airport infrastructure in retort to positive traffic estimates, but the absenteeism of direct international flights into airports at popular destinations is a burden to visitors (Henderson, 2011).

Conclusion The vacation industry must retort to the varying requirements; desires of customers and the products are also extremely diverse (Northwest Territories Industries, Tourism and Investment, 2003). Sightseeing is a multifaceted perception that contains a variability of deliberations impacting the socioeconomic-politico-ethnic and environmental standpoint. Hence its sustainability depends on the initiatives of the government, proper implementation of policies for capability enhancement, and optimistic insolence of all participants of the travel industry. In addition, exclusive to sightseeing development is that many expansions take place in less accessible places or less populated zones to take gain of beautiful wilderness and bid the possibility to fulfill a longstanding, increased fiscal diversity with a more reasonable spread of wealth to marginally smaller societies.

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Part II Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Marketing Contexts

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Technology in Tourism Marketing Kaplan Uğurlu

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Industrial Revolutions and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Transformation and the Impact of Internet in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Networks in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Tourism and Tourism 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New Technological Trends in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet of Things (IoT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Big Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cloud Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Near-Field Communication (NFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR), and Mix Reality (MR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cryptocurrencies, Blockchain, and Creative Business Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Intelligence and Robot Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of Smart Tourism Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Restaurants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Guest Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Conference Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chatbot (Chat Box) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iBeacons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kiosks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovation in Tourism Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Marketing and Digital Marketing Tools in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Network Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71 71 73 74 76 78 79 80 80 81 81 82 83 85 87 87 87 88 88 88 89 89 90 90 90 90 91 91 92 93

K. Uğurlu (*) Faculty of Tourism, Kırklareli University, Kırklareli, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_4

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Social Media Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Buzz Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Viral Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e-WOM Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Influencer Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-mail Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Affiliate Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Search Engine Marketing (SEM-SEA-SEO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Content Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pay per Click Advertising (PPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Online Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Online Display Advertising (ODA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Game Advertising (In-Game Advertising) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Omni-channel Digital Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Online Marketing and Virtual Support Assistants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Future Trends in Tourism Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have had a significant impact on the hospitality and tourism industry over the last decade, and they continue to be the main drivers of tourism. Tourism businesses make significant use of information technology for marketing purposes. This is true in the area of assisting in marketing decisions as well as in the area of communication and sales. Technology has helped to reduce costs, increase operational efficiency, and improve services and customer experience. Thanks to the availability of information technologies enabled by the Internet, such as websites and social networks in the tourism industry, it has become easier to implement marketing strategies for tourism products in a way that improves the quality of online service to effectively meet the needs of customers. Every aspect of tourism product features and tourism marketing features are significantly influenced by ICT. With the use of robots, artificial intelligence, and other automation systems being used in the manufacturing industry as well as in the tourism and hospitality industry, the use of these new technologies as both a product and a marketing tool has become prevalent in the marketing applications of tourism businesses. ICT, digitalization, and smart technologies seem to offer four important new opportunities to firms in today’s business world. These include developing new business, developing new methods to facilitate management, improving productivity, and gaining a competitive advantage. The study aims to highlight the benefits, contribution, and application areas of technology in the tourism, travel, and hospitality industry. Keywords

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) · Smart technology · Tourism marketing · Digital marketing · Tourism industry · Tourism 4.0

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Introduction In the 1950s and 1960s, productivity; in the 1970s and 1980s, quality; in the early 1990s and 2000s, flexibility; and in 2020, innovation and technology have become the support and biggest competitive tool for businesses. Technology has brought vitality to the markets. In this age, where we have reached Industry 4.0 from Industry 1.0, artificial intelligence and robotics technologies are rapidly replacing manpower in the industry market. Machines operate at every stage of production. Distances are no longer an obstacle in the consumer market. Consumers can have the products produced with the lowest prices, in the fastest way, and with almost zero errors. Developments in transportation, communication, and stocking technologies reinforce the intermediary market; however, on the other hand, physical intermediaries start decreasing due to Internet marketing and e-commerce, and digital direct marketing techniques are replacing them. Consumers can easily access the market, producers, intermediaries, and the products they seek with web-based or mobilebased communication tools, obtain information, and shop. Moreover, individuals, institutions, and businesses can access the latest updated data pertaining to companies and products thanks to the effectiveness of social media. While the companies in the markets are experiencing the Industry 4.0, the impression as if the consumers discovered 5.0 beyond it has emerged. With technology, innovation movement has entered every stage of people’s lives. This study emphasizes that technology is used not only in sectors but also in marketing activities of businesses. The study will include examples from industrial revolutions, the transition of businesses to digital methods and the impact of the Internet on the tourism sector, the place and importance of ICTs in tourism, smart tourism concept and applications, technologies used in the tourism sector and tourism marketing, and finally, future tourism marketing trends.

Industrial Revolutions and Tourism Industrialization is the process of replacing the machines with manpower (Outman and Outman, 2009). Industrialization refers to the transformation of agro-rural societies into industrial-urban societies dominated by manufacturing and services. Industrialization refers to urban people who dominate the production and services of peasant people engaged in agriculture. This is the beginning of a transformation that continued in England until the end of the eighteenth century, called the Industrial Revolution (Hayter & Patchell, 2019). Trade and industrialization strengthened each other during the industrial revolutions. With the strengthening of national economies and the development of international trade, trade relations between countries have improved. Trade has led technology-intensive countries to be reinforced economically and access critical industrial inputs. Increased intercountry trade has encouraged countries’ investment in industry, technology, and production. In contrast, with the emergence of new industrial technologies, specialized and trade models have also been reshaped (World Bank, 1987).

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Fossil fuels became important in the economies of countries in the first industrial revolution, when coal was an important raw material, and consumption, production, and transport in the second industrial revolution, when oil was an important raw material (Janicke & Jacob, 2009). The first industrial revolution in the eighteenth century took place in England with the invention of the steam engine and the replacement of manual labor (Çelik & Topsakal, 2019). The invention of the steam engine triggered the transition to more capital-intensive production methods (Leighton, 1970). The first revolution in history started in agriculture in the 18th year, and this period between the years of 1750–1890, which was called the Steam Age with the discovery of a steam engine, is also called as Industry 1.0 period (Karaman & Sayın, 2019). Thomas Cook organized the first tour organization for the members of the Teetotalers Club between Loughborough and Leicester in 1841 with the steam powered ships taking part in transportation. The travel agency that Thomas Cook founded in 1845 has become a worldwide brand (Enzensberger, 1996). The second industrial revolution began in the USA in the 1860s and lasted until the 1990s. In this period, business fields started to shift from manufacturing – steel in particular – to the service sector (Blinder, 2006). As the efficiency and use of oil in transportation and technology increased, urban and international public transport and travel began to develop. In this period, in 1872, Thomas Cook organized his first world tour with a ship called Oceanic. New marketing methods including package tours, promotions, and brochures were organized and used in this period (Gierczak, 2011), during which such development in transportation increased the effectiveness of globalization (Görçün, 2016). In 1882, the invention of electricity and transferring it to machines and the effective use of electricity in all sectors, as well as the efforts of the USA and Germany to become a world leader in international markets, are important issues of this period called Industry 2.0 (Çelik & Topsakal, 2019). Digital technology and ICTs have emerged with the use of electricity in mechanical and electronics and the introduction of mass production (Karaman & Sayın, 2019; Kiprutto et al., 2011). The progress of computer technology and the rapid development of the Internet led to this period becoming known as the informative revolution (Çeliktaş et al., 2015; Tien, 2012). After 1945, with the development of tourism in accordance with transport, the first tour was organized as a 2-day tour to Lyon, Barcelona, Madrid, Tangiers, Casablanca, and Agadir by a twin-engine aircraft named “Vickers Viking” (Gierczak, 2011). The development of civil aviation, freedom of travel, and the start of democratic use of information in particular have increased intercultural interaction. Communication of different cultures with each other led to the remarkable development of mobility in tourism in today’s sense. Rifkin (2011) defined this period when the Internet became popular and globalization accelerated as the third industrial revolution or Industry 3.0. Industry 4.0, implemented as a project of the German government for greater use of computers in industrialization and technology, was first mentioned at the technology fair in Germany in 2011. This is also considered the beginning of fourth industrial revolution (Toker, 2018). It can be said that Industry 4.0 is a smart automation of technology-based and cyber-physical systems (Çelik & Topsakal,

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2019). Combining industry activities with information technologies, the first component of Industry 4.0 is “new-generation software and hardware.” These are economical, safe, space-free, and high memory volume with low cost and low energy consumption. The second important component is the Internet of Things (IoT), which is integrated electronic systems that are connected to the Internet with all devices and can communicate, equipped with sensors and operators. These systems are called cyber-physical systems. These systems allow machines independent from people to produce by coordinating themselves. In Industry 4.0, machines can communicate with each other through sensors, analyze data, and inform people, all of which can be performed by robots with a single high-tech computer. Robots are at the center of Industry 4.0. In the new world order where Industry 4.0 will be widely used, the IoT, the services of the Internet, and the cyber-physical system organization are involved, and these systems work in harmony, synchronous and integrated (Toker, 2018; Çevik, 2017; Bulut & Akçacı, 2017; Höjer & Wangel, 2015). With Industry 4.0, the word “smart” (smart tourism, smart destination, smart hotel, etc.) started to be used in tourism. Authors have started to publish articles pertaining to smart tourism in the academic circles. This is the reason why tourism industry can adapt quickly to technology. The utilization of renewable technologies, service automation and reservation systems, and e-commerce in tourism businesses is an indicator of this.

Digital Transformation and the Impact of Internet in Tourism With the emergence and development of computers and new computer networks, the world has entered a new digital age. Such computers have become an essential tool not only in commercial life but also in private life spaces. Perhaps one of the biggest reasons of globalization is that computer-supported works become determinant and vital tools for businesses. Thanks to computers and computing technologies, businesses can speed up their production processes, store data, analyze more easily, and produce alternative solutions. Moreover, a globalized information flow process can be achieved by connecting computers to a network. Hoffman (2000) stated that the Internet is the most important innovation after the development of written media. Digital innovations in the economy, open-source systems, platform technology, cloud computing, extremely fast and efficient search engines, and wired and wireless network infrastructure based on smartphones and other devices, like many other sectors, the image of the tourism industry has changed dramatically. As a result of digitalization, tourism has entered the era of digital tourism (Happ & IvancsoHorvath, 2018). Digitalization has many benefits for businesses, social organizations, and economies in the context of innovation and competitiveness. With digitalization, businesses can transform their ecosystems much faster by leveraging digital technologies and data (Dredge et al., 2018). Digitalization in business means the use such digital technologies that will help transform the business model and create new revenue and value creation opportunities (Happ & Ivancso-Horvath, 2018). Digitalization, which

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means the utilization of modern information technologies, also occurs in tourism for which it provides businesses with opportunities to expand their market shares and increases growth operational efficiency and competitive advantages. Businesses use digital technology in many areas including reservation, travel, accommodation, food and beverage, entertainment, and in the production, service, marketing, information, and communication processes as well as the monitoring of operational performance and strategy determination. The invention of the Internet is as important as the invention of electricity. According to Nyheim, McFadden, and Connolly (2005), the Internet is defined as a network that does not belong to anyone but connects the user anywhere in the world. The terms web and Internet are often used interchangeably alongside the terms Internet and information and communication technologies (ICT); however, the Internet is strictly part of ICT (Buhalis & Jun, 2011). Before the Internet was invented, consumers only made purchases from brands or businesses that they knew and could reach (Buhalis & Law, 2008). Written, aural, and visual media were the basis of information and communication technology. The Internet initiated more common utilization of digital technologies. Now, consumers have a lot more options to search the Internet and buy later or chose any. For instance, consumers can now access hundreds of package holiday options over the Internet through a computer or a mobile phone, instead of a single holiday option from single seller. Businesses can reach more consumers at less cost and faster this way. Holiday buying decisions are much easier and more satisfying with the Internet. Tourism is a knowledge-intensive industry (Liu, 2000) and an efficient and effective tool for Internet marketing communication (Kull, 2007). The Internet can greatly facilitate the promotion and distribution of tourism products, potentially enabling tourism destinations and businesses to compete on a level playing field (Kazoba & Massawe, 2016). In the tourism sector, where the Internet is most heavily used, businesses can use digital marketing methods to reach target customers and expand their distribution channels. As businesses, customers, and intermediaries connect to each other immediately online over the Internet, they can access and communicate with each other as part of an increasing number of Internet access by accessing the vast information pool available on the Internet. Travelers seek information on the Internet before making travel decisions and can change their travel purchase decisions according to the information they obtain from the Internet (Buhalis & Law, 2008).

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in Tourism According to Werthner and Klein (1999), tourism is a hybrid industry that has a very real and physical service based on information. From this point of view, tourism may benefit more from the blessings of technology and even develop more effective and competitive strategies by reflecting the marketing to the virtual world. As a very simple example, companies can reach more customers faster but at lower cost

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through virtual media compared to print media. As a matter of fact, today, companies can follow the market, customers, and competitors by using technology in the virtual world very easily and can communicate with them. While technology enables transportation vehicles to move faster in the physical world, information and communication tools in the virtual world have also developed. Companies can now instantly identify customer requests and fulfil them as soon as possible. Profit from customer satisfaction is now achieved in the virtual world. The biggest reason why tourism businesses use the Internet more intensively compared to other sector businesses is that tourism businesses can communicate more easily and effectively with their current and potential customers (Inversini et al., 2015). The introduction of computers and the Internet into our lives has initiated a change in all sectors in the business life. The tourism sector has also obtained its share from the changes in the field of electronics and telecommunications. Computer-based and online electronic commerce has begun to develop, and businesses in the tourism sector have rapidly adapted to this development. Marketing activities such as reservation, sales, and promotion started to be carried out globally on the Internet (Buhalis & Law, 2008; Inversini et al., 2015). Online Travel bookings are heavily used to purchase airfares, book hotel rooms, and buy tickets for overnight stays, car rentals, museums, festivals, sporting events, package tours, etc. eAirlines is an example of the transition from computer reservation systems to global distribution systems (Buhalis, 2003). Meanwhile, customers will have the opportunity to choose a holiday based on the information available on the Internet and make their own travel and holiday decisions. With the transition to the digital age, ICT infrastructure and software applications are important for the development of the tourism sector as they are in every sector. ICT allows the businesses to form a relationship with the stakeholders (customer, intermediary, supplier, competitor, destination management, and other institutions) and combines many activities of the businesses (production, procurement, inventory, order, sales, payment, control, reporting, etc.) into a single source with a single tool. With ICT, businesses can easily carry out their activities with less mediators and personnel, with time and cost savings, so they can trade effectively and efficiently. With the development of ICT, changes in tourism demand and supply also emerged. Tourists exhibited more conscious and different demand behaviors with flexible, personalized options and quality of information in purchasing tourism products. By using social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, blogs), tourists can share their experiences, quality of services, and the environmental and social conditions of destinations, hotels, and restaurants. Many hotels, such as Marriott Hotels and Resorts, Ritz Carlton Hotels, and Hyatt Hotels and Resorts, have reinforced their brand image and posted links to a press release or Twitter (International Labour Organization, 2010). Tourism industry has become more active in accommodation, catering, travel, entertainment, and creating new holiday packages through using ICT in its activities and product diversification and differentiation for tourism destinations. Tourists staying in a destination, transit tourists, and local community benefit from the services created via ICT technologies by tourism businesses and destination

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administrations. For instance, smart parking systems; queue time estimation system showing the approximate waiting time at the entrance to museums and ruins; real-time tourist flow monitoring system; real-time sharing system of mobile traffic density; square code application for tourists to get information; smart ticketing for all transportation, museum, shopping, etc.; smart guidance service; and electronic map systems are some of these services. Tourism companies operate in a business environment where ICT is important for sustainable profitability. The globalization of tourism companies, utilization of more ICT applications in their companies, and the change in tourism demands and attitudes indicate that ICT is now more important for sustainable profitability of the companies.

Social Networks in Tourism One of the most important elements of the Industry 4.0 process is social networks. Social networks can be defined as private websites (world wide web – www.) and networks that enable people and organizations to communicate and interact with other people and organizations by posting information, comments, messages, and images and sharing of experiences, dissemination of individual creativity, entertainment, interactive online games, video exchanges, etc. People and companies often start using social media tools (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Skype, WhatsApp, LinkedIn, etc.) for both social interactions and business affairs and relationships. In this sense, social media continues to function not only as a social interaction platform but also as a powerful marketing tool. The purpose of using social media is to send pictures or information through social media and possibly make others see and be influenced. Today, with a growing number of people using social media and more frequently, people are increasingly connecting with each other; according to January 2020 data, there are 3.8 billion social network active users who make up about 60% of the world’s population (We are social, 2020a). It is evident that this figure will increase rapidly. Therefore, social media activities are important day-to-day activities to meet the social needs of people worldwide. These social media activities have produced rich social data that can provide meaningful and even real-time information to various studies. Therefore, social media is empowered with “passive marketing” (as sources of market intelligence to get users’ opinions) as part of its marketing strategy for industries (Constantinides, 2009). As recommended by Mangold & Faulds (2009), social media should be seen as an integral part of an organization’s marketing strategy and should not be underestimated. The existence and dissemination of social networks has been instrumental in the birth and development of social media. In the period of Web 2.0, which began with the emergence of social media, the concepts of social media and Web 2.0 began to be used interchangeably. However, Web 2.0 is often defined as online applications and social media on the other hand as the social aspects of such applications (Constantinides & Fountain, 2008). Consumers of social media are

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frequently formed by covering relevant experiences as typically reported by media impressions as well as by storing them online for easy access by consumers and can be thought of as shared internet-based applications (Blackshaw & Nazzaro, 2006). Websites are frequently used in commercial activities, not only among general users but also among organizations. The best examples of chats, commercial messages, and advertisements may be observed on sites such as YouTube, Dailymotion, Vimeo, Veoh, Twitch, Dtune, Archive, 9Gag TV, and Open Video Project. Various contents generated by consumers including product reviews, virtual communities, wikis, and collaborative tagging that are popular are shared by such social media tools (Zeng & Gretzel, 2010; Friedman, 2006). With the increasing use and importance of social media by people and businesses, the dynamics of online communication have changed, both in mass broadcasting and in social conversation (Inversini et al., 2015). As can be understood from all these narratives, social media enables people to communicate interactively with each other. Since highly scalable and accessible techniques and technologies are utilized in social media, it may not be possible to precisely determine its real impact (Blossom, 2009). Within the digital media platform, the most important medium that attracts attention with interaction, interactivity, and multiuse is social network and social media platforms. The fact that social media, which has a very important place in digital media today, can be used on a mobile basis without any time or place limits accelerates the development of digital media and, thus, social media (Koçyiğit, 2015). Tourism companies and people who demand the products and services offered by these companies are increasingly benefiting from social media. Before people take a vacation, they can access information through social media about their destination and the place of accommodation they will stay. People share their negative or positive experiences in the virtual environment. People who are not familiar with each other on social media make holiday decisions or affect each other’s decisions. Meanwhile, businesses can reach potential customers directly through social media and find the opportunity to express themselves. Thanks to social media, communication barriers between businesses and individuals are eliminated, thus enabling mutual interaction and communication (Çetinkaya, 2019). Litvin, Goldsmith, and Pan (2008) show communication and information needs in tourist product consumption in three stages. These are before consumption, consumption, and after consumption. These stages of the consumption process are generally knowledge intensive in tourism. In this multistep process, web-based technologies play a big role in supporting consumers, giving them ideas, and guiding them. Consumers use social media tools more actively in pre-consumption planning, communication and sharing during consumption, and post-consumption experiences. Social media usage aims not only this but also making friends, developing trade relations, organizing, training, receiving, informing the news, following activities, etc. For instance, social media accounts such as Facebook and Instagram are used to stay in touch and share, while YouTube can be used for education.

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Smart Tourism and Tourism 4.0 The word “smart” is often used to indicate special abilities, intelligence, or connectivity, as in smartphone or smart card technologies (Gretzel et al., 2015b). Computer Hope (2018) defines smart or intelligence as the ability of a program to run with little or no human interaction when referring to software. The Oxford Dictionary (n.d.) defines the concept of intelligent in the context of technology as a meaning capable of independent action. However, not all smart technologies have to have such high autonomy. According to Derzko (2006), a technology must have six aspects to be smart, namely, i) being capable of changing behaviors in harmony with the environment; ii) raising awareness for daily things; iii) drawing conclusions from rules and observations; iv) learning from experiences to improve performance; v) thinking about what to do next, or having an expectation; and finally vi) being capable of producing and sustaining oneself. Smart technologies are designed to improve people’s quality of life and make it permanent, which are smart and have different usage areas. Increasing information and communication technologies and usage of their tools have a great influence on the emergence of the smart concept. As a matter of fact, we see that the smart concept is applied to different concepts such as smart cities, smart destinations, and smart tourism (Gajdosík, 2018). For instance, when smart cities are mentioned, cities where high technologies are intensively used in information, communication, production, and service resources come to mind. These technologies ensure sustainable development, sustain innovation, and lead to greater competitiveness (Aina, 2016). Smart tourism indicates current stage of tourism affected by developing information technologies (Gajdosík, 2018). As Gretzel (2011) emphasizes, smart tourism benefits greatly from the development of information technologies. In this way, the physical and administrative dimensions of tourism have been transferred to the digital environment, which has been instrumental in the emergence of e-tourism. E-tourism is a process that involves analyzing the market structure as well as dealing with technical and economic processes related to the analysis, design, and implementation of information technologies or e-commerce solutions in the travel and tourism sector (Werthner & Klein, 1999). Smart tourism involves the digitization of all processes and institutions in the tourism industry. In operational terms, it includes e-commerce and implements ICTs to maximize the efficiency and effectiveness of the tourism organization. In a strategic term, e-tourism creates radical changes in all business processes and strategic relations of tourism organizations and stakeholders with each other. (Buhalis, 2003). Smart tourism today provides real-time and personalized holiday and tour information based on information technologies such as artificial intelligence, cloud technology, big data, and Internet of Things, beyond e-commerce. Smart tourism technology both is the marketing force of the tourism enterprises and adds value to the purchasing decisions of the consumers who demand tourism products. In this respect, we can say that smart tourism is a technological trend/innovation that contributes greatly to purchasing decision, motivation, and satisfaction for tourists and efficiency, effectiveness, and profitability for producers for tourism market as

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well. Smart tourism is a concept that can be utilized by tourism companies supported by smart technologies, and such utilization increases their competitiveness, as well as contribute to the social, environmental, and economic development of the region where the business is located. Therefore, it is a trend preferred not only by businesses but also by local administrations. The reason for the emergence and widespread use of the concept of smart cities is the easy implementation of smart technologies in destinations and their contribution to the stakeholders. According to the Industry 4.0, Internet of Things infrastructure enables autonomous operation of machines, and even factories manage their production processes through smart systems without human intervention (EBSO, 2017). In fact, this development has shown that the digital world and the physical world can work as integrated with data and actions. The data of the things that occur in the physical world can be processed in the digital world, and the transition from one world to another can be achieved thanks to the common communication network that creates connection points. Thus, it is possible to manage the physical world from the digital world. In this world, which we call the Industry 4.0 revolution, the communication of people with people has become the way people communicate with machines and even between machines. This transformation in the production industry has also manifested itself in the tourism sector and has been named as Tourism 4.0 (Kurgun, 2019; Mil & Dirican, 2018; Fırat & Fırat, 2017; Bulut & Akçacı, 2017). The purpose of Tourism 4.0 is to minimize the negative impact of tourism, while developing a cooperation model developing the overall experience. This goal is achieved using the concepts and tools provided by smart tourism (Buhalis & Amaranggana, 2014; Gretzel et al., 2015b). In other words, the convergent of ICT is to integrate them into a platform that will include all stakeholders in the tourism experience and all stakeholders operating in the tourism sector (local community, government, tourist service providers, and tourists). In order for the Industry 4.0 technology to be applied in tourism products and services to be of high quality, it is necessary to create an interactive platform that is accessible to everyone. This also guarantees the sustainable development of tourism services and products as it is based on the latest technology infrastructure. The aim of this platform is to create a sustainable system that will facilitate the integration of tourists to business and destination, improve the quality of experience, and support the interactions to improve customized products and services (Peceny et al., 2019).

New Technological Trends in Tourism Thanks to the rapidly developing technology and the Internet since the last quarter of the twentieth century, ICTs have increased their speeds more, and the developing technologies have affected all sectors in a short time. Enterprises in the tourism sector benefit from these emerging technologies in their marketing, social interaction, and commercial activities. In addition to the ICTs and social media as mentioned above, the prominent new technologies that are being used in the tourism sector are as follows.

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Internet of Things (IoT) The Internet of Things (IoT) is a communication network in which physical objects are connected or larger systems and objects can work together in the Internet infrastructure without limitations of time, space, and presence. IoT is the common presence of various objects around us that can interact with each other and collaborate to achieve common goals, such as mobile phones, devices, sensors, processors, radio frequency identification (RFI) tags, etc. Because these objects are connected to the Internet, they close the gap between the real (physical) world and the digital world. Therefore, IoT enables the development of a wide range of platforms that can transfer a wide range of data types using participant detection systems (Gretzel et al., 2015a). IoT is the main network of smart tourism and the main condition for realizing smart tourism (Wu, 2017). IoT provides support in information collection and analysis, automation, and control. For example, a chip embedded in museum entrance tickets or a smartphone app allows tourism service providers to track tourists’ locations and consumption behavior (Çelik & Topsakal, 2019). It also provides position-based advertising or rescue if you leave a specific route and get lost (Masseno & Santos, 2018).

Big Data The content, speed, volume, and diversity of the data arising with the emergence of Internet technology also increase. The storage and interpretation of the data obtained by developing technologies are becoming important for the enterprises. Such data may include historical statistics as well as budgeting or marketing data that will enable companies to make strategic plans. This ever-increasing volume of information with higher speed and variety is called big data. While Beyer and Laney (2012) define big data as low-cost, innovative forms of information processing for advanced vision and decision-making, Sheoran (2017) defines it as a big data set that can be stored and interpreted with modern technologies. With smart tourism, businesses and destinations have begun to benefit more from big data. Big data is used at every stage of tourism movement. In the process from the planning of the trip to the realization of the trip, big data about accommodation, catering, and entertainment services are released; tourists leave a digital footprint in the use of web and mobile-based services and publish external information with various social media tools. Indeed, while other tourists follow these digital footprints, they also leave a digital footprint themselves. Micheli, Lutz, and Büchi (2018) define the digital footprint as the sum of data that can be attributed to an individual, attributable to an individual, and data from her online presence. Big data on the Internet’s search engines and social media posts has been almost the starting point for people’s decision to go on vacation. Today, it has become imperative for tourism businesses not only to collect traditional data but also to follow the digital footprints of tourists. Information about the market can be obtained with big data analysis,

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ensuring more successful and real-time marketing studies. In addition to marketing efforts, personalization can be made thanks to big data analysis, and customers can receive better services (Şengül, 2019).

Cloud Computing Cloud computing is an Internet-based technology, an information system that provides easy access to data and programs in the cloud system in any environment connected to the Internet. With the development of the big data concept, cloud systems have become capable of using the power and possibilities of data collection dynamically. This capability has reinforced decision support systems that create value for all stakeholders in terms of business functions. Cloud computing system is designed as an easy way to access the online data collection area. The cloud computing service is a model that allows access to a common pool of configurable computing resources, under convenient conditions and optionally anytime, anywhere (Attaran & Woods, 2018). Cloud computing provides access to web pages and data collection over electronic networks (Masseno & Santos, 2018). The cloud computing system promotes information sharing, which is an important feature in smart tourism, with its technology reaching reliable network platforms and data warehouses on a network. Cloud computing system is a new-generation technology that can be easily used by tourists without having to be installed on any personal device (Masseno & Santos, 2018); however, tourists using this system need to protect their personal confidential information and provide security and authentication themselves (Liu & Liu, 2016). As an example of the utilization of cloud computing, the tourist can check the hotel room he has booked through an online system with his mobile device before arriving at the hotel or make dinner reservations remotely online at the a la carte restaurant. In the same way, the hotel can easily offer to the tourist privileged services such as reservation, promotion, information, offers, etc. with its cloud computing system.

Near-Field Communication (NFC) NCF is a wireless communication technology that provides data transfer at certain distances without physical touch (Halaweh, 2013; Pesonen & Horsterb, 2012). The technology enables two-way interactive data exchange on electronic devices. Nearfield mobile devices can also read NFC tags with NFC chips without using any energy. A mobile device can run a preinstalled program or access a website link by reading an NFC tag (Pesonen & Horsterb, 2012). NFC technology is more advanced than RFID, although it is based on radio frequency identification (RFID). NFC provides simple and secure two-way interactions between electronic devices that users can use contactless, while at the same time allowing users to connect their devices with a single touch and access digital data (Borrego-Jaraba et al., 2010). Smart cards can be used for authentication and authorization in NFC technology,

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therefore allowing users to utilize these smart cards on any electronic tablet or mobile phone. In conjunction with the NFC, the device will act as a smart key to access services from another NFC device or tag. Today mobile phones, tablets, notebooks, and other portable devices are becoming a primary platform for access to information and contactless payment systems which are rapidly growing technological applications for tourism industry. With NFC technology, a tourist can make accommodation or restaurant payments, without contact with his mobile phone, can order food without a waiter, buy tickets, access tour program, get information about the artwork by bringing his phone closer to the artwork exhibited in the museum, and perform many other contactless operations.

Augmented Reality (AR), Virtual Reality (VR), and Mix Reality (MR) Today, AR, VR, and MR are three important applications that define the scope of the interactions between the physical and digital worlds. AR extends the physical world objects to the virtual world. VR offers a worldwide digital reality where the connection to the physical world is completely closed. MR provides augmented virtual objects that can interact with objects in the physical world (Rana & Patel, 2019). The development of AR and VR started in the 1930s with the 3D simulation attempt of Stanley G. Weinbaum in his first science fiction movie. In the 1950s, Morton Heilig’s Sensoroma made people feel like in the movie, with stereo speakers, stereoscopic 3D display, fans, scent generators, and an arcade-style theatre cabinet with a vibrating chair. Later, in the 1960s, Ivan Sutherland created the first VR headmounted display. This device was connected from a computer program to a stereoscopic screen, allowing the user to depict virtual wireframe shapes that change perspective while moving the head. The device is put on a real background of artificial images that can be seen as the beginning of AR (Dormehl, 2017). However, it can be said that the starting point of today’s AR and VR development was decimated by the introduction of interactive three-dimensional (3D) graphics on the Internet with the virtual reality modeling language (VRML) in 1994. This technological development allowed web-based VR to become a common reality for interactive simulations in various areas (education and gaming in particular) (Yoon et al., 2008). With VR (along with VRML), people were playing games in this virtual world, interacting with places and objects virtually (Mennecke et al., 2007; Stangl & Weismayer, 2008). VR has been used not only to prepare consumers for what they can expect in the real world but also to help tourists experience things that are not found in the real world during the visit. For instance, the “Rome Reborn” project in Google Earth allows tourists to explore Rome centuries ago (Wells et al., n.d.). Other examples include full experiences that complement the immersive features of VR with special sensors that stimulate other senses such as touch. An example of this experience is Navitaire, a VR framework that allows tourists to try their travel sites, book their favorite experiences, and eventually pay (Loureiro et al., 2020).

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In AR, the participant can see the real world and overlapping virtual objects in the real world using transparent screens (Bimber & Raskar, 2005). Thus, AR presents layers of virtual content (text, images, videos) on the real-world scenarios (Scholz & Smith, 2016). These features help consumers try out how different products or services fit their daily lives. AR is an important tool for expanding the consumer experience for tourism operators and managers but lacks the immersion required for a totally engaging experience. To reach these goals, the tourism industry has successfully used VR applications. VR is an immersive 3D simulation environment (telepresence) that allows consumers to feel like they’re in the real world. (Guttentag, 2010). Thus, VR is a fully synthetic world that can or cannot imitate the real world. In 1987, Jaron Lanier came up with the expression “virtual reality.” Dataglove and EyePhone have developed a number of virtual reality hardware such as headmounted displays (virtual reality, n.d.). AR and VR are promising technologies that may have specific effects on multiple industries. The global AR and VR market size for 2020 is $18.8 billion; the countries that spend the most on AR/VR technologies are the USA and China in 2020 and estimate that worldwide consumer spending for AR/VR 2020 is $7 billion (Statista, 2020). Tourists use AR and VR to experience destinations, hotels, or museums, albeit virtual, before deciding to travel. Therefore, the power of AR and VR to use virtual environments and their applications in trade have been the subject of research in the tourism sector (Loureiro et al., 2020). As can be seen, the user can look at an alternative tourism area where the real world is completely closed with a special “glass” in virtual reality. AR is a different technological solution in which digital elements are reflected in a real living space. Wearable devices such as AR and VR contribute to tourists’ experience of their travels smoothly, simply, and interactively. Making hotel reservations, getting information about the destination, finding places to visit, translating written and verbal signs, visiting hotel rooms with augmented reality, taking advantage of digital maps created with augmented reality, etc. experiences are now much easier for a tourist with wearable devices. Thanks to mixed reality technologies, tourists will have the opportunity to chat with historical characters or enable their favorite fictional characters to participate in a historical scene. Similar technologies have been used recently and successful results have been achieved. Michael Jackson performed in a hologram form at the 2014 Billboard Music Awards 5 years after his death (Billboard, 2014).

Cryptocurrencies, Blockchain, and Creative Business Models Satoshi Nakamoto, the inventor of bitcoin, described bitcoin as the “peer-to-peer electronic cash system (P2P)” in his article published in 2009 describing the framework of “bitcoin.” In this system, no central servers or third parties are required to perform transactions. Unlike the traditional international money transfer system, where transactions can take weeks or months to end, all bitcoin transactions take

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place from P2P and in a short time. It can be stated that this is the most accurate and simple definition of bitcoin ever made. Bitcoin is a compromise, consensus network, a completely new payment system (Cointurk, n.d.). Cryptocurrencies are generally considered as a subset of alternative currencies and, in a narrow sense, digital currencies. The emergence of bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies caused the formation of a new payment system (Yaşar, 2017). According to Cointurk (n.d.), bitcoin’s features are as follows: first, bitcoin is a cryptocurrency. There is no material/ physical equivalent, such as gold or silver. Second, bitcoin is a network interaction. It does not have a center. Money transfer from A to B is done digitally with various algorithms and protocols. Third, transfer can be made from any point to the Internet to any point with the Internet. Fourth, it has no intermediary, and broker. The costs are extremely low as there is no intermediary. Only miners who approve the transfer are paid in small amounts. Fifth, bitcoin is written in open-source code and is open to everyone. The owner of the system is everyone who uses it. Sixth, it can be used in all countries. When necessary personal security measures (such as passwords and computer protection) are taken, nobody can interfere with the crypto wallets on the computers. Seventh, there are no limiters or contracts such as terms of use, pre-restriction contracts, or terms. Eighth, bitcoin is produced as a result of a process called mining. Ninth, bitcoins to be produced have a limit. A total of 21 million will be produced. Tenth, in order to control the production speed and inflation, the “mining difficulty level” is updated within the framework of automatic calculations at certain time intervals. These updates are determined by the production density in the network. Eleventh, each user has a digital crypto wallet. Bitcoin and crypto coins are kept in these wallets. Twelfth, bitcoin transfers are signed with a digital signature specific to addresses and are verified by miners in order to verify their accuracy. Thus, the same bitcoin cannot be used a second time. Thirteenth, bitcoin can be converted to many currencies like USD, EURO, GBP, CHF, and JPY. Fourteenth, one can make mobile payments with QR code (QR are the initials of the words quick response). It is a special type of matrix barcode (or two-dimensional barcode) that can be read from the mobile devices’ cameras. Finally, bitcoin exchanges are not closed on weekends or holidays; they work 365 days and 24/7. Although the most known currency in the cryptocurrency markets is bitcoin, its competitors with a market value of over $ 5 billion are Ethereum (ETH), Ripple (XRP), Iota (MIOTA), Dash (DASH), Litecoin (LTC), and ZCASH. Cryptocurrencies use blockchain technology, which allows transfers to occur securely. Blockchain is an encrypted, ever-growing, distributed database that is not affiliated with any central authority. Any user with access to the blockchain network can access all transactions recorded from the chain’s first connection and verify all transactions that have occurred (BtcTurk, n.d.). New technology payment alternatives that people use for their daily shopping are also seen in the tourism sector. With the advent of bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies, a new payment system has emerged for purchases. Blockchain payment system is a secure shared database with the ability to save an ever-growing list of blocks of data with its new users. A block contains a list of transactions made and recorded and the results of calculations performed. For instance, if a customer buys bitcoin and then

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transfers it to another partner, which can change instantly in any other country, both partners can avoid exchange rate fluctuations; in addition, it can easily perform these operations in a few minutes. This solution is an extraordinarily innovative payment option for the tourism sector, one of the sectors where the international monetary movement is busiest and fastest. The blockchain system is implemented independently of exchange rates. It is not the exchange rate that matters in cryptocurrencies, but rather that the real value of the currency is in the security of blockchain technology and in the authentic, transparent, unchangeable, and decentralized registration system (Pilkington, 2016). This payment system offers a new encryption security and nonparasitic operating level, and the data processed in the system cannot be changed in any way. Another great advantage of the system is that the operations are carried out without any intermediaries and thus eliminating additional processing costs. It is stipulated that today’s major service intermediate solutions such as Airbnb, Booking.com, Agora, etc. must lose some of their market positions as blockchain payment solutions are “maturity” as consumers and service providers will probably deal directly with their transactions (Boston Hospitality Review, 2018). Cox (2019) lists seven tourism businesses as pioneers in the use of blockchains in the tourism industry: TUI, Atlas, PopulStay, Travala, Travel port, SITA, and Winding Tree. Following ey.com (n.d.), there are different uses of blockchain technology in the tourism industry: first, designing loyalty programs for the tourism sector; second, gathering tourist information and identifying it at all times in the experience; third, instant follow-up throughout the tourist experience; fourth, follow-up of online customer reviews; fifth, providing an intermediary working environment; sixth, baggage tracking; and finally, secure money transfer across country borders and stakeholders. Business models such as Airbnb, Housetrip, or Uber are among the successful innovative business models that emerged with Industry 4.0. It can be assumed that these business models developed on the basis of sharing economy will be much more effective in all areas of the smart tourism ecosystem such as accommodation, food and beverage, transportation, and entertainment in the future (Kurgun, 2019).

Artificial Intelligence and Robot Technologies The concept of Industry 4.0 is based on artificial intelligence and robot technology. Industry 4.0, which involves the automation systems and robotic technologies in production and service processes, even replacing people, processing, and analyzing the big data that has emerged, has opened the doors of a new era to mankind with the concept of artificial intelligence. This era is a new beginning in which artificial intelligence technology, where smart machines and computers are powered, and robots become part of the life of human beings. The fact that objects carry identifiers enables them to be tracked through receivers via satellite and network. After that, the objects were connected to each other over a network, enabling them to gain basic command and operation capability. In the next phase, the objects gained the ability to intervene in the physical world on their own

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by performing predefined actions based on the information they collected. At the final stage of the process, information systems that manage object(s) have acquired the ability to identify and utilize the most appropriate method of intervention in future events by compiling, learning, and analyzing large amounts of data on their own. This phase is regarded as artificial intelligence (Yıldız, 2019). Alan Turing, whose first work on artificial intelligence (AI) in 1950, emphasized how computers can think like humans. Since Alan Turing’s speech, AI has been frequently implemented to develop systems with similar processes and human thought characteristics (Anand & Kumar, 2017). ITB Berlin (2017) defines artificial intelligence as a neural network computer program consisting of millions of artificial brain cells. As a result, AI can discover new meanings and learn to solve problems. The result of artificial intelligence is data analysis and pattern recognition. Li, Li, Tang, Wang, and Li (2018) describe the adoption of AI strategic techniques such as “online mining” to obtain and analyze a wide range of useful textual data information. Artificial intelligence is associated with the ability of machines to understand, use the human language, and continue to work on their own. Modern AI is used for a variety of purposes such as reasoning, knowledge, learning, communication, perception, planning, etc. in all areas of public life (Hill et al., 2015; Barreda & Bilgihan, 2013; Aspen Institute, 2017). Artificial intelligence is an important component of robotics technology. As a result of advances in artificial intelligence, robot technology is rapidly developing. Thanks to image recognition and data and language processing techniques and capabilities, robots can easily navigate complex service environments and interact with people in complex ways. The robot can learn new things from interaction with every person thanks to artificial intelligence and can use this information to improve service quality in the future (Social Tables, n.d.). Therefore, besides microprocessor developments that result in artificial intelligence progression, robots will affect markets and workforce for centuries (Murphy et al., 2019). According to the US Robot Institute (1979), a robot is a reprogrammable manipulator with the ability to carry out the multifunctional tasks that are designed to carry materials, parts, tools, or special devices with variable programmed movements (wyzant.com, n.d.). Robots can also be defined as automatic physical devices that can move and perform a specific operation. Robots often fall into one of three categories: industrial, professional, and personal service (Vaussard et al., 2014; Thrun, 2004). Scientists are conducting research on the use of companion and social skills and design of personal service robots in the tourism and service industry (Ivanov et al., 2018; Tung & Law, 2017; Pan et al., 2015). Robotic applications are encountered differently in many areas in homes, manufacturing sector, pharmaceutical industry, marketing activities, entertainment activities, etc. In terms of tourism industry, it is possible to see many examples of robot applications in different areas (Sugasri & Selvam, 2018). For instance, Henn-na Hotel in Japan operates entirely with automation and robot technology; check-in and checkout operations are carried out by robots, and guests do not encounter any employees. Hilton Hotels and IBM together developed the concierge robot

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called “Connie” in 2016. Hotel guests can ask the robot about personal questions and food and travel questions and obtain extensive information about the hotel and its surroundings. The robot, which can understand many languages, can instantly respond to guests. The robot called “Pepper” in the far east ring of Pizza Hut restaurant chains can take orders from customers and collect them. In its new concept, which is implemented in Pizza Hut Shanghai, robots greet the guests with a smiling face and accompany them by showing their tables (İbiş, 2019). “Pepper” uses voice recognition and artificial intelligence to communicate with customers. At the same time, thanks to the system developed by Pizza Hut and Mastercard, orders received from customers are easily transmitted to the kitchen, and collections can be made from customers at the end of the process (Ivanov et al., 2018).

Examples of Smart Tourism Technologies Smart Restaurants The most attractive and distinctive parts of the hotels are the restaurants. Professional chefs, a great menu, and attractive ambiance make everything the best for guests. With the menu board systems placed in the restaurant and bar area, daily changing menus, personal specialties, chef’s choices, and campaigns can be easily updated, and all this information can be delivered to the guests within seconds. With the tablet menus placed on the tables, customers can have the opportunity to order easily, call a waiter, and share information such as the calorie values of the food and the ingredients. The tablet menu will be indispensable for guests with its features such as charging the phone, publishing a personalized campaign (Unisign, n.d.).

Smart Guest Rooms The guest rooms are personalized as much as possible, and technologies are used to make the guests feel special and privileged. Thanks to the hotel TV system, broadcasts can be made, and offerings can be made that appeal to taste based on the guest profile. Information services can be provided including menu information for restaurants/bars, presentation of hotel promotions, extra product and service prices, presentation of current invoice status, sending customer-specific messages, presentation of flight/train/travel programs, announcement, and fire alarm. Operations such as electrical on-off, television on-off, etc. can be performed with automatic sensors thanks to the automation integration. Guests can have a different and unique experience thanks to mirror screens. The mirror is different when not used and with mirror screens that turn into a digital display when used (Unisign, n.d.).

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Smart Conference Rooms Participants are offered smart solutions for special invitations, meetings, and conferences held in hotels. Interactive presentations can be made with digital chairs placed in the conference hall. Digital chairs offer superior service in modern meeting and conference rooms, with presentation management, text-to-speech tracking, program flow management, transfer of speech presentation to projection, remote access to the computer located within the podium with wireless network, and central management features. Thanks to smart boards, it is possible to transfer all the notes written on the board to your phone in seconds and share them with everyone. The motorized screens placed on the tables are opened with a single button when the participant needs it, and when they do not need it, they are closed, not taking up space on the table. Smart projection and screen systems open or close automatically by understanding your need (Unisign, n.d.).

Smart Tours Tourists can connect to the Internet through their wireless radio connection while traveling with their devices such as their mobile phones, tablets, and laptops. It is now widely used in hotels, airports, train stations, bus terminals, restaurants, cafes, and amusement parks thanks to the free Wi-Fi service offered by these facilities. Tourists can make online reservations. Tourists can request their mobile reservation via Wi-Fi, navigation satellite, and positioning systems or geographic information systems, or businesses can immediately convert these requests to booking or sale. With a collaborative tour planner system, people can design a common tour plan and personal itineraries based on their own travel destinations or use e-tourism recommendation technologies that can help them discover and select the most relevant points of interest for them. Tourists can make their travel more valuable and have a different travel experience by using smart guidance that combines mobile technology systems, mobile geographic information system, and global positioning system techniques with location-based services. In addition, it provides both convenience and a different tour experience to the tourists with its smart guide system and e-tour map. Electronic maps and compasses provide great convenience especially for holidaymakers with information collected from satellites. Tourists can purchase their tickets using the online e-ticketing system, convey their complaints and requests regarding their travels with the e-complaint handling system, or take advantage of some discounts and deals with the online coupons system.

Drones Drone is a productive, safe, smart, and flying robot that serves Tourism 4.0 as a result of developments in Industry 4.0 in the smart tourism ecosystem, which is relatively small but highly effective and can be easily integrated into workflows.

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Drones are a highly effective mobile device for data collection with the help of sensors and cameras, and it is possible to automate and optimize processes with the use of drones. Local governments and businesses use this data obtained from drones in the preparation of marketing and promotional materials by taking aerial pictures and videos of the tourism destinations and facilities at the same time. In addition, it is possible for tourists who do various nature sports, festivals, concerts, or special interest tourism to follow themselves with the drone and share these experiences on social media. Drones can be used for the safety and preventive maintenance services of the facilities as well as for the transportation of small items. Due to its fast, safe, low cost, and controllable features, drone aerial shots can be preferred more than helicopter or similar vehicles (Kurgun, 2019).

Chatbot (Chat Box) Chatbot is a computer program chatting through the chat room. It is also called infobot and chat robot. On the other hand, the chat box is a room on the Internet. Chat boxes are a place of conversation where travelers share their experiences, exchange ideas, and communicate with each other effectively. Companies are developing the business’s communication system using popular instant messaging platforms such as WhatsApp, Messenger, Skype, etc. which have clear implications such as creating new market opportunities for businesses. Tourism companies should use this opportunity to improve their existing services, especially through chatbots. With their importance now acknowledged by the users, the chatbots continued to grow. Facebook Messenger grew from 33,000 bots in September 2016 to 100,000 bots in April 2017, resulting in a more than 100% increase in distribution. In addition, Tec InStore, an online-based mobile phone repair company, has achieved 80% success rate with customers a month after launching chatbot services. Currently, tourism and travel reservation companies such as Expedia, Hipmunk, and Snaptravel have adopted chatbots in their operations (Ukpabi et al., 2019).

iBeacons Businesses can receive important information and send notifications from potential customers using this new technology. In order for customers to benefit from this communication technology, it is enough to have the company’s iBeacon app on their smartphones and Bluetooth on. The iBeacon application is a technology standard that allows users to connect to each other and transfer data to each other, allowing users to listen to and react to signals from the physical world through their mobile applications. This communication is enabled by Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) communication technology to transmit data over short distances (up to 100 meters). Since its low energy consumption and cost are considerably lower than traditional

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Bluetooth, this technology has ideal prerequisites for the idea of use behind iBeacons. With an iBeacon network, brands, retailers, apps, or platforms can increase their customers’ knowledge of their location, giving them the opportunity to send “highly contextual, hyper-local, meaningful messages and ads.” This technology gives businesses the power to change the way they communicate with their customers (Nabben et al., 2016).

Kiosks Now, in tourism businesses and destinations, kiosk technology is included with screens and digital system supported devices. In addition to informing guests, businesses use this concept to contribute to the atmosphere of hotel lobbies, corridors, and restaurants and to provide personalized service. Tourists who visit a tourism destination can access information about the region by using kiosks equipped with smart technology. With the kiosks in the hotel lobbies, guests can easily access all the relevant services and products of the hotel without checking in.

Websites Tourists apply digital information tools before making their holiday and travel decisions. Thus, they can reach the information about the destination to visit, the attractions of the destination, the accommodation, and travel planning. The website of a city, hotel, or airline company will be the first websites that tourists will look for information.

Mobile Application With the mobile application, hotels can provide information to the customers about the waiting time at check-in and the delivery time of their orders to their customers who are waiting for their orders in restaurants. Likewise, a tourist traveling in the same way will be able to access up-to-date information about pre- and post-travel with his/her mobile device. Mobile application may increase both service quality and customer satisfaction.

Mobile Payment Tourism businesses use mobile websites and apps more often when supplying their products, while tourists make travel plans, buy their travels, and share their travel (holiday) experiences.

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Smart Environment The smart environment is an important aspect of smart tourism, which is related to energy optimization, and leads to sustainable management of existing resources of smart tourism destinations.

Innovation in Tourism Marketing Industry 4.0 has not only affected sectors but has also affected the fields of operations and expertise of businesses. Enterprises that cannot keep up with innovations in production, installation, accounting, financing, purchasing, marketing, etc. have almost zero chance of success in competitive markets. Innovative businesses are much more successful in brand value, customer satisfaction, and customer loyalty compared to other businesses (Kim et al., 2018). We witness the rapid change of technology in the field of marketing. A lot of work falls on marketing activities to create value for the customer. Most of the activities required to increase customer value for the success and performance of businesses can be associated with marketing. We experience technology applications in marketing activities in the fields of production, distribution, sales, communication, and promotion. For instance, thanks to communication and information technologies, businesses can deliver their products to their current and potential customers faster and less costly and remain in uninterrupted communication. The so-called market can now be anywhere with an Internet or telephone connection. Enterprises have provided great advantages and differences in competition for their brands with the new-generation technologies mentioned above. According to many researchers, marketing is a whole of processes consisting of innovation activities. In contemporary marketing, internal and external communication and information systems are used to gather market-related information (e.g., consumer needs, competition, new products, technology, and so on), as well as to produce and distribute new products and services, as well as to promote and develop sales. It means making the most effective use. Since innovation directly affects the marketing activities of a business that starts before production and continues after sales, there is a need for innovation in marketing for this. Marketing performs many functions in the creation and development of ideas necessary for the incorporation, acceptance, and dissemination of innovation within enterprises. The first is marketing, a source of knowledge about innovation ideas. With a market-oriented approach, businesses can anticipate and evaluate the opportunities available in the market (Palladino, 2008). Second, marketing plays an active role in supporting the idea of innovation by all departments of the enterprise (Sandberg & Hansen, 2004). Third, effective marketing methods and market research can reduce the uncertainty and risks that innovation can cause with realistic information (Trott, 2001). Fourth, marketing plays an active role in making the necessary changes to the products and services customers want in line with the needs

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and wishes of them by establishing an effective communication system with the internal and external environment of the enterprise (Can, 2018). Constantly updated information through marketing tools and market research will enable the company to manage more effectively and develop innovation capabilities (Brekke & Straume, 2009). Marketing strategies not only help the profitability, growth, and brand value of the business but also are effective in determining and selecting the innovation activities of the business. While opportunities and competition in the market encourage innovation, innovation also needs the support of marketing to evaluate and find opportunities (Doyle, 2003). We can see the reflection of innovation to the tourism sector in service-related technology innovation applications. Service innovation is the idea of improving performance, which customers perceive as a new benefit or attractiveness, which is effective both in the behavior of customers and in the behavior of competing companies (Berry et al., 2006). Service innovation can explain the approaches that a firm uses intangible services and uses the new service to the consumer to create an advantage. Therefore, knowledge of customers’ needs and desires regarding service innovation from a customer-centric perspective is critical (Kim et al., 2018). The use of digital marketing techniques (e.g., information and communication technologies) represents examples of service innovation. The customers’ interest in the technological innovations offered by the enterprises may indicate that the enterprises will apply more technology in the service delivery system.

Digital Marketing and Digital Marketing Tools in Tourism The developments and changes experienced in information and communication technologies have brought about the emergence of new structures in the marketing world where businesses operate, as well as different aspects in strategic perspectives. These continuous formations cause a different formation than the traditional marketing approach, especially in the tools, methods, and strategies used in the field of digital marketing. Digital marketing applications, which mainly involve marketing activities carried out over the Internet with the help of information and communication technologies such as computers, mobile devices, and kiosks, are affected by the dynamic and open to innovations of the field in which it operates, and digital marketing tools, strategies, and methods gain a dynamic dimension in this context. Digital marketing is an application that uses digital distribution channels to promote products and services (Smith, 2011). Digital marketing is an innovative marketing technique, also called electronic marketing, that provides consumers with marketing messages related to business, products, and services through digital or online methods and tools. Digital marketing is interactive and consumer-centric, so it needs to be dynamic and adapt to innovation. According to the 2019 global numerical report data made through We Are Social and Hootsuite, there are 4.38 billion Internet users and 3.48 billion social media users in the world; in other words, 56% of the people in the world perform the action of using the Internet, while 45% of the people express

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themselves on the social network (Pamukçu & Tanrısever, 2019). Booking.com, Expedia, Trivago, and Hotels.com are examples of e-commerce businesses in the tourism industry. These businesses offer the privileges of digital marketing by providing online services to their consumers with holiday and travel product types, cheap rates, hotel and destination management, reservation, payment facilities, currency exchange services, map and weather reports, tourism guide, and virtual tour opportunities. Therefore, it is important to examine the digital marketing tools and strategies that are rapidly spreading in the tourism sector.

Social Network Marketing Social network and social media are different concepts, although they are used interchangeably. Social networking sites are just one category of social media (Safko & Brake, 2009; Mangold & Faulds, 2009). Social networking tools are information-sharing sites such as Facebook, Myspace, Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn, where people communicate with each other; their interests are within their common denominator (e.g., school, neighborhood, profession, club, etc.). People can create their own profiles on these sites; share content such as text, pictures, videos, movies, music, files, etc.; or become virtual members of different groups and blogs. Thus, people can follow each other; they can easily access different people and information via links. The most important feature of social networking sites is that they can even gather together the people who do not know each other and allow them to share ideas with one another. In this way, it is possible to establish connections between individuals that they cannot otherwise create. A person can share their vacation time, make holiday suggestions, and share their happiness and sadness from their profile. Therefore, it would not be wrong to add social networks to the factors that affect people’s holiday decisions and tourism demand. On the other hand, it is a customer database for social networking sites, businesses, and brands. Businesses learn about the demographic, geographic, socioeconomic, behavioral, and even psychographic characteristics of potential customers they want to reach. These data make businesses advantageous in strategic marketing planning of businesses (Weingberg, 2009).

Social Media Marketing According to Weingberg (2009), social media marketing is the process that allows individuals to promote online social channels and websites, products, brands, and services, to raise awareness, and to communicate and interact with traditional advertising channels that are not possible before. Social media marketing, in its simplest definition, is the promotion of individuals and businesses themselves, their brand, products, and services by using social network tools (Koçyiğit, 2015). According to Eley and Tilley (2009), social media marketing is the transmission of a tale or story through online social networks. This can be interesting, shocking, and

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funny content such as videos, pictures, messages, etc. shared from a Facebook or Twitter. Businesses can advertise on channels such as YouTube, Vimeo, Veo, or blogs that everyone follows, and they can target potential customers to become permanent customers by subscribing to their pages. Tuten (2008) defines social media marketing as an online advertising media in which social communities use various social networks, news sites, virtual worlds, or social idea-sharing sites for communication, brand, or cultural purposes. According to Tuten (2008), the main objectives of social media marketing are creating brand awareness, developing new creative ideas for marketing strategies, increasing the traffic on the website of the business or brand, increasing the reputation and image of the brand, managing the target audience perception, effectively achieving the marketing objectives, improving the search engine rankings, and helping to make sales. Considering that consumers who intend to buy or purchase tourism products and services often share their purchase intentions or holiday experiences on social networking sites, it is vital that tourism businesses follow social networks in marketing activities and use social media effectively.

Buzz Marketing As compared to viral marketing, buzz marketing has different aspects between the two marketing methods. People are provided the opportunity to speak with the help of buzz marketing-type activity, while direct information and ideas are shared in viral marketing. However, the biggest problem in buzz marketing is the possibility of talking about activities, not the products of customers. Therefore, marketing managers should be very careful in this process (Godin, 2004). In buzz marketing, the company conducts various activities in order for the consumers to be aware of the products and services offered to the market, to attract their attention and to be excited and arouse curiosity. As a result of the emotions created by the consumers, the consumers start a rumor by contacting the environment regarding that product and service. As a result of these rumors, consumers are expected to purchase the product or service. This marketing, which aims to increase sales of businesses, is called buzz marketing (Özkan Pir, 2019; Boğa, 2015). Buzz marketing is also known as rumor or whisper marketing. Buzz marketing is still done with traditional promotion tools such as word of mouth, radio, and TV, but it is also carried out through social network channels in line with technological developments.

Viral Marketing Viral marketing is the spread of rumors like virus. It is a type of marketing based on the logic that consumers are also aware of the products and services offered to the market by businesses, such as the rapid spread of the virus from one person to

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many segments of the society. As in buzz marketing, the messages given by businesses are rapidly spreading among consumers through digital marketing channels as well as using traditional promotional tools. Viral marketing is a relatively new concept, but it is a web-based word-of-mouth marketing approach. In other words, it is the use of Internet technology to increase efficiency in wordof-mouth marketing (Dasari & Anandakrishnan, 2010). It is the transmission of news, information, or entertainment to another person via the Internet (Cruz & Fill, 2008). It is used in terms of viral marketing, virus marketing, infectious marketing, and buzz marketing as equivalent to viral marketing (Çakırkaya, 2016). Viral marketing is used to carry out business activities using consumer communication networks for product distribution and promotion. The huge increase in message circulation on the Internet has been the biggest factor in the emergence of viral marketing (Argan & Argan, 2006). Viral marketing can be considered as a subbranch of electronic word-of-mouth marketing. While electronic word-of-mouth marketing plays an active role in the marketing activities of the business and the participants involved in the marketing process are voluntary, it is the case that the business takes an active role in the process and is the first actor to emit a viral spark (Çakırkaya, 2016).

e-WOM Marketing It has been recognized that word-of-mouth marketing is one of the most effective sources of information transfer. However, traditional word-of-mouth marketing is effective only in a limited social environment. With the advances in information technology and the emergence of online social networks, information has started to be transmitted through digital platforms. With Internet-based applications known as Web 2.0, Internet users produce the information themselves and share this information with other users on the online platforms (Cheung & Lee, 2012; Jalilvand et al., 2011). e-WOM marketing is a fast, cheap, widespread, space, and time-free interactive marketing tool that allows the consumer to research, compare, and consult with other consumers about the business, brand, products, and services (Heyne, 2009; Hüseyinoğlu, 2009; Fong & Burton, 2008; Akar & Kayhan, 2007). With the proliferation of social media channels in recent years, e-WOM marketing has been widely used. Various Internet tools such as forums, blogs, consumer review sites, and social networking sites are used to spread more consumer ideas and interact with product information (Gupta & Harris, 2010). In e-WOM marketing, information is often shared through dialogues. Tourism consumers browse various online platforms while sharing their experiences or research before purchasing and try to reach the answers of the questions in these minds through these digital channels. Consumers are likely to influence each other on these channels. Therefore, businesses should follow digital platforms, be aware of customer requests and complaints, and produce solutions, and most importantly, they should offer sustainable quality products and services to their customers.

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Influencer Marketing After the emergence of social media, people started to share many written, visual, and audio messages via Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube, etc. social media tools. The purpose of the sharing person is to ensure that the posts made by everyone can be watched, to increase the number of viewers, to be able to influence them, and to follow their own page or name by obtaining feedback. Therefore, these people have gained a reputation in the Internet environment thanks to their loyal followers acquired through the social network channels of the content attracted by the groups and the masses. These people who can influence the masses they address and change their behavior are called “influencers.” Brown and Hayes (2008) define the word influencer as a third-party person who is the driver in the customer’s decision to purchase. Social media influencers are a new independent third-party supporter who can influence audiences with their blogs, tweets, and messages on other social media tools (Freberg et al., 2011). Influencer marketing is the concept of bringing together key individuals to increase their impact transmitted through e-WOM marketing. Hennig-Thurau, Malthouse, Friege, Gensler, Lobschat, Rangaswamy, and Skiera (2010) stated the influencer marketing concept as an explanation about a product or brand produced by customers and published to many people over the Internet regardless of the company. We can see the influencer marketing studies in the tourism sector. People follow the social media accounts of their favorite celebrities who share their holiday and travel experiences and are influenced toward making the same holiday and travel decisions. While the posts people make on the Internet are e-WOM marketing, buzz marketing, or viral marketing, the posts made by famous people are mostly included in the concept of influencer marketing. Holiday destinations of famous people (influencers) are featured in hotel or airline company advertisements, and followers of influencers also share these activities in their own environment. In addition to advertisements, businesses have the opportunity to reach a wider audience thanks to the social media activities of influencers.

Mobile Marketing In the classical marketing approach, following the customer closely and physical proximity as possible provided advantages to buyers and sellers. With the increase in the population, the increase of competing products and companies, the rapid displacement of people for various purposes, and the development of technology, the change toward communication mobilization has started. It has brought a new dimension to the development and transformation marketing approaches and applications in electronic commerce, Internet marketing, and communication technologies. Mobile marketing is one of the marketing tools that creates value for everyone in a world where people are changing places and information is spreading rapidly. Mobile marketing is a marketing tool that is time and space sensitive; generates value for all stakeholders; promotes products, services, and ideas; and transfers

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information using personal data through wireless media tools (Marangoz et al., 2012). In line with the number of more than 300 million Internet and social media users (due to countries that could not send reports because of the novel coronavirus, this number does not include them) between April 2019 and April 2020, the number of users using 128 million mobile phones increased. At the beginning of April 2020, 5.16 billion unique mobile users, about two thirds of the total population in the world, use a mobile phone today. People around the world spend much more time on their digital devices as a result of coronavirus lockups (We are social, 2020b). It is inevitable that mobile devices are used as a marketing tool, with the habit of being used greatly, and the firms’ presence on digital marketing channels. Consumers can be accessed using many formats such as mobile promotions, short message services (SMS), in-app messaging, social media, and e-mail notifications (Sezgin & Parlak, 2019). Consumers are informed about the products and services, discounts and campaigns, various gift offers, and similar promotions through the messages received from the companies, and they can be effective in the purchasing decisions of the consumers. In addition to communication, mobile devices can fulfil many functions such as a marketing tool, a news tool, advertisement, entertainment, direction finding, a game tool, and a picture and video capture and sharing tool. Mobile (smart) phones perform all these operations thanks to the ability to connect to the Internet, providing various facilities to everyone. Mobile phones, which have become as important as Internet marketing, act as an electronic distribution channel that is used rapidly in the tourism industry (Uğurlu, 2013).

E-mail Marketing Electronic mail is a method of communication over the Internet. In one way, it is an electronic communication method. E-mail is an electronic message that is the transmission of individuals from one computer to another computer or between mobile devices. E-mail marketing is the new version of today’s technology of direct mail marketing from classical direct marketing tools. Marketing is an applied synthesis social science which aims to create, maintain, develop, and terminate change relation networks that create value for its stakeholders (Erdoğan, 2014). E-marketing, on the other hand, is expressed in the form of conducting marketing activities on electronic media and using network tools and using the Internet for profit (Metin, 2015). According to Kotler and Armstrong (1999), e-marketing is the marketing activities carried out as a result of connecting the marketer and consumer with computers such as computer, mobile communication, and television in an electronic environment. E-marketing is used in all tourism businesses, primarily in the accommodation and travel industry. A mutual communication is established between tourism companies and consumers who demand tourist products and services via e-mail about destinations, travel packages, the hotel’s location and services, prices, etc. This situation supports the marketing activities (e.g., discount campaign, new tour packages, etc.) carried out by the companies through computerized reservation systems, web page, etc. marketing tools.

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Affiliate Marketing Affiliate marketing is a type of performance-based marketing in which a business rewards the affiliate for each visitor and customer that the affiliate brings to the business as a result of its own marketing efforts (Nair, n.d.). Affiliated marketing is an act of promoting another company’s goods and services and earning commissions from this business (Hofmann & Novak, 2000). Thus, an affiliate (or advertiser) company signs an agreement with another company for the online promotion of its products and services in exchange for a commission (Gregori et al., 2014). The primary goals of affiliate marketing are to promote and sell products or services through traditional distribution organizations by directing web traffic to affiliates and creating transactions from online users in exchange for a commission (Malaga, 2007). As an affiliate, you need an audience to generate revenue to sell. The most important purpose of the subsidiary and the program is to sell. However, it is as important to arrange phone, e-mail, appointment, or face-to-face meeting appointments with potential audiences as it is to sell. After all, it is the main goal for you to make a deal with the affiliated company that will sell or promote for you online in exchange for a commission.

Search Engine Marketing (SEM-SEA-SEO) The easiest and fastest way to access information is to connect to any website by typing the keyword in the search engine (e.g., Baidu, Bing, DuckDuckGo, Google, Yahoo, Yandex, etc.) of an Internet-connected device (smartphone, tablet, computer, TV, etc.). Search engines are designed for this system. The equivalent of the keyword or similar words can be accessed through technically superior software search engines. Today, consumers can search and compare products, manufacturers, and vendors related to the product and service they are looking for before purchasing a product or service. Search engines not only provide producers with serious time and money but also give manufacturers and vendors access to new markets. Search engine marketing (SEM) and search engine advertising (SEA) are digital marketing techniques, which are the whole of online marketing efforts to provide advertisement visibility through paid listing on search engine results pages (SERP) and to bring visitors to the website in this way. Search engine optimization (SEO), on the other hand, is the name given to all of the strategies, techniques, and tactics applied for the website to rank high in advertisement-free ranking (organic results) in the related words (keywords) searched on search engines (Şengül, 2019). As of June 2019–June 2020, the most used search engine is Google with 92.62% (Statcounter, 2020). Search engine optimization is a method that increases the chances of your business being at the top of a website in search engines such as Google, Yandex, Bing, etc. on the Internet, thus increasing the customer and sales opportunity. For

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this, these search engines use browsers or spiders to index pages and information pages on the Internet and sort results for relevance and popularity using their own set of rules or an algorithm. Search engines, as well as being one of the most important ways of searching and filtering the information needed by individuals for travel, have become a vital channel for tourism businesses to reach potential markets (Xiang et al., 2008). Google Flights, Momondo, Kayak, Expedia, and Adioso are the best-known websites of travel search engines.

Digital Content Marketing Before digital marketing, businesses have tailored stories in movies, TV series, documentaries, and music videos that really interest consumers so that they can be influenced by their products and services and purchase them. Businesses sometimes described the subject contents in some dramatic ways, sometimes by entertaining them and sometimes making them think. Because the content of the subject really interests people, people started to follow the brands, names, products, and services mentioned in these contents. The logic of content marketing is that people already know about the products and services that are intended to be marketed and make these products and services attractive in their eyes. Therefore, content marketing has become one of the important tools of digital marketing today, just like traditional marketing tools. In fact, value and usefulness are increasing, thanks to fine adjustments and improvements to search algorithms in content marketing. According to the definition of Content Marketing Institute (n.d.), content marketing is a strategic marketing approach that encourages consumers to attract or retain a specific target consumer, focusing on creating and distributing valuable, relevant, and consistent content that will arouse their interest and interest. Content marketing is the most important tool of a successful online marketing campaign and digital marketing strategy. In the traditional content marketing process, firms provide their distribution to the current and target markets by combining their content, value, image, and creative abilities with information through printed documents, radio, and television channels. When it comes to the Internet environment, visual items are frequently used together with video series, news and content bulletin, e-mail contents, websites, and blog posts (Sezgin & Parlak, 2019). On the other hand, we also see content marketing applications on user-generated content media channels like Wikipedia. Such new online sources of information help to create websites, excellent forums with user-generated content, and motivate and develop customers in a positive way. Consumer-generated media describes the various new online sources of information created, launched, circulated, and used by consumers’ intentions to educate each other about their products, brands, services, personalities, and issues (Alikılıç, 2008). In user-generated content marketing, the content is generated by end users and can be seen by anyone, interactive communication can be established, and thus the content is spread.

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Pay per Click Advertising (PPC) Search, also called PPC, is the management of paid ads in a search engine’s search results. PPC is a type of advertisement when keyword purchased from search engine of a company pops up in the search bar of the search engine user. These advertisements are regarded next to organic search list as small text advertisements when people search for related word (Gökaliler, 2017). Specific words are targeted, and the advertisement will appear when these words are searched on a search engine like Google. The advertiser needs to pay every time the ad is clicked. Therefore, it is necessary to use PPC effectively; otherwise it is possible to lose money from this marketing method. These paid ads are usually located to the right or top of search engines. Advertising in this way is not very expensive. If a customer clicks on your ad, you just pay. You can control your cost by setting a budget of €5 per day (Shirisha, 2018).

Online Advertising Online advertising is different from PPC because you advertise on other people’s websites. For example, you can buy banner space on any website and only pay the website owner based on the number of impressions or clicks of the ad (Shirisha, 2018).

Online Display Advertising (ODA) With the development of online advertising, display advertising is also developing. Display advertisement, text, graphic, and video are the types of advertisements that can be published on websites in many formats, and one of their primary goals is to convey the brand’s message and increase brand awareness by delivering advertisements to large audiences with impressions acquired according to the budget (Şengül, 2019). Online display ads are similar in format to print ads or short moving clips called banners or skyscrapers, depending on where the ads are on the screen. These can be interrupted ads or pop-ups, and when you click a link from the main site, they are ads that automatically open a new window on the advertiser’s site. Pop-ups include various pop-ups on the displayed website or pop-ups located behind the displayed website until the window closes (McCabe, 2009). There are two types of display advertisements. The first is static display advertisements. On the static display, advertisements are made with the publisher on a monthly or CPM (cost per thousand impression) basis agreement. The advertisement is fixed in certain parts of the website for a certain period of time, like a billboard. The second is dynamic display advertisements. In dynamic display advertisements, they are display ads that rotate on many related websites according to targeting criteria and are charged with cost per click (CPC). Dynamic display ads have some advantages over static advertisements. These are that its target capability is improved, that the advertiser’s

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cost performance (ROI, return on investment) is generally better, and that ads can be controlled and optimized in real time.

Game Advertising (In-Game Advertising) Advertisements in digital games on websites, computers, smartphones, smart TVs, tablets, and game consoles are called digital game ads. The digital game industry, which has more than 1 billion players in the world (Şengül, 2019), has become a new sales and marketing platform for businesses. Digital games generated $10.46B in revenue in June 2020, the second-highest total ever after April 2020’s sum of $10.54B (SuperData Perspectives, 2020). People who play hundreds of games around the world, such as PUBG, Battle Royale, League of Legends, and Fortnite, are more likely to be noticed and remembered by the ads they see on the screen. The fact that players have the opportunity to chat in the games also leads to viral marketing opportunity through the game. Today, businesses use the digital game market for marketing activities such as information, campaigns, promotions, etc. The terms advergame and gamification can be confused with game advertisements. Advergame is the name given to the games specially designed for the promotion and marketing of a product. Gamification is the use of game mechanics and dynamics to make processes more fun and interactive in non-game areas.

Omni-channel Digital Marketing With the development of communication technologies, people are always communicating and interacting with brands wherever and whenever they want. As a result of the increasing number of personal and electronic contact points to ensure the continuity of these interactions, companies have created the need to seamlessly integrate market communication strategies and tactics into the life cycle of consumers through multiple channels. In the omni-channel digital marketing strategy, digital marketing channels are included in the process along with traditional marketing channels (Sezgin & Parlak, 2019). In other words, physical businesses and e-commerce are the main purpose of being with consumers at every moment with a holistic marketing approach. Therefore, businesses located on both sides of the physical world and the virtual world can reach the consumers in some way; they can promote their brands and market their products and services. With the synergy that traditional and digital marketing channels provide and integrate to each other, businesses can see the markets, segment the markets, measure their performance, and report at any time. Consumers, on the other hand, can make comparisons, access the product, have information, and interact effectively with businesses, by browsing online and physically, regardless of a particular brand. For instance, a hotel customer can reach the detailed information about the new product or service offered by the hotel in the advertisement by reading the advertisement on the board with QR code technology without asking the reception.

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Online Marketing and Virtual Support Assistants With the development of information and communication technologies and the existence of the Internet, businesses have begun to take advantage of the blessings of the digital world (Sezgin & Parlak, 2019). Indeed, the success of the remaining companies in this technology cannot be mentioned. The most important benefit of digitalization to companies is the ease of reaching consumers at any time. For this, businesses that benefit from virtual support assistants such as social media, websites, and chatbots can communicate online instantly with consumers. For this, it is sufficient for both parties to be online. With chat programs and social media automations that can be integrated into websites, companies are able to contact consumers, respond to consumers’ questions, and discuss issues with these online virtual support assistants. Promotion activities can be carried out within such digital channels, information is exchanged, individual marketing is carried out, brand image development and consumer brand perception can be determined, and stakeholders are provided with money and time. In online services provided by virtual travel agencies, all travel and tour transactions can be made online with the customer. Today, traditional face-to-face marketing has been replaced by online marketing and virtual support assistants.

Future Trends in Tourism Marketing As it will be in the future and as in the past and today, there are certain reasons for the changes and developments in the tourism sector. Changes in the needs and desires of consumers; changes in consumption habits; changes in production methods; changes in transportation, communication, and production technologies; changes in competitive conditions; globalization; differentiation in products and services; international relations; laws; etc. are the prominent ones (Gil & Ritchie, 2018). Moreover, since force majeure changes the conditions in trade, the conditions of producers and consumers, and the way of life of people, many innovations can be expected in the tourism sector in the future due to technological innovations. With the COVID-19 pandemic, businesses operating in the tourism sector have started to adapt the new changes to the life of tourism manufacturers and consumers in line with the technological developments in the health sector. The implementation and adaptation of health and hygiene technologies in the world has now begun to be legally compulsory in tourism businesses. Now, one of the most important factors affecting tourism demand is health and safety. It is possible for tourism companies to present effective messages in marketing and promotions that highlight the new safety and hygiene they put in their businesses and to prove evidence that the businesses will show their differences in competition strategies in the future. The governments of the countries generally made tourism marketing in the developing countries, whose economies are based on tourism and earned income and foreign exchange from tourism. With the development of communication technologies and decreasing costs, tourism enterprises have also started marketing

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efforts. Today, a hybrid model is generally used. While central governments and tourism businesses market their country’s tourism attractions, we see that today local governments are marketing their own destinations in the local and international tourism arena. In this way, we are also witnessing those businesses operating in non-tourism sectors are promoting their locations as a tourism promotion agency or a tourism enterprise. In the future, tourism marketing and destination marketing will certainly engage in wider and more effective marketing activities by synergizing each other. Among the changes in the internal and external environment of businesses, technology is undoubtedly vital for the profitability, sustainability, and the existence of social benefits of businesses. The presence of smart vehicles, high-speed trains, and planes that fly faster than the speed of sound reinforces the possibility of future flying cars, space travels, smart submarines, and travels to underwater and extraatmospheric planets and their lives. As a matter of fact, the fact that space tourism has already begun and those tickets are already on sale is an indication of this. Comfort, safety, and transportation efficiency will be the factors that will determine the competitiveness of the businesses that consumers are looking for in the tourism activities. In order to provide these factors to its consumers, it requires the institutions and organizations that produce and market tourism products and services to benefit from technological innovations and adapt quickly. As a result of global warming, the rapid adoption of sustainable tourism concept by countries has led to the emergence of new business approaches in the tourism sector such as luxury camping (glamping business), nature-friendly hotels (eco-hotels), and travel businesses. We can say that the technologies that will develop against climatic changes will also be applied rapidly in tourism businesses. Tourism companies have started to leverage the latest technologies in their activities. They can reach more potential customers by using Internet-based communication and information technology tools. Many technologies used in production technologies (robots, artificial intelligence, other service automation systems) are widely used in the service industry, because of their speed and low cost. Automatic check-in kiosks, robot front desk staff, waiter or delivery robots, robotic pool cleaners, robot concierges, chatbots, food carried by drones, digital menus, etc. are increasingly used by tourism businesses and transforming the methods of creating and providing services. For instance, in the tourism products and services produced and consumed at the same time, while there is a waiter on one side and the customer on the other, a digital menu or a robot (instead of the waiter) can be included in this system with the introduction of technology into restaurant management. In fact, we have entered a period in which customers will benefit from more self-service technologies and the business will benefit less from human resources. In other words, we are going through a transition to become a technology-intensive sector in the tourism sector, which is a labor-intensive sector. Eye recognition; face recognition and fingerprint systems; motion-, sound-, and light-sensitive working TV, stereo, curtain, door, etc. systems; service; cleaning; security; etc. are just a few of them performed by robots with artificial intelligence technologies. In the near future, we can see completely or predominantly nonhuman production and service

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models in many operations and back-office service departments of tourism enterprises. For instance, it is possible to run all sales and marketing, customer relations, human resources, accounting, and finance departments with smart software and robotic technologies. It is also possible to carry out today’s travel agency services with completely digital methods instead of offices. In many services such as travel, transportation, guidance, security, kitchen, technical service, and housekeeping, the steps of a technology-based system have already been taken. It is now necessary to add robots, smart software, and digital equipment to the integrated marketing system, where all departments and employees are responsible for the sales and marketing of the business.

Conclusion With Industry 4.0, a new era of change, transformation, development, competition, and many other innovations has begun. Human resources have started to replace human power with robots equipped with artificial intelligence after machinery and equipment. Technology has not only changed people’s lifestyles, habits, and desires but also caused significant changes on systems and organizations. Technology, which people are intimate with in their working time, has an important place in the life and comfort of people in leisure and vacation times. Sectors have begun to adapt their organizational structures to new technologies, and they have started to frequently benefit from information and communication technologies. Technology has been used in every stage and process of classical marketing. Regardless of the sector, technological innovations are used by enterprises in production systems, pricing strategies, distribution planning, sales, and promotion efforts. Many commercial activities such as realization of production with less cost and speed, delivering the produced products to consumers in a high quality and fast way, and communicating with consumers at any time are thanks to technology. It is an inevitable fact that businesses adapt rapidly to technology in order to be successful in competition today and in the future. In this time when we are in the information age, taking advantage of the benefits of information technologies and making them a part of the marketing activities of the enterprise reveal the difference and awareness of businesses not only economically but also socially. With the digitalization of the marketing activities of the enterprises, the fact that they are more effective in the market and new designs, different applications, and approaches are provided with a contemporary perspective satisfies both the producers and the consumers. If a consumer who wants to own a product has a mobile phone or a computer, tablet, etc. connected to the Internet, after a short research, he will be able to access the product he wants from many alternatives by paying less time and money. Therefore, it is vital that businesses use digital marketing tools and methods. Classical marketing methods are insufficient to reach customers and create brand loyalty in terms of businesses, and the use of new methods and techniques equipped with technology is now a necessity. In this context, the use of social network has become an important concept, which deeply affects not only businesses but also

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human behaviors. It can be said that social networks will become more diverse and gain importance in the coming years, as they do today. There is hardly any producer, agent, consumer, bureaucrat, manager, and employee who does not use social media for personal and business purposes. They must benefit from social networks and social media in order to create satisfaction, trust, and loyalty in the digital environment, as they did in face-to-face relationships in people’s relationships and business life yesterday. The power of social media is far greater than the power of traditional media. Social media is a participatory communication method that makes two-way and interactive communication effective. All brands that are aware of the power of social media can create brand awareness, trust, and brand loyalty by promoting their brands on social media and social networking environments and reaching more target audiences. In the technology age, businesses use social networking digital platforms for both communication and marketing purposes, since retaining existing customers in markets where competition is intense is costlier than acquiring new customers. In this sense, new marketing strategies using social networks will be one of the important conditions for being successful in the sector. Although smart tourism is different from e-tourism, it is similar to e-tourism in terms of the construction of its digital infrastructure, and it is contributed by e-tourism. Smart tourism development studies are already continuing. We witness the extensive use of technology in tourism destinations, as well as tourism businesses such as accommodation, transportation, food and beverage, entertainment, congresses, etc. Although the tourism sector is a service sector and is based on manpower, the technology driving force toward smart tourism is enormous, and tourism is expected to pave the way for many of these smart technologies. Smart tourism is taking its place in the tourism policies and planning of countries, and the ever-cheaper sensor technology and advances in big data analytics are becoming a reality in many tourism destinations. Along with smart tourism developments, technological innovations (kiosks, virtual reality, augmented reality, digital tour and travel guides, digital maps, etc.) that we see in tourism destinations have started to be used by local governments of other regions. Despite the practical difficulties arising from the inclusion of new technologies in smart tourism and the high initial investment cost, it can be said that smart tourism applications will not only benefit tourism destinations but will also increase the development of regions, due to its contribution to the promotion of the region and country, transforming into value creation for established business networks and providing meaningful experiences for smart tourists. Mobile technology applications such as computer, Internet, social media, and GPS have brought great changes to tourism businesses as well as to industrial enterprises. Airline industry and travel agencies have developed digital global distribution channels. Through global companies such as Amadeus, Galileo, etc., they marketed their hotel room, flight, rental car reservation, and sales to the world tourism market. Today, thanks to digital platforms such as TripAdvisor, Expedia, Booking.com, and Airbnb, the demand for tourism has expanded, and the competition in the tourism market has accelerated on digital platforms (e.g., social media, blogs, digital marketing, online advertising, etc.). Innovations such as renewable (clean) energy, big data, augmented reality, visual reality, 3D printers, drones,

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driverless cars, etc. will create the technology of the future. Changes in tourism enterprises and tourism destinations will continue with technological changes against the changes in the needs and demands of smart tourists created by the smart tourism supply. Therefore, tourism businesses that offer different experiences for changing expectations and new types of tourists will also emerge. The use of artificial intelligence and robot technologies created by Industry 4.0 is expected to increase with an increasing demand in hotels, travel agencies, transportation companies, restaurants, congress-fair businesses, and entertainment-animation businesses. The continuity and permanence of tourism enterprises depend on their adaptation to technological developments. Adaptation should be not only in operations but also in management approach. A robot equipped with artificial intelligence can be used not only in food service or customer greeting but also in the promotion and marketing of the products and services of the enterprise. Drones can carry food to the tables, as well as collect resources for the advertisement of the business by taking pictures and videos from the air, sea, or land. While responding to the expectations of tourists such as comfort, hygiene, safety, and speed, which they expect in a tourism facility, providing them with the latest technology increases the satisfaction of tourists and the preference of the business. Responding to personalized requests and preferences is among the important factors that increase consumer satisfaction (Wang et al., 2016). Moreover, in these periods when environmental pollution, global warming, crowding, environmental threats, etc. increase, environmentally sensitive tourism businesses that want to respond to the demands and expectations of environmentally sensitive tourists, adapting the innovations required by the digital age to their businesses, will not only please tourists but also contribute to leaving a beautiful world for future generations. The tourism sector is one of the sectors where competition is fiercest. Although it is not possible for every business to be successful, businesses that follow contemporary technological trends, can understand the next generation of tourists, can satisfy consumers, and are environmentally conscious have a greater chance of surviving this war of existence. The fact that the technologies mentioned in this study are already being used and that they almost enter many areas of our lives requires businesses to have these technologies, to be able to implement them, and to use their knowledge and skills to market. In order to reach their goals and targets and to stay in the minds of consumers, businesses that develop a vision in line with the technological age should determine appropriate marketing strategies at every stage of production, service, advertisement, promotion, and marketing activities and benefit from the technologies of the digital age.

References Aina, Y. A. (2016). Achieving smart sustainable cities with GeoICT support: The Saudi evolving smart cities. Cities, 71, 49–58. Akar, E., & Kayhan, C. (2007). Elektronik ticaret ve elektronik iş: Uygulamalar, modeller, stratejiler. Nobel Yayınları. [In Turkish].

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Digital Marketing and Digital Marketing Applications in the Asian Tourism Industry Eray Polat

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Journey of Marketing to Digital and 4Ps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Marketing Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Search Engine Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Content Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Influencer Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Omni-Channel Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Marketing Applications in the Asian Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Technology takes the place more and more in human life and directs it. Therefore, it is no longer possible to imagine that marketing, which has a fundamental goal to meet the needs and desires of people, is independent of the technology that has entered such human life. The primary objective of this section is to provide a conceptual framework for digital marketing, which has become increasingly pronounced in recent years. By doing so, the evolution of the marketing mix and digital marketing practices is discussed in particular. The second important objective in this section is to present examples of digital marketing practices carried out by tourism enterprises in Asian countries. When the relevant literature is examined, it can be said that in the context of the Asian tourism industry, this area is left under-researched. In this context, secondary data, generated from the existing literature, were used to collect data. Findings show that digital marketing

E. Polat (*) Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Gumushane University, Gümüşhane, Turkey © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_5

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applications in Asian countries are not yet implemented sufficiently and need to be developed. This issue will be more important for the Y and Z generation tourists who are more deeply related to technology as it is important today. Keywords

Tourism · Digital marketing · Enterprises · Asia

Introduction Technology is changing and improving human life like never before. So much more information than the set of information produced throughout human history can now be produced in a few days or even in a few hours. Thus, almost every day, a new invention is revealed, a new window opens in human life, and a new transformation begins. Technological developments have affected profoundly tourism, which is a social phenomenon, and marketing forms of tourism. For instance, in the middle of the nineteenth century, the train provided the opportunity to market tourist activities collectively and in an organized way. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the automobile played an important role in the flexibility of travel and its spread to a wider audience. In the middle of this century, jet planes made it possible to reach more distant destinations (Ivanov, 2019); in the first years of the twenty-first century, the Internet, social media, and websites have destroyed all the rules. In this period, artificial intelligence, augmented reality, virtual reality, the Internet of Things, and advanced robot technology have once again destroyed the rules rebuilt. However, the relationship between technology, tourism, and marketing triangle has also been strengthened. In the historical process, the objectives, the way of implementation, the means of marketing activities, and the ways of reaching customers could not be independent of human life, consumption behaviors, desires, and needs. At this point, the technological development that touches human life has deeply affected marketing activities and brought digital marketing to an important point. The importance of this point has made it crucial for companies all over the world to adapt to digital marketing and to operate in this field, because staying offline in an online world will mean breaking away from the race. In the context of tourism enterprises in Asian countries, harmony has been observed in this scope and activities have been started in digital environments to convey their messages to consumers, to establish relations with them, and to interact or to increase their loyalty levels. The main purpose of this chapter, which emerges in the light of these thoughts, is to firstly provide a conceptual framework on digital marketing. Within the scope of this aim, it is also important to focus on the transformation of the traditional marketing mix 4Ps with digital marketing. Another important aim of the study is to present examples of digital marketing activities carried out by tourism enterprises in Asian countries. In the study, secondary data obtained by scanning the related literature and compiled according to the aims of the study were utilized.

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The Journey of Marketing to Digital and 4Ps We closely observe the transition process to the digital economy with the developing technology in recent years. At the same time, this brings along radical innovations in many sectors of the economy. For instance, driverless vehicles in transportation, remote live and online courses that are being implemented in education, and service robots in front office departments of hotels are no longer surprising for people. However, many of these applications, which have been strengthened by the digital economy, have led to changes in major sectors and upset the work of large resident companies and, even interestingly, initiatives that have previously made breakthroughs in the market. For example, Apple iTunes, which disrupts the business of online music retailing and physical music retailing, has received a major blow from Spotify, which has developed into a streamlined music-based business model. Since its peak in the early 2000s, Apple’s revenue from music sales has been declining. Finally, in mid-2015, Apple launched its music streaming service to compete with Spotify (Kotler et al., 2017). In the process of transition and adaptation to the digital economy, a new marketing vision is needed to guide marketing professionals to anticipate and exploit new technologies. At this point, Kotler et al. (2017) state that the term marketing 4.0 should be discussed. The more pronounced form of this in the literature is digital marketing (Kingsnorth, 2016). In the most general form, digital marketing, which can be defined as the marketing method using digital channels, is not a very separate approach from traditional marketing (Ryan, 2014). Digital marketing does not need to replace traditional marketing as an approach that requires online and offline interaction between the business and the customer (Taiminen & Karjaluoto, 2015). Instead, the two must coexist with changing roles on the road to customers. Traditional marketing plays an important role in creating brand awareness and interest in the first stage of interaction between companies and customers. The importance of digital marketing increases as interaction progress and customers demand closer relationships with companies. The most important role of digital marketing is to promote action and promote brand advocacy on various social networking sites. Since digital marketing has a more accountable nature than traditional marketing, its focus is to influence the results. However, the focus of traditional marketing is to initiate customer interaction (Kotler et al., 2017). With the development of digital marketing, the marketing mix is also transforming and changing its form. The marketing mix, consisting essentially of four Ps (product-price-place-promotion), is a classic tool that helps plan what customers are offered and how they are offered (Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2016). As a consequence of market research, the product is largely generated based on the requirements and desires of customers. Most of the decisions about the products from idea to production are under the control of companies (Kotler et al., 2017). Businesses use pricing methods based on cost, competition, and customer demand to determine a sales price for the product. The most important impact of customers on pricing is seen in the pricing method based on demand (Polat & Gürbüz, 2016).

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Businesses have to decide what to offer (product and price) and then decide how to offer (place and promotion) (Kotler et al., 2017). It is necessary to determine how the product will be distributed to provide easy access. In addition, information about the product must be communicated to target customers in a variety of methods, including advertising, sales promotions, and public relations. When the 4Ps are optimally designed and implemented, sales become less challenging as the value proposition is attractive to customers. In an online world, the marketing mix has improved so that customer engagement is greater. Therefore, some authors express the creation of a different combination in the marketing mix instead of the 4P, for example, Peppers and Rogers 5I and Rothery 4E (Chaffey & Smith, 2017). Kotler et al. (2017) proposed new designs as 4Cs. In this study, we will make evaluations on these elements by adopting the approach of Kotler et al. (2017). The elements in 4Cs are co-creation, currency, communal activation, and conversation. The new strategy for product development in the digital economy is co-creation. The inclusion of individuals through co-creation can increase the success rate of enterprises in developing new products. Co-creation also allows customers to adapt and personalize products and services, thus creating superior value suggestions (Kotler et al., 2017). In this process, the Internet provides great facilities for reaching individuals and obtaining their ideas (Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2016). For example, in myStarbucks, customers’ opinions are taken to reveal new products and services, and these are discussed in the forum, and the most popular ideas are implemented (Jackson & Ahuja, 2016). In the digital era, pricing is moving from standard pricing to automatic or dynamic pricing. In this method, it is possible to set flexible prices based on the purchasing behavior and capacity utilization of customers (Ivanov, 2019). This method is not new in sectors such as accommodation or airlines, and advances in technology have brought this practice to other sectors as well. For instance, online retailers have the opportunity to collect huge amounts of data and apply big data analytics to offer a special price for each customer. In fact, with this method, businesses can maximize profitability by giving different prices to each of them according to customers’ past purchase patterns, proximity to the store, and features. Therefore, in the digital age, price is similar to currency, which fluctuates according to market demand (Kotler et al., 2017). The concept of distribution channel also changes the mentality. The most powerful distribution channel in today’s economy is the Internet (Ryan & Jones, 2009) and interpersonal distribution. Initiatives such as Airbnb and Uber have deeply affected the hotel and taxi sectors, giving them easy access to products and services that belong to other customers, not to them. Customers in today’s connected world want quick access to products and services, which can only be provided by their peers. This is the essence of communal activity (Kotler et al., 2017). In recent years, the concept of promotion has also evolved. Promotion is traditionally a one-way study that involves sending various messages from the company to customers who are in the audience (Chaffey & Ellis-Chadwick, 2016). Promoting

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activities that played an important role in establishing strong ties by communicating with customers (Zineldin & Philipson, 2007) was facilitated by the different communication channels that came with new digital technologies. At the same time, thanks to these new channels, strong relations with customers can be established more easily (Bishop & Rowley, 2012). In particular, the expansion of social media allows customers to respond to promotional messages, and communication is bidirectional. In addition, social media allows customers to chat with other customers about these messages. The rise of customer rating systems, such as TripAdvisor, provides a platform for customers to chat and evaluate the brands that they interact with (Kotler et al., 2017).

Digital Marketing Applications Search Engine Marketing Today, the Internet is one of the most important and practical tools for accessing information. The first way to search for information on the Internet is to query the searched information in search engines (Aswani et al., 2018). In this regard, being ahead of the search results and being able to continue this provide great advantages to the companies. In general, search engine marketing is defined as paid or unpaid marketing activities to increase the visibility of the enterprise on the Internet (Pan et al., 2011). There are two basic forms of search engine marketing (Pan, 2015): 1. Search engine optimization or organic listing. This method involves the business being able to rank high on a web search at no cost. Popular search engines, such as Google or Bing, devote the top part of the search results page to paid or sponsored links. Below them are the results that are not paid anymore and are most relevant to the searched word or phrases (Chaffey & Smith, 2017). It is important to have an effective website design, to provide appropriate content, and to manage links within the site and other sites to be in the top rankings (Pan et al., 2011). Being in the top rankings is important in terms of attracting information seekers to the site, because, in some research, it is stated that most users examine the search results on the first page (Luh et al., 2016). 2. Paid search, which requires the purchase of space in the paid listing area of a search engine or content network (Pan, 2015). Google AdWords is one of the most important tools for this. It is important for customers to be visible on the first page or even in the first place in search engine results because for today’s travelers, the Internet is the primary source of information. This is valid 65% for leisure trips and 69% for business trips. In searches on online channels, the first method of obtaining information is to search for the desired information through the search engine, and this is valid 60% for leisure trips and 55% for business trips (Google, 2014).

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Content Marketing There is no universally accepted definition of content marketing, but according to the Content Marketing Institute (Baltes, 2015, p. 112): “Content marketing is the marketing and business process for creating and distributing relevant and valuable content to attract, acquire, and engage a clearly defined and understood target audience – to drive profitable customer action.” In the traditional content marketing process, companies try to reach the target market with their printed documents. In the digital content marketing that emerged with digitalization, they try to reach the target market with electronic journals, e-books, online health advice, databases, online directories, and mobile micro movies. The most common tools used in content marketing in business to business (B2B) are articles (79%), social media (74%), and blogs (65%) (Pulizzi, 2012). Brands engaged in content marketing offer customers the opportunity to access highquality original content, as well as the opportunity to tell interesting stories about the brand throughout the process (Rowley, 2008). To maintain a sustained relationship with customers, marketing experts sometimes need to create content that may not have a direct contribution to brand value or sales figures but is valuable to customers. An example of this is Hipmunk’s strategy (Kotler et al., 2017). Hipmunk, which is an online travel company, publishes a travel magazine called Tailwind, which contains information that the customer frequently searches for. For instance, an article titled “What Brexit Means for Summer Travel” focused on what impact the UK’s withdrawal from the European Union could have on US tourists. In addition, other articles in the magazine described useful information for those who would like to travel around the world, such as codes of conduct or baggage rules for major airlines. A more remarkable application can also be seen in the Hipmunk example. Hipmunk also offers a travel assistant with artificial intelligence that allows customers to plan their travel without any research. If customers send an e-mail about their travel plans to the company’s e-mail address, artificial intelligence understands their travel intentions and responds with a message containing travel advice. If customers allow Hipmunk to see their Google Calendar applications and the locations of their upcoming travels, Hipmunk sends them an e-mail with travel suggestions to nearby locations (Kotler et al., 2017). Today, most companies use content marketing extensively. In 2016, 86% of B2B companies in North America used content marketing (Jarvinen & Taiminen, 2016). Furthermore, B2B companies have spent an average of 28% of their marketing budget on content marketing (Baltes, 2015). This rate is up to 60% in some companies (e.g., Kelly Services, a global recruitment company) (Pulizzi, 2012). Content marketing is closely related to social media marketing. The concept of content marketing is also considered to be marketing the prepared content in social media (Jarvinen & Taiminen, 2016). At this point, content becomes important. If your content is merely a bit more extended than traditional advertising slogans and you are transferring the content simply to social media, you have a problem there. Content is indeed the new advertisement, but the two are different at some point. The advertisement contains the information that brands provide to assist in the sale of

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products and services; the content includes information that customers want to use to achieve their personal or professional goals (Kotler et al., 2017). At this point, we need to pay attention to the three key points that Google has identified to spread the content widely (Le Cunff, 2015): • It is important to pay attention to trend search terms and identify the words people can use to describe the video when sharing a video. On the other hand, the choice of keywords is important. • It is important to note that the most shared videos are usually videos that reveal real emotions. Content should stimulate emotions such as joy, passion, enthusiasm, or excitement. • People often share content that complements or reinforces their beliefs and values. For example, sharing humorous content can make the user appear as a fun character among his/her friends. Recently, user-generated content has also gained importance. This concept can be defined as the content that customers create by supporting their experiences related to a product/service with various elements such as video and photos and sharing it on online channels such as social media or blogs. It is known how effective the user experience is on others. At the same time, creating content by customers rather than brands is another factor that increases this effect. Therefore, it can be said that this method has great importance in the marketing activities of tourism enterprises.

Influencer Marketing In the “two-stage” communication process model proposed by Lazarsfeld and Katz in 1955, it was stated that some people had a disproportionate effect on others (Fay et al., 2015). This may be considered as the first emphasis on influencers. Accordingly, the use of celebrities in marketing activities is an application that has already been done for a long time. Today, it is a fact that celebrities are frequently used in traditional media, TV, radio, or newspaper advertisements. These can be seen as the first examples of influencer marketing. Today, the rise of social media has widened the practice of benefiting from influencers and added a new dimension. As we have mentioned, it was seen that formerly it was mostly used to benefit from celebrities such as actors or singers, but nowadays it is seen that people named as micro-celebrity are also used. The concept of micro-celebrity is popular on social media sites or social networking sites, such as blogs, and has many followers and is referred to as bloggers, vloggers, and YouTubers (Marwick & Boyd, 2011). In the follower-influencer relationship, which shares the same beliefs and values and can meet in the same emotion, influencers can be valued by their followers as close friends. In this respect, influencers can become marketing representatives for brands and direct the buying behavior of their followers. Close friendship ties increase the impact of influencers, and their activities may be more effective than traditional advertisements.

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Influencer marketing can be defined as follows: influencer marketing is the marketing activities on social networking sites organized by individuals with the power to influence a particular group and encourage the purchase of any goods or services related to the target group. One of the reasons why influencer marketing is so important is that user’s value real experience (Lee, 2012). In a blog related to a brand, the product proposed by the brand itself does not attract the attention of the followers that someone they trust can advise a product and can change the minds of followers. Linqia’s influencer marketing report states that 86% of firms use influencer marketing as a result of research conducted with 170 firms (Frary, 2017). “Nielsen Global Trust in Advertising Survey” from 2015 indicated that 66% of consumers trust opinions posted online by others, making it the third most-trusted advertising format (Braatz, 2017). So, which social platform is actively used in this type of marketing? Krasniak (2016) states that Instagram (89%) is the most important platform, Facebook (70%) and Twitter (70%) are the second, and YouTube (59%) is the third. Many tourism enterprises have recognized the importance of visibility and influencers on social media. For instance, online travel planner TripIt works with the Twitter phenomenon Lee Abbamonte, creating monthly Twitter discussions, enabling its followers to share their views and thoughts about the trip (Bellanger, 2017). Forbes lists Megan Jerrard, Ann Tran, and Scott Eddy as travel social media influencers. Ann Tran, for instance, has over 500,000 Twitter followers and has worked with brands like Marriott and TripAdvisor (Gretzel, 2018). Lee (2016) introduces five successful examples of influencer campaigns by travel brands: (1) making travel guides with Airbnb and Aspyn Ovard; (2) finding travel essentials with Proctor and Gamble and Jennifer Chiu; (3) crossing industries with Moet and Chandon and Collage Vintage; (4) travel reviews with Celebrity Cruises and World of Wanderlust; and, (5) viral packing guides with Biaggi Luggage and Rachel Grant. All five examples illustrate how travel influencers lend authenticity to travel brands, help create engaging content, and provide access to specific audiences (Gretzel, 2018).

Omni-Channel Marketing Not much, until 30 years ago, businesses had only one option to reach consumers: physical stores. However, in today’s reality, businesses have many options such as online shops, mobile applications, social media sites, messages and e-mail, as well as physical stores (Brynjolfsson et al., 2013). The enterprise, which uses more than one of these channels, adopts a multichannel strategy. In this strategy, each channel sends individual messages to consumers and conducts separate marketing activities (Shen et al., 2018), or even a product in a physical store cannot be found in an online store or vice versa. In other words, these channels often appear as separate channels with their own goals and strategies (Kotler et al., 2017). Multichannel marketing can be compared to a big octopus. While the head of the octopus represents the brand, each branch can be considered as a different channel that communicates with consumers (Khan, 2019). However, the expectation of

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today’s consumers is not only to access the goods/services from one channel but also to access the goods and services they want from each of the channels. At this point, omni-channel marketing comes to the agenda (Hüseyinoğlu, 2019). Omni-channel marketing is defined by Verhoef et al. (2015, p. 176) as: “As the synergetic management of the numerous available channels and customer touchpoints, in such a way that the customer experience across channels and the performance over channels are optimized.” The essence of this strategy is to integrate many channels and put consumers at the center, not the brand, to provide a complete and consistent customer experience. Another important difference is that if one element of the channel interacts with a customer, the other elements adapt accordingly (Khan, 2019) (Fig. 5.1). Omni-channel marketing can be considered as a new and more developed version of multichannel marketing (Shen et al., 2018). For instance, when a person is waiting for a bus at the bus stop, he/she can scan a product on the billboard with QR code technology on his/her smartphone, examine it in the company’s mobile app, buy it from the online store or the mobile app, and receive, change, or return it in the physical store. The situation given in this example is frequently experienced in daily life. People are becoming increasingly mobile and nondiscriminatory, constantly moving from one channel to another and expecting a consistent experience without a break (Kotler et al., 2017). Teknosa, which operates in Turkey as a technology retailer, can be given as a successful example of omni-channel marketing. The company, which initially measured its revenue as a result of its campaigns only through online channels and

Fig. 5.1 Difference between multichannel marketing and omni-channel marketing (source: Khan, 2019)

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optimizes accordingly, has acted with integrative strategies that will cover both the online and offline channels afterward. Realizing that physical store revenue is higher than online store revenue, the company aims to attract online consumers to the store by transferring physical store data to Google Ads in real time (Balcı & Kızılbağ, 2019). Here, the practice of the company can be seen exactly under the omni-channel marketing logic. Omni-channel marketing has also gained importance in the tourism sector. For example, US tourists review an average of 38 travel sites during the 5 weeks before buying a travel package. This number is 35 for UK tourists. This means that people spend a great deal of time searching and comparing before making a travel decision. So, are these efforts made from just one device? The answer is, of course, no! For this, an average of 6.5 devices is used. That is enough reason for tourism businesses to provide a flawless experience on all devices, such as mobile devices, desktop PCs, or tablets. The most important of these devices are mobile devices. This is because 50% of online travel research is carried out through mobile devices worldwide (Gonzalo, 2014). Another reason why companies in the tourism sector should be online and offline is that the channels people meet their needs such as travel packages or hotel rooms are not only online or offline channels, but both are used. According to the figures given by Steeves (2019), 49.2% is booked directly from the company’s website, while 39.8% is made directly by telephone or by going to the company. Another company that adopts the omni-channel marketing strategy for the tourism sector is Thomas Cook. In this context, the activity mentioned in the Teknosa example was similarly performed by Thomas Cook. Realizing that online advertising plays an important role in increasing offline sales, the company has integrated online and offline marketing activities (Heutz, 2019).

Digital Marketing Applications in the Asian Tourism Industry Just 5 years ago, it was very difficult for a single woman in Southeast Asia to hail a taxi and travel safely. However, a mobile application called Grab, which is based in Singapore, allows customers to hail a taxi and rent cars, and even motorcycles make it easier for tourists to travel to Southeast Asia. Founded by two Malaysian students, Grab has been downloaded more than 100 million to date and is Uber’s biggest competitor in this region (PATA, 2018). Today, digital platforms, together with many functions, also assume the duties of a travel agency. Klook, an online travel company based in Hong Kong, founded in 2014, is aware of this and is making serious investments in this area. Klook allows users to find tickets, make online reservations, and pay for events, tours, transportation, and tourist attractions through its website and mobile app (PATA, 2018). When it comes to the online travel agency, it is not to mention the Chinese site called “ctrip.com.” The company, which started its activities in 1999 and now continues to operate as “trip.com,” provides services such as hotel reservation, air tickets, package tours, and car rental. Ctrip.com, which includes online travel

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agencies such as Qunar.com and Skyscanner, is today one of the world’s largest travel companies, with companies such as Booking.com and Expedia. Instead of focusing exclusively on specific regions, tourism businesses, which carry out marketing activities, generally operate in a way that suits their businesses around the world. However, micro-campaigns in Asian countries still stand out. In Turkey, the Eastern Express, which has become popular with influencers’ photos and videos on Instagram and YouTube over the last 2 years, is an example of this. Based on these shares, it is stated that the demands for the Eastern Express (train) travel, which includes a 24-h journey from Ankara which is a city on the west side of Turkey to Kars which is a city on the east side of Turkey, have increased substantially. At the same time, it is said that the occupancy rates of the hotels have increased considerably (Ergun et al., 2019). Destination management organizations have been seriously working on destination branding recently. Within these studies, logos reflecting the cultural and historical identity of the destination are designed. These logos are frequently used especially in the promotion and image studies made with the activities of digital marketing channels. Below are some of the destination (Vietnam and Indonesia) logos that most Asian countries have (Figs. 5.2 and 5.3). Facial recognition technology also serves as a marketing tool in the Asian tourism industry. Facial recognition technology, mobile devices, and kiosks now make it easy for customers to book hotels. This is even easier for Chinese customers in partnership with Marriott Hotels and Alibaba, because Chinese customers can now book Marriott hotels through Alibaba’s online travel platform and pay for with Alipay accounts. They can also use kiosks with facial recognition to check in on arrival. In these kiosks, they can scan their identities and get the room access card, and the whole process takes less than a minute. This system is today available in the Marriott Hotel in Hangzhou, China (China Internet Watch, 2018). The hotels where robots welcome you have become an ordinary situation for those travelling to Japan. One of the most exciting robot-staffed hotels in the tourism industry is at the Henn-na Hotel in Nagasaki, Japan. In this hotel, the front office staff is completely robots. The robots that welcome you are not only involved in the Fig. 5.2 Vietnam destination promotion logo (source: The official tourism website of Vietnam, 2019)

Fig. 5.3 Indonesia destination promotion logo (source: the official website of Indonesia Tourism, 2019)

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front office. It also assists you at customer information points, a safety deposit box, your baggage handling, and room service. Virtual reality (VR) application is also used for the promotion and marketing of hotels. VR is defined by Guttentag (2010, p. 638) as: “The use of a computergenerated 3D environment –called a ‘virtual environment’ (VE) – that one can navigate and possibly interact with, resulting in real-time simulation of one or more of the user’s five senses. ‘Navigate’ refers to the ability to move around and explore the VE, and ‘interact’ refers to the ability to select and move objects within the VE.” VR is a digital augmentation of the real world through the use of computergenerated simulations (Revfine, 2019b). This technology typically involves the use of a VR headset, which helps to immerse a user in a digital environment. Through the use of images, sounds, and other physical sensations, the user is essentially placed within a virtual world, which they can move around and, in some cases, interact with in other ways (Revfine, 2019a). The intangible character of tourism services and their consumption at the moment of production makes VR important, which enables tourism to experience some of the products in advance (Yung & Khoo-Lattimore, 2019). In regard to the hotel sector, this often takes on the form of virtual reality video marketing (Revfine, 2019b). The best use of this technology in the travel industry, for now, is in the form of virtual tours at and around the hotel. The main benefit here is that customers can experience what the hotel looks like, landscapes, and facilities in a virtual way before they arrive. It is seen that this technology is used in hotel establishments in some Asian countries. For example, in Dubai Atlantis Hotel and Cape Dara Hotel in Pattaya, Thailand, it is possible to see all the facilities of the hotel by virtual tour before arrival (Revfine, 2019b).

Conclusion In the historical process, marketing activities have not been independent of subjects such as lifestyle, opportunities, or impossibilities of people, whether they need marketing. Today, where global competition is at its peak, the form and method of marketing cannot be considered separate from the way people live. Today, marketing, which cannot be considered separate from humankind and way of life, has transformed with technology into another form and led to radical changes and change in its logic. However, this change of logic is not entirely in the form of erasing the old and replacing it with the new one, necessitating the blending of traditional and technological innovations. In this context, in this research, a conceptual framework has been tried to be established about digital marketing, and it has been tried to explain the digital marketing activities with examples from the Asian tourism sector. Tourism marketing has also kept pace with these form changes and changed shape. Moreover, the tourism sector could not be expected to remain indifferent to these changes. As a matter of the fact, the development of digital technologies has

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been an element that facilitates tourism marketing, because with these technologies, the intangible product can be partially tangible. Looking at the Asian countries from this window, it is a fact that these countries are affected by the developments in the world and take form accordingly. Although there are still problems in some countries in terms of Internet infrastructure or access to technology, digital technologies are used extensively in tourism marketing in Asian countries in general. Digital marketing activities are essential for generation Y and especially generation Z, because the Internet is an indispensable part of their lives for these generations who are either in working age or have come to working age. As in many other areas of their lives, the Internet plays an active role in activities that are closely related to the tourism sector, such as making travel plans, booking hotels or airplanes, or writing comments after travel. In this respect, digital marketing activities offer great opportunities for businesses to be close to these people. Digital marketing also provides an opportunity for businesses or destinations to be more visible. In this way, it has become easier and cheaper to reach and attract tourists from all over the world. In addition – as mentioned above – this visibility made the touristic product a little tangible and provided the opportunity to reduce the risks perceived by tourists. Digital marketing presents not only opportunities but also challenges. For instance, increasing the visibility of a business becomes a reality for almost all businesses in the digital channel. In this respect, attracting tourists to the business or destination is both easier and difficult. This makes it a necessity for companies/ destinations to differentiate to be separated from the others, making it even more necessary to include others in the price adjustments or to make the distribution activities appropriate to the target customers. On the consumer side, consumers gain access to the right information in different channels and increase their bargaining power as they see prices as comparative. This is also a challenge for businesses. According to the results obtained from the research, it can be said that the classical 4P approach with digital marketing has evolved toward 4Cs. The most fundamental innovation that comes with 4Cs is that consumers move with manufacturers more and more at every stage from the production to the determination of their after-sales experience. Therefore, businesses should be able to use the advantage of this diminishing distance with consumers to make them more loyal. As a result of the examinations, it can be said that the businesses of the Asian tourism industry are not yet active enough for the emerging digital marketing applications, because the search engine marketing, content marketing, influencer marketing, and omni-channel marketing practices are not yet sufficiently implemented by tourism enterprises in the Old Continent. Carrying out these activities actively can make the continent visible and attractive, especially for tourists looking for innovation, difference, and authenticity.

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Travel Agency Tourist Tracking System Zurida Ishak, Ahmad Albattat, and Wilson Ven Kim Lim

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Findings and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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This chapter aims to help the tourism industry in terms of safety, increase the productivity of the travel agency with the help of technology, and solve the problems. It presents a mobile application, named Travel Agency Tourist Tracking System, which was developed for Android-based phone, where travel agency can manage their itinerary, users, and group tour. The objectives of this chapter are, first, to develop a tracking system with notification when tourist is out of range from the tour guide and, second, to create a built-in messaging feature. The scope of this chapter is divided to three types of users. The administration is able to edit, add, and remove all the information including tour, itinerary, and user in the database. Tourists are able to use this app for group messaging for their current group tour and check their itinerary. The most important feature of this application is to increase the awareness of the tourists and tour guides by giving notification for both users whenever the tourist is out of range from the tour guide. Tourists are able to check their itinerary, group message, and receive notification when out of range. Tour guides are also able to check itinerary and tourists, group message, track tourist Z. Ishak · W. V. K. Lim Faculty of Information Sciences and Engineering, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia A. Albattat (*) Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_6

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location, and receive notification when tourist is out of range. Data for this research are collected from China using survey and application tests. The chapter suggest that more technology should be invented for this tourism industry to enhance the user experience and pursue the Tourism 4.0. Keywords

Tracking system · Tourism 4.0 · Android application · Travel agency · Tourist

Introduction Tourism industry focuses on meeting customer’s need in terms of desires, satisfaction, safety, and enjoyment while travelling. Tourism attraction of every country has their unique part which is different from the others, and this is one of the main attractions of tourist for visiting the country which will benefit the country and increase the number of tourist (Morley, 1990). The usage of technology such as smartphones and tablets which have similar functions like a computer, supported by the advancement of wireless networks and features like GPS, contributes to the rise of tourism industry and supports the business especially for support. Tourists will use smartphone, for example, to find travel destination and book flight and recommendation. During their vacation, they use mobile phone extensively for taking pictures, using GPS to find location, and many more (Viswanathan, 2017). As the number of tourists increase, there are a lot of issues happening which will affect the safety of the tourist. One of the common issues was the tourist was lost from the group which is led by their tour guide. At present, the first problem in the tourism industry happens when the tourist is missing from the group due to curiosity or not paying attention to the tour guide. The second problem is the various type of messaging chat used in different countries. For example, China mostly uses WeChat and QQ, Taiwan mostly uses Line and KakaoTalk, and last but not the least, Korea uses KakaoTalk. It is a hassle for all the tour guides to contact their tourists as they serve tourists from different countries. This application will be the one stop application for travel agency, tourist, and tour guide for the whole trip information. There is one case that happened to a China tourist; some of them in the group went missing after a few minutes of resting hour, reported by The Star (2019). The aim of this chapter is to develop an application system that can track the location of the tourist and provide information regarding the tour schedule details (Swan-Neck, 2017). The gaps for this study identified as the tourist went missing from the group because of curiosity or doing something without informing the tour guide. Tourist and tour guide have difficulty messaging each other due to different applications being used in different countries especially a tour group which involved more than two countries. The aim of this study is to build a mobile application that shows live location of tourist on Google Maps using Global Positioning System (GPS), allow tourist and tour guide to communicate using built-in messaging chat, and alert the tour guide if the distance of the tourist exceeded 1 kilometer radius from the tour guide.

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The mobile application which will be used by the three target users (tour agent, tour guide, tourist) benefits them to enjoy the tour without hassle and tragedy. What tourist requires is to download the app in their mobile phone and stay safe along their trip as they will be monitored and coordinate with the tour guide. Tour guide can locate the location of the tourist much easier by using Google Maps since the interface of Google Maps is easy to understand. Tour guide can be aware of tourist location if tourist has exceeded 500 meter radius from them. If the tourist is out of range, the tour guide will receive a notification mentioning the location of the tourist. Besides tracking the tourist location, digital itinerary will be provided to the tour group, and it can be easily updated if there are any changes. This feature is beneficial to avoid confusion about the tour schedule. In order to share information within the tour group and for better coordination, standard messaging apps will be used, and it is much convenient without installing and creating account for another application since every country doesn’t use the same messaging application. In order to use the app, tourist and tour guide need to have a capable Internet connection to receive notification from distance warning. The tour agency might check the Internet connection of their tour group before asking them to download the app. For tracking feature, tourist and tour guide must be familiar with using Google Maps and GPS. The most important thing that they should own is a GPS-capable mobile device. To secure the downloaded app, it needs an Android mobile device as it is built for Android operating system. The app cannot be used in iOS operating system; thus the tour guide and tourist who owned iPhone definitely cannot use this app. While using the tracking menu, the location accuracy will depend on the device’s GPS capability. If the tour is consuming longer hours, the app might be on along the tour, and it might consume a lot of battery depending on usage time with the application.

Background The trend of tourism affects the number of tourists increasing year by year especially tourists from China due to the popularity of the country. The impact of tourism is important for every country because it is part of the economy of the country from the outsider. So, the satisfaction, safety, and enjoyment of the tourist are very important. Currently there is a lot of problem occurring in this field; one of the examples is the tourist who does not follow the instruction given by the tour guide or is being careless. Therefore, the tourists might cause some problems, for example, they will get lost and cannot find their tour guide or their tour group. This also will affect the itinerary of the tour and the image of the company from not being careful to the tourist. Location-tracking technology “Global Positioning System” (GPS) is one of the strongest and useful technology currently because it can locate objects (people, devices, transportation, clothing, etc.), anytime and anywhere with almost accurate location. The GPS accuracy location information provided can be improved from the number of usages of the device that has GPS enabled. This amazing feature can be achieved with the promising technology of wireless network (Bajaj et al., 2002). “GPS Locator” application used GPS satellite-based navigation system which is free

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and works 24 hours a day nonstop. Since it depends on satellite, it might affect the accuracy of the coordinate for indoor usage. The technique of sending GPS coordinates to another mobile device will be using Short Message Service (SMS). Users will use Google Map to locate their current location by viewing longitude, latitude, and altitude. They can share their location with others by using a web server connected through the Internet using their GPS-enabled device (Chandra et al., 2011). “EasyTracker” is an Android application for capturing mobility behavior where this application developed for Android OS is designed for users who like to capture their mobility behavior. EasyTracker will collect the necessary information regarding the user’s movement where they went using GPS. This information will store to the database and the server will do the filtering. Users are allowed to select the option whether they allow to be tracked or not. This provides the user a customization on their privacy. This application does allow users to do a remark on a map with a label to describe their current activity (e.g., “stop at restaurant”). Lastly, this application includes several advance algorithms to compress trajectories collected from GPS records, as well as other similar trajectory segments to simplify automatic auditing for the user’s manual annotation (Doulamis et al., 2012). Locating friends and family using mobile phones with GPS helps. This chapter discusses the development of a mobile application to track location of tourists by providing location-based services (LBS) using GPS as a location provider. The work involved designing and implementing a client-server system which can locate tourists within the specified range from the tour guide. The tour guide will receive notification from the app if the tourists is out of their range. Development of this application involved programming using J2ME combined with the most recent and older APIs in order to make it compatible across all types of mobile devices. For the server, PHP was used to make sure that the server would not be overloaded. MySQL is used for the database to store all relevant data such as tourist information (Al-Suwaidi & Zemerly, 2009). Smartphone is known for its advanced capabilities and ubiquity which embedded almost all features of computing. Tourism industry took the advantages of smartphone to improve their services through web sites and mobile application. Tourists can search any travel destinations which they prefer, and all information is at their fingertips. With those information, tourists can plan their trip and travel without hassle. The tour agency also can manipulate the computing capabilities to enhance their services and can provide the best packages to tourists. Besides, the safety of the tourists can be taken care of by the usage of tracking system. Users of mobile phones are growing, and there are varieties of tourism apps, and web sites have changed the tourism landscape to be more innovative and creative (Dickinson et al., 2014). “Life360” is an application to monitor user’s location. It allows multiple users added into one group to share current location while also sharing user’s phone battery percentage. This application included alert feature which provide notification to emergency contact up to three users. The bad side of this application is its consumption of a lot of battery since the application will keep running in the background even though we closed the application from task manager. It is even worst when we are using mobile data because it will increase the temperature of the phone (Lim & Ishak, 2019). “GeoZilla” mobile application has

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real-time location tracking with multiple users, particularly designed for family use. GeoZilla uses GeoFence allowing user to pin one particular circle area, for example, home or workplace; user will get notification whenever someone enters or leaves the pinned area. This application is able to send message and pictures with built-in messenger. A useful alert feature is to send current location to emergency contact added by the user. This app also provides history location to understand user activity and active area or places (Lim & Ishak, 2019). “Location Tracker” is a simple application and only provides few features. It allows user to track current location to know the street name and area. Find address feature provides tons of location information collected from Google allowing user to easily find needed location. It has reliable and simple direction feature for car, bike, and walking street with selective routes for comparison. Cell tracker allows to record and save the location to the database. By the end of the day, users can check where they roamed with location saved (Lim & Ishak, 2019). “Real-Time GPS Tracker 2” is an application which allows user to decide to use GPS or GSM to detect current location. Real-time track and trace allow user to monitor the location of an individual. User will receive automatic notification when a tracked user enters or leaves an area that been specified using GeoFence. This application is configured for highfrequency tracking and high accuracy. It displays GPS information such as accuracy, satellites, buffered locations, network timestamp, and synchronization time. It also allows to display multiple maps for multiple purposes in one single application (Lim & Ishak, 2019). “FamiSafe” was named by Wondershare.com and is the most reliable parental control app, with lots of features and functions that can help parents track their family. By using this app, parents can keep track of their kid’s activity or location without having to bother them because this app will connect to the phones using GPS. What parents can do is just search the location of their kids from their phone and the app will provide information of the location. It allows parents to view their location with a street address and landmark, as well as allowing parents to set up a safe zone and providing a real-time notification when the child leaves and enters the GeoFence. Tracking and keeping children safe are wonderful with this app. Plus, this app is password protected, so only parents and caregivers can see the location of their kids. This is a parental control app that comes with the functionality that most parents ask for. Plus, the screen time management feature allows parents to put a limit on the phone usage. The custom setting and versatile remote control make this app the perfect app for the users. It is also compatible with both Windows, IOS, and Android (Lim & Ishak, 2019). “Glympse” gives you real-time information that will show where the family members are. With Glympse, you can find out quickly the details about other family members’ GPS locations. All you need to do is open the Glympse app, press the “New Glympse” button, and send the person you want to track a text message or email. The message or email contains a link. Once they open this link, you get their location information on your phone. This provides you with real-time information on where someone might be at a given moment. What makes Glympse different from other location tracker apps is that you do not have to install any app on another person’s device. It just uses the phone’s browser to open the link you sent (Lim & Ishak, 2019).

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This research is developed using AGILE software development methodology, by using an approach called Scrum model. The reasons of using Scrum model are as follows: it is iterative in developing software, easy to manage with smaller team and research, easier when dealing with changes, involvement of reviewer and frequent meeting with them reduce mistakes and errors, and product can be delivered according to schedule and with reliable quality (Adell, 2013). The Scrum model consists of four phases for every iteration (Fig. 6.1) – plan, build, test, and review. Each iteration took 3 weeks to complete features defined in the research documentation. “Planning” can be a crucial phase because it defines the complete part of the iteration. Planning phase is a phase that specifies which task should be developed first for an iteration. Every planning phase is to divide work into smaller pieces so that it can be finished in time. This planning phase will be done at the beginning of each iteration. In this phase, tasks to create the apps are planned. The planning of tasks includes requirement gathering, meeting with stakeholders, comparing existing apps, designing, development, and testing. “Build” phase is aimed to design and develop the apps. In between the process, unit testing can be done to detect minor errors. For each iteration, this phase will complete all features which are mentioned in the research requirement. This will take place after the planning phase and before testing phase. The guide to build the application is by following the UML (Unified Modelling Language) diagrams as shown in Fig. 6.2. This is to avoid any undesired or not as planned result. “Testing” phase focuses on detecting any errors to inspect the quality of the apps. To achieve the quality of the apps, program will be debugged and checked for errors. Fig. 6.1 Phases for each iteration. (Source: Lim & Ishak, 2019)

Start

Plan

Build

Test

Review Any editing?

No End

Yes

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Fig. 6.2 Use case diagram. (Source: Lim & Ishak, 2019)

This can be done by doing unit testing and expert review. At the same time, testing phase will be evaluated by an individual who works in the tourism industry. They can give feedback based on interface and the features. Tour guide was selected for the research testing because they have more experience and understand problems much more clearly. Other than tour guide, tourist can also be part of this testing phase. Any individual is suitable for this evaluation since everyone can be a tourist. Same as the tour guide testing method but particularly on tourist part, they could test the application by giving feedback based on interface and the features. They understand the problem especially for those who went for group tour from a travel agency. During “review” phase, intensive testing is conducted on the features and functions of the application in details. The comprehensive testing is handled by experienced experts in software development and relevant field. This phase should

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be completed in order to proceed to the next iteration process until all errors are overcome. When there are no more errors, all features or modules will be integrated and tested again by the target users before the fully functional app is released. Once again the app is tested by the target users. Also, the overview of journals about technology and the usage of the GPS and what benefits it brings for the community are studied. GPS is a free service provided to all around the world by connection of the satellite with an electronic device with GPS. It also can locate the location of the GPS-enabled devices by collecting the longitude and latitude. GPS can be used to study the mobility of the user by keeping their history location and route they take. The result from these reviews is that GPS provides high accuracy of the location with the sight of line and is very reliable. Four identical applications are selected for comparison and to study the features the software provides. From the result of reviewing existing application, it is important to provide useful feature which is suitable for this research, the tracking and alert system. This feature is to increase the safety of the user. Questionnaires are prepared and used for both tourist and tour guide to identify the requirements.

Findings and Discussions There are three users who will be using this application. They are the tour agency, tourist, and tour guide. First of all, the tour agency will login to the system as shown in Fig. 6.3. They can register the tour guide, tourist, new tour, and tour group. Below are the tasks that tour agency can do with the apps: login to the system, register tour guide, remove tour guide, register tourist, remove tourist, assign tour group, remove tour group, create new tour, and remove tour. Fig. 6.3 Login page. (Source: Lim & Ishak, 2019)

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Fig. 6.4 List of registered users. (Source: Lim & Ishak, 2019)

All the registered users will be shown at the screen in Fig. 6.4. They will be sorted by their role. The tour agency can press the user to manage their information. They can click on the add user button at the bottom right of the screen. While for the tour guide, they need to login to the system first. The main feature for tour guide is tracking tourist location as shown in Fig. 6.5. Tour guide will get notification if the tourist is 1 km out of range from him. The screen of the app for this notification and warning is shown in Fig. 6.6. Tourist also needs to login to the apps as a registered user. By using this application, tourist is able to do view the itinerary (Fig. 6.7) and messaging chat (Fig. 6.8) with tour guide.

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Fig. 6.5 Location of the tourist. (Source: Lim & Ishak, 2019)

This application is being tested on emulator and multiple users’ device. Each device will be set on either same or different location to test and trigger the notification when exceeding 1km from the tour guide device excluding admin side. Post-survey is conducted to collect feedback from respondents whoever tried this application. Below are the main two questions resulted from the survey. Figure 6.9 is the result of asked respondents about their opinion whether in-app messaging is necessary or not. Data shows the percentage of 50% maybe, 37.5% yes, and 12.5% no. Figure 6.10 is the result of asked respondents if either this app is useful for tourism industry or not. The data shows percentage of 50% yes, 50% no, and 0% maybe. From the post-survey, result shows that 50% answered maybe and 37.5% answered yes. Eight respondents think in-app messaging is necessary. Assuming 50% of maybe is either yes or no, there’s still higher positivity. The main reason is it eases the burden of tour guide from installing more messaging app since every country has preferred messaging app. This application included safety feature and necessary data for the tour. Second, result of 50% yes and 50% maybe from 8 respondents who tried this application found this application is useful for tourism industry. This data shows the

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Fig. 6.6 Notification of tourist location screen. (Source: Lim & Ishak, 2019)

importance of this technology especially for safety as priority of tourist and overall functionality. More technology should be developed for the tourism industry to enhance the user experience and convenience while moving toward the Tourism 4.0.

Conclusion GPS (Bajaj et al., 2002; Chandra et al., 2011), locating friends and family using mobile phones with GPS (Al-Suwaidi & Zemerly, 2009), EasyTracker (Doulamis et al., 2012), tourism and the smartphone app (Dickinson et al., 2014), Life360 (Lim & Ishak, 2019), GeoZilla (Lim & Ishak, 2019), Location Tracker (Lim & Ishak, 2019), Real-Time GPS Tracker 2 (Lim & Ishak, 2019), FamiSafe (Lim & Ishak, 2019), and Glympse (Lim & Ishak, 2019) have importance in supporting tourists. Travel Agency Tourist Tracking System aims to increase the awareness of the tour

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Fig. 6.7 Itinerary screen. (Source: Lim & Ishak, 2019)

guide toward tourist safety by using the current mobile app technology. By utilizing the technology, this application will provide some features including messaging, emergency alert, and also digital itinerary. Research shows that most location tracking apps were designed for family, friends, or individual use. But this research aims for tourist and tour guide to ensure the safety of tour group. Scrum methodology is used in this research because it enables changes based on user’s feedback and works well in a fast-paced research. The implementation of tourist tracking on Google Map will ease tour guide from having difficulty of finding their tourist and also increase the awareness of tour guide toward the tourist location. There are multiple markers showing in the map based on the number of tourists being tracked. Digital itinerary helps user to have a quick access to their itinerary. Emergency alert and notification are sent to tour guide when tourist is out of range. Built-in messaging helps integrate all the tourist with different instant messaging platform. In the future, this research can be improved by using GSM as a tracking system without requirement of Internet connectivity.

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Fig. 6.8 Messaging screen. (Source: Lim & Ishak, 2019)

Fig. 6.9 Result of survey 1. (Source: Lim & Ishak, 2019)

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Fig. 6.10 Result of survey 2. (Source: Lim & Ishak, 2019)

References Adell, L. (2013). Benefits and pitfalls of using scrum software development methodology. Retrieved from: https://www.belatrixsf.com/blog/benefits-pitfalls-of-using-scrum-software-developmentmethodology/. Accessed 2 Apr 2020. Al-Suwaidi, G. B., & Zemerly, M. J. (2009). Locating friends and family using mobile phones with Global Positioning System (GPS). Proceedings of 2009 IEEE/ACS international conference on computer systems and applications. Rabat, IEEE/ACS: the 10th–13th May, pp. 555–558. Bajaj, R., Ranaweera, S. L., & Agrawal, D. P. (2002). GPS: Location-tracking technology. Computer, 35(4), 92–94. Chandra, A., Jain, S., & Qadeer, M. A. (2011). GPS locator: An application for location tracking and sharing using GPS for Java enabled handhelds. In International conference on Computational Intelligence and Communication Networks (CICN). Gwalior: the 7th–9th October, pp. 406–410. Dickinson, J. E., Ghali, K., Cherrett, T., Speed, C., Davies, N., & Norgate, S. (2014). Tourism and the smartphone app: Capabilities, emerging practice and scope in the travel domain. Current Issues in Tourism, 17(1), 84–101. Doulamis, A., Pelekis, N., & Theodoridis, Y. (2012). Easytracker: An android application for capturing mobility behavior. In 2012 16th Panhellenic conference on informatics (pp. 357–362). IEEE. Lim W. V. K., & Ishak, Z. (2019). Travel agency tourist tracking system. Unpublished Thesis. Selangor: Management and Science University. Morley, C. L. (1990). What is tourism? Definitions, concepts and characteristics. Journal of Tourism Studies, 1(1), 3–8. Swan-Neck, E. (2017). What do you do as a tour guide if a person in your group gets lost?. Retrieved from: https://www.quora.com/What-do-you-do-as-a-tour-guide-if-a-person-in-yourgroup-gets-lost. Accessed 2 Apr 2020. The Star. (2019). Irish tourist missing since New Year’s Day. Retrieved from: https://www.thestar. com.my/news/nation/2019/01/24/irish-tourist-missing-since-new-years-day//. Accessed 25 Apr 2019. Viswanathan, P. (2017). What’s a Mobile App?. Retrieved from: https://www.lifewire.com/what-isa-mobile-application-2373354. Accessed 2 Apr 2020.

Part III Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Customer Perceptions

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Generation Y’s Perception of Travel Mobile Applications Ahmad Albattat

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Travel Mobil Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Amazing advancements in mobile technology have had a significant impact on the hospitality and tourist industries. Mobile applications have opened up new channels of promotion and interaction for destination marketing organizations, as well as hospitality and tourist enterprises. Simultaneously, mobile technology empowers consumers to create their own experiences by providing them with instant access to information regardless of time or place. This research attempts to identify Generation Y’s perception of travel mobile applications and the relationship with their usage behavior. Three hundred and thirteen surveys were given to Generation Y. Performance expectations, effort expectations, social influence, and enabling condition all exhibited a substantial and positive connection with use behavior among Generation Y, according to four independent factors. The findings also showed that the variables affect the perception of Generation Y in the use of travel mobile applications. The results of this research could enable hoteliers, tour operators, stakeholders, and the government to analyze the user’s perception of using travel mobile applications and also help in removing the flaws, while enhancing the technology system applications. The study found a direct influence on travelers’ intention which leads to Generation Y’s perception of travel mobile applications. To attract more clients that place a premium on A. Albattat (*) Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_7

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social status and image, mobile application names must be distinctive. The applications will promote favorable word of mouth among potential users, allowing companies to achieve greater trust. Lastly, it would encourage the community to share useful information with others. Users do not have to go through the fuss in finding a solution to their information technology problems. The software developers also must develop applications that are user-friendly so that the consumers may continue to use the applications. Keywords

Perception · Generation Y · Destination · Marketing · Mobile application

Introduction Humans have used technology to adapt to their surroundings throughout recorded history. Humans can better utilize their inherent skills with the help of technology (Hinsz, 2015). Technology refers to a method for achieving a goal or effectively resolving an issue. According to Davies (1976), the use of science in industrial and commercial sectors includes the technology and materials utilized in such applications. According to Manu (2006: 4), “technology is the total of real knowledge of society and culture, particularly in connection to material culture.” With an age range of 18–35 years, Generation Y is the most recent generation on the tourist market. Many members of Generation Y have already travelled, and more will do so in the near future. When compared to the preceding generation, Generation X, and the baby boomers generation, members of Generation Y are regarded “the most educated generation thus far to be confident, comfortable, and conservative” (Table 7.1) (Pendergast, 2010, p. 5). They live and grow in a worldwide society influenced by multiculturalism and technological advancements. According to Pendergast (2010), the Internet has had a significant influence on the travel behavior of the Millennial generation, and all that has occurred is attributable to the advancement and globalization of information and communication technology. Family structures have evolved. Generation Y has fewer individual siblings, many divorced parents, and many working mothers who grow up in a protected atmosphere and are more pampered and self-reliant and consider themselves unique and deserving of selfreliance (Carnavan, 2018). Coleman and Loda (2010) stated that individuals of Generation Y are reported to leave home later and have more discretionary cash Table 7.1 Generation chart by year, name, and age group

Birth year 1928–1945 1946–1964 1965–1980 1981–1998 1999

Generation name Silent Baby boomers Generation X Generation Y Generation Z

Source: Centre (2016)

Age range in 2016 71–88 52–70 36–51 18–35 17 or younger

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for shopping and vacation. Because of the mix-and-match culture generated by globalization, the Internet, and media, Generation Y people have a high tolerance for variety and diverse cultural types (Canavan, 2018). If the concept of travel as moving or going from one location to another (Kimm, 2012) is used, travel appears to be an intrinsic feature of human beings since ancient times. The incredible advancement of mobile technology has had a significant impact on the hospitality and tourist industries (Katsura & Sheldon, 2008). According to reports, 40% of smartphone users use their mobile devices to search for travel information, and 11,000 iPhone travel applications were available as of April 2010 (Young Im & Hancer, 2014). For destination marketing companies, as well as hospitality and tourist firms, mobile applications have opened up new marketing and engagement channels with users (Buhalis & Law, 2008). Simultaneously, mobile technology empowers people to create their own experiences by providing improved access to information regardless of time or place (Katsura & Sheldon, 2008). As a result, advancements in mobile technology are one of the primary motivators for travelers to cocreate their experience and value (Young Im & Hancer, 2014). The main objective of this study was to determine the perception of Generation Y about mobile travel apps. Mobile technology, especially applications that are installed and run on smartphones (known as “mobile apps”), is currently a hotly debated topic in the travel industry (Dickinson et al., 2014; Law et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2012). For destination marketing companies as well as hospitality and tourist firms, mobile applications enabled new marketing and engagement channels with users (Kim et al., 2008). Simultaneously, mobile technology provides consumers more control over their experiences by providing improved access to information regardless of time or place (Katsura & Sheldon, 2008). As a result, advancements in mobile technology are one of the most important factors in encouraging travelers to cocreate their own experience and value (Martha & Thomas, 2013). Approximately 40% of US leisure uses smartphones to survey travel information, and approximately 25% of smartphone users book trips using mobile phones (Mo Kwon et al., 2013). The hotel industry’s technology has developed to incorporate mobile device access and content. Smartphones and tablets accounted for over 20% of travel expenses in 2014, according to a new US mobile travel report (Rivera et al., 2015). In response to these current trends, hospitality firms have provided consumers with mobile applications that allow them to purchase items and services using smartphones. Travel agencies of the past have been the most common source of travel information for the general consumer, with direct surveys of budget-rich travelers, students, and backpackers to book airline, hotel, and car rental trips directly. While it is true that the majority of Internet users are still window-shopping for travel rather than purchasing and that the largest gap between searching and purchasing on the web occurs in the travel sector, customers are increasingly studying their vacation on the Internet (Bernstein & Awe, 1999). According to mobile app security and analytics, just one out of every ten Android travel applications encrypts data saved on mobile devices, leaving information such as usernames, passwords, e-mail and server addresses, and payment card details widely available to attackers (Hanson, 2016). The goal of this study is to determine Generation Y’s

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views of travel mobile apps, as well as the link between Generation Y’s perceptions of travel mobile applications and usage behavior.

Travel Mobil Applications Background The impact of technology in our everyday lives cannot be overstated. This is because, in today’s fast-paced world, life would be meaningless without technology. Technology, which essentially refers to the collection of instruments that facilitate the development, use, and sharing of information, has the primary objective of making activities easier to accomplish as well as solving many of humanity’s issues. As technology advances and directs even more ease in our lives, it is necessary to emphasize how beneficial it has been to our lives. The relevance of technology in our everyday lives may be seen in the fact that it has reduced the bulkiness connected with paperwork. With advancements in technology, information can now be virtually saved in numerous storage devices such as compact discs and microchips. Furthermore, the information saved on these technical devices is secured by passwords and codes known only to the information’s owners, making it a superior means of keeping private information. Telephone technology has improved throughout the decades as scientists recognized the need for people to communicate at any time and from any location. This need has resulted in the development of extremely portable cellular phones, which have raised the bar for communication by allowing individuals to readily network. The gadget is also enjoyable to use because it has several entertainment functions, such as games. It’s worth noting that agriculture has benefited greatly from technological advancements. Unlike decades before during the agricultural revolution, it is now feasible to detect climatic changes as well as climatic circumstances that favor particular plants. Malaysia is a developing Asian economy that aspires to replicate the experience of Asia’s new industrial economy (NIE)) by shifting to sophisticated production infrastructure development patterns centered on technology. In reality, Malaysia is recognized individually as one of a handful of countries with the capacity to develop breakthrough technologies (Lai & Yap, 2004). Despite the 1997 Asian financial crisis, countries in the region have spared no effort, but the outlook remains promising. NIE’s fast technical progress over the last two decades has piqued the interest of both emerging and developed countries (Arora et al., 2004). Coincidentally, Malaysia and NIE are not only in the same region but also have similar economic systems and trade agreements. In this regard, Malaysia has a solid foundation on which it is possible to develop its own technology development plans based on NIE, with the necessary adjustments, taking into account the characteristics of the economy. Technology, particularly in the form of computers, is critical to the educational system, both in terms of assisting instructional concerns and increasing students’ learning processes. Students can conduct research considerably more quickly using computers, and some argue that this contributes to improved student achievement, particularly in science disciplines.

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Technology has also shown to be an excellent means of improving communication and computation, particularly in the corporate sector. Routine activities, administrative duties, and time-consuming supervision obligations may now be done by computerized systems, alleviating a significant load on organizations that are short on time and manpower. There are several definitions of mobile apps. Wigmore (2013) characterizes a mobile application as a product program planned especially for use on little, remote processing gadgets, for example, cell phones and tablets, as opposed to work area or PCs. Customers would utilize their mobile Internet to check the climate, read the news, find travel courses, and explore (Sin et al., 2019). As a result, mobile tourism applications are designed to keep tourists informed of their position and focal points throughout a lengthy journey (Meng-Yoke Tan et al., 2009).

Performance Expectancy Technology-based models, such as mobile businesses, frequently use PE (perceived expectancy) as a research variable (Wu & Wang, 2005), mobile learning (Motiwalla, 2007), mobile instalments (Pousttchi et al., 2009), mobile banking (Mallat et al., 2004), web-based banking (Yee Loong Chong et al., 2010), web-based shopping (Clemes et al., 2014), and enlistment (Yoon Kin Tong, 2009). PE was defined by Venkatesh et al. (2003) to the extent that an individual’s trust in using a particular skill improves job performance. In other words, People feel and expect that their course performance will increase by utilising this approach. According to Venkatesh et al. (2003), PE relates to consumers’ perceptions of results for experiences. External incentives, perceived usefulness, and relative merit are all factors that influence performance expectations (Sin et al., 2019). The explanation of performance expectation indicates that performance expectancy has a significant impact on system adoption since clients trust within the sight of a great use-execution association (Agarwal & Karahanna, 2000). The client will likewise know that the framework will turn into a more effective method for doing the obligations. In the Malaysian environment, previous researchers discovered a substantial connection between PE and usage intention (Sin et al., 2019). Analysts distinguished a positive association between perceived handiness and usage aim in mobile financial acknowledgment (Amin, 2007) and mobile PC usage (Ramayah & Suki, 2006). During their travels, tourists may want additional valuable information at any time and at any location. Travel arranging, transportation, reservations, web crawlers and catalogues, well-being and security data, and setting mindful administrations are some of the services that mobile travelers may require (Sin et al., 2019). In conclusion, users will embrace and utilize information technology if they are convinced of its benefits. One of the major aspects that facilitates the widespread usage of mobile devices is effort expectancy (EE) (Taiwo & Downe, 2013). According to Venkatesh et al. (2003), EE is the level at which users find it simple to apply a certain technology. In terms of mobile services, perceived ease of use has led to an increase in mobile Internet usability for the most recent mobile gadgets, programs, and administrations, just as convenience guidelines (Zhang & Adipat, 2005). In terms of relative benefit and complexity constructions, PE and PEOU are quite comparable (Venkatesh et al., 2003). Persico et al. (2014) gathered data on the impact of EE on

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initial user adoption and long-term usage systems, since EE influences perceived utility. EE was stated by Venkatesh et al. (2003) as a notion comparable to segments in different models, for example, perceived convenience in the TAM model. The utilization of mechanical intricacy debilitates the reception of developments in specific frameworks that influence client prosperity (Rogers, 1995). Mechanical complexity hinders the reception of innovative breakthroughs in particular frameworks that affect client well-being (Rogers, 1995). According to Gefen and Straub (2000), perceived usefulness significantly influences goal-setting for use, primarily through perceived convenience. Consumers will recognize the benefits of their consumption when using an m-service, influencing the usability of m-services (Venkatesh et al., 2003). EE has been a significant factor of information technology uptake and usage, such as mobile Internet (Martins et al., 2014), mobile services (Koivumäki et al., 2008), and online banking (Abu-Shanab, 2014).

Social Influence The concept of adapting to advancement in view of the significance of what others believe is referred to as social influence. The three components of social influence are voluntary influence, image influence, and subjective norm influence (Sun & Zhang, 2006). According to Hsu et al. (2007), the desire to achieve social status motivates the majority of individuals to accept an invention. Individuals are more likely to be positive about using mobile tourism services if they feel that adopting innovation would boost their image. Subjective norms are people’s opinions or perceptions that can impact an individual’s behavior decision (Ajzen, 1985). Subjective norm categorizes influence into two types: external impact and interpersonal influence (Bhattacharjee, 2000). External factors such as friends, superiors, peer groups, family, and media such as newspapers and the Internet may persuade individuals to embrace innovation (Eckhardt et al., 2010). Taylor and Todd (1995) also emphasized the significance of subjective norm in influencing the desire to utilize a certain technology. In summary, the more the consumers’ sense of social influences, the greater their propensity to utilize mobile tourist services. Facilitating Conditions The facilitating condition (FC) is described as the users’ perception of the information and resources accessible to them to embrace or utilize certain techniques in their lives (Venkatesh et al., 2003). Resources can be tangible or immaterial, providing consumers with current economic and social conditions. Venkatesh et al. (2003) developed the original UTAUT (unified theory of acceptance and use of technology) and identified behavioral intent as a direct reaction variable that influences behavioral use. Mobile Application Portable application development is the act or practice of creating application software for mobile devices such as advanced personal assistants and computerised company collaborators. These applications can be pre-introduced on telephones during the assembling cycle, or they can be given as web applications that utilize

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Fig. 7.1 Theoretical framework perceptions of travel mobile applications. (Source: Venkatesh et al., 2003)

worker-side or customer-side handling to give an “application-like” encounter inside an Internet browser. Because of the fierce rivalry in mobile software and the constant evolution of each platform, application software developers must also take into account a variety of screen sizes, hardware requirements, and settings. Mobile app development has been steadily expanding in terms of revenue and job generation. According to a 2013 analyst study, there were 529,000 direct app economy jobs inside EU nations, with 60% of them being mobile app developers (Cho et al., 2015). The suggested theoretical framework aims to define and explain performance expectations, effort expectations, social impact, and enabling factors, all of which are independent variables in this study. The impression of travel mobile applications by Generation Y is the dependent variable (Fig. 7.1). This study, undertaken to identify Generation Y’s perception of travel mobile applications, was conducted in 2017 using stratified random sampling to select the respondents. A total of 500 questionnaires were distributed, and 313 respondents aged between 18 and 35 actually participated, resulting in a 62.6% response rate (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970). According to the questionnaire, consumer perceptions of mobile travel applications are influenced by demographic profiles; performance expectations, effort expectations, social impact, facilitating circumstance, behaviour, and applications. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 20.0) was used to analyze the data obtained (Zikmund et al., 2010). The degree and course of the direct connection between the factors is portrayed utilizing relationship investigation. The Cronbach’s alpha value is at 0.902 (Uma & Roger, 2003).

Respondent Demographic Profile (Table 7.2) The majority of respondents in the survey were female. There were 149 male and 164 female respondents. This means that of the 313 respondents, 47.6% were male and the remaining 52.4% female. Most of the respondents were aged below 20 years, representing 51.8% or the frequency of 162. This was followed by 46.0% or the frequency of 144 who were 21–25 years old. There was 1.9% or the frequency of 6 who were 26–30 years old. Lastly, the respondents who were above 30 years in age

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Table 7.2 Demographic profile of respondents Demographic factor Gender Age

Education Marital status

Do you own any of the following items?

Categories Male Female Below 20 21–25 26–30 Above 30 Diploma Bachelor Single Married Others Smartphone Tablet Personal digital assistant (PDA) Total

Frequency 149 164 162 144 6 1 196 117 303 4 6 293 18 2 313

Percentage (%) 47.6 52.4 51.8 46.0 1.9 3.0 62.6 37.4 96.8 1.3 1.9 93.6 5.8 0.6 100.0

Source: Survey result

represented 0.3% or the frequency of 1. Most of the respondents’ education level was diploma, representing 62.6% or the frequency of 196 followed by bachelor’s degree holders at 37.4% or the frequency of 117. The marital status of a majority of the respondents was single with the frequency of 303 which was 96.8%, followed by “married” with the frequency of 4 which was 1.3%. Lastly, the respondents from others were with the frequency of 6 which was 1.9%. The product of a majority of the respondents was smartphone with the frequency of 293 which was 93.6%. It was followed by tablet with the frequency of 18 which was 5.8% and personal digital assistant (PDA) with the frequency of 2 which was 0.6%.

Perception of Travel Mobile Application According to Table 7.3, the majority of respondents (47.9 %) “agree” with a frequency of 150, followed by “strongly agree” at 100, 31.9%, and “unsure” at 46, 14.7 %, followed by “disagree” at 16, 5.1%. The last segment was the respondents who “strongly disagree” with the frequency of 1 which is 0.3%. A majority of the respondents “agree” with the frequency of 145 which is 46.3%, followed by “strongly agree” with the frequency of 80 which is 25.6%, followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 80 which is 25.6%. Next was “disagree” with the frequency of 7 which is 2.2%; lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 1 which is 0.3%. The respondents who were “unsure” with the frequency of 131 is 41.9%, followed by “agree” with the frequency of 120 which is 38.3%. Next was “strongly agree” with the frequency of 37 which is 11.8%, followed by “disagree” with the frequency of 22 which is 7.0%. Finally, 1.0% of respondents “strongly disagree” with the frequency of 3. While the majority of respondents, 161, or 51.4%, said they agreed, they were followed by those who said they were “unsure” with the frequency of 69 which is 22.0%, “strongly agree”

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Table 7.3 Performance expectancy No. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Item Using travel mobile applications enables me to plan my travel more quickly Using travel mobile applications increases my productivity when travelling Travel mobile applications can be trusted with personal information Using travel mobile applications is useful in daily life Using travel mobile applications increases chances of being happier

S. agree 31.3

Agree 46.9

Unsure 14.4

Disagree 5.0

S. disagree 0.3

25.0

45.3

25.0

2.2

0.3

11.6

37.5

40.9

6.9

0.9

21.3

50.3

21.6

3.4

1.3

15.3

45.3

30.3

6.3

0.6

S. agree 20.9

Agree 45.9

Unsure 26.9

Disagree 3.4

S. disagree 0.6

21.6

48.1

26.3

1.9

0

21.9

45.6

25.9

4.4

0

21.6

50.9

21.9

3.4

0

23.1

43.8

26.9

3.8

0.3

Source: Survey result Table 7.4 Effort expectancy No 1. 2.

3.

4. 5.

Item Learning to operate the travel mobile application was easy Interaction with the mobile applications was clear and understandable Easy to become skillful at using the travel mobile applications Travel mobile applications are user-friendly and easy to use Easier to use the travel mobile applications with an introductory tutorial

Source: Survey result

with the frequency of 68 which is 21.7%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 11 which is 3.5%. The “strongly disagree” respondents with the frequency of 4 is 1.3%. The respondents using travel mobile applications increase their chances of being happier. According to the table, the majority of respondents “agree” with the frequency of 145 (46.3%), followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 97 (31.0%), “strongly agree” with the frequency of 49 (15.7%), and “disagree” with the frequency of 20 (6.4%). Finally, 0.6% of respondents “strongly disagree” with the frequency of 2. In Table 7.4, a majority of the respondents were in the “agree” segment with the frequency of 147 which is 47%, followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 86 which is 27.5%, “strongly agree” with the frequency of 67 which is 21.4%, and

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“disagree” with the frequency of 11 which is 3.5%. Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 2 which is 0.6%. A majority of the respondents belonged to the “agree” segment with the frequency of 154 which is 49.2%, followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 84 which is 26.8% and “strongly agree” with the frequency of 69 which is 22%. Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 6 which is 1.9%. The respondents in “agree” bracket with the frequency of 146 are 46.6%, followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 83 which is 26.5% and “strongly agree” with the frequency of 70, or 22.4%. The percentage of responders that “strongly disagree” with the frequency of 14 is 4.5%. The majority of respondents (52.1%) “agree” with the frequency of 163, followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 70 (22.4%) and “strongly agree” with the frequency of 69 (22%). The respondents who “strongly disagree” with the frequency of 11constituted 3.5%. The respondents who “agreed” were with the frequency of 140 which is 44.7%, followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 86 which is 27.5%, “strongly agree” with the frequency of 74 which is 23.6%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 12 which is 3.8%. Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 1 which is 0.3%. In Table 7.5, a majority of the respondents were in the “agree” category with the frequency of 134 which is 42.8%, followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 106 which is 33.9%, “strongly agree” with the frequency of 50 which is 16%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 16 which is 5.1%. The respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 7 which is 2.2%. While the “agree” respondents with the frequency of 120 is 38.3%, they were followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 118 which is 37.7%, “strongly agree” with the frequency of 41 which is 13.1%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 25 which is 8%. The respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 6 which is 1.9%. A majority of the Table 7.5 Social influence No. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Item People that matter to me believe that I should utilize travel mobile apps People who have an impact on their behavior believe that they should utilize travel mobile apps People that respect their opinions choose to utilize travel mobile applications Media that influence respondents to use travel mobile applications New travel applications that influence me to use travel mobile applications

Source: Survey result

S. agree 15.6

Agree 41.9

Unsure 33.1

Disagree 5.0

S. disagree 2.2

12.8

36.9

37.5

7.8

2.5

11.3

48.1

30.9

5.0

2.5

16.6

43.4

29.7

5.6

2.5

20.0

41.9

31.9

3.4

0.6

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respondents “agree” with the frequency of 154 which is 49.2%, followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 99 which is 31.6%, “strongly agree” with the frequency of 36 which is 11.5%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 16 which is 5.1%. The respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 8 which is 2.6%. The respondents “agreeing” with the frequency of 139 are 44.4%, followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 95 which is 30.4%, “strongly agree” with the frequency of 53 which is 16.9%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 18 which is 5.8%. Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” with the frequency of 8 are 2.6%. A majority of the respondents were “agreeing” with the frequency of 134 which is 42.8%, followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 102 which is 32.6%, “strongly agree” with the frequency of 64 which is 20.4%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 11 which is 3.5%. Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 2 which is 0.6%. As shown in Table 7.6, a majority of the respondents were in the “agree” segment with the frequency of 145 which is 46.3%, followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 103 which is 32.9%, “strongly agree” with the frequency of 50 which is 16%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 12 which is 3.8%. The respondents who “strongly disagree” with the frequency of 3 constituted 1%. A majority of the respondents “agreeing” with the frequency of 160 are 51.1%, followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 93 which is 29.7%, “strongly agree” with the frequency of 44 which is 14.1%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 15 which is 4.8%. Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 1 which is 0.3%. While the respondents in the “agree” group with the frequency of 149 formed 47.6%, they were followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 87 which is 27.8%, “strongly agree” with the frequency of 59 which is 18.8%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 17 which is 5.4%. Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 1 which is 0.3%. While the respondents in the “agree” segment with the Table 7.6 Facilitating condition No. 1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

Item Resources necessary to use travel mobile applications Have the knowledge necessary to use travel mobile applications Travel mobile applications are interoperable with the various technologies that they employ Assistance with travel mobile apps issues is provided from a specific individual or organization Experience with the travel mobile applications affects their frequency of usage

Source: Survey result

S. agree 15.6

Agree 45.3

Unsure 32.2

Disagree 3.8

S. disagree 0.9

13.8

50.5

29.1

4.7

0.3

18.4

46.6

27.2

5.3

0.3

15.6

42.2

34.7

4.4

0.9

16.6

46.3

30.0

5.0

0

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frequency of 135 formed 43.1%, they were followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 111 which is 35.5%, “strongly agree” with the frequency of 50 which is 16%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 14 which is 4.5%. Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 3 which is 1%. The respondents in the “agree” group with the frequency of 148 formed 47.3%; they were followed by “unsure” with the frequency of 96 which is 30.7%, “strongly agree” with the frequency of 53 which is 16.9%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 16 which is 5.1%. In Table 7.7, a majority of the respondents were in the “agree” category with the frequency of 145 which is 46.3%, followed by “strongly agree” with the frequency of 91 which is 29.1%, “unsure” with the frequency of 59 which is 18.8%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 17 which is 5.4%. Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 1 which is 0.3%. The respondents “agreeing” with the frequency of 133 are 42.5%, followed by “strongly agree” with the frequency of 95 which is 30.4%, “unsure” with the frequency of 69 which is 22%, and “disagree with the frequency of 15 which is 4.8%. Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 1 which is 0.3%. They “agree” with the frequency of 126 which is 40.3%, followed by “strongly agree” with the frequency of 97 which is 31%, “unsure” with the frequency of 72 which is 23%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 14 which is 4.5%. Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 4 which is 1.3%. In the column respondents enjoy experiencing travel mobile application service, 141 “agree” which is 45% followed by “strongly agree” with the frequency of 81 which is 25.9%, “unsure” with the frequency of 75 which is 24%, and “disagree” with the frequency of 15 which is 4.8%. Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 1 which is 0.3%. Respondents will continue to utilise mobile travel applications for the majority of their travel activities, with the most popular Table 7.7 Use behavior No. 1. 2.

3.

4. 5.

Item I like using travel mobile applications Using travel mobile applications helps me to manage bookings more effectively I prefer using travel mobile applications rather than web browsers I enjoy experiencing travel mobile application service I will continue using travel mobile applications to conduct most of my travelling activity

Source: Survey result

S. agree 28.4

Agree 45.3

Unsure 18.4

Disagree 5.3

S. disagree 0.3

29.7

41.6

21.6

4.7

0.3

22.5

39.4

30.3

4.4

1.3

23.4

44.1

25.3

4.7

0.3

28.1

42.2

21.6

5.3

0.6

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Table 7.8 Use applications Google Item TripAdvisor Uber Agoda Booking.com Google Waze Maps 23.1 26.3 6.3 3.1 19.1 15.0 2.8

Airline Trivago apps 1.9 0.3

Source: Survey result

Table 7.9 Correlation between performance expectancy and use behavior and use behavior Performance expectancy

Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

Use behavior 0.574** 0.000 313

Source: Survey result **Correlation is significance at 0.01 level (2-tailed)

responses being “agree” (43%) and “strongly agree” (28.8%), followed by “unsure” (69%) and “disagree” (17%). Lastly, the respondents who “strongly disagree” were with the frequency of 2 which is 0.6% (Table 7.8). Which of these travel mobile applications respondents frequently use? For applications, Uber with the frequency of 84 is 26.8%, followed by TripAdvisor with the frequency of 74 which is 23.6%, Google Translate with the frequency of 61 which is 19.5%, Waze with the frequency of 48 which is 15.3%, Agoda with the frequency of 20 which is 6.4%, Booking.com with the frequency of 10 which is 3.2%, Google Maps with the frequency of 9 which is 2.9%, Trivago with the frequency of 6 which is 1.9%, and airlines apps with the frequency of 1 which is 0.3%.

Performance Expectancy There is a significant relationship between performance expectancy and use behavior (Table 7.9). Because the correlation coefficient is positive, there is a positive link between performance expectancy and use behavior. The empowerment variable is correlated with use behavior by a factor of 0.574. As a result, when performance expectancy is modest, so is use behavior. The correlation coefficient 0.574 is between the coefficient range of +/ 0.41 and +/ 0.70. As a result, there is a modest connection between performance expectancy and use behavior.

Effort Expectancy There is a significant relationship between effort expectancy and use behavior (Table 7.10). Because of the positive correlation coefficient value in Table 7.4.37, there is a positive link between effort expectancy and use behavior. The empowerment measure is correlated with use behavior by 0.540. As a result, when effort expectancy is

160 Table 7.10 Correlation between effort expectancy and use behavior

A. Albattat

Effort expectancy

Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

Use behavior 0.540** 0.000 313

Source: Survey result **Correlation is significance at 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Table 7.11 Correlation between social influence and use behavior

Social influence

Pearson correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

Use behavior 0.376** 0.000 313

Source: Survey result **Correlation is significance at 0.01 level (2-tailed)

moderate, so is use behavior. This correlation coefficient of 0.540 falls between the +/ 0.41 and +/ 0.70 coefficient range. As a result, there is a modest connection between effort expectancy and use behavior.

Social Influence There is a significant relationship between social influence and use behavior. Because of the positive correlation coefficient value in Table 7.11, there is a positive link between social influence and use behavior. The empowerment measure is correlated with use behavior by 0.376. As a result, when social influence is a tiny but definite link, use behavior is also a small but definite association. This correlation coefficient of 0.376 falls between the coefficient range of +/ 0.21 and +/ 0.40. As a result, there is a modest connection between social influence and use behavior.

Facilitating Condition There is a significant relationship between facilitating condition and use behavior (Table 7.12). Because the correlation coefficient is positive, there is a positive relationship between the facilitating condition and the use behavior. With a 0.606 coefficient, the empowerment measure corresponds with use behavior. As a result, when the facilitating condition is moderate, the use behavior is moderate. This correlation coefficient’s value of 0.606 falls between the +/ 0.41 and +/ 0.70 coefficient range. As a result, there is a modest connection between the facilitating condition and the use behavior. In the thematic analysis as appears from the data collection, the researcher is able to identify a few themes from the respondents’ suggestions and recommendations. It was found that the respondents required travel mobile applications to be “more userfriendly and easier to use.” The software developer can also “add more languages” to

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Table 7.12 Correlation between facilitating condition and use behavior Facilitating condition

Pearson correlation significance (2-tailed) N

Use behavior 0.606** 0.000 313

Source: Survey result **Corelation is significance at 0.01 level (2-tailed)

reach out to more users. Some respondents also stated that the travel application needs to be “available offline.” It is quite a fuss when they have to find Internet connection to use some applications. In the First World countries such as Korea, the government provides Internet access everywhere which is of great convenience to its citizens. For travel mobile applications that require location services such as Waze and Google Maps, the respondents mentioned that the applications “need to provide more specific and accurate information.” Lastly, it was suggested that software developers “develop travel mobile applications that have all in one.” The application should have the entire package necessary for travelling such as meals, hotel room bookings, flight tickets, and transportation so that the user does not have to download more than one application to fit the requirements.

Conclusion The concept of adapting to advancement in light of the significance of what others believe is referred to as social influence. The three components of social influence are voluntary influence, image influence, and subjective norm influence (Sun & Zhang, 2006). The study will help future academics acquire a better grasp of Generation Y’s attitudes about travel mobile applications. Because travel mobile applications have risen in popularity, it is critical to understand how Generation Y perceives them. The study’s findings will be beneficial to developers in the tourism sector, banks, governments, and application or software developers. PE and EE may benefit Generation Y by allowing them to save time and be more convenient while utilizing new and possibly helpful information technologies. Increased consumer PE lets the industry to concentrate on the features and benefits of mobile-devicedelivered products. SI is especially significant in this examination since it’s anything but an immediate effect on traveler intentions, which in turn influences Generation Y’s perceptions of travel mobile apps. To attract more consumers, mobile application names must be distinctive. The application’s opinion leader will tend to disseminate favorable word of mouth to potential users, and this technique allows companies to obtain greater credibility. It is critical to persuade the potential user that the mobile tourist application can depict the “luxury status” as regarded by clients. Finally, because FC influences Generation Y’s perception of travel mobile applications, it encourages the community to share useful information with others. Users do not have to make a fuss in order to find a solution to their information technology

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problems. Software developers also need to develop convenient, user-friendly applications so that they can continue to use them later.

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Factors Influencing Tourist Perception on GrabCar Ride-Sharing Application Services Nurul Farah Izzah Zailani and Ahmad Albattat

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Profile of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Profile of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perceived Reliability on Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Convenient Booking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cheaper Fare on Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intention to Ride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Descriptive Statistic (Perceived Reliability on Cheaper Fare on Application, Application, Quality, Convenient Booking, and Intention to Ride) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

The study focuses on transport booking on the Internet, using the GrabCar application in Malaysia as an example. This study gathered data from selected respondents. The goal of this study is to look at the elements that influence tourists’ perceptions of ride-sharing app services, as well as the intention to ride and tourists’ perceptions of ride-sharing app services. The questionnaire for this quantitative study was created using Google Forms. The findings show a link between reliability and the intention to ride on the GrabCar app, as well as the benefits of utilizing GrabCar for online transportation bookings, as well as the pricing difference between GrabCar and other network linked public transit firms. N. F. I. Zailani School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management and Science University, Selangor, Malaysia A. Albattat (*) Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_8

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Keywords

Cheaper fare · Convenient booking · Intention to ride · Reliability · Quality

Introduction The movement of people, farmed animals, and products from one location to another is known as transportation. To put it another way, transportation is the process of moving anything from point A to point B. Air, land (train and road), sea, cable, pipeline, and space are all modes of transportation. The field is divided into three categories: equipment, facilities, and operations. Highways, bridges, airways, waterways, canals, and pipelines are examples of permanent infrastructure, as are bus stations, airports, railway stations, truck terminals, seaport, refuelling warehouse stations (inclusive of fuel stations and docks), and warehouses. Freight interchanges and passenger, as well as maintenance, can all be done at terminals. Automobiles, motorbikes, buses, trains, boats, helicopters, watercraft, spaceships, and aeroplanes are examples of vehicles that operate on these networks. The way vehicles are operated and the procedures for doing so, including funding, regulations, and legalities, are all part of operations. Depending on the country, service operations and management in the transportation industry might be either public or private. Passenger transportation can be public or private, with scheduled services provided by operators. Containerization has dominated freight transport, but huge amounts of durable products are transported in bulk. However, most forms of economic growth and globalization pollute the air and squander vast amounts of land. While governments significantly fund it, adequate transportation planning is required.

Background “Intention to ride” may be characterized as a tourist-targeted marketing strategy that focuses on producing and delivering valuable, consistent services in order to attract a certain audience, earn, and win consumer action. The availability of the Internet currently gives simplicity in marketing, which is diligently utilized by online business organizations and is a crucial instrument of the digital market. Tourists can utilize e-hailing services provided by ride-sharing businesses, which include monitoring, the option to pay with cash or credit card, and the opportunity to exchange trip information and records as well as for promotional purposes. As a result, they rely heavily on content marketing to persuade visitors to pick e-hailing over other means of transportation (Saragih, 2018; Baltes, 2015). “Reliability” is the capacity to provide ride-sharing services with security and punctuality for tourists, so that people can appreciate the good service provided by ride-sharing. Tourists may rely on the service because of the safety features that ride-sharing provides, such as GPS tracking and an emergency button. Tourists are looking for safety as part of the reliability aspect in ride-sharing apps. Because it is a public transportation system,

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tourists are familiar with the service and are more likely to use the app (Horsu & Yeboah, 2015). “Convenient booking” is important. According to the study, GrabCar is an online network application-based service that allows users to schedule a ride and pick their driver, desired pricing, and kind of e-hailing car. Furthermore, with the convenience of ride-sharing application transportation systems such as GrabCar, tourists are seeking convenience and simplicity in booking a trip ride and obtaining a driver, resulting in an increase in the number of passengers who intend to use their GrabCar services (Sakaran et al., 2018; Furuhata, 2013). “Cheaper fare” is the cost of a GrabCar ride that varies depending on the peak and non-peak seasons, as well as the distance travelled between locations. Price is defined as the connection between the product’s price and its quality. Price is an essential element in the factors of services since it is one of the most significant aspects of the marketing mix. The pricing in the context of ride-sharing refers to the service fares that are charged to the passenger (Ruangkanjanases & Techapoolphol, 2018). “Quality” of goods, services, destinations, and activities delivered has a significant impact on customer intent. Also, accessibility has a huge influence on consumer intent when it comes to mode of transportation since customers will always pick services that are conveniently accessible to their intended location (Litman, 2016). Thus, study framework of this research is focused on four conceptual variables used to assess the dependent variables that are the subject of this study. This study follows the conceptual model based on the literature review (Fig. 8.1). H1: There is a significant relationship between reliability and the intention to ride. Reliability refers to the capacity to provide a ride-sharing service with consistency and timeliness, as seen in transportation services. For ride-sharing good service quality features, reliability such as arriving at stopping point, travel distance, communications, and timetable direction are critical to consider. Horsu and Yeboah

RELIABILITY

CONVENIENT BOOKING

H1

H2

H3

THE INTENTION TO RIDE

CHEAPER FARE H4

QUALITY

Fig. 8.1 Study framework. (Source: developed by the authors, 2020)

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(2015) lead a study in Ghana on consumer satisfaction with minicab taxi system. They investigated the link between consumer satisfaction and six variables: reliability, continued service, safety, comfort, affordability, and driving characteristic. They discovered that consistent service, comfort, affordability, and reliability had a substantial impact on consumer satisfaction using multiple regression analysis. Safety, on the other hand, has a positive but little impact on satisfaction and recognized driving behavior. According to Ceder et al. (2013), trip attributes like personal security, commute time, connection reliability, transfer time, and transfer information have been shown to be key indicators for travellers’ perceptions of transfer route options and personal protection at stations, which has been discovered as being the most sensitive factor in their decisions. Customers have always been concerned about their safety when using ride-sharing services. The drivers, passenger privacy, car condition, and insurance coverage while using the service are all viewed as safety concerns, which may impact their desire to ride. The strongest predictor is the influence on passenger ride intention. Passengers in ride-sharing services are more concerned about their safety. With safety as a major concern in such ride-sharing services, the result indicated comparable outcomes. Many of these issues are about safety, with some taxi industry counter-arguments suggesting that ride-sharing is riskier than using a regular taxicab (Witt et al., 2015). However, there are certain points from previous studies that emphasize the issue of ride-sharing safety. Ackaradejruangsri (2015) stated that one of the numerous advantages of utilizing the app is that it allows passengers to share the trip location, phone number, plate number, and anticipated fare ahead of time, making them feel more safe and less nervous. As a result, e-hailing businesses must assure a high level of passenger safety through enforced regulations in order to attract customers and even repeat business through excellent e-word of mouth. To ensure passenger safety, e-hailing businesses must address a significant complaint: driver trustworthiness. As a result, proper and stringent screening for creditable and trustworthy drivers and comprehensive driver training are key concerns for businesses. In the e-hailing network, business insurance coverage for passengers and drivers is also critical. H2: There is a significant relationship between convenient in booking and the intention to ride. According to the writer, some of the participants complained about the payment task, others claimed it was costly, and some advised that payment be done electronically rather than manually, depending on their appraisal of the questionnaire. The majority of participants said the Grab app was easy to use and comfortable. The research looked at five different tasks. They include opening GPS, searching for a car, selecting and reserving a car, selecting a car price, and cancelling a car reservation. Almost the majority of the respondents believed that Grab was easy to use and apply. There are just a tiny number of people that have a problem signing the application, but it is a minor issue. Another group of respondents was asked about the importance of the applications, and nearly all of them agreed that it has an appropriate and helpful feature inside the apps (Teo et al., 2018). A product or service is regarded handy when it minimizes the user’s mental, physical, and emotional stresses, according to Teo et al. (2018). According to Teo et al. (2018),

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convenience has a positive relative effect on customers’ intentions. They will have an advantage when interacting with customers because the ride-sharing service concept is always centered on providing a safe and comfortable mode of transportation with the certainty of a fixed charge. Furthermore, with the convenience of application-based and GrabCar and taxi systems such as e-hailing applications, customers want simplicity and ease when booking a trip and locating a driver, which may boost passenger ride intention in utilizing their services. It is critical in influencing passenger riding intent. E-hailing or application-based apps make it simple for customers to schedule a ride and select their preferred pricing, driver, and kind of e-hailing vehicle. According to studies, ride-sharing combines the flexibility and speed of private cars while lowering the cost each trip in exchange for the convenience of private automobile travel (Teo et al., 2018). Ride-sharing has shown to be a viable alternative to traditional forms of transportation, with features that give better convenience than public transit while also decreasing traffic and pollution. Mohlmann (2015) went on to say that in the sharing economy, convenience is likely to play a big role in influencing people’s decisions. Ride businesses must always be dedicated to offering a secure and comfortable method of transportation with the assurance of a set fare in this manner. H3: There is a significant relationship between cheaper fare and the intention to ride. Uber is faster than Grab vehicle and traditional taxi, according to the findings of the trip diary supplied by the writer. GrabCar restrictions have been tightened in terms of stability and the quantity of vehicles available at a specified pick-up location. In terms of passenger pricing, Uber and traditional taxi are the two most popular options. Uber is believed to be less expensive than regular taxis. The Grab vehicle, on the other hand, was the most expensive of the three modes of transportation. Finally, as compared to other vehicle service businesses, GrabCar provides a higher level of service. When the ride-sharing concept is implemented, when competition with taxi services benefits consumers, and when safety is promoted, companies like Uber and GrabCar may contribute to sustainable transportation. Uber was determined to be the cheapest form of transportation among the three, at a cost of $20.72 per kilometer. The cost of a traditional taxi is 28.49 per kilometer, whereas a Grab vehicle is 32.07 per kilometer. Between Uber and traditional taxis, GrabCar was the most expensive. Because of the cash payment mechanism, which makes the passenger fare exorbitant, tip and unreturned change were included in the taxi fare and GrabCar. The difference in passenger pricing between a Grab vehicle and a traditional taxi is statistically insignificant (Paronda et al., 2016). A person’s impression of a product’s price in relation to its quality is known as perceived pricing (Calabuig et al., 2014). Price is critical in the context of services since it is the most significant component of the marketing mix. The perceived price in the context of ride-sharing relates to the service fares that are charged to the passenger. The cost of using the GrabCar service is generally low, conditional to the peak and non-peak seasons, as well as the distance travelled to the destinations. Surge pricing has given car-sharing companies control over peak and off-peak fees and driver control, but little is known about how customers understand pricing as it affects their travel

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intentions. According to others, future research should focus on the influence of cost on adoption (Ruangkanjanases & Techapoolphol, 2018). It is one of the most important elements influencing passenger preference and competition. Companies will be able to attract customers and gain a competitive edge over traditional taxis if they can engage in surge pricing and primetime pricing. According to recent studies, consumers participate in the sharing economy since it allows them to get desired items and services at a cheaper cost (Belk, 2014). This explains why e-hailing companies have an edge over local taxis since they charge the general public much less. Ride-sharing drivers, according to Amey et al. (2011), generally seek to share transportation expenses, whereas taxi drivers are primarily interested in earning a profit. In addition, according to a recent poll (Finck and Ranchordás, 2016), the cost of an urban taxi is significantly lower than the cost of a regular taxi. As a result, one of the main variables driving customer demand for e-hailing services might be the cheaper rates given by Grab and Uber. H4: There is a significant relationship between the quality and the intention to ride. This study explains the facets of service quality that have a major potential to change automobile users’ attitudes about public transportation in order to attract new customers and retain existing ones. The importance of increasing service quality may be observed in the level of service provided toward attitude. According to the findings, characteristics such as safety at the bus stop/terminal and onboard, service reliability, customer service, and the availability of appropriate information about the bus route have direct and indirect substantial impacts on behavior intentions, which are mediated by attitudes. This explains why improving public transportation service quality will result in more favorable attitudes about behavior intentions to utilize public transportation. The Malaysian government and Putrajaya Corporation, for example, should be active in enhancing service quality in order to improve customer attitudes and intentions toward public transportation in the future. As previously reported, the public bus system in Putrajaya is unpopular with the general population due to its unreliability, lack of punctuality, and lengthier journey times (Khuong & Dai, 2016). Perceived quality refers to the ease with which products, services, destinations, and activities, collectively known as opportunities, may be reached, and it is the goal of most transportation activities, with the exception of a tiny fraction of travel where mobility is an aim in itself (Litman, 2016). Accessibility has a huge influence on consumer intent when it comes to mode of transportation, as customers will always pick services that are conveniently accessible to their intended destination. Passenger satisfaction is improved through the accuracy of information, content in applications, and promotional channels. Feedback is crucial in the e-hailing network because it allows passengers to rate drivers and drivers to rate passengers, allowing service quality to be maintained and bad drivers and consumers to be weeded out. It’s vital to remember that building a content-based marketing plan includes more than just generating a virtual advertisement. As a result, in order to encourage consumers to utilize their services, e-hailing companies must give powerful content through effective ads to sell products. Because content marketing

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has an impact on search engine optimization, brand image, and revenue, it has been critical for the shared economy’s success. As a result, e-hailing companies must be prepared to invest in social media management, online traffic management, social dialogue management, and customer blogging.

Measurement Quantitative research approach was utilized to distribute 244 online form surveys to GrabCar users who are currently or have previously worked in the GrabCar service in Shah Alam particularly in Seksyen 7. The researchers gathered data, translated it, and summarized it using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software. To determine the degree of reliability, Cronbach’s alpha was used. This chapter contains a few investigations and was more focused on the respondent’s statistic variables based on descriptive statistics, dependability, cheaper fare, quality, convenient booking, and work fulfillment in the clear examination. All of the results will be presented in the form of tables and figures, making it simple to understand how they relate to one another.

Profile of Respondents The use of alpha coefficients in data collecting is typically considered to be reliable and suitable for further research. Cronbach’s coefficient alpha test was used to determine the dependent variable in this factor of analysis. Table 8.1 summarizes the findings of the investigation. Table 8.1 shows the results of the reliability test that was obtained from sections B, C, D, E, and F, and the result demonstrates that the item used under dependable with Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.939. As a result, we were able to send 244 questioners to the respondents and gather the data in the time given. The reliability statistics have shown the measurement of the item in each variable such as reliability, convenience booking, cheaper fares, and quality by conducting this reputation to see if any similar findings can be achieved after all the data has been collected. The purpose of these reliability statistics is to display the table that each independent variable and dependent variable will provide. The higher intention to

Table 8.1 Cronbach’s alpha

Variables Reliability Convenient booking Cheaper fare Quality Intention to ride Source: survey result

No. of items 6 4 4 3 5

Cronbach’s alpha .747 .708 .744 .697 .899

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ride represents .899 for the dependent variable, according to this table. Reliability is represented by .747, and a cheaper fare is represented by .744. Convenient booking comes in second with a score of .708, followed by quality that presents with a score of .697. The quality reliability test is shown below .70; however, the Cronbach alpha is still reliable because the quantity of items in this area has an impact.

Profile of Respondents There are five questions concerning demographic analysis in the survey that we have collected from the respondents. Age, gender, occupation, level of education, and income were among the inquiries. In Table 8.2, there is a review of the demographics.

Table 8.2 Summary of profile of the respondents Background factor Gender

Age

Level of education

Occupation

Income

Source: survey result

Categories Male Female Total 18–20 years old 21–25 years old 26–30 years old 31–35 years old 36–40 years old 41 years old and above Total Ph.D. Master Bachelor Diploma STPM SPM No formal education Total Public employee Private employee Self-employee Student Other professions Total Less than RM1500 RM1501–RM2000 RM2001–RM2500 RM2501–RM3000 More than RM3001 Total

Frequency 124 120 244 72 60 39 36 34 3 244 5 26 107 67 14 20 5 244 40 70 33 92 9 244 88 38 42 31 45 244

Percentage (%) 50.8 49.2 100.0 29.5 24.6 16.0 14.8 13.9 1.2 100.0 2.0 10.7 43.9 27.5 5.7 8.2 2.0 100.0 16.4 28.7 13.5 37.7 3.7 100.0 36.1 15.6 17.2 12.7 18.4 100.0

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Perceived Reliability on Application The perceived reliability on application is shown in Table 8.3. According to the table above, with a percentage of 38.5, the majority of respondents agree with the PIR 5. With a percentage of 32.4, PRA 2 was the second highest. With 32.0%, PRA 3 came in third. With a percent of 20.1, PIR 6 was the lowest.

Convenient Booking Convenient booking is shown in Table 8.4. With a percentage of 26.2 in the table above, the majority of respondents strongly agree with the CB 3. With a percentage of 23.0, CB 1 was in second place. With 20.9%, CB 4 ranked third. With a percentage of 15.9%, CB 2 was the lowest.

Cheaper Fare on Application Cheaper fare on application is shown in Table 8.5. According to the table above, with a percentage of 29.1, the majority of respondents agree with CFA 3. With a percentage of 27.9%, CFA 2 was the second highest. CFA 4 came in third place with 25.8%. Table 8.3 Perceived reliability on application

Item PRA_1

PRA_2

PRA_3

PIR_4

PIR_5

PIR_6

Questions Grab Car service is higher during peak hours against non-peak hours The limit time of the waiting from the Grab Car service is acceptable In my experience, the network service of reaching toward the Grab Car is easy Using this mobile application would enable me to accomplish my booking more quickly Using mobile application can improve my performance Using mobile application can increase my productivity

Source: survey result

Scale Strongly disagree 9.0

Disagree 22.1

Neutral 22.5

Agree 29.9

Strongly agree 16.4

7.8

24.2

24.6

32.4

11.1

10.7

20.1

20.1

32.0

17.2

7.4

19.7

22.1

29.9

20.0

10.2

20.9

16.4

38.5

13.9

11.1

23.4

21.7

20.1

23.8

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Table 8.4 Convenient booking Item CB_1

CB_2

CB_3

CB_4

Questions Based on my experience, by using this ride-sharing booking mobile applications is convenient to used I always use the Grab Car application when I am in need on ride I will definitely use this Grab Car application again in the future I will recommend this ridesharing service to others

Strongly disagree 4.1

Disagree 25.0

Neutral 26.6

Agree 21.3

Strongly agree 23.0

4.1

5.9

34.5

39.5

15.9

0.8

8.2

23.0

41.8

26.2

4.9

22.5

24.2

27.5

20.9

Scale Strongly disagree 7.8

Disagree 23.0

Neutral 26.6

Agree 20.1

Strongly agree 22.5

11.1

26.6

21.7

27.9

12.7

7.4

23.0

22.1

29.1

18.4

17.2

19.3

18.4

25.8

19.3

Source: survey result

Table 8.5 Cheaper fare on application

Item CFA_1

CFA_2

CFA_3

CFA_4

Questions I was planning the ride from the online application Grab Car at this time regardless of the fare Grab Car fare is more reasonable than any public vehicle transportation The service from the Grab Car matches with the price fare I am satisfied with the price from the Grab Car service

Source: survey result

Quality The quality is shown in Table 8.6. According to the table above, 36.1% of the respondents agree with QUA 2. With a percentage of 28.7%, QUA 1 came in second. With 22.1%, QUA 3 came in third.

Intention to Ride The intention to ride is shown in Table 8.7. According to the table above, 37.3% of respondents strongly agree with ITR 2. With a percentage of 35.7, ITR 3 was the

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Table 8.6 Quality

Item QUA_1

QUA_2

QUA_3

Questions The Grab Car application meets my expectation on the quality of Grab Car The Grab Car comfortability fulfils my need in quality of the Grab Car Grab Car service is more good on quality than other e-hailing

Scale Strongly disagree 16.4

Disagree 16.8

Neutral 18.4

Agree 28.7

Strongly agree 19.7

7.0

20.5

19.7

36.1

16.8

4.1

22.5

29.5

22.1

21.7

Scale Strongly disagree 17.2

Disagree 17.2

Neutral 20.9

Agree 24.6

Strongly agree 20.1

7.4

19.7

21.3

37.3

14.3

7.4

19.7

21.3

35.7

16.0

7.4

18.9

22.1

31.1

20.5

16.8

17.2

15.2

31.6

19.3

Source: survey result Table 8.7 Intention to ride

Item ITR_1

ITR_2

ITR_3

ITR_4

ITR_5

Questions This e-hailing application is a very useful ride-sharing services It is efficient for me to ride and safely arrived at the destination I think this ride-sharing application is a trustworthy e-hailing application I feel like this e-hailing application is an advantageous to every user This Grab Car application is user-friendly

Source: survey result

second highest. With 31.6%, ITR 5 came in third. With a percentage of 31.1, ITR 4 was the lowest.

Descriptive Statistic (Perceived Reliability on Cheaper Fare on Application, Application, Quality, Convenient Booking, and Intention to Ride) Table 8.8 displays the descriptive data. PIR 1 has the highest standard deviation, with respondents believing that using this phone application will allow me to finish my booking faster (mean 3.37), and PIR 3 has the lowest standard deviation, with

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Table 8.8 Descriptive statistic (perceived reliability on application, convenient booking, cheaper fare on application, quality, and intention to ride) No. PRA1

PRA2

PRA3

PIR1

PIR2 PIR3

GrabCar service is higher during peak hours against non-peak hours The limit time of the waiting from the GrabCar service is acceptable In my experience, the network service of reaching toward the GrabCar is easy Using this mobile application would enable me to accomplish my booking more quickly Using mobile application can improve my performance Using mobile application can increase my productivity

N 244

Mean 3.23

Std. deviation 1.222

Minimum 1

Maximum 5

244

3.15

1.142

1

5

244

3.25

1.257

1

5

244

3.37

1.222

1

5

244

3.25

1.227

1

5

244

3.22

1.336

1

5

Source: survey result

respondents believing that using this mobile application will increase my productivity (mean 3.31). (The standard deviation is 1.336). I always use GrabCar application when I need a ride, and I will surely use this GrabCar application again in the future, according to respondent CB 3 (mean 3.84) and standard deviation of 1.329 on CB 2. (std. deviation 1.329). The price charge at CF 3 (mean 3.28) and the standard deviation at CF 4 are equivalent to the service provided by the Grab vehicle (1.381). “I am satisfied with the pricing of the grab car service,” the response reads. The comfortability of the Grab vehicle meets my quality expectations, and the GrabCar service is superior than other e-hailing services (mean 3.35) with the greatest standard deviation (1.182) among the students.

Conclusion The GrabCar’s services are focused on the following four factors. Tourists may rely on the GrabCar service, which requires the driver to be accountable for providing excellent service. The GrabCar’s dependability is also critical in ensuring the safety of tourists who use this ride-sharing service. Furthermore, being able to communicate on how to treat tourists plays a vital part in providing dependable services. The ride-sharing app is in charge of ensuring that its passengers are satisfied with their services. Because the GrabCar has a private driver, it should treat these matters with the utmost seriousness, as caring for tourists is extremely essential. This is because tourists want recognition from their service in order to feel appreciated and welcomed by ride-sharing. GrabCar is also responsible for the safety of its passengers.

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Finally, the study concludes that the comments and ratings received from tourists enable drivers to learn and enhance their abilities in the e-hailing business. Hopefully, in the future, current research will continue to focus on the ride-sharing Grab vehicle application.

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Part IV Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Decision-Making

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Semantic-Based Technology in Shaping the Strategy of Tourism in Malaysia Mohammad FakhrulNizam Mohammad, Nor Aida Abdul Rahman, and Fernando Mayor-Vitoria

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tourism Industry in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tourist Source of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tourists Spending Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tourist and Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Landscape of Internet Use and Its Trends in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internet Users in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Devices, Sites, and Applications Accessed by Internet Users in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Online Activities Accessed by Internet Users in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Semantic-Based Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application of Semantic Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Semantic Web Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology and Tourism Industry in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Semantic Web as Recommender Tools in the Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Need for Semantic Technology for the Tourism Industry in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Today, technology has become a norm in all industries, including tourism. The cost of traveling has become more reasonable and wisely utilized time, resulting in changes in the tourism landscape with the advent of technology applications. Undeniably, the adoption of technology has generated healthier competition

M. F. Mohammad (*) · N. A. A. Rahman Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology (UniKL MIAT), Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Malaysia F. Mayor-Vitoria Department of Economics and Social Science, The Polytechnic University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_9

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among players in the industry to be more competitive, creative, and innovative. From the aspects of inbound tourists, the capability of technology to briefly “tell and guide them” shall make them more appreciative of the speedy arrival of information within their reach. Searching for information is mainly done manually in the past; meanwhile, information is at our fingertips nowadays. Technology offers enormous advantages in managing the tourism industry’s data growth. This chapter propagates the emergence and know-what interest in semantic-based technology that allows shaping tourist decisions in changing the landscape of the tourism industry. Hence, this chapter offers the first step for broader discussion in the future from a different angle of semantic-based technology in the tourism industry, especially in Malaysia. This chapter investigates three main discussion areas that analyse the scenario of tourists’ preference in Malaysia, the emergence of Internet use, and an overview of semantic in web applications. It provides another set of thinking on the future type of web applications to be developed meant for the tourism industry. Moreover, people nowadays are becoming more reliant and dependent on technology to help them decide for their traveling needs. Keywords

Semantic-based technology · Malaysia · Technology · Tourism · Development

Introduction We live in the era of technology, whereby mainly all activities rely on technology’s capabilities. Technology has facilitated organizations’ processes and tasks in improving their efficiency. Today, during the digital era, technologies are no longer confined to facilitating processes and tasks only; instead, more towards driving and strategizing the businesses. During the downfall of dot com companies in the late 1990s, some companies may have failed to sustain their businesses due to various factors. However, the elevating needs for technologies and their advent benefits in facilitating daily life has created more opportunities for its use and application. One example of well-applied technologies is disruptive technologies that innovate and benefit the transportation industry by amending the way people travel nowadays through more reachable, affordable, and transparent services, such as its adoption in the e-hailing services. The tourism industry has developed more information technology (IT) applications, such as “halal” products directory platforms, transportation reservations, accommodation booking, etc. At the outset of web establishment in the 1990s, IT and web services are dominant and apparent in the tourism industry (Werthner & Ricci, 2015). There were various studies in the past discussing the significance of IT applications and tourism industries, such as the relationship between IT in tourism (Jadhav & Mundhe, 2011; Neidhardt & Werthner, 2018), digital revolution in tourism (Pencarelli, 2019), trends of the electronic platform among European tourists (David-Negre et al., 2018), and many others. The use of IT applications is helpful

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for the user to retrieve quick information, but it also becomes a more accessible reference, especially for inbound tourists in any country. The adoption of technology has gradually changed the way people travel and decide their traveling patterns. Centuries back, traveling from one place to another, specifically by air transportation, was costly, thus limiting the number of tourists traveling for longer distances. Nowadays, applications of IT give advantages, facilitate, and shaped how people travel. Tourists have broader and better options to travel within their means and capability based on vast information available on the Internet accessed through their IT devices. Having more explicit and resourceful information about the country they are planning to visit will help them have a more precise traveling plan and be well-prepared. The emergence of semantic-based technology adopted in web applications brightens up another potential determinant of how tourists decide and develop their travel patterns based on the web-based semantic approach’s output.

Tourism Industry in Malaysia Tourism is one of the essential industries of any country globally, including Malaysia. Between 2009 to 2019, the tourism industry in the country recorded more than 23 million international tourist arrivals. The highest number of arrivals, specifically from international tourists, contribute to the growth of the economy and business activities and enhance the local business by improving better facilities and places of attraction in the country. The figure and achievements have put Malaysia among the most prominent tourism sector players within the ASEAN (The Association of Southeast Asian Nations) countries. The tourism industry in Malaysia provides different experiences to tourists of its unique culture, society, and environment. In the context of the tourism segment, three other parts of tourism in Malaysia have a significant effect: leisure tourism, business tourism, and medical tourism; meanwhile, gastronomical tourism shows a considerable influence on a significant level of tourist satisfaction (Konar et al., 2016). Geographically, the strategic location of Malaysia between three other ASEAN countries, such as Singapore, Thailand, and Indonesia, provides an advantage in providing easy access for tourists visiting other countries to enter and visit this country as part of their tour itinerary. Malaysia is also known as multi-cultural, multi-racial, and multi-ethnic, providing a unique experience for the potential international tourists to be part of the most diverse and various cultural environment, which might improve the number of international arrivals. Therefore, by combining multiple elements of tourist attractions in the country, such as the segment of the tourism (medical, leisure, business), the strategic geographical location, and the other cultural and social factors; therefore, the quest for relevant information about the country as well as its places of attractions by the potential tourists. Hence, highlighting the discussion in defining, identifying, and establishing the proper infrastructure to furnish the potential tourists with resourceful information related to tourism comes at the right time.

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Tourist Source of Information IT devices such as smartphones supported by high-speed internet connectivity have become a standard view everywhere during the digital era. Almost every individual was seen on the street, in the office, at school, in the supermarkets, or in public places carrying a smartphone. In the past, the transition of using a phone as communication or messaging tool has evolved to unlimited use of smartphones for daily use, school, or work, such as messaging, capturing video, sharing of information, news reading, and virtually communicating with friends or family and many others. In the context of the tourism industry, the availability and readiness of smartphones to provide related and accurate tourism information (such as attractive places, tips, guides, and directions) do not only facilitate the potential tourists in getting more specific information about the country that they are visiting, but also in elevating or boosting the country’s economy through aggressive and active tourism with the ability to provide relevant individuals or organizations with quick, reliable and valid information quickly. There are only a few approaches used within the tourism industry in searching for information to facilitate their decision to select places of destination to spend their time or holiday for various tourism objectives, despite the use of IT devices as a primary source of information searching. Nonetheless, tourists use several information sources to get information before they arrive in the country. There was limited data available due to the inadequate supporting facilities and avenues to search for information in the past. However, the advent of technology has improved how getting information has become much more accessible and convenient. The highest percentage of the types of information sources tourists use to get information before visiting the country is ‘word-of-mouth’ through friends and relatives who visited the country earlier. At the percentage of 83.30% (Jan-Sept 2018) and 97.60% (Jan-Sept 2019), tourists seek information before visiting the country based on their referrals from friends and relatives who have seen the country before (Tourism Malaysia, 2019a). Acquiring information based on referrals from those who have visited the land provides them with first-hand, more reliable, passionate, and flexible information sharing. The effectiveness of this method has seen that most the electronic commerce (e-commerce) or e-marketplace website is equipped with the review functions to provide first-hand information from the past customer experiences. The review function is vital for other potential new customers to get first-hand knowledge. Meanwhile, different types of reviews made and available online by customer offers vary in influencing consumer attitudes towards the review; whereby positive reviews significantly affect other customers’ intention to buy the product, followed by either natural or negative reviews made (Wang et al., 2015). In addition to the referrals acquired from friends, relatives, and own-self experiences, tourists also had a higher interest in relying on information provided on the Internet as the sources of information (in seeking and searching for traveling information). Moreover, there is a positive increase in information seeking by tourists through the Internet from year to year. These factors have caught up to the thinking that apart from relying on the Internet, there is a trend inclined towards dependence on direct information or review from other people who have prior experiences of places visited. For example, looking into the currently available

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e-commerce and e-market platform features has shown that the past user reviews and products are embedded in the application to offer more transparent information, real input, and feedback. Hence, opting for IT-based internet applications would help boost the country’s potential number of incoming tourists. Products and services factors contribute to better utilization of customerrelated products and services (such as e-hailing services), and their characteristics (such as vehicle conditions and their safety) influence customer demand based on Characteristics Demand Theory (CDT) (Ooi et al., 2020). It is attractive to witness the increase of statistics on Internet usage in seeking tourism information based on honest reviews of past tourists incorporated in the development of any tourism-based IT application. Most of the currently available tourism-based IT applications such as airlines’ website, travel booking sites, travel agencies sites, and e-commerce platforms have already incorporated this feature.

Tourists Spending Pattern In shaping the infrastructure and pattern of tourists’ preferences, it is imperative to understand and analyse the spending pattern of incoming tourists to the country. Understanding their spending pattern will provide a better overview and exposure to the tour provider in the country to be more focused on offering products or services that match the tourists’ fundamental interests. In Malaysia, ten products are classified as niche tourism attractions and activities such as shopping, birding, golfing, cruising, diving, angling, yachting, bike tourism, wedding and honeymoon, and local homestay experiences (Tourism Malaysia, 2019b). Categorizing types of spending pattern information among tourists can assist tourism content providers in providing more specific data related to tourists’ preferences – options for selection of locations (such as shopping malls, night markets, information on shopping promotions, and discounts), accommodation provider directories (such as hotels, homestays, and hostels), understanding different types and needs of tourists, diversities of food selection, beverages, and many others. The high and low amount of tourist expenditure types, volume, and share can depict the spending pattern of tourists based on the value of the expenditure spent. The three top most expenditure types spent by tourists in Malaysia have shown that shopping activities are recorded as the highest types of spending, followed by accommodation, food, and beverages (Tourism Malaysia, 2019). Although the value and share of percentage from shopping activities are upward (from 32.90% in 2018 to 35.20% in 2019), information also shows stagnant preference in terms of primary shopping locations among tourists. Major cities such as Kuala Lumpur City Center, Johor Bharu (in the southern part of the country), the Historical Malacca City, Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) Terminal 1 and 2, and Kota Kinabalu (in the East part of the country) are some of the most visited cities by the international tourists. Even though Malaysia is a unique country because of its multi-cultural, multi-racial, and multi-ethnic states, there are not many changes in terms of the tourist’s location preference. Therefore, the general information of the other areas of interest (in addition to the

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above list of sites) shall be highlighted and improvised, performed through IT devices, applications, or systems built.

Tourist and Tourism Industry Tourists refer to those traveling and staying out of their familiar places for not more than one year for various purposes such as vacation, business trips, and others. The tourism industry majorly relies on the volume of incoming visitors and tourists to their respective countries. An influx of tourists mobilizes the countries’ “cogs and wheel” economy, including Malaysia. Businesses can undeniably be economically and positively impacted by increasing tourists in the tourism industry, especially in the inbound market. Many tourists provide fresh and healthy growth to the local economy, directly or indirectly, impacting relevant sectors such as the hotel industry, transportation, healthcare industry, etc. Figure 9.1 indicates three existing layers within the tourism market structure involving the consumers’ (tourists), DMO, Planners & Administration (NTO outlets, Government bodies, RTO, LTO), intermediaries (travel agents, tour operators, CRS/GDS, hotel chain) and suppliers (primary supplier, airlines and other means

Fig. 9.1 Structure of tourism market (source: Drosos et al., 2017) Notes: (a) DMO (destination marketing/management organization) (b) NTO (national tourist organization) (c) LTO (local tourism organization) (d) RTO (regional tourism organization) (e) CRS/GDS (computer reservation system/global distribution system)

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of transportation). The above figure describes the delivery interaction between tourists and the tourism industry supplier through various channels and agencies. IT Web applications and mobile applications extensively facilitate the transaction (front-end and back-end) and are used by tourists in seeking information related to tourist places and their attractions. Enabling businesses and services using IT applications provides several benefits, such as a quick update on the latest news, minimizing administrative processes and human interaction, and assisting native language tourists and local operators in performing transactions via multilingual websites. In the digital era, where most activities use IT, fewer transactions and processes are performed and communicated face to face or manually through a direct approach. In the situation where there are familiarity issues in communicating between the foreign tourists and local operators through currently established communication channels, there is a need for a dedicated mechanism and approach to ease the processes.

The Landscape of Internet Use and Its Trends in Malaysia The use of IT devices such as mobile phones or laptops (either in accessing social media, replying to messages through internet-based applications, playing online games, or even watching online movies) during the digital era is optimum. Understanding these internet users’ natures, trends, and patterns is imperative. In the emergence of Industrial Revolution 4.0 (IR 4.0), Internet-connected mobile devices have become the Internet of Things (IoT) devices producing vast amounts of data and information; IT applications and devices have become necessary. There is a relationship between tourists’ characteristics and information searching behaviour (Luo et al., 2004). For example, higher-income male tourists are likely to become heavy Internet users; likewise, tourists staying in hotels are more likely to use the Internet to search for information. Tourism marketers shall investigate this factor and take advantage by marketing their tourism products close to the characteristics of potential tourists (Luo et al., 2004). Ooi, Lim, and Fernandez (2020) had also suggested that to increase the number of e-hailing passengers on Penang Island due to the language barrier, providing multi-language e-hailing applications can be one of the solutions to address the issue. On average, total hours spent by internet users per day are on an increasing trend. There should be a vast increase in mobile devices (smartphones and tablets) usage due to the growing number of mobile device ownership and use worldwide. More entities or premises performed their businesses or day-to-day operations online. Therefore, computer desktop or laptop use is also relatively consistent.

Internet Users in Malaysia The total number of global internet users has amounted to 4.8 billion worldwide. In comparing the world’s internet users against the total population of 7.9 billion

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people as of 2022 (Current World Population, 2022), the number of internet users against the world population had exceeded more than 60%. Implications from this vast percentage of internet users make it more challenging for the content provider and applications developer to provide applications that suit the needs and relevant content. On the other side, it has excellent potential for developing and offering more intelligent and autonomous web applications shaped by the vast number of internet users and their online preferences. Meanwhile, the number of Internet users in Malaysia has exponentially increased from 76.9 percent (2016) to 87.4 percent (2018) (Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission, 2018).

Devices, Sites, and Applications Accessed by Internet Users in Malaysia The public (or tourists) uses IT devices to retrieve and search for information in accessing information online. Common types of devices used to access information connecting through the Internet include smartphones, mobile laptops, desktop computers, featured phones, and computer tablets; of late, more advanced devices are widely used, such as intelligent television and smartwatch. Most of the devices used by internet users are smartphones, mobile laptops, desktop computers, tablets, smart tv, featured phones, TV streaming boxes, game consoles, and smartwatches, which corresponds with devices used by the current users globally while accessing the Internet. More advanced technical capabilities and increasing processing power of modern devices nowadays offer fewer alternatives for users in choosing entry-level devices with lower capacity and capabilities. Thus, in planning for the development of application in the future, the application provider must consider this as one of their driving factors in developing Web or mobile application that fits the preference of devices used by internet users in Malaysia.

Types of Online Activities Accessed by Internet Users in Malaysia Types of online activities performed are analysed to understand the pattern of internet users in Malaysia based on the top entities’ pages accessed by internet users in Malaysia. Understanding the types of activities performed shall offer the provider (tourism or content developer for the systems) to understand the character and behaviour of Internet users among tourists. Data shows that the highly accessed pages (entities) by internet users in Malaysia are Google sites; in fact, Google sites is the most popular site accessed by European tourists (David-Negre et al., 2018). Technically, the Google search engine that Internet users widely use facilitates searching for more accurate information through linking and adopting various semantic technologies. The top three activities performed online by tourists are text communication, visiting social networking websites, and searching for

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information, which can be supported and accessed by using Google search engines and social media applications (such as Facebook). This result shows tendencies on users’ compatibility with the nature of applications such as Google and Facebook. The above summarizes that Malaysia has also experienced an enormous expansion of internet users. Simultaneously, the above discussion assisted in defining the trends and patterns of internet usage in Malaysia that acknowledge the considerable contribution of internet usage in Malaysia that is coming from the use of web applications.

Semantic-Based Technology Semantic technology is “an extension of the current web in which information is well-defined meaning, better-enabling computers and people to work in cooperation” (Semantic Web, 2015). The technology has been used and adopted in developing web applications such as search engine web. The focus of semantic-based technology is to provide a meaningful description and better interpret information search by users. Web application such as search engine website receives millions of information and data from users that require better interpretation of data keyed in that provides most accurate information needed by users. With the use of semantic technology, web application becomes intelligent-based application. The semantic web idea has been deliberated since a century ago (see Fig. 9.2). After more than a century, the landscape of web applications scope has changed. To some point, the semantic use of the Web provides context to the information available on the website. The area of the information supplied in web applications focuses more on delivering content (static text and images) than contextual-based information. The earlier beginning of Web development only supported non-interactive communication among users within the application; over time, the scope of the Web application has emerged and expanded widely from providing static content only. The idea of web application developed sometime in the early 2000 is to allow more interactive communication between the application and the web users. During this time, web application becomes more interactive so that users can communicate and interact through the application. In more straightforward terminology, the advantage of semantic technology embedded in most web applications such as search engines allows an effortless experience for internet users searching for information. The edge of semantic technology is more towards providing the meaning of data (by linking the sense of data) instead of an individual syntax of data or information keyed in by internet users. Moreover, with the emergence of Industrial Revolution 4.0 (IR4.0), it is expected that future technology will become more autonomous. From the web application context, there were initiatives to drive and move forward the ‘intelligence features’ and capability in providing thinking ability for the application by adding the artificial intelligence components. The purpose of semantic web development, among others, is to provide a platform consisting of intelligent agents in web services (Kanellopoulos, 2006).

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Fig. 9.2 Web expansion timeline (source: Tromp et al., 2018)

Application of Semantic Web IT application has become a necessary tool within the tourism industry, especially for tourists seeking information before traveling. More and more industry players in aviation, such as airlines and airports, have embarked on using technology in most of their front-end services to the passenger, such as self-check-in counter, web booking, tracking airline details, and many others. Some airlines have introduced an automated knowledge-based system for communicating and receiving queries from passengers on their websites to a certain extent. The use of the semantic approach combined with ontologies of tourism or selection of tourism benefited tourists in assisting them in making a more effective selection and decision for their traveling needs (Kanellopoulos, 2006). The initiative to embed the semantic approach in the web application induced several benefits by allowing integration of the whole tourism ecosystem (with more connected stakeholders), the supportability of cross-platform for full-fledge flexibility, and more specialized and personalized information designed for the targeted tourists (Kanellopoulos, 2006). The initiative to embed the semantic approach is achievable, as stated in a study by Maedche and Staab (2002). The semantic Web applications shall comprise semantic search, semantic portal, semantic electronic markets, and transactional web services. Figure 9.3 above shows the process flow of information seeking and retrieving by internet users or tourists through web applications such as search engines or web portals. For seeking information, users expect to get resourceful and beneficial information that shall assist them in better planning of traveling. In most cases, users use web-based applications to help them seek information related to their target places, such as accommodation, areas of interest, and other supporting facilities such

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Fig. 9.3 Schematic drawing of semantic Web use (source: drawn by the authors, 2020)

as transportation, currency exchange, etc. In European countries, using web-based applications used by tourists to seek information has become necessary. Out of four applications related to tourism identified, Google has become the essential gateway for tourists seeking traveling information (David-Negre et al., 2018).

Semantic Web Components The development and adoption of semantic web architectures in several industries have attracted interest from several studies in the past. Studies by Amalia and Angriani (2019), Agarwal and Jain (2018), and Gerber, Van Der Merwe, and Barnard (2008), for instance, have laid out several components that make up the architecture of the semantic Web consisting of the following as shown in Table 9.1. The flow of connectivity between components used in the tourism context shows in Fig. 9.4 below: Figure 9.4 above shows the architecture diagram of semantic components flow in addressing low tourism spots identification issues in North Sumatra (Amalia & Angriani, 2019). A broader description of semantic relationships is achievable by deploying ontology schema in ontology languages such as OWL. Therefore, there should be a more meaningful description of representation terms within the sequence of XML and RDF. In developing the semantic web application to provide optimized searching capabilities for the Web, Amalia and Angriani (2019) classified the development of the Web into five components: scraping process, conversion to XML format, conversion to RDF, development of the ontology, and interface. Scraping is extracting related information from other websites or sources and generating the data into an HTML format page. Keywords were developed and produced in the earlier scraping process from an HTML page converting from HTML to XML.

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Table 9.1 Semantic Web Architecture Components (source: adapted from Agarwal & Jain, 2018; Amalia & Angriani, 2019; Gerber et al., 2008) Components Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs)

XML (Extensible Mark-up Language)

Resource Description Framework (RDF) Web Ontology Language (OWL) Web Ontology Language (OWL)

Definition and purpose The purpose of this component is to provide standardized syntax identified in the Web and repository. It is digital that allows interaction between users and resources through Web browsers and Web services Developed a semantic Web language to address issues and challenges of the large scale of publication in electronic. Useful in elevating the essential roles of varieties of data on Web A data representation model defined by W3C to provide a representation of information in Web which based on syntax. A semantic Web language developed in representing comprehensive information, knowledge, and its relation Specification of items’ properties, relationships, and primary features explicitly deliberated using standard computerized drawing

WWW

Convert to XML

Scraping

generate keyword Other Sources

HTML

Convert to RDF

Sources Clark (2013)

Extensible Markup Language (2016)

Agarwal and Jain (2018), W3C Semantic Web (2014) W3C Semantic Web (2012) Mora et al. (2010)

Ontology

Classification

Interface

1. Determine domain 2. Determine class & sub class 3. Determine properties 4. Determine individual

Subject, predicate & object

Fig. 9.4 Diagram Architecture of Semantic Components flow (source: adapted from Amalia & Angriani, 2019)

The readable XML language format converted to RDF format consists of three elements; which are subject (representation of URI), predicate (uses properties to connect to subject and object), and object (which is URI or literal). The last stage is creating an interface for users to search and seek information related to their primary objective.

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Technology and Tourism Industry in Malaysia Among tourists, the availability and non-availability of internet connectivity influenced the use of technology (Tanti & Buhalis, 2017). Nowadays, many providers have offered more affordable data roaming plans for outbound tourists to accommodate their internet connectivity needs. However, the costs of accessing the Internet, such as subscribing to internet roaming facilities in foreign countries, are still considered high. Moreover, any inconsistent and unstable condition of internet connectivity may also affect the traveling pattern; since as a tourist, the needs for Internet is crucial as they need to ensure (1) availability of required or booked facilities, (2) seamless communication between tourist and their homeland, (3) their capabilities in acquiring quick information, (4) refer to past reviews and (5) planning for time to be spent certain places (Tanti & Buhalis, 2017). In addition to the reliability and availability factor of internet connectivity, web applications influence the use of the Internet by the tourists help’s (Heijden, 2003). Intention to use is one of the constructs adopted from the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) that defines the importance of ensuring that the tourist widely uses the Web. Among the significant e-commerce merchant segments in Malaysia, the travel segment is more accessed than other segments such as consumer electronics furniture and household goods, clothes and apparel, and food, health and beauty. Meanwhile, three sectors (transport sector, accommodation sector, and attraction sector) classified the technology application within the tourism industry (Jadhav & Mundhe, 2011). The affected industry within the transport sector involves industry players such as car rental services, train services, and airline companies. Airlines and train passengers make their ticket reservations and purchase online without being physically present at the station. The emergence of disruptive technologies in electronic hailing (e-hailing) services also allows tourists to make a prior selection of transportation that provides them wiser options and consideration in terms of better prices, better location, and better facilities. Alongside disruptive technologies in transportation such as e-hailing services, the accommodation industry, such as hotels, hostels, and homestays, are also appearing their services and visibility through e-platform services. Furthermore, the advancement of IT within the industry has become the primary driver of innovation (Werthner & Ricci, 2015). The above has highlighted the crucial role of technology in facilitating the industry. The study conducted by Jadhav and Mundhe (2011) has derived several related areas that can be affected by the Internet, apart from the affected area within the tourism industry due to technological advance. The study suggested that the use of the Internet in the tourism industry for marketing, as a purchasing system, reservation or booking system, and as a means for viewing and retrieving tourists’ feedback is widely used. It has become a great tool and medium for improving the industry. In a recent update, a study conducted on technologies used in tourism in European countries discovered a tendency to use social media (David-Negre et al., 2018). European tourists used four leading electronic platforms to assist them in searching for travel information, such as Google, Booking, Trip Advisor, and Facebook, connected to other 50 websites as part of the co-marketing. The study

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outcome indicates that the Google search engine has become the main gateway for European tourists to get and seek travel information. The Internet has become necessary in accommodating the need for searching for information for tourists, primarily through social media such as Google and Facebook (Amaro & Duarte, 2017; David-Negre et al., 2018). The ability to access tour destinations gradually increased subject to the availability of the Internet. This scenario allows efficient access to wireless Internet (Wi-Fi networks) and fasterobtaining data and information (Pencarelli, 2019). Pencarelli (2019) also addressed the non-capability of tourists to acquire data while traveling as one of the issues and challenges commonly faced by tourists.

Semantic Web as Recommender Tools in the Tourism Industry Semantic technology is embedded in web applications primarily to enable more intelligent web applications for more accurate search results. In the tourism industry, the use of recommendation capabilities such as the Recommender System (RS) can ease the decision-making process for tourists in searching for information related to their travel destinations (Sertkan et al., 2018). RS refers to the type of tools, techniques, or approaches of computer-based technology to predict and provide users with suggestions (Kzaz et al., 2018). The capabilities of the semantic process are proven to provide more accurate information searched for a tourist information system (Cao & Nguyen, 2012). Cao and Nguyen (2012) depict that the ontology of information searching preferences embedded with a semantic approach carries the advantage of improving tourist search capabilities. The semantic approach model developed is Semantic Tourism information Access and Recommending (STAAR). It facilitated the integration and reuse of data from sources and translated those into more representable order. Since decision making for tourists is complicated (in juggling between accommodating their wants and needs), thus providing for web applications need to have a mechanism to allow them to make much easier decisions (Sertkan et al., 2018). Kzaz, Dakhchoune, and Dahab (2018) outlines three areas of consideration in the development of RS by identifying its approach and establishment of the data model as listed below:

Identification of Approach (Classical Approach and Non-classical Approach) Two categories defined RS approaches: classical approach (comprises collaborative filtering, content-based filtering, and discussion) and non-classical approach (includes the personalized approach, context-aware, and ontology-based). In the classical approach, collaborative filtering refers to the situation whereby the systems refer to the similar context of information searched by users; content-based filtering refers to the specific content searched and retrieved by the users. However, a few limitations in the study highlight each filtering process’s nature. For instance, the collaborative filter is quite hard to execute as it compares content with other similar

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types of tourists, which is quite challenging to find. At the same time, a vast number of users needed to improve the effectiveness of content-based filtering. Hence, efforts to allow more users to access the Web to utilize more accurate information. In the non-classical approach, three approaches have been defined, used, and suggested for RS implementation: personalization, context-aware, and ontology. For example, RS’s context-aware system can provide more accurate information to tourists with the information needed by adopting context-aware tools such as the localization element.

Establishment of the Data Model Data model establishment in the development of RS is necessary to provide an absolute recommendation to users and the proper structure of the system. The establishment of a data model comprises two essential data: user data and item data. Managing user data involves the data collection process, constructing user profiles, and developing their profile. These processes are crucial as the effectiveness of RS is defined by the accuracy of user data information fed into the system. Part of the data model establishment involves defining item data for the system as the attributes or properties of travel details recommended to the tourist out from RS. Table 9.2 indicates several past studies conducted on developing semantic web-based recommendation systems. Most studies adopted the ontology and context-aware approach in establishing RS. Be that as it may, most studies suggest for more comprehensive study related to the types of data used (Sertkan et al., 2018), a more comprehensive context-aware approach (Bentaleb et al., 2018; Cao & Nguyen, 2012), and also more extensive ontology (Cao & Nguyen, 2012) (Table 9.2).

The Need for Semantic Technology for the Tourism Industry in Malaysia The use of semantic-based technology applications in supporting and enhancing technology platforms specifically for a web-based platform is not new. As discussed earlier, many initiatives and efforts have been established and initiated in several cases. Statistics have shown that smartphone and semantic-based websites recorded the highest number of access and usage among visitors in Malaysia. Massive and aggressive use of technology is globally implemented, such as e-commerce and websites. There is a great potential opportunity to understand and investigate how the technology commonly embedded within web applications is beneficial to shaping and strategizing Malaysia’s tourism industry landscape. One type of developed RS is the STAAR model to assist tourists in deciding whether to accommodate their choice of selection as wants or needs. Semantic technology built the RS in web applications. Furthermore, massive information available on the Internet that tourists’ access may not be related to their interests and assist them in achieving their traveling objectives. This scenario can be happened due to the different purposes of traveling goals among tourists. There are

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Table 9.2 Semantic-based technology and web recommendation in tourism industry (source: adapted from various past studies by the researcher) Objective To develop an automated matching system for tourism destination and recommendation system (RSS)

Findings Determining tourism destinations’ can be done based on mapping of seven-factor representation model attributes with RSS

To establish a semantic approach for information searching and generating travel itineraries in addressing the overload of information

Development of Web-based platform supporting loyal tourists within the tourism ecosystem culture

Establishment of Semantic Tourist Information Access and Recommending (STAAR) system offer advantage to the tourism industry in Hanoi by: (i) Incorporating ontology (ii), More user-friendly function, high accuracy, and preciseness of information search features The adoption of RDF/OWL has proven effective in allowing users to search for any information regardless of keywords searching or based on syntax The use of the semantic approach in RS is more remarkable as compared to other system approaches

Establish brief review on recommender system for the tourism industry

The context-aware recommendation system comprises the user, item,

To develop a semanticbased Web for North Sumatra Tourist sports to enable a comprehensive searching system

Suggestion To accommodate more comprehensive study to address the needs of complex tourism industry such as: (i) Use of more complex data (ii) Expand the sample set (iii) Development of aggregation model To extend the STAAR system by focusing on the context of guiding tourists’ mobile To extend the ontology implemented to other tour products and services

Author Sertkan et al. (2018)

Cao and Nguyen (2012)

N/A

Amalia and Angriani (2019)

The future system shall: (i) Extend the artificial intelligence (AI) recommender system to allow for an independent system (ii) Extend techniques of text summarization (iii) Investigate the use of specific customer relationship management (CRM) tools to detect any trend in the website with the planned itinerary To explore other types of CARS in tourism and provide the testing on its

ColomoPalacios et al. (2017)

Bentaleb et al. (2018) (continued)

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Table 9.2 (continued) Objective

Review of several recommender systems approaches

Findings

Suggestion

destination, time, location, social network activities, and condition of weather The classification of RS development into two parts: defining approaches adopted and establishing

applicability and usefulness

Model of semantic approaches that focuses on features and attributes that accurately match tourists’ profile (i.e., differentiate recommendation between suitable places for family and single)

Author

Kzaz et al. (2018)

several purposes and reasons for tourists’ visits to Malaysia, such as holiday purposes, visiting friends and relatives, shopping, medical tourism, business purposes, meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions (MICE), education and studying, and post-wedding holiday. Earlier discussions derive higher preferences and tendencies among tourists’ interest in using smartphones and semantic-based websites while traveling – to search for information and help them make decisions. Thus, it indicates the effective use of semantic technology within the tourism industry. A survey conducted among 482 tourists in Langkawi indicated that the composition of visitors (of local and foreign nationals) visiting the island comprises 187 first time visitors or 38.8 percent, and 295 repeat visitors or 61.2 percent, had described different interests and preferences among the groups (Wahid et al., 2016). As a result of the study, there is a distinct preference among repeat visitors who spend their time longer during their holiday period than first-time visitors who tend to spend less time on the island. Therefore, the same study has suggested developing different marketing programs among different categories of visitors; the particular focus needs to be emphasized on their preferences, especially for repeat visitors to appreciate their loyalty. In other perspectives, RS (one of the semantic technology applications) has helped the industry better understand tourists’ interests and preferences. Identifying and understanding the profile of customers will help the industry boost and improve the number of attractions. Hence, enabling technology that allows tourists to appreciate their own needs based on their prior experience and preferences shall assist them in getting to the suitable attractions’ places, cities of interest, eateries, shops, or shopping areas in Malaysia. The use of technology allows better planning and organization among DMOs, planners, and administration (such as travel agents, tour operators, and hotel chains) to provide the most suitable and related travel offerings and packages to their inbound tourists (Wahid et al. 2016). Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 9.1, entities such as DMOs, planners, and administration have interacted directly with the tourists

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in the tourism market structure. Therefore, the development of semantic-based technology applications can lead tourists and guide them in creating their traveling planning and itineraries according to their preferences. Statistics have shown that there is a considerable number of tourists from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) countries, which majority of the countries under the cooperation are Muslim countries (Henderson, 2016). Moreover, Malaysia is the most active Muslim majority country promoted as the halal hub center, specifically in the Asia region since 1974. Three categories classified Muslim tourists based on their regularities: less-practicing, practicing, and strictly practicing Muslims (Mastercard & Crescentrating, 2018). The same report also ranked the preferences of Muslim tourists into four areas (see Fig. 9.5). The two most significant criteria related to this topic are the presence of digital devices and unique experiences. Furthermore, the total spending of Muslim tourists is forecasted to gradually increase to USD 300 million in the year 2026 as compared to USD 25 million in the year 2000. Hence, it is impressive enough for the industry player to start aggressively looking into fulfilling the tourists’ present needs. Figure 9.5 shows the tendency among tourists for searching of information through digital devices related to Muslims’ core needs (such as the best and the nearest halal food provider, nearest places for observing prayer, selection of Muslim attractions places either modern or traditional buildings up to the choices of most affordable transportation to bring them elsewhere). The establishment of semantic technology will drive tourists’ selection based on the information that matches their preferences, hence requirements for the industry player to be able to provide the most

Outreach

Easier communication

Presence of digital

Communication Culture & safety

Visa Transport infrastructure

Access

Preferences of Muslim Tourists

Environment

Arrival of visitors Enabling climate

Air connectivity Services

Core Needs

Core Services

Unique experiences

Fig. 9.5 Muslim tourists’ preference (source: Mastercard & Crescentrating, 2018)

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preferred options to them. The closest example of the heavily used semantic-based web applications is Google.com. Although Google.com can assist them in seeking information, the typical searching function commonly returns a higher number of results adding to several complexities. For instance, keyword searches on “halal restaurants” returned 124 million results. Establishing more semantic-based technology makes a better system to recommend the right places and attractions to suitable tourists. It not only changes how the travel industry reacts but also helps the industry player and supplier better understand the needs and wants of the whole stakeholders of the organization—pushing the advantage of the system and pulling them with proper infrastructure determined the future scenario of the tourism.

Conclusion This chapter has brought to the reader’s attention the emergence and impact of semantic technology in a web-based application that affects how tourists decide and plan for their trip destination. Firstly, based on the above discussion, a significant massive number of active internet users use technology to search for more information. In many cases, the majority of tourists rely on the Internet either in searching for information, facilitating their communication, or assisting them in finding the best place and recommended place to visit. Semantic technology allows web applications to provide a more meaningful representation of information for users searching for information. For example, various applications have used the geolocation features to recommend to users the nearby places or regularly visited by other users based on the searching history of web searching by the users. Secondly, the standard approach used by semantic Web is a context-aware approach that intelligently defines the similarity of tourist concerns with other users accessing a similar web application such as a search engine. Meanwhile, the application of semantic Web in the tourism industry has seen that more studies have helped benefit the sector by establishing semantic Web as a recommender to the tourists. Thirdly, the report has shown that inbound tourists in Malaysia are more comfortable getting their first-hand information directly from those who have experienced visiting the country. Considering that semantic technology suggests a more meaningful and more accessible representation of data to internet users thus, tourism stakeholders must emphasize the need to pour in their business information and details to be easily and quickly accessible to their prospective customers (among the tourists).

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Part V Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Tourist Experience

The Impact of Technology Applications in Tourists’ Experiences

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Concept of Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Elements of Psychological, Economic, and Sociological Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Psychological Basis of Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Economic Basis of Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sociological Basis of Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experiential Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experiential Value Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pine and Gilmore’s Experiential Value Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schmitt’s Experiential Value Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aho’s Experiential Value Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Stages of Customer Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consumption Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Product Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Service Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tourism/Tourist Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Impact of Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virtual Reality (VR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Augmented Reality (AR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gamification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommender Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Tourists have been progressively in quest of experiences. Because tourism is a field based upon the phenomenon of experiencing, tourist experience is exposing constant change qualified by increasing significance of consumer involvement, S. Yetimoğlu (*) Faculty of Tourism, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_10

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co-creation, and the application of technology these days. The most effective impact on tourist experiences is related to the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) that are growing day by day. Thus, emerging technologies in recent years significantly change the dynamic nature of the tourist experience. As consumers met digital technologies, they became very knowledgeable and accessed information faster. Today, tourists who have adopted modern tourism are replaced with classical tourists, and contemporary tourist experiences create a fundamental change. At this point, ICTs play a major and catalyst role and constitute peerless contingencies for tourist experience creation and enhancement. The contribution of technology to tourist or consumer experiences is a gospel truth in this era, and it is thought that this theoretical research will become more of an issue for tourism and hospitality literature. Keywords

Tourist experience · Smart tourism experience · Information and communication technologies (ICTs) · Co-creation · Tourism · Hospitality industry

Introduction The world has been changing rapidly, and the impact of this change is felt in all areas of life. Businesses and individuals are now becoming part of this change and trying to adapt their business models into this change. Today, business models in almost every sector and field vary according to the demands and needs of the market. Technology, globalization, and demographics are seen as the three main reasons for this change. These three important elements are expected to cause shocking mega-trends that will directly affect today’s companies globally. Companies wishing to survive and grow are required to be aware of these factors and adapt to the changing order. Especially in professional services, thanks to technological developments such as ongoing transformation, artificial intelligence, robotics, virtual reality and blockchain, many sectors alter their ways of working. Companies that continue to adopt traditional ways are overshadowed by change, unable to evaluate transformation opportunities and losing competitive advantages over their competitors. These factors affecting all sectors also deeply affect the tourism sector (Griffin et al., 2017) and create new trends. The speed development of information and communication technologies (ICTs) introduced the traditional tourism concept to the concept of smart tourism and smart technologies started to be broadly used in the tourism sector (Kuo-Pai et al., 2020). With the integration of technology with sectors, companies work to provide the best experience to their customers by mixing virtual and physical (Breidbach et al., 2014). Organizing the new generation’s travels and tours through online platforms, travel plans suitable for all ages, adventurethemed excursions for tourists they haven’t done before, special trips for women, sustainable and nature-harmless tourism, and gastronomic-oriented excursions stand out as just some of these new trends.

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Along with these developments, the tourism world has turned to digital transformation, using tools such as personalized experience, data-driven approach, multichannel customer experience, real-time marketing, mobile integration, messaging platforms and chatbots, artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things, and virtual reality in its operations and benefiting from its positive impact on business results. Depending on the way they travel and the digital trends taking place in the tourism sector, the expectations of today’s world tourists are also changing. Tourism customers now expect their own unique experiences and solutions and wish to both inspire other travelers for their own travels and others with the shares they make. On the other hand, in doing all this, the tourists want to be mobile and accessible before, during, and after travel, but they also expect easy and quick solutions from the tourism companies they receive services from. In order to meet all these expectations, tourism companies need to design the experience they offer in line with the approaches that center on their customers not the products and services. So as to be a part of the tourist experience, being known to the customer and communicating healthily with the customer become important for tourism industry stakeholders. Traditional advertising and marketing tools frequently used by tourism companies are now highly digitized due to the increasing use of smartphones, the Internet, and social media, and digital marketing techniques have become essential in their customers’ relationships. Developments in the Internet and technology world facilitate access to data not only for tourism companies but also for their customers. Easy access to multiple options in a short time lowers the loyalty of customers to the brand. Ensuring the correct and full integration of information tools with physical infrastructure improves the quality of life of tourists, increases mobility, and ensures the sustainability and regular distribution of resources. With the use of technology in tourist activities, tourist movements can be observed with simultaneous data collected from tourists, and personalized products and services can be offered. Smart technologies that make up an imitation of the real world make it possible to experience destinations, hotels, restaurants, and similar destinations without going and change the way of promotion and marketing of services in tourism sector.

The Concept of Experience Toward the end of the twentieth century, the concept of experience became an increasingly outstanding concept in the field of marketing. However, the concept of experience, which was first recorded in the 1960s, was a highly ambiguous term that expresses a particular formation in a person’s daily life. Holbrook and Hirschman’s (1982) work opened new horizons, and the concept of experience entered the marketing literature. The experience, called “experience” in the English literature, is a complex concept to understand. Although there are many explanations for the experience, a definition accepted by all researchers is not yet available (Jurowski, 2009). According to Bostancı (2007), experience can be defined as

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knowledge or skill accumulation acquired through active participation in activities or comprehension of object, thought, or behavior through the channel of emotions. Experience is described as an event that was attended by people acquired from the logical, emotional, and other experiences (Aho, 2001); fun, interesting, and unforgettable memories consumption (Oh et al., 2007); and consumer environment, a combination of products and services (Lewis & Chambers, 2000); private and important having more quality than quantity (Mannell, 1984); and unique, memorable, sustainable, repeated by explaining, with enthusiasm, and word of mouth promotion that can be applied for experiences (Pine & Gilmore, 1998, 2011). Pine and Gilmore (2011) also states that experience is a product that occurs when the business consciously uses its services as props and its goods as decor and accessories to attract the attention of customers at the business level. Experiences can be defined as a combination of physical activities, mobilized senses, and emotions (Shaw, 2007). While Hoch (2002) remarks the experience as the observation of life action and events, as well as the sum of knowledge and skills acquired after training, Chang and Chieng (2006) state that the experience was a special event that occurred in response to stimuli. Sensory stimulants accompanying the experience need to assist and strengthen the theme. The more an experience appeals to the senses, the more memorable it becomes (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). For example, memories or everything that happens is an experience. Information obtained from the outside through the sensory organs and from the inside through emotions is also called experience. Experience means living in the broadest sense, because life itself is experience. It’s the experience of events that have somehow been called out to the sensory organs, everything that people go through (Batı, 2013). O’Sullivan and Spangler (1998) emphasize experience with the participation of the individual during consumption, especially as their combination with physical, spiritual, emotional, social, or mental elements. Gupta and Vajic (1999) state that the experience is the perceptions and information generated by the consumer as a result of consumer interaction with different items created by the service provider. Experiences are triggered by unusual events, creating a high level of emotion intensity (Arnould & Price, 1993). For this reason, human beings are constantly looking for new and exciting experiences to learn, grow, thrive, competence, and undergo repair and correction (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). Generally, direct observation or participation in real, virtual, or dreamy activities results in experience. The experience is more intense and more impressive than training. As the experience appeals to multiple senses, it is much more permanent in memory. This is especially valid for tasting, hearing, and smell experiences. The experience also generates the lasting memory benefits that the individual chooses and creates. The experience itself is not material. But people value experiences greatly, and that value remains in the individual’s memory for a long time. Pine and Gilmore (1999) classified the experience as intrinsic and personal. Experience occurs within the person at an emotional, physical, intellectual, and even spiritual level. Two people never have the same experience at the same time. Each experience is the product of the interaction between the staged event and the physical and mental state of the person

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at the time. At the same time, experiences create additional values by enabling consumers to engage and participate in relationships in a personal and memorable way (Ural, 2009).

The Elements of Psychological, Economic, and Sociological Experience Experience is based on psychological, economic, and sociological foundations. Abraham Maslow and Csikszentmihalyi have suggested in their work that selfactualization and optimum experience are unique and rememberable events and that sub-needs must be addressed in order to gain an experience. Stamboulis and Skayannis (2003) state that the experience was shaped by one’s past lives, values, behaviors, and beliefs. In this context, the concept of experience can be detailed by examining the psychological, economic, and sociological basis of the experience.

Psychological Basis of Experience Psychological basis of experience can be based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. Ryan and Deci (2000) suggest that the needs are due to the desire to acquire the need and experience, along with mediating the psychological basis of the experience. Maslow, in his theory of what he called the “hierarchy of needs,” states that the needs are in a hierarchical order and that the higher level needs must be addressed after meeting the lower level of needs. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory classifies motivation in the context of needs and associates motivational theory in the context of needs and behaviors (Wahba & Lawrence, 1976). Oral (2005) states that Maslow had examined the theory of the hierarchy of needs in the title of scope theories, which are motivational theories. According to Maslow’s theory of the hierarchy of needs, needs are divided into five as physiological, safety, belonging, and the need for self-realization with love, appreciation, and respect (Dereli, 1995). Figure 10.1 shows Maslow’s hierarchy of physiological, safety, belonging, and the need for self-realization with love, appreciation, and respect (Dereli, 1995). The theory has been developed by adding aesthetic needs such as beauty, fashion, art, etc. with knowing and understanding aesthetic needs in 1970 (İnceoğlu, 2004). The need for superiority was added in 1990, enriching the theory of the hierarchy of needs (Reisinger, 2009). The people who will be examined the experience in the context of needs have high-level needs and therefore have the opportunity to turn to psychologically touristic needs. As Maslow points out in the theory of the hierarchy of needs, there is a sequence in the elimination of the needs and a process of turning to an upper need after satisfying a need. However, human needs and experience are based on consumer needs and behaviors. Consumers have desire, need, and past experiences waiting to be satisfied at a sensory, emotional, and physical level.

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Fig. 10.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (source: Martin & Joomis, 2007)

Businesses that will do experienced marketing activities should also understand consumer needs and design their products and services according to the needs they set (Zhang, 2008).

Economic Basis of Experience The needs of the society have consistently differed during the transition from the agricultural period to the industrial period and from the industrial period to the information period. In this process, input, output, service, and finally experience have become a supply within the economic system. There are economic differences in input, output, service, and experience in the economic dimension of the experience. Consumers’ residual interest in input, output, and service-oriented products are in decline, and consumers have started to prefer experience-oriented products (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). Inputs are raw materials obtained from nature. These raw materials are qualified by applying some processes to the raw materials formed as a result of agricultural and livestock activities. Inputs are measured in double, stored in certain quantities, marketed by traders and the qualities of the input convince the buyer to buy. Outputs that have been made available to customers by processing entries are products that customers can easily obtain and use. The services have an abstract quality that is presented to the needs of consumers. Therefore, it is difficult to achieve a complete standardization. The services offered to benefit the consumer are personalized and supply is on demand. Experiences separate from inputs, outputs, and services with the memorable feature. Because even if the show presented by the experience stager disappears with the presentation of the show, the value of

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the experience continues to exist in the memory of the individual interested in the event. For instance, children who go to Walt Disney World can put what they see and experience there into the family’s daily conversation environment for months or even years. Experience is not tangible, but people care greatly about the product on offer. So the experience remains in people’s memories for a long time. Experiences are personal and result from a certain period of time, and businesses dominate their guests’ feelings and offer this experience (Pine & Gilmore, 1999).

Sociological Basis of Experience Consumers have recently reduced interest in input, output, and service-oriented products, and they have preferred to experience-oriented products (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). Consumer behavior differs over time in line with tourist requests. Society tends to improve their work and quality of life by getting rid of the hard work pace in which having a good time with fun is ignored, enjoying (hedonistic) life. In addition, instead of working for the purpose of making money, people spend their money to satisfy their desire to enjoy life more junkily. Therefore, money has ceased to be a goal and has become a tool (Pikkemaat & Weiermair, 2003). Consumer’s lifestyle in experiential product presentation to the consumer should be taken into consideration. Products, services, and experiences offered to the consumer should reflect the standard of living of the person. Marketing efforts, like a piece of mosaic, should be consistent with a person’s standard of living. Each product is a mirror of one’s lifestyle (Cosmas, 1982). Pine and Gilmore (1998) mention that if profitability is proportional in the process from commodity to experience, profitability is achieved between 2 and 7 times from product compared to commodity, 10–30 times from service, and 60–400 times from experience.

Experiential Value Experiential value is a holistic result of their experience before, during, and after the use of tourism product of tourists. Experiential value is relative assessments of the characteristics of the product used by the consumer and their pre-consumption goals and objectives for service performance, facilitating or hindering (Mathwick et al., 2001). As of the 1990s, the concept of experience emerged, which has a relatively higher economic value proposition than goods and services, although the influence of the post-modern period continues. Experiences have gone further than the personalization offered by the service period, offering exactly what the customer wants, in a way that suits the customer. In this period, when a large number of goods and services are present in the markets, businesses are trying to stage an unforgettable and memorable experience beyond providing goods and services to their customers (Günay, 2008). Businesses that were sellers of the era stage their experiences in markets that

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they create unique to their customers in the style of an actor using goods and services (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). Experience is realized with the use of the consumer’s product and the consumer achieves experience. Various groupings have been made by researchers (Pine & Gilmore, 1999; Schmitt, 1999; Aho, 2001; Holbrook, 1999; Mathwick et al., 2001); Gentile et al., 2007; Zhang, 2008; Zhang et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2008; Sheth et al., 1991a, 1991b; Berry et al., 2002; Brakus et al., 2009; Orth & Marchi, 2007; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999; Knutson et al., 2007) to detail the concept of experienced value.

Experiential Value Models Pine and Gilmore’s Experiential Value Model Pine and Gilmore (1999), the creators of the concept of experience, defined experience and areas related to it in two dimensions (horizontal and vertical axis): customer engagement and environmental relationship. Customer participation refers to the active or passive participation of customers in the experiences that businesses offer to their customers. In other words, active participation means that the customer is involved in the experience offered by a business, while passive participation is the customer’s participation as a viewer to the experiences offered by the business. The environmental relationship means that the customer builds a whole with experience. As seen in Fig. 10.2, these two specified dimensions of the experience constitute four different types of experience. These are entertainment (passive participation/ assimilation), educational (active participation/assimilation), aesthetic (passive participation/getting involved in the experience), and escape (active participation/ getting involved in the experience) experiences. The entertainment experience results from poor environmental participation and passive customer participation. An entertainment experience is an experience that people passively absorb with their senses while watching a show, listening to music, or reading a book. For instance; the professional groups operating on the entertainment experience, such as actors, singers, clowns, and magicians, have been called non-productive laborers (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). The educational experience is due to poor environmental relationships and active customer participation. In educational experience, the person assimilates the activity offered to him and actively participates in the activity. The concept of “edutainment” is used in terms of entertaining and educating, expressing experiences that connect education and entertainment areas. Taking a diving course is an example of an educational experience. The tourist assimilates swimming with the diving lesson, provides active participation physically and mentally, and thus experiences the diving experience. From a tourist point of view, the educational experience can be made into a pleasant product (Moss, 2009). Aesthetic experience arises as a result of strong environmental relationship and passive customer participation. In this approach, a person is passively involved in a situation or

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Fig. 10.2 The four realms of an experience (source: Pine & Gilmore, 1999)

environment. For instance, participation to an art of exhibition or taking a space tour, standing on the edge of a Grand Canyon, can be exemplified. The escape experience is the result of strong environmental relationship and active customer participation (Sundbo & Darmer, 2008). In the escape experience, the person actively participates in the event and takes part in the event. Escape experience includes the dimension of being involved in more experiences than entertainment or educational experiences. Thematic parks, casinos, Internet chat rooms, and virtual playgrounds are examples of experiences where escape can be experienced (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). Tourist products in which certain features are related to well-known films are used as themes, attracting the attention of tourists. After his escape experience by watching the tourist film, the tourist visits the place created from the theme of the film and enriches his experience.

Schmitt’s Experiential Value Model Schmitt (1999) proposed the strategic experiential model (SEM), a strategic conceptual framework for managing experiences. Thus, marketers who make good use of the components which consist the module can achieve success. As module components, Schmitt (1999) studied sensory experiences (senses), emotional experiences

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(emotion), creative cognitive experiences (thought), physical experiences, behavior and lifestyle (action), social experience, and a group or culture that are also experience dimensions.

Aho’s Experiential Value Model In Aho’s research on modeling the tourism experience process, the content of the tourist experience, tourist experience resources, and useful information about the tourist experience process are provided (Aho, 2001). The basics of the tourist experience consist of four components such as emotional impact, knowledge, development of capabilities, and realization of change.

Emotional Impact Emotional impact as a result of a tourist experience is inevitable. It is intensely experienced in different forms of enthusiasm, excitement, laughing, or crying. However, the duration of memories experienced during the tourist experience varies from person to person. Information During the tourist experience, there is a constant knowledge of local people and their way of life with historical geographical information about the destination. Developing Talents During the course of acquiring tourist experience, tourists have an opportunity to develop their skills in accordance with the areas they are interested in. Realization of Change The state of change differs according to the type of tourism that tourists participated in. Physical and mental changes will occur in the tourist’s body thanks to the medical services that the tourist will receive for health tourism purposes. The tourist who is participating for cultural tourism purposes will be enriched by his perspective and awareness of cultural diversity. In order for tourists to participate in tourism event and get experiential value, they have to take advantage of some resources. Personal resources are necessary for experiential value: time for thinking, planning, participation in a tourism event, acquisition, and sharing of experience; money for the purchase of tourist products and experiences; knowledge including previous experiences which can be chosen from different options; ability to acquire and develop experience; and approach to new situations and unforeseeable situations, preliminary information before the acquiring of the experience constitutes a source of social network personal information where information sharing can be provided during and after the experience. Time and money are two resources required at the same rate for a tourism event. The source of information is an important resource that the tourist will use to make a choice about which type of tourism and what activities to perform. A source of

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talent, on the other hand, is a source that directs the quality of experience. For instance, a tourist who has studied diving can go to destinations located at home and abroad to enrich the diving experience. The source of attitude, however, can lead to an enriched tourist experience with one’s reactions to events, or vice versa, end up the tourist experience. The network resource, on the other hand, is to share one’s tourist experience with the social environment and to enrich the experience as it is told. Today, with the help of social networks (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Messenger, etc.) on the Internet, tourists share their own experiences (Aho, 2001). In Holbrook’s value model, each dimension of experienceable value, subjective or other versatility, internal value or external value dimensions, and dimensions of being active or reactive are examined. Holbrook’s value typology includes productivity, superiority, status, reputation, entertainment, aesthetics, ethics, and spirituality (Holbrook, 1999). Mathwick et al. (2001) have created the dimensions of entertainment value, aesthetics, return value of investment, and service excellence by secondsizing under four dimensions. Experiential value model of Gentile et al. (2007) defending the importance of managing business and customer values in managing experienced value components consists of sensory, emotional, cognitive, utility, lifestyle, and relational component. Zhang et al. (2008) has developed an experiential value scale for hotel businesses which offer limited service. In his studies, he evaluated experiential value in the dimension of tourist attitudes and behaviors. Zhang et al. (2009) have included dimensions of aesthetics, entertainment, escape, education, efficiency, excellence, economic value, and social recognition in the experience-based value model. Berry et al. (2002) argue that it is not possible to achieve customer satisfaction by providing products and services today without experience and examined the consumer’s experience into two dimensions. These consist of functional value and sensory value. Functional value is the physical properties that must be present in the product, and sensory value is the properties related to smell, sound, appearance, taste, and touch (Berry et al., 2002). Brakus et al. (2009) concluded from their study that sensory value, emotional value, behavioral value, and intellectual value together constitute experiential brand value.

The Stages of Customer Experience Consumer’s social environment and instant mood have considerable impacts on consumer experiences. Consumer experience also refers to the learning process. This learning process first starts in the family. Children are influenced by their family members about consumption habits, and social environment can change their consumption and shopping habits in subsequent years. Development of communication technology accelerates this learning process. In addition, it can be seen that the previous experiences of consumers with the brands can be effective in their subsequent decisions (Torlak & Altunışık, 2007). Today, consumers connect with brands or services because of the symbolic benefits they feel more than the functional benefits of products or services. By finding common points with brands, consumers have begun to combine them with

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their lifestyles. Thus, the point of view of brands to the consumer has also changed, and its goals are not only to produce a quality product or service but also to appeal to the customer’s senses and emotions, taking part in this process and contributing to them. Customer experience, interaction with products, and services offered by a brand or business suppliers (Verhoef et al., 2009) can be defined as physical and emotional experiences that occur at the stage after consumption (Laming & Mason, 2014). Meyer and Schwager (2007) describe customer experience as the internal and subjective reactions of customers who have direct or indirect contact with businesses. İsmail et al. (2011) state that especially in the service sector, the strategy of enterprises to create unique experiences for their customers to provide a competitive advantage is becoming increasingly important. Realizing the seriousness of the situation, business managers have become increasingly sensitive to creating customer value through experience. Direct contact usually occurs during customers’ purchase and use of products and services. Indirect contact consists mostly of unplanned encounters with products, services, and brands (Meyer & Schwager, 2007; Verhoef et al., 2009). Indirect contact usually occurs when customers encounter suggestions or criticism of the product, service, or brand of the business through advertising, as well as word-of-mouth communication (Dirsehan, 2010). Customer experiences are not just about tangible consumer products. It is also related to the phenomenon that occurs during the combination of sensory stimuli (Walls et al., 2011). The sum of customer experiences forms a layer of accumulated customer experience throughout the consumption process, whether consumption is repeated or not (Nasution et al., 2014). Shaw and Ivens (2002) express that consumer experience is a five-step process as presented in Fig. 10.3. In the first stage, consumer expectations are shaped. Brand image, advertising, consumer’s opinion about the company (word of mouth), and past experiences have a great impact on these expectations. The second stage is the pre-sale interaction. It covers all kinds of activities that consumers have done until the moment they make their purchasing decisions. In this process, consumers conduct activities such as reviewing the website and catalog, consulting with sales specialists, seeing the atmosphere of the place where they will buy the product or service, and making a price comparison. The third stage is the process of purchasing interaction. This stage starts with the purchasing decision and points out the most important part of the consumer experience. It includes all kinds of services and activities carried out to make consumers have predesigned experience. The fourth stage involves any interaction where the products or services are consumed. It is a consumer experience that occurs during the consumption of product or service. Some experiences are as short as eating candy, while others may take longer time such as driving a car or watching television. The final stage of the consumer experience is post-experience evaluation. In this stage, the experience is compared with pre-defined expectations, and these expectations are reshaped for the next experience. Therefore, consumer experience process turns back to the first stage and completes the cycle. In addition to the types of experiences such as customer experience and consumer experience, the types of

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Fig. 10.3 Stages of consumer experience (source: Shaw & Ivens, 2002)

experiences such as consumption experience, product experience, and service experience were also found when examining the field of interest.

Consumption Experience Experiential consumption is basically an approach to consumption based on the view that people make their shopping preferences in line with their previous experiences. In order for consumption to be called experiential, it must also contain hedonic dimensions (Başer, 2011) such as fantasy and the search for fun (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982), senses, and emotions (Batı, 2013). Şahin (2011) notes that consumers’ consumption experiences when consuming and using products and services should include certain emotions before and after consumption. It is not easy to predict what experience consumers will have during the consumption phase. Instant experiences can be effective, especially in the emergence of the final thought about consumption in the service sector where interaction is intensive (Demir & Kozak, 2013). Arnould et al. (2002) state that a consumption experience consists of four main stages. These are the following: • Pre-consumption experience: is the consumer’s stage of searching, planning, and imagining information. • Buying experience: product and service selection, payment, packaging, and service phase.

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• Central consumption experience: is the stage at which emotions and feelings such as satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise. • Catchy consumption experience: is the classification of memories, such as past experience activities and post-experience photographing. At this stage, people gain some personal experience by using the product they buy. These experiences are reflected in later purchases in a positive or negative way.

Product Experience Product experience is a type of experience that occurs when consumers search, evaluate, and examine products and occurs when consumers interact with products (Başer, 2011). Hekkert and Schifferstein (2008) gave a brief description of the product experience as “the interaction between the consumer and the product.” Brakus et al. (2009) also mention that product experiences occur as a result of consumers’ interaction with products when searching for products and at the stage of examining and evaluating them. Product experiences are based on information collected by sensory stimuli, whether consciously perceived or not (Schifferstein, 2010). When consumers interact with the product, various aspects of the product activate the human senses (Schifferstein & Cleiren, 2005). In addition, in the product experience, consumers have control over how to interact with the product (see, touch, smell), in what order to do so, and how long to interact (Klein, 2003). In other words, product experience provides consumer dominance (Hoch, 2002).

Service Experience The “service experience” concept is defined as the core of service offering and service design (Zomerdijk & Voss, 2010) that regards the service experience as the basis of all business (Vargo & Lusch, 2008; Lusch & Vargo, 2006). Services are defined as an abstract product. Defining services as experience refers to a customerconsumption-experience-oriented understanding in which the customer is involved (Günay, 2008). Service experience, traditional marketing understanding aside, offers functional benefits as well as emotional benefits that create an all-out customer experience such as excitement, entertainment, and adventure.

Tourism/Tourist Experiences Experiences in tourism industry were initially described as the opposite of the quest for innovation and everyday life. These initial initiatives were followed up by researchers with the aim of developing a more holistic understanding of the structure of the tourism experience (Otto & Ritchie, 1996). Despite numerous different approaches from the social sciences, no consensus has been reached on a single

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definition of the tourism experience so far. Instead, the view has been accepted that the complexity of experience should be acknowledged (Jennings et al., 2009). Selstad (2007) states that it is quite difficult to achieve a concise definition of the tourist or tourism experience, which includes various complex elements. According to Selstad (2007), tourism experience is a combination of innovation and familiarity that includes a constant stream of perception and will lead to a symbolic representation of aesthetics and actions closely linked to the individual’s quest for identity and self-realization. Stamboulis and Skayannis (2003) express tourist experience as experiences arising from interaction between destinations seen as a “theatre” where the experience occurred and tourists who were “actors” who played their part according to their degree of enmity. Li (2000) points out that the tourism experience is an artificial and created consumption movement, a response to the problems of ordinary life, a search for originality, and a multifaceted entertainment activity. In general, it can be said that tourist experiences are conceptualized as a marketing arrangement which aimed entirely at socially structured needs (Tussyadiah & Fesenmaier, 2009). However, the nature of socially constructed tourist experiences covers a number of qualities, such as symbolism (meaning, feelings, and emotion), socialization (being with local people, participation), and memories (Batat & Frochot, 2014). Tourists simultaneously like to visit a complex product to satisfy their many needs. Therefore, the tourism product is mainly seen as an experiential product (Goldsmith & Tsiotsou, 2012). This means that experiences are the tourism products of the future (Arsenault & Gale, 2004).

The Impact of Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism Information and communication technology (ICTs) and especially the Internet are revolutionizing people’s lives and the active processes of businesses. Human beings have access to information from anywhere since they meet with the Internet. It has become impossible to live without ICTs. All kinds of communication tools are used to attract more tourists from all over the world in tourism industry, where many countries are struggling fiercely (Wagaw & Mulugeta, 2018). The purpose is to use the power of ICTs to influence the preferences of potential tourists and inform them according to the destination they prefer go to or the tourist product they buy. Advances in ICTs have led to changes in modern business understanding and life. ICT is a definition including multiple communication technologies such as cell phone applications (SMS), digital cameras, the Internet, wireless (Wi-Fi and Wiman), VOIP, GPS, GIS, convergence (data, voice, media), and digital radio. ICTs and the online transformation of devices offer tourism companies the opportunity to observe real-time customer experiences and expand their customer base. The use of artificial intelligence (AI) and robotic process technologies in sales and customer relations makes customers feel more special. With applications such as travel planning and booking with chatbots (practical and user-centered forms of AI) and destination suggestion based on artificial intelligence, tourism companies are

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differentiating their interactions with the customer. Virtual (VR) and augmented reality (AR) technologies that imitate the real world change the way service is promoted and marketed in the tourism industry, making it possible to experience destinations, hotels, restaurants, and similar destinations without going.

Social Media Social media (SM) is a tool that tourists share their experiences with other people in dynamic tourism platforms and is frequently used by tourism enterprises (McCarthy & Wright, 2004). Drury (2008) describes that SM is an “online resource that people use to share data content such as videos, photos, news, text, ideas, humor, even gossip.” SM is defined as “a group of internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of User Generated Content (UGC)” (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010, p. 61). The UGC is thought as “collective travel intelligence,” which is a massive source of information for travelers (Gretzel, 2006, p. 9) and useful for touristic service suppliers for “informationalising and improving the effectiveness of business operations.” This trend, which is not limited to the use of consumers and tourists, is also a formation that businesses use to manage online content (Schmallegger & Carson, 2007). Tourists use SM to interpret information and experiences about their holidays and travels on different websites. UGC is a formation of user-generated content that consumers share generally among each other (Xiang & Gretzel, 2010). Access to touristic information and distribution of it is eased by UGC. UGC is used by service suppliers to improve the customer complaints management process when viewed with tourism dimension (Sigala et al., 2012). Consequently, SM has resulted in huge and profound changes in tourist behavior including holiday planning and during travel like posttravel attitudes. Furthermore, Cantoni and Tardini (2010) state that in this age of creative SM, the Internet gives people the chance to become their own press, collaborate, and share information. Platforms where SM is widely spread, such as network sites, blogs, and wikis, provide consumers with an environment of communication, collaboration, and sharing a wide range of content, ideas, and experiences (Beliatskaya, 2017). Some applications that allow tourists to participate in the entire business operation process include social networking sites, collaborative tour planning tools, and multiplayer online social games (Sigala et al., 2012). This situation has led to a great popularity of SM among tourists. SM is another version of the social network. Social platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Pinterest are quite popular and have a tremendous impact on how tourists organize their programs and what kind of tourist experiences they will have. Neuhofer et al. (2012) state that social networks contribute to tourists’ interaction with family, friends, and followers, exchange of information, and sharing of ideas and experiences. Social networking sites offer experiences for potential travelers to organize trips with friends online and encourage them for their preference with other users having same characteristics (Sigala, 2007).

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Weblogs or blogs are other types of SM. Weblog can be defined as “an online journal which is published on a website and distributed through trackback technologies to keep the creator informed of comments or replies received” (Sigala, 2007, p. 2). Blogs can be described as “a different form of memorabilia, often presented in reverse chronological order, through a web page interface” and mostly follow a structure that begins with information such as the author, the title of the article, and the date of writing (Wenger, 2008). Enoch and Grossman (2010) remark the blogs mentioned as online “they are easily accessible tools that allow you to study a wide range of tourist experiences in terms of age range, nationality, travel style and countries visited.” While blogs are actually a subheading under the social media general caption, they differ in the audience and they reach over travel experience sharing compared to other social media tools. Blogs provide access to many people, such as Internet-based e-mail or some other sharing sites, but not a single or several people. Therefore, blogs provide an information flow environment in which the manufacturer can easily reach the consumer, the consumer to the manufacturer, the consumer to the consumer, and the manufacturer to the manufacturer in terms of tourism. Video is one of the most effective ways to give potential travelers a travel experience prior to the decision to purchase the travel package. Customers who download these videos to their phones feel like they’re in the destination via video. Video can thus enhance the experience for tourists at different phases of the experience (Sigala, 2007). According to Tussyadiah and Fesenmaier (2009, p. 26), videos act as “non-personal mediators for the tourist experience, particularly in the anticipatory and reflective phases.”

Mobile Applications The use of mobile devices nowadays has driven an amazing growth in the development of mobile applications in the tourism industry to support travelers. Mobile technologies in general and mobile applications in particular are mediating the tourist experience and behavior. Thanks to mobile applications, tourists can sign photos on a map immediately after taking photos and share them on social networks (Wang et al., 2012). So, tourists can protect their friendships in a current way and get feedback on their experiences while their travels continue. Smartphones and mobile apps make travel planning behavior easier for travelers, making them more flexible and spontaneous during the travel, increasing the awareness of contextual temporal and spatial, and thus enhancing the whole travel or trip experience (Schieder et al., 2014). Increasing the use of mobile devices and applications in the tourism industry also leads to a rise in the satisfaction perceptions of tourists (Lee et al., 2014). In the field of mobile application, Royal Caribbean’s cruise mobile app, implemented as part of digital transformation, is one of the current examples in the tourism industry. Royal Caribbean, which implements mobile app on its five ships as a result of the approach that puts the guest experience in the center, offers its visitors features such as knowledge of ship characteristics and activities within it, instant weather and

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location updates, a preliminary review of additional activities that can be done at different destination destinations, and recommending and booking on-site visitors to perform their favorite activities. Public Hotels, on the other hand, has implemented self-service check-in and key activation tablets instead of traditional hotel services such as front desk, reception, and hotel chatbots that integrate with messaging applications used in everyday life in order to provide customers with a luxurious customer experience within the affordable price range. In this way, restaurants that reduce their costs and allow customers to taste and socialize different flavors and features that attract generations Y and Z, such as Apple TV in their rooms, have made their intended experience possible for their customers by incorporating hotels.

Virtual Reality (VR) Virtual reality (VR) technology is a 3D computer-generated platform that resembles the real world. One of the most outstanding properties of VR technology is that it may bring the person into a completely virtual environment. This allows for a destination experience even before booking a holiday package thanks to VR headsets. Using VR headsets can be really cost-effective and help saving the valuable time. VR experiences, which are virtual representations, can be so detailed that they even offer customers the opportunity to take a virtual tour of the hotel room where they will be staying. Another standout feature of the VR headset is that it can offer you a 360-degree VR tour. Thus, by using VR’s 360-degree view feature, the resort can be explored in a 360-degree way before booking, and then the tourist can decide whether it is preferred to visit the place. For instance, VR technology is used in a London-based museum. The museum has developed an app that provides users with the behind-the-scenes experience of the museum. A 3D hologram version of natural history publisher Sir David Attenborough serves as a tour guide at the museum. The visitor can pick up any object from the museum, and Sir David’s hologram version gives the visitor expert information about the object. Customers feel the need to get information before purchasing a holiday or room. Therefore, this digital trend also attracts the hospitality industry and travel agencies. These businesses are committed to using VR technology to allow potential customers to experience the hotel environment and touristic attraction centers before coming to the hotel. By using 360-degree headphones, customers can make purchase decisions by pre-experiencing the holiday and famous attractions digitally (Fig. 10.4).

Augmented Reality (AR) Augmented reality (AR) technology can offer things virtual reality (VR) technology can’t. The difference between these technologies is based on their serving style. VR technology interchanges with the real world; however, AR technology improves the real world. With the help of smartphones, AR technology can give the customers and

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Fig. 10.4 VR technology in museums (source: Pavid, 2018)

tourists much more realistic experiences than VR technology. AR technologies have been used in distinctive areas of tourism like management, marketing, entertainment, and accessibility. For instance, AR gives opportunity for tourists to have experience and think as an alternative for the real visit to the threatened, forbidden, or inaccessible sites (Guttentag, 2010). Augmented reality technology, which has attained great rapid recently, is certain to push its limits in the coming years (Guttentag, 2010). The improvements in mobile technology world (smart devices) supply new chances to AR systems. In terms of tourism industry, thanks to innovative technologies of smartphone apps, the tourists experience both reality and virtual realms at the same time (Lee et al., 2014). Such apps allow individuals to virtually explore alternative options in their environment and select hotels of their choice. AR apps in hotels include converting wall maps into smartphone apps. This will allow users to learn about local attractions and learn how to get there. It even makes it possible for people to choose empty rooms, room rates, and room views in 3D. As a result, customers’ travel risk decreases. It encourages people to participate in tourism activities and enhances the sales rate of hotel enterprises that have these technologies (Kabadayı, 2020). These applications are used for the purposes of being able to visit the hotel rooms to be booked, to adjust the color of the room, to provide directions within the hotel, or to ensure communication between the hotel employee and the customer (Fig. 10.5). A few years ago, one of the hotels in London applied AR technology in all its rooms. With the help of a Map of the City of London on the wall of each hotel room, guests can use the hotel’s app to direct their smartphones directly to the wall and get additional information about a specific location in the city. AR apps are widely used in airlines and transportation. Customers learn the physical dimensions of their luggage and their suitability for the aircraft cabin with the AR mobile application without using any measuring instruments. However, there is the possibility to design directions at the airport, to design the seat location on the plane, or to extend the foot-putting compartment to a certain extent. For instance, Royal Dutch Airlines (KLM) offers customers the opportunity to visit a variety of destinations such as Taipei, Edmonton, etc. with the AR mobile application before they buy their tickets.

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Fig. 10.5 AR applications for the hotels (source: https://www.zumoko.com, 2021)

Similarly, New York City allows its vehicles to use AR technology on subways by using an AR-enabled application. With the help of the AR app and the Map of New York placed on subway walls, vehicles can direct their smartphones to the map and receive information such as turnstiles and timing data from the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA). Thus, the AR app can turn regular train planning and directional maps into an interactive guide. In restaurants, cafe, and bars, AR apps offer the opportunity to see the images of the products on the menus of the enterprises in a three-dimensional way by reading the image/QR codes on the plate/menu with the help of a smartphone or tablet. Instead of passing directly to the dishes on the menu that they have not tasted or even heard of, customers can evaluate the food by looking at their visuals, see the final version without ordering the food, and thus make a quick decision. However, various operations such as ordering from smart desks, being able to follow the completion process of the order, and being informed about the comments made, directions, and weather can be done.

Gamification The concept of gamification is defined as “the use of game design elements in non-game contexts” (Deterding et al., 2011, p. 9). The most important factor underlying the growing popularity of gamification in recent years is the enormous harmony of gaming and technology and the growing gaming market, as well as the growing interest in games designed for certain purposes (Altuntaş & Karaarslan, 2016). While the main purpose of the game is entertainment, the purpose of gamification is to guide human behavior and trends (Bahçeci & Uşengül, 2018). The development of gamification is influenced by some technologies such as mobile applications, cloud data programs, virtual reality, augmented reality, and holograms. Xu et al. (2014) explain the advantages of gamification in tourism as the tourist gaining courage, experience, and the development of the loyalty. Games are formed for various purposes and contents in travel and tourism industry. The concept of gamification, where education and play combine, is location-based, allowing tourists

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to become more involved with history and the culture they visit (Ballagas et al., 2008). Airlines, tourist firms, and retail brands are some of the most commonly gamified industries. With gamification, points are collected on each flight, accommodation, or purchase, and the chance to rise to the ranks of silver, gold, and platinum is offered. Thus, the privileges offered by the brand according to rank are taken advantage of. Gamification applications are not just a system based on concrete rewards. People prefer to earn badges and score points. AR apps also allow hotel guests to take photos with augmented images of famous people. Gamification apps create an emotional interaction between customers and businesses.

Recommender Systems The technology of recommender systems (RSs) are used in daily activities such as online shopping, and browsing social networks (Menk et al., 2019) by supplying information and advising tourists. RSs are deemed effective in e-commerce websites and are popular in online shopping and travel planning (Gavalas et al., 2014) such as Expedia, Booking, Tripadvisor, and so on. RSs work as “interactive decision assistance” that help consumers by offering based on the supplied information of the consumer preference (Häubl & Trifts, 2000). In terms of travel, RSs can offer different and fascinating travel products according to the user’s skill, thus the user may plan their travel and book the things they wish (Mahmood et al., 2009). RSs applications give opportunity to travelers to work as a travel agent and enable to improve the whole experience for tourists.

Conclusion The devastating effects that will affect the working world of the future have also led the tourism sector to digital transformation. Tourists want to experience personalized experiences through different channels, while also demanding the use of developing technology in this experience. Technological advances allow search results to be optimized based on travelers’ preferences. Personalization can be made possible by algorithms that continuously improve how options are sorted on customers’ favorite travel websites, apps on mobile phones that evaluate past journeys, feelings expressed on social media (thumbs up, likes/down, dislikes), and voluntary information such as frequent travel numbers. On the other hand, different channels are used to manage the multichannel customer experience. Some of these include social media, search engine-based marketing, blog sites, digital media, and physical channels. Customers can be marketed in real time through these channels. However, customers’ growing passion for digital experiences is pushing physical channel managers to deliver digital experiences with technology in their stores. The importance of mobile technologies is increasing day by day within the customer experience.

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With the spread of emerging technologies such as AR/VR, artificial intelligence, drones and robots, and the Internet of Things, which are gradually being used today, tourists will experience new experiences intertwined with offline and online vehicles at the same stages. For instance, while the idea of a personalized destination is produced by colliding AI and destination inventories to create the need for holidays, with AR/VR technologies customers will be able to see if the hotel pool is big enough without leaving, taking the best moments of the holiday from drone cameras and sharing them from their social media accounts, while being able to solve a problem in their hotel with robots. In addition to implementing these initiatives on the visible surface of the customer experience, there are also initiatives that travel agencies and other companies operating in the industry must implement for digitization in their operations in order to provide uninterrupted, digital services and experience. Customer relationship management system (CRM) applications, activating mobile solutions for the sales team, deploying customer voice of customer, and net recommendation score programs for measuring the effectiveness of the customer experience are some examples of digitization that can be given in operations in the name of implementing the analytical strategy. In the world where the use of messaging platforms is increasing, the messaging trend with artificial intelligence robots is also increasing. On the other hand, the Internet of Things, augmented and virtual reality, and blockchain applications are becoming increasingly important in tourism sector. The use of these technologies with different application areas within the sector is expected to increase in the coming years much more.

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Part VI Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Customer Relations

Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Customer Relations

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concept of Customer Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Components of Customer Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Human . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CRM and Types of Customer Relationship Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analytical CRM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operational CRM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Strategic CRM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collaborative CRM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Importance of Customer Relations in the Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors That Ensure Customer Relatıons Applications to Be Successful in Tourism Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Literature of Writing for Customer Relations in Tourism Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Importance of Technology in Customer Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Applications in Customer Relations in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of Technology Applications in Customer Relations in the Asian Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using Artificial Intelligence and Robots in Customer Relations in Hospitality Enterprises, Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Internet of Things in Customer Relations in Hospitality Enterprises in Japan . . . . . . . . The Internet of Things in Customer Relations in Airlines, Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Big Data Analysis in Customer Relations in North Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blockchain-Based Loyalty Programs in Customer Relations in Dubai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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M. Üzülmez (*) Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Osmaniye, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_11

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Abstract

Strategies created through tourism businesses require the implementation of new management approaches and techniques in order to provide customer loyalty and increase the number of customers in the long term. One of the most up-to-date approaches and techniques mentioned is the customer relations that places the customer at its center and aims to beyond customer satisfaction. Recently, the reasons for the frequent use of customer relations by tourism businesses are divided into two as structural change and technological developments in demand and competition. Therefore, it is technological developments in a sense that determines the development movement of customer relations. In this context, it can be said that technological practices/developments play a critical role as the driving force in the background of the new methods, approaches, and techniques such as relational marketing and personalized mass production that have emerged recently in the field of production, marketing, and sales. Tourism businesses, which implement customer relations applications by developing solutions that are integrated with the most effective technological applications, aim to create loyal customers finding the most profitable customers for them, reduce the operating and marketing costs by keeping these loyal customers, and thus increase profitability. In this context, it is aimed to reveal the technological applications of customer relations in Asian tourism market and the effect of technology on customer relations in this chapter. Keywords

Technology · Technology application · Asian tourism · Customer relations

Introduction Customer relations include all the pre- and post-sales movements that develop between the enterprise and the customer, and it is stated as a process of understanding the customer better whenever an enterprise is in a relationship with the customer. Customer relations is a concept that has emerged as a result of the search for alternative methods different from the classical sales, marketing, and after-sales service methods of the enterprises in parallel with the development of the Internet and communication technologies in recent years. In this context, technology-based practices or methods are considered as an element that can change the way business practices of most enterprises, including tourism enterprises, and adopt a customeroriented structure (Aktepe et al., 2009: p.76). However, customer relations in tourism enterprises are more critical due to the features of the production and presentation of the touristic product offered compared to other industrial enterprises. For this reason, tourism enterprises should establish a comprehensive, regular, systematic, and proactive communication network and renew their communication tools in accordance with the requirements of the age and customer demands in order to qualify them as successful in their relations with customers (Akıncı et al., 2019:

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p.183). Silik (2019) states that the enterprises in the tourism industry should use the technological infrastructure opportunities provided in customer relations in order to provide proactive activities and personalized products to customers. In addition, he implies that the current focus of customer relations is to offer customers higherquality products depending on the developments in technology. Causey (2018) emphasizes that the technological applications applied in customer relations are implemented as a tool in order to centralize, measure, and transform the interaction with customers. Selvi (2007) also admits that technology plays an important role in developing customer relations and states that it is necessary for enterprises to collect information about customers and market conditions prior to the use of technology and to decide on the use of appropriate technology by evaluating this information. Therefore, it can be said that tourism enterprises adopting a customer-oriented managership approach, providing personalized services to the customer, and thus differentiating them from their competitors in the sector depend on following technological developments. In this chapter, the concept of customer relations is primarily described. Then, it is referred to the importance of customer relations in tourism industry and technology in customer relations. After, technology applications in customer relations in tourism in accordance with the developments in information and communication technologies are predicated. The chapter is ended by giving examples regarding technologybased applications in customer relations by the countries in the Asian tourism market.

Concept of Customer Relations Customer relations are defined as a concept that gives meaning to the customer’s behaviors and values taking advantage of human resources and technology of the business world (Çakır & Eğinli, 2010: p.63). In other words, customer relations are defined as the effort to manage mutual relations and communication with consumers by being composed of the necessary technologies and business processes in order to understand the customers by the enterprises (Noori & Salimi, 2005: p.228). At the same time, customer relations is expressed as an approach aiming to obtain different customer behaviors and information about customers and then increase the effectiveness of the obtained information (Newell, 2003: p.10). Campbell (2003) states that the common elements used in the definition of customer relations are to increase the level of technology in order to attract customers, retain customers, and improve relations with customers. In this context, customer relations combine information technologies with relational marketing methods in order to maintain profitable and long-term relationships with customers and other stakeholders and offer businesses many opportunities for their activities (Payne & Frow, 2005: p.168). The basic understanding of customer relations is consistently based on maintaining of pre- and post-sales services and other business activities. Within the scope of this understanding, customer relations focus on decreasing costs of sales, distribution, and customer support in addition to increasing the

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income of the business by creating customer loyalty. In addition, customer relations are aimed at providing cross-selling prices; adapting price, offer, or product components to specific market segments; and creating a single point of contact with customers (Corigliano & Baggio, 2004: p.6). Piccoli, O’Connor, Capaccioli, and Alvarez (2003) also state that customer relationship practices in enterprises contribute to increasing customer satisfaction, gaining competitive advantage over other enterprises, and reducing the overall marketing expenses of the business. Tourniaire (2003) ranks the benefits of customer relations for enterprises as cost savings, customer satisfaction and loyalty, maximizing profits, employee satisfaction, and increasing responsibility. When customer relations are analyzed as a process, implementing various transactions to customers and gaining customers by enterprises occurred within the scope of several stages. The customer relations process is divided into four stages: customer selection, customer acquisition, customer protection, and customer deepening (Celep, 2011: p.471). In this context, customer selection refers to the enterprise’s focus on the right customers (Doyle, 2008: p.168). Since the main purpose of customer acquisition is to increase sales, it is focused on developing ways to sell customers in the most effective way (Barnes, 2000: p.19), while customer protection is about keeping the customer and how long the enterprise will hold a customer (Zengin & Ulama, 2015: p.402). Customer deepening is the implementation of the methods and practices that will contribute to the increase of customer spending by enterprises that provide customer loyalty (Sigala, 2005: p.402). In addition to improving customer loyalty and continuity, customer relationship strategies implemented in an enterprise can improve business processes in the enterprise. Customer relations not only help organizations identify the best customers for their goals but also make it easier for the enterprise to manage marketing processes through measurable goals. Chen and Popovich (2003) stated that enterprises managing customer relations well will ensure customer loyalty and increase profit rates in the long run. In this context, they emphasized that managing customer relations depends on balancing the three components: technology, process, and human. Therefore, it can be said that customer relations practices implemented by organizations are one of the most important strategies to separate the enterprises from their competitors.

Components of Customer Relationship There are three basic components of customer relations practices in businesses: human, process, and technology. Yolal and Çetinel (2005) stated that the distribution of customer relations practices is 50% human, 30% process, and 20% technology oriented. Despite the importance of the human component in labor-intensive businesses such as tourism enterprises, it is seen that technology has played a critical role in customer relations applications in recent years. In this context, the importance of the components involved in customer relationship applications are summarized as follows.

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Human The human element constitutes the most important factor in how relationships with customers should be managed (Bakırtaş, 2013: p.14). The human component of customer relationship management consists of customers, employees, and senior management. In this context, especially the employees, adopting a customeroriented approach in the enterprise affects the success level of CRM practices (Bakırtaş, 2013: p.14); and the fact that businesses gain employee support in the first place enables CRM strategies to be realized efficiently. The situation that tourism enterprises are labor-intensive enterprises and simultaneous occurrence of production and consumption in tourism enterprises highlight the need for human factor. Friendly and relevant employees who will meet and contact the customers in hotel businesses are critical for the successful sustainability of CRM practices. For this reason, it is necessary for the ultimate success of CRM applications to adopt customer relations strategies by department employees who first contact the customer, especially bellboy and front office personnel, in hotel operations. For this reason, the adoption and importance of CRM practices in a business and the management of the human factor correctly will increase the success rate of the business against competing companies.

Process The process concept defines the sum of the activities that include the tasks and practices performed to deliver the product or service to the customer (Brink, 2004: p.11). In another definition, the process is expressed as a set of activities that will achieve the desired and expected goal with CRM. Therefore, the CRM process in businesses includes elements such as customers, identifying valuable customers, keeping them, and ensuring that they are satisfied. Accordingly, it can be stated that CRM has a gradual process that translates the data obtained from customers into customer relations through active use (Arabacı, 2010: p.221). In this context, in order to talk about a successful process in customer relations applications, businesses should have a customer-oriented, measurable, continuously developed, and valueadding strategy (Çiçek, 2017: p.36).

Technology The ability to manage customer relationships as desired requires technology especially in data collection, storage, and processing. The opportunities provided by technology can help businesses that adopt relational marketing to decide which customer groups to focus on and facilitate the interaction needed. With the technology used, businesses have opportunities such as identifying their private customers and evaluating whether they are suitable for long-term relationships (Yolal & Çetinel, 2005: p.19). In this context, customer data warehouses and enterprise

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resource planning system and the Internet offer a central infrastructure for customer relationship management applications. Therefore, technology is used extensively in CRM practices by all businesses thanks to its importance in understanding the behavior of customers (Chen & Popovich, 2003: p.677). Thanks to technological innovations, marketing tools are gradually changing. In this context, new tools such as direct data-based marketing, developments in electronics, computerized sales, and the Internet have led to a revision of CRM practices in businesses (Taşkın, 2000: p.151). Therefore, having a technological infrastructure is extremely important for the success of CRM applications.

CRM and Types of Customer Relationship Management There are various types of customer relationship management practices in tourism businesses. These are generally divided into four: analytical, operational, strategic, and collaborative customer relationship management. Customer relationship management practices are summarized as follows.

Analytical CRM Analytical customer relationship management covers the performance management of the business. In analytical CRM, meaningful data are obtained that provide an understanding of customer behavior with detailed analysis of customer transactions. According to these data, appropriate customer relationship management develops sales and marketing strategies. In addition, analytical CRM allows to communicate with customers at the right time and in the right way, as well as to divide the market and increase cross-selling opportunities (Iriana & Buttle, 2006: p.29).

Operational CRM Operational CRM is a type of customer relationship management that occurs as a result of the examination of a series of integrated products with various points of contact with customers as front office applications (Varinli and Çatı, 2008: p.252). Operational customer relations aims to develop relationship management, productivity, and communication areas by analyzing the customer-business relationship that is complex after the data obtained about the behavior of customers.

Strategic CRM Strategic customer relationship management is a CRM type focused on creating and developing a customer-centric business culture. The main purpose of strategic CRM is to focus on increasing the lifetime value of the customer with the rate of winning

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and holding the customer by creating and presenting better value than the competitors (Bakırtaş, 2013: p.50).

Collaborative CRM Collaborative CRM focuses on responding to customers faster by collaborating between customers, suppliers, and business partners. In addition, the collaborative CRM provides to increase efficiency in the supply chain. For example, it can be stated that management of customer contact points such as the Internet, telephone voice, and face-to-face contact is included in this scope (Fayerman, 2002: p.62).

The Importance of Customer Relations in the Tourism Industry It is extremely important for the tourism industry, as in all sectors, to follow the developments in the field of technology, to manage customer relations well, and to increase the profitability by saving time. The concept of customer relations has emerged due to the need to consider customer requests and expectations in every activity of the enterprises and to spread customer satisfaction to all decision-making stages in order to protect the assets of businesses and to maintain their profitability in the tourism industry (Akıncı et al., 2019: p.180). Because of tourism product being abstract, simultaneous production and consumption, tourism product having a heterogeneous feature, and human being who provides and uses the service, customer relations have become an integral part of the service industry. Lin and Su (2003) state that customer relations in the tourism industry is a qualityand customer-oriented approach enabling enterprises to estimate the needs and requests of their potential and existing customers. In particular, the offering of the tourist product that cannot be stocked in hotel enterprises operating in the tourism industry imposes important responsibilities on enterprises to provide maximum occupancy and income (Akıncı et al., 2019: p.182). Croteau and Li (2003) state that customer relationship strategies implemented in the tourism industry will create new marketing opportunities for the enterprise and contribute to increasing customer satisfaction providing the customer with a personalized experience. In this context, the ability of hotel enterprises to offer special services to their loyal customers makes a customer-oriented structure important for hotels. Campbell (2003) states that enterprises should transform data for their customers into information and integrate this information with the overall enterprise for customer relationship strategies to be useful in hotels. Zeithaml and Bitner (2003) state that the long-term relationship with customers of all enterprises in the tourism industry increases the customer’s awareness of the enterprise and the products offered by it; and customer relationship practices have a positive effect on customer loyalty by creating closeness between the staff and the customer. Brown (2000) also states that successful implementation of customer relations strategies in the tourism industry contributes to the reduction of advertising

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costs of businesses. Therefore, it can be said that tourism enterprises offering a good service to their customers thanks to their customer relations can gain a great advantage in obtaining loyal customers. Lo, Stalcup, and Lee (2010) investigated why hotels apply customer relationship management. As a result of their research, they found that hotels apply customer relationship management for two main purposes as keeping existing customers and creating customer value. As a result of the study, Melendez and Moreno (2014) examined the success factors in customer relations practices in hotel enterprises; they found that organizational factors such as the support of top management, technology, and personnel training are the most important success factors in customer relations. Sigala (2005), on the other hand, determined that information and communication technologies, organizational structure, and internal-external relations of enterprises are important for customer relations practices to be successful in hotel enterprises. In this context, it can be said that successful customer relations practices in the tourism industry necessitates a coordinated relationship in organizations. Wu and Li (2011) found that customer relationship management had a positive effect on the quality of the relationship and the quality of the relationship had a positive effect on the customer value in their study on hotel enterprises. Wu and Chen (2012) also examined the impact of customer relationship management on relational marketing and business performance in hotel enterprises in Taiwan. As a result of their study, they found that customer relationship management had a positive effect on both relational marketing and business performance.

Factors That Ensure Customer Relatıons Applications to Be Successful in Tourism Business In order to achieve successful customer relations in tourism businesses, it is needed to be considered a number of factors. In this regard, it is extremely important for managers in tourism businesses to lead effectively and motivate their employees in the success of customer relations practices. For example, Aktepe, Baş, and Tolon (2009) examine the success factors in customer relations under four topics, namely, strategy, focus, efficiency, and measurement-valuation. In this context, it is indicated that under the strategy heading, businesses need to decide who the target customer is or who should been the focus factor, and it is emphasized that classifying customers according to various criteria and providing different services or products to each of them is effective in the success of customer relations. In the efficiency factor, it is stated that the scarce resources of enterprise should be shared effectively among the customer groups. In the measurement-valuation factor, it is stated that evaluating, comparing, and measuring customer data is extremely important for successful customer relations. According to Agrawal (2004), many factors must be linked to the successful implementation of customer relations in businesses. In this context, the authors emphasize that customer relationship practices should be made primarily the mission of the business. In addition, it is stated that the development of employees and managers, the improvement of technology and communication

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tools, and the strengthening of customer relationship management application affect the success of CRM. At the same time, focusing on the right customer group, getting frequent feedback on customer relations practices, and ensuring the participation of customers in the planning and implementation stages are also emphasized as effective factors in the success of customer relations practices. Managers need to determine the mission and vision of customer relationship management and act in accordance with this philosophy for successful implementation of customer relations in all institutions or organizations, including tourism businesses. In addition, the support of senior management and the provision of data sharing are extremely important for the success of customer relations. Due to the simultaneous realization of production and consumption in tourism enterprises and being a labor-intensive sector, determining the needs of customers, collecting detailed data about customers, getting feedback from customers, educating employees on customer relations, and working in integration with employees in other departments are also effective in the success of customer relations practices. Creating customer value is also an important factor for a successful customer relationship management by communicating openly with customers. In this context, customer relationship applications should analyze the information needed to communicate more personally with customers using information and communication technologies; and must meet customer expectations to achieve successful results. Similarly, Eid (2007) states that customer value plays a critical role in the success of customer relationship practices. It also states that factors such as providing proper customer relations training to businesses and supporting the teamwork within the organization are important for the success of customer relations practices. Therefore, it can be said that in order to sustain customer relations practices successfully in tourism enterprises, CRM applications that are compatible with customer demands and needs are needed. In addition, it is seen that businesses need to choose the right customer, analyze following their relationship with their customers, get feedback from customers for CRM applications, and plan customer relationship practices and include customers in this planning phase.

Literature of Writing for Customer Relations in Tourism Business It is seen that the studies carried out for customer relations in tourism enterprises are studied in different topics in the literature. In this context, it is revealed that the research on the subject is general that studies are on the effect of customer relations on the performance of hotels (Kasim & Minai, 2009; Mendoza et al., 2007; Mohammad et al., 2013; Mohammed & Rashid, 2012; Ngo et al., 2018; Soltani et al., 2018), on customer relations management practices in tourism businesses (Sigala, 2005; Lo et al., 2010; Türker & Özaltın, 2010; Ivanovic et al., 2011; Aksatan & Aktaş, 2012; Madhovi & Dhliwayo, 2017; Kaygısız and Yetis, 2018; Akıncı et al., 2019), on the Internet/social media and e-CRM strategies in tourism businesses (Hamid et al., 2011; Korkmaz, 2006; Rosman & Stuhura, 2013), on the point of view/attitude of managers/customers to customer relations in tourism businesses

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(Çalışkan, 2017; Ergün & İşler, 2019; Yıldırım et al., 2015; Yolal & Çetinel, 2005), and on factors affecting customer relationship management practices (Goel et al., 2015; Meléndez & Moreno, 2014; Özgener & İraz, 2006). Sigala (2005) discussed customer relationship management practices and the benefits of customer relations for businesses in his study. He also investigated the relationship between customer relationship management practices and information technology management in businesses. In this context, the data of the study were obtained from the businesses in the Greek tourism industry. As a result of the study, it has been revealed that customer relationship management practices have many benefits for businesses such as supply chain, production and support, product and service development, and sales and marketing support. In addition, it has been determined that information technologies provide support to businesses in customer relations applications, to diversification of marketing operations and sales management. In the study of Yolal and Çetinel (2005), it is aimed to detect the perspectives of managers in the customer relationship management applications located in a five-star city hotel in Turkey. For this purpose, as a result of the research carried out in 85 fivestar city hotels in total, it has been determined that the awareness level of the enterprises regarding customer relations management is high. In addition, it has been determined that the majority of the enterprises included in the research have carried out the necessary activities to “retain existing customers,” which form the basis of customer relations. Korkmaz (2006) examined the approaches of travel agencies toward Internet use in customer relations management in his research. For this purpose, as a result of the meeting held with 75 a group travel agencies, it was determined that the majority of travel agencies use the Internet effectively in their business processes. In this context, it has been determined that businesses are customer-oriented and concentrate on the idea of organizing communication services and digital products according to individual customer requests. Özgener and İraz (2006) investigated the factors affecting the implementation of customer relations management in small- and medium-sized tourism businesses operating in Cappadocia. As a result of the study, it was revealed that the factors affecting customer relationship management have communication-distribution infrastructure, business dynamics, and innovation (innovation) quality. Kasim and Minai (2009) investigated the CRM (customer relationship management) strategies applied in hotels and the relationship between CRM strategies and hotel performance in Malaysia. It was determined that the CRM strategies applied in the hotels included in the research increase customer satisfaction and protect profitable customers. In addition, it has been determined that CRM strategies have a positive and significant impact on the performance of the hotels. Türker and Özaltın (2010) aimed to determine the level of implementation of customer relations management in accommodation businesses. Also, it has been tried to find out whether there is a difference between the types of accommodation enterprises in terms of customer relations practices compared to whether they are coastal or city enterprises in the study. As a result of the study, it was determined that

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the majority of the enterprises included in the research attach importance to customer relationship management. Another result that emerged in the study is that city hotels place more emphasis on customer relations practices compared to coastal hotels. Hamid, Cheng, and Akhir (2011) evaluated electronic CRM dimensions on the hotel websites from the perspective of consumers in their study. As a result of the study, electronic CRM dimensions from the consumer perspective were determined as information quality, quality service, ease of transportation, service efficiency, payment options, security and privacy policy, multimedia features, and personalization. In addition, it has been revealed that electronic CRM applications in hotels provide an important advantage in analyzing the behavior of customers and developing appropriate methods for them and providing customer loyalty. Ivanovic, Mikinac, and Perman (2011) discussed the importance of customer relationship management in the tourism sector conceptually in their study. In this context, it is emphasized the application processes of customer relations in the tourism sector and the benefits of customer relations for tourism businesses. In addition, the reasons for the failure of customer relations management processes in tourism enterprises are also examined. In the conclusion of the study, it is stated that customer relationship systems should be integrated with existing information systems in the institution in order for customer relationship management processes to be successful in tourism enterprises. At the same time, the reasons for customer relationship management’s failure in a tourism business are expressed as poor planning, financial problems, and software problems. Aksatan and Aktaş (2012) aimed to reveal to what extent customer relations are applied in 15 small accommodation establishments in Alaçatı (Çeşme) in their study. As a result of the study, it has been determined that the customer-oriented dimension, rather than the technology supported dimension, is applied more intensely. In addition, it has been determined that the success of enterprises in creating customer satisfaction and loyalty depends on their competencies in customer relations. Mohammed and Rashid (2012) aimed to reveal the effect of customer relationship dimensions on hotel performance through a conceptual model. In this context, according to the conceptual model, it is stated that the customer relationship management dimensions have an effect on the performance of the hotels and marketing activities have an intermediary role in this effect. Mohammed, Rashid, and Tahir (2013) studied the relationship between customer relationship management dimensions and various aspects of corporate performance (such as financial, growth, etc.). For this purpose, data were collected from 152 hotels with 3 and 5 stars in Malaysia. As a result of analyzing the data collected, it was determined that all dimensions of customer relationship management had a positive and significant effect on hotel performance. Rosman and Stuhura (2013) investigated the impact of social media on the tourism industry and customer relationship management practices in their study. For this purpose, the data in the study were obtained from secondary sources as a result of in-depth literature review. According to the data, it has been determined that social media creates trust and brand loyalty on customers. In addition, it has been revealed that social media contributes to the development of customer loyalty and

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that customer relationship management practices and marketing activities must be active in order to develop this loyalty. According to analyzing the data obtained on the impact of social media on the hospitality industry, it has been determined that social media tools strengthen the image of tourism enterprises and serve as an important tool for reaching tourists. Melendez and Moreno (2014) aimed to investigate the success factors that affect customer relationship management practices in small- and medium-sized tourism businesses in their study in Spain. In this context, as a result of analyzing the data obtained from 128 tourism companies in Spain, it has been revealed that factors affecting customer relations management practices are factors such as training of employees, senior management support, information technologies, and motivating employees. These factors reveal that businesses should not invest only in technology in order for customer relations management to be effective in tourism businesses. Goel, Singh, and Shrivastava (2015) examined what are the advantages of customer relationship management practices in tourism businesses. As a result of the study carried out for this purpose, it has been determined that customer relations practices provide advantages such as developing good relations with customers and determining new potential customers. Yıldırım, Bucak, and Aksu (2015) tried to determine the attitudes of managers in customer accommodation management in small-scale accommodation enterprises. For this purpose, after analyzing the data obtained from the managers in 148 smallscale hotels and pensions in Bozcaada, it has been determined that the managers have a positive attitude toward customer relations management. Çalışkan (2017) aimed to find out whether the perceptions of employees of fourand five-star hotel businesses in Ankara about customer relationship management differ according to their demographic characteristics. For this purpose, as a result of the interviews with 302 hotel employees from 27 hotels in total, it was determined that there was no significant relationship between gender and age variables and employees’ perceptions of customer relations management. Madhovi and Dhliwayo (2017) aimed to determine the level of implementation of customer relationship management in hotels in Tshwane, South Africa. In addition, the study aimed to reveal the relationship between customer relations practices and hotel performance. In this context, as a result of analyzing the data obtained from 41 hotels in Tshwane, South Africa, it was determined that the majority of the hotels included in the research applied customer relations applications in their businesses. In addition, it has been determined that there is a positive and significant relationship between customer relations and hotel performances. Kaygısız and Yetis (2018) aimed to determine the extent to which customer relationship management is applied in accommodation businesses that are service businesses in their studies. In line with this purpose, as a result of the meeting with the managers of the accommodation companies operating in the Güzelyurt district of Aksaray, it was determined that the enterprises applied the customer relations management. In addition, it was determined that they accepted customer relationship management as an important method in ensuring customer satisfaction and creating customer loyalty.

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Ngo, Pavelkova, Thi Phan, and Nguyen (2018) investigated to what extent customer relationship management is applied in small and medium tourism enterprises. In this context, after analyzing the data obtained from 111 SMEs in the Vietnam tourism industry, it has been revealed that customer relationship management processes applied in the enterprises have a significant effect on the customer value and financial performance of the enterprise. Soltani, Zareie, Milani, and Navimipour (2018) investigated whether information technology, customer orientation, and customer information management affect CRM practices and business performance. As a result of the research, it was determined that the use of information technology, customer orientation, organizational talent, and customer information management factors affect customer relationship management practices. In addition, it has been determined that the factors affecting customer relationship management practices have a positive effect on processing performance. Akıncı, Yurcu, and Aybar (2019) tried to reveal the contributions made by the employees and managers of the front office department in the hotel business to the customer relations management in their study. As a result of the study, it has been determined that the services provided by the employees of the front office department in the understanding of customer relations play an important role in forming loyal customers. Although the front office employees adopt a service-oriented approach in customer relations management practices, it has been revealed that they have insufficient knowledge and experience in many subjects. Ergün and İşler (2019) tried to determine whether the opinions of the managers of the accommodation establishments that have a relational marketing understanding differ in their demographic characteristics according to their demographic characteristics. As a result of the study, it was revealed that there are differences in the opinions of managers regarding their social customer relations management capabilities according to their education, age, and professional experience.

The Importance of Technology in Customer Relations Customer relationship management technologies are needed to recognize, classify, communicate, and then interact with customers in customer relations. The technology applied in order to restructure the organization and bring it to a customeroriented structure should be supported by the processes of the enterprise for an effective customer relationship (Aktepe et al., 2009: p.74). Enterprises can have the opportunity to include customer ideas in product design through technology and thus produce integrated products for customers. Kelley, Gilbert, and Mannicom (2003) argue that technology increases customer loyalty helping businesses achieve superior service standards. According to Yen and Gwinner (2003), the use of technology in an enterprise increases the customer confidence to the enterprise, and confidence to the enterprise brings customer satisfaction and loyalty. Wallace, Giese, and Johnson (2004) emphasize that technology offers an opportunity for enterprises to get to know their customers better and to offer them good service providing the

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collection of personalized customer information. The use of technology in an enterprise enables continuous monitoring of consumers’ attitudes and behaviors by analyzing customer data. This situation provides the enterprise to make market segmentation and sales forecasts. In order for customer relationship management to be successful in an enterprise, it must follow developments and practices related to information technologies. Information technology is expressed as a comprehensive concept that includes technologies related to the management and processing of information in all its dimensions (Aksoy, 2012, p.402). Managing customer relationships well depends on customer data and the use of information technologies. The effective use of information technologies are the elements that contribute to the establishment of an effective relationship with customers and the development of a customer-oriented approach. Information technologies are an important tool about obtaining a profitable customer portfolio and retaining the customer in customer relations. Another important element in the success of customer relations management is applications related to information technologies. Information technology is expressed as technology applications that provide the functioning of organizational processes by bringing information and data to managers in enterprises. Today, with the developments in the field of technology, new communication methods such as e-mail, Web, GSM, and IVR (interactive voice response) technologies are used instead of traditional communication methods such as face-to-face, telephone, and fax between customers and enterprises (Güleş, 2004, p.236). In particular, the Internet that is information-based technology makes an important contribution to customer relations applications as it enables real-time interaction with customers (Güleş, 2004, p.238). Information technologies can better meet customer relationship management needs because it is increasingly difficult to create customer loyalty. In addition, information technologies enable enterprises to have a comprehensive customer perspective by constantly analyzing customer behavior. Also, information technologies enable enterprises to respond to customers’ changing demands and needs quickly and effectively. Therefore, as a result of technological developments, it can be said that tourism enterprises provide information technologies in customer relations through elements such as database technology and interactive media tools.

Technology Applications in Customer Relations in Tourism Developments in information and communication technology, globalization, and increasing competition are important factors that focus enterprises in managing customer relationships. In this context, technological innovations such as artificial intelligence, robot use, big data, the Internet of Things (IoT), and software are used in order to provide an effective customer relations service in the enterprises (Silik, 2019, p.193). Rodriguez, Ajjan, and Peterson (2014) emphasize that technology is an important tool for managing customer relationships with the emergence of cloud computing and Web-based technological innovations. As a result of technology

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applications, tourism enterprises can gain the advantage of providing the customer confidence and creating customer loyalty; thus, they can gain competitive advantage against competitors (Selvi, 2007, p.196). In the tourism industry, especially artificial intelligence, automation and robotic technologies are used in customer relations management. Mata, Miguel, Duran, Merayo, Singh, Jukan, and Chamania, M. (2018) define artificial intelligence as systems that can copy the mental abilities of people such as learning, problemsolving, speech perception, and strategic thinking. Tung and Law (2017) state that artificial intelligence is often used in hotel enterprises to quickly perform traditionally tasks by service workers such as concierge, customer registration, room service, bartending, and chat and virtual voice assistance in the tourism industry. Similarly, Ivanov and Webster (2017) state that artificial intelligence and robot are used in concierge services in order to improve guests’ in-hotel experiences. Another use of artificial intelligence in tourism businesses is online aids provided to customers. In addition to instant messaging applications, artificial intelligence applications are widely used in social media platforms to respond to customer demands (Akgül, 2019, p.149). Therefore, it appears that artificial intelligence plays an important role in establishing long-term customer relationships in the tourism industry. Another technological element that provides infrastructure service for enterprises to provide an effective customer relations service is the Internet of Things. With the Internet of Things technology, various devices, systems, or services gain intelligence through the Internet. The Internet of Things concept is a technology that allows an enterprise to collect data for product/service sales in real time. The most important benefit of the Internet of Things for enterprises is that they obtain customer data. Personalized products can be offered to customers as a result of comparing analyzed and obtained data through the Internet of Things per the data obtained from customers’ purchasing behavior. Customers feel more valuable through the personalization of the Internet of Things to the tourism industry. Applications such as smart hotel rooms, smart airports, smart wristbands, and smart suitcases are among the examples that can be given to the Internet of Things applied in the tourism industry. Another technological innovation used for customer relationship management is the concept of big data. The big data is one of the effective ways to analyze customer relationship management data in the tourism industry. Big data is expressed in high volume, such as social media posts, Internet logs, photos, video, text and recorded files, and the data of different types that can be processed and converted into meaningful form (Kudyba & Kwatinetz, 2014: p.3). Esen and Türkay (2017) state that unstructured data (such as video, audio, image file, Web page) is the subject of big data rather than structured data ready (such as database, data warehouses, data mining) for analysis, which is enabled by customer relationship management systems. With the developing technology, systematic studies such as databases (Aktepe et al., 2009: p.74) and unstructured data (big data) arising from the daily activities of tourists make decision support systems based on information technologies a compulsory partner of the tourism industry (Esen & Türkay, 2017: p.93). Hotel enterprises can better understand customer expectations by accurately analyzing obtained data from different sources such as e-mail, social media, websites, and blogs. Social

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media is an important tool for developing more meaningful relationships with customers, accessing new customer data, and integrating the information reached into the sales processes (Rodriguez et al., 2014). The use of big data analytics in the tourism industry has many benefits, such as identifying promotions that will affect loyal customers, identifying the targeted new customer profile, finding customers’ spending habits, and evaluating opportunities to increase sales. Therefore, it is seen that the enterprises in the tourism industry are differentiated from their competitors by adopting a customer-oriented approach and following technological innovations by personalizing their products or services.

Examples of Technology Applications in Customer Relations in the Asian Tourism Industry The ability of tourism enterprises to take place in a market with high competition and continue their activities depends on their adaptation to technological innovations. Therefore, the fact that tourism enterprises can develop customer relations and adopt a customer-oriented business approach depends on the use of technology. In this context, as in all markets, it is seen that countries in the Asian tourism market include some technological applications in order to develop and improve customer relations. Examples of applied technological applications are given below.

Using Artificial Intelligence and Robots in Customer Relations in Hospitality Enterprises, Singapore The robot named SARA in Singapore has been used as a robotic virtual agent that provides tourists with information about local attractions, restaurants, travel, and transportation services (Niculescu et al., 2014). Similarly, in 2016, the M Social Singapore hotel designed the smart robot named Aura to serve its guests. Aura, who can take the elevator and find the room to go, informs the guests by phone when he comes to the room door and when he realizes that the door is opened, he can deliver small items such as bottles, water, and towels to the guests. At the same time, this hotel started to use its smart robot named Ausca in 2017 in the kitchen section as a chef robot. In addition, hotels such as Park Avenue Rochester Hotel, Hotel Jen, Yotel Singapore, and Sofitel Singapore City Center in Singapore are also using robots to improve customer relations in services such as self-service check-in, check-out, and room service (Lin, 2017).

The Internet of Things in Customer Relations in Hospitality Enterprises in Japan In Henna Hotel in Japan, the smart hotel concept that can control many features from mobile phones is applied. In these hotel rooms, there are technologies such as 4 K TV and VR, as well as services such as steam cleaner for business travelers. Also, facial

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recognition technology is applied at the hotel. Smart phones, which enable international free telephone calls with Internet connection, provide the control of the elements such as temperature values and lighting of the rooms both inside and outside the room and displaying a customer-oriented business approach (Akgül, 2019: p.150).

The Internet of Things in Customer Relations in Airlines, Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates AirAsia airlines with headquarters in Kuala Lumpur benefit from the Internet of Things that reduce fuel efficiency by establishing a partnership with General Electric to reduce both ecological footprint and cost. This technology calling flight efficiency service enables to prevent route loss in the industry and thus to optimize the use of aircraft and fuel providing very precise navigation data. Abu Dhabi International Airport also uses the IoT (Internet of Things), which is called “Smart Travel” to reduce the queues at the airport and to improve the travel of passengers. People traveling with Smart Travel get their boarding pass by checking in from the kiosks; they can leave their luggage in the automatic baggage release system. Then, passengers quickly pass the passport control with the e-border gate service (face recognition, etc.) and approve their boarding passes themselves. This reduces the check-in time of the passengers. Therefore, the Internet of Things technology not only saves airline companies but also increases customer satisfaction by ensuring the adoption of a customer-based approach in businesses (Yalçınkaya et al., 2018: p.45).

Big Data Analysis in Customer Relations in North Korea A website for foreign users called VisitKorea has been established in Korea. The Korea Tourism Organization uses the website, which provides services in ten different languages (English, Japanese, Chinese, French, German, Spanish, Russian, Thai, Arabic, and Turkish) to provide a variety of information. Users can access practical information and tour programs about Korea through this website. The Korea Tourism Organization tries to understand the demands and expectations of foreign users through information technologies (Cabi, 2019: p.34). In this case, it can be said that tourism enterprises implementing big data analytics aim to provide better service to customers and consequently focus on customer loyalty.

Blockchain-Based Loyalty Programs in Customer Relations in Dubai It is considered as a critical factor in customer relationship management that acquiring new customers in enterprises is five times more costly than protecting existing customers. In customer relations, retaining and keeping customers is an extremely important strategy for the tourism industry. Loyalty programs are one of the programs applied to implement this strategy. The blockchain-based Dubai Points

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application started by the Dubai Future Foundation for the development of tourism and technology in the city is among the examples that can be given to loyalty programs. With this application, tourists coming to Dubai can easily gain points from the activities in the city and use the points for other activities as well (TÜRSAB, 2019: p.28). The evaluation of loyalty programs in the context of customer data enables customers to be better known and contributes to enterprises to the accurate determination of which types of customers to serve.

Conclusion It is seen that technology developing continuously and rapidly increases the competition in the enterprises, and therefore, it is critical for the enterprises that want to continue their existence to adapt to the technological innovations and developments. Enterprises have focused on collecting information about their customers, storing information, and using this information in a beneficial way with the development of a customer-oriented approach. In this context, it is revealed that the enterprises adopting a customer-oriented approach especially in the tourism industry follow the developments and innovations in the field of technology. Because it is seen that traditional customer relations practices in tourism enterprises are not able to respond to the demands and needs of the customer sufficiently and quickly. The application of technological developments and innovations integrated into the tourism industry affects the travel experiences of tourists. It is observed that applied technology applications are generally applications such as automation systems such as database, artificial intelligence and robotic technologies, the Internet of Things, and big data to provide an effective customer relations service in tourism businesses. It turns out that these high-tech products provide infrastructure for fast, personalized, and proactive customer relationship management techniques in tourism enterprises. In this context, it has been determined that these technological developments are also used extensively in countries in the Asian tourism industry. It is seen that artificial intelligence and robotic technologies attract attention in countries such as Japan and Singapore and the Internet of Things in countries such as Malaysia, the United Arab Emirates, and Korea. Therefore, following the technological innovations developing in all countries including Asia and its adaptation to the tourism industry is important in placing a customer-oriented approach in enterprises.

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Yıldırım, H. M., Bucak, T., & Aksu, M. (2015). A research on investigation of small scale accommodation businesses managers’ attitudes on customer relationship management: The case of Bozcaada. Karabük University Journal of Social Sciences Instıtute, 5(1), 81–93. Yolal, M., & Çetinel, F. (2005). Customer relationship management in hotels. EMU Journal of Tourism Research, 6(1), 13–33. Zeithaml, V. A., & Bitner, M. J. (2003). Services marketing: Integrating customer focus across the firm. McGraw Hill Irwin. Zengin, B., & Ulama, Ş. (2015). Customer relationship management. In B. Kılıç & Z. Öter (Eds.), Current issues in tourism marketing (pp. 393–427). Beta Publishing.

Part VII Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Tourist Loyalty

Creating Loyal Customers with Digital Marketing Applications: The 5A Model

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Customer Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The New Customer Path: From AIDA to 5A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Subcultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Four Basic Skills in Building Loyalty in the Digital Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proactive Personalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Contextual Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Journey Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Marketing Applications in the Asian Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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As a result of the effects of the digital revolution, it became very difficult for brands to attract the attention of consumers, to sustain this, and to eventually turn them into loyal customers. In this context, the primary purpose of the chapter is to examine how the brand-customer interaction is realized in the way of creating loyal customers with digital marketing activities. The secondary important goal in this section is to provide examples of digital marketing practices carried out by tourism companies in Asian countries to create loyal customers. Also in this section, which subcultures are more important in terms of digital marketing and what are the basic skills that businesses should have in building loyalty in the digital age. When the relevant literature is examined, it can be said that in the context of the Asian tourism industry, this area is left under-researched. In this context, secondary data, generated from the existing literature, were used to collect data. According to the results obtained, Kotler, Kartajaya, and Setiawan E. Polat (*) Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Gumushane University, Gümüşhane, Turkey © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_12

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(2017)’s 5A (Awareness, Appeal, Ask, Act and Advocacy) model, developed instead of the AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire and Action) model, consisting of aware, appeal, ask, act, and advocacy stages can be proposed as an important model that can integrate the developments in the digital age into brand-customer interaction. While the subcultures that businesses should focus more on attaining loyal customers are youths, women, and Internet citizens (netizens), the basic skills that businesses should have can be expressed as automation, proactive personalization, contextual interaction, and innovation. It is observed that the activities carried out by the tourism companies in Asian countries to create a loyal customer base are concentrated on the loyalty programs in general. It can be said that these programs, which bring various monetary rewards to users, are also integrated with digital technologies. Besides, it has been observed that businesses concentrate more on aware and appeal stages. However, to obtain a loyal customer group more easily in the digital age, businesses need to carry out activities that may attract the attention of consumers during the ask, act, and advocacy stages. Keywords

Tourist loyalty · Brand · Digital marketing · 5A · Asia

Introduction It has been almost 40 years since Time magazine chose a computer as the person of the year in 1982. In this period, which cannot be considered as long for human life, computer and information technologies penetrated deeper into every area of our lives. In 2009, in the ranking, made by the votes of online readers of Time magazine, the person of the year could not be famous statesmen such as Barack Obama or the late Ted Kennedy. The champion of that year was a mysterious teenager named “moot,” the 21-year-old founder of 4chan.org (Kotler et al., 2010). Nowadays, brands no longer regard cinema stars, famous singers, or athletes as their advertising faces; they prefer YouTubers more. Why did I give these examples? I am trying to prove this: Now, digital technologies or environments such as computers, the Internet, or YouTube are in the middle of our lives and settled in such a way that it is not possible to disassemble. Let’s go to December 19, 2019, Google services were about 45 minutes disrupted all over the world and a country (Turkey) made a statement about it at the ministerial level. Marketing could not be alienated from these developments either. So much so that marketing professionals now have to devote most of their attention to digital channels (Edelman & Heller, 2015). We can express this both because it is imperative to operate in these channels and because the digital era is developing with a disadvantage for brands. That disadvantage is that the digital era has radically changed customers’ relationships with brands and reduced their loyalty (Karahasan, 2014). Until the 1990s, it was a fast and not tiring process for users to turn into loyal customers: Customers would see, buy, use, or experience your product and repeat this cycle. In today’s reality, this journey turned into a trip with stops, opportunities

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for discovery, and comparison along the way. In each of these moments, you have to persuade customers to choose your brand again and continue using your brand instead of moving to a competitor (Hogg, 2018). For this reason, the old way of doing business has become unsustainable. Consider this: Not long ago someone who wants to buy a car would make a selection among the available options until they find the perfect one according to the criteria they set. The car dealer would reel him in and make the sale. However, today, the relationship of customers with brands is not like in the past. Customers communicate with an unlimited number of brands through new media channels beyond the control of the manufacturer and retailer, often creating a huge range of options by expanding the pool before shrinking it (Edelman, 2010). So, power and control are not entirely up to businesses (Kotler et al., 2010). In other words, in this period when even selling is difficult, creating a “loyal customer” community requires overcoming very rough roads. In this section, we will examine the steps to create loyal customers with digital marketing activities. In this context, Kotler, Kartajaya, and Setiawan (2017) proposed the 5A (Awareness, Appeal, Ask, Act and Advocacy) model has been identified as an important mainstay for this section. This model can be expressed as an updated version of the AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire and Action) model, which has been used so far in traditional marketing activities. In addition, which subcultures are very important for digital marketing and the reasons for this will be focused on making businesses more profitable. Finally, the section tries to explain what the basic skills can be in creating loyalty in the digital age. The section will be ended by giving information about the applications of Asian countries in the tourism sector. Secondary data were used in the study. These data were obtained by scanning the relevant literature and compiled on the axis of the study.

Customer Loyalty Customer loyalty has mainly associated with the repurchase behavior of specific brands or products in consumer behavior studies (Chen & Gursoy, 2001; Taylor et al., 2020). However, in recent years, it is stated that customer loyalty may be in two dimensions (Nam et al., 2011) or even in a three-dimensional structure (Lau & Lee, 1999). Behavioral loyalty from these dimensions is expressed as the frequency of repurchases (Nam et al., 2011; Obiegbu et al., 2019) and focuses on the same point with the one-dimensional definition expressed in the early years of the concept (Lau & Lee, 1999). Behavioral loyalty may not always bring psychological commitment. For instance, it may be because a tourist is constantly staying in the same hotel because of the hotel’s central location. When this tourist discovers a better hotel that has a better location, it can change his/her preference. Therefore, repurchase behavior may not always be the result of loyalty (Bowen & Chen, 2001). Accordingly, Sop (2019) states that the customer with behavioral loyalty will not visit the hotel again under all circumstances and will visit if he/she believes that it still offers high value after comparing with competitors. In this framework, the concept of attitudinal loyalty comes to the fore. Attitudinal loyalty is defined as the

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psychological commitment that the customer speaks positively about the product/ brand or recommends it to others, even if the customer does not repeat the act of purchasing (Nam et al., 2011). Composite loyalty, expressed as the third dimension, combines the other two dimensions to measure loyalty and deals with both the brand addiction tendency and repurchase behavior (Bowen & Chen, 2001). In other words, composite loyalty can be said as purchasing behavior shaped by the psychological processes experienced by consumers (Lau & Lee, 1999; Taylor et al., 2020). In the tourism literature, Chen and Gursoy (2001) point out that the behavioral approach alone may be insufficient to measure tourist loyalty. This may not prevent a tourist using the same airline company or staying in the same hotel from being called a “loyal tourist,” but it does not fully express loyalty when it comes to destination selection. Because some consumers have a psychological commitment to the destinations they have never been to and can recommend them to others (Chen & Gursoy, 2001). In addition, when it comes to mind that customer loyalty is an aspect affected by customer characteristics, the importance of achieving attitudinal loyalty becomes even more important (Hartmann & Ibanez, 2007). For instance, it may be wrong to describe the low level of loyalty of a person who cannot go to a destination he/she wants to travel due to the inconvenience of his/her income status but recommends that destination to those around him/her. The digital age has increased the importance of providing customer loyalty. Because according to a theory defined as “six degrees of separation,” it is possible to reach for any person in the world through six people. With “friend’s friend” connections, everyone in the world can access each other in 6.6 steps (Smith, 2008). This offers a great advantage and creates a sensitive and difficult-to-manage environment. It offers advantages because you can grow your market as you never expected by making only one person a loyal customer. It creates a sensitive and difficult-to-manage environment because it was accepted to respond to a customer request or complaint within 1–2 days by mail or telephone in previous periods, and today not responding to a request or complaint received via social networks in minutes can create an angry customer base (Karahasan, 2014). This means that according to the “six degrees of separation” theory, the angry audience can grow like a snowball. Let us! Listen to the observations of Jerry Wilson, the author of the Word-ofMouth Marketing book, to draw attention to the importance and influence of unhappy customer criticism: the rates of 4–96 and 3–33. While only 4 of every 100 customers who have had an unhappy experience according to the rate of 4–96 report their complaints to the business, 96 of them explain the negativity to the environment (Karahasan, 2014). Similarly, for all three people who describe their positive experiences, 33 people describe the negative (Lam, 2018). Consider their power to spread on the Internet according to the six degrees of separation theory! And remember, the Internet does not forget. Even if you delete something on the business’ website, you may not have the chance to intervene directly on content that is copied on other sites. For all these reasons, it has become really difficult to create a loyal customer base in the digital age and increase it. In the past, the relationship between the purchaser,

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the seller, and the manufacturer often ended after the sale (Edelman, 2010). However, today, this relationship can continue even after many years. For this reason, brands must be like customers’ party friends and should be where they are, listen to them, understand them, and chat within their language. In these circumstances, it can be revealed at which contact points they are accessible to and can be interacted. Thus, the quality of the brand-customer relationship can increase, and the level of customer loyalty can be at least stable.

The New Customer Path: From AIDA to 5A Yes, the level of interaction of businesses with their customers should be high, but as far as the customer allows. Because too many messages or advertisements do not work anyway. According to research, a person is exposed to an average of 3000 to 20,000 ads per day depending on his profession, position, or level of technology interest. However, he/she notices only 86 of them and concerns with only 12 of them (Johnson, 2014). Therefore, while trying to make yourself aware, you should not get lost in these ads. Sometimes only one unexpected satisfaction experience can be enough to make a customer a loyal advocate of a brand (Thomson et al., 2005). To do this, businesses need to map the customer’s purchase path, find customer touchpoints on this path, and intervene in important ones (Court et al., 2009). They should focus their efforts, intensifying communications, strengthening channel presence, and improving customer interface to improve those critical touchpoints as well as to introduce strong differentiation (Kotler et al., 2017). One of the oldest and most common models used to understand the decision journey of the customer in the buying behavior is AIDA, which is the initials of the words attention, interest, desire, and action. AIDA was developed by Elmo Lewis in 1898 and helped advertisers by designing advertisements (Pashootanizadeh & Khalilian, 2018) and by managing sales checklist and a reminder when approaching potential customers (Hudson, 2008). Advertising and sales efforts should include the following: (1) attract customers’ attention; (2) obtain the interest of customers by helping them realize the benefits of products or services; (3) create positive belief in customers; and (4) induce customers to perform a purchase (Xu & Schrier, 2019:p.2). The AIDA model is criticized from various angles. For example, it is stated that AIDA, which is a hierarchical model, can only be used in the field of advertising with this structure and may be dysfunctional in other marketing communication studies (Weilbacher, 2001). Another criticism is that the model ignores the personal experiences that have an impact on the customer decision journey (Xu & Schrier, 2019). Also, the business-customer relationship has deepened compared to the first years when the model was introduced. For this reason, the behavior of customers, whose loyalty level increased after the purchase, was also ignored. Therefore, it is striking in the literature that there are studies for updating the model. Examples include the AIDAR model (R: retention) introduced by Fortenberry and McGoldrick (2019); the 4A model (aware, attitude, act, act again) developed by Derek Rucker

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(Sarkhedi, 2017); the CDJ model (consumer decision journey – (1) consider, (2) evaluate, (3) buy, and (4) enjoy, advocate, bond) introduced by Court et al. (2009); or the 5A model developed by Kotler, Kartajaya, and Setiawan (Kotler et al., 2017). Here, we will go into the details of the 5A model, which we believe integrates the developments in the digital age better into the model (Hwang & Kim, 2020). In addition, the following reasons have been effective in the election decision. Before the digital age, a customer largely determined his attitude toward a brand by own. Today, the factor affecting the initial appeal of a brand is the community that surrounds the customer’s environment, which also affects its final attitude. Many seemingly individual choices are social. The modern customer decision route should also reflect the rise of such social impacts (Kotler et al., 2017). Before the digital age, loyalty was measured by the customer’s repurchase behavior (behavioral loyalty). In the digital age, loyalty is defined as the first brand that comes to mind in any category and the willingness to defend it (Anselmsson et al., 2007), because, for example, a customer may not constantly be able to repurchase a particular brand due to a longer purchase cycle (e.g., house) or does not have the opportunity to repurchase a particular brand (e.g., the product is not available in the region). But if the customer is satisfied with the brand, even if they are not using that brand at that time, there will be a desire to recommend it (Kuo & Feng, 2013). The new customer decision path should include this new definition of loyalty. The 5A model, which is the new way of customer decision that is put forward with these thoughts, includes the following elements: aware, appeal, ask, act, and advocate (Kotler et al., 2017). In the aware phase, customers are passively exposed to a long list of brands, thanks to past experiences, marketing communications, and/or advocacy of other customers (Budimansyah et al., 2018). This is the starting step of the customer path. A customer who has previously experienced a brand can probably remember and recognize the brand. The advertisements, given by businesses, and word of mouth of other customers are also an important source of brand awareness (Kotler et al., 2017). At this stage, businesses need to be where customers are and operate in those environments (Hudson & Thal, 2013). In this context, it can be said that the effectiveness of mass communication models has decreased. Consumers are zapping TV ads or turning the page without looking at newspaper-magazine ads. (Kim et al., 2005). Since the eyes are always on the screen of mobile phones in outdoor areas, they often do not even see billboards and posters (Karahasan, 2014). Customers who are aware of various brands then process all the messages they are exposed to and evaluate the shortlist of brands by reducing the depth of the brand pool (Edelman, 2010). This is the appeal phase. At this stage, brands that deliver reliable, meaningful messages and have surprising, attractive features are more likely to be remembered and stand out in this shortlist (Pashootanizadeh & Khalilian, 2018). You need to be amazing for the appeal in the digital world. Otherwise, there is the possibility of zapping even in digital media. For example, YouTube only gives you 5 seconds of immunity for your ads. If you cannot get the consumer’s attention in these 5 seconds, the customer will immediately ignore you (Kotler et al., 2017).

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In the awareness and the appeal stages, consumers filter brands according to various criteria such as their product/service preferences, leaving a good impression in their social environment or choosing a product that suits their opinion. For instance, some customers find brands with strong social and environmental values attractive and rank first in their decision journey. The Body Shop offers attractiveness to customers with values such as not using animals in product experiments, empowering women, and fair trade. Criteria such as contribution to environmental sustainability, technological competence, or the function of the product alone can also be important evaluation criteria. With its electric vehicles, Tesla may be at the forefront of some consumers in terms of both environmental sustainability and technological competence. With the influence of their curiosity, customers often begin to actively search for brands that appeal to them to learn more. This is the ask stage (Kotler et al., 2017). At this stage, customers make more online reviews. As we said, it is necessary for businesses to be in an environment with customers and to chat within their language. Social networks come first among these environments. Because today’s Internet users spend one minute of every five minutes on social networking sites (Karahasan, 2014). It should also be said at this point that businesses’ websites do not attract much attention. Edelman (2010) states that only 10% of customers seeking information use businesses’ websites and this is only valid when there is a discount opportunity. This factor reveals the importance of social networks. In social media reviews, f-factor (friends, family, fans (of Facebook, of Twitter)) affects decisions (Kotler et al., 2010), more than mass media or brands’ marketing communication studies (Kotler et al., 2010). For example, 87% of people in India take the advice in their social circle while buying products (Kotler et al., 2010). For this reason, the customer decision path turns from individual to social during the asking phase. This reality is also expressed in the “Zero Moment of Truth (ZMOT)” model, which was developed by Procter & Gamble and Google as a result of research conducted with 5000 consumers in many sectors. In ZMOT, which indicates just before the purchasing phase, consumers use an average of 10.4 sources when researching a product/service. Among them, the most prominent reference source is Internet research and talking to individuals such as friends/family (Lecinski, 2011). Decisions are made based on what consumers understand from these conversations with others. To continue on the road, the brand appeal must pass the approval of others. For this reason, brands need to have the right amount of curiosity for consumers. When the level of curiosity is very low, it means that even if the brand has charm, it will be insufficient (Machleit et al., 1993). The stage of ask has become even more complicated today, due to the integration of the digital (online) and physical (offline) worlds. While the consumers examine the products in the store, they also conduct information research with their mobile phones (Kotler et al., 2017). Therefore, businesses should manage digital channels in coordination with the physical store. This is exactly what should be done within the scope of omni-channel marketing. If customers are convinced of the more information they have obtained in the ask phase, they will make an action decision. However, consumers are becoming more

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and more dissuasive until they complete their purchasing stages at a store or digital device day by day. This condition places importance on the factors affecting the point of purchase, which is one of the strongest contact points of the brand-customer relationship. These factors can be considered as a location, product packaging, product variety, pricing, interaction at the time of sale, ease of use of the Internetstore where the consumer purchases, the suitability of the device used, and whether or not it gives sufficient information (Edelman, 2010). After purchasing a particular brand, customers interact deeply with the brand, as at the point of purchase, through post-purchase services or the consumption/use of the product/service (Rawson et al., 2013). Brands need to ensure customer engagement at all these interaction points and ensure that the whole experience is positive and memorable. For this, brands should show interest and offer solutions when customers have problems and complaints (Lee & Cude, 2012). If the customer experience at this stage meets or exceeds the expectations, customers will deepen their relationship with the brand, develop an emotional affinity, and have a strong sense of loyalty. This enables customers to retain, tend to repurchase, and defend the brand against others (Gupta et al., 2017). The human touch of the Ritz-Carlton hotel chain to a guest is a good example. A family staying in the hotel has to tell the child a white lie that the giraffe was on a holiday at the hotel when they return home after their child forgets his/her toy giraffe at the hotel. Ritz-Carlton, on the other hand, supports this story and sends many pictures of giraffe’s holiday to the family as proof (Kotler et al., 2017). This is the advocacy phase. Effective advocates also recommend brands they love unintentionally. They tell positive stories to others and become brand missionaries. But the most loyal defenders are passive and inactive. For them to act, they must either be asked questions or face negative advocacy. When faced with such a situation, they feel compulsory to recommend or defend their favorite brand (Kotler et al., 2017). In addition, these advocates take action when they are warned by the e-mails of the business after the sale, and they talk and comment on their purchases on social networking sites (Edelman, 2010). The steps in the new customer path 5A are not in a hierarchical structure that must be passed through each. For instance, loyal advocates can go directly to the act stage by skipping the aware, appeal, and ask stages in their next purchase (Edelman, 2010). Also, loyal advocates may not always be real buyers. For instance, someone with environmental concerns can defend Tesla products even if they are not buyers. On the other hand, it is also possible for some to skip the ask phase and move to the act phase without thinking, based solely on initial aware and appeal. This means that the new customer path is not a fixed funnel and customers do not have to go through all stages of 5A. In addition, the customer can come back while at any stage in the new customer path. For instance, a customer asking questions can add new brands to the aware list or find a particular brand much more appeal. Therefore, the path from the aware stage to the advocacy stage can expand or contract in terms of the number of customers passing through each stage (Kotler et al., 2017). 5A is a flexible tool that can be applied to all sectors. When used to describe customer behavior, it draws a picture close to the actual customer path. By enabling

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cross-sector comparisons, it provides a better understanding of the characteristics of the sector. It also allows businesses to be better understood by comparing their relationships with customers with those of their competitors. For example, if a business finds that the most popular route their customers often follow is different from the typical customer path in the industry, it has either found a genuine differentiation or a hidden customer experience issue (Kotler et al., 2017).

Digital Subcultures Not everyone is equal to brand advocacy in the digital world. Kotler et al. (2017) state that to increase the likelihood of obtaining advocates, marketing professionals should focus on youths, women, and Internet citizens (netizens) who spend a lot of time on the Internet. We list the reasons for these below. According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNPFA) figures, in 2019, 24% of the world population (1.86 billion people) are individuals in the 10–24 age range. This means an important market segment for businesses. In addition, the fact that youths have the role of early adoption and trending in today’s society are important reasons for businesses to focus on youths. First of all, youths are in the early adopters group. The truth is youths are not afraid to try new products and services that older segments consider too risky. In addition, youths have advantages in terms of time and agility compared to other segments. For this reason, marketers who have newly developed and newly introduced products need youths. A strategy in the form of youths first is often the most successful strategy (Kotler et al., 2017). When iPhone was first introduced to the market in 2001, it helped the ad to adopt the youth-focused tone of its product quickly and eventually achieve mainstream market success. Likewise, when Netflix first offered its streaming service in 2010, early adopters were tech-savvy youths. Secondly, youths are trendsetter. Early adoption brings trending determination when combined with speed and agility. Youths can take their trends to the top at the same time. For example, social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter started as a trend among youths. In this respect, marketing professionals need to follow the trends of youths and keep up with them. The women market is also a rational one for marketers to pursue. First of all, women are generally the chief finance officer (CFO) of the family and they are responsible for shopping at home (Kraft & Weber, 2012). Women are also information collectors. Women’s voices often suppress men’s voices in choosing which brand to buy in many product and service categories. Women do more research and try to gather information at each stage in 5A (Banyte et al., 2007). This increases their touchpoints, making them more open to interaction and experience. Therefore, when women decide on a brand, they can become loyal advocates, they are making sure that they are buying one of the most accurate brands, and they tend to recommend them to their surroundings. The fact that women have a more prone character to chat and talk than men makes them more important to be brand advocates. Therefore, women are crucial to gaining market share in the digital

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economy. Brands must go through women’s comprehensive decision-making processes to access larger markets. Netizens, that is, Internet citizens, are also an extremely effective group. According to Internet World Stats figures, 58.8% of the world population uses the Internet, but it would not be correct to evaluate all of them on the same scale. According to Nielsen’s (2006) rule 1-9-90, there are three groups on the Internet. Among them, the most important group in terms of influence is 1% “creators.” These follow innovations, set trends, write blogs, and upload videos, in short, create content. The “editors” group of 9% consists of people who do not produce content themselves, but they comment on, criticize, contribute, and make some changes to the materials provided by “creators.” The 90% group, outside these two segments, is passive users who take the role of “audience” and read, observe, but do not contribute (Karahasan, 2014). In this regard, the most important group that should be influenced in terms of brand advocacy is the “creators” group. We know the f-factors in the Internet world: friends, family, and fans (of Facebook, of Twitter) (Kotler et al., 2017). Netizens are not an easy group to be affected due to their features. But these become f-factors if they are passionately and emotionally attached to a brand. In contrast to those who hate the brand, they become part of the brand’s missionaries or a group of people who love the brand. They are effective when they need to defend their favorite brand against cyberbullies, trolls, and hateful people, although sometimes they are inactive. Moreover, brand missionaries are also brand storytellers who carry news about the brand to related networks. They tell authentic stories from a customer’s perspective, which is much more valuable than advertising (Kotler et al., 2017). For these reasons, the netizens group, which often has a large number of followers, fans, and friends, has a huge impact and is superior to other Internet users.

Four Basic Skills in Building Loyalty in the Digital Age Edelman and Singer (2015) state that businesses that can build a loyal customer base are skilled in four interrelated core capabilities: automation, proactive personalization, contextual interaction, and journey innovation. Each of these shortens the customer’s decision-making journey and, more importantly, makes them more “sticky.”

Automation Automation, which allows customers to quickly and easily carry out previously complicated journeys, is now a key element for making journeys more “sticky.” There is no chance of life for businesses that fail to do so in the digital age. Automation, which facilitates the purchase process, shortens its time, and adds value to the customer, is indispensable for fast and intensive lives.

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Proactive Personalization Businesses with automation skills should learn from past interactions with their customers or available sources and use them to customize the journey. The “nanomarketing” applications that emerged recently also require this (Batı, 2018). It is necessary to analyze everything related to the hobbies, styles, and individual needs of the customers in nano-marketing and to present a special list to that customer only. But this is just the beginning; the ability to customize requires subsequent optimization of the customer’s journey. As soon as the customer interacts with the business (e.g., responding to a message or running an application), the business must monitor the customer’s behavior and design the next interaction accordingly. For this, there are applications such as ClickFox and Pega that allow customers to follow from many different channels. For example, Kenneth Cole, a textile brand, organizes the components on the website according to the interactions of visitors with the site over time. While some see more product reviews, some view more visual videos or special offers (Edelman & Singer, 2015).

Contextual Interaction Another important skill is to use the information related to the environment in which the customer is physically or virtually and to be able to direct him/her to the next step. This step requires a higher level of technological competence than its predecessors. This may be to send a message whose content is determined based on the customer’s current location. For example, an airline’s application can show the boarding pass as soon as you enter the airport. These can offer a range of interactions that further shape and empower experience in the customer decision journey. For example, in Starwood Hotels’ application, the customer receives a message including the room number as soon as he/she enters the hotel and makes the entry process by using his/her fingerprint on his/her smartphone, and when he/she approaches his/her room, the phone can turn into a virtual key that opens the room door.

Journey Innovation Innovation, the last of the four core capabilities, is based on the ability to analyze customer demands and needs in more detail and to develop new technologies and services to meet them. The main purpose here is to find new resources that will benefit the business and the customer. For instance, innovation may be in Starwood, after the customer uses the key feature to open the room, to offer him a suggestion about room service and to remind him of his previous orders. Or it can be built in a more complex structure and expand the journey by integrating many different customer services into a single journey. For example, Delta Air Lines’ mobile application allows the management of a trip with all the details. It is possible to use many features from this application, from purchasing tickets to boarding the

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plane, to coordinate every stage of the journey, to look at the content of the in-flight entertainment system, and to call a vehicle from Uber when you land (Edelman & Singer, 2015). L’Oréal Makeup Genius application offers a very good example of using technology to create loyalty in the digital age (Edelman & Singer, 2015). The app creates more real-time interactions, allowing customers to do make-up virtually. The application, which can be downloaded to devices such as phones or tablets, shows how the various products can create images by scanning the customer’s face. Customers can choose an image they like and buy it online or book it for purchase at a store. After receiving the product, the application provides information on how the customer should use this product. The app then brings new style suggestions from the customer’s behavior or the choice of customers with similar behaviors and customizes their responses to the customer. L’Oréal guides the customer through a fast and enjoyable experience on this journey and allows the customer loyalty circle to go deeper as the level of personalization increases. Reaching 14 million users, this application has become a very valuable asset in terms of both creating a channel with customers and creating a path for information that shows how customers interact (Edelman & Singer, 2015).

Digital Marketing Applications in the Asian Tourism Industry Taking into account the demographic, social, or economic characteristics of the target audience when marketing activities will be carried out will increase the success of these activities in absolute terms. In this context, it is important to identify issues such as the level of access to social networks, which are strong in digital marketing activities, and which social networks are strong. For example, access restrictions on Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter existing in China should be taken into account in marketing activities. Other social networking sites or messaging applications that are more widely used in these countries should also be considered. For example, WeChat is used instead of WhatsApp, and Weibo is used instead of Twitter in China. In Japan, instead of WhatsApp, the LINE app addresses more users (Skift, 2017). Similarly, while the rate of reading blogs in Japan is around 74%, it is around 27% in the USA (Kotler et al., 2010). It can be said that loyalty programs integrated with digital technologies play an important role in efforts to achieve loyal customers, including tourism businesses in Asian countries. In these programs, the conditions of the country to be operated and the tastes or features of the consumers should be taken into account, as in which social networks or mobile messaging applications are popular in the countries. Because, according to Mastercard’s research in 2018 with 7000 consumers in Australia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea, it was determined that the effectiveness of these programs varies by country. According to the results, while the effect of loyalty programs in economically developed countries such as Hong Kong, Japan, and South Korea is not as expected, it is much more evident in emerging economies such as China, Indonesia, and India. The research

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also found that consumers are members of an average of 7.6 loyalty programs, 40% of users access their mobile devices, and 36% affect more than personalized content (MasterCard, 2018). Also, Huang, Rothschild, and Wilkie (2018) emphasize the importance of these programs in their research with 9000 consumers, including airline, hotel management, and food and beverage businesses. They state that, in addition to monetary awards, experiential rewards that will make the consumer feel special also indicate that they have increased purchasing frequency, intention to recommend to others, and ultimately customer loyalty. Asia Miles, a Hong Kong-based Cathay Pacific Airways loyalty program, stands out as an app integrated with technology. Similar to other applications, Asia Miles members can earn miles by flying, travelling, shopping, dining, or even having a mortgage with the Cathay Pacific Airways’ banking partners, and they can use miles to get various gifts. With its mobile app, Asia Miles analyzes customer behavior and offers its users personalized recommendations following proactive personalization skills. The app also offers complete travel management. For instance, a traveller can use the application to get information about restaurants in the region they are travelling to. This shows that the application has the ability of contextual interaction. Perhaps the most important of the technological advantages offered by the application is that it offers blockchain-based smart contracts. These contracts allow users to use their points in just a few hours, all of which increase customer loyalty (Yung, 2019). Singapore Airlines has made the loyalty program more useful and active than before by adding some features to its mobile application, similar to the Asia Miles program. The application, with its ability to contextual interaction, provides customers with features such as travel suggestions or a map when they reach their travel destinations (Industry Expert, 2019). Pan Pacific Hotels Group, headquartered in Singapore, uses artificial intelligence and data analysis to study customers’ online, offline, or on-site behavior to provide a personalized travel experience to their customers. In this context, it prepares special travel routes for its customers to the Discovery program, according to various interests, and shares them in their weekly guides. The group’s hotels accordingly offer these members local experiences such as special culture, cuisine, art, adventure, or philanthropic activities. It also aims to spread this experience by encouraging customers to share these experiences on social networking sites (especially with the hashtag #shareyourmoments on Instagram) (Marketing-Interactive, 2019). Smart city applications are implemented by some Asian countries in their efforts to increase destination loyalty. Singapore is already one of the smart cities; Abu Dhabi’s Masdar City aims to be one of the smartest cities in the world; on the other hand, India is working on a national program to make at least 20 smart cities across the country. Smart city is an application that requires the integration of all human activities in the city with digital technology. In this context, solutions such as energy, water, garbage, and crowd management can also affect tourist movements in the city. Hotels, restaurants, tourism-based transportation, and other touristic activities can take part in the increasing quality of life in the city and can be eliminated before the harmful effects of overtourism occur (Wayne, 2016). Thus, the attitudinal loyalty of

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tourists to the destination can be increased, and it can be ensured that they talk to other people in social networks. ETSTur, which is a travel agency operating in Turkey, collaborated with Facebook to understand the effects of online and offline channels on each other during their customers’ purchasing journeys. In this context, the company, which can see the effects of online investments on offline sales and the effects of mobile application campaigns on sales on the website, can reveal advertising models and campaign plans more clearly. At the same time, with these results, it aims to shorten the customer decision journey and to reach the advocacy step quickly by applying different strategies to different brands that appeal to sub-segments (Capital., 2019). Operating as an online hotel reservation platform in South Korea, Yanolja is another example of an effort to achieve customer loyalty by using digital technologies intensively. Starting its activities as a start-up program, Yanolja has targeted young customers looking for different, short-term, and cheap accommodation. Yanolja, which collects approximately 20,000 different types of accommodation businesses across the country, aims to attract new-generation travellers by ensuring that its businesses have advanced technology applications. Examples of these technologies are keyless entry into the rooms, requesting room service via the platform, and automatic check-out detection. In addition, Yanolja users have the privilege of ordering food from nearby restaurants with the Uber Eats application. Another technological application of Yanolja is to analyze customer comments with artificial intelligence, to bring them more personalized suggestions and to better identify customer segments (PATA, 2018). As we mentioned in the digital subcultures section, youths constitute one of the most effective classes in brand advocacy. Yanolja’s choice of this class as a target and integrating its applications with digital technology, which attracts the attention of this class, can increase its success in the aware and appeal stages of the customer decision journey.

Conclusion A Chinese proverb says, “Tell me and I’ll forget; show me and I may remember; involve me and I’ll understand.” The future will be the brands that offer “knowing the limit” suggestions to the customer, talk to the customer, and most importantly, include the customer as mentioned in the Chinese proverb and make the customer feel as if he/she is their single customer. Brands that do not ask questions, listen, or explain will be lost in the depths of history. Because technology and the innovations it brought strengthened customers more than ever before. In parallel with this, it has become harder to establish customer loyalty and continue it. Because sometimes even a single #hashtag can turn you into an abandoned brand. In this respect, businesses should remain “beta” in the face of this age and customer power and be open to change and innovation. In this chapter, the stops in the customer decision journey toward creating loyal customers with digital marketing activities are examined. It can be seen that the AIDA model, which has been used frequently in traditional marketing activities, has

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to evolve into new forms with digital technologies. The 5A model also stands out as a model that takes into consideration the new “virtual social” person’s environment and technological possibilities. Secondly, the chapter focuses on which subcultures are more important for digital marketing and the reasons for making businesses more profitable. According to the results obtained, the focuses of marketing experts on youth, women, and netizens who spend a lot of time on the Internet are priority groups to increase loyal customers. Finally, the section tries to explain what basic skills can be in building loyalty in the digital age. Accordingly, automation, proactive personalization, contextual interaction, and innovation can be said as the basic skills that businesses should have. This study also tried to give information about what practices are done to gain and increase loyal customers in the tourism sector of Asian countries. As a result of the examinations, applications as L’Oréal Makeup Genius implemented by the tourism companies in Asian countries were not encountered. It is noteworthy that loyalty programs are generally used to gain loyal customers. These programs are integrated with digital technologies to influence the purchasing behavior of customers, increase their intention to repurchase, and recommend them to their environment. In addition, it has been determined that personalized applications and suggestions are important in terms of increasing the effectiveness of the programs. In other applications mentioned here, it is also seen that enterprises are generally integrated with digital technologies sufficiently. However, it can be said that these enterprises focus more on the applications that can bring success in the aware and appeal stages of the customer decision journey and do not give enough importance to the applications in the stages of ask, act, and advocacy. Practices at the stage of ask, act, and advocacy are especially important, because consumers are most vulnerable at these stages (Edelman, 2010). The coolest ads, the perfect campaigns, and the most eye-catching videos make a brand stand out, but if the product reviews are weak and not discussed on the Internet, it is quite difficult to ask and go through the next steps.

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Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Tourist Loyalty

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tourist Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Importance of Tourist Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Key Factors Effective in Providing Tourist Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loyalty Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cognitive Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emotional Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Behaviorally Progressive Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operational Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approaches in Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Behavioral Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attitude Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unified (Mixed) Loyalty Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loyalty Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . No Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spurious Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Latent Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Absolute (Strong) Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tools That Can Be Used in Creating Tourist Loyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relational Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Information Technologies and Data-Based Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loyalty Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Practices Providing Tourist Loyalty in and Around the Asian Tourism Industry . . . Application 1: The Reztoran, Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application 2: Miles & Smiles, Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application 4: Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC), India . . . . . . .

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G. Eryilmaz (*) Faculty of Tourism, University of Iskenderun Technical, Iskenderun/Hatay, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_13

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Application 5: ONYX Hospitality Group, Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application 6: Vega Izmailovo Hotel and Convention Center, Moscow, Russia . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Loyalty means that the preferred product or service continues to be repurchased consistently in the future, despite other attractive alternatives. It can be evaluated that the tourists always prefer the same transportation services, destinations, accommodation, and food and beverage businesses when purchasing services within this framework. All kinds of businesses that serve under the name of the tourism industry primarily benefit from the opportunities provided by information and communication technologies in order to ensure loyalty formation. These possibilities can provide convenience in following up customer expenses with the registration of customer information in the database. It is possible to provide information about how often the service or business selling service is preferred, thanks to Internet technology and/or digital media. In this way, businesses implement loyalty programs and take advantage of the reward system in order to create loyal customers. In this chapter, tourist loyalty which is an important tourist behavior is examined from a consumer perspective. Then, loyalty practices implemented in connection with information and communication technologies are presented with examples in the Asian tourism industry. Keywords

Loyalty · Tourist loyalty · Loyalty applications · Technology · Asia

Introduction Technology applications in the tourism industry are manifested by the development of information communication technologies (ICT). In addition, using computerized reservation systems, the Internet, and smart technologies has made the use of technology indispensable in tourism. Especially since the 1970s, significant progress in tourism products and service have been achieved, thanks to ICT and computerized reservation systems (BRS). It is quite clear that the global distribution systems (GDS) in the late 1980s, the Internet (Buhalis & Law, 2008) in the late 1990s, and smart technologies in the 2010s were integrated into the tourism industry in the process (Koo et al., 2015). In particular, the widespread use of Internet technology has enabled the consumer to perform many transactions electronically. This situation not only increased the sales of tourism companies but also provided an opportunity for businesses to offer alternative services to their customers (Semiz et al., 2009: p.3). Considering today’s digitalization process, communication between the customer and any business offering services has become easier. At the same time, the

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digitalization of the tourism sector has enabled technological services to be technological in addition to shortening distances (Xiang & Gretzel, 2010: p.182). Considering this process on a continent basis, it may be that the Asian tourism industry will become more technology sensitive in the future, because it is foreseen that the most significant increase in tourism demand will be in Asia between 2015 and 2030. The most important reason for this is that it is estimated that 90% of the digitalized millennium youth (2.4 billion people worldwide) which will be included in the middle class until 2030 will be from Asia (Morçin, 2018: p.15; Turizmgunlugu, 2019). Therefore, tourism industries in other parts of the World and especially the Asian tourism industry should take these foresights into consideration, because tourism is a continuing industry. For this reason, digital services to the digital customer should be provided in order to ensure sustainability in tourism. The fact that the technological life has been reflected in human life also brings to the agenda its reflection on the expectations in the services. The role of providing the service in a way that meets the expectations has a great role in the preference of the country, destination, province, or tourism enterprise (accommodation, food and beverage, travel), because the tourist, who is defined as a customer, will feel valuable as he sees that his expectation is met. At the same time, tourist will find the service provided with high quality (Aydın & Özer, 2005). The tourist who feels valuable and finds the service high quality as the perceived service expectation is met will be satisfied in this process (Fornell et al., 1996). On the other hand, trust of the tourist will be ensured by meeting the expectations (Aydın & Özer, 2005). As long as this cycle takes place within itself, new tourists will be able to arrive, and it will be inevitable that incoming tourists will prefer the destination or business they go to. It is defined as tourist loyalty that the tourist prefers the destination or the business again (McDowall, 2010). It is important to ensure tourist loyalty at this stage, because achieving tourist loyalty increases sales and profit, reduces marketing and operating costs, creates a strong word of mouth, and provides business direction (Bowen & Chen, 2001). From this point of view, it is important to examine tourist loyalty which is a basic tourist behavior in this age of technological possibilities. In this chapter, tourist loyalty, the importance of tourist loyalty, the main factors that are effective in ensuring tourist loyalty, loyalty types, loyalty-related approaches, and tools that can be used to create tourist loyalty are discussed. Finally, there are examples of tourist loyalty practices that are made available, thanks to the opportunities offered by technology in the Asian tourism industry.

Tourist Loyalty Tourism is a social, cultural, and economic phenomenon that requires individuals to travel outside the places or countries where they are constantly present for personal or business/professional purposes. The tourist expresses these individuals. In its most general sense, it is called visitors. They can be defined as excursionists when these individuals do not spend the night. Basically, they need to engage in some tourism activities including tourism expenditures in order to be defined as tourists

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(World Tourism Organization, 2019). From this point of view, a tourist can be defined as a consumer. Consumers are individuals or organizations that use products or services to meet their wishes and needs (Karalar, 2005: p.9). The customer is the person who takes action to purchase the products and services that the businesses produce and offer for them and determines the position of these products or services in the market (Bozkurt & Tokatlı, 2017). For this reason, the tourist is also a customer who performs and consumes these actions. Therefore, behavioral tendencies of tourists are generally evaluated as customers. Loyalty means “sincere loyalty, strong, strong friendship” according to the Turkish Language Society (TLS) (TLS, 2019). Customer loyalty is defined as returning customers to the destination or re-choosing the destination/product/service and spreading positive thoughts about the destination or service received (McDowall, 2010: p.27). The behavior of an individual who has taken service from one of the components of the tourism industry (hotel, restaurant, destination, travel agency, tour operator, transportation company) and has performed these actions more than once is called tourist loyalty (Hanefors & Mossberg, 1999; McDowall, 2010). In order to ensure customer loyalty, it is necessary to meet the expectations of the tourists or to get services above the expectations of the tourists (Kotler et al., 2006). However, the nature of the tourism industry makes tourist loyalty difficult because the tourist benefits from many different services while performing the tourism action. Loyalty is difficult to form for all services. For example, the disloyalty created by a destination in tourists may cause tourist not to choose the hotel business that meets his expectations one more time. In addition, although the tourist is not loyal to the destination and the business, she can remain faithful to the travel agency (Hanefors & Mossberg, 1999; Kozak et al., 2002).

Importance of Tourist Loyalty Today’s marketing approach has made tourists valuable for the tourism industry. It is necessary to gain new customers for the tourism sector. However, retaining the existing customer is even more important to ensure continuity. For this reason, customer loyalty is the most critical step of holding existing tourists. Customer relations play an important role in maintaining loyalty in subsequent processes (Selvi, 2007). Every business serving in the tourism industry should make customers feel valued service after service. Tourism enterprises should satisfy tourists and make them alive, meeting the tourists’ expectations (Çağlı, 2002). Efforts made in this direction bring many advantages for customers and businesses (Çağlı, 2002; Doley, 2003). Considering the benefits of loyalty for customers, it is useful to say that the basis of this depends on the experience, because if the experience provides the desired confidence in the consumer’s evaluations regarding the value of the service received, this reduces the need for more information seeking and evaluation. As this experience is gained in the process, less time can be spent on the purchasing process, and the need for thinking may also decrease with sales promotions, financial status, eligibility, or changes in needs. At the same time, the experience can cause increases

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in the usual purchasing level. Therefore, this situation will reduce the perceived risk about the products or services that the customer will receive. In this context, getting a service before can be used as a preliminary evaluation in the repurchase process (Bennett et al., 2005). Other benefits of customer loyalty to the customer can be listed as follows: • For example, if the place of service is a hotel business, it rewards the loyal customer of the business as a regular customer (such as special discount, gift check, or ease of payment). • Implementation of loyalty program to customers through opportunities such as private cards or membership opportunities. This can make the customer feel valuable and special. • If a customer is loyal to the business, he/she has confidence in the business during his/her service. The formation of trust will make the customer feel subjectively well. • The positive or negative feedbacks of the loyal customer to the business from which the service is received are taken into account by the business. This will make the customer feel taken into consideration. • Formation of loyalty concerns friendly relations between customer and business. Considering the benefits of loyalty for the businesses that serve, these can be concealed with a few items (Avcıkurt & Köroglu, 2006; Çağlı, 2002; Doley, 2003): • It is an advantage for loyal customers to want to buy it again if they are satisfied with the product or service they have experienced for the first time. Purchases are made more with the formation of loyalty. • As a result of loyal customers recommending the business or service to other customers (word of mouth), it may be inevitable for the business to gain new customers. This is a kind of positive advertising behavior. It is important for service providers to announce and recommend the received service to the close environment through loyal customers. • Thanks to loyal customers getting the services they receive from the same place again, it may help disappear the ups and downs related to the sales in these places due to unfaithful customers. This situation is reflected in the performance increase of service providers such as predicting market share more clearly, developing customer-oriented strategies, making long-term plans, and developing new service offerings. • Loyal customers are more flexible than non-loyal customers. This creates an advantage in profitability especially for tourism businesses, because there are more purchases than customers who have never bought services, and this increases business sales. • The loyalty of customers to a destination, business, or a product makes it difficult for competitors to attract the customers in all respects. This causes competitors to work harder, effort for new marketing practices, and increase their financial spending. This process can be explained by providing competitive advantage.

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Key Factors Effective in Providing Tourist Loyalty Many strategic elements that tourism businesses apply to maintain their relations with their customers can create loyalty in them. These elements can be defined as the most effective methods of retaining customers (Gerpott et al., 2001). For example, perceived quality and customer satisfaction is one of them. The perceived quality results from the comparison of the expectation before receiving the service with the service received (Parasuraman et al., 1994). It can result with the formation of loyalty the perceived quality that emerged is the same with or exceeding customer expectations (Oliver, 1999: p. 43) as a result of comparing the expectation before receiving the service with the received service (Parasuraman et al., 1994). Satisfaction that occurs depending on perceived quality is similarly an important factor in the formation of loyalty (Oliver, 1999: p. 43). One of the factors that play an important role in ensuring loyalty is trust. Loyalty formation can be inevitable if the customer always receives a reliable and promised service in product or service delivery (Türker & Türker, 2013: p.55). Another effective factor that keeps the customer loyal is the image. Thanks to the image, the picture formed in the mind of the customer may prevent him from seeking alternative products or services (Andreassen & Lindestad, 1998). Perceived value is another effective factor in loyalty formation. The customers’ expectations are toward the benefit of the product or service they purchase, more than the cost paid. This expectation, in which value is defined with benefit, can be important in the formation of loyalty (Şimşek & Noyan, 2009). While the elements mentioned in the formation of loyalty can be effective alone, a strong customer loyalty can be created by combining these elements together. In addition, there are other factors that may be effective in ensuring customer loyalty. It can be listed as other influential factors in the formation of customer loyalty. Providing a healthy customer service, not being able to give up the customer’s habits or avoiding risk, not being able to find a better alternative due to the current competitive conditions in the market, making the customer easier to make decisions, rewarding in certain times, and in case of being a permanent customer, can be listed as other effective factors in the formation of customer loyalty (Karakaş, 2012; Odabaşı, 2004).

Loyalty Types There are types of values as stages of loyalty. These are covered under four headings: cognitive loyalty, emotional loyalty, behavioral progressive loyalty, and operational loyalty.

Cognitive Loyalty Cognitive loyalty is a type of loyalty that occurs when the customer is satisfied with a business, products, or services experienced. The reason for the customer satisfaction

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may be, for example, that the service he/she experiences is of higher quality or the price is reasonable (Yurdakul, 2007). If satisfaction is maintained and continuity is ensured, the customer will move on to the next emotional loyalty phase. However, what is important here is the continuation of the customer satisfaction at every stage. If the satisfaction situation does not continue because the cognitive loyalty phase is not very strong, loyalty will not occur. Therefore, it is not possible for the customer to proceed to the next stage in such a situation (Oliver, 1999; Sivadas & Prewitt, 2000: p.78).

Emotional Loyalty Emotional loyalty is a type of loyalty that expresses the admiration of the brand in the event that the customer is satisfied with the service experienced. In other words, emotional loyalty is the devotion and attitude toward the brand with the awareness of the positive experiences of the customer (Çelik & Bengül, 2008). In this type of loyalty, as in cognitive loyalty, when the customer is dissatisfied or experiences any negativity, he can stop receiving service from the current business. This may cause the customer to receive service from another business (Oliver, 1999: p.36).

Behaviorally Progressive Loyalty Behaviorally progressive loyalty is also called intentional loyalty. It can also be considered as the next stage of loyalty development. The customer’s attitude toward the brand (such as desire and need) and the intention to purchase in the customer are the type of loyalty that expresses a situation that has not yet been realized and is expected to occur in a later period (Oliver, 1997).

Operational Loyalty Operational loyalty is also defined as direct action loyalty. It is the stage in which cognitive, emotional, and behaviorally progressive loyalty turns into action. It is the customer’s emotions and actions that occur only by adhering to the business he/she is interested in, regardless of other businesses. Purchasing situation is realized continuously from the business’s products and services with this stage (Oliver, 1999: p.36).

Approaches in Loyalty There are three main approaches regarding with customer loyalty. These approaches are behavioral approach, attitudinal loyalty approach, and combined (mixed) loyalty approach (Uzunkaya, 2016).

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Behavioral Approach Behavioral approach is the behavior that the customer has shown in order to prefer a business or brand (or a product or service) again (Çatı & Koçoğlu, 2008). In fact, the customer is not psychologically dependent on the business he/she serves. For example, the fact that a tourist stays in the most reliable place of accommodation in the city is because there is no other alternative. It is possible for the tourist to choose the place directly when another business serving in the same region is opened (Bowen & Chen, 2001: p.215). Therefore, it can be said that repeat purchases which are evaluated as loyalty are not related to the state of affiliation, but due to the conditions.

Attitude Approach Loyalty and devotion are at the forefront in an attitude approach. This approach expresses the customer’s commitment to the product or service in an emotional and psychological way. However, the attitude approach is an approach for the customer to recommend the product or service to his/her friends or relatives, even if he/she has not used or experienced the product or service. Although the customer is emotionally and psychologically dependent in this approach, he is independent in his repurchase. For example, it is a tourist’s recommendation to others for the service he received from the hotel business he once stayed in, but he is independent to choose it again, as he thinks the hotel is too expensive for himself to go constantly (Bowen & Chen, 2001: p.215).

Unified (Mixed) Loyalty Approach The unified (mixed) loyalty approach is a mixture of attitudinal and behavioral approach. This approach is often preferred by airline and hotel businesses. The unified (mixed) loyalty approach is defined as an approach to create both behavioral and attitudinal loyalty in the customer through the percentage, frequency, quantity, and trend of purchases of these businesses (Kim et al., 2007). According to this approach, customer loyalty is evaluated as the customer’s attitude toward the business, the customer’s commitment to the products or services of the business, the repurchase continuation, and recommending the service to others (Değermen, 2006: p.79).

Loyalty Levels Customer loyalty covers a certain process. While evaluating this process, it is handled together with the loyalty levels. Loyalty levels are analyzed by Dick and Basu under two titles: relative attitude and repurchase behavior (Çatı and Koçoğlu, 2008).

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Table 13.1 Customer loyalty levels model

Relative attitude

High Low

Repurchase behavior High Absolute (strong) loyalty Spurious loyalty

Low Latent loyalty No loyalty

Source: Dick & Basu, 1994

According to Dick and Basu (1994), customers’ loyalty to the brand changes over time. The loyalty levels examined in this context are as follows: no loyalty, spurious loyalty, latent loyalty, and absolute (strong) loyalty. The model developed by Dick and Basu with their loyalty levels is presented in Table 13.1.

No Loyalty Looking at the model, customers with low repurchase and relative attitudes are in the no loyalty customer group. These customers will not generally aspire to the product or service. The reasons for this are the fact that the product or service has just entered the market and is ineffective, and the convenient service or product that can provide consumer satisfaction is not fully available (Çatı & Koçoğlu, 2008). One of the other reasons is savings (Değermen, 2006). The customer needs to be economical in order to meet all his needs, and this may be an obstacle to loyalty to the business (Hançer, 2003). All these reasons constitute the level of no loyalty.

Spurious Loyalty Looking at Dick and Basu’s model (1994), customers whose purchase behavior is high and low relative attitude constitute the level of superficial loyalty. Customers at this level are people who have made many purchases from the same business but have no emotional connection (Dick & Basu, 1994). So when the customer sees a more attractive enterprise, he/she can turn to it.

Latent Loyalty The latent loyalty model refers to a level of loyalty for tourists with low repurchase behavior and a high relative attitude. Although the customer does not receive any service, he/she may feel an emotional closeness to the business (Kurşunluoğlu, 2011). According to this model, the tourist may not have bought products or services but praises the business. This creates the level of secret loyalty. Business owners should learn about any existing negative thoughts in the customer and provide a solution in order to enable them to purchase and increase their continuity (İrik, 2005).

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Absolute (Strong) Loyalty Absolute (strong) loyalty model is a level of loyalty that is high repurchase behavior and high relative attitude. According to McGoldrick and Andre (1997), customers at absolute loyalty level have certain features. These features are expressed as laziness, convenience, time saving, closeness to space, and happiness (Çatı & Koçoğlu, 2008). Customers who has absolute loyalty level both have a positive attitude toward products or services and also benefit from the services of the same business. It is therefore the strongest level of loyalty (Shoemaker & Lewis, 1999: p.349).

Tools That Can Be Used in Creating Tourist Loyalty There are many different tools that can be used to create tourist loyalty. These tools can also be defined as marketing strategies used to ensure loyalty. Some of the tools used as strategy are relational marketing, information technologies and data-based marketing, loyalty programs, and frequency programs.

Relational Marketing Relational marketing is defined as establishing relationships with customers, maintaining and increasing these relationships (Grönroos, 1996: p.7). According to another definition, it is defined as long-term and profitable relations between producer and consumer (Gummesson, 1994: p.6). In general, relational marketing refers to establishing a bond by establishing profitable, interactive interactions with tourists and developing and maintaining these relations (Harker, 1999: p.16). Relational marketing that is preferred especially by tourism companies brings many facilities with the opportunities provided by technology. For example, it is much easier to create a database with tourist or visitor profiles and purchasing habits, thanks to technological possibilities. The databases that are created provide many personal communication opportunities, continuously and intensely (Yeniçeri & Erten, 2008: p.233). In this way, it is an important marketing strategy that is always used for businesses in terms of affecting customer loyalty in a positive way (Hunt et al., 2006: p.72).

Information Technologies and Data-Based Marketing Information technology and data-based marketing is an important tool in which technology is used more effectively in relation to relational marketing. Data-based marketing that is used effectively, thanks to information technologies, is a customeroriented marketing strategy for maintaining relationships in the future, depending on the density of information (Çoban, 2005). In order to use this strategy effectively, the possibilities of information technologies and demographic information such as

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name, address, age, income level, education level of many information, cultural difference, behavior and lifestyle, purchasing power, and habits (Akyol et al., 2004) must be transferred to the database. From this perspective, data-based marketing involves a process. Using this information as a motivation tool and establishing a sustainable relationship are a part of this process in order to obtain sufficient information about existing customers and to be preferred again (Odabaşı, 2004: p.25). Thanks to this process that also includes technology, the service standards of businesses are going to the top level. Increasing customer loyalty can be inevitable when it comes to superior service standards (Lee et al., 2003).

Loyalty Programs Loyalty programs are one of the most important tools used for loyalty formation. The purpose of loyalty programs is to create customer loyalty by rewarding customers who purchase the same product or service again (Demirel, 2007: p.132). These programs which have an important marketing strategy started to develop by giving rewards to customers according to their spending rates in the 1990s. Programs that have become more widespread and developed over time have become quite common in many sectors (such as travel, accommodation) (Palmer et al., 2000). Loyalty programs can be implemented into two ways to increase loyalty and profitability by enabling customers to choose products or services again. These are loyalty cards and customer clubs.

Loyalty Cards Loyalty programs are all applications, rewards and incentives that will enable customers to retake the same product or service (Demoulin & Zidda, 2008). Loyalty cards are part of this program. Loyal cards are generally used to prevent the customer from going out of the program and not to prefer similar products or services. In this way, customer data and purchasing behavior can be stored in the digital database as information (Ziliani & Bellini, 2004). This stored information is also the first step of a strong relationship with the customer (Kulabas & Sezgin, 2003). The customer who spends through loyalty cards earns points during spending. The accumulated points can be used in their next shopping. At the points where the purchase action takes place, the customer’s purchases are recorded. The reward or incentive to be given to the customer is determined according to these expenditures (Allaway et al., 2006). Customer Clubs Another part of loyalty programs are customer clubs. These clubs are defined as “customer community initiated and managed by a business to communicate directly with customers and offer them a high value benefit package” (Gilmartin, 2002). The aim is to direct customers to repurchase and build loyalty by establishing an emotional bond with customers. A lot of information about customers is stored in digital form as data through customer clubs in order to provide customized product

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or service. Mutual satisfaction and customer loyalty formation is inevitable, thanks to this information that provides personal service (Selvi, 2007: p.84).

Frequency Programs Loyalty programs include efforts to establish a mutual bond with customers and to ensure their repeat purchases through this bond (Allaway et al., 2003). Frequency programs are the promotional efforts of customers to ensure repeat purchases (Taylor & Neslin, 2005). It is important to increase sales and profitability in the frequency program. Encouraging rewards are offered to customers through this program. Thanks to these rewards, customers are motivated to buy the same product or service again. Thus, the frequency of purchasing increases (Keh & Lee, 2006). The first of the frequency programs was seen in airlines with frequent flight practices in the service sector. Such applications may be to offer repeat flight opportunities or to provide a different status flight at the same price as the points collected by earning points (Kotler, 2003).

Technology Practices Providing Tourist Loyalty in and Around the Asian Tourism Industry Under this title, loyalty practices in the Asian tourism industry are discussed with different examples in different countries. There are loyalty practices directly through online booking sites in some examples, while in others there are loyalty programs implemented by direct tourism businesses. Related examples are presented in the following section.

Application 1: The Reztoran, Turkey The Reztoran is Turkey’s first real-time restaurant reservation site. It is operating in Turkey for almost 2 years. Reztoran is a platform that shows instantly which restaurant is located at what time, thanks to the digital reservation integration it provides to its contracted restaurants. It is also possible to access any information needed about restaurants (Reztoran, 2020a). The restaurant network of Reztoran is quite wide. Primary target group of Reztoran is holidaymakers fleeing from Istanbul to Cesme and Bodrum during holidays and weekends. Reztoran started working with beach clubs and night clubs as well as restaurants. Reztoran works with 85 places in İzmir and 60 places in Bodrum. The total number of restaurants that Reztoran serves in Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, and Bodrum is more than 900 (Reztoran, 2020b).

Reservation in Reztoran First of all, Reztoran requests membership from its users for the convenient use of the platform. Membership status is not required in order to find the availability of the

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place you want to visit according to the time and to see the menus, the place scoring status, and the comments. However, reservation can be made after the membership process. The process is defined through an example. For example, a tourist who travels to Bodrum for holiday purposes can determine which restaurant to choose, thanks to different alternatives (reviews, the most preferred and recommended, or different categories offered according to the purpose of departure). After determining the restaurant to be visited, it is still possible to find out if the restaurant has a suitable place for reservation. In case of availability, the tourist can make the reservation at any time. At the last stage, reservation confirmation is requested from the customer (tourist). For this, the confirmation process is completed with a message sent to the customer’s e-property or mobile phone.

Reztoran Loyalty Program Membership is a must for the Reztoran loyalty program. The customer who is a member can earn “RezPara” from every online reservation he/she participates in. When the customer becomes a member, RezPara worth 10 TL is defined to his account. RezPara worth 5TL is defined to the customer account for each reservation made with the login and participation. Therefore, the customer can earn RezPara with every reservation no matter the restaurant. RezPara can be spent in any restaurant with the words RezPara. However, it should be stated that the use of RezPara when booking from the website www.reztoran.com or mobile applications to be able to spend (Reztoran, 2020a).

Application 2: Miles & Smiles, Turkey Miles & Smiles is a private passenger loyalty program of Turkish Airlines (THY). THY started its life adventure with 5 planes and fewer than 30 employees on May 20, 1933, and is an airline flying to many countries of the World which is in its 87th year. The Miles & Smiles program started under the name “Frequent Flyer” in 1989 and was combined with Qualiflyer which was led by Swiss Air between 1998 and 2000. In 2000, after Turkish Airlines left the group, it continued as Miles & Smiles (Turkishairlines, 2020a, 2020b).

Earning Miles with Miles & Smiles Membership is required to take advantage of Miles & Smiles benefits. There is no fee for membership. It is suitable for use by all individuals over 2 years old. In order to benefit from Miles & Smiles, membership applications can be made through digital media or directly from THY sales offices. Miles & Smiles members are able to earn bonus miles from purchases made using Garanti Bank Miles & Smiles credit card by spending money from other partner companies by stating status miles from domestic and foreign scheduled flights of Turkish Airlines from program partner airlines flights and by renting cars from program partner car rental companies (Turkishairlines, 2020c).

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Fig. 13.1 Miles & Smiles membership cards. (Source: Turkishairlines, 2020c)

Miles & Smiles Loyalty Program There are four levels of membership available under the program. As shown in Fig. 13.1, these memberships are defined by the cards that are given to the users and enable them to follow the expenses of the users in digital environment. Classic Card (it is the starting card of the program), Classic Plus Card (members of the Classic Card who have been flying 25,000 Status Miles in the last 12 months earn this right, and the validity period of this application is 2 years), Elite Card (members of Classic Plus Card who have earned 40,000 Status Miles in the last 12 months are entitled to this right, and validity period is 2 years), and Elite Plus Card (members who have earned 80,000 Status Miles in the last 12 months are eligible for this right, and validity is 2 years) are the membership loyalty programs based on travel and usage frequency (Turkishairlines, 2020b). Status Miles are miles earned from flights with Turkish Airlines and program partner airlines. Only Status Miles are taken as a basis for upgrade to a higher level of membership or to maintain that level of membership. Bonus Miles are miles earned from other partner companies (hotels, car rental companies, Shop & Miles credit card expenses, etc.). Bonus Miles earned are added to the total miles of the member and can be used for any program reward. Earned miles can be used for reward tickets on Turkish Airlines and program partner airline flights, accompanying tickets on Turkish Airlines flights and online upgrades (Star Alliance Upgrade Reward) for Star Alliance member airlines (Turkishairlines, 2020c). Application 3: Yatra.com, India Yatra is an Indian online travel agency and travel search engine. Yatra.com is based in India and is one of India’s leading online travel companies. It is the parent company of Yatra Online Pvt. Ltd. which operates the Yatra.com website. The company provides information for domestic and international air travel, domestic and international hotel reservations, holiday packages, buses, trains, city activities, intercity transportation, hostels and travel information, pricing, and availability options. Looking at Yatra’s accommodation options platform, it offers real-time reservations for over 83,000 hotels in India and over 500,000 hotels worldwide. Yatra that founded in August 2006 was selected as the most reliable e-commerce travel brand of India in 2016 as a result of the Economic Times Brand Value Survey. It also received the best domestic tour operator award at the India Tourism Awards held in September 2017 (Yatra.com, 2020). Yatra eCash Loyalty Program Yatra.com has a loyalty program that is considered to be very profitable for customers. The name of this program is “eCash” program. The program has been

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developed for customers to save on every reservation made at Yatra.com. The main purpose of the program is to ensure brand loyalty and customer loyalty. The eCash program was started in 2014. 1 eCash equals 1INR (Indian rupee) in the program that is claimed to have a simple structure. ECash is integrated with the payment process. According to Yatra.com, this makes it problem-free and easier to use eCash. There are no deduction dates when using eCash. It is stated that stronger connections can be established with both new and old consumers, thanks to the program. Yatra.com states that the eCash program has made significant contributions to repeat purchases and that more than 81% of its customers return to them for future purchases. eCash usage time is 30 days. A customer whose eCash has expired in 30 days can transfer his/her eCash to someone else he/she knows to take advantage of reservation benefits. There are no restrictions on how many times the transfer can be made. Customer can transform their expired eCash to shopping coupons in more than 20 brands (BigBasket, Jabong, Urban Ladder, and Croma some of which Yatra has contracts). According to Yatra.com data, more than 1000 customers use shopping coupons daily in exchange for expired eCash. Customers have the opportunity to access Yatra in various ways. These are a user-friendly website, WAP site, and applications optimized for mobile devices, a multilingual call center, Holiday Lounges network, and Yatra Travel Express stores (Yatra.com, 2020).

Application 4: Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC), India Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Company is a subsidiary of Indian Railways. Indian Railways carry out catering, tourism, and online ticketing. Ticket reservations can be made via SMS or website. At the same time, both PNR status and instant train status can be checked via SMS. The company provides an e-ticket service including PNR code such as a regular after-sales ticket when booking online. The ticket is sent to the customer via e-mail. Related services are valid for both suburban and seasonal travel. IRCTC provides its users with a program called Rolling Deposit Scheme (RDS) for use in e-ticket reservations and ticket purchases. This program is the payment option offered through a card. Users can load money on the card using the RDS card. Being an RDS user provides privileges in reservation. At the same time, the progress of the process can be achieved quickly (without payment confirmation or extra fee deduction) through this card without the need for a credit card when buying a ticket. Also, being an RDS user on contracted flights and accommodation provides convenience in reservation services and purchases (Indian railways, 2020).

IRCTC Package Tours IRCTC organizes affordable and luxury package tours for domestic and foreign tourists. Affordable package tours covering important touristic places in India are called “Bharat Darshan.” Tours such as luxury tourism package covering the same content are realized with private luxury trains (Buddhist Circuit Train and Maharajas’ Express). In this way, Indian Railways (2020) also offered tour packages for

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contracted (conventional) tourism and tour packages regarding adventure tourism (water sports, adventure and wildlife trips, etc.) created according to special needs.

Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC), Shubh Yatra Loyalty Program It offers a Shubh Yatra program that provides discounts on rail fares for frequent travelers. A membership is required to benefit from the program. The facilities offered with a special card called Shubh Yatra card can be used. Reservations provide them to earn “Railway Points” when members book tickets through www. irctc.co.in in the Shubh Yatra loyalty program. These points can be used when necessary. The accumulation of these points depends on the frequency of reservation and ticket purchase. Indian Railways has partnered with the Indian State Bank to start the IRCTC-SBI loyalty program. Users can use an SBI co-branded credit card, where they can request reimbursement and earn reward points over the reservation amount paid to reserve train tickets. Users can use the reward points earned from the SBI-IRCTC co-branded credit card for free rail tickets at www.services.irctc.co.in to buy train tickets when they have at least 500 Railway Points. Railway Points can only be earned on first Class AC, second Class AC, Executive Chair Car, and AC Chair Car travels. According to IRCTC, passengers can receive cash up to 10 percent of the ticket reservation amount of the AC class with a co-branded credit card. Railway Points are awarded only for full tickets (are not awarded on concessional tickets or transactions involving vouchers). The user must be one of the passengers on the ticket in order to earn Rail Points. In addition, Railway Points are given only on the price of individual loyal members. Railway Points are transferred to the user’s account 5 days after the date of travel provided that the ticket is not canceled (Shubh yatra, 2020).

Application 5: ONYX Hospitality Group, Thailand ONYX Hospitality Group is a hotel management company based in Bangkok, Thailand. The company is responsible for the development and management of Amari, Shama, and OZO hotel brands, growing in Southeast Asia, Greater China, and Australia. Hotel brands that ONYX Hospitality Group is responsible for are also chain hotels. Amari is a hotel chain with property in Hua Hin, Pattaya, Phuket, Krabi, Koh Samui, Bangkok, Vang Vieng, Buriram, Doha, Dhaka, Maldives, Johor Bahru, Galle, and Yangshuo. Shama is a hotel chain located in Hong Kong, China, and Bangkok. OZO has properties in Thailand, Hong Kong, and Sri Lanka (Onyx Hospitality, 2020a).

ONYX Rewards Loyalty Program ONYX Rewards is a hotel loyalty program that can earn points from stays at ONYX hotels. The program is a system in which travel experiences of the company turn into a reward in hotels and resorts serving in Thailand, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Greater China, and other Asian countries. First of all, membership is required to benefit from

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Fig. 13.2 ONYX membership cards. (Source: Onyx Hospitality, 2020b)

the program. Afterward, members are given membership cards in three categories (as in Fig. 13.2) in order to keep track of the current accommodation status of the members, to keep track of the points, and to be instantly recognized. The cards shown in Fig. 13.2 are given to the members as Silver (0–14 nights/ year), Gold (15–39 nights/year), and Platinum (40 nights/year) cards according to the overnight period. Members can take advantage of the relevant rewards based on the advantages offered with these cards. For example, the bonus point is 25% on the Gold card and 50% on the platinum card. Points are used to benefit from free overnight opportunities (free overnight starts starting from 7000 points). According to another example, 10% discount is provided for all cards in the restaurant and spa, while special check-in and check-out is only available to Platinum card users. Customers with card membership are aware of ONYX discounts or big sales events before anyone else and can gain early access to advantages (Onyx Hospitality, 2020b).

Application 6: Vega Izmailovo Hotel and Convention Center, Moscow, Russia Izmailovo Hotel is a hotel with four buildings in the Izmaylovo District of Moscow, Russia. These buildings are separated from each other as Alpha, Beta, Vega, and Gamma-Delta hotels and are managed independently. Izmailovo Hotel serves as a four-star hotel at the Vega Izmailovo Hotel that is part of the hotel complex (Hotel Vega, 2020a). Vega Izmailovo Hotel and Convention Center Guest Loyalty Program: There are some prerequisites to take advantage of the program and obtain a guest card in this application. These prerequisites are to book a room on the hotel’s official website and to stay 5 nights in 12 months. When the related prerequisites are fulfilled, a “Frequent Guest” card can be obtained from the hotel reception. Then, the guest card status changes according to the amount of points the guest accumulates, and the guest’s status increases or decreases accordingly. The privileges of each card differ in itself such as check-in/check-out operations, room upgrades, breakfast facilities, welcome types, promotions, and allocation of points. These cards shown in Fig. 13.3 are Gold Card, Platinum Card, and Diamond Card. For example, Gold card is given for stays of 16 to 31 days in a year. When booking accommodation, the reservation is made with the Gold promotional code. In this way, electronic tickets are cut with the code number. Platinum card is given for

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Fig. 13.3 Vega Izmailovo Hotel and Convention Center loyalty card. (Source: Hotel Vega, 2020b)

stays of 32 to 50 days a year. For reservation, the user of this card makes the reservation with the Platinum promotional code. Diamond card is given to guests staying more than 50 days in a year. Reservation is made with the Diamond promotional code like the others. The Diamond card implements five trips (for 7 nights or more) by metro unlike other cards and the loyalty program with rewards such as Aeroexpress ticket (for five trips and above) (Hotel Vega, 2020b).

Conclusion Today, businesses apply many different loyalty programs and marketing approaches, thanks to the opportunities offered by technology for the formation of tourist loyalty. There are many features that businesses must meet in order to create customer loyalty. Service quality, satisfaction, and trust are some of them. However, many enterprises try to fulfill these features as much as possible in a competitive environment in order to gain the customer who is alive and to increase the customer that is alive. For this, it is important for businesses to have some applications that can separate them from their counterparts and make a difference. In particular, the fact that these applications are based on rewards can play an important role and the differentiation of rewards is quite high in customer loyalty when the frequency of preference increases. However, it should not be forgotten that relational and databased marketing are part of this formation. It emerges at this stage the importance of technology, Internet, mobile device usage, telephone applications, and access opportunities provided by the Internet. Today, it is much easier to be in direct contact with the customer, to provide access at any time, to keep track of customer preferences by keeping the information about the customer in the database, and to keep up to date with what these customers expect and are satisfied with these technological opportunities. The conveniences offered by these technological facilities make it possible for employee online travel agencies and reservation sites to apply loyalty programs to their customers especially in partnership with tourism businesses or businesses. Businesses that implement this with their membership and loyalty cards offer their customers the opportunity to benefit from many opportunities within their frequent use. The Asian tourism industry is an important sector that actively uses loyalty programs within the sub-branches of tourism (accommodation, food and beverage, transportation companies, online or existing travel agencies) thanks to the convenience of technology. Considering that the Asian tourism industry will be the most sought-after industry in the future, it is important to examine at which point

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technology applications are used to ensure tourist loyalty and how loyalty programs are used within the said use. Therefore, by considering the customer perspective within the chapter, tourist loyalty has been extensively studied and examples of businesses and programs in some Asian countries implementing loyalty programs. It should be noted that the formation of tourist loyalty is not only achieved through loyalty programs. The positive attitude of a business staff or the physical appearance of the business or the food and beverage service of the business and many other qualities are very important in the formation of loyalty. Because even if an enterprise that does not provide these qualities applies very different loyalty programs and offers very different rewards, it cannot create customer loyalty and loyalty under these conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to think of each feature as the link of a chain and loyalty practices as the basic node that connects this chain. However, it becomes preferable for the customer when the services are provided as a whole. Technology should be used as a privilege at every stage of service delivery so that the Asian tourism industry can develop rapidly and adapt to the new generation of tourists. However, the positioning of this technology should not only apply to hospitality businesses or entertainment centers. It is imperative that service providers integrate with technological applications, offering different alternatives for tourists, from transportation companies to accommodation, entertainment, and food and beverage businesses. Therefore, technology and digital possibilities should be actively used in all areas providing service, because technological applications and digital possibilities are time-saving, fast service delivery, and no extra effort required for tourists. For example, a guest staying in the hospitality establishment can get into the elevator, enter the room, or take advantage of the spa service thanks to the facial recognition technology without touching anywhere. According to another example, a customer serving in a restaurant can see the menu, place an order, or pay an account without contacting the waiter by using the square code system at his desk via the phone application or such as the fact that the tourist can book online, buy a room/buy a flight ticket, and check in/check out (such as accommodation, transportation) through reservation applications. For this reason, while benefiting from all kinds of privileges of technology provides many advantages, it can be used as an important strategy in creating a new customer and customer loyalty formation. The integration of the technology mentioned above can be made compatible with the unique characteristics of each tourism type based on the tourism types. In other words, technology should be combined with different alternatives of tourism in this period when tourists are not only dependent on mass tourism. In order for Asian tourism to be positioned correctly in the future and for the faithful tourist to be inevitable, this issue is considered to be important in terms of tourism types. At the same time, it is predicted that it will gain a different perspective in supporting/ highlighting the attractiveness of tourism. For example, if a tourist participating in cultural tourism wants to perform an individual tourism action, the tourist should be able to travel with technological possibilities without the need for a guide. At the same time, the tourist should be able to access any instant information during the trip. Tourist should be able to experience the history of the place visited in a virtual

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environment even with virtual reality and augmented reality applications. In this way, the tourist can both access information and virtualize the experiences of the place visited on site or a health tourist who wants to take advantage of the health benefits of Asian countries can get rid of health problems comfortably and quickly thanks to technological opportunities. Even tourists can easily regain their health in highly sterile and hygienic environments with the opportunities offered by technological facilities. Such opportunities may cause it to be preferred again as a destination in the countries offering these opportunities. Therefore, it is important that Asian tourism countries that host these types of tourism cooperate with service providers. In this way, loyal customers/tourists can be created through different channels and different technological alternatives (such as virtual reality, augmented reality). Considering that loyal customers are an important tool in acquiring new customers, turning this situation into an opportunity can provide huge gains.

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Part VIII Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Tourist Behavior

Paper to Paperless: Adoption of Digital Examination and Behavioral Intention Among Tourism Students

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Senthilkumaran Piramanayagam and Raghavendra G

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conventional Versus Innovative Practice in Student Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Innovation for Sustainable Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Demographic Profile of the Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing of Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion and Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

The impact of information and communication technology (ICT) has brought in many changes in current teaching and learning in tourism. Educational institutions prefer to move from pen and paper approach to other viable options to conduct the examinations with enhanced efficiency and security. Digital exam pad (e-Pad) is an innovative device that allows the students to have identical experience and convenience which a pen and paper examination provides. The study has conducted to identify the antecedents that influence tourism students’ adoption and behavioral intention to use e-Pad through the technology acceptance model. Data was collected from the students’ tourism in a private university in India. The data for the research is collected through a structured questionnaire. The result of the structural equation model reveals that perceived usefulness

S. Piramanayagam (*) · R. G Welcomgroup Graduate School of Hotel Administration, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_14

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(PU) and perceived ease of use of e-Pad have a positive impact on students’ attitude toward the use of e-Pad for their examination. Students’ attitude toward the e-Pad has a positive effect on the tourism students’ intention to use the e-Pad for their examination in the future. The finding of the study will help educational institutions to adopt e-Pad for examination. Keywords

Paperless · Examination · e-Pad · Technology acceptance model · Tourism students

Introduction The United Nations has proposed tourism development as a tool to support Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) (UNWTO, 2014). Slocuma, Dimitrove, and Webb (2019) narrate that higher educational institutions in tourism have an ethical and moral responsibility to contribute to the long-term success of sustainable goals by integrating the value of sustainability in higher education. Transformation and adoption of technology by higher education is a mean to protect, restore, and promote sustainable consumption of resources. The invention of new technology gives a variety of choices to the society in facilitating a scarce resource abundant. The impact of information and communication technology (ICT) has changed the way how teaching and learning happened in the past. The use of ICT does not imply the introduction of new technology, but the integration of ICT, which facilitates a learner-centered educational approach (Pelgrum and Voogt, 2009). It has brought in many changes in current teaching and learning practices. Adopting innovative technology is a viable option for reforms in education. Introduction of ICT in education is believed to have a multiplier effect on the education system. It facilitates the students, teachers, and the educational service providers (UNESCO, 2014). There have been many research studies conducted on ICT adoption in learning and teaching in higher education (Andoha and Issifu, 2015; Barak and Ziv, 2013). Research related to the application of ICT is mostly restricted to online examination and e-assessment (Llamas-Nistal et al., 2013). Studies on the user perspective of technologies that support the evaluation process at higher education students are scarce. However, it is critical to understand user’s adoption and intention behaviors as it will have an effect on the progress in the adoption of innovative technologies by the educational institutions and its role to contribute to the environmental sustainability. Despite its significance in higher education, there have been very few studies on unconventional technological devices which give the comparable experience to the students offered by a conventional examination process. This study aims to gain an insight into the antecedents that influence students: adoption and behavioral intention toward digital exam pad considering the existing research gap.

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Conventional Versus Innovative Practice in Student Evaluation Pen and paper is the most prevalent traditional examination method. Students prefer the conventional pen and paper approach for writing examination as compared to typing the answers online (Llamas-Nistal et al., 2013). However, the most common challenges faced by pen and paper examination are transportation, storage, and security-related issues before, during, and after the examination. Problems such as paper leaks and cheating during the examination are pervasive in pen and paper examination. Educational institutions have to go to great lengths to ensure their examinations meet the highest standards of internal, public scrutiny and are always fair and just to faculty and students alike. Educational institutions prefer to move from pen and paper approach to other viable options to conduct the examinations with enhanced efficiency and security.

Digital Innovation for Sustainable Higher Education Digital exam pad (e-Pad) is an innovative device that allows the students to have identical experience and convenience which a pen and paper examination provides. It is a hardware device that assists students in writing both descriptive and objective examinations, just like traditionally with pen and paper. The device allows long answers in examinations to be written with a stylus, similar to a pen. The device has integrated with tools such as calculators, finely calibrated geometric instruments, with the option of “papers”– plain, ruled, and graph. It also allows using multimedia and other rich content in exam questions which is not feasible in the conventional examination. The e-Pad works in a digitized ecosystem. The entire process of conducting an exam, from the authoring of question paper to delivering question paper at the time of examination, writing of examination, evaluating the students’ responses, and publication of the results, could be accomplished digitally. E-Pad eliminates the necessity of paper in the entire process and also ensures a sustainable environment as paperless examination leads to the prevention of loss of forest cover. However, the success in the introduction and implementation of innovative technology depends on students’ adoption and readiness to migrate from paper to e-Pad.

Technology Adoption Getting an insight into the antecedents of adoption and rejection of new technology by a user is critical for deployment and its usage. Technology adoption is defined as “the implementation of software and hardware technology in an organisation to increase productivity, competitive advantage, improve processing speed, and make information readily available” (Davis et al., 1989). There are many theories developed to explain the user’s intention to adopt new technology. Among the various theoretical models which explain and predicts users’ adopting of ICT, the technology acceptance model

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(TAM) is a robust, validated, and widely used theoretical model (Kwok and Yang, 2017; Hamida et al., 2015). TAM was initially developed during 1980 (Davis et al., 1989) to measure the employees’ readiness, adoption, and willingness to use information technology. The TAM model helps to know individuals’ readiness to adopt the new technology and their intention to continue its usage in future. TAM was adopted to measure students’ acceptance and behavioral intention of many new technologies (Hamida et al., 2015). The TAM concluded that whenever a user is presented with a new technology, user behavioral intention is determined by two factors, namely, “perceived usefulness” and “perceived ease of use.” Perceived usefulness (PU) is defined as “the extent to which a person believes that using a particular technology will enhance her/his job performance” (Davis, 1989). PU is considered as a direct predictor of user attitude and their behavioral intention in the use of new technology. Previous research studies on various forms of technological acceptance have found that PU has a positive impact on user attitude and their behavioral intention (Baker-Eveleth and Stone, 2015; Dwivedi et al., 2017; Park et al., 2017). Perceived ease of use (PEU) is another factor that positively influences the attitude and behavioral intention. PEU is defined as “the degree to which a person believes that using a technology will be free from effort” (Davis, 1989). Individuals prefer to adopt new technology if they perceive that new technology is relatively easy to use and learn. Attitude (ATT) acts an antecedent that determines an individual’s intention to use of new technology in the future (Wong et al., 2013: Cheung and Vogel, 2013). Behavioral intention (BI) is the subjective probability of individual tendency to adopt or accept or follow or display a favorable or unfavorable behavior. If individuals’ attitude is more positive towards the new technology, stronger his behavioural intention and vice versa (Cheung and Vogel, 2013). Based on the TAM model literature, the following hypotheses are framed: H1: Perceived usefulness (PU) has a direct positive impact on user attitude (ATT) toward e-Pad H2: Perceived usefulness (PU) has a direct positive impact on behavioral intention (BI) in using e-Pad H3: Perceived ease of use (PEU) has a direct positive impact on user attitude (ATT) toward e-Pad H4: Perceived ease of use (PEU) has a direct positive impact on behavioral intention (BI) in using e-Pad H5: User’s attitude (ATT) positively influences the behavioral intention (BI) in using e-Pad. A research model has been developed based on the TAM along with the proposed hypotheses, and it is presented in Fig. 14.1. The quantitative research approach is adopted in the study. This study is descriptive in nature. Data is collected from the students who are pursuing undergraduate and postgraduation in tourism and hospitality. The institution is a constituent institute of a private university in Karnataka. A structured questionnaire is used for collecting the data. All variables in the questionnaire are adapted from the review of the literature. A five-point Likert scale is used to measure all the items in the scale,

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H2 PU

H1 H3

PEU

ATT

H5

BI

H4

Fig. 14.1 Proposed model. (Source: Developed by the authors, 2020)

where “1” denotes strongly disagree and “5” denotes strongly agree. The population of the study was about 1150 students, and 393 students had responded to the survey. After validating the response, 388 responses are considered for further analysis. The data is analyzed using IBM SPSS Version 15, a statistical software commonly used by social science researchers.

Demographic Profile of the Respondents Among the total 388 students, 215 students are male, and 173 students are female. Ninety-three percent of the students are competent in computer-related skills. About 55 percent of the students participated in the demonstration classes on the use of digital exam pad (e-Pad) for examination, and 32 percent of the respondents have participated in the demonstration twice. The descriptive statistics on students’ perspective on the perceived ease of use (PEU), perceived usefulness (PU), and the future behavioral intention (BI) to use the e-Pad is presented in Table 14.1. It is interpreted from Table 14.1 that students have agreed that e-Pad helps them in completing their examination quickly and also helps their answering effectiveness. Majority of the respondent has perceived that it is easy to use e-Pad since they have a good understanding on the usage of e-Pad and also agreed that using e-Pad is more comfortable than using paper for the examination. However, students moderately agree that e-Pad helps in their performance in the examination. The overall satisfaction score shows that respondents were satisfied with the usage of e-Pad for their examination. An overall score of behavioral intention score reveals that they prefer to use the e-Pad in the future too.

Testing of Hypotheses Various hypotheses developed through the review of literature are tested through structural equation modelling (SEM). SEM is a statistical method which helps to explain the relationship between different variables. It assesses a series of multiple

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Table 14.1 Descriptive statistics on students’ perspective on adoption of e-Pad Students’ perception of the adoption of e-Pad Perceived usefulness (PU) e-pad helps me in accomplishing the task more quickly e-pad improved my effectiveness in the way of answering the questions e-pad improved my performance in the examination e-pad is useful in writing the examination Overall score of perceived usefulness (PU) Ease of use (EU) e-pad is very easy to use in the examination I have easily understood how e-pad operates I am skilled in operating e-pad for my examination e-pad is easier than using paper for an examination Overall score of ease of use (EU) Attitude toward the usage of e-pad I have enjoyed using the e-pad for my examination I felt good in using an e-pad for examination Overall score on attitude Behavioral intention (BI) In the future, I have great intention to use the e-pad for examination I prefer to use the e-pad for my examination Overall behavioral intention score

Mean (standard deviation) 4.02 (1.23) 3.70 (1.22) 3.45 (1.26) 3.85 (1.28) 3.75 (1.08)

4.55 (1.30) 4.72 (1.22) 4.97 (1.11) 4.00 (1.39) 3.56 (1.06) 4.41 (1.36) 4.40 (1.39) 4.40 (1.42) 4.36 (1.33) 4.36 (1.13) 4.30 (1.29)

Source: Study results, 2020

regression equations simultaneously. The main advantage of SEM over other statistical method is it can examine the series of the relationship between variables concurrently. Unobserved or latent constructs could be represented as a measured variable that helps in the statistical estimation of any theoretical relationship. SEM is a two-step process consisting of developing a measurement model and a structural model. Measurement model helps to examine the relationship between the latent variables and its measures, where the structural model estimates the relationship between latent variables. The fitted measurement model is presented in Fig. 14.2. The statistical fit of the relationship among observed variables and their related latent constructs in the measurement model can be evaluated using various fit indices. The fitness of the measurement model against the cutoff values of different fit indices is given in Table 14.2. The critical limit cutoff values are taken from Hu and Bentler (1999). The result in Table 14.2 shows that there is a good internal consistency between observed and latent variables. The value of chi-square, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), goodness of fit index (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI), and comparative fit index (CFI) of the fitted model against the critical value or standard acceptance value narrates that the identified model has a fair fit for further analysis. The relationship between observed and latent variables has a good fit.

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Fig. 14.2 Measurement model. (Source: Study results, 2020)

Table 14.2 Measurement model summary Fit indices CMIN/DF GFI CFI AGFI RMSEA

Actual values of model (85.6/29) ¼ 2.957 0.956 0.983 0.917 0.07

Source: Study results, 2020

Critical limit 0.90 >0.95 >0.90 0.6 indicates performance that meets the requirements and according to mutual agreement among respondents. Distribution of Respondents Throughout the Indonesian Archipelago (Fig. 22.1).

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Table 22.1 Respondents of focus group discussions No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Each group discussions’ topics Artificial intelligence Augmented reality marketing Big data Blockchain Cloud computing Chatbot Emerging technology High-performance computing Internet of things Payment gateway Recognition technology Wireless connectivity

Number of respondents including experts 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45

Source: Modified from Kim et al., 2019

Fig. 22.1 A map showing Indonesia’s 34 provinces and their capital cities (Zakky, 2018)

Sumatera Island 1. Nanggro Aceh Darussalam Province and its capital Banda Aceh. 2. North Sumatra Province and its capital Medan. 3. West Sumatra Province and its capital Padang. 4. South Sumatra Province and its capital Palembang. 5. Lampung Province and its capital Bandar Lampung. Java Island 6. DKI Jakarta Province and its capital Jakarta. 7. Yogyakarta Special Region Province and its capital Yogyakarta. Nusa Tenggara and Bali Island 8. Bali Province and its capital Denpasar. 9. West Nusa Tenggara Province and its capital Mataram.

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Kalimantan Island 10. West Kalimantan Province and its capital Pontianak. 11. East Kalimantan Province and its capital Samarinda. Sulawesi Island 12. North Sulawesi Province and its capital Manado. 13. Gorontalo Province and its capital Gorontalo. Maluku Islands and Papua 14. Maluku Province and its capital Ambon. 15. Papua Province and its capital Jayapura. All respondents rated that most tourism-hospitality industries in Indonesia (Table 22.2) use cloud computing information technology (21.28%) and highperformance computing (20.74%). Both of these technologies are widely used in the smart tourism and hospitality industry (STHI). Cloud computing services have a large enough capacity to accommodate the data that users need. Therefore, the data applications can be accessed or owned by Internet users more easily. With the cloud computing service, start-up tourism businesses no longer need to worry about their business can still run (Yang et al., 2017). Moreover, cloud computing in Tabanan Bali has used this technology to support tourism environmental management information systems and ticket payment processes. Besides, they made tourism business management flexible. Besides, they recorded tourist behavior. Furthermore, the use of artificial intelligence, Internet optics, and high-level computing or high-performance computing (HPC) in the tourism and hospitality industry is very helpful in facilitating access to digital information that is indispensable for tourists. The collaboration also emphasizes digital transformation and an environment based on tourist information technology. This collaboration is expected to encourage better data transparency in the world of tourism and hospitality. In the Table 22.2 Information technology in smart tourism

Indicators Artificial intelligence Augmented reality marketing Big data Blockchain Cloud computing Chatbot Emerging technology High-performance computing Internet of things Payment gateway Recognition technology Wireless connectivity K ¼ 0,35

Value 22 10 8 11 40 8 9 39 19 15 3 5

Source: Modified from González-Rodríguez et al., 2020

% Freq 11.70 5.32 4.26 5.85 21.28 3.72 4.79 20.74 10.11 7.98 1.60 2.66

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end, this also has an impact on increasing revenue, cost efficiency, and transparency in managing tourism data that is more efficient from upstream to downstream. The use of HPC technology for this big data varies, including for recording tourism and hospitality business transactions, financial records, telecommunications, video surveillance, climate, disaster, as well as other information to convey through the website. In addition, HPC has maximum performance with minimal electrical power (Isler & Widmer, 2020; More et al., 2020). Secondly, the second level of priority results from the questionnaire tabulation indicated that artificial intelligence (11.70%) and internet of things (10.11%) became their second choice in supporting the development of STHI. AI technology can determine the exact complaints about guests and see the complaint originates about room services so that it can be immediately followed up. Through this technology, hotel owners will be able to predict the moment that rooms fully occupied through AI analysis based on guest check-in trends. The government together with the perpetrators of tourism in the future must begin to develop artificial intelligence (AI). In the future, AI is the key to winning the competition. With AI, all digital data can be processed to analyze consumer trends, changes into consumer behavior and interests, as well as what consumers needed do. For the government, AI is very important to support and settling down policies and regulations. As for tourism, AI needed to improve services and business decision-making. It cannot be helped that AI becomes an important instrument in winning the world tourism competition in the digital era, and the local government and tour operator must be able to build cooperation with tourism start-up developers. It started from the developers of travel applications, accommodation, fintech, banking, and other services (Prentice et al., 2020; Webster & Ivanov, 2020). As one of the pioneers of AI and Natural Language Processing (NLP) technology in Indonesia, conversational AI technology is a platform that focuses on facilitating interaction between computers and humans. AI is updating the word platform products of an integrated conversational platform. Unlike before where this platform only focused on the chatbot development process, this latest platform was developed to be a one-stop solution for developing and managing conversational AI solutions, ranging from managing conversations, developing virtual assistants for companies, integration between chatbots and operations customer service, making voice-based virtual assistants to managing marketing campaign activities. These features were designed to create solutions by facilitating interaction with users through text conversations (chat) or through speech by voice. With the product update on Kata Platform, it will provide several solutions such as conversation management, development of virtual assistants for companies, integration between chatbots and customer service operations, creating voice-based virtual assistants, and managing to market campaign activities. With this platform for developer-based technology, AI can work with developers, business people, and experts from various sectors to build more solutions that are relevant. Information about tourist data in real time has not been sufficient to cause tourist mobility that is not well controlled, while there arises concentration of tourist mobility that has an impact on the disparity between tourist areas. On the other

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hand, the development of increasingly sophisticated technology brings the world to the technology patterns. IoT (Internet of Things) is one of the concepts in this era, which in this case can be utilized in a tourism entrance data collection system that operated remotely on the Internet, so that data onto incoming and outgoing tourists can be recorded. However, this technology commonly used to control lights and room temperature. Meanwhile, the target of installing 200 million Internet of Things (IoT) sensors with average revenue per user (ARPU) reaches US$ 2 billion by all industrial sectors in Indonesia by 2020 (Mufaqih et al., 2019; Sánchez et al., 2020). This system designed by developing remote electronic device utilizes ultrasonic sensors and a microcontroller that is connected to an Internet server. It used an Ethernet module. This tool can be accessed to the Internet on websites and applications for mobile devices that designed. Through this system, tourists can get information related to the condition of the number of tourists that are in the destination in real time. Therefore, system users can choose destinations based on the latest data. The trial ran is to build miniature tourist entrances that connected to the IoT system and can be accessed in real time via online media. It hoped that this system could be used as a reference to the latest technology in overcoming problems of tourism mobility in Indonesia. The number of IoT devices currently installed is still 0.35 percent of the total target set. This year, the adoption of IoT sensors that have been realized in Indonesia reached 150 million devices or with ARPU equivalent to US $ 1.5 billion. The third choice of respondents for the information technology architecture they used in STHI were payment gateway (7.98%), blockchain (5.85%), and augmented reality marketing (5.32%). A payment gateway is a payment equivalent of a physical virtual terminal point of sale, which is located in most retail outlets, hotels, and several tourist destinations. Payment gateway (PG) performs an important role in processing and authorizing payments or transactions between customers and traders (Avhad et al., 2020). Furthermore, PG encrypts sensitive information and payment details. The Indonesian Fintech Association initiated and provided education on online payment transaction systems or payment gateways to the public and the tourism and hospitality industry for research on landscape payment gateways (PG). The function of PG and it also the role of other players to drive the digital economy, bearing in mind that this is something that has been declared by the government. PG accelerates the growth of the digital economy in Indonesia. It can quickly serve as a variety of new business models that arise due to technological developments and people’s lifestyles. Furthermore, PG is a solution to the fragmented payment channel conditions in Indonesia, which has been a barrier for small businesses to get into the payment system and grow. In general, Indonesia’s payment gateway service protects transactions through three tracking systems (Pon et al., 2020). Address Verification System (AVS) is a tool used to adjust customer billing data onto the address registered on the card. Payment Gateway Indonesia also usually uses 3D Secure Password to authorize transactions (Bozveliev et al., 2020). Four things could utilize blockchain in information technology, namely, money, passports, reservations, and insurance. Blockchain application of tourism is about

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money. It is not possible to pay with Bitcoin, and there are already many places and ATM machines that can help convert Bitcoin to local currency through crypt exchanges. Blockchain can also be used to store important documents such as passports, visas, permits, identity cards, and drivers’ license. Therefore, there will no longer be cases of fake or important documents stolen by criminals. That way, tourists can use their time more efficiently. Meanwhile, tourism insurance against blockchain technology that is decentralized peer to peer offers cheaper and transparent costs (Line et al., 2020). It is a good news for the world of tourism, especially for tourists that have a hobby of traveling through the world using Bitcoin. Bitcoin is known as a digital currency with various advantages, such as its nature controlled by a particular institution/ individual. It is affected by inflation, and it is safe to carry and transact anywhere because it moves on a peer-to-peer technology called blockchain. Bitcoin can be stored in electronic media that is within the grasp of tourists, such as smartphones they use, in the form of applications that are usually referred to as wallet or Bitcoin wallet. This wallet can be opened with the Web or in other devices so they also do not need to worry if their smartphone is lost because the money is still safely stored in the form of Bitcoin and can be accessed on other devices. With Bitcoin, they do not have to bother carrying large amounts of conventional money when traveling and no longer need to worry about holding a wallet. Until then, Bitcoin has great benefits of Hawaii because most of growing encourage economic growth of tourism. Not only in Hawaii but also in The Hague, Loyyal, a company engaged in technology in New York, is working with Dubai and Norway in integrating the tourism sectors of the two countries with blockchain technology. With augmented reality (AR) technology, guests can take a virtual tour of the rooms and around the hotel to find out the facilities and attractions offered around the hotel (Buhalis et al., 2019). Smart tourism supported by AR technology can enable tourists to carry out activities such as booking hotels, accessing information while at the destination, navigating to and around the destination, translating text or signs and conversations, and finding alternative dining options and entertainment. It can be done only through an application on mobile or smartphone devices. Therefore, this technology can revolutionize the experience of traveling at tourists to become smoother and easier (seamless), interactive, and simpler (Scarles et al., 2016). There are many ways to make it done to attract foreign tourists visiting Indonesia. One of them is Indonesia In Your Hands (IYH) augmented reality (AR) mobile application. Many of the tourists rely on an Internet connection between their cellphones to find information about the location of tourist destinations. To continue to develop tourism in Indonesia, the Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy is taking a step forward by supporting the promotion of Indonesia IYH, the AR mobile application. The purpose of developing this application is to make it easier about tourists to find information related to tourism objects and tourism support facilities through mobile phones that are always in their grasp. The AR Indonesia IYH mobile application is the first application of the world that has thousands of databases of tourism objects such as national parks, museums, cultural reserves, national zoos, and historical relics in Indonesia, which can be

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viewed only through a screen of a cellphone using this technology. The ability of this mobile application is to find the location of the nearest tourist attraction and find out information about these attractions based on the coordinates obtained from the cellphone. There are also room reservation facilities. This application can be used for mobile phones with technology such as Symbian, Android, iPhone, Blackberry, and Java. IYH’s work program includes creating an AR Miniature Park in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (TMII), where visitors can use their cellphones to view TMII in a unique and interesting way. Also, tourism in West Java became the first destination to make all attractions in West Java able to use AR as a means of tourism promotion. Promotion of tourism in Indonesia must be more mainstream in using digital media, especially again supported by AR technology to create a different color in the promotion of Indonesian tourism. In addition, a tourist destination that uses AR is city tourists that had mostly have trouble in finding a location from the place of interest in the form of rides and public facilities. At present, there is a solution to this problem, namely, the dissemination of the map the East Java are considering vulnerable causing errors in reading directions. Navigation applications that are able to overcome these problems through 100% conformity can be interpreted by considering navigation time. The fourth level of the respondents’ choice for supporting STHI is emerging technology (4.79%), big data (4.26%), and chatbot (3.72%). Emerging technologies (ET) served smart tourism both technically and through proven innovation. This requires the commercial maturation of tourism and hospitality. So it is economically feasible to be able to use the industrial scale of STHI. Generically, there is still a gap between research activities and technical services with the two industrial activities. To address these issues, commercialization efforts are need that had not been handling well so far. This commercialization includes business incubation, which finalizes an innovation that has been scientifically proven. So it is produced completely for the free market. Digital technology helps give birth to start-up industries and technopreneurship from new technologies or emerging technologies (ET) that have been proven to be more resilient to economic crises. In addition, ET facilitates and intermediates that can connect between science and technology providers and users in the tourism and hospitality industry (Edmunds et al., 2019; Halaweh, 2019; Khezri et al., 2020). Big data technology in Indonesia is very geographically broad and has insufficient infrastructure to cover border areas, such as North Kalimantan, East Papua, and Timor Island, not to mention the border at sea, which is far more difficult that caused administrative data onto foreign tourists to Indonesia (especially at land/sea borders) tend to be unpredictable (Xu et al., 2020). Big data helps tourism actors to accommodate and process the opinions of tourists in the form of complaints, criticisms, suggestions, and all testimonials both negative and positive (Inanc-Demir & Kozak, 2019). This intelligence centered displays the movement toward foreign tourists and tourists in real time updates including strategy data to deal with competitors: Malaysia as a common enemy and Thailand as a professional enemy for Indonesian tourism.

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Furthermore, data obtained from digital traces of tourists are obtained from various sources, such as social media, tourist portals, business applications, chatbots, and others. This data can be obtained directly (real time), so it is very useful for speed in decision-making. With this big data, actors in the tourism industry such as tourism service providers or destination managers can easily obtain data on tourist behavior such as movements, preferences, travel decisions, and hotel or restaurant selection activities. In addition, positive and negative indicators are also displays referring to the global standard. Meanwhile, the use of big data in the tourism sector has been appealing to several European countries, Estonia, which has been conducting statistics with Mobile Positioning Data (MPD) since 2009. Furthermore, Belgium, Ireland, Spain, and the Netherlands have conducted pilot studies of data roaming. Chatbot application for tourist information makes it easier about tourists to find information about the addresses of tourist attractions. This application was built with the use of Natural Language Processing approach. This chatbot application uses text mining as a medium for reasoning. The modeling system used for this application is the Unified Model Language. WeChat and Facebook Messenger have taken advantage of chatbot technology. Users can now buy something by talking to chatbot. This shows that in the future, the era of human interaction or communication with computers or machines will become common. It has been starting since now. Chat service used an automated system or autoresponder. In tourism and hospitality information services, the media chat is only a chat tool for tourists that means they are chatting with the speaker or reciprocating their conversation. The chatbot reply to the conversation or respond is a robot that is set as an autoresponder (Haldén & Yao Håkansson, 2020; Ruf et al., 2020; Saglam & Nurse, 2020). Finally, the last level priority of the respondent opinion in using information technology to support STHI is wireless connectivity (2.66%) and recognition technology (RT, 1.60%). Strong wireless connectivity coverage is wireless Internet connection technology in hotels or tourist destinations through access points that provide wide and strong coverage in all rooms and indoor and outdoor areas such as swimming pools, parks, and others. Tourism and mobile device solutions, allowing facilities available the smart desk control the temperature or a digital hotel tour and access hotel services, arrange wake-up calls, install alerts to not being disturbed, and order dinning services at room. This RT opens the hotel rooms by the guest. Meanwhile, Angkasa Pura II Indonesia began using facial recognition technology, biometric facial recognition technology (BFRT), for the process of checking in and boarding to the aircraft at Banyuwangi International Airport to automate passenger flow to better ensure flight safety (Liao, 2016). The concept of Eco-Green Airport itself is seen from the minimal use of air-conditioning (AC) by utilizing air circulation of the grating on the wall of the passenger terminal as well as the spread of green grass on the roof of the terminal. The combination of eco-green and smart airport concepts in Banyuwangi greatly enhances the customer or tourist experience and creates a hassle-free airport. Currently, Banyuwangi International Airport provides two

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alternatives to process check-in. The first alternative is through a check-in counter where passengers who want to put luggage in the baggage of the aircraft must choose this option. The luggage is also registered independently by the passenger and then put into the baggage handling system. Meanwhile, the second alternative is to use a self-check-in engine that can be selecting for airplane passengers with enough luggage in the aircraft cabin. In both alternatives, when processing at the check-in counter and self-check-in, each passenger records their face using the available BFRT. After the entire check-in process is complete, the passenger of the plane then goes to the boarding lounge to wait for departure. When boarding or boarding time arrives, passengers then head to the autogate to tap the boarding pass and then undergo verification through the BFRT process. If the boarding pass and face matched the data, the autogate will open automatically, and passengers are welcome to board the plane. Through BFRT, the boarding process currently uses the autogate without the need for personnel on duty. So these personnel can serve the other areas. This recognition technology makes airline passengers or tourists to prefer to process departures independently through self-check-in, mobile apps, and self-baggage drop (Ciftci et al., 2020; Scarles et al., 2016).

Discussions The development of information technology is currently very easy and helps tourists in traveling. Travelport responded to this big opportunity. They invested billions of dollars to develop information technology to support digital tourism industry. Travelport also invests in Indonesia, which is visited by the third-largest number of digital tourists in the world. Asia Pacific Travelport’s Managing Director said the travel and hospitality industry, which is estimating to be worth US$ 7.6 trillion globally, must continue to adapt to technological developments. According to him, the Indonesian tourism industry is very healthy in terms of business and supported by a strong economy. The level of innovation and adoption in Indonesia is also good. Indonesia’s tourism sector has recorded a significant growth of 25.68% so far this year, surpassing the Asia Pacific region and other emerging markets (Yasa, 2017). Meanwhile, Travelport survey results show Indonesia is the country with the third largest number of digital tourists in the world. Digital tourists are tourists that use digital devices when planning, ordering, and traveling. The survey revealed that Indonesian tourists really liked and appreciated the good digital experience provided by airlines. Indonesian tourists are actively researching in preparing travel plans when they travel. As many as 93% of Indonesian tourists do research using videos and photos from social media, greater than the Asia Pacific average of 76%. Furthermore, when booking a trip, 68% of Indonesian travelers book their travel ticket via smartphone. This percentage is the highest compared to other countries in the world. However, the tourism industry that applies technology in the future will increase the number of transactions. The tourism industry should innovate to provide more experience of

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travelers with supporting information technology to provide easy access to tourism and hospitality data. In terms of travel agent, Travelport Indonesia has grown significantly. Currently, it is the fastest and most rapid development. The opportunity for the travel industry by adopting digital information technology (DIT) is still very large going forward. It is predicting that in 2036, the number of tourists traveling through Indonesia will increase threefold from 2016. This makes mobilization simpler for them, when viewed from the data triples it is a fantastic number. This is an enormous business opportunity. The development of DIT huge tourism market’s potential can be captured as an opportunity to provide services that are relevant to the needs. The use of DIT is an effort that can increase efficiency and productivity to multiply. The important point of professional travel agents to stay relevant is a large opportunity if used properly, producing extraordinary growth and capturing an unusually big opportunity. Travelport invests in developing DIT continuously and innovating along with developments and trends, so as to not be left behind. Travelport has now adopted machine learning technology that utilizes artificial intelligence to provide services and solutions for actors in this tourism business. Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning are important (Prentice et al., 2020). They can learn much from there. The machines can learn, and many things in AI are developing. Travelport is a DIT-based tourism service company that operates a commercial travel, which has net income of more than US$ 2.3 billion in 2016, facilitating travel trade by connecting travel service providers in the world business travel market. Factors that hinder or accelerate the pace of tourism activities are the promotion patterns and information management systems that have an impact on the known or unknown tourist attraction, ease in obtaining information on tourist destination data, and easy access to tourist sites. In addition, it is important to gain the benefits of the tour such as the availability of transportation, facilities, and infrastructure. Likewise, the uniqueness of objects, culture, and local wisdom of the community and the trend of travel also influence the quality of tourist attractions. It is about the pattern of their activities on tourism sites. Furthermore, tourism trends in the future are expecting to undergo a number of changes. Advances in technology make it easier about travelers’ travel planning. In addition, the tourists also look for new spots that were not previously glimpsing. This condition must be a concern for tour managers if they do not want to lose the momentum of travel trends that continue to move. The form of smart tourism and hospitality has a very big impact on the hospitality that leads to an increase in regional income. The ICT greatly evolved the development of the tourism industry, with ICT information and communication being done very quickly, precisely, and accurately, and able to reduce human error, for example, the emergence of Internetbased traveled applications Tourism Information. By using the software, information about ticket prices, hotel/inn room prices, availability of accommodation, certainty of bookings, tourist information that will come, ease of booking hotels and transportation tickets in any situation and anywhere can be fulfilling. This

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convenience makes tourists feel happy and causes the number of movements and tourist arrivals to increase. The development of ICT is also very helpful in opening information or introducing destinations that are well known or new to prospective tourists that have arrived, introducing the cultural uniqueness and local wisdom of the people around the destination. The very flexible movement of information also affects the overall movement toward tourists. For example, the ease of information obtained by tourists or potential tourists from Path articles in the form of freelance articles or official information on social media and the Internet about tourism in certain destinations is very helpful in spreading tourists in all directions the destination. With the understanding gained by tourists about tourist sites more broadly, tourists are not fixated on famous destinations or that had been labeled in general as iconic destinations. Tourists can move toward destinations other than the iconic destination to destinations that were initially untouched due to lack of information. The impact on it all is creating a new experience of tourists who will be liked and instill the suggestion to come back again bringing relatives or relatives who will ultimately increase the number of tourist visits. The increase in the number of visits and the even distribution of tourist movements has ultimately greatly driven the regional economy and finally increased the country’s foreign exchange. From the description of the bag, we can understand that smart tourism is a combination of e-commerce and tourism information and its benefits to tourism or economic bodies. The available information can be used as a strategic policy foundation and change the concept of tourism innovation more effectively. Information communication technology strongly supports the effectiveness of tourism and hospitality promotion. Tourists now no longer patiently wait for tourist information that was previously provided by the service bureau or organization that holds an interest. For this reason, Indonesian tourism movers provide websites or pages in the Internet world to fulfill these tourists’ desires. E-commerce or E-business produce ticket booking services, hotel reservations, transportation reservations, destination ticket reservations, and online travel forms bookings. The tourism sector is a sector that has enormous potential for increasing state or regional income and increasing community income. It can be managed properly. Recent research conducted by Booking.com says that 2020 will be a full year of exploration. Technological advances can help tourists explore various vacation drive spots. Entering a new decade, researchers see the travel industry responding to travelers that are sustainable, curious, and technologically well informed. The industry must also respond by developing products, services, and functions to make it easier about everyone to explore the world. Research conducted by Booking involved 22,000 travelers in 29 markets. In addition, research also considers reviews of 180 million verified travelers. According to Booking, the emerging travel trends are not only for 2020 but also in the coming years. According to the Dutch-based company, in addition, next year’s tourism trend will be filled with other new things with the use of technology. These are the emergence of a “second city” traveler. This term refers to the exploration of tourist destinations.

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Furthermore, tourism activities in this second destination, according to the Booking survey, are intending to reduce over-tourism or excessive tourism and protect the environment. It stated that as many as 54% of global travelers want to take part in reducing excessive tourism. Meanwhile, 51% are willing to exchange their initial destination with a place that is not too famous but similar, if they know that the environmental impact is smaller. Tourist concern for the environment is also evident from the results of a survey that states as many as 60% of respondents want to access application-based services and recommend travel destinations to others. Booking estimates that these findings encourage tourism companies to introduce various functions that make it easier about travelers to find a destination city/second area. This step has the potential to bring up collaboration between the travel ecosystems. To meet this demand, by 2020, there will be more applications with artificial intelligence that offer specific recommendations about destinations, places to stay, and activities based on the preferences and travel history of tourists, as well as important factors such as weather and popularity. Responding to the results of the survey, entrepreneurs in the tourism sector in the country consider that Indonesia can take advantage of this trend. There are many tourist destinations outside of the more famous tourist destinations. However, the lack of access to transportation and the high price of tickets are problems. Most of these tourists traveling through the destination of the second city or the second destination are indeed loved by foreign tourists at this time. However, the problem is the lack of access to transportation and the high cost of accommodation including flight tickets. The recent trend of foreign tourists visiting the second tourist destination. For example, if foreign tourists have been to Bali as a main destination, there will be a trend for other interesting tourist attractions such as Lombok or Labuan Bajo even though they travel through Sulawesi and other eastern regions. The government together with the association also continues to buzz New Bali as a new tourist destination. He added that the use of technology for foreign tourists is expected to increase. On the other hand, the potential for travel consultants is also still large. The potential for tourism in 2020 in the country still has great prospects even though the global economy is still overshadowed by a recession. For foreign tourists, the condition has no effect. They prefer to make a vacation to their country. Meanwhile, 71% of tourists believe that parents also need to rest on their self. Another 2020 tourism trend revealed by Booking is culinary-hunting at tourist sites. This trend makes tourists compete to make reservations about prestigious restaurants. Another challenge to the future is the ability of the government and tourism businesses to make changes. The behavior of tourists, especially millennial tourists, has changed to become digital travelers. The Ministry of Tourism (Kemenpar) said that 70 percent of travelers do search and share in digital media. As many as 50 percent of inbound travelers are digital-perceptive millennials. The market is expecting to continue to grow with a large influencing power. In this section, social media plays a very important role in disseminating information directly to the public. Another thing that is expecting to be a trend in the tourism industry going forward is the more mature travel plans of travelers. This can be seen from the desire for the respondents. They are almost 23% (aged 18–25 years) want to retire less than

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55 years in order to enjoy a vacation. In the future, it is estimated that there will be a change in the mind of the traveler where they will start planning their golden years. Nearly two-thirds (65%) of global travelers saw travel as the perfect way of spending leisure time, while nearly half (47%) of global travelers planned to be bolder in their travel choices as they retired.

Conclusion Based on information technology architecture, this study found that the use of information technology has not been optimal. The tourism and hospitality businesses have not fully utilized the technology in supporting their businesses. Cloud computing and high-performance computing are two information technologies that are frequently employed in the tourism and hospitality industries. As a result, hoteltourism business activities become more accessible with the support of information technology. On the other hand, the use of payment gateway, blockchain, augmented realty marketing, emerging technology, big data, and chatbot technologies has not been utilized optimally. In fact, they still rarely use technology recognition and wireless connectivity. It is useful to support the development of smart tourism and hospitality industry. It seems clear that the development and construction of smart tourism’s competitiveness is still wide open. Tourism and hospitality businesses can still develop their businesses by optimizing technology infrastructure equally in their businesses. This can help ease access to digital data information on all travelers.

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Part XII Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Smart City Involvement

Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Artificial Intelligence and Blockchain in Smart City Involvement

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Shehnaz Tehseen, Eiad Yafi, Zuhaib Hassan Qureshi, and Raouf Ahmad Rather

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Asian Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Application and Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Benefits of Smart City Involvement in Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Case of Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sunway City Kuala Lumpur as an Example of Smart Sustainable City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Challenges of Smart City Involvement in Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Future Technologies and Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Tourism is playing a vital role by contributing toward city’s economies, business opportunities, and employment particularly in restaurant and retail sectors. In S. Tehseen (*) Department of Management, Sunway University Business School (SUBS), Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] E. Yafi School of Computer Science, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, New South Wales, Australia e-mail: eiad.yafi@uts.edu.au Z. H. Qureshi Universiti Kuala Lumpur Business School, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] R. A. Rather Department of Management Studies (South Campus), University of Kashmir, Kashmir, Jammu and Kashmir, India e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_23

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order to meet the expectations of today’s travelers, smart city projects have been placed to enhance the travelers’ experiences. The core concepts of smart city’s infrastructure bring benefits for the tourism industry. Smart cities have been regarded as better places to live with enhanced networking, improved transportation, predictive crime prevention, crowd analytics, and green technology. Many researchers argue that by employing Information and Communication Technologies, smart cities are improving the citizens’ life quality, local economy, traffic management, transport, and environment which can enhance the travelers’ experiences in any country. Because of the relevance of smart cities to several stakeholders and advantages and challenges related to its implementation, the smart cities’ concept has attracted the significant attention of scholars from multiple fields. This chapter is intended to describe the features of smart city and its advantages for tourists. This chapter provides implications for tourism industry of Asian countries through the involvement of smart city. It also discusses how new technologies such as Internet of Things, artificial intelligence (AI), and blockchain enhance the overall urban planning and contribute to building smarter smart cities. Improvement of services in tourism industry such as logistics, ticketing, and lodging requires real-time analysis of data from Internet of Everything. We also present and discuss the co-relationship between smart cities and sustainable tourism and the challenges faced such as crowd management, congestion, quality of services, and environment, infrastructure, and cities resilience to human and natural disasters. Keywords

Tourism industry · Sustainable tourism · Asian tourism industry · Technology application · Blockchain · IoT

Introduction The tourism industry is experiencing evolution due to technology as it has become the key component of facilities as well as destinations for tourism (Kuflik et al., 2015). The progression of tourism technology and the increasing demand of smart cities brought the tourism stakeholders’ attention to the possibilities of developing an intelligent approach to pave the way for building an intelligent tourism destination in tourism destinations businesses (Buhalis & Amaranggana, 2013). The word “smart” is added to the towns to define attempts to use innovative techniques to attain objectives such as resource optimization, efficient and fair governance, sustainability, and quality-of-life preservation. The idea of smart tourism means the use of technology in the sector to impact tourism experiences, enhance the competitiveness of the location, sustain tourism resources, and foster the projects for tourism development (Presenza et al., 2014). Also, the conception of smart tourism is increasing quickly around the globe, and many developed as well as developing countries have initiated their emphasis on smart tourism initiatives and projects of smart destination (Gretzel et al., 2015).

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Technology provides various benefits that add to any country’s general economic development and growth as well as to the advancement of a country’s culture and social structure. It assists to preserve natural resources and minimizes the expenses, improves operational efficiency, and enhances the customer experience and services (Qureshi & Abro, 2016). Technology has substituted the costly human labor in tourism industry. Moreover, the labor costs are minimized due to technology, and it has assisted the tourism industry in preventing problems of customer service as well. A fresh investment climate is relevant to a conducive setting to allow the technology-centered tourism industry to change forward for all listed services to materialize. National strategies must provide incentives for investment in more intangible products such as data acquisition, content development, and the existence of Internet platforms. Industry stakeholders are even more active in sharing the economy, digital platform, inclusion of social media, as well as big data analytics to customize products of tourism experience to particular demographics around the world. The sector’s digitalization is also essential as technological progress has also prompted customers to use mobile devices and the Internet platforms for accessing data and schedule a whole vacation. The tourism industry should act as catalyst for protecting the environment, preserving local heritage and culture. This will guarantee that tourism wealth is commonly disseminated to reach even remote communities that give tourists distinctive experiences. Sustainable development of ecotourism is therefore one area where this can be accomplished.

The Asian Tourism Industry The growth in the economic, cultural, and social importance of tourism in various nations, mainly in Asia, has risen in the last 10 years. The tourism in Asian countries has quickly recovered unpredictably right after the economic crisis in 2008 (Leung et al., 2015). The constructive progress in Asian countries tourism industries can prominently be observed in the last decade (Lim & Zhu, 2017). Asia continent has experienced an increase in number of tourists from 199 million to 233 million during 2009 and 2010. This development has increased to 258 million in 2011 indicating the average growth of more than 11% annually (United Nations World Tourism Organization [UNWTO], 2011). According to United Nations World Tourism Organization [UNWTO 2012], such immense demand has carried out large arriving tourism expenditure of US$350 billion in 2011 (Leung et al., 2015). According to the World Tourism Organization UNWTO (2018), the number of tourists has increased to 324 million in 2017 (Kim & Chu, 2018). Furthermore, the great investments in hotels and resorts associated with political interest and easiness of visa process in Asian countries have brought a new trend called “Asian Wave” that is well described as a phenomenon of regular move in travel toward Asia (Winter, 2009). China has been predicted by United Nations World Tourism Organization ([UNWTO], 2007) as a possibly to be the highestranking international destination country in the globe by 2020. The fast growth of tourism in Asian countries can not only be seen in statistical facts but has also been

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identified by academicians and researchers who have used “Asian Wave” as hot topic in conferences and also writing detail discussions in tourism literature (Winter et al., 2009). During twenty-first century, the tourism industry is fronting a new set of transformations under undefined and active new competitive environment (Leung et al., 2015; Tribe, 2010). This brings several challenges as well as opportunities for experts to discover Asian markets for additional business growth. The contribution of adequate marketing strategies is progressively crucial in developing a competitive place as competition in the tourism industry has become higher (Tsai et al., 2009). To follow the development in tourism industry, it is vital for researchers to conduct systematic and continuous studies. Wu and Wu (2019) have revealed that since 2001, Asia has become speedily growing tourism destination and has even left behind the United States to step up the world’s second major tourist-receiving region. Moreover, although currently there has been rising worldwide trend in tourism, however, not all Asian countries share equal economic growth. In various Asian countries, tourism has been popularized as quick fix to their economic issues (Wu & Wu, 2019; Lee & Chien, 2008). Tourism has been considered as essential cause of employment and foreign exchange income (Schubert et al., 2011).

Technology Application and Tourism Industry In the last 60 years, tourism has become one of the biggest and fastest rising economic industries in the world that contribute 10.2% of GDP and 30% world services exports globally (Crotti & Misrahi, 2017). Furthermore, tourism is also a key sector for job creation; therefore, it has become priority industry for many cities in the world (Cavalheiro et al., 2020; Crouch, 2011). Cities have become more pleasant and reachable due to integration of advance technologies for both residents as well as tourists through communicating service interconnecting almost all local companies for delivering real-time services and for using of information for well coordination (Um & Chung, 2019). The smart city concept signifies a setting where the technology is integrated and installed within the city. Smart cities do not only seek effectiveness but also devote for creating value and improving life quality of residents. The infrastructures of smart cities have also started to affect the behavior of tourism (Um & Chung, 2019; Jin et al., 2014). The infrastructure of a city may positively support tourism practices; however, the Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) applications and tourism can no longer be detached from each other. Therefore, infrastructure of building smart city affects, to a large extent, the tourism industry. Cities that use ICT applications in tourism are considered smart tourism cities (Jin et al., 2014). The concept of “smart tourism cities” originated from the notion of “smart city,” where the smartness is unified in environment, governance, individuals, and economy. Smart tourism cities are constructed with ICT applications that are useful for their management as well as for creating innovative tourism experiences (Gajdošík,

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2019). Technology applications in tourism are valuable for both tourists and destination management organizations. These applications help tourists for enhancing the experience by providing the real-time data about the destinations in planning stage and data to help them in exploring places throughout the visit (Buhalis & Amaranggana, 2015). On the other hand, these applications also assist destination management organizations and other stakeholders to stay connected with visitors, better decision support, and create as well as promote their new services (Gajdošík, 2019; Gretzel et al. 2015; Fuchs et al., 2014). Moreover, applications such as websites, social media platforms, personal blogs, mobile apps, destination smart infrastructures, and reviews sites are commonly used by the tourists for payment generation, information seeking, and communications (See, 2018; Huang et al., 2017; Yoo et al., 2017). Lately, along with other accessories, these innovative applications have become a must-have travel kit for tourists (See, 2018).

Benefits of Smart City Involvement in Tourism Industry Smart city is a knowledge hub which manages innovation, technology, and information to carry out the continuous development, effective management, and improved life quality for citizens (Gajdošík, 2019; Caragliu et al. 2011). Additionally, tourism industry takes advantage of smart city infrastructure to entertain the experience of tourists. Tourism industry’s expansion as a smart tourism becomes a main formula for several destinations across the globe (Bu, 2018; Gretzel & Scarpino-Johns, 2018). For example, numerous initiatives of smart tourism were taken from smart city schemes in the context of Europe. Hence, smart tourism destinations in Europe are progressively rising (Cavalheiro et al., 2020). Moreover, and in Asia specially, South Korea and China are making significant investment in projects associated with smart tourism, introducing the idea of smart tourism destination as a basic part of the government policy for economic growth (Wang et al., 2013). There are various potential benefits of smart city involvement in tourism (Boes et al., 2016). As Um and Chung (2019) stated, smart city infrastructure has been attached with tourism which comprises of identifying benefits of smart applications to boost the innovations and eventually bring better experiences to tourists and to all tourism stakeholders (Gretzel & Scarpino-Johns, 2018). Moreover, according to Buhalis and Amaranggana (2015), smart tourism applications are beneficial for visitors not only at time of journey planning and during tours but also after their visit for knowledge and opinion generations. Executing the smart tourism destination approach has been remarkably valuable for their better connectivity, easiness of receiving information, and interacting with the destinations, which lead to the requirement of creation of joint tourism products and enhancing value for everyone involved in tourism (Gajdošík, 2019; Neuhofer et al., 2012). As much as reliability and confidence on smart tourism applications increase, the number of visitors who prepare and plan their own tours themselves by using those applications is also arising (Um & Chung, 2019). This phenomenon

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specifies that visitors have become more well informed, smarter and far more sensitive (Correia & Kozak, 2016). These types of tourists commonly apply online information offered by websites, social media, blogs, applications, etc., instead of acquiring information from available traveling books and maps in store, gathering tourist material, and making reservations using old payment methods (Chung & Koo, 2015).

Cases Case of Malaysia With over 130 million years of untouched rainforests, islands, beaches, national parks, and amazing natural wonders, Malaysia is a favorite destination for ecotourism in the world. Along the lines of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (IR4.0), following the Malaysian Prime Minister, Malaysia will begin an extensive digitalization journey to transmute its tourism industry with projects of smart tourism (Sharon, 2019). By adopting the entire spectrum of digitalization, the nation can be able to offer the required instruments for international connectivity in the tourism industry, conduct strict tourism future data analytics, and abbreviate the supply chain. Moreover, particular incentives are developed for attracting both investment and hard infrastructure and development of new technology applications in the tourism industry. Through its National Ecotourism Plan 2016–2025, which emphasizes the use of technology and smart destination eco-management, the country is establishing cluster-based ecotourism destinations with specific concession packages. Through technological transformation in tourism and smart destination management, the Malaysian government is dedicated to finding new pathways to educate industry participants, visitors, and the local community (Sharon, 2019). Digital forest tourism is also being trending as a potential tourism approach which is expected to be unique considering the advance technologies deployed such as LORA networks to identify local tourism spots, trace tourists, and provide end-to-end tourist journeys. According to a report by Asia/Singapore Sunday, 15th September 2019, Tourism Malaysia has recently joined forces on two tourism collaborative pacts with an American global travel technology company for attracting more tourists to Malaysia. The first arrangement is a collaborative memorandum for promoting Malaysia as an exceptional tourist destination by showcasing the country’s wonders, unique cultures, and sights and promoting digital innovation in the tourism industry. Also, in the second agreement, both parties would start a global campaign for promoting inbound travel to Malaysia from Australia, the United States, and Japan. For this company, these three markets appear as the biggest sales points. Tourism Malaysia and Expedia Group are scheduled to launch a series of important workshops in Malaysia for promoting digital innovation in the tourism industry as part of the general cooperation. Local hotel partners’ workshops include methods to leverage the Partner Central platform of the Expedia Group for

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accelerating the growth of abilities and create income and capacities of hotel management among local hotels.

Sunway City Kuala Lumpur as an Example of Smart Sustainable City Tan Sri Dato’ Seri Dr. Jeffrey Cheah Fook Ling is the founder and current chairman of the Sunway Group. This Malaysian conglomerate is operating in 12 industries having core business operations in construction and property. He has initiated a goal to achieve sustainable development in Asia. Jeffrey Cheah foundation gifted US$10 million to the United Nations Sustainable Development Solutions Network to promote sustainability in Asia. Bandar Sunway has been considered as the Malaysia’s model of smart sustainable city due to variety of features of smart city. Bandar Sunway or Sunway City has the following components of smart city which are distinguishing it from other urban cities of Malaysia. 1. Innovation. • Sunway Innovation Labs (iLabs) as an accelerator and incubator hub. 2. Digital platform. • Wi-Fi connectivity throughout the township. 3. Energy management. • Combines generation project that uses the natural gas to generate electricity and hot and chilled water. • Double or laminated Low-E glass for buildings. • Energy management softwares. Solar panels for generating electricity. 4. Waste management. • Trash separation. • Recycling campaigns. • #ZEROFOODWASTAGE Initiative 5. Water treatment plant. • Caters to all commercial buildings in Sunway City and the first of its kind in Malaysia. 6. Safe city. • 24-hour joint patrols and CCTV monitoring • 1000 security personnel, of which 500 are auxiliary police 7. Transit-oriented development (TOD). • Walkability within Sunway City (canopy walk with lower carbon footprint, safer environment, convenient accessibility, and promotes fitness). • Various modes of transport including BRT, LRT, and KTM. 8. Education corridor. • Houses 10 educational institutes and entities, including Sunway University, Monash University Malaysia, and Taylor’s University Malaysia. 9. No smoking policy. • Smoking is prohibited at all in all Sunway-owned buildings. • Stop smoking services are available at Sunway Medical Center. 10. Proposed iconic Sunway tower.

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11. Accredited green township. • Green Building Index (GBI) Award. • Building and Construction Authority (BCA) Green Mark Certification. • Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) Certification. • Malaysian Institute of Planners’ Low Carbon City Award. 12. Smart health care. • Access to innovative and quality health care and technology. 13. Green scape. • 150 species of flora and fauna • 22 species of birds • 30,000 trees transplanted • 24% of Sunway City is reserved for green space, and 50% of the city is open space.

Challenges of Smart City Involvement in Tourism Industry It has been quite some time since countries began building smart tourism systems. Throughout this time, a lot of success has been achieved such as the approach of “smart tourism” has been broadly welcomed and projects have been launched in many cities. However, existing development is still on the distant from achieving its goals. There are numerous challenges present in the implementation of smart tourism (Cavalheiro et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2014). The new age of technology also unlocked a treasure of new applications to support the tourism industry. Apart from this, tourism destinations tend to face real challenges due to changes in environment as well as consumers affected by the evolving ICT applications. To handle such challenges, Soteriades and Avgeli (2007) have suggested that tourism destinations must identify the type of changes that have happened and then respond dynamically. According to Buhalis and Amaranggana (2015), tourism ICT applications contribute positively to value generation, tourists’ experiences, improve efficiency, and support automation process for associated companies. Therefore, evolution of smart city may also boost foundation of smart tourism destinations. There are misconceptions about developing smart cities infrastructure for smart tourism. Creating smart tourism setup is not only about designing ICT developments, but it also requires a standard implementation, steady monitoring, innovations updating, and promoting the industry. Thus, studies suggested that for the integration of smart city with smart tourism, government of every country should play its role in designing, monitoring, updating, and promoting smart tourism industry. For instance, encouraging and supporting the business enterprises and investors, purchasing up-to-date applications of tourism, and regulating the structure to meet tourist needs are of utmost priorities to boost smart tourism (Tripathy et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2014). Lack of combined values leads to and causes difficulties in managing smart tourism infrastructure. Until now, there are still deficiency in values to assess the

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building of smart tourism system. Cities utilize the way of public tender to fix the smart tourism problems. The development manner of recognized solutions differs among various companies, which caused problems in assessing the smart tourism system with unified standards. Additionally, formation of unified standards may deliver suitability for the interaction of smart tourism infrastructure in different cities such as unified information arrangement and unified payment (Brandão, et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2014). The government must invest significantly in smart tourism. This phenomenon can bring two possible results: First, the government cannot afford the great investment to manage smart tourism process which leads to the cancellation or interruption. Second, the government handles over responsibility which limits smart tourism turning from government standard to marketization. Consequently, both outcomes show the abortion of smart tourism. In this situation, significant investment is an essential mission in the development phase of smart tourism (Zhu et al., 2014).

Future Technologies and Tourism Industry Artificial intelligence (AI) is the most important outcome of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (IR4.0) for its usage in variety of sectors such as education, services, health care, military, and tourism. Generating tremendous amounts of data and with the massive and rapid technological transformation, AI along with connected devices and networks, namely, IOE and decentralization approaches, represents unprecedented opportunity for both smart tourism sectors and smart cities. All entities of smart cities and institutions of smart tourism industry are invited to exploit those new technologies to enhance services and improve processes which in most of cases will require to rethink how services are delivered. According to Statista (2016), there is almost 26.6 billion connected devices in 2019, and by 2025, the globally installed total base of the Internet of Things (IoT)-connected devices is projected to amount 75 billion. Those connected devices such as cameras, sensors, and machines are projected to generate 80 zettabytes of data by 2025. The most popular use of IoT in tourism is smart hotels, smart restaurants, smart transportation, smart reservation, and smart information. As adopting “smart” services in tourism industry becomes more and more popular, the security market becomes challenging with more attacks and hacking incidents surfing the news every other day. Blockchain as a decentralized technology brought up many advantages to multiple sectors providing enhances and increased security to both enterprises and users. There are various advantages that blockchain technology brings into tourism industry and ensures significant business benefits such as reduced cost, increased efficiency and speed, enhanced security, increased transparency, and immutability. Tourism companies and enterprises offering tourism services have the potential to embrace blockchain technology to increase security and provide transparency at variety of checkpoints of tourism processes. As travel journeys normally start with airline tickets booking and hotel reservations, using cryptocurrencies will be more secure and traceable since transactions on blockchain

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platforms remain untouched and can’t be modified. This would eliminate the use of cash and exchange of currencies when traveling from one country to another. Hotels and transportation companies in smart cities when adopting blockchain technology would also result in tremendous savings due to eliminating middlemen businesses. The decentralized management systems that govern the hotel and transportation companies would provide a secure platform for the information flow that can be accessed anytime globally. Transparency can be guaranteed in websites that provide feedback and reviews on various tourism services. While it is impossible to verify the accuracy of information written by multiple users, blockchain provides a public and secure platform that increases transparency and users’ trust. Identification services could also benefit from blockchain technologies to store information of visitors. This would drastically reduce congestions at airport queues and reduce waiting time at health-care institutes and various ticketing counters. Use of blockchain in identification services in religious tourism sector has the potential to save cost and time and save lives. Finally, with IoT being the “sensing part” and blockchain being the “memory at clouds,” AI is playing a crucial role being the thinking part responsible for taking the right decision of any process. AI and machine learning, with tremendous amount of data collected from all IoT devices and stored in decentralized platforms, enable companies, enterprises, and decision-makers involved in smart cities planning to make fast and intelligent decision. The advances in deep learning made by researchers at Google, Facebook, and Amazon show that AI is capable of solving complex problems in smart cities environments and provide smarter decisions.

Conclusion This chapter attempted for shedding light on tourism industry in the context of smart cities. It was also meant to discuss the impact of new technologies as AI and blockchain on tourism sector. With the importance of tourism playing a vital role in smart cities by contributing toward city’s economies and infrastructural development, deploying new AI-based technologies and blockchain is vital to the sustainability of tourism business processes. There is a rationale to make an argument that AI, blockchain, and IoT are the new social, mobile, and cloud that governed the last 10 years of technological solutions that led to the emergence of companies like Uber, Spotify, Airbnb, and many more. Smart tourism is a sector that is expected to benefit from the integration of the domain of AI, blockchain, and IoT. Having all travel companies and institutes collect data about travelers and strive to offer best and efficient travel experiences provides golden opportunity for AI and machine learning engineers to analyze data and provide insights on best services and travel experiences. Those insights play a vital role in urban cities planning and future business interventions. Blockchain is set to provide a secure and transparent environment to store and process various types of data. Smart cities and smart communities are data collected from a large network of IoT networks that are used by AI and machine

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learning engineers to develop AI modes that would allow machines to act, behave, and provide smart services. Smart tourism and smart cities are under development in various countries. By all means, smart tourism seems to embrace various aspects of new technologies such as IoT, artificial intelligence, and blockchain. However, the relationship between smart cities and sustainable tourism remains questionable due to various technical and nontechnical challenges such as crowd management, congestion, quality of services, and environment, infrastructure, and cities resilience to human and natural disasters.

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concept of the Smart City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elements of the Smart City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Citizen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Living . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Smart City Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Smart City Applications in the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evaluation of Asian Capitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

According to the research conducted by the United Nation, approximately half of the world population live in cities, and it is predicted that this ration will be 70% by the year 2050. Just in 15 years, it is foreseen that urban regions will be doubled S. Doğan (*) · Y. Keleş Faculty of Tourism, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_24

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and number of vehicles will be 1.2 billion. Integration of the Internet to things and placing the sensor in different ways in the cities depending on developments in information and communication technologies enabled to emerge a new city concept. This new concept called as Smart City can be defined as “a city that is integrated with humane and numeric systems which aims to provide sustainable, high welfare and participative future to its citizens.” The technologies used in smart cities are city control centers, smart networks, autonomous vehicles, smart phone applications, online communities, and sensors. Smart applications become widespread in several cities in the world and the cities become smart. Top ten smart cities in the world announced by IESE Cities in Motion are New York, London, Paris, Tokyo, Reykjavik, Singapore, Seoul, Toronto, Hong Kong, and Amsterdam. Only four cities in the list are located in Asia. In this direction, the purpose of this chapter is to examine the capital cities in Asia in terms of smart city concept, determine their shortcomings compared to other smart cities in the world, and offer some suggestions. For this purpose, document analysis was preferred. Keywords

Smart city · Smart city applications · Capitals in Asia

Introduction A great part of the world population was engaging in agriculture in the eighteenth century, and the people living in the city only accounted for 5% of the global population. With the effect of the expectations such as the attractiveness of cities, quality life, better education, easier access to health services, and more job possibility, immigration to cities reached an uncontrollable speed in the twentieth century (Harrison & Donnelly, 2011). Today 52% of the 7 billion world population has been spending their lives in cities. This urbanization ratio in the world tends to rise constantly. Nowadays, two important transformations are experienced in this process. One of these is global urbanization and the other one is the digital revolution. Fast urbanizations increasingly complicate quality and sustainable presentation of the services such as housing infrastructure, transportation, education, health, and security (Armagan, 2018). It is included in the United Nation’s urbanization evaluations that an average of 200,000 people per day migrate to cities. Requirements of cities are shaped by many factors like surface areas, demographic transitions, global warming, developing, and changing demands of new city dwellers. It seems that sustainably meeting these everchanging and rapidly increasing needs with limited resources can only be possible with innovative and smart solutions (Deloitte, 2016). Fast population increase in cities triggers a lot of problems in the fields such as transportation, energy, water, health, and security. These emerging problems not only affect the economic and social life in cities negatively but also weaken the brand and competitiveness of cities by decreasing the life quality of those who live in cities (Mobilsiad, 2013). The smart city approach,

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which has emerged in order to find solutions to such problems, is rapidly becoming prevalent since it abandons traditional policies and integrates the opportunities offered by information and communication technologies with communal living to raise the living standards of urban residents (Akdamar, 2017). Smart cities are presented as a way of seeking solutions to the biggest problems in society such as population increase, transportation, pollution, sustainability, security, health, and business world (Abella et al., 2015). With the support of the smart information and communication technologies which maintain intelligence of city, the networks, sensors, smart management systems (Akdamar, 2017), smartphones, mobile devices, embedded systems, smart environments, and smart meters (Schaffers et al., 2011), smart cities promote cost savings by ensuring efficient use of human, nature and financial resources (Caragliu & del Bo, 2019). In order to provide more liveable conditions in parallel with the fast increase of the city population across the world, it is required to comprehend the smart city concept more deeply. To find smarter ways to manage cities, the cities in the four corners of the world conduct studies in this context. Therefore, these cities are described with the title of a smart city, defining the smart city as a sustainable and liveable city (Chourabi et al., 2012). Sustainable development, mixed land use, public transportation and use of bike paths, extensive use of wind and solar energy, protection of natural hydrological systems, protection of wetlands, reproduction of forested areas, use of natural sewage treatment methods, waste reduction and recovery, recycling, and re-use of wastes are among the typical characteristics of sustainable cities. These cities also urge the participation of citizens to develop a relationship between the business world and local administrations (Maccani et al., 2013). In the press bulletin that European Investment Bank published with the name of smart cities for smart citizens on June 4, 2014, it is indicated that there exists no option other than becoming smart and announced that producing smart and sustainable solutions is essential to meet basic requirements of citizens better and to increase their quality of life regardless of the size of cities. To offer a high quality of life and an easier life for citizens, the concept of smart city has been developed. Smart cities, as a result of developing digital technologies, have increasingly become smarter compared to the past. Since smart cities take sustainability as a basis, productivity focus takes part in all solutions. For instance, while a smart city application to be actualized in the waste distribution network of the city decreases the seepage loss rate, it results in the protection of natural resources as well. Accordingly, the effect spreading to citizens includes the protection of public health by continuous monitoring of water quality and meeting citizens with high service quality as well as the formation of low usage fees (Armagan, 2018).

Concept of the Smart City The concept of a smart city is firstly characterized by supporting innovation permanently, high intellectual or human capital needed to solve problems or difficulties. Secondly, in terms of targets, smart cities confront us as a concept that put three main

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features into the forefront, namely, social inclusion, improved life quality at the large extent and economic development, and finally development of human capital through smart city policies that covers lifelong learning, optimal management of natural resources, and sustainable urban development in general (Ojo et al., 2016; Vanolo, 2014). Smart city studies that are applied with the help of information and communication technologies in cities are named in parallel with several developments in time. Indeed, it is seen that various definitions are made for the fact of a smart city such as a virtual city in the beginning, numerical (digital) city (Akgul, 2013), information city, cable city, information-based city, electronic communities, electronic community areas, and cyber areas (Celikyay, 2017; Lee et al., 2013). It is quite hard to say that there is a generally accepted definition on the description of the concept of smart city in literature (Kaygisiz & Aydin, 2017). It is observed that each smart city definition emphasizes a different aspect of the subject and addresses the subject from different points of view (Bilici & Babahanoglu, 2018). While some resources describe the smart city as interconnecting physical, social, information communication technologies and infrastructures to use the collective intelligence of the city (Harrison et al., 2010), some authors can define it as a smart combination of self-determined for the future, independent, and conscious citizens in their economy, governance, people, mobility, environment and life perceptions, and donations and activities (Gulsecen et al., 2013) and a complex system connected with components. On the other hand, it is also described as the integration of the systems and monitoring the status of infrastructures such as roads, bridges, tunnels, railroads, subways, communication, water, energy, and important buildings to ensure the best use of the city’s resources (Gul & Atak Cobanoglu, 2017). By looking at the common concepts that all these definitions want to tell, smart cities step forth as the cities (Erkek, 2017) where resources are used efficiently and cleverer; applications that bring cost and energy-saving exist; life quality is high; environmental pollution is low; carbon release is low; and participation of town dwellers in the decisions on the city is high. It is likely to describe the concept of a smart city as a concept that aims to deal with problems by means of information communication technologies containing a multi-stakeholder group. The factors that constitute the concept of smart city, which we drew its general framework, are basic building blocks of the smart city. To be able to define a city as a smart city, components must be formed within the framework of the idea of sustainable, information communication technology compliance and smart design. In addition, it can also be stated that some indicators are needed to measure smart city performance such as energy, greenhouse gas emissions, transportation, infrastructure, e-services, resource management, the participation of citizens, competitiveness, economy, environment, and quality of cities (Bilici & Babahanoglu, 2018, Dameri, 2013; Lombardi et al., 2012). Smart cities use automatic auxiliary systems and digital systems for real-time data production in order to use urban infrastructure components and services more efficiently and make these components interconnected. To support these systems,

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the opportunities provided by information and communication technologies are used. In the report published in the scope of OECD green growth studies, it was indicated that smart city applications could reach 400 billion US dollars per year in the global market in 2020, and it is stated that many cities are already adopting and following these new opportunities. In the same report, it is stated that one of the most important applications of smart city vehicles is the production, collection, and dissemination of urban data and information (Armagan, 2018). It is seen that the great economic and social changes that are experienced today offer new opportunities for the cities to develop. In the smart city report, published by the Hong Kong Central Policy Unit in 2015, it is stated that the focal points of developments vary from city to city and are generally divided into five categories (Guedes et al., 2018): first, development of transportation systems to increase mobility in cities; second, effective use of energy efficiency to increase long-term development and sustainability in cities; third, renewal of all kinds of information and communication infrastructure to provide a sincerer business and working environment to the public and private sector; fourth, increasing the monitoring and security of public spaces to make the city a safer place; and finally, planning and regulation of city regulations and services to deal with several challenges in urban management, including traffic congestion and energy consumption.

Elements of the Smart City According to the report of research firm Frost and Sullivan, it is estimated that there will be more than 26 smart cities by 2025. Each country has contributed differently to the literature regarding the planning of the transformations of smart cities and the monitoring of these transformations and developed various applications. Smart city wheel SCW, developed by Boyd Cohen, comes to the forefront among these approaches (Ahmet & Zaim, 2018; Elvan, 2017). This approach has also been adopted by the European Union, and it has been adopted that smart cities should be shaped around the creation of the infrastructure of human capital, social capital, and information and communication technology for sustainable economic development and a better quality of life. Accordingly, the report published by the European Union Parliament indicates that smart cities have six dimensions within the framework of Cohen’s approach (Smart Cities Council, 2014). These are stated as a smart economy, smart citizen, smart governance, smart mobility/transportation, smart environment, and smart living (Fig. 24.1). These six elements are described as follows:

Smart Economy Innovative and entrepreneurial spirit means flexibility in the job market, integration into international markets, and the ability to transform. Implementation of the smart

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Fig. 24.1 Smart city wheel. (Source: Pop & Prostean, 2018)

cities’ vision generally aims to achieve positive results in promoting new businesses, increasing new employment creation, improving the workforce, and increasing productivity. It also intends to improve and optimize the use of city resources. All of these will have a positive impact on their economy over time. Indeed, studies show that large cities lead to greater productivity and economic growth by producing clustered economies that allow more efficient use of available resources (Anttiroiko et al., 2014; Bruneckiene, 2014).

Smart Citizen The level of competence and quality of human and social capital, flexibility, creativity, tolerance, cosmopolitanism, and participation in public life are meant. The main reason for the need for a smart city is citizens. Therefore, the key element in the development of smarter cities is the involvement of smart people. The concept of the smart individual is used to define individuals who train themselves in accordance with the twenty-first-century education model, who are prone to participate in the smart governance model and support innovations. In this process, individuals provide fast solutions to the problems by providing fast processing of

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data with their eager attitudes towards adapting to information and communication technologies. Numerous social media platforms, public forums, and online platforms can be used to engage citizens in the planning and decision-making processes. In real time, social networks capture the structural underpinnings of human relationships and community behavior. It enables people to interact with each other and to express their ideas. However, the smart city is a humanistic city that offers many opportunities to utilize the human potential and lead a creative life. The smart city is the center of higher education and better-educated individuals and is filled with a qualified workforce. In a city where some residents are unable to adapt to the smart city model, regardless of how smart technologies are presented as solutions to problems, the technologies introduced will result in an increase in chronic problems in city life, rather than finding solutions to the problems that will remain only as a solution proposal. For this reason, the fact that individuals adopt a smart thinking structure will make the information and communication technologies introduced in the smart structures of the cities more applicable (Cardullo & Kitchin, 2019; Manchester & Cope, 2019).

Smart Governance Involvement in decision-making processes means transparency in governance systems, the existence and accessibility of public services, and the quality of political strategies. In accordance with the governance principle, the understanding of including all actors of the city as much as possible in the decision-making processes through e-government, social media, and participation organizations created through volunteering lends assistance to explain the concept of smart governance. By utilizing resources more prudently, the collective work of decision mechanisms contributes to the creation of long-term social benefits. It aims to ensure residents’ active participation in decision-making and implementation processes by leveraging the tools for participation provided by information and communication technologies. Smart cities need smart management. Government support and management policy is the basic condition for the design and implementation of smart city initiatives. This component includes several institutional factors arising from smart society or smart growth initiative negotiations: it covers not only supportive policies but also the role of the government, the relationship between governmental institutions and non-governmental parties, and their management (Meijer & Bolivar, 2016; Bolivar & Meijer, 2015).

Smart Mobility Local and trans-local accessibility, modern, sustainable, and safe transportation systems are meant. The concept of smart mobility includes shipping and logistics services supported by information communication models. It is the capacity to integrate traffic conditions, geographical factors, and environmental factors

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effectively into a city’s mobility order in order to optimize the city’s logistics flow. To increase the city’s mobility, the establishment of innovative and sustainable transportation systems is necessary, and the development of public transportation systems based on environmentally friendly fuels can be evaluated within this concept. In smart cities, the concept of mobility is often simply equal to transportation. However, effective urban mobility can be understood more generally. Smart transportation or smart transportation systems focus primarily on the deployment of IoT networks to address transportation according to various functions and applications. With applications such as driverless vehicles, bicycle sharing, smart streetlights, traffic density, digital public transportation payments, smart parking systems, city navigation applications, and smart traffic signals, it is aimed to improve the mobility and transportation of the city and to benefit people (Docherty et al., 2018; Aleta et al., 2017; Benevolo et al., 2016).

Smart Environment Attractiveness of natural environmental conditions, lack of pollution, and sustainable management of resources are meant. Thanks to big data, cyber systems, cloud computing, smart sensors, and mobile networks in smart cities, adverse environmental conditions (volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, etc.) and human-induced negative situations (i.e., harmful chemical emissions, terrorist attacks) can be managed effectively. With the help of technology, the sustainability of the environment and nature can be ensured, and green areas and water resources can be controlled (Aleta et al., 2017).

Smart Living In terms of the existence of cultural and educational services, the desired and measured standard of living, the presence and accessibility of digital services, touristic places, social cohesion, healthy environment, and personal and residential security are meant. Smart cities use the Internet of Things technology to enable people to connect for smart life, manage their homes and offices more easily from outside, and interact more closely with their surroundings. At the same time, the use of online social platforms aims to improve the quality of life of the citizen. Thus, a healthier, happy, and lively lifestyle can be developed. In addition, they will be able to change their goals instantly to serve any of the buildings (i.e., theatre, gym, social center). Thus, the carbon footprint in the city will be reduced, and more benefits will be provided with fewer opportunities. Smart cities are learning cities. Smart city strategy has a strong impact on the social structure and people’s quality of life by improving human capital through education, social integration, social innovation (Batista et al., 2017). The processes of cities being smart cities are achieved by the intellectual acceptance of the above-mentioned basic principles and their implementation and adoption by their stakeholders. Smart cities aim to make the city more liveable, more

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sustainable, and more efficient by acquiring the basic principles above through information and communication technologies. For this purpose, smart cities emerge as a city that places the concept of human in its focus and that develops and learns itself in a participatory and transparent manner, under the ownership of all relevant stakeholders. It can be said that the important feature of smart cities is the right of participation provided by the city to its stakeholders. When the traditional cities are envisioned, it is seen that citizens have limited participation opportunities, and in the other dimension of participation, they cannot benefit from the opportunities of the city in an optimum manner. With the data provided by smart cities and information and communication technologies, citizens’ access to services has increased considerably. Also, the communication channels between the smart technologies and citizens and the state have been opened for effective use. The closed structure, which is characteristic of traditional cities at the point of data sharing, restricts the sharing of necessary data and documents of the institutions with the citizens. Whereas smart cities have resorted to sharing data both between institutions and with citizens, with the intent of producing improved results and social integration and the expectation of developing ideas (Orselli & Dincer, 2019; Yan & Shi, 2013).

The Smart City Technologies Within the framework of smart city components, technologies should be integrated into the basic areas of urban life to design cities, and their effective and continuous operation should be ensured. When the basic trend in the world is examined, it can be easily stated that there is a transition towards smart cities. Finding fast solutions to the incidents that cause increasing negative consequences of cities and the low cost of smart solutions found helped decision mechanisms to adopt this concept. As a result of this, the adventure of transformation from the digital and old structure of cities to smart models has started in many parts of the world. This change process has started to become more visible with the smart services provided by smart cities. We can examine intelligent services that aim to increase the quality of life and sustainable development and provide an economically competitive environment by incorporating the concepts of information, communication, and technology under 11 main headings, transportation, security, energy, water, waste management, buildings/life, health, education, tourism, management, and economy (Anthopoulos, 2017; Gaur et al., 2015).

Smart Transportation Intelligent transportation systems cover technologies such as parking management, facilitating transportation, and traffic management. Intelligent transportation systems confront us as the smart systems of the city that provide coordination between information, telecommunication, positioning, and automation technologies to ensure transportation safety and reduce the effects of environmental disinformation and energy consumption by using urban areas efficiently. It contains the smart

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transportation systems vehicles created for smart cities, connecting the users and infrastructures of the road with information and communication technologies, and technological applications that provide users with data flow in their vehicles (Yan et al., 2020).

Smart Security Providing the necessary precautions by providing a fast flow of information after preventing problems with a proactive approach by predicting possible problems in society is the basis of smart security practices. In addition to this, it is important to increase the capacity of the emergency systems and to reduce their response time and to optimize them (Novotný et al., 2014). Smart city provides opportunities, to provide services to the residents of the cities to protect and avoid environmental conditions, accidents, and crimes: to establish security systems to ensure the safety of the city’s environment and roads, by providing data analysis, threats the security of the city with biometric technology from broad-based information pools. Methods such as detection of individuals, reducing the margin of error of the established technological systems and security units, and the establishment of information and warning systems in large-scale events such as natural disasters that societies may encounter (Novotný et al., 2014) can be listed as smart security systems.

Smart Energy The advancement of technology has made it impossible for the cities in which we live to function without energy. Automobiles, public transportation vehicles, heating, transporting drinking water, cooking meals, and a host of other basic needs are all directly related to energy. Energy underpins all of the services that comprise the components of a smart city. When designing energy systems for smart cities, it is critical to consider how these scarce resources can be used most efficiently. For this reason, the first area of smart technologies to be created is to develop services to increase efficiency by reducing energy consumption. In carrying out these operations, it is expected to adopt an understanding that uses reliable, compliant, renewable energy sources most securely and thus reduces carbon footprint to a minimum. While carrying out these processes, an understanding that uses reliable, compatible, renewable energy sources safely and thus reduces the carbon footprint to a minimum is expected to be adopted (Anthopoulos, 2017).

Smart Water The intellectual basis of the smart water system, another of the smart city systems, includes functions such as water quality monitoring, water management, remote billing, flood, or disaster prediction (Anthopoulos, 2017). In performing these functions, it is necessary to work in a coordinated manner through information and

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communication technologies. In this way, in addition to its objectives such as ensuring the efficiency of smart water systems and water and wastewater infrastructure systems, developing an effective and flexibility-optimized management approach; providing models that are developed for environmental protection; ensuring the management and distribution of water resources using information and communication technologies, thereby helping to protect the environment; and ultimately providing a sustainable economic service are aimed (Robles et al., 2015).

Smart Waste Management With the beneficial effects of information communication technologies, it is possible to live an environmentally conscious life that meets current needs without jeopardizing the future generations. It is critical to manage waste in a way that does not harm the environment while still meeting basic needs. Smart waste management encompasses the entire waste cycle, including monitoring waste recovery and recycling, as well as an illustration of the general waste policy cycle. Ensuring the optimization of the time and route of waste collection through smart cards for smart access to waste storage for citizens, access to waste tanks, collection methods that provide proper separation of garbage through buildings, monitoring of pollution, control, and early warning, such as the establishment of systems that lower costs and urge recyclable systems in garbage collection activities, can be given as examples of smart waste approaches (Zhang et al., 2019).

Smart Buildings The smart buildings which gain great importance with scientific and industrial interest have added information communication technologies as the fourth basic factor to typical building blocks that are regarded as electrical, mechanical, and sanitary installation. The technologies used in smart buildings can be listed as innovations that ensure control of nearly every function with remote network systems without being in the building such as cable-wireless network equipment, systems that can control heating and ventilation of buildings, energy management system, video surveillance systems, and parking systems. In the intellectual infrastructure of such technologies proposed for the implementation of smart buildings, an approach lies in which they can continuously monitor the current conditions, identify and implement the decisions to be made on time, and thus achieve maximum efficiency. With a system that very few people can manage at their computerequipped desks, the restricted individuals become very controllable in all kinds of functions of many buildings (Plageras et al., 2018).

Smart Health The concept of smart health: with the integration of information communication technologies that forms the basis of smart systems to health systems, it is aimed at

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increasing productivity in health services. Smart health aims to raise the health to a higher position in the society in a widespread, private, safe, efficient, and sustainable manner within the framework of the new paradigm that combines health and smart city principles (Solanas et al., 2014). With the methods such as remote patient monitoring, telehealth advice, and management services, personal health care and data management, and offering services are provided by installing the cameras, home sensors, emergency buttons, medical materials and support devices with automatic functions to patients’ areas. Healthcare services are planned to enter our homes with a defined smart health concept. In this way, it is an understanding based on obtaining a result by promptly evaluating the data with network technologies such as reducing the costs of health services, increasing the quality of life of the patients, starting the treatment of the diseases by early detection, and collecting the data faster (Pramanik et al., 2017; Baig & Gholamhosseini, 2013).

Smart Education The intelligent human factor, one of the components of a smart city, is committed to lifelong learning. The training sector also benefits from communication technologies during this process of learning. Students can participate in interactive learning processes by transferring innovative systems to the education sector. In comparison to traditional face-to-face training, technological systems have made it possible to acquire knowledge more quickly. The intelligent training process incorporates concepts such as integrity, interaction, social interaction tools, and mobility into the information communication process. The concept of integrity can be defined by the idea of intelligent education with an understanding that integrated, ubiquitous, valid, and accepted technological education tools are used in common standards. That what is meant to be explained by interaction is that through virtual classrooms, students are involved in the remote active learning process with network technologies. In order to provide these services, the inclusion of social interaction tools should be ensured. The idea of mobility can be stated as ensuring the participation of mobile applications in the training and development stages that enable them to be reached wherever they are located at the base of Information Communication Technologies (Hoel & Mason, 2018; Zhu et al., 2016).

Smart Economy While there is no universally accepted definition of the smart economy, it encompasses the methods used to present a model of sustainable urban development and productivity (Anthopoulos, 2017). Smart technologies are the products and services that smart cities offer to their stakeholders. They are created by classifying information communication technologies according to their intended use. These services enable a city to become a smart city and improve its residents’ quality of life. Indeed, the intelligent services that contribute to a city’s smartness are what contribute to the city’s overall livability.

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Smart Tourism Smart tourism is an approach that enables increasing demands by providing products and services available to tourists by transferring information and data of touristic values to network technologies through information communication technologies that exist in the content of smart systems (Gretzel et al., 2015) by processing efficiently the data transferred from physical infrastructures, social connections, government, and organizational sources. It is aimed to increase the mobility of the tourists with the integration of the information tools to the physical infrastructure and to improve the quality of life of the visitors. A positive approach is adopted with the introduction of comprehensive data that can be used by tourists in transportation, accommodation, touristic places, and food and beverage activities. The main purpose of the smart city components introduced and the smart city technologies required for the creation of a smart city is to create a more liveable urban life as a result of the changes experienced by the cities. With these methods developed based on information and communication technologies in order to ensure the liveability, sustainability, and operability of cities, an economically, socially, and culturally sustainable city is aimed. What is intended to be explained with smart cities is to reveal the potential of cities to combine and use the resources they have with all these technological developments and information communication infrastructures expected to be established.

The Smart City Applications in the World Information age caused by fast developments in information communication technologies has resulted in the emergence of a new culture, and the opportunities that facilitate urban life and bring a saving of time in many areas such as production, construction, transportation, and communication have emerged in urban space and become a very efficient factor in the dissemination of smart city thinking. In this regard, cities that can combine technology with city life and adapt it quickly turn into a smart form, enabling an increase in the quality of life in urban spaces and a more sustainable urban life. In this direction, smart applications are rapidly becoming widespread in many cities around the world, and new projects are being implemented every day (Orselli & Akbay, 2019). Some smart cities such as Songdo in South Korea and King Abdullah Economic City are the places where city services have been firstly conducted over the Internet (Herzberg, 2017). In Songdo smart city, built in South Korea, the world’s largest city automation application has been implemented with millions of sensors placed on roads, electrical grid, water, and waste systems (Tawnsend, 2013). Chicago and Singapore have installed sensors in many locations around the city to monitor the operation of the city. Seoul was the first smart city to use 5G. New York, London, Paris, Barcelona, Amsterdam, Berlin, Manchester, Edinburgh, Hamburg, and many smart city strategies, such as Bath, are gradually trying to become smarter by adding smart applications and many smart city strategies to their streets, public services,

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education, and health infrastructure and establishing new regions and offering all of the digital services to these regions (Herzberg, 2017; Bakici et al., 2013). Telephone booths in New York City which are nearly turned into information centers with the opportunities of watching news, being informed about nearby discount shopping opportunities, and wireless Internet facilities have been put at the disposal of citizens. With the smart transportation systems in Los Angeles, 35% reduction was achieved in stops, a 20% reduction in waits at intersections, a 13% reduction in travel time, and a 13% reduction in fuel consumption as a result. With the smart street lighting system, the electricity consumption savings rate in Oslo is 70%. A 19% reduction in burglary rates has been achieved, thanks to a prior Crime Detection System through analysis (Deloitte, 2016). Hangzhou, Barcelona, and Singapore take advantage of artificial intelligence in their systems for controlling lighting and effective waste management. With the help of artificial intelligence and big data analysis capabilities, all vehicles can be tracked, real-time traffic suggestions and travel routes based on video and image recognition technologies can be given, traffic congestion reduction, automatic detection of traffic accidents, and tracking of places where parking is prohibited. The system has the feature of detecting accidents, stopping, or parking violations instantly and automatically notifying the police (NTBOX Magazine, 2017). In order to monitor and rent empty parking places in parking lots available in the city, a phone application named Mobypark is successfully used in Amsterdam (Orselli & Akbay, 2019). Amsterdam Schiphol Airport is heated by the city’s sewage waste, the stadium’s energy needs are met by the solar panels placed in the stadium, and the solar panels placed on the roof of a local hospital meet the hospital’s energy needs and allow the surrounding houses to use the extra energy (ASUD, 2016). Energy obtained through solar energy panels in buildings is stored for use at night and transferred to the city network (Senol, 2017). In addition, within the scope of Amsterdam’s I Amsterdam City Card Project, access to museums and canal trips can be made in the city free of charge with an online card, and a detailed city map can be made available. This card offers great discounts for restaurants, concerts, theaters, and car rentals within the city of Amsterdam (Gul & Atak Cobanoglu, 2017). On the other hand, with many applications such as catching those who drive at full throttle through use of the latest speed cameras and data analysis for the patterns of human behavior, placing moving sensor to the houses to monitor elders who have been living alone, and, when movement stops, transferring information health institution to check elders, Singapore takes big steps in the direction of being a global leader in smart city technology (NTBOX Magazine, 2017). Thanks to the special cards distributed to the elderly and the disabled, it enabled traffic lights to be lit for a long period while crossing at the pedestrian crossing (Xsights, 2016). Within the scope of the Smart Nation program, which came into force in 2014, everything can be followed and those who violate the rules can be monitored, from the cleaning of the public areas in the city-state to the routes drawn by all registered vehicles, with the data to be collected, thanks to the sensors and cameras to be placed anywhere in Singapore, and the behavior of the society and how infectious diseases spread can be analyzed in a situation like an explosion and relevant. Most of the data will be stored

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on a state-owned platform called Virtual Singapore and can be shared with the private sector, when needed (Orselli & Akbay, 2019). Copenhagen which targets to be the first capital city reducing carbon emission to zero in 2025 is one of the largest cities with the lowest carbon emission (Kamp, 2015). In this city, 40% of regular trips from home to work are done by bicycles. Real-time data on traffic and air quality is collected, and the data collected are shared, thanks to the e-bike application (Ozhaseki, 2017). Copenhagen started the City WiFi project by providing a WiFi connection to the whole city. Smart applications have been developed for health and municipal services. In addition, with the Smart Parking project, the parking lot is quickly described to the drivers by using sensors in the parking spaces, and the traffic density is reduced in important parts of the city. Besides, with the Smart Water and Smart Waste projects, both environmentalist and cost-reducing practices have been implemented by preventing floods and determining the occupancy rates of garbage containers (Gul & Atak Cobanoglu, 2017).

Evaluation of Asian Capitals In the Smart City Index (2019), information was collected from 120 people living in each of the 102 cities regarding two factors, one being structure and the other technologies, covering the variables of Health and Safety, Mobility, Activities, Opportunities, and Governance. While the structure factor focuses on the current quality of life, technology factor depicts the version integrated with the technology of five variables in question. The evaluations made in this study are based on the Smart City Index (IMD World Competitiveness Center, 2019). Accordingly, data on 9 Asian capitals, which were among the 50 most visited cities in 2019, were compiled from this report and evaluated according to each other within the scope of the values presented over 100. Thereafter, the information of the capitals included in the research compiled from the report is presented in a separate table. In these tables, scores for expressions of each dimension were discussed, and the average values of nine capitals for each expression were calculated in order to evaluate the status of the capitals relative to each other. The evaluations made are presented further (Table 24.1). Singapore is the best city among all cities in the expression of “Basic sanitation meets the needs of the poorest areas” in the structure size of the Health and Safety section. New Delhi and Moscow are the most negative cities. In this case, it can be evaluated that basic health measures should be spread to wider areas in New Delhi and Moscow. In terms of recycling services, the best city among all cities is Taipei City. Moscow scored below 50, which is a medium value, and remained well below the average for all cities. Accordingly, it is required to focus on recycling activities in Moscow. In terms of public safety, Singapore comes to the forefront in public security. On the contrary, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, and New Delhi are among the cities where anxiety is felt on this respect.

Structures Smart city ranking Rating Factor rating: Structure Factor rating:Technologies 1. Health and safety Basic sanitation meets the needs of the poorest areas Recycling services are satisfactory Public safety is not a problem Air pollution is not a problem Medical services provision is satisfactory 2. Mobility Traffic congestion is not a problem Public transport is satisfactory 3. Activities Green spaces are satisfactory

Kuala Lumpur 70 CCC CCC CCC 63.01 53.12 48.78 40.24 72.49

24.39 61.38 60.98

Bangkok 75 CCC CC CCC 63.39 53.01 43.85 25.14 65.98

25.14 34.43 50.00

68.58

20.08 65.44

40.30 58.33 28.83 57.51

59.70

Moscow 72 CCC CCC CCC

68.19

35.28 64.44

55.00 46.39 27.36 66.94

58.89

New Delhi 68 CCC CCC CCC

58.75

27.22 45.56

65.42 54.86 33.19 74.72

78.33

Riyadh 71 CCC CCC CCC

46.51

21.77 68.55

66.67 51.34 8.06 70.30

70.97

Seoul 47 BB BB BBB

76.88

44.49 66.53

61.69 74.60 63.04 79.44

87.23

Singapore 1 AAA AAA AAA

Table 24.1 Evaluation of the capital cities in the continent of Asia. (Source: IMD World Competitiveness Center, 2019)

56.10

27.10 64.23

80.08 58.94 29.40 84.01

77.37

Taipei City 7 A BBB A

34.97

28.14 62.02

68.17 57.65 45.49 67.49

69.67

Tokyo 62 B BB B

43.68 28.18 59.18 63.915 57.88

60.38 54.97 33.42 70.99

57.92 69.84

Average

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Cultural activities (shows, bars, and museums) are satisfactory 4. Opportunities (work and school) Employment finding services are available Most children have access to a good school Lifelong learning opportunities are provided by local institutions Businesses are creating new jobs Minorities feel welcome 5. Governance Information on local government decisions are easily accessible Corruption of city officials is not an issue of concern Residents contribute to decision making of local government Residents provide feedback on local government projects 60.11

71.54 74.25 77.78 62.20 64.63 32.93 58.27 64.63

57.92 51.78 65.44 53.01 47.81 30.46 44.40 46.86

61.07

39.62

29.64

57.51

54.37 49.18

65.44

67.08

68.16

67.76

80.87

70.73

58.61

66.53

66.25

48.33

71.39

72.08 69.17

68.19

65.42

68.06

71.94

61.39

56.67

42.36

70.69

63.47 58.75

61.11

71.81

54.17

60.97

43.82

40.19

21.37

56.18

37.10 27.28

58.74

52.82

52.02

70.16

65.59

56.05

69.62

76.08

62.23 69.35

80.51

78.23

75.67

76.61

61.25

56.91

41.46

68.16

59.62 57.86

64.63

57.86

58.27

76.15

35.52

35.25

31.56

38.52

44.13 34.70

52.19

43.03

53.01

60.79

56.3

50.4

38.64

59.58 53.5 51.64 61.22

64.09

62.08

60.308 62.69

69.65

24 Smart City Applications in Asian Capital Cities 523

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S. Doğan and Y. Keleş

The score related to the expression of air pollution shows that it is one of the biggest problems of the capitals. Scores for all cities indicate that the mean score for this expression was calculated as 33.42 out of 100. The city with the least concern for air pollution is Singapore, and the most worrying situation is in Seoul. In terms of medical service provision, evaluations regarding the cities are positive in general, with Taipei City being the best city in this regard. In the structure dimension, the mobility part’s scores for the expression traffic congestion show that the biggest problem felt in the capitals is traffic. All cities are below 50 points in this respect. In terms of public transport, Bangkok and Riyadh stand out with low scores. Other cities are close to each other. The green spaces are satisfactory expression of the activities; part of the structure dimension does not have a very high score. The best city in this regard is Singapore, which is well ahead of other cities. Tokyo is in the worst condition. In terms of cultural activities (shows, bars, and museums), Moscow comes to the fore. Bangkok has the lowest score in this regard. In terms of employment finding services (Work & School) which are part of the structure dimension, Singapore stands out compared to other cities. Singapore is in the top position from the point of employment among the capitals. Most children have access to a good school statement. While Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, and Riyadh are at their best, Tokyo is the city emphasizing the school problem the most. Singapore stands out again when it comes to lifelong learning opportunities that are provided by local institutions. Bangkok and Tokyo are the places where lifelong learning opportunities are minimal. In terms of businesses creating new jobs, it can be assessed that new jobs are emerging in Kuala Lumpur and New Delhi and they can be evaluated eligible in employment. Seoul and Tokyo are the cities that receive the most negative points in this respect. Minorities feel welcome averages states that minorities are not welcome in Seoul and Tokyo. New Delhi and Singapore are more positive in this respect than other cities. Information on local government decisions are easily accessible is the most positive expression of the Governance part in the structure dimension, and Singapore comes to the fore again. The most difficult cities to reach local government decisions are Tokyo and Bangkok. Corruption of city officials is not an issue of concern, and the city most concerned about the corruption of managers is Seoul, and the city that is most comfortable in this regard is Singapore. According to the averages of residents contribute to the decision making of local government, the cities with the highest public participation in decisions are New Delhi, Singapore, and Kuala Lumpur, and the participation in decision making of the local people in Tokyo, Moscow, and Seoul is low. The average of residents provide feedback on local government projects is more positive in Tokyo and Seoul, while the issue of providing feedback to projects in New Delhi, Singapore, and Kuala Lumpur is more positive. When an overall assessment is made for the structure factor, it is possible to evaluate that traffic density, air pollution, and corruption are the issues which anxiety is felt the most.

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However, it can be stated that nine capitals are in good condition in terms of health measures and cultural activities (Table 24.2). Size order according to the score averages in the structure dimension is as follows: • • • • •

Activities Opportunities (Work & School) Health & Safety Governance Mobility

Considering the statement of online reporting of city maintenance problems provides a speedy solution of Health & Safety in Technologies part of Technologies dimension, the cities where the online reporting of the city problems is the most positive are Taipei City and Riyadh. Bangkok and Tokyo have the lowest average in this regard. With respect to a website or app that allows to give away unwanted items to other city residents, the scores were generated, and Taipei City comes to the fore. In terms of the free public WiFi that has improved access to services scores, it again highlights Taipei City. The cities with the lowest score in free WiFi service are Tokyo and Bangkok. CCTV cameras make residents feel safer shows that Singapore is the Capital City where security cameras give the most confidence. Scores are not negative in other cities. In terms of a website or app that allows effective monitoring of air pollution, the lowest score in monitoring online of environmental pollution belongs to Tokyo. Other cities are close to each other. The expression of arranging medical appointments online has improved access remarks that the online appointment system points to a positive score in all capitals; again, Taipei City and Singapore stand out. Mobility part’s car-sharing apps have reduced congestion score; it indicates that traffic congestion is reduced in Kuala Lumpur and New Delhi with the vehicle sharing application. Tokyo, Seoul, and Moscow have a low score in this respect. Apps that direct you to an available parking space have reduced journey time; Taipei City and Moscow have the most positive score. Tokyo and Seoul are the cities with the lowest score regarding parking practice. Bicycle hiring has reduced congestion; in Taipei City and New Delhi, the traffic problem is more preventable through renting a bicycle. In Tokyo, this score is quite low. The expression of online scheduling and ticket sales makes public transport easier to use shows that in all capitals, online programming and ticket sales increase public transportation. The statement of activities’ online purchasing of tickets to shows and museums has made it easier to attend has a high score for all cities. Online access to job listings has made it easier to find work as expressed in the Opportunities (Work & School) section; it is possible to state that all cities have high scores for online job adverts in terms of facilitating finding job, while Kuala Lumpur and Singapore come to the fore.

Technologies 1. Health & Safety Online reporting of city maintenance problems provides a speedy solution A website or app allows to give away unwanted items to other city residents Free public WiFi has improved access to services CCTV cameras make residents feel safer A website or app allows effective monitoring of air pollution Arranging medical appointments online has improved access 2. Mobility Car-sharing apps have reduced congestion Apps that direct you to an available parking space have reduced journey time Bicycle hiring has reduced congestion Online scheduling and ticket sales make public transport easier to use

Kuala Lumpur 61.65 53.39 59.08 63.69 53.12 61.92

69.38 58.54 49.05 73.85

Bangkok

55.19

58.88

54.92

61.20

67.76

60.79

55.19

54.37

53.55 72.27

50.68 77.05

64.62

47.81

69.67

50.14

70.63

67.90

59.15

65.44

Moscow

61.94 77.08

61.67

67.50

74.58

65.14

71.11

64.31

61.94

60.14

New Delhi

Table 24.2 Secondary factors (source: IMD World Competitiveness Center, 2019)

40.42 64.03

61.67

61.39

75.69

53.75

73.89

62.22

64.58

73.19

Riyadh

49.87 75.94

47.72

42.20

60.89

66.40

72.58

73.79

68.01

64.78

Seoul

45.30 65.46

56.05

55.91

78.90

67.20

80.11

72.58

61.96

69.89

Singapore

64.50 81.71

65.45

54.61

80.49

67.48

73.04

87.26

74.80

76.29

Taipei City

27.19 65.44

42.49

23.22

62.84

37.98

62.57

53.14

68.58

56.83

Tokyo

49.17 72.54

56.95

57.92 53.02

69.53

58.77

69.87

66.13

63.48

AVERAGE 65,43 64.82

526 S. Doğan and Y. Keleş

3. Activities Online purchasing of tickets to shows and museums has made it easier to attend 4. Opportunities (Work & School) Online access to job listings has made it easier to find work IT skills are taught well in schools Online services provided by the city have made it easier to start a new business 5. Governance Online public access to city finances has reduced corruption Online voting has increased participation An online platform where residents can propose ideas has improved city life Processing identification documents online has reduced waiting times 82.86

83.47 66.12 75.20

54.88 60.43 62.87 70.33

76.73

78.83

70.63 68.44

47.54

63.11

62.57

65.71

74.59

62.43

59.15

38.25

61.61 66.39

79.37

83.47

78.75

68.89

70.00

69.03

70.56 75.56

73.06

84.03

73.33

64.72

59.31

60.56

60.83 68.61

71.53

75.56

74.73

50.94

57.39

39.52

62.23 55.91

69.35

84.41

81.59

60.08

52.69

54.97

68.82 66.94

82.53

85.48

73.58

77.24

74.12

70.33

65.85 70.05

70.73

87.53

45.77

37.16

37.16

30.19

31.56 41.94

70.63

68.03

70.93

60.77

59.26

60.67 51.7

62.02 65.45

67.72 75.5

80.9 80.9

24 Smart City Applications in Asian Capital Cities 527

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IT skills are taught well in schools’ expression; Bangkok and New Delhi loom large in terms of the cities where information technology skills are taught in schools; however, it is possible to state that this score is quite low in Tokyo. The expression of online services provided by the city has made it easier to start a new business shows that New Delhi and Kuala Lumpur stand out in terms of cities where online services make it easier to set up a business. Again, this score is low for Tokyo. The statement of the Governance section of online public access to city finances has reduced corruption shows that the highest score in terms of reducing corruption through the public’s access to online information on financial issues belongs to Taipei City and New Delhi. This score is low for Tokyo, Moscow, and Seoul. The expression of online voting has increased participation points out that voting online increases the participation in Taipei City and New Delhi the most, while it affects Tokyo the least. An online platform where residents can propose ideas has improved city life expression shows that Taipei City stands out in this regard. Again, the score is low in Tokyo. Processing identification documents online has reduced waiting times indicates that the availability of identity documents online in other capitals outside Tokyo increases waiting times. In the technologies dimension, online sales of cultural activity tickets, online job adverts, and online applications in public transportation come to the fore. On the other hand, the belief that corruption will decrease with bicycle rental, vehicle sharing practices, and financial data monitoring is low. In the technologies dimension, the size order according to the average score is as follows: • • • • •

Activities Opportunities (Work & School) Health and Safety Governance Mobility

The ranking of subcategories in both dimensions by their averages is the same. Although the technological dimension scores of smart cities are higher in general terms, it is necessary to improve the aspects mentioned in the structure dimension. Unless the problem of air pollution and traffic is solved, it will make no sense for cities to be smart.

Conclusion According to the Smart City Index by IMD World Competitiveness Center (2019), Singapore takes the first place among all the other capitals. Taipei follows Singapore. The other capitals need to improve their smart services. Health and safety concerns must be the top priorities. The lowest scores are related to these concerns. Especially, the cities need to take urgent actions to develop solutions for air pollution and public safety. Traffic jam and public transport are other important issues. Mobility is one of the most important elements of a smart city. With the help of Artificial Intelligence

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(AI) and sensors, it is possible to monitor and manage the traffic lights, highways, and bridges to reduce the traffic jam. Accessing the necessary information, contributing the decisions, and providing feedback are also crucial for a smart city. The cities have to improve the communication systems to provide satisfactory services to the citizens. Current cities are complex systems that are characterized by huge numbers of connected citizens, businesses, different types of transport, networks, services, and utilities. Population growth and increased urbanization raise a variety of technical, social, economic, and organizational problems that end to jeopardize the economic and environmental sustainability of cities. “The rapid growth faced by several cities has generated traffic congestion, pollution and increasing social inequality. In this context, a debate has emerged on the way new technology-based solutions, as well as new approaches to planning and living, can assure future viability and prosperity in metropolitan areas” (Neirotti et al., 2014, p. 25). Smart city is an important future-oriented concept, which has the potential to integrate new technologies, social systems, and ecological concerns. Yet, this requires an integrative or holistic approach to the very idea of smart city in order to become a reality. The smart city landscape is shaped under local characteristics, priorities, and the needs of cities; in addition to global market forces and available technology, it is noteworthy that to produce morally balanced and socially aware smart city strategies, stakeholder engagement is crucial. “Stakeholder engagement can provide valuable insights about the assets and the needs of the city, increase public acceptance of the smart city venture and elevate the smartness of the city to a whole new level, leveraging human capital and collective intelligence” (Angelidou, 2014, p. 9).

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Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Smart City Involvement

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concept of Smart City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICT Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Integrated City Management Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dimensions of Smart City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of Technology in Tourism Within Smart Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WSNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cloud Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SIS Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Big Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tourism in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Cities in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bangalore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chongqing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seoul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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A. Ercan İştin (*) School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, University of Şırnak, Şırnak, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_25

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Conclusion and Some Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552

Abstract

The smart city concept refers to an environment where technology integrates with the city. Smart cities offer various services to their citizens and find solutions to social problems by using information and communication technologies (ICTs) and the Internet. Considering the intensive use of information in the tourism sector and the dependence of tourism on ICTs, it is unavoidable to use the smart adjective for tourism. Especially in Asia, it has been made great efforts to create a smart tourism agenda. China and South Korea provide substantial funds to enterprises that focus on creating the technological infrastructure that supports smart tourism. Smart apps have aims such as giving advices related to attractions, food, and beverage predicting user needs for citizens and tourists and increasing experiences by providing location-based and customized interactive services. In addition, tourists can share their travel experiences with smart applications, thus helping other tourists in the decision-making process. The aim of the research is to examine smart city applications within the tourism destinations in Asia and to reveal the importance of smart cities in terms of tourism and to make recommendations for destination administrations and destinations. Keywords

Smart city · Smart destinations · Technology applications · Asia

Introduction The tourism industry that connects different cultures and acts as a bridge among countries has become one of the fastest growing industries in the world. According to the “World Tourism Barometer” report published by the UNWTO in 2020, international tourist arrivals around the world grew by 3.8% in 2019, reaching 1.5 billion. In 2019, the year in which all regions around the world recorded an increase in tourist numbers, the Middle East ranked first with 8% growth rate. Asia and Pacific Region followed the Middle East with 5% growth rate. Growth rates of other regions were, respectively, Europe and Africa 4% and Americas 2%. Growth rates by subregions grew by 9% in North Africa and 5% in the Mediterranean and Southern Europe regions and the Caribbean. South Asia and Southeast Asia subregions reached the highest growth with 8% growth rates. Northeast Asia was recorded 2% increase due to the drop in Hong Kong (China) in 2019 (World Tourism Organization, 2020: pp.9–10). There are many reasons for this increase in tourism movements worldwide. As a result of the developments in technology, developments in transportation vehicles (opportunity to reach long distances easier, more convenient, and faster with vehicles such as planes and high-speed trains), the ability to instantly communicate with people at large distances with the widespread use of computers, and the rise in living standards have positively affected the tourism

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industry, and thus the use of technology in the tourism industry has become widespread. The advances in technology have gained momentum worldwide and have also affected the tourism industry as it affects many industries and changed the services offered to visitors. With technology increasingly beginning to take up more space in daily life, it has revealed the demand for the existence of tourism destinations where human needs are met instantly including the effective use of technology. Therefore, as a result of the widespread use of technology in the tourism industry, various services offered in tourism destinations are marketed using smart technologies; and these services attract people who want to increase their experience related to tourism activities. People who use technology frequently for many reasons such as leisure activities, entertainment, online shopping, and getting information prefer destinations with applications to be evaluated in the context of a smart city in the city they live in or the city they will visit, because the use of technology has become an integral part of people. The aim of the research is to examine smart city applications within the tourism destinations in Asia and to reveal the importance of smart cities in terms of tourism and to make recommendations for destination administrations and destinations.

Concept of Smart City The smart city concept firstly emerged in the 1990s. With IT-enabled technologies and advances in the Internet, academics and practitioners in city management and planning have begun to recommend the idea of using these technologies in order to capture, share, and analyze natural information about each direction of urban life and integrate them into urban planning. These recommendations include the management process to reduce energy consumption, facilitate city management, improve decision-making accuracy and quality, provide more efficient customized services to city residents, address urban problems, and improve quality of life (Yu & Xu, 2018: p. 77). Thanks to digital technology innovation, there is an absolutely integrated and new design process purposed at a new modulation of urban functions (both new and traditional ones) at the core of creating a smart city. The smart city is technological and interconnected, as well as has a variety of features that are sustainable, comfortable, attractive, and safe (Sanseverino, 2014: p.1). The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) defines the smart city concept as an innovative city using ICTs and other tools in order to improve the quality of life, competitiveness, and efficiency of urban service delivery while considering the social, cultural, economic, and environmental needs of future and current generations. According to ISO (the International Organization for Standardization), smart city is a new model and new concept in which new-generation ICTs are applied such as Cloud Computing, IoT, Big Data, and integrated geographic information systems that will facilitate the planning, management, construction, and smart services of the city. According to the European Commission, a smart city is defined as a place where traditional services and networks are made more productive with the use of digital

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and information communication technologies for the benefit of city residents and the business world (TC. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı, 2019: p.9). Forrester defines the concept of smart city as the use of smart computing technologies with the aim of making a city’s smarter infrastructure services and components connected and efficient, including the city government, education, public safety, healthcare, real estate, utilities, and transportation (Washburn et al., 2010: p.2). According to Harrison et al. (2010), smart city means connecting physical infrastructure, social infrastructure, IT infrastructure, and business infrastructure to take advantage of the city’s collective intelligence. Thus, smart city continues the longstanding practice to improve a city’s quality of life and operational efficiency (Harrison et al., 2010: p.2). Anthopoulos (2017) states that the concept of smart city can also mean designs or create new organizations arguing that smart cities should not be limited to a structure that develops solely on ICTs. In this context, the smartness of a city explains the ability to bring together all its sources and to achieve its own goals smoothly and effectively (Anthopoulos, 2017: p.7). Smart city refers to cities that use all available technologies and resources in a smart and coordinated way in order to develop livable and sustainable urban centers (Barrionuevo et al., 2012: p.50). Simultaneously, the smart city in relation to the economy is used in order to define a city that has a smart industry. This particularly refers to the industries in the field of ICT and other industries that use ICT in their production processes (Lombardi et al., 2012: p.138). Smart city instills knowledge into its physical infrastructure in order to increase comfort, facilitating mobility, saving energy, improving efficiency and the air quality and water quality, detecting and fixing problems faster, getting rid of disasters quickly, making better decisions, collecting data, distributing resources effectively, collaborating among fields, and sharing data. However, it is not enough to be a smarter city to impart one-to-one information to every sub-system of a city such as energy, education, transportation, health, physical infrastructure, buildings, water, food, public security, but a smarter city should be considered as an organic whole, a connected system/network (Kanter & Litow, 2009: p.2). All smart cities should show the following three key features (ITU-T Technology Watch Report, 2013: p.6):

ICT Infrastructure It is very important to ensure the security of the new-generation ICT infrastructure for the success of the development of smart city services. Efforts to improve ICT infrastructure should only predict future service demands instead of responding to the most obvious ones.

Integrated City Management Framework A well-described integrated management framework of city is necessary for smart cities. Commodity system, integrated subsystem, and building block system of many

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smart cities will only labor in harmony with the strictest adherence to widespread standards.

Smart Users ICTs are instruments that make a smart city possible, but without smart technology users who can interact with smart technologies and smart services, ICTs will not work. Increasing reach to smart devices and training on their use between income levels and age groups should maintain one of the highest priorities of a smart city. One of the main factors that draw the attention in the literature on the concept of smart city is the use of networked infrastructures in order to increase political and economic productivity and ensure cultural, social, and urban development. The use of infrastructure connections includes the use of a large variety of infrastructures including transportation, housing, business services, and a range of public, lifestyle services, entertainment, and private services. It also includes ICTs that fall under all these networks and are at the center of the smart city idea (Hollands, 2008: p.307). The application of ICTs with its impacts on human capital/education, environmental problems, social, and relational capital is generally stated with the smart city concept (Lombardi et al., 2012: p.137).

Dimensions of Smart City There are basic factors that make a city smart. It is possible to list these basic factors as technology (software and hardware infrastructures), people (creativity, education and diversity), and also institution (policy and governance). Considering the link between factors, it can be said that a city is smart when investments in social/human capital and IT infrastructure support sustainable growth through participatory governance and increase the quality of life (Nam & Pardo, 2011: p.286). ICTs that are including electronic commerce, mobile and landline telephones, computer networks, satellite TVs, and Internet services are one of the basic economic driving forces in urban areas and in cities with many spatial and social impacts (Graham, 2002: p.34). Urban areas are responsible for a large part of source consumption by promoting the need to create smarter infrastructures in seeking more energy productive and greener urban dynamics. The resolutions to these issues consist of improvements in most components of urban dynamics such as smart surveillance, smart infrastructure, smart buildings, smart electricity and water distribution, smart healthcare, smart transportation, and smart services (Hancke et al., 2013: p.394). Giffinger et al. (2007) have linked the dimensions of smart cities to six dimensions: smart economy, smart governance, smart people, smart mobility, smart life, and smart environment (Giffinger et al., 2007: pp.10–11). These six dimensions are linked to traditional, regional, and developmental theories and neoclassical urban growth theories. Especially, dimensions are based on theories that are regional competitiveness, transportation, information and natural resources, communication

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technologies, quality of life, human and social capital, and citizens’ participation in city management (Lombardi et al., 2012: p.138). The issues of smart cities are defined as allowing an economic basis, forming productive urban infrastructure, improving space and the quality of life, providing social integration, preserving natural environmental qualities, and guaranteeing good governance (Yigitcanlar & Lee, 2014). In this regard, Anthopoulos (2017) conducted a comparative analysis on the existing smart city conceptual models. These models synthetize the smart city ecosystem of eight components related to creating cyber physical integration and including standardization perspectives. These components are smart transportation, smart infrastructure or smart environment, smart mobility, smart services, smart people, smart governance, smart life, and smart economy (Albino et al., 2015: pp.8–12):

Smart Infrastructure Smart infrastructure refers to water, sensors and energy networks, buildings, and streets.

Smart Transportation Smart transportation refers to transportation networks with control systems and advanced built-in real-time monitoring.

Smart Environment Smart environment refers to the management associated with waste management systems, recycling, emission control, pollution monitoring sensors, and the innovation and ICT establishment for the protection of natural resources. In addition, the smart environment dimension is related to productive use of electricity, productive use of water, greenhouse gas emission density of energy consumption, green space area, and urban dilatation.

Smart Services Smart services intend the use of technology and ICT in service delivery such as health, education, tourism, security, and response control (surveillance) throughout the city.

Smart Governance Smart governance includes issues such as the number of research centers and universities in the city and e-Government use by individuals and the percentage of

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households with Internet access at home. Also smart governance refers to the smart government enterprise in the urban area with technology for liability, service delivery, and participation.

Smart People Smart people are related to foreign language skills, the percentage of the population at secondary level, participation in lifelong learning, and patent applications per person and individual computer skills. Smart people refer to measures that improve open innovation and people’s creativity.

Smart Life Smart life, on the other hand, refers to innovations in order to increase the quality of life and livability in the urban area. Simultaneously, the smart life dimension is related to the rate of space for leisure use and recreation sports, the number of public libraries, other media, visit to museums, total book credits, and theater and cinema joining.

Smart Economy Smart economy is related with issues such as public spending for R&D and Education, GDP per capita, and unemployment rate, and it refers to technology and innovation in order to strengthen business development, employment, and urban growth. In addition, smart economy has been related with the existence of industries in the field of ICT or the use of ICT in production processes. Cohen (2012) developed the smart city wheel and addressed the smart city components in six dimensions: smart environment, smart governance, smart mobility, smart economy, smart people, and smart life. According to Cohen (2012), smart governance refers to the creation of participatory areas and the adoption of a transparent management approach in terms of cooperation and innovation. The smart environment refers to sustainable urban development and ensuring the sustainability of its existing resources through energy management. Smart mobility includes accessibility and the use of modern transportation systems in urban and intercity transportation. While smart people express the quality level of people in the city, the smart economy refers to the inclusion in the management of services in ICTs, in other words the implementation of digital technology-based economic strategies. Smart life is also a high quality of life provided by social solidarity, healthy environment, accessible culture, tourist attraction, and education services (Peek & Troxler, 2014: pp.5–6; Greco & Bencardino, 2014: pp.588–589; Buhalis & Amaranggana, 2013: p.556). These features were created based on the smart combination of creative yet knowledgeable citizens and endowments that ensure sound management of existing sources (Giffinger et al., 2007: p.11).

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Smart cities guarantee to be the next border of urban development using new technologies as mobile technology, sensors, and big data analytics. IoT is the place allowing buildings, cars, streets, and the device in the infrastructure and devices to connect over the Internet and talk to each other and to users. These innovations have the potential to improve cities in terms of sustainability, livability, and responding to the needs of citizens. Therefore, although smart technologies will not resolve each urban problem, well-designed and well-run cities can attract business investments and human talents (Asia Business Council, 2016).

Use of Technology in Tourism Within Smart Cities The new-generation technologies such as artificial intelligence, robotics, sensors, nanotechnology, cognitive technologies, Internet services, wearable technologies, quantum computing, augmented reality, smart robots, smart signaling, 3D, and smart networks have steered the 4.0 Industrial Revolution, which is frequently mentioned today and called Industry 4.0. Increasing use of Industry 4.0 technologies in areas such as doing business, communication, and education in daily life has changed lifestyles and business environments. Therefore, the Tourism 4.0 concept has appeared starting with adapting to these technologies of the tourism industry which is rapidly affected by technology. Technology has found a place in the tourism industry especially with the increasing number of tourists in the Z generation (Bahar et al., 2019: p.72). The 4.0 Industrial Revolution (Industry 4.0) is a new industrial revolution that incorporates intelligent digital technologies and advanced production and operation techniques, bringing more intelligent action to the physical world in order to create a digital enterprise that can communicate, analyze, and use data (Cotteler & Sniderman, 2017: p.2). In recent years, the world has made significant advances in artificial intelligence, robotics, and service automation with the impact of Industry 4.0. Artificial intelligence, service automation, and robotics ensure tourism, travel, and hotel management companies with extensive opportunities in order to increase their productivity and operations, offer consistent product quality, and transfer part of the service delivery process to customers. Service automation, artificial intelligence, and robotics which have started to take place in the tourism industry have been seen in a small number of tourism enterprises. For example, the Henn na hotel in Japan is fully automated, and guests do not meet whoever employees (Ivanov et al., 2017: p.1502). In addition to this example, many robots equipped with detectors and cameras have started patrolling airports in China. The robot can detect and remember human faces and plays an important role in identifying potential criminals, keeping track of suspicious people, and keeping records. The robot named “Anbot” meets the security needs of passengers and the airport at Shenzhen Airport. The robot plays an important role in detecting and remembering human faces, identifying potential criminals, keeping track of suspicious people, and keeping records. In addition, the robot named “Hitachi” which started to serve at Tokyo’s international airport in Japan supports passengers in finding airline companies,

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finding shops and restaurants, and guiding the passengers and supports passengers in finding the airline companies within the airport, finding shops and restaurants, and guiding the passengers (Ibiş, 2019: p.414). In addition, Tokyo has saved US$ 172.4 million by re ducing water loss by 3.7% with water supply pipes and electronic leak detectors that it has replaced by spending 54 million dollars (Aksoğan & Çalış Duman, 2018: p.193). Because of advances in technology, tourism utilizing smart systems is rapidly turning into smart tourism. Therefore, the use of Computer Reservation Systems (CRSs) in the 1970s, the use of Global Distribution Systems (GDSs) in the late 1980s, the use of the Internet in the 1990s, and the use of mobile technologies in the 2000s form the technological backbone as innovative business models and the new forms of tourism that make up this process. Smart tourism, which is seen as a strategic tool for tourism development, has emerged on a foundation that enhances the advanced communication and information infrastructure, tourism governance, and tourism management, facilitates product innovation and services, increases tourist experiences, and provides competitive advantage for tourism companies and destinations. The concept of digital networks lies at the heart of smart tourism. These digital networks, devices, and platforms create integrated systems that connect businesses, technologies, works, and tourists (Werthner et al., 2015: p.556). Smart tourism destinations benefit from technology embedded environments, sensitive processes at macro and micro levels. Interactive stakeholders who dynamically and end-user devices at multiple points of contact use the platform as a nervous system. The ultimate goal is to use the system to improve the effectiveness of source management in order to enhance tourism experience and maximize both target competitiveness and consumer satisfaction and also to ensure sustainability over a long period of time (Buhalis & Amaranggana, 2013: p.557). The ultimate goal is to use the system to improve the efficacy of resource management, as well as to ensure sustainability for a long period of time, improve the tourism experience, and maximize both target competitiveness and consumer satisfaction (Buhalis & Amaranggana, 2013: p.557). In the context of tourism, the aim of smart applications is to make recommendations predicting the wishes and needs of the tourists and to increase their experience by providing location-based and customized interactive services. In addition, tourists can share their travel experiences and thus help other tourists in the decision-making process with smart applications (Yoo et al., 2015: p.240). Many technology trends related to smart cities are the main communication infrastructure. This allows collecting data; smart cities to connect with infrastructure, devices, and people; and services to countless endpoints. The complication of the service and technological ecosystems of smart cities requests a holistic approach for communication and networking that supports a variety of needs, from home security and infrastructure monitoring to monitoring urban transport for digital media initiatives. These different needs include a number of technologies from low bandwidth wireless technologies from any smart city, such as ZigBee and Bluetooth LE, to special fiber optics for basic needs. Some critical technology tendencies that will

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affect future smart city developments are observed as 3/4G development, low power WAN technologies, and 5G network (Lea, 2017: pp.5–6). The smart city relies on advanced technologies to monitor and control the critical infrastructure components and services of the city. Advanced technologies include new generation of integrated software, hardware, and network technologies that offer complete resolutions with advanced analytics and real-time awareness to help make smart decisions. In this context, other technologies such as wireless sensor networks (WSNS), fog computing, cloud computing, IOT, big data analytics, and fog information are required to be used in smart cities (Mohamed et al., 2018: p.2–3). The Internet of smart tourism objects ensures personalized and real-time tour information based on bits such as large data, artificial intelligence, and cloud intelligence (Yüzbaşıoğlu et al., 2018: p. 708).

WSNs WSNs are used to control different sources and situations in various fields such as monitoring pollution levels, monitoring allergy conditions, traffic monitoring, listing available parking spaces, enabling automatic meter reading, and enabling automatic meter reading in the middle of the night in smart cities (Watteyne & Pister, 2011: p.3).

The Internet of Things IoT refers to the general idea (general idea) of readable, recognizable, positioned, addressable objects, especially daily objects, by being able to be controlled over the Internet independently from information detection devices or communication devices via RFID, wireless LAN, wide area networks, or other means (Patel et al., 2016: p.6122). IoT can support smart destinations in terms of ensuring analysis and information as well as control and automation. For example, receipts placed in the entrance ticket allow tourism service providers to monitor tourists’ locations and consumption behavior, and thus, it can be made location-based advertisements (Buhalis & Amaranggana, 2013: p.558). For example, IoT in China’s Sanya City is implemented to manage natural spots in terms of tourism. Entry tickets are embedded with RFID reader chips. Thus, the locations and consumption behaviors of tourists can be monitored, and asset-based advertising and payments can be applied (Wang et al., 2013: p.60). In addition, CitizenM hotel chain uses the Internet of objects in the field of digitalization. It uses mobile devices in areas such as checkin and room control within the hotel in order to better understand its customers, provide a better customer experience, and create experience-oriented analyzes. Customized experience is offered to both customers and employees with the devices used (Seyahat Acentaları Dijital Dönüşüm Raporu, 2019: p.31). Other benefits of IoT for tourism sector are listed as follows (Seyahat Acentaları Dijital Dönüşüm Raporu, 2019: p.31):

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• Take action to observe the real-time tourist experience and increase overall satisfaction. • Create new marketing opportunities and increase the customer base. • Provide tourists to personalized service with up-to-date information before and during their experience. • Constantly interact with tourists through different platforms (mobile, kiosk, sensors, etc.).

Cloud Computing Cloud computing is a model that can be provided and released quickly and suitable for the common pool of configurable computing resources (such as servers, networks, storage space, services, and applications) allowing for optional network access with minimal management effort or service provider interaction (Sirinivas et al., 2012: p.343). In other words, cloud computing services are designed in order to ensure a suitable way to accession data storage and robust web platform over a specific network. Using cloud computing will importantly decrease production costs and fixed entry and convert some of them into variable costs relating production needs. This will have a positive effect on competition and entry in whole sectors where fixed ICT spending is very important (Etro, 2009: p.180). According to Dikaiakos, Katsaros, Mehra, Pallis, and Vakali (2009), cloud services are designed to ensure scalable and easy access to software, applications, and data (e.g., measurable for pay per use) via web browsers. For example, a sophisticated tour guide system can serve a large number of tourists without being installed on any personal device. A central distribution system can serve whichever travel agency on a pay per use basis (Wang et al., 2013: p.60).

SIS Computing SIS computing is an architecture that uses one or more end user clients or devices close to the user in order to carry out communication, significant storage and configuration, measurement, control, and management (Perera et al., 2017: p.3).

Big Data Big data is a natural product of advanced digital works and applications. Sensors, social media networks, and mobile phones are samples of modern digital technologies that penetrate daily life. Big data refers to constantly growing data sets to the extent that it is difficult to manage using traditional relational database management systems (Osman et al., 2017: p.158). In the tourism sector, big data is obtained from call centers, press releases, sales-reservation transactions, and traditional distribution channels such as websites and customer relations (Xiang & Fesenmaier, 2016: p.18).

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Other technologies used to qualify cities as smart and measured the level of smartness are mobile devices, digital platforms, and open data. Mobile devices have an important place in accessing smart city solutions with location-based services and content-enriched services (Deloitte, 2015). Digitalization provides the infrastructure smarter (Serrano, 2018: p.134). Open data which can be read, used, and republished by the computer increases the competition and quality of works in many sectors including the public (Deloitte, 2015). Smart destination is more efficient in providing a comfortable, fast, practical, easy, cheap, and sustainable presentation of the daily and specific needs (tourism, business, health, etc.) of the crowded human population. Smart destinations use smart city equipment and technologies, unlike traditional destinations, in order to achieve this efficiency. These technologies are increasing in the form of high speed Internet, smart electricity distribution networks, smart lighting, smart sensors that can communicate with each other, information and transportation technologies that improve traffic, tourist information systems, public Wi-Fi hotspots and wireless communication technologies, cameras, computing cabling and data processing infrastructures, open data applications, big data and analysis systems, blockchain systems, data centers, data management systems, cloud systems, business intelligence systems, drones, robotics, service integration, software development, hardware development, geographic information systems, smart card and payment systems, artificial intelligence, augmented reality applications, virtual reality applications, city platforms, Li-Fi (LED), LoRa (IoT network platforms), IoT (Internet of Things), IoS (Internet of Services), IoP (Internet of People), 3G, 4G, 5G, and so on (Yavuz, 2019: p.205). Technological developments have made the information more accessible and have influenced the travelers’ behavior and expectations. At the same time, technology has greatly changed the customers’ expectations from services with real-time personalization, digital interaction, access to feedback, and online and mobile information. While many aspects of the travel experience take place online, changes in the digital aspects of travelers’ lives are seen. The term SoMo means social networks plus mobility (smartphones, smart gadgets, wearable devices) (Asian Tourism Marketing Strategy, 2017: p.16).

Tourism in Asia Asia is the leading region in the list of top 100 city destinations with 43 cities. Asia recorded the fastest growth in the number of international arrivals worldwide. National level policies for the improvement of tourism services and diversity of experiences in the region have gained a solid place. Many countries have adopted the digitization of travel services with an important emphasis on e-visas. Major infrastructure developments and improvement of air connections have an important place in the agenda of many Asian cities. Due to the strong income increase that led to the expansion of the middle class sector, the desire of more people to travel abroad has increased travel from the region. These developments directly improved the

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availability of travel-related services. In addition, Asia’s growing economic base and low travel costs have positively affected the business travel market in the region and a major improvement has been achieved in the development of the MICE (Meetings, Incentives, Conferences and Exhibitions) segment. As travels within the region increase, competitiveness is also increasing in order to attract more international visitors in the region. While Hong Kong and Bangkok remain the two best city destinations in the world, Macau, Singapore, and Kuala Lumpur are among the top 10 in the world. India is one of the strongest developing destinations in Asia due to its strong cultural resources, diversity of experience, and price competition, and 7 cities of India entered the top 100 city destinations in 2019. The average of cities such as Chennai and Bangalore is around 25%. The annual average of Delhi is over 25%. Bangalore is ranked for the first 100 cities in the 100th place. Mumbai is another important destination of India, and Mumbai was 21st in 2018 that rose to 14th (Yasmeen, 2019: p.5). City Hong kong Bangkok Macau Singapore Kuala Lumpur Delhi Shenzhen Mumbai Phuket Tokyo

Country Hong kong, China Thailand Macau, China Singapore Malaysia India China India Thailand Japan

Arrivals (‘000) 2017 2018 27,880.3 29,262.7 22,453.9 24,177.5 17,337.2 18,931.4 17,618.8 18,551.2 12,843.5 13,434.3 10,157.0 12,645.3 12,075.1 12,202.1 8,984.9 10,590.1 10,109.4 10,550.7 9,549.4 9,985.1

2019 26,716.8 25,847.8 20,637.1 19,760.8 14,072.4 15,196.5 12,324.1 12,442.4 10,965.2 10,443.1

Growth (%) 2018 2019 5.0%
8.7% 7.7% 6.9% 9.2% 9.0% 5.3% 6.5% 4.6% 4.8% 24.5% 20.2% 1.1% 1.0% 17.9% 17.5% 4.4% 3.9% 4.6% 4.6%

China, one of the most remarkable countries of the Asia Pacific region, is a country that all the countries of the world watch with interest. China is seen as the most active and fastest growing market in the world in terms of participation in international travel and as a driving force of the global tourism industry. China is a country with a land width of 7% of the world area. China is dominant in the Pacific region with its geographical location, wide market opportunities, and economic development attractiveness. The Chinese market has been growing exponentially in the last two decades as a result of many factors such as increased disposable income, currency appreciation, and reduced travel restrictions (Ibiş & Batman, 2018: pp.456–457). As the Asian economies continue to rise, many sectors are now turning their eyes east. Low labor costs and market opportunities in Asian countries attract western capital for investment. Although poverty remains an important problem for some Asian countries, Asians have also begun to show themselves in consumption and demand with rising per capita income and prosperity in many countries. In parallel with this situation, the number of people who can allocate a budget for travel and tourism activities has started to increase, and this increase trend continues positively. As a result of Asian tourists starting to travel primarily within their own countries

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and to nearby regions, competitiveness and sectoral power of tourism centers in Asia also increased (Gül & Dinçer, 2016: p.289).

Smart Cities in Asia Asia is the fastest urbanizing region in the world. According to the Asian Development Bank, the scale of urbanization in Asia is unprecedented in human history. Cities make up most of 70% of the world’s carbon dioxide emissions and also the carbon footprint of countries. Asian cities are currently facing land restrictions and high population densities. How Asian cities grow – especially how tomorrow’s major mega cities build their buildings and roads and provide energy – will greatly impact the lives of billions of people. Building cities for more than three billion people in Asia poses enormous challenges as well as opportunities for governments and businesses. Smart technology buildings that include IoT have the potential to become increasingly powerful tools in order to improve transportation systems, utilities, and citizen services. The political willpower regarding making sound policy decisions and necessary changes and reducing existing inefficiencies is important for the adoption of experimental technologies and expansion of functional systems. Ultimately, smart cities must manage to combine different technologies and systems to meet special demands and provide valuable services to their citizens living in these urban areas. Doing this will not only improve the quality of life of city residents but also increase national competitiveness (Asia Business Council, 2016). Prominent smart cities in Asia are Bangalore (India), Rajasthan (India), Hyderabad (India), Doha (Qatar), Tianjin (China), Chongqing (China), Shanghai (China), Jia Ding (China), Gangnam District, Hong Kong, Seoul (Korea), HwaseongDongtan (Korea), Suwon (Korea), Ichikawa (Japan), Yokosuka (Japan), Mitaka (Japan), Jaipur, Kabul (Afghanistan), Singapore, Taipei (Taiwan), Taoyuan County (Taiwan), and Tel Aviv (Israel) (Nam & Pardo, 2011: p.282). A few of these smart cities are mentioned further.

Bangalore Bangalore is recognized as the Garden City of India due to the presence of many public parks and its greenery, including Cubbon Park and Lal Bagh. Bangalore is one of India’s fastest growing cities and is called “India Silicon Valley” to herald and lead the growth of Information Technology (IT)-based industries in the country. In addition to the growth of the IT industry, Bangalore has led leadership in servicebased industries that fueled the city’s substantial growth, both economically and spatially with the introduction of countless industries in other sectors and economic liberalization since the early 1990s (Sudhira et al., 2007: p.379). Bangalore ensures a specialized infrastructure for high-tech industry such as a dust-free environment, healthy climate during the whole year, a high quality of life, a perfect research university, a strategic military defensive position, the Indian

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Institute of science, several engineering colleges and polytechnics, political support from the Central and State governments, the presence of scientific and technical manpower, the availability of six large public sector undertakings, (10) the availability of electronics ancillary firms and subcontracting companies, a few highquality R&D centers, a favorable industrial climate, the availability of venture capital, and the presence of suppliers and buyers for electronics companies (Singhal, 1992: pp.6–7). Bangalore which is the basis of the state’s economic progress is globally recognized as the country’s IT capital. Bangalore as a cultural world city is the gateway to Karnataka (KTVG, 2014: p.28). Karnataka is located in the southern part of India. Tourism which is a labor-intensive sector offers a wide range of employment opportunities in Karnataka. Employment opportunities provided by this industry are relatively higher than in other sectors. Karnataka is one of the important tourism centers with its natural scenery, beautiful beaches, lakes, cool climate, trekking and fishing opportunities, wildlife temples, waterfalls, and archaeological, historical, cultural, and religious sites and played an important role in the development of the economy. Karnataka is known as one of the richest provinces of India in terms of wildlife. Karnataka has a forest area of 40.000 km2, and more than 20% of the province is covered with forests. Western Ghats which is Karnataka’s biodiversity point was recently included in the UNESCO list (Chandrashekara, 2018: p.1676).

Chongqing Chongqing has played an important role in the history of 2000. Chongqing became the first domestic port open to foreign trade in China in 1981. In addition, Chongqing was the national capital during the Second World War and Japanese occupation in the twentieth century. Since then, Chongqing has had higher status and economic independence than any city of the same size throughout western China. Chongqing has a population of 31 million, an area of 82 square kilometers, a population density of 379 people at 22 km, and a location above the Chang (Yangtze) River. Chongqing’s geographic location and demographic status make it quite unique in Western China. This also makes it the gate of Southwest China. Despite the impact of the post-Mao reform period on the social and economic inequalities between the coastal areas and the West, Chongqing remains one of China’s most powerful urban economies (Sigurdson & Palonka, 2008: p.2).

Seoul Seoul stands out with its culture and nature. “Hi Seoul” in its logo is the slogan of this city. The meaning of this logo reveals that they will be happy to see the incoming tourists in their city (Clark, 2006). Seoul is the largest city in South Korea. This huge city that is also the capital of the country has a very crowded population. Seoul where skyscrapers and pop-culture meet with temples and traditions has the 14th highest

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number of visitors worldwide. Seoul Special Metropolitan City is the largest metropolis in the Republic of Korea (South Korea). The city that is one of the biggest centers of culture, entertainment, and research in Asia has been declared as the fourth most economic city in the world measured by PPP. Tourism plays an important role in the economic life of the city of Seoul. Seoul is ranked sixth in the list of Best City Destinations, with 9.2 million tourists in 2016. Seoul Tourism Organization which directs the tourism of the city is a public-private joint venture organization responsible for marketing and tourism promotion projects and developing tourism resources and facilities. The aim of Seoul Tourism Organization is to introduce the attraction of Seoul to the frequently traveling citizens of the world. The main strategies determined to develop this goal are listed as follows (Turizm ve Kentler Raporu, 2017: p.19): • Consolidating management development and carrying out innovative approaches in management systems • Building a strong foundation to improve the Seoul tourism brand • Increasing the global competitiveness of the Fair and Congress (MICE) industry • Building a foundation for future growth In an application made in the context of a smart city in Seoul, robots accompany passengers traveling to the boarding gates at Seoul Incheon Airport. The robot called “Troika” about 140 cm in length is able to react when called, shows the door numbers to the traveling passengers, and transmits information about the weather, possible flight delays, and airport map of the destination where passengers will travel (Ibiş, 2019: p.414). In one of the smart city apps made in Seoul, garbage collection activities have been provided more regularly by placing sensor in garbage cans in the tourist Bukchon district. In addition, it is stated that the cost of garbage collection in the region has been reduced by 43%, thanks to the regulation of unnecessary garbage collection routes (Aksoğan & Çalış Duman, 2018: p.193).

Singapore Singapore has marketed itself as a cultural region in the world with the slogans of the new face of Asia where the past and the future are intertwined. Likewise, it is seen that Singapore has marketed it to the target audience as the meeting point of old and new Asia and an exhaust space where different cultures live together (Chang & Yeoh, 1999). Singapore’s tourism is a major industry that contributes significantly to the economy. In 2017, tourists who are more than three times (17.4 million) of total population of Singapore visited Singapore. Singapore as the city with the lowest crime rates in the world is the fifth most visited city in the world and ranks second in Asia-Pacific (Singapore Tourism Board, 2018). It showed a steady growth with 5.3% increase in visitor arrivals in Singapore due to increased regional travel and strong growth in the cruise industry in 2018. Singapore continues to attract significant tourists from seven key resource markets (India, China, the Philippines, the United States, the United Kingdom, Vietnam, and Germany), thanks to its strong tourism

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strategy and greater focus on working closely with partners in the travel industry. Singapore is developing stronger partnerships to maintain its position in the region in the future with regional tourism boards, with leading travel agencies such as Trip.com and JTB Corp., and with technology companies such as Spotify, Alipay, Traveloka, and Sentosa. Singapore aims to market authentic local experience in order to address to changing visitor preferences, to offer originality and diversity (Yasmeen, 2019: p.5). At the Smart City Expo World Congress, Singapore was awarded the 2018 Smart City award with its initiatives in the urban innovation and transformation industry. It also achieved first place in the general ranking in 2017 Ranking first in the Global City Performance Index in areas such as mobility, health, safety, and productivity. Singapore, having no natural resources and a population of 5.6 million, has always stood with its ideas. Considering that it was a city that achieved its independence in 1965, Singapore has added value to the city because it is located in the center of both trade and tourism, although it has a small area. It is an exemplary smart city with its activities carried out within the scope of smart city and sustainability and its works based on the latest technology. Singapore known as the “Land of Forbidden” is working hard on the rules in order to increase well-being and ensure safety and ranks second in the 2017 Safe Cities Index. According to the 2016 data, Singapore has a gross domestic product (GDP) of 296 billion US$ and an income of 52 thousand US$ per capita (TC. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı, 2019: p.141). Singapore places sensors at many points in the city in order to keep track of the city’s operation. In addition, Singapore uses artificial intelligence in its systems in order to direct traffic, control lighting, and effective waste management. Singapore is taking great steps towards becoming a global leader in smart city technology with many applications such as catching speeders in the city by using the latest speed cameras and data analytics of patterns in human behavior, moving sensors in their homes in order to monitor elderly people living alone, and transferring information to the healthcare institution in order to check the elderly person when the movement stops. Thanks to special cards distributed to the elderly and the disabled, it was provided that the traffic lights were turned on for a longer period of time when crossing the pedestrian crossings. Within the scope of the Smart Nation program that came into force in 2014, everything can be monitored from the cleaning of public areas in the city to the routes drawn by all registered vehicles, and people who violate the rules will be followed, and the behavior of the society and how infectious diseases spread can be analyzed in case of explosion, etc. with the data to be collected, thanks to the sensors and cameras placed in the required places of Singapore. The vast majority of the data will be stored on a state-owned platform called Virtual Singapore and can be shared with the private sector if necessary (Örseli & Akbay, 2019: p.234). In an application made in the context of a smart city, Singapore built the robotic virtual assistant Sara (Singapore’s Automated Responsive Assistant) in order to respond to the increasing tourist demand, provide information, and help tourists. Sara who provide real-time help and guidance by determining a tourist’s place offers a comfortable solution to tourists who have no guide and explore the city on their

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own. Sara is described as a programmed robot to collaborate with human users instead of replacing people. In addition, there are other local tourist apps that provide information for tourists such as your Singapore Guide and your Singapore Navigation in the Google Play Android app store in Singapore (Niculescu et al., 2014: p.2). Augmented reality application is also used in order to tell the history of the building in the National Museum of Singapore (Seyahat Acentaları Dijital Dönüşüm Raporu, 2019: p.34).

Hong Kong Hong Kong is a city that stands out with its social, cultural, and historical infrastructure. The city marketing feature of Hong Kong which position itself to become “the world city of Asia” is a progressive, free, unwavering, and quality city image. This city has equipped the traditional dragon motif with attractive colors and has been registered as a city logo (TÜROFED, 2008). The tourism industry in Hong Kong is one of the country’s largest industries existing since the transition to a service industry model in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The tourism industry of Hong Kong has grown tremendously with 7.34 million and 320.9 billion GDP in 2016 since 1997. Travel and tourism contributed approximately 9.7 percent to Hong Kong’s total GDP, which rose to 16.8 percent in 1997. According to the travel and tourism competition index 2017, Hong Kong ranked 11th among 136 countries. About 4.9 million tourists visited Hong Kong in 2017. The peak period of tourism movements is observed between October and December. Hong Kong which is a shopping mall has one of Asia’s best Disney countries. Victoria Harbor, Hill Tower, and Madame Tussauds are important tourist products worth seeing. The tourism industry is managed by the Tourism Commission which was established in 1999 in order to maintain Hong Kong’s position as a destination or to increase its value. The Tourism Industry also provides great employment in the country, including guidance, jobs in the hotel industry, and travel agencies (Mahajan & Sharma, 2018: p.295). Tourism contributed to approximately 4% of Hong Kong’s GDP and employed 257,100 people, which accounted for approximately 7% of total employment in the Tourism industry in 2017. In 2018, total visitor arrivals increased by 11.4% compared to 2017 and reached 65.15 million. In the first 8 months of 2019, the total number of visitors increased by 4.0%. The total number of visitors, where 2019 was the top eight, increased by 4.0% (Hong Kong: The Facts, 2019).

Conclusion and Some Suggestions With the effect of globalization, there have been some innovations in technology, communication, and transportation systems worldwide. These innovations that have influenced many sectors also had important effects on the tourism sector. Developments in speed, comfort, capacity, and price factors in transportation vehicles, rapid

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developments in communication technology, and technological developments in many areas related to tourism have given a great impetus to the development of international tourism. The tourism industry that is an important source of income for the countries has made important developments with the increasing tendency to travel in parallel with the development of international trade and the rise of living philosophy and living standards of today’s people. Thus, developments in technology had transformative effects on tourism destinations. Technological applications with widespread use under the influence of globalization provide time and cost savings to the tourism destinations. In addition, tourism destinations that invest in technology and information gain competitive advantage, while other tourism destinations that cannot adapt to this process lose their presence in the market economy. The use of information technologies in the tourism sector provides great benefits. Information technologies both provide the information infrastructure required by the tourism sector and facilitate the use of the potential of tourism destinations. In the tourism sector, technology and innovation offer competitive advantage by providing rational use of resources for destinations as well as introducing, distributing, organizing, and offering them to consumers. The use of technology in the cities affects tourism and travel culture, causes new relations in terms of demand, and changes the tourist profiles that will visit the city. Therefore, lifestyles that change and diversify with technology also differentiate tourists’ expectations from travel at the same speed. The different, modern, and technological infrastructure of a destination and the things that it offers in a technological context affect the destination selection processes of tourists. During their holidays, tourists demand not only to improve their tourism experience but also to increase their quality of life in their preferred destination and to constantly adhere to technological life. For these reasons, the possibilities offered by smart technologies enable the demands of tourists to be fully met by making the destinations smart. Smart cities allow to obtain data for tourism and to use this data in tourism in a way to create value by focusing on sustainability and enrichment of experience combining physical infrastructure, social connections, public resources, and human behavior with advanced technologies in destinations. Therefore, considering the effects of technological applications on the competitiveness and profitability of the cities, it is not possible for tourism destinations to be indifferent to technological developments. For this reason, destinations will seek to benefit more from technological advances and become a smart city for many reasons such as gaining competitive advantage, reducing costs, reducing resource utilization, speeding production processes, facilitating business processes, creating attractive elements. Destinations need to take steps to become a smart city with the effect of technological innovations and transformation taking advantage of the positive effects of technology in order to cope with some negative problems such as rapidly increasing population in cities, environmental pollution, air-water pollution, climate changes, increase in energy needs, decrease of natural resources, loss of natural areas, and traffic-transportation density. Smart cities which have many economic and social benefits and provide a cleaner and sustainable environment are critical for the sustainability of destinations. Smart destinations must implement smart city apps

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in order not to stay behind other smart destinations in the context of the tourism industry, to compete better, to use the environment and resources effectively, and to have happier tourists and citizens. Cities which have become smart destinations by using technologies in areas such as food and beverage, safety and security, transportation, accommodation, health, banking, e-services, and shopping opportunities have a positive effect on the choice of tourists and attract large tourist masses. Therefore, cities should follow technological practices and carry out practical works in order to have the “smart” title. For example, uninterrupted user experience should be developed to cover the pre-travel and post-travel processes. In order to make sense of the travel experiences of tourists, it should be developed digital assets such as mobile applications and websites compatible with technological developments. It must be made integrations such as artificial intelligence-assisted guide applications, emergency support applications, and augmented reality by providing free Internet access with Internet service providers, telecom operators, and local governments in order to promote the use of tourists. In addition, it should benefit robotic technologies that can convey important information to tourists in different languages in tourism information centers. Thus, labor costs can be reduced, and the efficiency of the operations of tourism-related enterprises can be increased. As a rare and innovative technology, robots can fascinate tourists and promote tourist satisfaction.

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Part XIII Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Cross Country Cases

Use of Innovative Technologies in the Promotion and Marketing of Asian Tourism Destinations: Sample of Turkey Destination

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovative Technologies Employed in Marketing and Branding of Turkey Destination . . . . . . Use of Websites Among Innovative Technologies Used for Promotion and Marketing of Turkey Destination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of Social Media Tools in the Promotion and Marketing of Turkey Destination . . . . . . Use of Websites in Promotion and Marketing Activities of Hospitality Businesses in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of Social Media Tools in Promotion and Marketing Activities of Hospitality Businesses in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Competitiveness of Using Innovative Technologies in Marketing of Turkey Destination . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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In this chapter, it has been sought to illustrate what innovative technologies are mainly used in marketing and branding of Turkey destination, whether these tools are transformed into a competitive tool and what needs to be done in converting them to be competitive tools, which technological tools are in the forefront of the marketing of Turkey destination and whether websites and social media tools (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram) are effective in the promotion and marketing of Turkey destination. In addition, it has been explained whether the hospitality businesses operating in Turkey are actively using innovative technologies (websites and social media tools) and how beneficial they have been to the hospitality businesses up to now. The effectiveness of the innovative technologies used in booking, room sales, and hotel preferences has been appraised according to the available researches. Innovative technologies have been reexamined for the competitive position of M. Ödemiş (*) Tourism Faculty, Gumushane University, Gümüşhane, Turkey © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_26

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Turkey destination, and suggestions have been put forward on how to use them more effectively. Keywords

Promotion and marketing · Innovative technologies · Asian tourism · Turkey

Introduction In this chapter, in the framework of the former studies, it has been discussed to expound how the innovative technologies including websites and social media tools have been utilized effectively in promotional and marketing businesses in Turkey destination, located in the continent of Asia, along with the accommodation businesses operating in Turkey. The earlier studies performed on the issue often present an assessment of the destinations or accommodation businesses that use innovative technologies for promotion and marketing and other purposes as well as of tourist consumers who use these technologies for social interaction, getting information for tourism and travel, booking travel and accommodation, and purchasing tourist products. Additionally, the study weighted the effectiveness of innovative technological tools in the process of branding the Turkey destination and evaluated the role of this innovative technology in terms of competitiveness of the tourism market in Turkey destination. The use of innovative technologies in marketing applications has gained widespread, due to the increase in the number of users in recent years, and they get access easily of marketing experts to a wider mass via innovative technologies. Nowadays, with the rapid change in the perception and expectations of users concerning the digital tools, it may be noticed that the existing digital applications have to prolong itself invariably, the popularity of some of the available digital applications has gradually gone down, and the new digital platforms with richer content and involving more convenience for the users have supplanted the older ones. In this context, it has been mandatory for the destinations and hospitality businesses to continually review their digital promotional and marketing tools such as websites and the social media they use in their marketing activities and to make the fundamental changes and updates on these tools. Depending on these factors, it may be commented that the results of many recent researches measuring the effectiveness of digital tools in marketing activities may have lost their validity. Therefore, in this chapter, the results of academic studies conducted in the last few years are explained in order to evaluate whether digital tools are used effectively in Turkey’s promotion and marketing activities.

Innovative Technologies Employed in Marketing and Branding of Turkey Destination Nowadays, branding activities take up an imperative place in the marketing strategies of businesses, so it is noticed that they strive to increase the brand values of their businesses by spending big budgets on branding activities. Building a strong and

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well-known brand helps to increase the value of the goods and services offered and to reach more people in the market. Long been regarded as an activity of private organizations, branding strategies have been used in the branding of countries since the early 1990s. Due to the intensification of global competition conditions recently, it has necessitated both the countries and businesses to permit importance to branding strategies (İnaç & Yacan, 2018, p.325). Marketing and branding of countries and destinations in the best way conceive a differentiating force in that it allows visitors to recognize, accept, and choose the related country, enabling it to be competitive. It can be expressed that some constituents call for the branding of destinations such as gaining power of the media, decreasing the costs of international travel, increasing the spending possibilities of consumers, cities being similar in terms of services provided, and increasing interest of people in different cultures (Sipahi & Algür, 2016, p.313). Within the scope of the branding strategy of countries, the promotion and marketing of certain products can be accentuated. For instance, the cities, renowned people or groups of these countries, television programs, high cultural heritage elements or natural beauties, foods or beverages, or behavior patterns can be highlighted (Zeybek, 2019, p.1327). On the other hand, the Internet has lately become a viable option for social interaction and shopping. Today, digital platforms have boosted their consequence in terms of promotion of brands, improving public relations, and constituting brand awareness. On these platforms, it may be possible to access an interactive communication with the target audience. Compared to other promotional tools, online tools offer maximum flexibility and reasonable price advantage, increasing the demand for such networks and the need for use of them in modern business conditions (Laman & Topçu, 2019, p.13). One of the largest application fields of the Internet is the travel and tourism industry (Law & Hsu, 2006, p.295). According to Aksu and Tarcan (2002, p.94–95), the information technology has many favors to the tourism industry in general terms including increasing sales, diversifying goods and services, responding to changes in market conditions immediately, enhancing service quality, increasing productivity and cash revenues, providing access to information, receiving feedback from tourists, and evaluating these results. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey has determined the country’s promotion and marketing strategies to advance the number of tourists and tourism revenues by 2023, and aforesaid objectives and strategies have been described in detail in the Action Plan of Tourism Strategy of Turkey (2023). In the 2023 Turkey Tourism Strategy and Action Plan, within the promotion of Turkey, some issues have been dwelled on like Turkey’s distinctive features from other competing countries in the Mediterranean region, the products of Turkey with high-caliber properties, and the efficient provision of total quality in almost all activities. Moreover, ensuring branding and brand loyalty, designing products for the target audience, attracting high-income groups to the country by diversification of products, and adopting a perspective focused on target markets instead of mass markets may also be juxtaposed. It is apparent that in this action plan, public relations activities are attached importance and was stated that the electronic environment will be exploited effectively to reach the target groups faster (Arslan, 2014, p.184).

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Use of Websites Among Innovative Technologies Used for Promotion and Marketing of Turkey Destination Sharing the natural and cultural attractions of the destinations with the target audiences is carried out through the Internet, which is one of the most compelling means of communication today with multimedia features, and thus websites within the framework of marketing communication activities (Fırlar & Özdem, 2013, p.8). Websites are a far-reaching marketing tool employed within the scope of Internet tourism. Internet tourism has a part within the scope of e-tourism applications, while e-tourism applications are considered within the scope of e-commerce (Çakırer, 2013). Today, much travel information has been shifted to the digital platforms, and almost every tourist can easily access this information without facing any obstacles. In addition, it is easy for tourists to freely explicit and share information, impressions, and opinions about their travels through online tourism forums and other virtual platforms. However, these free online tools also aggravate the central control of destinations in terms of disseminating information (Choi et al., 2007, p.120–121). In this context, it may be interpreted that the official websites of destinations play vital roles in informing and guiding visitors accurately as a source of exact and credible information about destinations. Also, potentially these sites leave higher positive impressions on visitors compared to the other sources of information. Websites cater preliminary information for tourists who have not yet had the opportunity to visit the touristic destination. It is believed that tourists visit the websites to invent an image of the destinations in their minds on their own. Likewise, thanks to the websites, the cost of promotion is reduced, and promotion activities become much easier (Çiçek et al., 2013). While the official destination websites are not the only tools to guide potential tourists about destinations, it is the most critical communication channel that officially represents the destination and has the potential to influence tourists the most. The more attractive and beneficial the official website is, the more likely to turn the tourists into real tourists (Bastida & Huan, 2014, p.170). Provided that the first impressions of the visitors planning the trip from destination websites are positive at the course of acquiring information about the destinations, this state may assist them to make decisions, and so they may be convinced about the destination they plan to travel. On the contrary, the visitors who have a negative first impression of the destination website may tend to turn to another destination website immediately. Herein, destination marketing organizations need to employ paramount tools effectively to create a very convincing destination website that can positively affect the decision-making process of travel planners (Kim & Fesenmaier, 2008, p.8). The main purpose of websites is the promotion of destinations along with the creation of a destination image and branding of destinations (Sarı & Kozak, 2005, p.258–259). Accordingly, both hotels and destinations on their websites should likely focus more on the elements of the websites that highlight the attractiveness of the destination in order to develop a positive image of the destination in the minds of the visitors (Pranić et al., 2014, p.48).

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Destinations should take the current technological developments and the expectations of customers into account when creating their websites. Also, during the creation of the website, destinations should also consider marketing objectives. Parallel with that, it is needed that destinations set clear targets and equip strategic development plans for marketing objectives. It may not be possible to achieve the expected success unless the websites are created according to the clear targets (Park & Gretzel, 2007, p.51). Today, almost every major destination possesses an official website that bolsters the branding activities. Yet, several issues need to be sought as to whether these websites address the users, whether they supply the required information to the tourists, whether they benefit from the potential of the Internet sufficiently, and whether they have the power to persuade tourists to visit the destination (Fernández-Cavia et al., 2014, p.6). The accuracy and quality of the information presented on the Internet is very crucial in terms of the effectiveness of the promotion of the destination. Moreover, the content of the information posted on the Internet and the way it is displayed are among the factors that can attract potential tourists to destinations. Potential tourists compare the website of the destination they are exploring with those of other destinations. They can make this comparison based on the possible service and product experience offered by destinations on their website. Because the information on the Internet can be easily updated, the Internet can be used as a convenient and effective tool for last-minute sales promotions. Destinations can easily communicate with potential tourists as well as with tourism businesses such as hotels, restaurants, travel agencies, and tour operators through their websites. Again, because it serves as a source of information for both tourists and travel agencies and tour operators, destination websites also need to be promoted and advertised. To give an example, giving a link to the website of the relevant destination on the websites of the hospitality businesses, national and international travel agencies and tour operators can make the website easily accessible to visitors (Özdemir, 2007, p.894). Additionally, destination websites should cover customization options that can address and serve different market segments. The destination websites with information segmentation and filtering functions may allow the satisfaction of the visitors by responding to the needs and expectations of different market segments, turning them into loyal visitors (Pai et al., 2014, p. 115). In short, a destination website with a high level of functionality and attractiveness can perform as an incentive and serve for the facilitation of destination visits. At this point, giving weight to the studies comparing the websites of the destinations may contribute to the improvement of the destination websites (Luna-Nevarez & Hyman, 2012, p.95). Recent developments concerning the announcements, posters, and campaigns introducing countries in the field of culture and tourism and the practices carried out within this scope are demonstrated on the websites. Not only may countries promote themselves through their websites, but they may also offer feedback on the demands of their target market. Within the scope of developing technological opportunities, websites are among the first platforms that can be visited in order to secure information (Atılgan & Karapınar, 2015, p.118).

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In recent years, Turkey destination has been using its website in the promotional and marketing activities effectively. All destinations in Turkey began to be introduced into the international market through an established official web portal name as “www.goturkey.com” particularly since the implementation of the Tourism Strategy of Turkey – 2023 initiated in 2007. It may be voiced that this platform on which much current information, photos, and videos are shared to promote Turkey’s regions and destinations is one of the most esteemed marketing tools contributing to the recognition of Turkey, especially in foreign markets and the process of branding and thus helping to it reach the 2023 tourism targets. In the literature, there is a limited number of studies that measure the success level of the websites concerning their promotion and marketing practices belonging to Turkey and its destinations. In this direction, a comparison of websites has been conducted in recent research between Istanbul, the largest city in Turkey and Barcelona, one of the largest cities in Spain within the framework of 13 design ethics and 30 content parameters in terms of design and content. In this research, 13 design parameters were evaluated in terms of basic graphic design principles and ease of use, and it was concluded that the website of the Istanbul destination was 84–92% higher in terms of design competence compared to the Barcelona website. As the website of Barcelona destination was graded in terms of basic graphic design principles, it was found out that 9 of 13 parameters were applicable. However, it was determined that eight parameters of the website were approved in terms of ease of use. On the other hand, the website of Istanbul destination was able to suffice 11 parameters out of 13 both in terms of basic graphic design principles and ease of use. When two destinations were evaluated in terms of content capacity, it was obtained that the website of Barcelona has a content adequacy score of 73.3%, while the website of Istanbul has a content adequacy score of 50%. According to these results, the website of Barcelona destination was found to be more appropriate in terms of content adequacy than the website of Istanbul destination. Moreover, while the Barcelona website was found to be pertinent in terms of 22 of the 30 content adequacy parameters, the Istanbul website was found to be proper in terms of 15 content parameters (Özdemir & Karagöl, 2019).

Use of Social Media Tools in the Promotion and Marketing of Turkey Destination Swiftly becoming comprehensive in a wider environment today, the Web 2.0 applications authorize the creation of community and user-oriented content and provide unprecedented ease of interaction (Baggio & Costa, 2008, p.1). Likewise, social media allows the marketing specialist to tailor content and presentation to the user profile as well as facilitating and improving the user’s customization (Buhalis & Foerste, 2013, p.177). Travel 2.0 is used in the literature as the equivalent of Web 2.0 applications in the tourism sector (Dwivedi et al., 2011). Social media tools such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Youtube are among the most prominent Web 2.0 applications with a high number of users.

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Social media tools have become one of the indispensables of life due to the effect of rapidly developing technology. That is to say, along with traditional media tools, social media has become an important marketing tool used for promotion purposes today. Social media tools are often adopted by public institutions and organizations as well as by private sector organizations for reasons such as to share up-to-date information with the public, to figure out the expectations of the target audience, to create public opinion, and to increase the image and reputation. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Turkey often exploits social media tools to share information about the work done and to communicate with the public (Duğan & Aydın, 2018, p.10). Besides, instead of directly distributing goods and services to consumers, suppliers can use indirect means of distribution by receiving consumer demands on social media; thereby, it may be possible to reduce distribution costs (Leung et al., 2013, p. 12). The most factual benefit of social media tools is that they are open to the public and they may be accessed widely. Achieving the expected success of social media requires that a flexible and innovative perspective is adopted. In order for destinations and businesses to benefit from social media as an effective marketing tool, they need to grasp the strength and impact of social media and actively seek to develop and implement social media strategies (Hays et al., 2013, p.235). By building an advanced and effective communication strategy on social media, destinations may render themselves striking. It should be noted that it is difficult to draw attention to this platform as social media is an overcrowded medium and because social media is subjected to an intense and continuous bombardment of information. Yet, features such as the possibility of encountering interesting situations in social media, the opportunity to earn gains, the participation of celebrities, uniqueness, unexpectedness, competition, and harmonious or interesting graphic design render social media noticeable (Kiráľová & Pavlíčeka, 2015, p. 360). In this scope, the adoption and implementation of effective social media strategies to make the most of these features may raise the chances of success. On the other hand, though the sharings posted by customers on social media can grant an idea about the needs and expectations of customers in general, they do not provide exact information about the customers to the businesses and destinations. In particular, customers’ comments and sharings on products they purchase on social media (e.g., about holiday experiences) may give insights to businesses and destinations about their needs and expectations and value judgments. An interactive marketing type, social media marketing is an area that has a wide network connection, involving social dynamics. Convenient marketing strategies should be adopted in order to benefit from the technological capabilities and various interaction cultures on social media tools. Although social media marketing provides a cost advantage to the business, the control of this medium is difficult for businesses and destinations. Consumers’ expectations are much higher in the field of social media, and negative situations have the potential to spread rapidly on social media. When carrying out promotion and marketing activities on social media, the process should be well-planned and well-managed altogether. At this point, strategic decisions to-be-taken have great importance. Social media also plays a foremost role in

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establishing and maintaining meaningful relationships with real and potential customers for tourism marketing. Nevertheless, social media needs to be strategically well-managed in tourism marketing, and an appropriate corporate culture should be established to manage customer relations on social media effectively (Gretzel & Yoo, 2013). Turkey already owns some official Facebook accounts as go turkey and turkey home of. On these platforms, photos and videos and informative articles belonging to destinations of Turkey are shared, and user comments regarding these sharings are introduced. Besides, Turkey obtains formal social media accounts on Turkey’s social media platforms such as Instagram, Twitter, YouTube, and LinkedIn, and these accounts are used for similar purposes as well. Expanding the impact area, social media has started to take an active role in the promotion and marketing of Turkey especially since 2010. In the event that a failure comes out in managing social media, whose instant effects can be observed and have the power to resolve the agenda rapidly, the effectiveness of social media in promotion and marketing activities may also be momentary, especially in the purchasing decisions of users. Therefore, it is necessary for the destinations to manage social media tools effectively and keep the agenda constantly alerted and under control for certain reasons such as to preserve the current image, strengthen it, or position a positive image to safeguard sustainable achievement in promotion and marketing activities. In literature, some studies measure the effectiveness of social media tools in the promotion and marketing activities of Turkey. Due to the flexible and variable structure of the social media agenda, academic studies conducted on social media may also lose their actualities in a short time. Thus, it was thought that it would be more helpful to note only the results of some recent academic studies among the studies actualized on the subject. In this context, in a conducted research, the photos, videos, and links shared on the official “Home Turkey” Facebook account, used for Turkey’s promotion and marketing, were investigated through content analysis. Tangible heritage, nature, landscapes, gastronomy, announcements, sea, sand and sun, intangible heritage, non-tourist information, sports, entertainment, general promotional videos, and themes of services about Turkey were classified in this study. As a result of the study, it was deduced that tangible heritage, nature, landscape, gastronomy, and sea-sand and sun-oriented contents were shared more and received more likes and comments. Therefore, it may be stated that these themes intensify the interaction with consumers more. Briefly, conducted in the scope of Turkey’s destination marketing, an approach that integrates mainly city, historical, and religious monuments, museums, as well as city and nature and landscapes of sea-sand and sun has been adopted in brand positioning applications. It may be articulated that Turkey in general adopts an approach focusing on cultural tourism by employing these themes. Again, it was determined that the themes that form the least interaction with touristic consumers are the theme of entertainment located under the activities heading and the intangible heritage theme, an indicator of destination identity (Bayram et al., 2016, p.52). On the other side, sub-themes such as food and beverage, blue cruise, natural charm, hidden paradises, iconic experiences, blue flag, UNESCO, Anatolian

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heritage, and adventure tourism have been identified in another study examining the official portal of Turkey “Home Turkey” on the official Facebook page through content analysis. It was found out that the most post sharing was related to iconic experiences and the least post sharing took place related to the theme of hidden paradises. It was figured out that “baklava,” “tea,” and “split eggplants with meat filling” have been shared most under the food and beverage theme, which are unique to Turkey, whereas the most popular destinations on the blue cruise theme are Antalya and Marmaris. As for the natural attractions theme, the most shared destinations are Yedigöller National Park, Cappadocia, and Gölcük Lake, while under the theme of Hidden Paradises, Dolmabahçe Palace is the most shared destination. Lastly, within the scope of iconic experiences, it was determined that the Blue Mosque is the most shared destination. In addition, the most shared destinations under the blue flag theme are Marmaris and Cleopatra Beach. Under the theme of UNESCO, Ani Antique City, shared twice, Safranbolu, Hattusa Antique City, and Xanthos are the most shared destinations. Within the scope of Anatolian heritage, it was found that hand-woven carpets have been shared most and Cappadocia destinations have been shared most as for adventure tourism (Çelik et al., 2017, p.1078). Another study explored the contents of the official Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube posts by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism between September and October 2016. To this research, it was determined that 278 posts were exchanged via social media tools on Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube between these mentioned dates by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. It was identified that most sharings were made on Twitter (44.6%) and the other sharings were made on Facebook (34.5%) and YouTube (20.9%), respectively. In this study, theater, festival, conference, visit, the explanation for historical places, celebration/memorial messages, competition, opera/ballet, exhibition, and other contents were reviewed. It was recognized that most social media sharings were made within the scope of the visit content (100 sharings in total) including Facebook (37), Twitter (45), and YouTube (18). It was also obtained that other sharings are, respectively, conference (47), festival (41), celebration/memorial messages (23), exhibition (16), other (15), theater (12), description for historical sites (10), opera/ballet (8), and competition (6) (Duğan & Aydın, 2018).

Use of Websites in Promotion and Marketing Activities of Hospitality Businesses in Turkey The increase in the number of online users and transactions is an indication of how important technology has come to be nowadays. All businesses, including customercentric and knowledge-intensive tourism businesses, have begun to place more emphasis on e-commerce today to achieve their corporate goals. Besides, creating a competent website is of great importance in terms of allowing enterprises to progress their relations with their customers and to enable them to reach a much wider market (Law et al., 2010, p.297). Having a good website not only ensures more business opportunities for businesses but also allows businesses to improve their image and interact with both their

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corporate and individual customers (Law et al., 2009, p.606). An impressive website should retain the capability of attracting new tourists and maintaining the existing ones. At this point, it may be noticed that the interactive and up-to-date content to be placed on the websites plays a key role in establishing the satisfaction of tourists as well as creating loyal tourists. In this frame, the visuality of the websites may be revised with more useful designs and exceptional graphics due to the impact on perceived online service and quality. It may be fruitful for hotel businesses with relatively high market shares to center on developing strategies for designing more effective websites (Pantano et al., 2011, p.213). In this respect, there are some issues to be considered such as careful preparation of e-tourism websites and having visionary qualities (Woodside et al., 2011, p.562). Karabağ et al. (2010, p.20) asserted that an effective hotel website should hold two main dimensions. These dimensions are design features and content features. Within the content features, some information needs to be combined like contact/customer support with the hotel, information about the hotel, related service areas, information about the culture of the destination (festivals, crafts, world heritage sites, etc.), and the security level of the site. On the other side, the dimension of design features should involve information such as submission of the site to the users, language options menu, navigation features, and off-page instant ads. Additionally, Baloglu and Pekcan (2006, p.174) indicated that adding features such as weather forecasts, current exchange rates, destination links, animation, and graphics may add value to the website. The websites may also allow for online comments of guests or survey forms and search capabilities on the home page. There is also another issue that needs to be paid attention to, namely, the adaptation of the marketing mix variables to the Internet. According to Law and Bai (2008, p.398), tourism and hotel managers should regularly check their websites for content and design and improve them continually in order to learn about whether the websites are rich in content and functional. Moreover, managers should interpret the customer data they collect within the framework of marketing activities and submit customer support so that their websites may always be preferred by customers. On the condition that the online experience of customers is positive, they will visit their website repeatedly and eventually be convinced to purchase. It is very important that hotel businesses give place to features that add value to their consumers on their websites in order to increase their competitiveness. For instance, allowing consumers to make any changes to their reservation transactions they have already made, allowing them to follow their transaction history, allowing them to make customization to a certain level on the website, and accommodating features to address the specific needs and preferences of consumers may reinforce the perceived value and therefore loyalty of customers (Hamid et al., 2011, p.7). Besides, if features such as update information, branded URLs, email addresses, and privacy notices are yielded within the scope of the reliability of hotel websites, it may then contribute to increasing the number of customers visiting hotel websites and can uphold and encourage customer relationships and loyalty (Hashim et al., 2007). It would be relevant to scrutinize the results of the studies carried out on the subject to evaluate to what extent the websites of hospitality businesses in Turkey are effective concerning the promotion and marketing activities. In this context, the

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results of two recent researches (Yılmaz, 2017; Ünal & Çelen, 2018) furnish the principal information in terms of considering the effectiveness of promotional and marketing activities for the visitors of websites in Turkey. The websites of national and international chain hotels operating in Turkey have been surveyed in a study, and they were compared in terms of the ease of use, corporate information, page content, and navigation criteria. In this study, it was highlighted that Dedeman Hotels get the highest score (6 points) referring the ease of use among national hotels, while Accor Hotel and Starwoods Hotels + Marriot have the highest score (6 points) in terms of ease of use among the international hotels. It was demonstrated that Kaya Hotels (7 points) receive the highest score among the national hotels in terms of corporate information, whereas it was found out that Hilton Worldwide Hotels receive the highest score about corporate information (8 points) among the international hotels. As for the page content, Rixos (15 points) took the lead among national hotels, but the highest score in terms of page content belonged to Wyndham Hotels (13 points) among the international hotels. Also, Rixos Hotels (27 points) have the highest points among the national hotels on navigation criteria, while Hilton Worldwide Hotels (24 points) have the highest score among international hotels in terms of navigation criteria. Again, it was determined that the websites of international hotels have more options than the websites of national hotels referring to the ease of use according to the results of the study. It was indicated that the websites of national hotels offer more options to visitors than the websites of international hotels about the corporate information, page content, and navigation criteria (Yılmaz, 2017). In another study, five-star hospitality businesses (652 hotels) owning a website and operating in Turkey have been gauged within the framework of “Hotel website dimensions and constituents.” As the results were considered for the seven geographical regions of Turkey, it was identified within the scope of the current sample of the study that the website of the most active hotels is situated in the Mediterranean Region (355 hotels, 51.8%). Then, it is followed, respectively, by Aegean Region (130 hotels, 19%), Marmara Region (121 hotels, 17.7%), Central Anatolia Region (42 hotels, 6.1%), Southeastern Anatolia Region (18 hotels, 2.6%), and Eastern Anatolia Region (4 hotels, 0, 6%). When the overall state is regarded, it was noticed that only 33 of the five-star hotels in Turkey have no websites. The main dimensions dealt with in the study are as follows: booking information of the hotel, services offered by the hotel, contact details of the hotel, information about the surroundings of hotel, website management information, and the management information of the hotel (Ünal & Çelen, 2018).

Use of Social Media Tools in Promotion and Marketing Activities of Hospitality Businesses in Turkey Page design is very extensive in rendering the social media pages of hotel businesses appealing. Attractive, informative, interactive, and consumer-oriented page designs may be picked more by customers. It is still considerable to make social media pages

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useful for and valuable to customers. Brand recognition plays the most primary part of increasing hotel reservations and sales. For this reason, it may be pragmatic for hotels to register more customers and even loyal customers as fans on social media pages such as Facebook and Twitter. For the reason that the existing customers have high brand perception, the success of social media marketing towards them may be high. The attitudes of the customers towards the hotel brand is a significant factor in the success of social media marketing. Accordingly, it may be constructive for hotel businesses to focus on social media experience, brand awareness, and attitudes of customers (Leung et al., 2015, p.165). Furthermore, presenting links on hotel websites to the social media accounts of hotel (Chan & Guillet, 2011, p.366) may facilitate the access of customers to the social media accounts of hotels. On the other hand, it may be useful to summarize the results of recent research carried out on the social media usage levels of hospitality businesses in Turkey and the impact of social media tools on their users. A study by Zengin and Arıcı (2017, p.394) was conducted on consumers who are social media users in Turkey, and it was determined that the video and photo sharing of the hospitality businesses on social media was influential on consumer perception, and online consumer reviews on these social media accounts were more effective on consumers than on photos and videos. In this frame, it was in the study stated that it is vital to communicate with consumers through social media and to get their ideas. Additionally, it was emphasized in this study that it is significant for hotel businesses to take part in popular location-based social networks. It was also notified in the study that hotel businesses should encompass content that conveys fun and is a real experience and rewarding on social networks. Another study was actualized on four- and five-star hotel businesses in Konya, located between the major cities of Turkey. It was identified that E-marketing tools such as social media and online booking channels were used by various departments and department managers of hotels as a means of promotion and marketing. It has been found that all the 9 hotels in which the research was conducted effectively use the Internet in their booking services. Moreover, all of these hotels have a website. Three of these businesses stated that they do not include the promotion of their businesses on their websites. It was also declared that these businesses have various language options on their websites, and they take reservations through websites such as booking.com, TripAdvisor, HotelBeds, ramada.com, otelz, Expedia, and Trivago. It was also added that they have an instant support service and feedback form for instant connection on their websites, and payment by credit card can be accepted. It was specified that they implement special pricing policies for products offered over the Internet. The majority of the hotels affirmed that they actively benefit from other Internet marketing tools (social networking sites such as Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, and blogs). Likewise, most of the hotels remarked that they use these websites to gather information about their customers and learned that these websites were referred by mainly foreign visitors, young people, and business people (Bişkin & Tuncel, 2018). Icoz et al. (2018, p.1062) carried out a study on those who are members of social networking sites aged between 20 and 45 and residing in Izmir, Istanbul, Antalya,

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and Ankara in Turkey. In this study, it was aimed to find out how consumers use social media in the process of buying tourism and hospitality services and how social media influence the buying decisions of consumers. According to the results of the research, it was detected that information, use, impact, purchasing, and intention (sharing travel experiences) are interrelated stages that affect the decision-making process of consumer. In the study, it was also determined there is a relationship between the degree of information on social media and the likelihood of its use. Accordingly, it was highlighted that tourism and hospitality service marketers should improve the information quality on their social media accounts. It was discovered that the degree of use of social media is directly related to individual buying behavior. It was also shown that the participants in the research tend to be willing to share their online experiences and buy through the same online experience again in the future. Lastly, it was disclosed that the information about the tourism services acquired by the participants on social media reassured their purchasing actions and motivated participants to share their individual experiences. İlban and Güleç (2018, p. 69–70) conducted a study on the tourists visiting Edremit Bay. According to the results of the study, the use of social media by tourists positively affects their touristic experiences in line with their motivations of alleviating stress, social interaction with the immediate environment and other people, and obtaining information. It was determined that the motivation tool that best describes the changes in touristic experience is to get away from stress. On the other hand, it was determined in this study that being on social media networks for information purposes has a significant and negative effect on touristic experience. It was ended that getting information, staying away from stress, and social interaction affect the intensity of social media use, indicating that the most influential motivation tool is social interaction. A study was conducted on the hotel managers of Altıeylül, Karesi, and Bandırma district, in Turkey’s Balikesir province. According to the results of the study, it was revealed that most of the facilities have social media accounts. The businesses use Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter social media accounts, respectively. The most post sharing was performed on Facebook, but the least sharing was done on Instagram and Twitter. The reason why Twitter is a least used platform could be explained by the idea that it fails to reach existing and potential customers. According to the study, managers use social media mostly for promotional purposes. It was expressed that though social media is a promotional tool, it can also be employed in customer relationship management, target market identification, and branding. In addition, it was identified that the hotels participating in the study fall behind to control the feedback of customers’ sharings. As the most important result of the study, it was detected that hotels do not have sufficient professionalism to create social media content and some hotels receive aids from professionals outside the business (Yılmaz, 2019, p.391–392). When an overall evaluation is conducted on the results of the researches, it may be said that the hospitality businesses operating in Turkey make effective use of social media tools in their promotion and marketing activities. However, it may be commented on the studies conducted on different consumer groups that the sharings

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made on social media generally have a positive effect on the decisions of social media users to purchase tourism and travel products.

Competitiveness of Using Innovative Technologies in Marketing of Turkey Destination The embracement of innovative methods to increase competitiveness is becoming increasingly meaningful in the tourism sector. Owing to the increasing use of Internet in the sector, websites are included among the far-reaching and persuasive innovative methods, thanks to promotion, marketing, and distribution of tourist goods and services as well as information services provided (Avcikurt et al., 2011, p.2818). Developments in information technologies make a significant impact on the tourism sector. For example, tourists can easily learn about the place they plan to travel on the Internet. This unlimited amount of information offered to potential visitors from the Internet exhibits that the global competition in the tourism sector is being removed to the Internet. Thus, it is advantageous that the country destinations aiming to increase market share should reconsider their sales and marketing strategies in order to keep pace with this globally competitive environment that has been taken onto the internet (Çakırer, 2013, p.13). Taking advantage of the best and latest communication technologies may strengthen suppliers and destinations through ensuring greater productivity, collaboration, and flexibility. However, tourism organizations at this point should embrace strategic and tactical management approach to benefit from future opportunities in a way that can increase innovation and competitiveness (Lange-Faria & Elliot, 2012, p.197). The competitive pressure of the tourism sector on destinations and the elements of attraction have also increased with globalization. This state has turned the Internet into a treasured tool in promotional and marketing activities in the travel and tourism industry. On the other hand, the increase in tourism-related websites clearly shows that the websites have transformed into a fundamental means for the tourism sector (Roney & Özturan, 2006, p.44). For the hotel businesses to dwindle their high dependency on travel agencies and tour operators in their marketing activities, they need to perform different methods of promotion, marketing, and sales augmentation. In this sense, the Internet offers various options for hotel businesses. Websites are one of the critical platforms on which the Internet environment can be effectively viewed in terms of promotion and marketing activities. Provided that the websites of hotel businesses have distinctive features from the websites of competing businesses and are designed with creative strategies, this situation then may build up the competitive power of websites. In this scope, it is required that measurable targets are determined, a detailed situation analysis is made, strategies are put forward, and target audience is determined based on the current research before performing the marketing activities on the Internet. Also, the expectations of consumers should be taken into consideration when designing websites (Bayram & Yaylı, 2009, p. 372–373). Tourism and travel organizations can represent themselves online through digital identities they have created to display their brand image, corporate identity, and

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brand personality to web users, which helps them to gain competitive advantage (Phelan et al., 2013, p.251). Fierce competition conditions have made the effective use of all channels and communication tools compulsory for tourist destinations and hospitality businesses. Touristic destinations and hospitality businesses that fail to meet the requirements of our age and cannot accord to changes and developments may fall behind the competition and finally doomed to extinction. As in all areas, one of the most chief and fundamental changes and developments of today is the digital transformation, which must be continuously adapted in marketing activities and competitive environment. One of the most extensive and effective tools of digital transformation is social media. Just like in other sectors, sharings particularly with ad-content on social media are carried out intensively in the tourism sector. Due to the fact social media has a wider access network and its users and followers have hiked in recent years, it enabled social media to become an important medium where marketing experts can present and market their products. If we consider social media in terms of the tourism sector, it is not be simple to say that it provides a crucial advantage to destinations and hospitality businesses because it gives every product the same level of promotion and marketing opportunities. It may not always be possible to create the desired effect on consumers unless remarkable direct or indirect promotional tools are used, which can provide competitive advantage, especially in products with multiple substitutions. Nevertheless, social media assuredly gives a significant cost advantage to destinations and businesses. Turkey’s competitive position according to the Tourism Industry Competitive Index was touched in the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI) Report developed by the World Economic Forum (WEF) in 2015. According to the results of this report, it was stated that Turkey holds the 121st place with a “very bad” competitive position in terms of safety and security sub-factor. Additionally, Turkey holds a “bad” competitive position, ranking #95 in environmental sustainability, #94 in the price competition, and #88 in human resources and the labor market. However, it ranks 73rd in natural resources, 61st in international openness, 83rd in prioritizing tourism, 68th in preparation for information technology, 63rd in health and hygiene, and 59th in sub-factor of business environment, displaying a “moderate” competitive position. However, as for the ground transportation and connections, it holds the 54th place and ranks 38th in tourist services, possessing a “good” competitive position. On the contrary, it takes the 16th place both in cultural resources and in air transport so that it has a “very good” competitive position (Göral, 2017, p.162). According to the results indicated in this report, it may be commented that the tourism sector is an essential competitive tool for Turkey destination. It is very essential to make the most of innovative technologies when aiming to increase the competitiveness of the tourism sector in Turkey destination. However, it is necessary that social media tools, which are unique to Turkey and have international awareness and highly competitive power, be established, and accordingly, this created platform be managed effectively to make the best use of information technologies as a competitive basic skill in the future. The country destination of Turkey, the hospitality businesses in Turkey, and other tourism businesses should

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boost innovation investments for information technologies, and most importantly, they should gradually step up their investments in qualified human resources to carry out their innovation efforts under this purpose. On the other hand, the use of websites by Turkey destination and the hospitality businesses in Turkey for promotion and marketing purposes are becoming increasingly commonplace. In order to build a more competitive website, the websites of competing destinations and hospitality businesses should be reviewed, and customers’ opinions and suggestions should be taken into consideration, and specified improvements should be made on the websites. The websites providing credible and proper information, keeping up to date, and allowing the possibility of versatile and customizable features may procure potential customers to choose the relevant destination or hospitality businesses over and over again. Besides, since websites can be the first and elemental sources of information about the destinations or hospitality businesses, they may introduce the visitors with the first impression of destinations they have never visited or hospitality businesses they have never been to. For these reasons, websites and other digital tools should be consistently considered by country destination executives and hospitality businesses in Turkey in the competitive dimensions.

Conclusion Today, information technologies have become a vital competing tool. As a country destination, Turkey is striving to take advantage of the information technologies effectively under the leadership of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Information technologies have a critical consequence for Turkey in terms of making it possible to reach a very large group of people in a short time; providing a cost advantage over their competitor destinations; supporting the branding process that contributes to Turkey in achieving sustainable competitive advantage in tourism market; becoming an effective tool for the protection, development, and re-positioning of the existing image of Turkey; and allowing indirect promotion and marketing activities due to visitors sharing their positive holiday experience in Turkey on social networking sites. Websites and social media tools are among the key competitive technologies especially for Turkey destination and the hospitality businesses in Turkey. It may be uttered that websites and social media tools exhibit different functions in terms of the competitiveness of Turkey and hospitality businesses. Websites are meaningful promotional and marketing tools. However, websites are mainly under the control of the people or organizations that build and manage the website, and compared to the social media tools, the opportunity to control and personalization on the website is less for the visitors. To widen the success of the promotion and marketing of websites in Turkey and to be able to upgrade its competitive aspect, it is firstly important to further the reliability, functionality, and personalization options on the websites for visitors. At this point, the opinions and suggestions of the visitors should be taken into consideration.

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On the other hand, social media tools can become a foremost competition tool if managed properly. However, the management and control of social media accounts is much more arduous than websites. Social media accounts are quite complex platforms where millions of followers can visit and whose agendas can change in seconds. The constant and effective management of the information shared on these platforms and the ability of the organizations managing the social media account to behave proactively in setting the agenda may upturn the success of Turkey in the promotion and marketing activities on social media, and it, therefore, will increase its sustainable competitive advantage. Although there are strengths in the use of innovative technologies in Turkey’s promotional and marketing activities, there are also weaknesses. For that reason, employing the traditional marketing methods that will provide access to existing and potential customers in different ways and complement the missing aspects of innovative technologies may expand the success level of promotional and marketing activities. Furthermore, the adoption of a communication strategy combining traditional communication technologies with innovative technologies may enable to reach the target audiences who do not benefit from innovative technologies.

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Application’s Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Devices (Smart Phone, Tablet, Computer, etc.) and Mobile Applications . . . . . . . . . Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Networks (Social Media: Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube, and Pinterest) . . . Location-Based Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NFC (Near Field Communication) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virtual Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Augmented Reality (AR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of Technology in the Tourism Sector in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Historical and Natural Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Destinations and Businesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hotel Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Website Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Today, many sectors continue to offer innovations in order to make people’s lives easier in the digitalized world with technological developments. Thus, more interactive, faster, and easier-to-reach services can be offered; people can reach and experience many things that were previously called inaccessible and can also save time and cost. A sector that benefits from the digital world that offers many opportunities to humanity is the tourism sector. Destinations who want to avoid competitors in an intensely competitive environment by differentiating their services, wishing to increase the pleasure that people receive U. Akdu (*) · S. Akdu Department of Tourism Guidance, Tourism Faculty, Gumushane University, Gümüşhane, Turkey © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_27

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from their holiday experiences worldwide, and that offer their touristic values to people with different methods strive to achieve its goals by using various digital technologies. This chapter focuses on the technology and digital innovation used in Turkey’s tourism sector. In this context, technologies used in the tourism sector are briefly explained, and examples of applications are given and scrutinized in Turkey. Keywords

Smart tourism · Technology · Development · Marketing · Turkey

Introduction In the digitalized world, it is possible to see the reflections of Internet usage and technological developments also in the tourism sector, as they rapidly increase in daily life (Zalenka, 2009; Özgüneş & Bozok, 2017). The rapid spread of the use of mobile devices is an important factor in the intensive use of digital technology by consumers in the tourism industry. Communication devices have diversified due to technological developments. Internet usage has become widespread with these devices. The Internet has made it easier to access and share information. The conveniences it provides to consumers and producers and the alternative options it creates make it compulsory to adapt to the existence of all businesses in the tourism sector (Demirezen, 2019; Adukaite et al., 2013). These contributions can be listed as follows: a) provides sustainable competitive advantage, b) increases the service quality provision, c) increases the sustainability and accessibility, d) increases the tourist attraction, e) provides the easy access to information, f) creates a positive image g) provides to perform successful marketing, promotion, planning, and management activities, h) increases the income, safety, innovation, customer satisfaction, sales and brand loyalty, i) contributes to tourism education, j) provides convenience and professionalism in work and tasks Digital technology in tourism is used in many areas, and it would be more appropriate to evaluate the subject from two different perspectives: tourism enterprises and tourists. Tourism companies utilize digital technology during the process of obtaining information about consumers’ purchasing behavior while continuing their activities for marketing, distribution, communication with the customer, creating a brand image, etc. The use of digital technology can bring tourists and sellers

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together in a virtual platform, providing an advantage to reduce costs arising from time and distance (Gençer & Mil, 2018). Technological developments in the tourism industry can cause changes in the communication channels of consumers and affect decision-making processes (Portolan et al., 2011). On the other hand, tourists benefit from different technologies in different processes of travel, before, during, and after travel for different purposes. Before travel, while tourists mostly use virtual reality, interactive websites and social media are for the purpose of travel planning, obtaining information, or making reservations; they use the mobile application, location-based services, and social media in order to obtain information, communicate, share, and find ways or places during travel and websites technologies to share or comment on their holiday experiences after travel (Neuhofer & Buhalis, 2017). Some of the digital technologies which are frequently used in the tourism sector are briefly mentioned.

Technology Application’s Examples Mobile Devices (Smart Phone, Tablet, Computer, etc.) and Mobile Applications Phone, tablet, or computers, which have the features of being easily carried, having Internet access, being wireless, and not needing a fixed port, are described as mobile devices. Their use increases rapidly based on technological developments (Sarkaleh et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2016). Applications downloaded via mobile devices can offer personalized services by offering freedom of place and time (Altunel & Akova, 2016). Tourism is among the sectors that mobile applications are the most popular (Brown & Chalmers, 2003). For example, the square code application is one of the mobile applications used by tourism businesses and especially hotels. With this application, customers can be directed to the hotel website or social media pages by getting the square code read from the mobile device, or directly informed about the hotel services (Landman, 2011). Apart from that, the special mobile applications developed by tourism companies provide many opportunities for their customers such as making reservations, obtaining detailed information, sharing complaints and suggestions, making payments, following the business, campaigning, etc. by receiving notifications.

Websites Websites are the digital content sources used by tourists to learn about destinations and plan travel before their experience. Tourism-related websites, which are guiding tourists in both travel preparation and tour planning, are widely used today (Yoo et al., 2017; Huang et al., 2017). Destination and travel agency websites offer tourists comprehensive personalized information (Xiang et al., 2015).

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Social Networks (Social Media: Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube, and Pinterest) Social networks such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube, and Pinterest offer the opportunity to create personal profiles, communicate with other people, make instant shares such as photos or videos, and are used by tourists in order to learn about the destination of tourists, evaluate comments about the companies providing service, or share post-travel experiences (Gençer & Mil, 2018). The social media which provide easy access to many users around the World are used by businesses for advertising and promotion and to communicate with customers, conduct market research, increase sales, create a brand, and respond to customer complaints quickly (Enginkaya & Yılmaz, 2014; Chang et al., 2018).

Location-Based Services With location-based applications such as GPS (Global Positioning System), navigation, Zomato, Foursquare, etc., tourists can be directed via satellite receivers to places (cafes, restaurants, hotels, destinations, etc.) that they want to go from their location. Businesses can make their own promotions through location-based applications used by consumers and take into consideration these applications that provide information about places and businesses that attract tourists in their investment decisions (Brandt et al., 2017).

NFC (Near Field Communication) The NFC technology, which provides wireless connection services in a short distance, is used for information transfer in tourism, location-based service delivery, and workforce management. For example, devices with NFC technology can be read by the barcode placed in relevant places, and necessary information (information about activities such as business, advertising or promotions, concerts, etc.) can be provided, and even tourists can easily enter hotel rooms without using keys (Pesonen & Horster, 2012).

Virtual Reality Virtual reality (VR) is an interactive simulation technology that offers artificial reality in a virtual environment created through computers and enables people to experience as if it is physically real (Hunter et al., 2015). In tourism, the virtual reality technology is effective in enriching the holiday experience with a virtual 3D travel to a destination or a place (hotel, museum, etc.) as well as with applications such as virtual reconstruction, virtual museum, various

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guidance, or educational games in museums or at cultural heritage sites (Sürücü & Başar, 2016; Tussyadiah et al., 2018). Virtual tours are prepared by using virtual reality technology in tourism. A virtual tour is a visual application that offers a three-dimensional global image to the visitors on the Internet by transferring software and visual media applications on photos. Virtual tours provide an opportunity for tourists who cannot go to touristic destination or place (hotel, museum, etc.) they want to go due to various reasons (not enough time, money, indecision or disabled person, etc.) (Derman, 2012).

Augmented Reality (AR) Augmented reality (AR) is a variation of virtual reality, which is similar to virtual reality technology and offers the opportunity to have a virtual experience in real environment conditions by placing virtual objects on a snapshot of the real environment (Aslan, 2017). Smartphones, cameras integrated with glasses, computers with webcam, mobile devices with a webcam, and smartwatch are among the devices using AR technology (Hjalager, 2015). AR is an application that offers a non-real, i.e., virtual, experience, with the addition of digital contents to a real image through digital programs in real-time and real environmental conditions (Kysela & Štorková, 2015; Lee, 2012). AR technology can help the user update the past events in the mind by increasing the interaction of the user between virtual data and the real world, enabling the user to learn more about the person, place, or sites (Özgüneş & Bozok, 2017; Billinghurst et al., 2015). AR technology in tourism sector is very important for the protection of cultural heritage. In historical places or museums, with this technology it is possible to support tourists to experience different experiences by enabling them to see the original state of the place or museums (Hjalager, 2015; Sertalp, 2016).

Use of Technology in the Tourism Sector in Turkey In this section, the implications of digital technology applications in Turkey’s tourism sector are discussed. In this context, the current situation of practices in Turkey is assessed in different areas of the tourism sector such as enterprises serving in the tourism sector, museums, historical towns, and historical sites. Among the given examples, there are examples that are carried into practice as well as the ones at the project phase along with the technologies used, and those are being worked on to be implemented.

Historical and Natural Areas One of the best examples for technology use in historical places of Turkey is undoubtedly the virtual reality application in the ancient city of Bergama located in

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Izmir. This is the social responsibility project of Bilkom Information Services A.Ş. operating in Turkey, which offers the visitors four antique sites of Bergama (i.e., Zeus Altar, Athena Temple, Red Basilica, and Asklepion, the opportunity to see the original state of the buildings 360 degrees virtually at the site by 3D navigation applications provided through tablet computers and smartphones). This project with the theme “History Comes to Life in 3D” has first led to a three-dimensional trip of the Bergama ancient city both in Turkey and the World, with the use of 3D modeling software and mobile technology. The Pergamon city which is the best-preserved one among Hellenistic Kingdom centers was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2014 with the title “Bergama Multi-Layered Cultural Landscape Area,” which also contains layers belonging to the Hellenistic, Roman, Eastern Roman, and Ottoman Periods. After 2D drawings of four historical sites located in the ancient city of Bergama – an important cultural heritage – are transferred on the ArchiCAD program, they were turned into 3D, and the modelings performed were scanned by the Artlantis program and uploaded to Bilkom’s iVisit Anatolia application. In order to experience Bergama with this application, it is enough for visitors to install the application on their phones and scan QR codes at various points (Fig. 27.1). Another example is the ancient city of Sagalassos, located in Ağlasun district of Burdur province. Augmented reality technology is used in the Antonins fountain (nymphaeum) of the ancient city, which is located in the upper agora section dating back B.C. 3000 and has been restored in 400 building blocks and still flowing water. It identifies the user location of optical-based systems with a header, camera, and computer application and reflects the three-dimensional image of the original version that was developed virtually over the old ancient fountain image according to the user’s perspective. Thus, visitors are given the chance to see the original form of the fountain in a virtual environment and experience that moment (Epoch, 2020) (Figs. 27.2, 27.3, and 27.4).

Fig. 27.1 Reconstruction of the Zeus Temple and Bergama in the virtual environment. (Source: Bilkom, 2020)

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Fig. 27.2 Today’s state of the Antonins fountain in Sagalassos Antique City. (Source: Epoch, 2020)

Fig. 27.3 Reconstruction of the Antonins fountain in virtual environment. (Source: Epoch, 2020)

Fig. 27.4 Animation of the Antonins fountain with augmented reality technology. (Source: Epoch, 2020)

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In addition to the ancient cities of İzmir Bergama and Burdur Sagalassos, different projects and academic works are formulated to provide visitors a higher level of experience by integrating the historical sites of Turkey with digital technologies. The restitution of Hadrian Temple at Ephesus ancient city in Selçuk, İzmir, and the transition of AR from the images of wall paintings and ornaments in the Theater Room at Yamaç Evler can be given as examples. In the study conducted by Bostancı (2013), three (AR) augmented reality mobile application recommendations were offered for the ancient city of Ephesus. The first application recommendation is to wear the clothes of that period, the second application is to visit the ancient city with AR, and the third application is a game on treasure hunting (Fig. 27.5). “Information Culture and Promotion Center” was established by Mardin Metropolitan Municipality in order to inform the tourists about the city’s culture, history, and traditions. In this center, the application named “Mardin Ar,” which is developed by local software developers, using the augmented reality technology, offers tourists the opportunity to see the historical buildings in three dimensions. The application can be downloaded to mobile devices free of charge, and when the phone is brought closer to the photographs of historical buildings, tourists can find the opportunity to travel historically with three-dimensional photos and videos (Sincar, 2018) (Fig. 27.6). Tekno Mersin Project “VR Mersin” has been developed in order to introduce the historical, natural, and cultural values of the city to the tourists in Mersin. The website (vr.mersin.bel.tr) created within the scope of this project offers four different language options: Turkish, English, German, and Arabic. In addition, on this website, there are 2100 photos of historical sites in Mersin, and 360-degree virtual tours can be made to 272 touristic places. Among the important features of the system are that it has an infrastructure that can be associated with the GIS compatible City Information System; it offers free service promotion with the e-billboard feature; thanks to the past time feature, the same point has both the views of the past and the current state; and thanks to the photograph icon, it can be easily read from smartphones or computers containing a QR code feature (“Mersin’in sanal turla”, 2017). Within the scope of the Project “of Mobile and Remote Augmented Reality System Cultural Heritage Sites for Cultural Heritage Sites” implemented by Bostancı (2013) and supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), by making restitution of the Roman Bath in Ankara with

Fig. 27.5 Augmented reality (AR) mobile application recommendations. (Source: Bostancı, 2013)

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Fig. 27.6 Mardin information culture and promotion center. (Source: Sincar, 2018)

GPS and tracking technology, it was also aimed to provide an opportunity for visitors to see the bath structure, clothing, and tools used in daily life during that period (Bostancı, 2013). In another study, a CBS (Geographic Information System)-based mobile application was designed in order to provide more and easier information to visitors about the structures in Safranbolu as well as to increase the interaction and make the structures three-dimensional with AG technology. It was planned to use android technology to enable the mobile application to easily access the designated location and information (three-dimensional models, photos, historical information, music, etc.) without the need for large devices (Polat et al., 2016). Another study focused on how Yenikapı in Istanbul could be designed as an augmented space using digital technology and augmented reality technology. Within the scope of the study, a location-based mobile application with the name “Yenikapı Explorer” was recommended, which could offer visitors the chance to see the works found during excavations in Yenikapı on a virtual platform in their original places with different filters (Özgan, 2012). A mobile information system application was recommended by Özen (2018), which provides guidance services to foreign tourists visiting the Cappadocia region with their mobile devices (smartphones) before and after their travels in their own languages (via GPS application, sightseeing route or place suggestion, providing information about the touristic place). It is observed that the digitalization practices in the tourism sector, which is supported by academic studies, are increasing each passing day.

Museums As well as used in cultural heritage sites, digital technology or devices (interactiveinteractive or virtual museum, etc.), kiosks, interactive surface system (interactive

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examination systems), three-dimensional holograms, transparent projection films, transparent LCD showcase application, virtual objects, virtual assistant, e-catalog, planetariums, interactive examination system, archaeological excavation and matching games, land information system, virtual reality, and augmented reality are used in museums too (Harmankaya, 2010; Boyraz, 2013). Digitalization in museums in Turkey, due to technological developments, is given importance since the 2000s. Accordingly, the General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums affiliated to the Ministry of Culture and Tourism supported information technology-based projects in order to increase the number of visitors to museums and make their stay longer and more efficient (Erbay, 2016). One of these projects is the “Interactive Applications Project in Ankara Museums.” This project, which was implemented in four museums (Ethnography Museum, Republic Museum, Painting and Sculpture Museum, and Gordion Museum) in Ankara province, was developed in 2012 by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Cihan Haber Ajansı, 2012). As part of this project, a virtual ceramic and glass workshop was established in Ankara Ethnography Museum, and visitors were given the opportunity to make ceramic and glassworks in virtual environment via touch screens (Reo-Tek, 2013a) (Fig. 27.7). At the Ankara Painting and Sculpture Museum, visitors are informed through digital books and interactive holograms, and weapons from the Ottoman era are introduced, and the old versions of Ankara are shown outside the museum with a digital binoculars (Reo-Tek, 2013b). The virtual museum is the presentation of digitalized pictures, texts, or sound files in the virtual environment by using digital technology to the works exhibited in museums without the need for visitors to visit the museum physically (Bowen, 2000). The first virtual museum example in Turkey is the Topkapi Palace Museum in 1990. Some collections in the museum have been digitalized, and the museum can be visited in 3D on the web (Tekin et al., 2017). The other virtual museums include

Fig. 27.7 Virtual ceramics and glass in Ankara Ethnography Museum. (Source: Reo-Tek, 2013a)

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Istanbul Painting and Sculpture Museum in 1993, Sabancı Paintings and Sculpture Collection, Borusan Culture and Art Center, Rahmi Koç Museum, Eczacıbaşı Virtual Museum (Sanal Müze Gez, 2022) Ankara Painting and Sculpture Museum, Interactive Museum of Turkey, Istanbul Painting and Sculpture Museum, Mersin State Painting and Sculpture Museum, Project 4L Elgiz Contemporary Art Museum, Virtual Architecture Museum, T.R. Central Bank Virtual Museum, Aydın Painting and Sculpture Museum, Istanbul Graphic Arts Museum, Izmir State Painting and Sculpture Museum, Architecture Museum, Rahmi Koç Museum, Şanlıurfa State Painting and Sculpture Museum, Vehbi Koç Foundation Sadberk Hanım Museum, Erzurum State Painting and Sculpture Museum, Istanbul Modern Art Museum, Karagöz Museum, Pera Museum, Sabancı University Sakıp Sabancı Museum, Suna İnan Kıraç Kaleiçi Museum (Antalya), and Yapı Kredi Culture and Art Museum (Atagök & Özcan, 2001; Tekin et al., 2017). The number of museums that were made smart by using digital technology is very limited in Turkey. Apart from virtual museums, the digitalized museums which refer to an animation of museums and their artifacts by digital applications such as AR and VR continue to develop also in Turkey like in many other countries, as the relevant technologies are newly developed ones. The current digitalized museums in Turkey are planned and put into practice by the private sector. Software-based innovation companies are making plans using digital technology (augmented reality, mobile applications, interactive design, social media, information technologies and software) and offering “augmented reality” applications, 3D animations, interactive information screens, and touch screen gaming tables to museums in order to enrich the museum experience of visitors by preserving the original state of the works (Arox, 2020). For example, all the works in Sakıp Sabancı Museum – a private museum in Istanbul – were transferred to electronic media and enriched with augmented reality technology, and books that are not allowed for access are presented to visitors in digital media (Arox, 2020). At Sakıp Sabancı Museum, visitors are offered an interactive game with historical Istanbul venues that can be played on a large touch screen. Presenting traditional arts combined with technology to visitors increases the interest of children and young people to museums and makes the transfer of information fun (Bıktım, 2014) (Fig. 27.8). In Bursa Clock Museum, clocks are presented on touch screens, and in this respect, it is the first clock museum to have been virtualized. In cinevision room of the Hatay Archeology Museum, a 3D animated 7-minute movie about the Battle of Issos and a promotional movie describing the restoration process of the works are presented. Holograms of King’s Idea and King Octavianus, which can interact with visitors in different parts of the museum, are placed. In order to make the museum interesting for children also, puzzles created from Hatay Mosaics are presented to children with touch screens placed in various parts of the museum. The painting “The Carpet Merchant” made by the French painter Jean-Paul Jérôme at the Carpet Museum in Istanbul Sultan Ahmet Mosque Hünkâr Pavilion was transformed into a video and animated. An interactive carpet that emerges as you step is laid on the museum floor. In the kitchen section of the Topkapı Palace Museum in Fatih,

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Fig. 27.8 Sakıp Sabancı Museum. (Source: Bıktım, 2014)

Istanbul, the miniatures (miniature art) of the banquets, dessert makers, and İaşe (the road map of the products coming from the Ottoman to Topkapı Palace kitchen) are animated with digital technology. In the Marine Museum, which is Turkey’s largest maritime museum located in Istanbul, a memory game is presented to children based on ship painting and matching the hidden naval symbols with each other on the touch screen (Arox, 2020). With the new applications used in the museums, visitors can get information about the museum through the devices they can interact with or with the help of a tourist guide who can explain using these devices (Dönmezoğlu, 2013). Kayseri Seljuk Civilization Museum is an example of an interactive museum, which means museums that provide more information about the museum with technologysupported applications or devices. Technologies used in this museum include Etkivizyon ®, Hologram, Interactive Table, Architectural Artifact Inspection System, Virtual Outfit, Magic Wall, Drug Making, Animation, Interactive Map, and Timeline Information System applications (Reo-Tek, 2020a). The digital applications offered at Kayseri Seljuk Civilization Museum provide an interactive experience to the visitors. Visitors can walk on the water or dress like Seljuk sultans with the digital applications offered to them (Müzecilik Meslek Kuruluşu Derneği, 2014). Another example is Exhibition of Göbeklitepe: the Gathering which is reflected from the odor, sound, and projections in four different sections named “Alone in Nature,” “First Gatherings,” “Crossroads to the Gathering,” and “the Gathering.” Alone ın nature section is an experience of the wildlife of hunter gatherers. Its aim is to take visitors out of the familiar light of today, to take a night walk in which they are vulnerable in nature, and also to draw attention to the life of the people living before agriculture and settled life. The second section is First Gathering. There are cones in the first gathering areas where visitors come together and witness the symbolic worlds of hunter gatherers. The audio narrative in this section aims to create new contexts, i.e., from the perspective of the person who lived in that period. The aim of this field is not to present certain facts to the visitors but to produce new meanings and to inspire new questions. Crossroads to the Gathering is the third

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section. The representation in this section aims to provide a visualization of the life cycles of people around Göbeklitepe. The journeys that begin with loneliness, sometimes decreasing lives, sometimes increase. Different paths sometimes cross. At times, they are separated. The intersecting roads and crowds flow into the last gathering. This cycle has no beginning and no end; it is designed as a circular expression. The Gathering is the last section. The gathering field begins with a summary of this mysterious adventure of humanity. The Gathering exhibition aims to build a bridge between the people of the period and today’s people by gathering the visitors around a certain purpose beyond the gathering of people in 360 degree projection (Reo-Tek, 2020b) (Fig. 27.9). 500th anniversary of Piri Reis and His Maps Exhibition is another example of digitalized museums. An interactive Etkivizyon ® facility was developed for the 500th anniversary of the Piri Reis and Maps Exhibition at Beşiktaş Naval Museum, which is included in UNESCO’s 2013 celebration and commemoration program. The Etkivizyon ® system developed by Reo-tek with the support of TÜBİTAK is used to develop an 80 m2 interactive surface and a vertical display area within two themes. The first theme is inspired from the map of Piri Reis and animated by the interaction of the visitors. The second theme is based on sea life. A real-time ecosystem is created within a hydro-dynamically and optically simulated sea environment within several fish types which are capable of seeking food and escaping from visitors while trying to stay in herd group. Also a gigantic humpback whale reveals itself to lucky visitors (Reo-Tek, 2020c). Interactive surface and vertical display area technologies were used also in EXPO 2016 museum for biodiversity and agriculture. EXPO 2016 is the first expo in Turkey wherein a museum for biodiversity and agriculture is located. In the museum,

Fig. 27.9 Exhibition settlement plan of exhibition of Göbeklitepe: the gathering. (Source: Reo-Tek, 2020a, 2020b, c, d, e)

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the developments in agriculture and the agricultural technologies used from past to present are exhibited. There are five sections in the museum named “From Hunter Gatherer to Farmer,” “Fertile Crescent,” “Biodiversity,” “Sustainability,” and “Agriculture for Future” (Reo-Tek, 2020d). One particular example is Ottoman Archives Museum. There is a virtual marbling art studio in the museum for visitors. Marbling art is one of the most important art of Central Asian Art and paper decoration arts. Virtual marbling studio enables visitors to experience marbling art interactively by using touch system developed for General Directorate of State Archives, Ottoman Archives. Virtual Ebru Studio aims to introduce marbling art for visitors who have not experienced marbling and endear them with this special Ottoman art. Visitors can experience the marbling art using all the elements such as tray, gum targacath, comb, brushes, stir sticks, and colors placed on the screen. Using all these tools, users can create their own marbling patterns that represent their imagination (Reo-Tek, 2020e). Interactive surface and vertical display area technologies were used also in Kaman-Kalehoyuk Archaeology Museum, Aphrodisias Museum, Antalya Museum which Web-based Virtual Museum Tour, Digital Guide, Interactive Museum Information System, Virtual Museum Tour Application Technologies were used, can give as examples (www.reo-tek.com). There is a “Panorama 1919 Digital Screening Center” built by the Metropolitan Municipality in Samsun. Visitors do not remain in the audience position in this museum, but they feel themselves in the middle of the National Struggle with the special film technique, sound effects, and viewing method. In the museum, 25 screens, consisting of more than one piece and enabling the display of high-resolution integrated video and image on the image area, were used. The visual material used in the production of movies was created primarily from private collections and photographs in state archives, but also enriched with animation fiction. A single scenario was turned into a movie that can be projected onto 25 screens with parallel editing. Thus, a 360-degree movie experience was provided to the visitors. In the other part of the museum, there is the Digital Show Center, which is made using 44 projections. Here, the Malazgirt Victory, the foundation of the Ottoman Empire, the conquest of Istanbul, the Çanakkale Victory, and the Independence Struggle are explained (“Yabancı öğrenciler”, 2018; Doğan, 2018) (Figs. 27.10 and 27.11). Eti Archeology Museum is a private museum opened in 2011 under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, sponsored by Eskişehir Eti. The digital applications used in the museum include chariot simulator, digital book (1.5
1 meter), virtual king tomb, layered hologram, geographic timeline, 3D touch screen and effect vision, layered hologram, and hologram presentations of three-dimensional scanned sculptures. In the geographic timeline application, with the help of a touch screen kiosk, visitors are given information about the civilizations that lived in the region and the periods they took part in. In the chariot simulator, the visitor can get on the chariot of the period and use the reins to visit the settlement of the period on the giant screen opposite (Çubukçu, 2020; Erbay, 2016) (Fig. 27.12). There is Zeugma Mosaic Museum in Gaziantep province. Among the digital applications presented in the museum are digital animations, three-dimensional

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Fig. 27.10 Samsung Panorama 1919 Digital Screening Center. (Source: “Samsung Panorama”, 2018)

Fig. 27.11 Samsung Panorama 1919 Digital Screening Center. (Source: “Panaroma 1919’da”, 2019)

documentary film screening in the cinema room, touch guide and information screens, and interactive visual presentations. The missing part of the Wedding Mosaic of Dionysos and Ariadne in the museum is displayed on the remaining mosaic with projectors. So visitors can see the full version of the mosaic (Erbay, 2016) (Fig. 27.13). At the Hamam Museum opened in Gaziantep in 2014, visitors are given information about the hammam through the sign texts placed in the historical bath. With touch screen kiosks, visitors are offered a digital interaction environment that explains the process of making hammam soap. Visitors can learn the materials used in soap making

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Fig. 27.12 Eti Archeology Museum and Chariot Simulator. (Source: Çubukçu, 2020)

Fig. 27.13 Gaziantep Zeugma Mosaic Museum-Wedding Mosaic of Dionysus and Ariadne. (Source: Zeugma, 2022)

Fig. 27.14 Gaziantep Hamam Museum. (Source: www.gaziantephamammuzesi.org, 2020)

(bay leaf, lye and olive oil) by performing the commands presented in the light of animation in the kiosk, and after completing the soap process, a real soap is given to them from the kiosk compartment (Acar, 2017) (Fig. 27.14).

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At the Şanlıurfa City Museum, visitors are offered a game on the touch screen kiosk, which is based on the symbol, figure, relief, or match of the shapes depicted on the sewn stones found in Göbekli Tepe (www.reo-tek.com). In addition, the Şanlıurfa Archeology Museum is a museum complex of 30,000 square meters, and Haleplibahçe Mosaic Museum is an important museum complex with its architectural, visual, and technological animations. Visitors to the complex, where approximately 10,000 works are exhibited, can see the oldest sculptures of the world, imitation of the Göbeklitepe C temple, the original Nevali Çoli Temple, the animation of many periods, and the Prophet Abraham (T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, 2020). Augmented reality technology is used in the museum book of Anatolian Civilizations Museum in Ankara. With this application, the visitor to whom AG marker has been added can install the application and view the objects in the book in a 3-dimensional form, turn the objects left and right, make magnification and reduction, and be informed about them. This technology can allow visitors have an enriched museum experience and the information gained with this technique be remembered and usable later and keep the museum information alive. AG technology makes museum visits more enjoyable and can be effective in attracting more visitors to museums. This technology can enable people who want to visit the museum but cannot go for various reasons (individuals with physical disabilities, students, etc.) to visit the museum (Sertalp, 2017). Detech Holding, Anadolu Cultural Entrepreneurship (ABG) is one of the commercial enterprises of Turkey in museums and archaeological sites. This business has created a new-generation digital museum platform that offers tourists the opportunity to experience cultural heritage sites digitally. In this context, the enterprise has realized a project called “Tour-key” in museums and historical sites such as the Hagia Sophia Museum, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul Archeology Museum, and Göreme Open Air Museum. Within the scope of the project, gift packages called “Tour-key” are sold in souvenir shops at museums and historical sites. The cultural assets of Turkey are sold in the form of digital packets as gifts. “Tour-key” gift sets offer five language options in Turkish, English, Chinese, Spanish, and Japanese. “Tour-key” gift packages are used as a virtual guide, visiting historical and cultural sites in Turkey, and offers the opportunity to experience the history of this area with virtual reality. At the same time, it is inevitable that the tourists will contribute the promotion of the country in the international arena considering that they will have others watch it when they return to their home country. Thus, our country is introduced to potential tourists. Moreover, potential tourist’s interest and awareness of the museums and archaeological sites in Turkey can be improved (Turizm Günlüğü, 2020).

Smart Destinations and Businesses Smart city is expressed as the use of new-generation information and communication technologies (such as the Internet, cloud computing, big data, and integrated geographic information systems) in all city activities in order to provide a

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more sustainable life. Cities that adopt this approach and adapt advanced technological services to tourism are described as smart tourism destinations (Vicini et al., 2012). A mobile application called “Antalyakart,” which has been used since 2016, is provided to facilitate transportation in smart tourism destination Antalya. This mobile application is able to fill the transportation card via credit card and provide information about the transportation (bus) route, the city map, and the information about the tourist establishments in the city with different language options. As of 2012, both the locals and tourists are provided with a mobile application service offering different language options called “ICF Airport Mobile,” which presents airport maps, flight information, restaurant businesses within the airport, and so on. Again in Antalya, “My Antalya” mobile application service that provides information in different languages on contents such as destination news, tourist businesses, weather conditions, or exchange rates is offered as of 2013 to locals and tourists (Çelik & Topsakal, 2017). In 2015, a mobile city guide project called “Step to Kayseri” (Tourism Focused Smart City) was prepared by using information technologies in order to make it easier to promote the city and provide tourism mobility to local or foreign tourists in Kayseri. Within the scope of the project, it is planned to place devices called ibeacon in the businesses that serve tourists with high tourist potential (touristic historical places, eating, drinking, accommodation, and shopping). By downloading the application on their smartphones for free, it is planned to inform the tourists about the relevant places in Turkish or English (Zengin, 2015). A mobile application project called “Enjoy Bursa” has been prepared by Bursa Metropolitan Municipality to provide services to local and foreign tourists about the historical and touristic places of the city, in different languages (Turkish, English and Arabic) via a smartphone or tablet. Thanks to this application, you can get information about the distance of the historical touristic places to you, the history of the places, or touristic businesses, view their pictures, and make your trip plan with different route suggestions. Also, “Bursa 3D Mobile Tourism Atlas Project” was prepared by Bursa Metropolitan Municipality in 2013. Within the scope of the project, it is aimed for local and foreign tourists to access the content enriched with photographs, videos, 3D model, location information, route suggestions, and 360-degree panoramic photographs of their historical, cultural places, and natural beauties from their android-based mobile devices (Bursa Metropolitan Municipality, 2019). In 2016, the “Thrace Tourism Route Project” was carried out in order to promote the sustainability of the values and the development of the region by taking the inventory of the Thrace region tourism points. The project was carried out with the support of Trakya Development Agency and coordination of Kırklareli University, in cooperation with cultural tourism departments, universities, municipalities, and Trakya Tourism Enterprises Association (Trakya, 2016). In 2017, a mobile application was developed that offers Turkish, English, Greek, Bulgarian, and Russian language options to introduce the tourist routes of the city of Edirne (Edirne Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate, 2017).

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Hotel Examples Technology-supported services and conveniences provided in hotels are listed as follows (Gökalp & Eren, 2016): • Tourist can see the hotel from the hotel website with virtual tour service before the hotel arrives. • Various mobile applications allow tourists to check in and check out in advance, thereby preventing waste of time spent at the front office. • NFC technology allows tourists to identify by their smartphones and enter keyless rooms. • With NFC technology, tourists can make directions such as heat, light, and mini bar in the hotel room. • In the payments made in the hotel, the tourist can use the smart card, which is loaded with money beforehand. • Tourists are offered the opportunity to load money to the smart card with the kiosks within the hotel. • Reflect information about the hotel activities (breakfast/lunchtimes, menus, etc.) with the voice command of the customer through the smart screens in the wallpaper view placed in the hotel room. • Open videos on smart screens placed in the bathroom according to the tourists’ wishes. • Adjustment of water temperature and pressure with voice commands in the bathroom. • Customer preferences regarding the use of TV, air conditioning, minibar, and the services used can be collected in the database, and the service can be personalized (putting the most preferred drinks in the mini bar, etc.) according to this information in the coming arrivals. • Wristbands with RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) feature can be worn to children and followed by the parent in the hotel. It is very important for hotels, which are important tourism businesses, to adapt to technological innovations in order to provide a competitive advantage (Şanlıöz et al., 2013). In addition to the competitive advantage of using information communication technologies in hotels, the advantages of cost reduction, faster service delivery to the customer, sustainable image, and less staff at the reception, thanks to customers entering the hotel online, providing more personalized service by keeping customer behavior recorded, and sending customer satisfaction online to the hotel, can also be provided (Melián-González & Bulchand-Gidumal, 2016). There is no reception in the hotel lobby named “Cloud 7” located in the city of Istanbul. The hotel check-in and check-out processes, which we are accustomed to be made by the reception, are carried out with the mobile phone application. The technology-supported services offered by the hotel include keyless room entry, free and fast wifi service, and constant access to hotel employees via WhatsApp social network (Taşçı, 2019).

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Isparta Hilton Garden Inn features to be the first smart hotel in this city. The Hilton Group is planning to apply the Smart Hotel Application “Digital Key” in Isparta for the first time in Turkey. A digital infrastructure is planned for the visitors to make digital check-in with the Digital Key mobile application, to choose the room they want without having to waste time at the reception, and to direct the windows or room lighting of their rooms using a digital key (Turizm News, 2018). The ventilation, heating, cooling, and lighting systems of the “Radisson Blu Hotel & Spa” in Istanbul are designed according to smart building features. VingCard Signature RFID electronic lock system is used in the hotel. In addition, the hotel has an application called hide Wifi that allows the decisions taken at meetings to be communicated directly to employees via the tablet application. A mobile application called “OneTouch” is used to ensure that customers are informed about the hotel. Again, in order to ensure that customers do not waste time in hotel entrance and exit, a fast check-in and check-out application called “Express Check-in & Express Check-out” is offered. Within the scope of hotel management, the “Reservation Assistant” program, which provides membership, reservation, gift certificate, and guest relations management and which is integrated with online reservation, has been used. In this way, user needs can be determined, and online loyalty programs or package sales can be made. In this way, user needs can be determined and online loyalty programs or package sales can be made (Kasa, 2013). In order to bring smart hotel experience to its customers, the “Divan Istanbul” hotel located in Istanbul is using Turkey’s first Turkish voice assistant “Arcelik Smart Assistant Asista” system in the hotel manufactured by Arcelik Company. Customers can control the lights, curtains, air conditioner, and television with voice commands given to the voice assistant. The voice assistant provides information to customers in Turkish, Arabic, and English languages on calendar, clock and alarm service, traffic, weather conditions, summary news, and so on as well as up-to-date information about hotels, cities, tourist attractions, or restaurants. It also has the feature of being updated and adding additional services (“Divan İstanbul’da”, 2018). Considering the changing touristic expectations of Y generation consisting of young adults, the Dedeman Hotels Group located in Istanbul is planning to open 18 hotels within the scope of “Smart by Dedeman” Project until 2023 notably in Istanbul and Turkey’s vibrant cities with the brand name “Smart by Dedeman,” which will have state-of-the-art technology and provide high quality and affordable service. The compact rooms of the hotels with 50–140 rooms and 20 square meters each, walking in the hotel with virtual reality technology before coming, and providing check-in and check-out by mobile applications are among the services planned to be given (Türkiye Turizm, 2018). Titanic Mardan Palace Hotel in Antalya offers digitally supported services. Wireless controls with radiofrequency are used in hotel rooms. Visitors can command air conditioners, lighting, and curtains without having to point the receiver from anywhere in the room with the controls. Again, with these controls, visitors can direct the preferences of “Do-not-Disturb” or “Make-up-Room.” These preferences are expressed with decorative lamps placed in the room entrances, and the necessary unit is informed by transferring to the hotel automation system. Hotel room automation

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can be integrated into the reservation system, and room automation can automatically implement different scenarios according to the room reservation status. For example, when the room is empty, the air conditioner switches to economic mode, and when it enters the room, it is adapted to it (EEC, 2020; Entegre Bina Kontrol Sistemleri, 2020).

Website Examples In Turkey, it is seen that the augmented reality technology is used in virtual tours provided by www.kultur.gov.tr, www.3dmekanlar.com, and www.mekan360.com in museums such as Sakıp Sabancı Museum, Maritime Museum, Bursa Tofaş Clock Museum, Topkapı Palace Museum, Carpet Museum, and Hatay Archeology Museum (Arox, 2020). The tour platform “www.mekan360.com” is an augmented reality technology (360-degree virtual tour)-based hotel and Turkey guide. In this platform with 560,000 photographs and 150,000 virtual tours, Turkey’s historical and cultural sites (events, museums, sports, projects, religious facilities, recreation areas as well as natural places, urban areas, and historical sites) and sectoral areas (shopping, food and beverage, educational places, health, beauty and fitness, real estate and housing, hotels) are presented (Mekan360, 2020). The website “https://www.ktb.gov.tr/TR-96599/sanal-gezinti.html” is an extension of the official website of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (www.kultur.gov.tr), which offers visitors a 360-degree virtual tour on topics related to museums, palaces, mosques, churches, monasteries, castles, cities, or other places (Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2020). Applications for creating GIS and tourism routes help tourists to plan their travels with the alternatives of accommodation, transportation, food, and beverage management. An example for a GIS-based route planner application in Turkey can be given as “Nevsehir 3D Kiosk and Tourism Portal Web Project- KAPHİB.” With touch screen kiosks placed at important points of the city, visitors can be informed about the city and tourist attractions (Kervankıran & Çuhadar, 2014).

Airports Many airports are in the process to adapt to digital technologies, particularly the ones in big cities of Turkey. Different technological services are designed to make life easier for users. For example, with the mobile application you download to your phone, information such as instant information transfer, airport, and flight information are shared to facilitate your travel process at Antalya airport (Fig. 27.15). Istanbul airport is the largest and digital airport in the world with an area of 77 million square meters, 2 main terminal buildings, 6 runways with 3 parallel, 3 towers with one virtual, 200 million annual passenger capacity, and 3,500 flights per day, which is capable of carrying passengers to 350 destinations all around the world. It is an airport that closely follows the digital world with 115,000 network ports in all

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Fig. 27.15 İstanbul Airport. (Source: İstanbul Airport, 2020a)

areas. In the entire airport, wifi service is provided free of charge for both passengers and all other stakeholders, which is used by 7000–8000 people instantly and an average of 80,000 people a day. The mobile application developed for Istanbul airport includes services such as flight tracking, transportation process from home to the airport, transportation, map, free wifi, and discovering Istanbul (İstanbul Airport, 2020a; “Dijital ve akıllı İstanbul”, 2019; İGA, 2020). On the smart screens located at the entrance of the airport, passengers are informed at first about the density of gates. The average number of minutes of waiting time to pass through security at each gate is shown on these screens. It calculates the density time with temperature control by the cameras located at the screen security entrances and instantly presents it to information of passengers at the outer entrance gates of the airport. With the Information/AskMe Digital Screen, more detailed information about the services offered at the Airport can be requested by connecting to call assistants live on AskMe digital screens. Passengers can learn about the flight gates by scanning their tickets on AskMe digital screens and create a route that shows how to get to the flight gate from the location. At the same time, it can draw routes by searching for points such as pharmacy, bank, ATM, restaurant, and store in the airport (İstanbul Airport, 2020a; “Dijital ve akıllı İstanbul”, 2019; İGA, 2020). • IGA Sleepod Service IGA Sleepod service offers a private space where passengers can relax inside the airport at any time. Passengers can benefit from this service with hourly pricing in line with their needs. The cabin has a USB port and an electrical outlet, and there is an area at the bottom where hand luggage can be placed (İstanbul Airport, 2020b) (Fig. 27.16). • Istanbul Airport Hotel (Yotel) YOTEL Istanbul Airport is one of the largest airport hotels in the world and the largest in Europe, with a total of 451 cabins (rooms), 277 on the land side, and 174 on the airside. YOTEL provides services in the shortest time and in the most efficient way with its high technology cabins, ergonomically adjustable special

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Fig. 27.16 IGA Sleepod. (Source: İstanbul Airport, 2020b)

Fig. 27.17 Yotel İstanbul. (Source: Yotel, 2020)

design SmartBeds, smart TVs providing the flow of content from guests’ portable devices, dynamic ambient lighting, monsoon rain showers, and super fast, free WiFi. YOTEL Istanbul Airport is also ideal for guests with long-haul flights, as the hotel is located very close to passenger departure and passport checkpoints, allowing shortterm cabin reservations starting from 4 hours. With its airline-style kiosks, it allows guests to check-in and check-out to YOTEL on their own, letting them avoid long queues and save time (Yotel, 2020) (Fig. 27.17). Apart from these, projects that use new technologies such as big data, artificial intelligence, machine learning, augmented and virtual reality, autonomous vehicles, IoT, Lora WAN, mobility, cloud computing, edge processing, and advanced analytics continue to be implemented at the airport which has been serving since April 2019 (“Dijital ve akıllı İstanbul”, 2019).

Conclusion This section has focused on the use of technological innovations in the rapidly evolving world tourism sector and particularly on Turkey. The rapid development of technology and the possibility of introducing a higher version of the same

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technology at any time affects the process of sectors’ integration with technology. If we examine the latest technologies, it is seen that the tourism sector is offered to people in different service areas around the world. People encounter many technological innovations from travel to accommodation and from food to entertainment sector during the holiday process, can make museum and historical visits more permanent and unforgettable with augmented reality or virtual reality applications, can still witness the cultural and natural heritage belonging to prehistoric periods just like the first day, and experience that moment. This is an important development that makes people’s holiday experience unforgettable. Nowadays, such innovations and developments are an important factor for many people in the decision-making processes of their holiday plans. In this context, destinations also prefer to make a difference with various technology applications. Adaptation process of technological innovations continue in Turkey’s tourism sector, too. As can be seen, it is clear that virtual reality, augmented reality, and various applications have started to be used in museums, in particular, as well as at historical and cultural sites, in tourism businesses, and in many private and public areas which the visitors can use. It can be observed with technological investments and an increase of the companies working in this field that this ongoing process throughout the world also continues in Turkey. Especially with smart destinations in the tourism industry, tourism enterprises are supported by technological infrastructure and public and private investment; it is considered that Turkey has been integrated into technological innovation and continues its development.

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical Tourism Versus Health Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical Tourism and Destination Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical Tourism and Mobility Across International Borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Short Temporary Visits Abroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Long-Term Residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common Borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Outsourced Patients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical Tourism and Cross-Border . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical Tourism and the Globalization Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Application in Medical Tourism in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Turkish Medical Tourism Experience for Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview (Fig. 28.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

In medical tourism, people living in one country travel to the other with an intention for receiving medical services and treatments. Almost all forms of medical and surgical procedures fell within the scopes of this tourism type. One of the key aspects of medical tourism is its affordability that is highly addressed in the recent years. For benefitting medical tourism, many countries in Europe have applied innovative technologies as well as made immigration restrictions far more flexible and cross-border movement friendly. Apart from this, the inter-country cooperation has been strengthened for both expertise and capacity enhancements. All of these initiatives pushed forward the common development of medical O. Ozbek Bandırma Onyedi Eylul University, Bandırma, Turkey A. Hassan (*) Tourism Consultants Network, The Tourism Society, London, UK © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_28

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tourism. The aim of this conceptual research is to analyze medical tourism from the supportive policy framework of innovative technology application followed by the cross-border perspective. Medical tourism industry in Turkey is considered an example for Asia to follow. Data and information were collected from secondary sources that included both published and online resources. Findings outline that medical tourism is on the rise that is mostly benefitted from the policies aiming to encourage innovative technology application and cross-border migration. From the example of the Turkish medical tourism industry, this research asserts on the effective role play of the government and the application of relevant technologies. Keywords

Medical · Tourism · Technology · Turkey · Asia

Introduction The reasons to visit overseas countries for medical purposes have a long tradition. From historic times, patients used to travel abroad to seek medical care for those are unavailable in their own locality. Medical tourism constitutes an important reason for visiting a country even if this stays as well-organized and planned upfront (Mathijsen, 2019). The access to medical products or services is mostly limited, restricted, or prohibited in a person’s home country leading to travel overseas for medical reasons (Howze, 2007). Medical tourism managed to experience a significant breakthrough till the early twenty-first century. Eventually, medical tourism turned into an area with common interest as a well-established industry. A general manifestation of the medical tourism industry is to travel to developed countries from the developing countries. In the most recent times, medical tourism is seen as the travel to foreign countries for seeking medical treatment. The travel purpose can either be with a holiday or without a holiday for tourism consumption (Connell, 2006; Hall, 2011). Medical tourists normally tend to avoid unnecessary costs, obligatory surgeries, or life-threatening conditions in their home countries. The travel mostly takes from the developing countries to more developed courtiers that have ample and adequate medical treatment facilities (Hassan et al., 2015; Milstein & Smith, 2006). Medical tourism is also popularized by the private healthcare facilities, increasing roles of technology and the unbalanced access of medical treatment resources. For medical treatment, the quick, reliable, and easy access to information is essential (Morgan, 2010). A considerable number of patients search for relevant information about medical tourism on the Internet meaning that this has turned as a reliable platform for data and information. Patients can receive required data and information more effectively and conveniently regarding compared costs, experiences, and the background of the probable destination. This research thus analyzes medical tourism from the application of innovative technologies and the cross-border perspective. Turkey is a leading medical tourism destination in the

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world (Uner et al., 2020). There are obstacles for the development of medical tourism in many countries in Asia (Momeni et al., 2018). This research presents the relevant example of Turkey for countries in Asia to follow to minimize or overcome the identified barriers to both develop and promote medical tourism.

Medical Tourism Versus Health Tourism Medical tourism and health tourism are frequently used interchangeably. However, a clear distinction persists between these two terms outlining their basic features. This is essential to understand the key meaning of both of these tourism types. In general, medical tourism refers to a situation in which a consumer chooses to go beyond international borders in order to receive medical care. Treatments may encompass a wide range of medical services, although dental care, elective surgery, cosmetic surgery, and reproductive therapy are among the most common. There are hardly any traits that can create differences between medical and healthcare tourism. The boundary setting for these two types tourism is difficult and not straightforward, but in general, health tourism stays within medical tourism aiming to the same purposes of treatment trade. Convincingly, every aspects of health tourism as treatments cannot be included as medical tourism because cosmetic surgeries are performed more for aesthetic reasons than reconstructive purposes meaning that this moves beyond the boundaries of healthcare (OECD, 2010: pp.30–31). Medical tourism is attached to the wider perspective of health tourism. This in many countries is involved with longer historic antecedents of coastal localities, spa towns, and many other therapeutic landscapes. On the other side, a considerable number of experts and academics consider both health and medical tourism as related to each other and a combined phenomenon having diverse emphases. Health tourism is defined as an organized travel moving beyond a person’s living environment to enhance, maintain, or restore a person’s well-being in body and mind (Carrera & Bridges, 2006: p.447). Such definition concentrates on medical tourism as delimited to an organized travel beyond a person’s natural healthcare authority to restore and enhance of that person’s health by medical intervention. Thus, even health tourism and medical tourism are seen as having clear similarities between them; a typographical difference persists between these two concepts. Still conceptually, both tourism types at least have some sort of characteristic similarities. The delays of treatment that is a particular medical procedure can take longer than unexpected making it also one of the other reasons for medical tourism (MacReady, 2007; Morgan, 2010). On the other side, privacy reasons can become a decisive factor (Horowitz & Rosensweig, 2007). The rising health costs in developed countries have also triggered medical tourism to relatively less developed countries. Increasing air travel opportunism with cross-border medical training has also played role in promoting medical tourism in countries across the world (NaRanong & NaRanong, 2011). Typically, in developing countries, the very basic reason that persuades patients to seek overseas medical treatment facilities is also fueled by

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financial incompetence coupled with outright cash of insurance benefits (Horowitz & Rosensweig, 2007). Fertility treatments, gender reassignment operations, dental reconstruction, or cosmetic surgery in most cases are not covered by health insurance.

Medical Tourism and Destination Image Medical tourism is beneficial for healthcare institutions enhancing their social profile. By medical tourism activities, these institutions can manage more reputation both locally, nationally, and internationally. This type of tourism also helps in increasing human capital as the direct outcome of employee knowledge sharing and gradual development of expertise. The progression of medical tourism involving cross-border healthcare operations mostly able to optimize the soaring treatment costs. This is obvious that the selection of a treatment service for medical tourism commonly relies on cost decision. The prices need to be proportionate comparing to the home countries of those medical tourists. These kind practices in medical tourism seemingly offer better outputs for its patients. This is also commonly true that medical tourism does not only provide benefits to healthcare facilities of a selected country but also the benefits move around in relevant sectors as well. However, medical tourism practices necessarily benefit specialized travel agents, hotels, and airliners, those that are mostly healthcare and medical tourism demand tailored. Also, medical tourism can generate positive benefits for ancillary tourist facilities including cinemas, pubs, restaurants, fitness clubs, and relevant tourist establishments. Also, medical tourism effects the linear distribution of global healthcare facilities making positive impacts on local and national economies. The development of both availability and accessibility of resources for medical tourists can evidently benefit the host communities. However, there is a huge possibility of inequality relating a widened gap between the host and foreign medical beneficiaries. The offered facilities may create a massive gap between the host and the foreigner medical tourists. In such circumstance, a two-tier healthcare system can inevitably relate the economic benefits of the patients in a country (Arellano & Annette, 2007). However, this is also important that medical tourism in foreign countries is subject to accessibility and heavily relying on the insurance companies. The involvement of insurance companies attached to the general well-being of patients is common as this is a risky trade and very often can cause severe damage to the patient’s physical outlooks. Thus, medical tourism is hugely reliant on substantial investments, innovative technologies, modernized equipment, experts, and safer stay of the patients. The certification and accreditation of the medical tourism establishments are also important. These need to attest the optimum standard fulfilment and should be worthy of receiving relevant certification of accreditation. Thus, this is a very common understanding that a medical tourism establishment should invest considerable amount of money updating its facilities for the medial tourists.

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Medical Tourism and Mobility Across International Borders Medical tourism is obviously a subset of patients’ mobility across international borders. The basic feature of such mobility is the shift from developing to developed nations seeking for treatment facilities. These patients’ mobility can be divided into two subdivisions.

Short Temporary Visits Abroad This type visit denotes patients’ short holidays tending to search for health services resulting from an impulsive illness or accident. In Europe, the European Health Insurance Card application is available, this card is used by many institutions or organizations and individuals in need benefit from health services within the scope of the fund. Such service benefits the European Union (EU) residents only. Medical tourists for short-term treatment frequently visit other countries for emergency or occasional treatments within the European Union countries. Apart from this, out-ofpocket or private insurance also plays crucial roles for the purpose. However, from conceptual medical tourism perspective, these travelers can hardly be defined as medical tourists rather than short-term travelers for medical reasons.

Long-Term Residents The number of retiring populations in the European Union is significantly increasing. A part of these peoples is less unwilling to stay in their country of origin but rather tend to move to other countries for medical purposes within the European Union borders or beyond (Rosenmöller et al., 2006). This trend visibly causes the rapid growth of working-age citizen exchange. These residents obtain health services as mainly funded by their country of origin or their country of residence, by private insurance, or from their own contributions. These peoples also cannot be granted as medical tourists from the conceptual ground of medical tourism.

Common Borders A type of cross-national public funding to serve healthcare services can possibly help (Rosenmöller et al., 2006). This can become real when countries having common borders can bring together or collaborate for healthcare or medical purposes.

Outsourced Patients These medical tourists are opted to be sent to foreign countries by health agencies on the basis of cross-national purchasing agreements. Conventionally, these type

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agreements are reasoned by long waiting time coupled with the acute lack of specialists and special equipment as used for medical purposes in their home country. Such type of tourists very often follows the contracted services of both private and public operators when the patients travel to relatively short distant places. These movements are commonly meant as a matter of rigid safety procedures and better quality assurances (Burge et al., 2004; Glinos et al., 2006; Lowson et al., 2002). These patients can be termed as medical tourists, and they are state sponsored. However, they also act as individuals consuming particular healthcare services or products. In principle, medical tourists are those referred as patients having mobility for meeting their own purposes. These medical tourists do not necessarily apply the common European Union rights or freedoms but often pay from their pocket. They are meant as better consumers than individuals using their EU Citizenship right (Lunt & Carrera, 2010).

Medical Tourism and Cross-Border In the European perspective, a medical tourist can belong to any of the groups as a number of citizens claim medical treatment facilities in countries within the European Union states based on their EU citizenship. Their treatment costs in foreign countries are normally reimbursed by their national purchaser. This is an allowed process when the EU citizens can claim for special medical treatments in other EU countries under specific circumstances. Such a right has been proclaimed by the European Court of Justice upon successive rulings in specific cases involving healthcare consumption in other EU Member States. In such situations, the home country reimburses treatment costs as the national purchasing body (Bertinato et al., 2005). Introduction and popularity of the most appropriate terminology for cross-border still remain vague explaining an individual’s movement to foreign countries for treatment purposes. A series of classifications are applied in both health and medical tourism literature as medical outsourcing (Jones & Keith, 2006), biotech pilgrims (Song, 2010), international medical travel (Crozier & Baylis, 2010; Cormany & Baloglu, 2010; Fedorov et al., 2009; Huat, 2006), or even medical refugees (Milstein & Smith, 2006). The concept of medical tourism, a sub-market group of health tourism, is accepted as a type of tourism where both treatment and travel needs are met. Medical tourism also associates with the elements of health tourism followed by the extended impact of such type tourism. This type of focus initiates the understanding of a patient’s movement to answer what, why, whom, and where reasons for their travel with the impact analysis from these analogies. From marketing perspectives, medical tourism is attached with commercialization and commodification of health tourism. However, medical tourism has very little scope to incorporate with general tourism activities (Glinos et al., 2010). Medical tourism is spotted with analyzing the health industry, advertising issues,

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and outlining the supplier-consumer perspectives that normally expand beyond the capacities of willing to travel. However, in this study, medical tourism is used as the common term keeping the objectives as unambiguous. A relevant analysis of medical tourism meaning is offered as according to Kangas (2010: p. 350), “A term that suggests leisure and frivolity. The term promotes a market place model that disregards the suffering that patients experience.” On the other side, Glinos et al. (2010: p.1146) argue that the industry-driven meaning of medical tourism is “insinuates leisurely travelling and does not capture the seriousness of most patient mobility.” Still Whittaker (2010: p.272) proposes that “medical tourism is a misnomer, as it carries connotations of pleasure not always associated with this travel. . ..”

Medical Tourism and the Globalization Effects Conventionally, the delivery of healthcare services and the formulation of healthcare policies are mainly bounded by the central government or the nation state. In the United Kingdom, for example, the National Health Service (NHS) was established in 1948. This service initiated both primary and secondary healthcare services on funding by the public taxation. At the point of use, these were being delivered to the general population for free. The most recent political, economic, and social changes have turned as momentous encouraging a more concrete and diverse international and transnational healthcare policy development. The movement of ideas, capital, people, and products is all included with the national interconnections. These interconnections are commonly expressed as technical, social, economic, and political. All of these led to offering new challenges and opportunities relating better healthcare regulations and their delivery. The growth of medical tourism is supported by a number of development support including the regulatory regimes (i.e., the World Trade Organization agreements and General Agreement on Trade in Services), medical and healthcare industry development, the recognition of transitional disease patterns, the increasing mobility of patients (i.e., shifting public cultural attitudes about overseas medical tourism destinations), increasing operational popularity of low-cost airlines, and the advancements of information communication technologies. Both regional and international collaborations and agreements also play crucial roles for the general well-being of medical tourism. A form of bilateral exchanges between the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) member states as the United States and Korea, the United States and Mexico, and the Northern, Central, and Eastern Europe is an example. A number of other OECD countries also look for leveraging their own strengths for becoming key service providers in the medical tourism market on the basis of their established facilities. A visible trend of medical tourist flow from the OECD states to the Lower and Middle Income Countries (LMIC) countries as Thailand, India, and Malaysia become powerful in recent years. However, the difference between the OECD member states and the LMIC can create possible complexities in healthcare and medical tourism service offerings.

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Technology Application in Medical Tourism in Turkey Having a gross population of 80 million, Turkey is said as a growing market for medical and healthcare technologies. The Ministry of Health (MoH) (2019) in Turkey as the national level is the responsible agency to plan the country’s healthcare policy as well as stays as the largest healthcare service provider. On average for healthcare, Turkey spends 4.6% of its GDP when the central budgetary allocation is almost US$15 billion for the provisional healthcare services. OECD shows that the per capita healthcare spending in Turkey has reached to US$857. This amount is almost threefold than the expenses in 2002 at the time when the healthcare transformation program is initiated. Turkey stays as the key importer of medical technologies with 85% of the medical device imports. With 20% of this share, the United States is the largest exporter of healthcare technologies to Turkey. Followed by the management of currency losses by the Turkish Government from 2018, Turkey has been facing an increased demand in the healthcare services through maintaining steady reimbursement of medical device prices. Still, this has actually created issues for foreign firms to deal with these steadily decreasing and low rates in terms of inflation and currency fluctuations. The goal of the Government of Turkey is to enhance the country’s knowledge base and skill set for manufacturing domestic medical devices. For realizing this objective, the Turkish Parliament has passed a law 2 years ago. This law offers procurement guarantees for purchasing products from medical device companies that are fully or partially manufactured in Turkey. The very first product groups which are the subject to this procurement model were CT, MRI, ultrasound devices, digital X-ray, and patient monitors. However, such tender has faced six times cancellation when the deadline for the latest insurance was the 27th August, 2019. A 5-year procurement guarantee was designed to be received by the winning bid. Thus, the purpose of this winning bidder is to start local content sourcing and partially manufacturing in the second year and to increase the content, gradually. The Turkish Government encouraged partnership with the Turkish companies for forming a consortium. According to Health Industry Employers’ Association (SEIS) (2019), the Turkish MoH has the responsibility to construct, manage, and operate medical operations in public hospitals that actually caters the medical needs for 90% of its population. Private entities do the private hospital investments. Patients having no capacity for affording healthcare are generally covered with a private insurance plan with private facilities. These social security insurance can also be treated in private hospitals under the agreement with the Social Security Institute (SGK). Social security beneficiaries’ healthcare expenses when treated in a public hospital are reimbursed by the SGK, in case pharmaceuticals and medical equipment used are included on the reimbursement (SUT) list. Manufacturers of medical equipment that tend to become part of this reimbursement system mandatorily has to ensure that the used equipment is included in the list. Private hospitals do not have to necessarily follow such manufacturing and listing deal with these hospitals on the account basis.

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The most popular surgical procedures in the Turkish medical tourism industry are ophthalmology, cosmetic, and dental procedures. The country has a good reputation for rheumatology, cardiology, endocrinology, nephrology, gastroenterology, oncology, dermatology, neurology, gynecology/obstetrics, organ transplantation, orthopedics, and otolaryngology (ear, nose, and throat). Because of the long waiting times for these surgical procedures in the European countries, Turkey turns into an attractive destination for medical tourism procedures. Following HIMMS18 Eurasia (2019), as an important move, Turkey has taken very progressive approaches for utilizing health IT solutions in the country’s medical tourism structure. At the time of visiting a physician in Turkey, the patient’s all healthcare information is recorded in an Electronic Health Record (EHR). In these records, the ICD-10 coding stays as the standard for the description of illness. All diagnostics, treatments, doctor visits, and patient prescriptions are entered in this record. This system produces e-prescriptions that are filled at pharmacies. This also turns it possible for the pharmacies for claiming their receivables from the Social Security Institute online. MoH servers centrally stores the collected data throughout the country. A mobile application was launched in 2015 by the MoH that makes this possible for every citizen for accessing a patient’s healthcare record. The MoH uses this data for forecasting population health management and for analyzing illness patterns in Turkey. Such data are also used for encouraging citizens for accessing their record and becoming more active to manage their own healthcare. The MoH also works to integrate “Clinical Decision Support” elements into the present HER systems for reducing diagnosis errors. In public hospitals, “radiology” telemedicine application is used. The MoH performs with HIMMS for making the public hospitals’ EMRAM assessment. Following a latest figure, 164 Turkish public hospitals stay at EMRAM Scale 6 and 1 hospital on EMRAM Scale 7. This turns Turkey as the leader among the hospital digitization countries. According to Healthcare Products Manufacturers’ and Representatives’ Association (SADER) (2019), any US company wishing to market its medical equipment and health IT solutions to Turkey needs to find out representatives in the Turkish market having strong capacities to business development. Turkey follows the medical device directive and CE Mark of the European Union that require that medical devices with the CE Mark can enter the Turkish market. Turkish companies that act as US medical device company representatives mandatorily have to register in the National Data Bank (UTS) that actually tracks all medical equipment that are marketed in Turkey. There are some leading sub-sectors in the Turkish Medical device market. This number stands at 6000 companies engaged in the medical device and disposable market in Turkey. Local manufacturers mainly produce surgical tools, disposables, hospital furniture, and prosthetics. In principle, all of the major medical equipment categories are available in the Turkish medical tourism market that cover both public and private hospitals. At this stage, these hospitals look for innovative and state-ofthe art medical devices and solutions. The main imported medical equipment and devices to Turkey include advanced point-of-care devices; advanced prescreening and diagnostics devices; wound management devices; advanced surgical devices;

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surgical devices using robotics technologies; cancer treatment devices; implants used in orthopedics and traumatology; dental equipment; remote patient monitoring devices; health IT solutions, especially for critical decision-making processes; and Telemedicine systems. In recent years, a significant share of medical tourism income has been added to another “S” (Surgery) for Turkey except for 3S (Sea, Sun, Sand) (Tütüncü et al., 2011: p.91). The infrastructure and superstructure studies for medical tourism, the studies carried out by health organizations, the establishment of foreign patient departments, and the ministry of health are expected to tend to increase Turkey’s income from medical tourism with each passing day, accompanied by the breakthroughs made by the Ministry of Health. However, Turkey’s marketing and promotion efforts in medical tourism are not sufficient; bureaucratic functioning is slow, due to problems in language and communication issues; and there is a lack of coordination between public and private institutions that support medical tourism. Since health is one of the most important values in the lives of individuals, there are expectations against institutions that provide healthcare in individuals to receive quality healthcare. The quality of the health service is that as a function of a disease or condition, certain activities are carried out in a way that at least stops or improves a decline in the individual’s health condition. Therefore, quality in healthcare means a high level of coherence between the services offered and patient needs (Demirbilek & Çolak, 2008: p.98). Quality dimensions in the services of health tourism also cover the activity areas of various sub-service sectors. Woodside et al. (1989) examined quality dimensions in health in six different dimensions as nursing services, billing, patient admission services, technical services, eating and drinking services, and accommodation services. Turner and Pol (1995) emphasized on the comfort standards of the facility, which provides healthcare. Tomes and Ng (1995) stated that the concept of “hospitalization” is a quality dimension that is more than a physical experience for patients. Connell (2006) treated appropriate transportation costs and non-long patient queues as an element of quality. The Service Quality Model, or SERVQUAL Model, was created and executed by American marketing experts Zeithaml, Parasuraman, and Berry in 1988. This is a technique for collecting and measuring the level of service provided to consumers. This is also featured as a service quality measurement model used in determining the perception of service quality in health tourists, customer expectation, and real service perks (Parasuraman et al., 1988). Martin, Ramamonjiarivelo, and Martin et al. (2011), in their study, investigated the perceptions of service on medical tourists; they found that personal and normative factors are important for quality. Manaf et al. (2015) found that the quality of medical personnel and support and management services were three different dimensions that were important in measuring medical tourism service quality. These are medical staff quality, quality of support services, and quality of management services. Physical factors affecting the quality of service in medical tourism include the level of technology used in hospitals and the quality of machinery and equipment, the quality of health and accommodation services, and hygiene conditions of hospitals. Technological advances and the quality of medical devices used in

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hospitals directly affect medical tourism; many patients apply for treatment abroad due to a lack of technological possibilities in their own country. While the quality of the health services and accommodation services offered positively affects patient satisfaction, hygiene conditions in hospitals increase confidence in the health institution. Patient reception; transfer and send-off services; tolerance and respect to the cultural differences of patients, compliance with privacy, and obeying the privacy rules in hospitals; and ease of access to health services can be evaluated among social factors affecting the quality of service in medical tourism. Medical tourism service, from greeting to send-off, even after the operation, the follow-up, and rehabilitation process, is a whole of services covering a wide area. A negative situation in this service chain will negatively affect the quality of the service and decrease patient satisfaction. Humane, physical, and social factors improve the quality of service, while its inadequacy negatively affects patient satisfaction by reducing the quality of service. Before 2012, the fact that the number of tourists coming to Turkey to undergo eye surgery exceeded 20,000 has also triggered the competition of health organizations in this area of medicine. Travel agencies and healthcare providers, which prepare package programs for tourists, offer private vehicles, Bosphorus tours, guides, and accommodation in a 5-star hotel. Eye hospital investments approaching 200 million dollars have recently shifted to the Mediterranean and Aegean regions, which are also popular tourism destinations. It was determined that foreigners who preferred the tour of Istanbul in the summer period and had surgery then also went for a vocation in the Aegean and Mediterranean areas. This is a good example of the classical tourism-medical tourism integration mentioned above. As in many Asian countries, treatment and operation prices in Turkey are at very favorable levels compared to western countries. For example, IVF (in vitro fertilization) treatment in the United States is done for 15,000–16,000 dollars and 2,600 dollars in Turkey. Lasik operations (laser myopia, hypermetropia, astigmatic surgery, etc.) range from 4000 to 8000 euros in European countries, while these operations are carried out in Turkey for 600 euros. Open heart surgery is 25,000 euros in European countries, while in Turkey, A class hospitals do this operation for 10,000 dollars. These centers are closely following developments in the United States and Europe. The achievements of Turkish doctors are also fallowed by the countries of the world. The main goal with Turkish medical tourism is to ensure that patients and their families receive healthcare physically and spiritually and benefit from the tourism potential in the region where they are treated. Also, the most useful development in this regard is a plan to carry out Lasik operations for 4,000–8,000 euros tour packages from the United States and Europe through a project with an expert travel agency developed together by a special Eye Center in Kayseri and ICC-T Agency to provide a 5-day tour service during treatment. The services included in these tours include Cappadocia cruises, ski events, and cultural trips. This example shows how to integrate medical tourism and other types of tourism. In our country, medical tourism can be carried out together with thermal tourism in many regions, which is a very important advantage of the country. Especially, the impact of hot springs which can cure many diseases eases this relationship. Turkey, which is located on an important geothermal

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area in terms of thermal tourism, is also among the top 7 countries in the world in terms of resource wealth and potential in this area (İçöz, 2009). Many countries have closed their borders due to a new type of coronavirus (Covid-19), which spread 212 countries or regions around the world. States have canceled domestic and international flights and imposed curfews. These measures to prevent the spread of the virus have affected tourism, like many sectors. Turkey’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism has also launched a Health Certification Program, which includes measures planned to be taken in hotels as part of the “normalization” steps in tourism as part of June 2020. One of the first examples in the world, the Health Tourism Certification Program, led by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, was prepared in cooperation with all industry stakeholders, including the Ministry of Health, Transport, Domestic, and Foreign Affairs, including the TSI (Turkish Standards Institute). Businesses that want to start the non-compulsory, on-demand certification process first apply to national or international certification organizations authorized by the relevant ministry. The auditor is sent by the organization to start the process; the accommodation and food and beverage facilities are inspected according to the standards set within the frame of separate criteria. Certification organizations authorized to issue the Health Tourism Certificate, preparing compliance assessment reports by conducting hygiene and health inspections of the facilities. Usually, an auditor is sent to the applicant facilities, and it is observed whether services are provided according to the criteria. The Health Tourism Certificate, which will be given to the businesses passing the audits, will be hung at the visible points of the facility. Thanks to the QR code on the document, customers will also be able to access all the inspection information about the facility. Tourism facilities with Health Tourism Certificate, where the whole process gains transparency, employee, customer, and other interested individuals are informed that it is a secure facility. Facilities that receive the document periodically establish trust as a business that undergoes hygiene and health inspections. With the publication of the document from the website of the relevant ministry, it contributes to the promotion of businesses, increasing the capacity of guests during the epidemic. Medical tourism has become a rapidly developing sector based on countries due to problems such as prolongation of service purchase time in healthcare organizations, high costs, the variability of service quality, inability to be found in all areas of experienced and specialist doctors, etc. For these reasons, countries and institutions have to carry out their strategies in the field of medical tourism in a planned manner. The quality of service and the price advantage are two important factors affecting the development of medical tourism. Turkey is one of the few countries that can offer high-quality healthcare at an affordable price. In Turkey, which is ranked in the world with its quality service delivery and reasonable price advantage, some issues may negatively affect health services. The main ones are the lack of intermediary organizations and lack of qualified employees, and inappropriate pricing matters as such. To make up a shortage in the field of medical tourism, sectoral cooperation should be increased, and strategies for strengthening weaknesses should be developed. For Turkey to maintain its competitiveness in the field of medical tourism, an effective inspection mechanism must be established and implemented with the

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cooperation of sectoral stakeholders. Although the quality of health services in Turkey is high, some inadequacies arising from people and organizations mediating medical tourism negatively affect the perception of the quality of service in the sector. To minimize problems encountered in the sector, the services offered should be strictly inspected, and training and practices should be developed to increase the number of qualified personnel who manage medical tourism practices. Training for increasing the foreign language level of the staff working in the sector will contribute to solving communication problems related to the language. Developing training and seminar programs to understand the cultural differences and needs of patients who come in similar ways will facilitate communication with patients and will reduce problems that may occur depending on the diversity of culture. About half (54.1%) of hospitals involved in a study on medical tourism said they had an international marketing department. The most important factor underlying the development of medical tourism is the commercialization of health services. Hospitals serving in medical tourism should focus on foreign marketing studies by establishing such departments. Thanks to such marketing departments, target markets should be examined, researched for participation in medical fairs, and carried out more effective adherence activities to increase market share. In the hospitals involved in the study, 55.3% of hospitals serve their medical tourists with packages. These studies can be integrated into other types of alternative tourism and can be added to package programs. Such packages should be organized by expert teams to cover other types of alternative tourism and see that Turkey is active in all types of tourism. 70.9% of hospitals have expressed that guide signs and warning signs within the hospital are placed clearly for medical tourists. In this regard, if necessary, the use of guide signs in multiple languages that medical tourists understand is important in such matters as preventing confusion and ensuring easy evacuation in the event of any danger. 73.3% of the hospitals involved in the study said they kept electronic health records for medical tourism purposes. All hospitals serving medical tourism must register the necessary information to produce, evaluate, and analyze the necessary statistics and to produce the necessary policies and procedures (Buzcu & Birdir, 2019). Hospitals within the scope of previous research have been asked to evaluate the factors that have a negative impact on the development of medical tourism in Turkey. In the answers given by the hospital managers’ lack of publicity (3.26 average), negative country image (3.12 average), and language and communication problems (3.07) have been the top three places among the factors that have negative effects determined by hospital managers (Buzcu & Birdir, 2019). The fact that the issue of lack of publicity is in the first place is an important deficiency in terms of medical tourism. In this regard, according to the Decision on the Promotion of Foreign Exchange-Earning Service Trade no. 8 by the Ministry of Economy, hospitals benefit from promotional purposes provided on health tourism; private hospitals establish promotion offices abroad, working with intermediary institutions for the introduction of medical tourists from abroad, active use of the Internet, the establishment of branches related to medical tourism in target markets by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, etc. These promotional efforts may be suggested. In recent years, incidents

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such as terrorism and war in the Middle East are close to Turkey’s borders, and hospital managers may have emphasized the negative image of the country due to negative propaganda being done on behalf of Turkey abroad. Turkey should try to break down the negative judgments established or possible towards Turkey abroad with its promotional activities and services. Foreign language and communication problems should not be in hospitals operating in medical tourism. Also, hospital employees should be given training on body language through in-service training by considering cultural differences to further increase the perception of quality in the services that medical tourists will receive. Hospital managers were asked questions to determine the degree of importance of the factors of medical tourists choosing the hospital for treatment. It has been observed that the highest average is about quality of service. The quality of the services offered in all treatment processes is an indispensable element for a medical tourist. The fact that managers say that medical tourists prefer their hospitals in terms of quality of service shows that hospitals in Turkey are at an important level in terms of medical tourism. Besides, hospital managers must receive international accreditation documents regarding the quality of service. An international accreditation certificate is decisive about the standard and quality of the services to be obtained. This is a factor that will affect the selection decision of the medical tourist in hospital preferences. The second place in the preference of medical tourist hospitals with an average of 3.97 previous patient referrals, the services offered by hospitals show that the medical tourists returned to their countries with positive experience. A medical tourist who returns with a positive experience will contribute to the promotion of Turkey through ear-to-ear marketing. It is very important to promote a country for the facilities offered by a country in medical tourism. In this regard, all stakeholders in the subject of medical tourism need support for effective promotion policies. Hospitals serving medical tourism should participate effectively in the fairs on medical tourism abroad, establish promotional offices abroad, and carry effective activities in the targeted markets, especially in the markets where patients come to Turkey in general (Germany, Libya, and Russia). Also, Turkey’s active promotion should be made by selecting other target markets. In addition to medical tourism in promotional activities, Turkey’s potential for tourism activities should be highlighted by doing integration studies in other types of tourism. Proposals for common wage tariffs and accreditation are second-place recommendations. Thanks to the collective work of an organization representing the ministry of health and private hospitals, determinations should be made and examined about base and base prices through the collective work of an organization representing the ministry of health and private hospitals. The issue of accreditation, which is a decisive factor in the quality of service internationally, is an element that should be considered by all hospitals serving in medical tourism. One of the reasons why medical tourists are sure of the quality of the services provided by the healthcare provider is the subject of accreditation. Therefore, studies should be carried out to encourage private hospitals to obtain accreditation for purposes such as obtaining a greater share of medical tourism income and increasing the number of medical tourists. Also, the proposal to provide visa ease is set as the fourth-place

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proposal with an average of 9.4%. Studies on mutual agreements between countries should be increased concerning visa exception, and the transition to e-visa application on medical tourism should be accelerated. Tourism, which is one of the sectors most negatively affected by the coronavirus epidemic in the economic field, is one of the main driving forces that can re-stimulate the economy in a way when the epidemic ends. The 2020 target of health tourism was one million patients, but it does not seem possible to meet this goal with unexpected developments. Approximately 650,000 patients came to Turkey from abroad during the first 10 months of 2019. The Ministry of Health’s 2023 target was 1.5 million patients and 10 billion dollars in health tourism income. Experts warn that health tourism, tourism sector, and the economy in connection can be the “flagship” if the right strategies are followed because unlike other areas of the sector, there is a type of tourism that is not seasonal and spanning 12 months of the year (Euronews, 2020). The hair transplantation industry was one of the key factors in the inflow of foreign currency access to the country. With the cancellation of flights, a significant number of patients who will come for hair transplantation postpone their surgeries but did not cancel because it can be seen as a beacon of hope. In terms of medical tourism, thermal tourism, SPA-wellness tourism, disability tourism, hair transplantation, obesity surgery, as well as different areas covering turkey health tourism, especially after the epidemic process, Turkey can respond to the demands of the foreign tourists because Turkey is considered among the few leading countries in the world in health tourism and considered the first place in Europe. Experts note that, for example, in the post-COVID-19 process, the elderly can turn to thermal facilities to compensate for the time they stay at home and to protect their body and mental health. However, health tourism must be restructured following hygiene rules that are important after the epidemic, improve cleaning standards in facilities, and keep these efforts at the forefront of the country’s promotion. Tourists who come for health tourism have a spending range of between 4000 and 10,000 dollars, and most visitors came from European countries and Arab countries. In the pre-epidemic process, hair transplantation, tooth prosthesis, and aesthetics were the reason for the medical tourists to come, but tourists spent serious money on heart and kidney surgeries. Hair transplantation was 3000 dollars, while it is 12,000 dollars for heart surgery (Euronews, 2020). However, Turkey’s competitive advantages should also be mobilized against Japan, South Korea, Germany, and Israel, which are considered the “flagship” of health tourism. In this respect, the exchange difference offers an attractive opportunity for African tourists who have previously gone to France, Portugal, and England, former colonial countries, for health tourism. Tourists who come for long-term health problems, thanks to the affordable real estate facilities for foreigners, buy a home and own the title deeds; they also get a residence permit and enter the country easily for health tourism. Therefore, health tourism has a refreshing effect on the real estate sector. The Ministry of Health aims to open health coordination offices and diagnostic centers in 20 countries, and for this purpose, opening offices in Russia, Azerbaijan,

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and Uzbekistan is on the agenda in the first place. Thus, the checks of patients treated in Turkey will be carried out in these diagnostic centers. Experts say that if Turkey’s efforts in patient treatment are widely promoted and gained visibility on the international platform during the coronavirus process, it could trigger confidence in health tourism in the next period with the snowball effect. According to the latest TUIK figures, tourism incomes fell by 11.4% in the first quarter of the year (January–March era) compared to the same period last year, which did not yet cover the effects of the epidemic. During that period, health expenditures decreased by 17.5% of average spending per capita in tourism incomes (Euronews, 2020).

The Turkish Medical Tourism Experience for Asia Turkey envisions appearing as the global leader in medical tourism. Turkey is one of the most suggested countries after India and Costa Rica by the companies that act as intermediaries in medical tourism (Peters & Sauer, 2011). In terms of medical tourism, one of the Turkey’s important advantages is her accredited healthcare facilities. Turkey is the country with the most JCI-accredited health facilities after Thailand (Ministry of Health, 2020a). There are 48 JCI-accredited health institutions that provide services at international standards. Turkey attracts thousands of patients each year from Black Sea Economic Cooperation Council, European, Middle Eastern, and other countries. The Republic of Turkey welcomes higher number of accredited and other institutions. The common medical tourism application types that Turkey offer are advanced treatments (i.e., radiotherapy, cardiovascular surgery, CyberKnife etc.), transplantation, infertility (i.e., IVF applications), plastic surgery, eye treatment, dental treatment, dialysis, etc. (Ministry of Health, 2020a). According to the report of the Association of Turkish Travel Agencies (Tursab) (2020), the number of medical tourists to Turkey is gradually increasing when the number rises to 0.6 million in 2014 from 0.19 million in 2010. In case when plastic surgery is added to medical tourism, this number would even pass the 0.7 million mark. However, the present global medical tourism market includes 30 million tourists with a total spending of US$ 150 billion. Turkey even staying at the promising stage tends to contribute more of this attractive global medical tourism market. The healthcare spending market in Turkey is expected to reach at least US$ 60 billion by 2015. Generic strengths of the Turkish medical tourism market are the good service quality, improved medical care, generous state incentives, and better marketing activities. All of these together makes Turkey as one of the cheapest and much appreciated medical tourism destinations along with the United States, Germany, and many other countries. Most of the medical tourists originate from the Middle East, Europe, Denmark, and Russia. Plastic surgery, dental treatment, optical care, vitro fertilization, and hair transplantations are some popular treatments for tourists from the European countries. Turkey has been passing through a massive restructuring of its medical and healthcare tourism facilities making them more competitive and attractive. The country is adopting a comprehensive medical and

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healthcare system allowing more foreign and domestic investments. Continuous quality improvement and scaling up the entire healthcare system are some major steps for the purpose. The country also witnessed massive private sector investments. Turkey is steadily turning as a good selection for medical tourists from across the world. The country is also stressing more creating efficient and highly expert medical and healthcare professional groups. On the other side, the geographical location and rich cultural background support in creating good impression within the prospective medical tourists. The Turkish medical and healthcare practitioners and private investors are gradually working to attract and retain international standards in almost each step. These actually turn as rewarding and supporting the industry in greater ways. Turkey also attracts foreign investors making its medical and healthcare infrastructures as more rewarding and prominent in the global arena. Turkey is surely emerging as a promising medical tourism destination in the world. Turkey has recently formed a new organizational law aiming “to carry out HealthTourism-related works and operations and to ensure coordination with the relevant institutions.” Under this law, the Department of Health Tourism was established under the Directorate General of Health Services. According the regulations, “An international health tourism healthcare facility may accept an international health tourist who applies directly to the facility. However, in the event that the operations of an intermediary organization are needed, a protocol shall be signed with an international health tourism intermediary organization that has been authorized by the Ministry. A copy of the protocol that is signed shall be sent to the Directorate General via the Directorate” (Ministry of Health, 2020b). Medical tourism activities in Turkey are performed comprehensively including thermal tourism, health tourism, or elderly and disabled tourism. Also, within the scope of medical tourism, Turkey is offering and supervising essential health services to at least 32 million tourists visiting Turkey, each year. A web-based program often registers foreign patients admitted to university, public, and private hospitals. A recent figure shows that 210,000 foreign patients visited and received medical treatments in Turkey in 2012 (e.g., this number was 156,176 in 2011; 109,678 in 2010; 91,961 in 2009; and 74,093 in 2008). These statistics were obtained from registrars in the branch, province, and state hospitals (Ministry of Health, 2012). In terms of incoming patients and medical tourists to Turkey, the top three countries are Libya, Germany, and Iraq. Results show that the civil war in Libya and warm relationships between Turkey and Libya, significant number of sick, and injured Libyan nationals were brought to Turkey that were treated free of charge. Also, the main reasons for the preference of medical tourism in Turkey, by Germany, are, first, approximately 4.5 million Turkish citizens living in Germany can become a promotional tool for medical tourism and, second, the total number of tourists coming to Turkey from Germany stays at a significant rate. Moreover, both the public and private institutions in Turkey adopt effective medical tourism promotions (Ministry of Health, 2012). According to the available statistics, the number of tourists coming to Turkey for health tourism has reached 178,000. Most of them (67%) came to private hospitals,

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and 56,000 (24%) preferred public hospitals, and finally, 9% of patients preferred university hospitals. The most accepted medical tourism procedure is the treatment of skin and veneral diseases. The first 10 clinics that patients come to for medical tourism in the first 6 months of 2018 are skin and venereal diseases, ophthalmology, gynecology and obstetrics, medical oncology, internal diseases, aesthetic surgery, orthopedics and traumatology, general surgery, cardiology and finally otolaryngology (klinikiletisim, 2020). The patients and tourists were given interpretation services mainly in four languages as Arabic, English, Russian, and German on a continual basis. They were also given the opportunity for obtaining emergency services by dialing 112 and 184 for lodging complaints and receiving information in their mother language. These call centers receive at least 700 calls per month on average. The figure shows the status of medical tourism in Turkey.

Overview (Fig. 28.1)

Conclusion This research narrates the application of innovative technology and cross-border migration on the context of medical tourism in Turkey. Results show that Turkey is a leading medical tourism destination in the world (Uner et al., 2020). Turkey has significant potentials in medical tourism with relevant resources (i.e., specialist doctors, medical staff, hospitals, hotels to stay, etc.). Turkey offers specialized services as easy transportation from many parts of the world, offering better quality and lower prices than many countries that offer services in medical tourism. With some unique features, lower cost of treatment, lack of waiting time for treatment, and offering holiday opportunities besides treatment fee, Turkey has a great prospect in the coming years. Turkey has created a new idea known as 4S (sea, sand, sun, and surgery) as a result of the significant growth of medical tourism in recent years. New health tourism units are planned to be built for medical tourism, thermal tourism, Overview Total local production Total exports Total imports Imports from the USA Total market size

2017 768 429 1945 398 2284

2018 (est.) 778 494 1605 377 1889

2019 (est.) 919 543 1501 375 1877

2020 (est.) 968 597 1483 370 1854

(Total market size = (Total local production + Imports) – Exports) (Unit: USD (millions))

Fig. 28.1 The present and projected status of medical tourism in Turkey. (Source: International Trade Administration, 2019)

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spa-wellness, advanced age, and accessible tourism. Asian countries can consider the experience of Turkey for both minimizing and overcoming the identified barriers to both develop and promote medical tourism. This research outlines the position of medical tourism and finds out that medical tourism is gradually developing. Due to the recent border and immigration control in Europe, countries become medical tourism destination rapidly. This research supports that medical tourism industry is relatively dynamic and more service oriented. One of the basic reasons for such dynamism is the application of innovative technologies. This industry is also volatile at the same time when a range of factors acts as drawbacks associated for its growth and development. Travel and policy restrictions are these prime factors. However, in the Turkish medical tourism industry, the government has placed considerable attention for its well-being and development. The pioneering and innovative treatment forms in Turkey can thus contribute to the shifting patterns of production and consumption of both overseas and domestic medical tourists. This research mainly relied on secondary data and information that is rather a limitation. Thus, future studies need to concentrate more on adjoining primary data for comprehensive research studies. In health tourism, a revival is expected after the opening of airline transportation flights abroad gradually, the absence of new COVID-19 cases, and the fact that it is well explained to the world public based on evidence. Due to the excessive cases of COVID-19 in almost all countries and the overcapacity of hospitals, other normal cases other than emergency cases were unable to apply to hospitals due to the risk of infection. They put off their treatment. These cases are expected to apply heavily at the end of the epidemic. In this case, some European countries may cause waiting queues to be extended in some branches. These cases will seek treatment opportunities abroad either by their means or with the payment of insurance agencies. Turkey can be one of the countries where they will apply as a result of both transportation ease and modern medical technological facilities, qualified healthcare workers, and price advantage. However, it is necessary to develop marketing strategies for these markets to benefit sufficiently from these opportunities and to get a share of the market and to analyze the countries where these cases are high. Future research studies can incorporate scientific evidences in the theoretical analysis for more concrete and stronger arguments including COVID-19 effects.

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A Conceptual Framework for the Factors Affecting the Innovation Orientation of Syrian Construction Firms and the Indirect Effect on the Tourism Industry

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Alaa J. Kadi, Ernawati Mustafa Kamal, Nor’Aini Yusof, and Razan AlSakka Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Background Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Syrian Arab Republic’s Construction Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Syrian Arab Republic’s Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovation Orientation “Creation vs Adoption” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Justification for New Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovation Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Activities, Tools, and Approaches That Are Involved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nature of Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Innovation’s Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technological Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Financial Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Management Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Psychological Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cultural Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Environmental Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Governmental Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Firm Size as Moderator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Models of Research That Are Most Similar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Primary Relationship’s Theoretical Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proposed Framework and Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

The goal of this study is for looking into the influence of influencing variables on the innovation orientation of Syrian construction firms throughout the conflict years. This research also aims to analyze the influence on the tourist industry and to develop a conceptual framework that depicts the possible linkages. The effect of eight primary barriers was examined in the study: technical, financial, psychological, process, cultural, management, governmental, and environmental barriers. The study compared the recommended conceptual framework to the theoretical foundation as well as the most relevant related frameworks. The research examines the literature in specific, as well as the overall literature on innovation orientation, in order to identify technical gaps in practice and theory. Additionally, the findings can aid local businesses and government agencies in comprehending the structure of the obstacles and leading them toward future advancements and upgrades that are differently necessary for the nation’s postwar rebuilding, particularly in the tourist industry. Keywords

Innovation orientation (creation/adoption) · Conceptual framework · Innovation barriers · Syria

Introduction This research aims to look at the relevant literature as well as the potential hurdles to digital innovation in Syria’s construction businesses. It then develops the theoretical framework and hypotheses for such research. The following sections are included in this chapter. The opening part discusses the chapter’s aim and structure. Also, this is monitored by a study of the Syrian Arab Republic’s background and the state of the construction sector following several years of catastrophic fighting. The section also examines important growth prospects, notably in the post-war period, when reconstruction and rehabilitation processes are hoped to take place. The literature on innovation ideas is addressed, including major definitions, orientations, dimensions, digital innovation, and, finally, innovation obstacles. After that, the innovation orientation is discussed, as well as the contrast between the two techniques of innovation orientation: creation and adoption. The purpose of developing and implementing innovative ideas, the innovation function, the actions involved in innovation, and finally the characteristics of innovation are all discussed. The study examines the literature on hurdles to digital innovation in construction businesses, beginning with a lengthy explanation of how internal vs. external barriers are classified. The book then goes through each obstacle one by one: technical, financial, organizational, process, psychological, governmental, environmental, and cultural. The paper then goes on to provide the findings of the impact of company

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A Conceptual Framework for the Factors Affecting the Innovation. . .

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Fig. 29.1 Plan for a literature review. (Source: The writers’ creation, 2020)

size on innovation, accounting for the predicted moderating influence of firm size. Next, this chapter examines the literature studies on the previously examined innovation models, as well as their connections to the present study. The literature review plan for this investigation is shown in Fig. 29.1.

Syria The chapter next examines the literature on the previously examined innovation models, as well as their connections to the current study. The paper then examines the status of the construction industry, particularly in the aftermath of an 8-year disaster. The second sub-section provides a more in-depth look into Syria’s construction sector, as well as a scope of the industry’s major stakeholders. Two major subsections must be covered within this section: first, some historical and geographical context and, second, highlighting the significance of the construction industry in the country.

Background Information Syrian Arab Republic’s Construction Industry By legislative decree no.17/Date 31/07/2016, the Ministry of Public Works and Housing was formed late in 2016. Every sector of the state is under government control, and an important area that the government regulates indirectly or directly is building (Public Works and Housing Ministry, 2017). On January 1, 2017, the new Ministry of Local Government and Public Safety was established, taking over the functions of the former ministry, the Ministry of Public Works and Housing. Subcontractors that manage their own workshops and offices to execute interior finishing or housing projects and undertake construction studies for a variety of clients

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are known as private construction companies. Fewer major businesses have direct or indirect ties to government organizations and directorates, making it difficult for researching and comprehending the current status of the construction sector. This is essential for examining the status of linked government organizations and ministries.

Syrian Arab Republic’s Tourism Industry The Syrian Civil war and the subsequent refugee crisis have had a significant impact on tourism in Syria. Many former tourist sites have been damaged, all major airlines have halted flights, and many significant hotels have shuttered as a result of the shelling. To restore the country’s tourist industry, significant investment is going to be necessary (Porter, 2014). Infrastructure development is connected to tourism growth. Visitors choose various means of tourism traffic for diverse building demands on the basis of local circumstances, as rail, roads, aircraft, water, and so on. On the whole, tourists choose various forms of tourism traffic for various building demands based on local factors, such as roads, rail, aircraft, etc. (Yu, 2016).

Innovation Orientation “Creation vs Adoption” This section examines the innovation orientation from the following key aspects to demonstrate the contrast between innovation creation and adoption: (1) new idea justification, (2) innovation function, (3) involved activities, and (4) innovation nature.

Justification for New Ideas In spite of the fact that innovation production varies substantially from innovation adoption, both indicate originality (Czarnitzki & Thorwarth, 2012; Pérez-Luño et al., 2011; Damanpour & Wischnevsky, 2006; Yusof et al., 2014). This discussion’s purpose is for differentiating the two types of innovation orientations when it comes to the word “newness,” with the researchers separated into two groups. Some believe that the justification of “newness” may refer to the development and introduction of new items or services, as well as the introduction of these freshly developed results to the market. As a result, innovation creation brings about massive changes with a high degree of novelty that should be viewed an affront to the industry’s established norms and conceptions.

Innovation Function In terms of the function idea, the key distinction among innovation creation and innovation adoption is that innovation creation is a market originator that

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restructures client behaviors and preferences (Naranjo-Valencia et al., 2011; Zhou, 2006; Urban et al., 1996). This term denotes to competitors as business rivals, as though they are competing to bring new services and products to market (Schmalensee, 1982; Kerin et al., 1992). The primary goal of an organization is to be a market leader and to lead the industry in terms of innovation development. As a result, the primary goal of innovation creation is to provide goods or services that are original and need dramatic adjustments (Damanpour & Wischnevsky, 2006; Prabhu, 2010; Dell’Era & Verganti, 2007). As stated by the literature, innovation is regarded as a critical business technique for gaining a competitive edge. This is critical in generating a higher level of innovation, newness, and radical changes in order to outperform competitors and qualify businesses to dominate the industry and market.

Activities, Tools, and Approaches That Are Involved There are differences in the activities, methods, and tools used by the two types of innovation in terms of function. The main distinction is that innovation creation is source-based, whereas innovation adoption is thus user-based (Klein & Sorra, 1996).

Nature of Innovation The primary goal of innovation is to create something from nothing (Ravichandran, 1999) (i.e., offering services or making new products for the first time). Customers in the market will take a longer time to accept this (Christensen et al., 1998). This necessitates higher expenditures and expenses (Agarwal & Bayus, 2002). Continuing to generate inconclusive results or outcomes (Lieberman & Montgomery, 1988). Such innovation type generally starts with a novel technology, market, or infrastructure, or a previously unheard of concept (Lynn et al., 1996). As a result, innovation typically necessitates more time, money, assets, and efforts (Song & MontoyaWeiss, 1998; Dell’Era & Verganti, 2007). In the preceding sections, the distinction between innovation creation and adoption was examined and illustrated using four criteria that should be incorporated and investigated. Internal R&D and design efforts, cooperation with external sources of information, and investigation of new technology or market prospects are the most successful activities for innovation development. Exploiting present knowledge and maintaining and mimicking market trends are the only ways to accept innovation. Also, internal R&D and design efforts, cooperation with external sources of information, and investigation of new technology or market prospects are the most successful innovation development activities. Adoption of innovation is restricted to the use of existing knowledge and the continuation and imitation of market trends. In the preceding sections, the difference among innovation creation and innovation adoption was addressed and described using four criteria. According to the feature of the construction business, this should be incorporated and studied.

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Digital Innovation’s Barriers There are 447 articles indexed in SCOPUS, 141 articles indexed in WoS, and 1380 results indexed in Google Scholar. The topic of digital innovation obstacles is receiving more and more traction. As stated by Cambridge (2008), “barrier” is defined as anything that averts people for understanding each other or from being together, where in innovation this is mostly characterized into exterior and interior barriers (Huang & Chi, 2013; Abdullah et al., 2016; Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009). Technological and financial hurdles are the most common (Abdullah et al., 2016; Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009; Huang & Chi, 2013). The social and cultural obstacles (Montalvo, 2008) are the least examined and investigated, with various barriers falling under each category or even both. Obstacles to innovation are comparable to the eight kinds of process barriers defined by Walcoff et al. (1983): technological, managerial, financial, process, governmental, psychological, cultural, and environmental barriers (Abdullah et al., 2016; Bagherzadeh et al., 2012; Bogacheva, 2011; de la Fe et al., 2012; Cordeiro & Vieira, 2012; Long et al., 2016; Triguero et al., 2015; Ramilo, 2014; MadridGuijarro et al., 2009; Sandberg & Aarikka-Stenroos, 2014). The foundation for this study is built by classifying these issues as “Barriers” to the innovation process. Despite the many classifications of obstacles, impediments, and difficulties from various practices or industries, numerous research into innovation from multiple related disciplines has discovered similar barriers (Ramilo, 2014). These innovation roadblocks are parallel to the process obstacles recognized by Walcoff et al. (1983) that may be classified into at least six categories: technology, organizational, psychological, financial, and governmental barriers, as well as process hurdles, all exist. The cultural barrier, which can be both external and internal at the same time, was added by Ramilo (2014) (Huang & Chi, 2013; Sandberg & Aarikka-Stenroos, 2014; Wolfe et al., 2006). On top of environmental and governmental barriers, this might be categorized as an external barrier (Abdullah et al., 2016; Huang & Chi, 2013; Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009; Sandberg & Aarikka-Stenroos, 2014). By identifying these issues as “Barriers” to the innovation process, the hypothetical framework for this research will be created. Table 29.1 shows the major digital innovation hurdles (DIB), as well as references and definitions.

Technological Barriers The technology barrier is one of the most frequent hurdles that businesses face. When a company’s incapability to acquire or operate technical equipment turns into a barrier to adopt a new invention, this occurs. It is related by several academics to manage digital innovation as a whole (Johnson & Laepple, 2003; Whyte, 2011; Pellegrino, 2018; Yoo et al., 2010), while (Cory & Bozell, 2001; Intrachooto, 2002; Shabanesfahani & Tabrizi, 2012; Jones & Saad, 2003). This barrier is unavoidable in the construction industry, especially in fields like civil engineering and architecture.

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Table 29.1 Definitions and sources for the most common digital innovation hurdles (DIB) DI barrier Technological

Financial

Management

Process

Psychological

Cultural

Environmental

Governmental

Definition The inability to purchase and operate technical equipment, due to a lack of, absence of, or difficulty in doing so, would constitute an impediment to the company embracing the new invention The company would be unable to embrace the idea due to a lack of liquidity and excessive costs The adoption of new innovations would be hampered by a lack of adequate leadership styles, management systems, and management approaches The nature of the procedure would make it difficult to embrace fresh ideas The psychological concerns as a key obstacle to innovation in the construction sector as a whole, particularly for personnel who will be responsible to implement the innovation In any culture, a norm or expectation that inhibits or hinders someone from accepting an innovation One of the most important impediments to innovation is a restricted macro environment Governmental restrictions and laws are a key impediment to construction sector innovation as a whole

References Whyte (2011), Yoo et al. (2010), Johnson and Laepple (2003), Pellegrino (2018)

Ramilo (2014), Sandberg and Aarikka-Stenroos (2014), Rose et al. (2019), Huang and Chi (2013) Abdullah et al. (2016), MadridGuijarro et al. (2009), Huang and Chi (2013), Sandberg and AarikkaStenroos (2014), Long et al. (2016) Rose et al. (2019), Jones and Saad (2003) Bogacheva (2011), Johnson and Laepple (2003), Cory and Bozell (2001), Pellegrino (2018)

Sandberg and Aarikka-Stenroos (2014), Huang and Chi (2013), Wolfe et al. (2006) Sandberg and Aarikka-Stenroos (2014), Pellegrino (2018), Huang and Chi (2013) Jones and Saad (2003), Yoo et al. (2010), Whyte (2011).

Source: the writers’ creation, 2020

Financial Barriers Several important indications that suggest a financial barrier in a construction business were found by the researchers. Inadequate design fees for digital innovation help, as well as a lack of digital innovation funding, are examples of these issues. Digital tools’ high cost and the effort of setting up their equipment, as well as management’s reluctance to invest additional money on digital tools, and a high compensation for employees who are knowledgeable about new creative tools are all examples (Cory & Bozell, 2001; Johnson & Laepple, 2003; Huang & Chi, 2013; Jones & Saad, 2003; Ramilo, 2014; Shabanesfahani & Tabrizi, 2012; Sandberg & Aarikka-Stenroos, 2014; Yoo et al., 2010; Whyte, 2011). Furthermore, several research characterized these obstacles as being either internal or external

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(Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009; Abdullah et al., 2016; Huang & Chi, 2013; Sandberg & Aarikka-Stenroos, 2014).

Management Barriers Several significant variables that suggest managerial obstacles in construction businesses were found by the researchers. Ineffective leadership toward digital innovation, employee empowerment, and support for digital innovation are lacking; unproductive organizational management methods, ineffective technological knowledge management, a lack of financial resources, and a scarcity of managers and staff capable of overseeing and implementing innovation are just a few examples (Johnson & Laepple, 2003; Abdullah et al., 2016; Huang & Chi, 2013; Bernstein & Pittman, 2004; MadridGuijarro et al., 2009; Jones & Saad, 2003; O’Sullivan, 2002; Sandberg & AarikkaStenroos, 2014; Ramilo, 2014; Whyte, 2011; Walcoff et al., 1983).

Process Barriers Several important indications that specify the presence of a process barrier in a construction business were found by the researchers. These comprise poor digital tool or software performance; slow computer performance and speed, particularly in drawing and processing extraction; limited software mobility; multiple computing sources’ fragmentation of 3D models; trouble in handling complex geometry; and preserving a record of sorting these barriers as an internal barrier (Abdullah et al., 2016; Ramilo, 2014; Jones & Saad, 2003; Walcoff et al., 1983; Rose et al., 2019).

Psychological Barriers Limited studies have looked into the role of psychological concerns – notably among those responsible for putting the idea into action – as a key barrier to innovation in the construction industry (Cory & Bozell, 2001; Bogacheva, 2011; Pellegrino, 2018; Johnson & Laepple, 2003). The researchers discovered a number of significant markers of psychological obstacles in the construction business. Fear of changing work processes, fear of altering scope and product qualification, fear of failure, fear of growing obstacles and labor costs, fear of new market developments, and a lack of psychological faith in technology are just a few of them (Bogacheva, 2011; Johnson & Laepple, 2003; Cory & Bozell, 2001; Ramilo, 2014).

Cultural Barriers The researchers presented the key cultural obstacles that may be utilized to measure them. Local consumer and competitive cultures developed the barrier as an external

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barrier throughout these times, when the barrier was shaped as an internal barrier by the cultures of management, employees, and shareholders; when there are unfavorable attitudes toward innovation in the workplace, the internal barrier was molded by a lack of empowerment and support for innovation, as well as antagonistic interactions among staff (Huang & Chi, 2013; Sandberg & Aarikka-Stenroos, 2014; Riffai et al., 2012; Wolfe et al., 2006).

Environmental Barriers One of the primary impediments to innovation should be the constrained macroeconomic environment (Huang & Chi, 2013; Sandberg & Aarikka-Stenroos, 2014; Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009). Several significant factors for detecting environmental obstacles in the building sector were discovered by the researchers. Underdeveloped infrastructure; networks, eco-systems, and technical instability; a lack of consumer demand; a lack of economic gain from innovation; market entrance obstacles, constraints, and limitations; and a deficiency of business incubators for start-ups are some of these issues (Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009; Abdullah et al., 2016; Huang & Chi, 2013; Sandberg & Aarikka-Stenroos, 2014; Pellegrino, 2018).

Governmental Barriers Governmental regulation and limitations, which operate as a major hindrance to innovation in the construction business on the whole, are one of the most significant external hurdles (Bernstein & Pittman, 2004; Yoo et al., 2010; Whyte, 2011; Jones & Saad, 2003). The major indications of governmental obstacles in the building sector were discovered by the researchers. Lack of support, severe limitations and requirements, and strict building standards are among them. Drawings that still need to be presented in hard copy and do not integrate digital innovation/software, as well as a high level of digital modelling and method set by the government for drawing submissions, are among these (Abdullah et al., 2016; Huang & Chi, 2013; Jones & Saad, 2003; Ramilo, 2014; Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009; Sandberg & AarikkaStenroos, 2014; Bernstein & Pittman, 2004; Yoo et al., 2010; Whyte, 2011).

Firm Size as Moderator Several latest studies on innovation have found that the size of a firm has a significant and more precisely moderating influence on different aspects of innovation and related subjects (Hong et al., 2016; Lee & Kim, 2016; Jeng & Pak, 2016; Teruel & Segarra-Blasco, 2017; Pellegrino, 2018; Yu & Lee, 2017). According to the majority of respondents, “large” firms have more opportunities to adopt innovative activities and aspects than small and medium-sized “SMEs.” The majority of them credit their success to financial resources that allow them to invest more in R&D and

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a better willingness for taking risks than SMEs (Dooley et al., 2016; Babutsidze, 2016; Beyene et al., 2016; Pellegrino, 2018; Jeng & Pak, 2016; Yu & Lee, 2017). It is worth noting that the bulk of these studies were conducted in developed countries, as contrast to Syria’s scenario. The total number of working workers in the company will define its size. Small firms with fewer than 20 employees, large enterprises with more than 50 employees, and medium businesses with 20–50 employees are all investigated in this research (Iranmanesh & Kamal, 2015; Seng, 2015; Pellegrino, 2018).

Models of Research That Are Most Similar Two key concerns are addressed in this portion of the research. First is the research on the link between digital innovation obstacles and innovation orientation that explains why these two characteristics are related. Second is the literature on numerous innovation-related frameworks/ models that aided in the creation of the research’s optimum framework.

The Primary Relationship’s Theoretical Rationale Starting with acceptance of the concept of innovation and its two implementation orientations, invention and adoption, there are a slew of key factors that impact a company’s decision to pursue one of the aforementioned options. One of the first social science theories was Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) Theory, which he proposed in 1962. It was made for the purpose of communication for showing how a product or idea acquires traction and expands over time (or propagating). People accept a novel concept, behavior, or product as a social system’s component as a result of this process. Adoption denotes that a person does something dissimilar from what they did previously (i.e., acquire or use a new item, develop new conduct, etc.). The individual must perceive the concept, behavior, or product as unique or creative before it can be implemented. Innovation’s consumers are divided into innovators (creators) and four types of adapters (adopters): early adaptors, early majority, late majority, and laggards, according to this theory. The famous image (Fig. 29.2), which illustrated the many types of innovators, demonstrated these divisions. This explanation explains why this categorization occurs, as well as why some people delay embracing the new innovation rather than rejecting it outright. Individual, organizational, and environmental variables were categorized by Kimberly and Evanisko (1981), and their influence on technical and administrative innovation implementation orientation in hospitals was investigated. Fennell (1984) talked on the need of synergy and teamwork in terms of innovation implementation. According to the literature study described above, there may be a relationship between the obstacles to digital innovation and the barriers to digital innovation; impediments to innovation, as defined by this study, include technological, management, financial, process, environmental, psychological, cultural, and governmental

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Fig. 29.2 Innovation adopters of. (Source: Rogers, 1962)

barriers, as well as the businesses’ innovation orientation, whether creation or adoption. Thus, the main objective of this study is to instill trust in a company’s innovation orientation, whether it be invention or adoption.

Proposed Framework and Hypotheses The previous sections covered the key roadblocks to digital innovation, as well as the many classification methods used to categorize them. There is also discussion of the key moderators that impact the link between these obstacles and other innovation ideas (Abdullah et al., 2016; Huang & Chi, 2013; Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009; Ramilo, 2014). Based on the findings of the literature study, Fig. 29.3 depicts the relationship among digital innovation barriers, innovation orientation, and firm size. The following key points will be used to provide justifications for the assumptions and conceptual framework of this study: (1) The significance of defining, evaluating, and analyzing the relative digital innovation obstacles in the background of Syrian construction businesses, based on prior substantial literature that categorized such barriers into two main groups (Abdullah et al., 2016). (2) Earlier study has found a link between digital innovation roadblocks and innovation mind-set. (Long et al., 2016; Abdullah et al., 2016; Huang & Chi, 2013; Ramilo, 2014; MadridGuijarro et al., 2009). (3) Internal and external impediments to digital innovation may be divided into two categories (Huang & Chi, 2013; Abdullah et al., 2016; Bagherzadeh et al., 2012; Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009). (4) In the above-mentioned connection, firm size is considered a moderating variable (Huang & Chi, 2013; Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009; Kong-Seng & Yusof, 2011; Ramilo, 2014). Figure 29.4 shows a conceptual framework for examining the causal relationship among digital innovation barriers and innovation orientations while accounting for the moderating effect of firm size. Because of its potential to influence both digital innovation obstacles and direction, firm size is considered a control variable. This study presents two primary hypotheses, each with many sub-hypotheses, based on the above arguments. The first model predicts a causal link among digital

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Fig. 29.3 Barriers, orientation, and company size all have a relationship. (Source: The writers’ creation, 2020)

Fig. 29.4 Conceptual framework. (Source: The writers’ creation, 2020)

innovation obstacles and innovation orientations, whereas the second model predicts the moderating impact of “Firm Size” on this relationship. • (Ha) The impact of digital innovation obstacles on the creation innovation mind-set (H1) The impact of technological barriers on the invention and adoption of new ideas (H2) The impact of financial barriers on the invention and adoption of new ideas (H3) The impact of management barriers on the production and acceptance of new ideas (H4) The impact of psychological barriers on the production and adoption of new ideas (H5) The impact of process barriers on the production and acceptance of new ideas (H6) The impact of cultural barriers on the production and adoption • (Hb) The connection between digital innovation obstacles and innovation orientation is moderated by firm size. (H9) The link between technological barriers and innovation creation/adoption is moderated by firm size. (H10) The link between financial barriers and innovation creation/adoption is moderated by firm size.

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(H11) The connection between managerial barriers and innovation creation/ adoption is moderated by firm size. (H12) The connection between psychological barriers and innovation creation/ adoption is moderated by firm size. (H13) The connection between process barrier and innovation creation/adoption is moderated by firm size. (H14) The link between cultural barriers and innovation creation/adoption is moderated by firm size. (H15) The connection between environmental barriers and innovation creation/ adoption is moderated by firm size. (H16) The link between governmental barriers and innovation creation/adoption is moderated by firm size.

Summary and Conclusion Through the perspective of Syrian construction businesses and their link to the tourist industry, this study exemplifies the arguments and concepts surrounding barriers to digital innovation and innovation orientation. Thus, the majority of linked research defined innovation generation and adoption as interchangeable and semiequal by exhibiting diverse disciplines, types, and aspects of innovation. Several studies, on the other hand, have found that this proclivity for innovation differs significantly among firms. Following that, via a review of the literature and synthesis, this study looked at the differences between these two ideas. As previously described and noted, the major distinctions may be categorized into four categories: by definition, by function, by activities, and by nature. This chapter analyzed the present direction of construction businesses, as well as the major drivers that determine their features, aims, and goals, after providing an overview of the contemporary Syrian construction sector. This researches, in particular, the governmental orientation and directives that directly or indirectly impact their conduct. Furthermore, research into digital innovation and design in construction firms, as well as their effect and how they may be impacted by firm size, found that firm size may have a moderating effect on both digital innovation obstacles and innovation orientation. The major studies and researchers addressed this body of knowledge after outlining the hurdles to digital innovation, categorizing such barriers into eight basic categories: (1) technical obstacles, (2) financial obstacles, (3) management obstacles, (4) process obstacles, (5) psychological obstacles, (6) cultural obstacles, (7) environmental obstacles, and (8) government obstacles. For determining the predicted and predictor factors, this study presents a conceptual model and 32 hypotheses. The assumptions and conceptual framework are based on the notion that digital innovation obstacles are connected to innovation orientation. Furthermore, these digital innovation obstacles are thought to predict innovation output and/or adoption, with firm size acting as a mediating factor in the relationship among digital innovation barriers and innovation orientation.

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A Pilot Study on the Indirect Effect of Syrian Construction Firms’ Innovation Orientation on the Tourism Industry

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Alaa J. Kadi, Ernawati Mustafa Kamal, Nor’Aini Yusof, and Razan AlSakka

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Syrian Arab Republic’s Construction Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Syrian Arab Republic’s Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Innovation Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovation Orientation “Creation vs Adoption” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design of Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Study Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Survey’s Distribution Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Survey’s Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measuring General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Innovation Barrier Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovation Orientation Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

This article aims to investigate the effect of influencing variables on Syrian construction firm’s performance throughout the conflict years and to propose a conceptual framework to interpret the probable correlations. The impact of eight primary barriers was measured in the study: technical, financial, process, psychological, management, cultural, environmental, and governmental barriers. The Cronbach’s alpha test is applied to determine the questionnaire’s reliability during the pilot test. Furthermore, the findings can assist local businesses and government agencies in comprehending the structure of the barriers, as a result guiding A. J. Kadi (*) Olya Research & Training Center, Penang, Malaysia E. M. Kamal · N. Yusof · R. AlSakka School of Housing, Building, and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_30

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them toward future improvements and developments that are variously required for the country’s post-war reconstruction, particularly in the tourism sector. Keywords

Innovation orientation (creation/adoption) · Innovation barriers · Cronbach’s alpha test · Pilot study

Introduction This chapter’s primary goal is to present the research technique. This chapter is divided into sections beginning with the introduction. This followed a diagram of the instrument of survey and how questions like this are answered. This research methodology is designed in which the holistic plan for answering research questions and for attaining the research objectives is described. The research technique design describes the overall strategy to answer the research questions and attain the study goals. The study then goes through the survey respondents, demonstrating the sample size and demographic profile of those that took part in the survey. The study exhibits the steps followed to refine and validate the questionnaire during the pilot test. The processes for data gathering are then organized and discussed. Finally, a diagram of the data analysis process is presented.

Syrian Arab Republic’s Construction Industry Because of Syria’s socialist rule, the government regulates all state sectors through its ministries and directorates, and one of the most significant areas that the government controls directly or indirectly is construction. The Ministry of Public Works and Housing was recently established under the legislative decree number / 17 / Dated 31/07/2016 (Ministry of Public Works and Housing, 2017). This ministry took over the tasks were earlier controlled by the former ministry. This was identified as the Ministry of Public Works and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development. This ministry was given the obligations and rights connected with its new responsibilities as a consequence of previously performing these responsibilities under the laws and regulations in effect. Individual architects or civil engineers, on the other hand, make up private construction businesses. They have their own offices and are constructing small, large workshops to handle modest, restricted housing projects or interior finishing. They also conduct construction studies for a variety of clients and serve as a subcontractor for the government’s major initiatives. Because there are few bigger businesses that are directly or indirectly tied to government institutions and directorates, it is necessary to examine the status of associated ministries and government organizations in order to research and comprehend the present state of the construction sector.

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The goal of the Ministry of Public Works and Housing is to design and implement policies, programs, plans, objectives, and strategies in public works and housing sectors (cooperative and general), as well as urban development and planning and investment in real estate. Contractors and engineers have a formal order that controls the relationship among them and other two unions that are monitored by the ministry. In the area of building and public works, the ministry follows the duties allocated by the “Council of Ministers.” The “General Federation of Trade Unions” partners with this ministry for arranging the construction workers’ profession into specialized professional groupings. They also make contracts between public and private building businesses based on production unit. Consequently, government and semigovernment institutions clearly dominate the construction business (Ministry of Public Works and Housing, 2017).

Syrian Arab Republic’s Tourism Industry Syria has some old Western Asian towns as Aleppo (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) and Damascus. Still, tourism in Syria is harshly effected by the civil war. As a result, a refugee crisis has developed. Shelling has wreaked havoc on a number of formerly popular tourist destinations. Flights have been cancelled by all major airlines, and several large hotels have closed their doors. Significant investment is likely to be required for reviving the country’s tourist sector (The Telegraph, 2014). Developing infrastructure is intimately attached to the expansion of the tourism industry. Overall, tourists choose numerous modes of traffic of tourism for varied building demands depending on local circumstances, such as road, rail, water, aircraft, and so on (Yu, 2016).

Digital Innovation Barriers Scholars and academics are increasingly interested in the topic of digital innovation barriers. There are research papers indexed in WoS and SCOPUS articles and more results indexed in Google Scholar. As stated by Cambridge (2020), a “barrier” is “anything that prevents people from being together or understanding each other,” whereas in innovating, a “barrier” is “anything that prevents people from being together or understanding each other” (Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009; Abdullah et al., 2016; Huang & Chi, 2013), where diverse barriers can fit within any of these categories, or perhaps both. Financial and technological barriers are the most prevalent (Abdullah et al., 2016; Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009; Huang & Chi, 2013), while social and cultural barriers are the least investigated and examined (Montalvo, 2008). This is especially true when it comes to evaluating digital innovation obstacles in various businesses. It is exceedingly uncommon in stories about the construction industry’s digital innovation obstacles. Only three papers are indexed in Web of Science, but Google Scholar has about 25 articles. This implies a knowledge gap and

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the demand for more study. To fully comprehend the impact of digital innovation hurdles on the construction industry, a literature research in comparable organized and related disciplines is required to fully comprehend the construction companies’ barriers to innovation (Ramilo, 2014). Barriers to innovation are similar to the process barriers identified by Walcoff et al. (1983), which may be divided into eight categories: technological, process, financial, psychological, management, environmental, governmental, and cultural barriers (Abdullah et al., 2016; Bogacheva, 2011; Bobera & Lekovic, 2013; de la Fe et al., 2012; Cordeiro & Vieira, 2012; Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009; Long et al., 2016; Ramilo, 2014; Triguero et al., 2015; Sandberg & Aarikka-Stenroos, 2014). The framework for this study was established by describing these problems as “Barriers” to the innovation process. Ramilo (2014) stated that he had difficulties comprehending the use of digital innovation in architecture. As a result, real-life construction businesses faced hurdles to some of their processes and procedures as a result of implementing digital innovation. The continual introduction of new digital technology, the huge growth in global competitiveness, the clients’ rising demand, restricted finances, and inadequate knowledge and abilities in the new software utilized are some of the features that might generate these difficulties and barriers. Despite the varied classifications of barriers, hurdles, and problems from diverse practices or sectors, similar barriers may be found from many investigations on innovation from several related disciplines (Ramilo, 2014). Such barriers to innovation are similar to the process barriers identified by Walcoff et al. (1983), which can be divided into at least six categories: financial barriers, technological barriers, organizational barriers, psychological barriers, governmental barriers, and process barriers (Ramilo, 2014), with the cultural barrier being an additional factor to consider (Sandberg & Aarikka-Stenroos, 2014; Wolfe et al., 2006; Huang & Chi, 2013). This can be classified as an external barrier in addition to environmental and governmental barriers (Huang & Chi, 2013; Abdullah et al., 2016; Sandberg & Aarikka-Stenroos, 2014; Madrid-Guijarro et al., 2009). The theoretical foundation of this study was established by defining these problems as “Barriers” to the innovation process. The primary digital innovation barriers (DIB) are depicted in Table 30.1 with references and definitions.

Innovation Orientation “Creation vs Adoption” To show the distinction between innovation production and innovation adoption, this part explores the innovation orientation from these essential points: (1) justification for new ideas, (2) function of innovation, (3) involved activities, and (4) nature of innovation. Despite the fact that innovation creation differs significantly from innovation adoption, Still both orientations share the source meaning of innovation (Yusof et al., 2014; Damanpour & Wischnevsky, 2006; Czarnitzki & Thorwarth, 2012; PérezLuño et al., 2011). The goal of the argument is to distinguish between two types of

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Table 30.1 Deductive and inductive systems are compared Deductive Scientific concepts are used Makes the transition from theory to data Cause-and-effect correlations between variables are explained Quantitative data collection Controls are used to guarantee the accuracy of the data obtained Concept operationalization to ensure definition clarity Approach with a lot of structure The researcher is unconcerned with what is being investigated In order to generalize conclusions, it is necessary to choose samples of appropriate size

Inductive Learns about the significance that people place on events A thorough grasp of the research setting is required Qualitative data collection More adaptable framework to allow for shifts in research concentration A researcher is a someone who participates in the research process There is less of a need to generalize conclusion

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

innovation orientations in terms of “newness,” with the researchers separated into two key groups. The first group contended that the rationalization of “newness” can direct innovation creation that requires the firm for beating other competitors for developing and introducing new services or products, and in the second group, the validation of “newness” can show innovation creation. As a result, the innovation development process resulted in significant modifications with a high degree of originality, which should be regarded a violation of industry norms and principles. Thompson (1965), who affirmed the significance of developing and implementing innovative ideas, was one of the most influential viewpoints that agreed with the preceding statement and backed it with research. According to Kimberly and Evanisko (1981), the term innovation denotes the first business to adopt a fresh idea and offers it to the industry ahead of its competitors. Although a recent study found that standing out from the competition is the most important aspect of creativity, Sandberg (2007) emphasised the use of the adjective “new” in radical innovation not only different. The second set of academics claimed that the rationale of “newness” may refer to innovation adoption rather than innovation production. In this case, being new to the market does not necessarily imply that the company must produce and offer new output to the market ahead of its competitors. As a result, the innovation creation process resulted in significant changes that demonstrated a high degree of novelty, which should be viewed as a side effect of the industry’s shared standards and conceptions. Damanpour (1991), Nohria and Gulati (1996), Damanpour and Evan (1984), and Zaltman et al. (1973) are among the researchers in this group. Finally, according to Shankar et al. (1999) and Schnaars (1994), the difference among innovation creation and innovation adoption is that innovation adoption

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focuses primarily to assign merely a new idea to the firm, while the product itself may by this time be conversant and have proven its market success. As a result, innovation adoption should be seen of as a process to create adoption/ imitation that enhances new price to previously existing items.

Design of Research Methodology The research design describes how the research decides to achieve the research aims and objectives, as well as what is the best way to respond to the research questions (Saunders et al., 2009). Presenting research design as the primary strategy for answering research questions, which includes research strategy (field study, survey, and experiment), data collection methods, and data analysis procedures (Saunders et al., 2009). The research design should be developed from the start of the research process and should depict all stages of the investigation (Babbie, 2010). For research to give precise guidance for data collecting and analysis methods, a defined plan of inquiry is required. Epistemology is defined as the knowledge science and comprehending the nature and extent of knowing. Also, it is the technique for knowing, “the science of discovering” (Babbie, 2010). As demonstrated by Babbie (2010), Beveridge (1957), Saunders et al. (2009), there are two primary systems of logic utilized in social sciences. This approach is known as “Inductive Reasoning” because it begins with (1) observation and proceeds to identify a pattern before arriving at a preliminary conclusion. Inductive reasoning begins with specific examples and progresses to broader concepts, (2) beginning with a hypothesis or theory, proceeding with observation, and concluding with theory-based data analysis. This technique is known as “Deductive Reasoning,” and it works from the general to the specific. Table 30.1 depicts the key distinctions among the two systems of separate inductive and deductive research techniques. “Deductive Reasoning” is a scientific technique that uses existing ideas to fulfil and response research objectives and problems (Yin, 2003). The deductive method, on the other hand, derives components, variables, and cause-and-effect connections among variables from relevant prior studies and current ideas (Saunders et al., 2009). Because the deductive method generalizes some phenomena, this system requires a large sample size to be gathered and evaluated in order to produce accurate and trustworthy results that can be generalized (Babbie, 2010). So, based on the earlier comparison, this research uses a deductive reasoning technique, beginning with the theory and hypothesis and progressing through collection of data and observation, concluding with analysis and analyzing of data, and the correlations based on the theory and hypothesis. According to the literature, research may be divided into three categories based on its unique goals, which are as follows: explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive research. Also, a researcher may utilize one or more of these objectives and use them as needed (Babbie, 2010). To distinguish among these goals, exploratory research is used to investigate an emerging field where little knowledge is accessible or to check a subject where little or no

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knowledge is obtained. In contrast to the previous objective, explanatory research seeks to describe and explain how and why there is a relationship or dependency between two or more occurrences and conditions. So, the descriptive purpose, on the other hand, seeks to comprehend and characterize an event, circumstance, or phenomena (Kumar, 2018). The major goal of this research is to create a model that defines the link among digital innovation obstacles and construction businesses’ innovation orientation in Syria, in order to identify which of these barriers has the strongest impact on the construction firms’ innovation inclination. In spite of the lack of digital innovation obstacles’ studies in the construction sector, enough research has been done on comparable project-oriented industries such as IT and manufacturing to examine the link among such barriers and the innovation orientation of Syrian construction businesses. Both the explanatory and descriptive aims would be used in this case study.

Study Population This study’s respondents are mostly from the two main construction specialties: civil and architect engineers, with minor additional associated specializations such as electrical, quantity surveying, and so on. Because of their close ties to the digital construction advancements that this study focuses on, particularly the project planning phase. According to the President of the Engineers Union (alsouria.net, 2015), there were 135,000 registered construction-related architects and engineers in 2015, with around 20,000 departing Syria as a result of the current conflict. After accounting for the entire number of engineers who chose to seek compensation as a result of the recent conflict, this left about 115,000 engineers. According to alsouria.net (2015), 15,000 engineers are advised to retire, leaving just 100,000 engineers enrolled. If one-third of these engineers live or work in Damascus, a total of roughly 30,000 engineers have worked in Damascus in the previous 6 years, which may be regarded the study’s prospective community population. The survey population consists of Syrian construction businesses that were engaged in the “practicing construction career” throughout the war years, from 2011 to 2017, and those who are qualified to fill out the questionnaire fall into one of two categories: architects or civil engineers. Because of the crucial role they play, particularly during the design process (planning). Whether individuals worked in their own little offices, large corporations, or as government workers, all options would be tolerable. A demographic survey was performed among such respondents, as the total number of civil engineers and architects registered in Damascus city and its surrounding countryside areas is approximately 20k, with roughly 2000 private offices and the remainder working for governmental or semi-public institutions. The fact that Damascus was picked as the respondents’ primary location might be attributed to two key factors; first, the city of Damascus is one of the least impacted by the conflict, while suffering as much as the rest of Syria’s cities from the country’s state

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of war. Still, the situation there is far better than in other towns where the infrastructure has been completely destroyed, with 60–80 percent of the city’s infrastructure destroyed. Secondly, Damascus welcomed hundreds of displaced Syrians from other impacted cities, particularly those with a certain level of income, such as traders, physicians, and engineers; thus more engineers came to Damascus. That was one of the major reasons for picking Damascus as the study’s target city. To evaluate the obtained data and assess the hypothetical framework, this study used the statistical analysis approach of partial least square – structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) using Warp PLS 6.0 software.

Sample Size There are other techniques for determining the proper sample size; however, this study relied on the Warp PLS 6.0 as a statistical analysis tool (Kock & Hadaya, 2018). The research was made use of the Warp tool. PLS investigates the statistical power and minimum sample size requirements, recommending three values: First, the values of the model’s minimum absolute significant path coefficient (range: 0.01–0.99) where the program picked “0.197” as the default value based on the model variables. Second, the value utilized is “0.05” and the significance level is “0.001 to 0.5.” Finally, the needed amount of power ranges from 0.5 to 0.99. In this situation, the needed power level was set to “0.95,” which is too near to the maximum value of “0.99,” and the program computed the minimum and maximum sample sizes that must be gathered to obtain valid findings. The inverse square root technique and the gamma-exponential method would be introduced as two alternative mathematical methodologies. Table 30.2 shows how Warp PLS calculates the minimal sample size using two alternative mathematical techniques. The entire amount of data gathered is sufficient for conducting the partial lease square-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis technique in this study. Many prior research recommended a threshold limit of 100 samples for PLS-SEM analysis with a total of 306 questionnaires collected (Akter et al., 2011; Reinartz et al., 2009). Furthermore, even using the inverse square root technique, this investigation obtained the maximum quantity necessary.

Survey’s Distribution Media These architects and engineers would be spread among the public and commercial sectors, with some teaching at universities and colleges and the remainder working Table 30.2 Sample size as per Warp PLS

Calculation method Inverse square root Gamma exponential

Min 278 260

Source: The authors’ development, 2020

Max 279 261

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in design, supervision, or construction businesses. So the key requirement for respondents to be qualified to complete the questionnaire is that they have worked for or in a construction business that has been actively operating in Damascus in the last 6 years (the war years). Because of the terrible circumstances in Syria, reaching out to the responders with the questionnaire’s printed hardcopy and waiting for him to fill it out and return it would be extremely difficult. In its place, the study applied Google online forms for creating an online questionnaire that is easy for accessing and answering effectively. Mentioned the value of these forms by making all questions essential to respond in order to avoid missing data later. This quality was applied to every question in every part of the survey. This informed the respondent that they needed to answer all of the questions in the part before submitting and moving on to the next or final section. Through several popular communication methods such as WhatsApp, Facebook, and Viber, the authors carefully delivered the online questionnaire to certain architects and civil engineers that they had as connections. The authors also checked that the obtained data was authentic and reliable and that all of the respondents met the required standards for working in the construction industry in Syria throughout the conflict years.

Survey’s Instrument Dillman (2011) distinguished three different sorts of questions or variables: (1) opinion questions, which indicate respondents’ feelings about certain items, circumstances, or concerns; (2) behavior variables, which link respondents’ behavioral patterns to their timeline; and (3) attribute variables, which are used to uncover unfamiliar information about the respondents’ qualities (i.e., age, education, gender, and so on). All measuring questions of the proposed questionnaire to assess constructs, as said by Dillman (2011), should be considered opinion variables. In this research, the developed questionnaire is self-administered that comprised of ten (10) constructs (latent variables). Among them, eight (8) are the digital innovation barriers namely technological, management, psychological, process, environmental, cultural, financial, and governmental. While the innovation orientation and adoption and creation are the final two (2) factors. Some measuring items are used to assess each of them. Each of the construction obstacles has a direct link with the innovation orientation’s two variables, yielding 16 distinct interactions. The constructions in this study consist of 50 items that were created based on major scholarly publications and other materials. The Likert style rating scale is the most often used rating scale for opinion variables (Saunders et al., 2009). The 7-point Likert scale was identified by Weijters et al. (2010) as one of the finest rating scales for scale creation and SEM analysis. As a result, this study used a 7-point Likert scale to question respondents how important they feel one scenario has on their firm’s innovation or how firmly they believe one phrase that characterizes their firm’s status is. The measuring items required respondents to pick a response ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.”

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Numerous items were discovered to measure the constructions of this study, sometimes more than ten per construct; however following closer inspection, they were determined to be ineffective. Some of these things in the building sector were discovered to replace each other, requesting the similar subjects; nonetheless in this case, such indicators were dubbed reflecting indicators (Petter et al., 2007). Further indicators, on the other hand, may indicate categories or qualities of the construct and cannot be interchanged; these indicators are referred to as formative indicators (Petter et al., 2007). Multiple constructs were discovered in this study with mixed indicators, some reflective and some formative, and in order to sort things out, the reflecting indicators were merged to produce a single formative construct, making all of the indicators formative. The reasons for measuring the items based on the literature study are illustrated in the next section.

Measuring General Information The questionnaire’s first section contains common information on two subjects: the respondents’ personal data in general and their businesses’ overall information. This part is divided into two subsections, each containing 11 questions (4/7) each. To guarantee that the part meets the descriptive goals, this section’s questions were adapted and modified from comparable research on the construction sector (Kamaruddeen, 2011; Yusof et al., 2017; Panuwatwanich, 2008). In this part, two sorts of questions were utilized: close-ended questions, which were applied to collect information such as gender, age, firm size, and firm business scope, and multiple choice questions, which included the option of “Other.” Openended questions, on the other hand, were used for collecting information that can have diverse options than what the question is presenting. So, by selecting the option “Other,” the respondent is provided with a writing opportunity to key in what he/she believes is the correct answer to the question (Dillman, 2011). These kind of questions were used to gather information on the respondent’s job title, specialization, academic level, typical project, company structure, and the sort of digital innovation the firm is presently employing. The company size is one of the key factors assessed in this section, and it was examined for the moderating impact it has on the connection among the digital innovation obstacles and the business’s innovation orientation. Also, the number of employees determines the size of a company (large: more than 50 workers, small: fewer than 20 employees, medium: between 20 and 50 workers) (Chennamaneni, 2007; Panuwatwanich, 2008; Kamaruddeen, 2011). As a result, firm size and age were included as control variables for descriptive reasons.

The Innovation Barrier Measurements Moving on to the obstacles to innovation, numerous research have addressed these issues. The most referenced and well structured studies, from which the majority of the indicators were derived, are the following studies (Abdullah et al., 2016; D’Este

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et al., 2014; Bobera & Lekovic, 2013; Huang & Chi, 2013; Ramilo, 2014; Long et al., 2016; Ryszko, 2014). First, when taking a closer look at the study by Abdullah et al. (2016), the authors see that the authors focus on Malaysia’s manufacturing industry. They also looked at the roadblocks to green innovation activities in this business, categorizing them into internal and external. They also looked at their direct impact on green innovation initiatives, such as process, product, and system innovations, with a focus on environmental resources, business practices, attitudes and perceptions, and technological barriers as interior barriers, as well as poor external partnerships, government supports’ lack, insufficient information, customer demands’ lack, and environmental commercial benefits (Abdullah et al., 2016). Second, Bobera and Lekovic (2013) investigated the hurdles to the growth of innovation and inventive culture inside companies in the Republic of Serbia, categorizing them into three categories: organizational, formal, and informal barriers. The study’s main goal is to investigate and delineate the barriers to innovation that Serbian entrepreneurs perceive, with a focus on three types of barriers: formal, informal, and organizational. Such questionnaire applied to collect data on these types of barriers to innovation was designed for capturing information on perceived barriers based on the entrepreneurs’ age and gender. The primary findings established a link between digital innovation hurdles and the three categories of organizational, formal, and informal barriers, as well as the moderation effect of age on organizational barriers and the moderation effect of gender on formal innovation barriers. Third, in their research on the impact of human capital in decreasing innovation barriers, D’Este et al. (2014) differentiated between two types of hurdles at the outset. The first type of Barriers that a company may encounter is one that prevents the company from implementing the innovation in the first place, as well as one that turns it extremely problematic for the company to adapt the innovation into its existing operations, while the problems that the company confronts when adopting the invention are the second sort of barrier. In all situations, D’Este et al. (2014) investigated the impact of trained human resources on three types of barriers to innovation – knowledge, financial, and market – and discovered that human capital considerably reduced the influence of market uncertainty and knowledge obstacles. Fourth, Huang and Chi (2013) investigated the impact of digital innovation obstacles on the performance of Chinese companies. They separated the obstacles into external and internal barriers and looked at the causal link among digital innovation hurdles and company performance, as well as the moderating effects of segregation variables including firm size, innovation stage, and industry type. Fifth, Long et al. (2016) investigated the hurdles to climate-smart agricultural, with the goal of identifying the major socioeconomic barriers, such as poor supply and demand, that prevent the adoption and dissemination of climate-smart agriculture technical advances. As a result, based on a literature assessment of socioeconomic barriers to adoption and dissemination, they presented a theoretical framework. It was based on semi-structured interviews’ data with climate-smart agriculture technology suppliers and agricultural supply chain participants. These were consumer product makers and farmer groups (the technology end-users). In the

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Netherlands, Switzerland, France, and Italy, interviews were conducted on the difficulties they faced. The data was then processed and classified into themes to discover significant barrier features. The findings show that there are hurdles on both sides, whether on the demand (consumer) or supply (supplier) side (provider of technology). Sixth, one of the most important studies on technical innovation obstacles in the construction sector, particularly in the phase of design, Ramilo (2014) investigated digital innovation obstacles and classified them into six categories, as well as the moderating effect company size has on these barriers, while overlooking other critical barriers such as environmental and cultural barriers. The primary goal of this research is to demonstrate experimentally that business size has a moderating influence on these obstacles. Finally, Ryszko (2014) performed an empirical study to determine the hurdles and drivers to eco-innovations in Polish steel and metal companies. The research highlighted the most critical incentives and barriers to introducing and implementing eco-innovations, highlighting the distinctions between product and process drivers. Demand factors have a big role in how much eco-innovation is applied in a product. The adoption level of process eco-innovation, on the other hand, is determined by supply, regulatory, and demand variables. As a result, in this study, the previously mentioned literature as well as others was used to generate and support the research constructs. Initiated by the digital innovation barriers, the technological barrier was the earliest and highest itemed construct among all. For technological barriers, more than 15 things were discovered. However, as shown in Tables 30.2 and 30.3, the majority of them were reflecting items that could be integrated to produce complete formative items to assess this construct. Tables 30.4, 30.5, 30.6, 30.7, 30.8, 30.9, 30.10, and 30.11 show the management barrier, psychological, process, financial, cultural, environmental, and government barriers, respectively.

Innovation Orientation Measurements The de-contextualization method and meta-ethnography/meta-analysis approaches were used to develop the third portion of the questionnaire. The questions were created using the de-contextualization approach’s assumptions and meta-ethnography/meta-analysis methodologies. Such approach believes that conceptual concepts (e.g., innovation generation and adoption) are mostly universal and unaffected by cultural settings. As a result, these things should be linked to different cultural domains and situations. Like the previous techniques, the de-contextualization approach began with an investigation of the wide ideas of innovation and their orientation to production or adoption (Churchill Jr., 1979; MacKenzie et al., 2011; Farh et al., 2006; Slavec & Drnovsek, 2012). Because of the de-contextualization concept’s nature, the survey questions should incorporate the variables’ conceptual definitions rather than departing from the predecessor’s concepts universality (Farh et al., 2006). As a result, the Section C

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Table 30.3 High-level summary of the survey’s design Introduction Section A. Background information

B. Innovation barriers C. Firm characteristics

Description To compile a list of the respondents’ and their companies’ profiles Identifying the obstacles to innovation To determine the different types of innovation orientations

Approach Adaptation, synthesis, and literature

Adaptation, synthesis, and literature Contextualization, synthesis, and literature

Item count 11

Question type Open and closed – ended

Scale used Dichotomous and category

40

Closed ended

7-points Likert scale

10

Closed ended

7-points Likert scale

Source: The authors’ development, 2020 Table 30.4 The technological barrier measuring items Construct Technological barrier

Code Tk-1

Measurement items (1) Equipment, tools, and computers are in short supply

Tk-2

(2) Insufficient team knowledge or abilities in R&D, technology, or its upkeep

Tk-3

(3) Technology training is lacking

Tk-4

(4) There is a lack of enthusiasm in learning about new technology (5) There is a technological demonstrations’ lack or the capacity to transmit technologies

Tk-5

Adopted research Ramilo (2014), Abdullah et al. (2016), Sandberg and AarikkaStenroos (2014) Bobera and Lekovic (2013), Frenkel (2003), D’Este et al. (2014), Ramilo (2014), MadridGuijarro et al. (2009), Huang and Chi (2013) Bobera and Lekovic (2013), Ramilo (2014), Madrid-Guijarro et al. (2009) Ramilo (2014), Abdullah et al. (2016), Frenkel (2003) Frenkel (2003), Huang and Chi (2013), Ramilo (2014)

Source: The authors’ development, 2020

questions were created and generated using factors from prior innovation studies on the invention and acceptance of new ideas (Table 30.12). Several organizational and innovation studies utilized a similar technique (Abdullah et al., 2014; Kong-Seng & Yusof, 2011; Memon et al., 2013; Yusof et al., 2014). From the respondents’ perspective, ten items were chosen and developed to inspect and evaluate the differentiation and variations among innovation creation and

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Table 30.5 The management barrier measurement items Construct Management barrier

Code Mg-1 Mg-2 Mg-3

Mg-4 Mg-5

Measurement items (1) Ineffective innovation leadership (2) Ineffective knowledge management (3) There are not enough managers and employees to oversee and implement innovation (4) Collaboration is lacking (5) Managerial and employee support is lacking

Adopted research Ramilo (2014), Bobera and Lekovic (2013) Huang and Chi (2013), Ramilo (2014) Frenkel (2003), Ramilo (2014), Long et al. (2016) Huang and Chi (2013), Ramilo (2014) Long et al. (2016), Zell (2001), Madrid-Guijarro et al. (2009), Ramilo (2014)

Source: The authors’ development, 2020 Table 30.6 The psychological barrier assessment items Construct Psychological barrier

Code Ps-1

Ps-2

Ps-3 Ps-4 Ps-5

Measurement items (1) Aversion to change in the workplace, in products, and in procedures (2) Apprehension over new marketing developments (3) The fear of failing (4) Financial changes’ fear; higher labor costs, lower profits (5) Psychological insecurity and distrust of digital technologies

Adopted research Long et al. (2016), Ramilo (2014), Madrid-Guijarro et al. (2009) Abdullah et al. (2016), Ramilo (2014), Long et al. (2016), Ryszko (2014) Ramilo (2014), Long et al. (2016) Ramilo (2014), Madrid-Guijarro et al. (2009) Long et al. (2016), Ramilo (2014)

Source: The authors’ development, 2020 Table 30.7 The process barrier measuring items Construct Process barrier

Code Pr-1 Pr-2 Pr-3 Pr-4 Pr-5

Measurement items (1) The computer’s processing speed is slow when it comes to drawing extraction and 3D models (2) Complex software performance or innovation tools (3) Software’s inability for handling complicated geometry (4) Multiple origins of disintegration of 3D models (5) For 3D models, the amount of detail required is insufficient

Adopted research Ramilo (2014), Abdullah et al. (2016)

Source: The authors’ development, 2020

innovation adoption. Despite the fact that such items were generated from and adopted from the literature, researchers adopted comparable things as well (Seng, 2015; Yusof et al., 2014). Researchers examine the state of Malaysian construction

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Table 30.8 Financial barrier measuring items Construct Financial barrier

Code Fn-1

Measurement items (1) Inadequate funding for R&D, training, and practice-based innovation

Fn-2

(2) Firm’s unwillingness to invest a significant amount of money tools of innovation (3) Staff with understanding of new innovative tools might expect a high wage (4) The high expense of innovation tools, their setup, and their upkeep (5) Bank loan limitations and a lack of external partners or funders

Fn-3

Fn-4

Fn-5

Fn-6

(6) Monetary disincentive

Adopted research Bobera and Lekovic (2013), Huang and Chi (2013), D’Este et al. (2014), Madrid-Guijarro et al. (2009), Ramilo (2014) Abdullah et al. (2016), Ramilo (2014)

Ramilo (2014), Long et al. (2016)

Bobera and Lekovic (2013), MadridGuijarro et al. (2009), Long et al. (2016), Ramilo (2014) Abdullah et al. (2016), Long et al. (2016), D’Este et al. (2014), MadridGuijarro et al. (2009), Sandberg and Aarikka-Stenroos (2014), Ramilo (2014) Abdullah et al. (2016), D’Este et al. (2014), Bobera and Lekovic (2013), Ramilo (2014), Long et al. (2016)

Source: The authors’ development, 2020

Table 30.9 The cultural barrier measuring items Construct Cultural barrier

Code Cl-1

Measurement items (1) Lack of innovative support and empowerment

Cl-2

(2) The attitude of the company towards innovation is poor (3) Staff members have an adversarial relationship (4) Competitors who are aggressive

Cl-3 Cl-4

Cl-5

(5) Customers have a conservative culture and are resistant to new ideas, as well as a strong attachment to established techniques and a lack of faith in new developments

Adopted research Abdullah et al. (2016), Sandberg and Aarikka-Stenroos (2014), Long et al. (2016) Struik et al. (2014), MadridGuijarro et al. (2009) Huang and Chi (2013), Long et al. (2016) D’Este et al. (2014), Sandberg and Aarikka-Stenroos (2014), Long et al. (2016) Abdullah et al. (2016), Sandberg and Aarikka-Stenroos (2014), Huang and Chi (2013)

Source: The authors’ development, 2020

businesses’ innovation orientation (i.e., creation and/or adoption). The measuring items, code, and adopted research studies for this study’s dependent variable “Innovation Orientation” (creation/ adoption) are shown in Table 30.11.

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Table 30.10 The environmental barrier measuring items Construct Environmental barrier

Code En-1

Measurement items (1) Customer demand is not there

En-2

(2) Lack of creativity commercial advantage (3) Barriers to entrance into the market, as well as requirements and limitations (4) There are not enough business incubators for startups

En-3

En-4

Adopted research Abdullah et al. (2016), Huang and Chi (2013), Sandberg and Aarikka-Stenroos (2014) Long et al. (2016), Abdullah et al. (2016) Frenkel (2003)

Sandberg and Aarikka-Stenroos (2014), Long et al. (2016)

Source: The authors’ development, 2020 Table 30.11 The governmental barrier measuring items Construct Governmental barrier

Code Gv-1 Gv-2

Gv-3

Gv-4

Measurement items Building codes that are rigid Drawings and results are still submitted in physical form, rather than using digital versions created by technological advancements The government has developed a high standard for digital modeling and a system for drawing submissions Not adhering to the norms and regulations

Adopted research Ramilo (2014) Ramilo (2014)

Ramilo (2014)

Huang and Chi (2013), Ramilo (2014), MadridGuijarro et al. (2009)

Source: The authors’ development, 2020

In a nutshell, the references, methods, techniques, assumptions, and processes that were utilized to formulate the measurements were explained and demonstrated in this part. Using a synthesis and meta-analysis/meta-ethnography techniques and methodologies, present the different approaches that were chosen to be employed in this study. As a result, many methodologies and procedures are regarded to be part of the study process.

Pilot Study Before collecting data from eligible individuals, the questionnaire need to be pilottested for ensuring that participants know and answer questions accurately without confusion or misunderstanding (Saunders et al., 2009; Babbie, 2010). To accomplish so, the questionnaire in this study was refined and adjusted in two phases. To begin, the questionnaire was presented to two architects with extensive experience in Arabic-English translation, as well to their main in architecture. Thus, they provided helpful comments and notes in selecting the appropriate expressions and words, resulting in an accurate Arabic version of the questionnaire.

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Table 30.12 The innovation orientation measuring items Construct Innovation orientation (adoption)

Code Ad-1

Ad-2

Ad-3

Ad-4

Ad-5

Ad-6

Innovation orientation (creation)

Cr-1

Cr-2

Cr-3

Cr-4

Items of measurement Your company creates designs based on anticipated demand and presents a well-known design to the customer To reduce your consumers’ confusion, your company is a creative imitator rather than a design pioneer Your company strives to introduce designs that are recognizable or similar to those of other companies, rather than attempting to be the first to present innovative designs Rather than surprising clients with new bold ideas, we create to delight them Rather than creating fresh, distinctive ideas, your firm’s strategy is to adapt current, successful designs Proposing anything extraordinary/ beyond the client’s expectations is not essential with the proviso that the design/product satisfies the client’s criteria Your firm tries to wow the customer with unique and “dareto-try” ideas at every chance, putting us ahead of rival firms When creating new projects, your firm cannibalizes and discards earlier concepts Your company invests in research and development to develop new products and technologies Your firm does not design to meet the demands of the client. Instead, it offers the customer a different perspective

Adopted studies Czarnitzki and Thorwarth (2012), Seng (2015), Golder and Tellis (1993), Klein and Sorra (1996) Seng (2015), Czarnitzki and Thorwarth (2012), Van de Ven and Angle (1989), Zhou (2006) Seng (2015), Naranjo-Valencia et al. (2011), Damanpour and Wischnevsky (2006)

Seng (2015), Van de Ven and Angle (1989), Arundel et al. (2007) Seng (2015), Kim and Min (2012), Damanpour and Wischnevsky (2006) Kim and Min (2012), Seng (2015), Damanpour and Wischnevsky (2006)

Kerin et al. (1992), Seng (2015), Ravichandran (1999), Schmalensee (1982) Prabhu (2010), Seng (2015)

Arundel et al. (2007), Czarnitzki and Thorwarth (2012), Seng (2015), Wiklund and Shepherd (2003) Zhou (2006), Seng (2015)

The first architect has an IELTS score of 6.5 and is proficient in English, as well as 4 years of experience teaching specialist Arabic language. As a result, her input with the questionnaire’s structure and language was important. Conversely, the second architect had a bachelor’s degree in English-Arabic translation and significant expertise with architectural jargon. As a result, his jargon and content translation

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abilities were impressive, and his contribution to the questionnaire was excellent. The survey was distributed to 33 competent professionals from the study’s community who had worked in the building sector. The questionnaire had extra questions in each section to assess and add any more appropriate questions if needed, and all of the responses were accompanied with a high rating of the present questions. This pilot test was also utilized to check the questions’ dependability and internal consistency. The representativeness and appropriateness of the questionnaire for real data collection methods are supported by these two phases of pilot testing (Saunders et al., 2009). The second stage was to perform a pilot test among 33 professionals in the area who had worked in the building sector in Damascus for the preceding 6 years. The Cronbach’s alpha test is used to determine the questionnaire’s reliability during the pilot test (Johanson & Brooks, 2010). The related Cronbach’s alpha values for the categories “technological, process, psychological, managerial, government obstacles, and innovation adoption” were greater than 0.7 in the pilot research that is acceptable at this point (Nunnally, 1978). The constructs “cultural, environmental obstacles, and innovation creation” were greater than 0.6 and less than 0.7, indicating dubious values in the pilot research stage, while the financial barrier’s value was 0.572 that is between 0.5 and 0.6, indicating a bad value in the pilot study stage (Nunnally, 1978). Despite the low Cronbach’s alpha value, this pilot investigation was hampered by budgetary constraints. Due to bias, the financial barrier was retained in this study. This is a factor that the Syrians in general have. The real reason is that Syria has yet to completely implement the digital copyright accord. Cracked versions of the programs are used by users of technologies, apps, and software. As a result, they undervalue the money aspect in general. The companies are not having trouble training their employees, and pay are not an issue because of the Syrian currency’s depreciation. As a result of all of these factors, this study maintained the financial element because of its critical relevance in the literature review. Table 30.13 lists the Cronbach’s alpha values for all constructions as well as their current state. Based on a pilot research, the results confirm the questionnaire’s internal consistency and reliability. Table 30.13 Cronbach’s alpha construct values and status are calculated

Construct Technological barriers Financial barriers Process barriers Psychological barriers Management barriers Cultural barriers Environmental barriers Governmental barriers Innovation creation Innovation adoption

Cronbach’s alpha 0.746 0.572 0.745 0.843 0.758 0.695 0.687 0.860 0.605 0.731

Source: The authors’ development, 2020

Status Acceptable Poor Acceptable Good Acceptable Questionable Questionable Good Questionable Acceptable

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Following the completion of the pilot study, Google Forms were used to create the final version of the questionnaire, and the link to fill it out was prepared to be distributed by email and other methods to all of the research’s intended respondents.

Summary and Conclusion To achieve the study objectives, this part presented the technique used for answering the research questions and objectives, as seen in Fig. ▶ 3.1. To collect data from architects and civil engineers who worked in building businesses in Damascus, Syria, an online questionnaire survey was created and distributed over social networks (Facebook and WhatsApp). Between 18.09.2017 and 16.10.2017, a total of 306 replies were gathered, although the maximum number of responses required is 279. A pilot test was done before the gathering of real data to ensure the questionnaire’s consistency and appropriateness. The questionnaire was presented to two architects with extensive experience in Arabic–English translation, on top their main in architecture, who provided significant notes and commentaries in selecting the correct expressions and words, assisting in the creation of the questionnaire’s a precise Arabic version. Second, the questionnaire was submitted to 33 qualified experts with extra questions in each section to assess and add any more appropriate questions if any, and all of the responses came with a high appraisal of the present questions. This pilot test was also utilized to check the questions’ dependability and internal consistency. The representativeness and appropriateness of the questionnaire for real data collection methods are supported by these two phases of pilot testing. Due to the high quality of the e-form, there were no missing data, and the data was coded in MS Excel. This study used the PLS-SEM approach using Warp PLS 6.0 to analyze the obtained data and assess the suggested conceptual framework. To evaluate the data, a descriptive analysis was performed first to establish the profile of the respondents and the construct descriptive analysis that contained the item mean values and standard deviation values, as well as the constructions average values. Second, using the SEM-PLS analysis technique, the following values were generated to assess the model’s measurement: construct weights, P value, VIF, and full collinearity, with insignificant items eliminated. In order to evaluate the structural model and hypotheses, these values were calculated: path coefficient and P values. Hypotheses with negligible P values would be supported. To determine the intensity of the connections between the barriers and the orientations, the f2 “effect size” value was calculated. Finally, the good of fit values are shown. As a final point, the firm size moderator impact would be investigated using measurement invariance of composite models and multi-group analysis (MGA), where the state of supporting the moderation hypotheses would be determined by comparing the path coefficient and their P values. The data analysis and conclusions are presented in the next chapter.

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Fatiha Bouziane, Abdelkader Laallam, and Azizul Hassan

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trends of the Global Medical Tourism Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical Tourism in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Applications in Medical Tourism Sector in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Hospital Information System (HIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electronic Medical Record (EMR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Telehealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Over the past decade, medical tourism has been witnessing a robust growth in the global market enabling it to be considered an important economic sector for many countries worldwide. Malaysia is the latest entrant in the list of Asian countries promoting medical tourism and services to foreign patients. Malaysia has the potential of being one of the best medical tourism destinations in the world due to its location, infrastructure, and long-standing history in tourism. In this new era of multimedia and information technology, the advancement and incorporation of technology in the medical sector is becoming imperative and a source of competitive advantage. Thus, this conceptual chapter aims at providing a review about technology application in the medical tourism sector in Malaysia. F. Bouziane (*) University of Khemis-Miliana, Khemis-Miliana, Algeria A. Laallam Karabuk University, Karabuk, Turkey A. Hassan Tourism Consultants Network, The Tourism Society, London, UK © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_31

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Data for this chapter are generated both from online and published resources. Results show that as a medical tourism destination Malaysia has made tremendous development in recent years. The country has considerable number of services and products for medical tourists that induce them to travel to the country. Online-based medical tourism products and services can be classified as “well acceptable” by medical tourists. The existing medical tourism products and services are rapidly turning the country into one of the leading and most competitive in Asia as well as globally. Keywords

Medical tourism · Technology application · Malaysia

Introduction Over the past decade, medical tourism as a global market has been witnessing a robust growth enabling it to be considered an important economic sector for many countries worldwide. As stated in the transparency market research report 2016, the global medical tourism market has achieved a value of 46US$ billion, with an anticipated CAGR of 14.9 percent for the predicted period 2017–2025 (Ebrahim & Ganguli, 2019). Asian countries including Thailand, Singapore, India, and Malaysia are considered as high-growth medical tourism markets in the world with expected revenues of 4.4US$ (Siddiqi et al., 2006). Malaysia is the latest entrant Asian country providing medical services and treatment to foreign patients (Sarkar & Sarkar, 2010). Malaysia is considered as one of the best tourist destinations in the world. According to department of statistics Malaysia, in 2017, Malaysia received a total of 25,948,459 international tourists and recorded a 0.1 percent growth in tourist receipts, thus contributing RM82.2 billion to the country’s revenue. Likewise, the number of foreign travelers to Malaysia seeking medical treatment has doubled from 643,000 in 2011 to reach 1,200,000 in 2018 which enables Malaysia to become one of the best medical tourism destinations in the world (Malaysia Healthcare Travel Council, 2019). The growth of medical tourism sector in Malaysia has been supported by the huge initiatives and support from the Malaysia Healthcare Travel Council (MHTC) represented in the creation of an agency saddled with the responsibility of promoting Malaysia as a medical tourism destination by revamping its international healthcare brand. Regardless of the huge efforts provided by MHTC, studies on the Malaysian healthcare industry stated that this sector suffers from many challenges related to human, technology, and infrastructure such as customer service, manual data capture methods, the implementation of hospital information system (HIS), and so on, which stand in the way of its development and achieving the desired goals (Bakar et al., 2017; Nor et al., 2019; Sarwar, 2013). With the progress of information and communication technology (ICT) and online business or the so-called e-business, many challenges and opportunities for medical tourism sectors have been created

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leaving countries with weak application of technology lagging behind (Law et al., 2014). Therefore, this study aims to address the extent of technology application in medical tourism in Malaysia, which is considered as a competitive advantage and key point of medical tourism development recently.

Trends of the Global Medical Tourism Developments For the sake of establishing an effective medical tourism solution, investment should be made in three broad areas of technology: first, the cloud system which acts as a platform providing electronic medical record (EMR) or electronic health record (HER) for each patient over the world with ease of access. EMR or EHR represent a systematized collection of patient and population electronically stored health information in a digital format, thus allowing all medical tourism providers and doctors to access the same records on the real-time basis. Among the advantages, the EMR is decreasing medication and diagnostic errors, using less paper and generating more profit. On the other hand, the medical tourism sector is increasingly harnessing social networking for the sake of connecting patients, doctors, and consultants from different countries (Agnihotri, 2016). Second is data mining which is important to create a databank of disease diagnostic system through continuous compilation of data from different sources, such as medical journals, live case studies, and so on. In addition, medical records can be stored in smartphones in a safe way, by using an OTP system for security and access. Also, data mining systems can be used to create a global source in medical cloud-based infrastructure. Third is information technology which is also important for stimulating medical tourism. It helps in matching the health patterns of a patient with symptoms to track down and combat major endemics. Furthermore, it enables medical tourism industry in a country to advise patients for optimal treatment anywhere in the world; pharmacies can also join the system for delivering medicines needed to save lives (Agnihotri, 2016). With the increasing pressures and health challenges associated with this new era of multimedia and information technology, efforts have been devoted into maintaining sustainability in the healthcare system through incorporating e-health into the strategies of nations. An example of modern healthcare system would be telemedicine or telehealth which has been invented for the sake of combating the increased prevalence of chronic diseases, bridging the shortage of physicians in remote areas and growing aging population, and capitalizing from increased availability of technology (JLT, 2016).

Medical Tourism in Malaysia On a global scale, there are about 30 countries strongly engaged in medical tourism, while there are 70 others with few clinics at their disposal, with each attracting international patients (Borg et al., 2017). Reduced prices and high-quality service

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make the countries of Southeast Asia (Thailand, Singapore, India, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and the Philippines) as a global destination of medical tourism, also the cheap labor in this region makes it more attractive, because the consumers can save 40 to 60 percent of fees compared to US and western European countries (Sarwar, 2013). Malaysia is the latest entrant Asian country to compete in medical tourism industry. Malaysia aims at providing high-quality medical services for patients seeking advantage of the high quality and reasonable price of healthcare services. Malaysia has been promoting its medical tourism industry since 1998, in the wake of the Asian financial crisis in order to diversify its healthcare and tourism sectors (Moghavvemi et al., 2017). In 2017, Malaysia was crowned the award of “The Health and Medical Tourism Destination of the Year” at the International Medical Travel Journal (IMTJ) for three consecutive years, from 2015 to 2017, due to achieving remarkable milestones in the medical tourism industry, which helped more promote Malaysia as a medical tourism global destination. A global ranking of the world’s best retirement havens, conducted annually by International Living’s Global Retirement Index, ranked Malaysia as one of the top four countries for healthcare in 2017 (Chandran et al., 2018). Numerous awards and global recognition from international medical travel journals were granted to Malaysia. At the national level, Malaysia won many awards from MHTC and Malaysian hospitals. Among those are Medical Tourism Destination of the Year, Health & Amp, International Hospital of the Year, International Fertility of the Year, International Dental Clinic of the Year, International Cosmetic Surgery Clinic of the Year, and Best Marketing Initiative of the Year (Chandran et al., 2018). Hospitals are not the only promoters of medical tourism to consumers (Hassan et al., 2015). Government, private sector, and medical travel facilitators also play a significant role. The healthcare industry in Malaysia is divided into public and private sectors. The private sector provides medical and rehabilitation services. It accounts for 30 percent of the national healthcare industry. A fee-for-service model is used to fund it, whereas the public sector provides 70 percent of all healthcare services in the country. Most of Malaysia’s population uses it because it is heavily subsidized by the government (Chandran et al., 2018). For the sake of promoting medical tourism, the Malaysian Healthcare Travel Council (MHTC) was officially introduced on 21 December 2009, for restructuring the healthcare sector to attract more foreign patients. MHTC is the main body that oversees all health tourism-related matters, assisting enquiries on advertising programs and strategies pertaining to the advancement of health tourism. In Malaysia, there are 35 private hospitals which promote medical tourism throughout the country, in addition to three big states identified as leading hubs offering medical services for foreign patients, namely, Kuala Lumpur, Melaka, and Penang (Sarwar, 2013; Shalikar et al., 2006). The Malaysian Ministry of Health has classified medical tourists into four categories: first, medical tourists from countries with insufficient medical facilities, such as Indonesia and Bangladesh; second, medical tourists from countries with

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Table 31.1 The number of medical tourists 2011–2019

Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Number of medical tourists 643,000 728,000 881,000 882,000 859,000 921,000 1,050,000 1,200,000 1,220,000

673 Revenues (RM) 527,000,000 603,000,000 727,000,000 777,000,000 914,000,000 1,123,000,000 1,300,000,000 1,500,000,000 1,700,000,000

Source: Malaysia Healthcare Travel Council (2019)

extremely high treatment costs, such as Japan, Singapore, and Taiwan; third, medical tourists from countries with long wait lists for treatment, such as the United Kingdom and Canada; and fourth, Muslim patients from various Middle Eastern countries, such as Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Bahrain (Sarwar & Raman, 2017). The Association of Private Hospitals in Malaysia (APHM) forecasts that revenue from foreign patients will increase by at least 30 percent per year. Malaysia has also set a goal of attracting 1.9 million medical tourists by 2020, which is expected to generate RM 9.6 billion in revenue and provide approximately 5300 jobs (Sarwar & Raman, 2017). The number of medical tourists and generated revenues between 2011 and 2019 is shown in Table 31.1. The growth witnessed in the Malaysian medical tourism sector has been supported by the significant evolution of the role of the Internet and the development of healthcare intermediaries or the so-called health tourism agents between international patients and hospital networks (Sarkar & Sarkar, 2010). There are two official governmental websites which promote the Malaysian healthcare sector as Medical Tourism Malaysia and Malaysia Healthcare.

Technology Applications in Medical Tourism Sector in Malaysia The medical tourism sector in Malaysia has witnessed remarkable development over the past three decades. In the seventh Malaysian plan 1996–2000, a fully computerized system was introduced for electronic medical records, telemedicine, and teleconferencing (Abushaar & Aniza, 2018). During the eighth Malaysian plan 2000–2005, Malaysia has established a platform to facilitate the country’s transition to promoting the use of information technology in the health sector. The ninth Malaysian plan 2006–2010 concentrated on strengthening the health information system to develop healthcare services and the access to patients’ health information. The tenth Malaysian plan aimed at achieving integration and interoperability between various hospital information systems, in addition to improving clinical data management system (Nor et al., 2019).

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The medical tourism industry throughout the world is driven by developments in the information and communication technology sector (ICT). Currently, the application of ICT in the healthcare industry or the so-called e-health plays a significant role in promoting medical tourism in the country. For instance, the online consultations provided via social networking or the country’s official platforms prior to the commencement of a medical trip help patients to obtain more realistic expectations. Follow-up with patients via the Internet on subsequent medical visits can also be helpful in reducing cognitive dissonance and resolving complaints, as well as increasing service loyalty. The slow adoption of ICT in Malaysia has had a negative impact on the healthcare industry. A few medical tourism websites, including those hosted by the country’s tourism authorities, are nothing more than basic front ends that promote travel arrangements but fail to deliver sufficient information to patients, as well (Sarkar & Sarkar, 2010). The website of the health tourism agent is usually the first point of contact with a hospital or clinic for most medical travelers. An online medium can be used to promote and facilitate healthcare services. Payments, enrollment, referrals, access to and transfer of medical records and test results, and actual medical appointments are examples of such services. Internet tools and applications can support health tourism agents (HTAs) to better manage medical resources and adhere to clinical best practices, resulting in significant improvements in the quality of services provided to patients. In addition, health tourism agents interact with patients through websites that include search engines, online chat, booking systems, and personalization tools (Sarkar & Sarkar, 2010). Past studies stressed the importance of social networking, chat room, blogs, and other Internet tools in affecting the decision-making of potential customers seeking medical treatments across borders. For instance, Sarkar and Sarkar (2010) conducted an exploratory study to look into how medical tourism providers in Malaysia use Internet tools and applications to promote healthcare services and interact with current and potential customers. The study was conducted through interviews with CEOs of six major companies in the medical tourism industry in Malaysia. The findings uncovered four major issues concerning the role of Internet tools and technologies in the HTA services in Malaysia, as below: First, meeting patients’ information needs through the application of online infrastructure. At this stage importance was given to companies’ websites and information provided therein for satisfying the customers’ needs. Accordingly, all five businesses emphasized the importance of their websites as “first points of contact” and in meeting the information needs of potential and current customers. Second, maintaining customer and affiliate medical institution relationships. This stage was centered on obtaining customer feedback and providing online posttreatment consultations. The findings varied from an institution to another, where some realized the importance of following customers’ feedback and posttreatment consultations, and they were at the stage of enhancing this task further. Others were uninterested in soliciting feedback or posting testimonials on the Internet.

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Third, providing supporting services to clients such as offering air ticket booking facilities, offering information about leisure activities, organizing logistics and accommodation, and so on. The findings indicated that most medical companies consider this task important and provide a wide range of facilities and services to customers, although they showed no concern with leisure tourism. Fourth, the review of services in blogs, forums, and third-party websites. The findings revealed that most companies considered their presence in online blogs, websites, and forums as important due to their significant role in affecting the decision-making of potential customers and the reputation of the company in general. However, a few companies were not convinced with the usefulness of Internet tools such as websites. Thereby, they considered their online presence unimportant. Despite huge efforts by Malaysian authorities aimed at developing the medical tourism sector such as the implementation of hospital information system (HIS), electronic medical record (EMR), websites, telehealth, and so on, the Malaysian medical tourism industry still suffers from many challenges and hurdles impeding the process of development.

The Hospital Information System (HIS) HIS is a computer system designed to manage the medical, administrative information and all clinical aspects of hospitals in a digital way for the sake of helping health professionals performing their jobs more effectively and efficiently. HIS consists of a number of systems: financial information system (FIS), clinical information system (CIS), nursing information system (NIS), laboratory information system (LIS), picture archiving and communication system (PACS), pharmacy information system (PIS), and radiology information system (RIS) (Ismail et al., 2013). HIS implements changes that affect people, technology, and processes at all levels of the hospital. Moreover, it facilitates the improvement of services quality in hospitals and clinics, such as enhancing clinical processes, controlling cost, and responding to demands for quality care through systems like computerized surveillance, physician order entry, clinical decision support, and patient safety (Bakar et al., 2017). Malaysia started the planning of HIS implementation in 1993. In 1996, the project of telehealth was launched. In 2001, the Ministry of Health designated Selayang Hospital as the world’s first paperless hospital based on an ICT system. Following the success of the HIS project in Selayang, the project was expanded to 13 new hospitals across Malaysia in 2002. The hospitals were selected, and the projects were completed in 2006. The implementation of ICT infrastructure has proven its importance in providing benefits to organizational development and improving quality of services, organizational efficiency, productivity, and accessibility to information (Hassan, 2012). HIS applications help in providing a better access to information, in addition to assisting healthcare providers in decisionmaking process (Bakar et al., 2017).

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In Malaysia, the capital cost of equipping a hospital with HIS ranges from 80 to 100 million Malaysian ringgit, accounting for nearly 40 percent of the total development cost of a hospital with 800–1000 beds. The government has spent more than 600 million ringgit on the project, which does not cover the system’s operation and maintenance costs. The government has invested a significant amount of money in HIS, and any failure will result in a significant loss (Hassan, 2012). The seventh Malaysian plan (1996–2000) stated that 33 paperless public hospitals would be built in Malaysia, but due to the economic crisis in 1998, those plans were shelved and are expected to be implemented during the eighth Malaysian plan (Ismail et al., 2010). HIS is an integrated electronic system that collects, stores, retrieves, and displays overall patient data and information such as patient history, laboratory test results, diagnoses, billing, and other hospital-related procedures. It is used in several departments within hospitals. Currently, in Malaysia only 21 out of 138 or 15.2 percent of hospitals in Malaysia implemented some application of the system, such as clinical access information system, patient management system, radiology information system, pharmacy information system, communication system, and picture archiving, regardless of managing information efficiently and quickly (Ismail et al., 2015). The slow implementation of HIS in the Malaysian hospitals was due to many challenges and issues confronted by the medical sector in Malaysia, which could be summarized in the following points. First, limited financial sources: the implementation of HIS is expensive, and the financial sources allocated from the government are insufficient due to huge costs incurred at different stages such as start-up costs, maintenance, and training. Despite receiving government funding to construct hospitals with IT applications, the costs of maintaining the system and training users are rising. Second, due to a lack of financial resources, hospitals are having difficulty adding new systems to the ones that are already in place, such as the day care system, e-notification, and e-registration and registry delivery system. Third, there are issues of confidentiality: medical records are kept private. As a result, only authorized users with an ID and password are allowed to access the system. However, the level of security is insufficient because any nurse or doctor, whether or not under their supervision, has access to all patient data and records. Forth, low acceptance level: The majority of elderly users, particularly physicians, have a low level of acceptance for the system. They believe that using the system is a waste of time because it is too complicated for them to understand. One of the main factors contributing to the lack of acceptance of technology among the old generation of hospital staff is the digital gap between the young and old generations. Technology has always been a part of the lives of the young, and they see it as a helpful tool. The older generation, on the other hand, prefers to go about their daily lives with traditional hardcopy documents. This situation leads to a lack of motivation and a reluctance to accept change among the elderly and experienced medical personnel (Hassan, 2012). Fifth, infrastructure issues: hospitals are finding it difficult to implement HIS in all of their facilities due to a shortage of computers and laptops. Sixth, system failure: one of the challenges of using an electronic system is that it occasionally fails when users are dealing with patients (Ismail et al., 2013).

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The Websites A study examined the websites of private hospitals promoting medical tourism in three competing Asian countries: India, Malaysia, and Thailand. It examined the websites of 17 Malaysian private hospitals, and it found that the interactive online services in the websites of Malaysian private hospitals are weak, for instance, interactive tools for online enquiries recorded (0 percent), pre-admission consultation at a distance online or by phone recorded (35 percent), medical records available via the Internet (5 percent), links to online forums for patients’ feedback and social networking such as Twitter and Facebook and so on recorded (75 percent), and links to additional online venues for information generated by or about the hospital such as YouTube and blogs recorded (15 percent) (Moghavvemi et al., 2017).

Electronic Medical Record (EMR) In the next 3 years, Malaysia’s health ministry plans to implement an electronic medical record (EMR) system in 145 hospitals across the country. Currently, 20 percent of hospitals, such as Selayang Hospital and Ampang Hospital, have this system in place, but it is not fully operational (Moghavvemi et al., 2017). Malaysia is still in the early stages of clinical data management, electronic medical records (EMR), and hospital information management systems (HIMS) (Nor et al., 2019).

Telehealth Since the establishment of the Malaysian telemedicine blueprint in July 1997, there has been an effort to implement e-health in Malaysia. Since then, the term telemedicine has been used, but it was later changed to telehealth. It is hoped that telehealth will play a significant role in the future of healthcare by shifting the healthcare pyramid away from illness and toward self-care. The World Health Organization defines the two terms as follows: “if Telehealth is understood to mean the integration of telecommunications systems into the practice of protecting and promoting health. Telemedicine is the incorporation of these systems into curative medicine.” Telehealth encompasses health system development, health education, epidemiology, and public and community health, whereas telemedicine focuses on clinical aspects. The objectives of telehealth, according to Malaysia’s Telemedicine Blueprint 1997, are to improve healthcare delivery through the use of telecommunications, multimedia, and information technologies. Telehealth is also used to reshape the healthcare delivery system by making it more virtual, distributed, and integrated, which results in better healthcare delivery and efficiency (Som et al., 2010). Telemedicine is the exchange of information at a distance, which includes text, image, video, sound, and elements of medical records. The Malaysian government has made a significant investment in the multimedia super corridor (MSC) project. Telemedicine is one of the government’s seven flagships. Telemedicine is the use of

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electronic information and communication technologies to provide and support healthcare when participants are separated by distance (Som et al., 2010). Malaysian telehealth is more than just one-way teleconsultation. It incorporates the full range of multimedia technologies to benefit all stakeholders in the health sector, transforming healthcare services and forging new relationships between people and their healthcare providers. Telehealth has its own set of pilot applications that are put in place. In Malaysia, the growth of telemedicine platforms such as Teleme, BookDoc, RingMD, and Doctor2u, looks promising. Teleme is a platform designated to link patients with virtual healthcare consultations with doctors and specialists online. It also connects doctors and pharmacists, as well as health labs, online. It offers online consultations, health screenings, medication reminders, reminder systems, Waze to clinics, and personal health records as well as other services (TeLeMe, 2019). Doctor2u (2019) is a BP Healthcare Group product that is an on-demand mobile app that provides healthcare services in Malaysia and Singapore, as well as the Philippines and Thailand, in the near future. It has been founded in October 2015. It offers four services, doctor house calls, medication delivery, live chat, and video consultation. BookDoc founded in 2015, presents in Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Hong Kong, and Thailand. It is a web-based platform that connects patients with healthcare providers at any time and from any location. For local and international health travelers, BookDoc has built an integrated online ecosystem (BookDoc, 2019). Although telehealth is expected to expand exponentially in the next few years with the largest growth expected to be in Malaysia and other Asian Pacific countries, the challenges associated with telehealth platforms might impede its development: to name but few, first, data security challenge as the implementation of telehealth requires the presence of independent and professional technical teams to deal with data health electronically; second, the increasing challenge of privacy and confidentially as patients always expect their privacy to be respected; third, the issue of technology as the effective implementation of telehealth relies heavily upon strong technology infrastructure to prevent any issues associated with the system failure such as transmitting incorrect information to patients; fourth, the issue of regulations, licensing, and registration. With no exception, telehealth services are expected to operate in accordance with each country’s specific regulations and policies for the sake of protecting health information from being transferred publicly or across borders or even being accessed by unauthorized entities (Jardine Lloyd Thompson, 2016). Malaysia has more than 25 laws governing healthcare which need to be updated to catch up with innovation and welcome start-ups. Also, regulators should look at the laws on healthcare data, data privacy, and medical devices, among others.

Conclusion This literature review-based research aimed to address the extent of technology application in medical tourism in the context of Malaysia. Findings affirm that Malaysia is the leading medical tourism destination not only in Asia but also

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globally mainly for the availability of the most innovative technologies. This availability actually turned Malaysia into a competitive and cost-effective medical tourism destination. Owing to the interests of both the responsible policy planners and involved agencies, medical tourism has witnessed a gradual development. When the global trends of applying innovative technologies in medical tourism are relatively stronger, Malaysia has also been developing. This research confirms that one of the most effective elements of such medical tourism development in Malaysia is the application of innovative technologies. This research relied on the available literature when the availability of primary data and information are relatively low. This is rather a limitation to expand and deliberate the arguments. Future research studies should thus concentrate on attaching primary data with the review of existing literature highlighting the possibilities and drawback of innovative technology application in medical tourism in Malaysia.

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Law, R., Buhalis, D., & Cobanoglu, C. (2014). Progress on information and communication technologies in hospitality and tourism. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 26(5), 727–750. Malaysia Healthcare Travel Council. (2019). Home. Retrieved from: https://www.mhtc.org.my/. Accessed 22 Aug 2019. Moghavvemi, S., Ormond, M., Musa, G., Isa, C. R. M., Thirumoorthi, T., Mustapha, M. Z. B., & Chandy, J. J. C. (2017). Connecting with prospective medical tourists online: A cross-sectional analysis of private hospital websites promoting medical tourism in India, Malaysia and Thailand. Tourism Management, 58, 154–163. Nor, N. A. M., Taib, N. A., Saad, M., Zaini, H. S., Ahmad, Z., Ahmad, Y., & Dhillon, S. K. (2019). Development of electronic medical records for clinical and research purposes: The breast cancer module using an implementation framework in a middle income country-Malaysia. BMC Bioinformatics, 19(13), 402. Sarkar, S. K., & Sarkar, P. K. (2010). Use of internet applications and tools by health tourism agents in Malaysia: An exploratory study. In U. Gretzel, R. Law, & M. Fuchs (Eds.), Information and communication technologies in tourism 2010. Lugano: the 10th–12th February (pp. 63–74). Springer. Sarwar, A. (2013). Medical tourism in Malaysia: Prospect and challenges. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 42(8), 795. Sarwar, A., & Raman, M. (2017). Branding halal and future prospects for the medical tourism industry in Malaysia. International Information Institute (Tokyo). Information, 20(4A), 2281–2287. Shalikar, S., Rahim, N. Z. A., & Jafari, S. (2006). Evaluating the level of knowledge management capability in medical tourism industry of Malaysia. ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 10(23), 17640–17648. Siddiqi, N., House, A. O., & Holmes, J. D. (2006). Occurrence and outcome of delirium in medical in-patients: A systematic literature review. Age and Ageing, 35(4), 350–364. Som, M. H. M., Norali, A. N., & Ali, M. S. A. M. (2010). Telehealth in Malaysia—An overview. In 2010 IEEE Symposium on Industrial Electronics and Applications (ISIEA). IEEE, pp.660–664. TeLeMe. (2019). Home. Retrieved from: https://teleme.co/. Accessed 22 Aug 2019.

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Adoption in Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Applications in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-Hailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Klook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-Wallet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Online Food Apps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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The growing speed of technology has profoundly transformed tourism industry and challenged the value proposition of many tourism businesses. Tourism, as a service industry, has been particularly impacted by technological disruptions that have entirely changed how people travel. The development in technology is aimed to benefit the tourism industry, and mobile technologies have tremendously changed tourists’ experiences as well as the distribution channel of tourism products. Mobile applications exist for tourists to access information virtually at any time and from any place where they can make travelling plans and arrangement including accommodation reservation, flight trackers, food ordering, destination guides, online travel agencies, attraction guides, and payment. Comparing several studies on various mobile technology applications, this chapter S. Osman (*) Business School, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] S. A. M. Din Department of Applied Arts & Design, Kulliyyah of Architecture & Environmental Design, International Islamic University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_32

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provides insight on the adoption of these applications from tourists’ perspective. It explores the different types of mobile applications available and how tourists use them. Keywords

Travel application · Travellers · Tourism · Malaysia

Introduction It is commonly agreed that the introduction of information and communications technology (ICT) has aided in the rapid rise of the electronic marketplace, which has become a more vital tool for national economic growth (Norzaidi et al., 2007). Since the emergence of the World Wide Web, ubiquitous technology has drastically altered and even transformed the consumption of tourism products. Therefore, making travel arrangements online has become a significant commercial sector. Malaysia’s government has extensively encouraged development and growth initiatives in ICT implementation in recent decades in order to transform Malaysia into an information and knowledge-based society. In the Seventh Malaysia Plan (1996–2000), the Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001–2005), the Ninth Malaysia Plan (2006–2010), and the most recent Tenth Malaysia Plan (2011–2015), the government emphasized the use of ICT. The use of ICT is now regarded as imperative platform in promoting destinations and in providing tourism products and services (Nanthakumar et al., 2008). As a result, Malaysia is placed 41st out of 180 nations on the Digital Adoption Index (DAI), a global metric created for the 2016 World Development Report (Malaysia Digital Association, 2017).

Technology Adoption in Tourism Industry Tourism sector is one of the major contributors to the economic growth for Malaysia. In 2018, Malaysia ranked 15th by UNWTO, recorded 25,832,354 in terms of international tourist arrivals (Tourism Malaysia, 2018). The top 10 countries with highest contribution of tourist arrivals were Singapore (7,868,755 tourist arrivals), Indonesia (2,792,776), China (2,413,956), Thailand (1,442,224), Brunei (929,789), India (539,167), South Korea (508,080), Vietnam (323,393), Japan (321,283), and the Philippines (317,294). Meanwhile, the main contributors to the tourist expenditure were from Singapore (RM16.3 billion), China (RM12.8 billion), Indonesia (RM8.8 billion), Thailand (RM2.8 billion), and India (RM2.5 billion). Since the advent of the commercial application of the Internet in 1993, the tourism industry has witnessed a tremendous transformation in the tourism business offerings between suppliers and tourists. Because tourism is an information-intensive industry, the Internet has evolved into a tool for potential tourists to seek out tourism-related information, acquire tourism products and services, and solicit the

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opinions of others (Osti, 2009). For promotional and transactional purposes, tools like Google and other search engines provide instant access to a vast amount of information via destination portals and distribution channels like global distribution systems (GDS), online travel agencies (OTAs), and travel-specific search engines (e.g., Booking.com, Kayak, Agoda, Travelocity) (Sparrow et al., 2011). For example, in the hotel industry, the Internet allows guests to book hotel rooms directly from their computers at any time and from any location, and travellers can obtain confirmation in a relatively short period of time (Law & Chung, 2003; Chan, 2012). Similarly, social media’s rise has altered the mechanics of online communication (Xiang et al., 2015; Xiang & Gretzel, 2010). Travel information search and sharing behavior is influenced by social media, which makes it easier for travellers to perceive and interact with travel products and tourism locations (Sigala et al., 2012). Furthermore, the widespread adoption of mobile technology (Karjaluoto et al., 2019) has influenced the use of smartphones and their applications for travel, resulting in the creation of a new platform for travellers to search for information (Dickinson et al., 2015; Siricharoen, 2008; Sebastia et al., 2009; García-Crespo et al., 2009). Consumer adoption of ICT in tourism and hospitality services has been studied in many ways. In terms of the use of ICT in tourism services, it has been suggested that the user’s assessment of perceived performance, considered prospective usefulness, and perceived resource readiness may have a significant impact on Internet adoption (San Martín & Herrero, 2012; Ku & Chen, 2015). Additionally, perceived usefulness, ease of use, and informativeness is also said to be the reasons for mobile technologies popularity and to continue to grow among tourism consumers (Chang, 2016). Similarly, studies on consumer adoption in tourism services also covers mobile tourism shopping (Kim et al., 2015), mobile travel apps (Lai, 2013; Karjaluoto et al., 2019), mobile Internet (Okazaki & Hirose, 2009), as well as the role of mobile technology on travel planning and use (Chang, 2016; Okazaki & Hirose, 2009). Siau et al. (2001) identified four distinct features of mobile communication: first, accessibility, which allows customers to get information about services from anywhere at any time; second, personalization in the way that information can be customized to a specific user and need; third, mobile devices which allow users to engage in a variety of activities while completing transactions or getting information; and finally, information that can be sent to all mobile users within a defined geographic region.

Mobile Applications in Tourism In today’s society, people are very much relying on mobile technology especially when communicating with others. The majority of today’s mobile phones are referred to as “smartphones” since they have the ability to execute Internet-based services and act similarly to a computer. Smartphone technology differs from traditional mobile phone (basic phone) technology in that it allows users to change the purpose of their device by installing third-party programs that transform their smartphone into a navigator, dictionary, personnel scheduler, digital camera, and so

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on (Böhmer & Krüger, 2013) which are only a few of the many activities that may be done on a smartphone. Interestingly, the study conducted by Osman et al. (2012) revealed that selling price is not the most important factor that influence the purchase of smartphone, but factors such as design, connectivity, and performance found to be more important than price. This means that consumers are willing to pay more for smartphone quality and features. According to a survey performed by the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission, 70% of the world’s population owns at least one mobile phone, with Malaysia (32.4 million people) accounting for around 78% (Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission, 2018). In addition, the poll found that the percentage of smartphone users increased by 2.1% from 75.9% in 2017 to 78.0% in 2018 (Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission, 2018). This demonstrates that Malaysia is one of the countries that is benefiting from the advancement of telecommunications. Tourism is a significant application area for mobile communication and information systems (Gretzel, 2011). Mobile communication (smartphone) has become a vital aspect of the whole experience of tourists in the tourism industry (Eriksson, 2014; SchmidtBelz et al., 2003). It has also altered people’s travel habits by making it more costeffective, convenient, and efficient. This is due to the facts that mobile communication allows travellers to access the Internet and innumerable applications to perform various transactions and provides trip guides even when the tourist is at the destination (Lu et al., 2015). This demonstrates that tourists have evolved as they have become more autonomous and sophisticated, as evidenced by their use of numerous tools for travel planning (Buhalis et al., 2011). To put it another way, technology is causing new forms of tourism experiences as well as modifying present ones (Gretzel & Jamal, 2009). In the context of Malaysia, travellers are relying on their smartphones more than ever. There are plenty of apps to help travellers from planning a trip, hotel bookings, transportation arrangement, food delivery, and payment (EcommerceIQ, 2016). Among the popular apps used by travellers in Malaysia are shown in Table 32.1.

E-Hailing e-Hailing services refer to the booking of transport services via mobile applications in partnership with the transport network companies. e-Hailing services in Malaysia Table 32.1 Popular apps used by travellers in Malaysia (source: developed by the authors, 2020) Purpose Accommodation Transportation Food delivery Payment Trip advisor

Popular apps Hotels.com, Trivago, Airbnb, Booking.com, Tripadvisor Uber, grab, riding pink, PICKnGO, Dacsee, MULA GrabFood, FoodPanda, PlateCulture, Bungkusit, Dahmakan, hungry, DeliverEat, Honestbee, FoodTime Alipay, BigPay by AirAsia Bhd, GrabPay, MPay, WeChat pay, Boost pay, touch n go, e-wallet Klook, Trivago

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have been officially legalized under the Commercial Vehicles Licensing Board Act 1987 and Land Public Transport Act 2010 since July 2017 (Man et al., 2019). Transportation arrangements made through smartphone applications in partnership with transportation network corporations are referred to as ride-hailing services (Pham et al., 2017). In today’s technology-driven age, the ride-hailing service has grown enormously (Furuhata et al., 2013) and is well-accepted by consumers all around the world, including Malaysia. Ride-hailing service has been legalized in Malaysia since July 2017, and there are currently five ride-hailing car companies operating in Malaysia, namely, Catch, MULA, Dacsee, Riding Pink, and PICKnGO (The Malaysian Reserve, 2018). Grab, which acquired Uber in March 2018, is one of Malaysia’s largest and most successful ride-hailing providers (Reuters, 2018). This acquisition of Uber company has spurred the country with the issue of Grab monopoly in the e-hailing industry. With both giant e-hailing companies merge as one, many who work in the Uber management lost their source of income due to redundancies, and users on the other hand were worried of the level of price control that Uber gained from the deal. With more startup e-hailing companies joining the market, it adds on to balancing the Grab Malaysia market share and creating a healthy competition in the business. This is a proof that the market is expanding and promising in the long run. Unlike traditional taxi drivers, e-hailing drivers may simply log into their application online and accept any orders or bookings that come their way, especially if they are nearby. They do not have to wait, like taxi drivers, at a particular location. A ride-hailing software is a smartphone-based e-platform that can locate taxi drivers and passengers geographically and at that point link them with passengers efficiently (Xu et al., 2018). The name of the operator or the driver, car registration number, contact number, and an estimated fee in advance are some of the vital facts that would be valuable to consumers (Ackaradejruangsri, 2015). Meanwhile, e-hailing service providers have not undergone any formal route or map training. As a result, they heavily rely on GPS (Glöss et al., 2016). Traditional taxi companies only accept cash as the mode of payment, but e-hailing companies accept both cash and credit card payments (Glöss et al., 2016). The ability to link a passenger’s credit card to the application allows for a secure and simple payment settlement (Onyango, 2016). A percentage of the fare goes to the ride-share company, while the rest goes to the driver (Wallsten, 2015). e-Hailing passengers, on the other hand, utilize the app to grade operators on a scale of 1–5. Operators who frequently receive poor ratings are removed from the system. A poor rating will result in a breach of the service provider’s terms of agreement. This encourages professional behavior and respect for both passengers and operators, as well as increased customer-operator interaction (Onyango, 2016). The rating against the driver is important because at the end of each ride, it reflects the operator’s efficiency. Rating of passenger performance of e-hailing operators and consistently low rating will result in unprofessional operators being weeded out. Likewise, e-hailing operators should evaluate passengers, allowing for the exclusion of rude and abusive passengers whose accounts should be banned from the app due to a repeated poor rating and unsafe conduct toward operators (Dhawan & Yadav,

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2018). However, there have been issues such as too many GrabCar operators in some areas, a bad perception of GrabCar operators by traditional taxi operators, and a lack of funding for GrabCar operators compared to traditional taxi companies who are typically supported by their own association (Jayaraj et al., 2019). Ride-hailing services have not only given an option to those who rely on public transit (Dhillon, 2017), but they are also expected to reduce traffic congestion in Malaysia’s capital. This is possible due to the reduced need for users to purchase or use their own private vehicles especially when travelling in the city area. Majority who are on a tight schedule and need to be constantly on the move in the urban areas find it more convenient to order a ride through e-hailing services than to drive around themselves. Plus, they get to save time from finding a parking and figuring out which route to take and risking getting lost in an unfamiliar area. Frequent users also may find that they are saving some of their expenses from having to keep up with the maintenance of owning a car, the tax, the tolls, and fuels. Its accessibility has the potential to reduce customer complaints about public transportation services. As a result, traditional taxi services have issues such as taxi drivers selecting favored locations, unreliability, indiscipline, aggressive drivers, smelly cabs, and overcrowding (New Straits Times, 2016; Amirul & David, 2016; Khor, 2017; The Star, 2017a, b). The ride-hailing service has in fact steadily revolutionized the public transport market, replacing the traditional taxi industry in particular (New Straits Times, 2017; Aziz, 2018). This issue has in turn causes the rage of the veterans of taxi drivers especially to protest to the government to impose a stricter regulation for e-hailing drivers as the marker is shifting away from the taxi industry. Many taxi drivers lost their source of income, and those who are tech illiterate could not assimilate with the technology revolution. The Malaysian government decided that synchronizing the taxi industry into e-hailing companies is for the best of both worlds, which resolves the biggest mismanagement issues of taxi industries and fuelling the ever-increasing supply of the e-hailing industry. Because taxi drivers know the locations and destinations of customers in advance, e-hailing services (Didi in China and Uber in the United States) can immediately connect passengers and taxi drivers via communication technology (Fang et al., 2018). According to Onyango (2016), such an application should assist drivers and passengers in identifying their location(s), scanning for available taxis or cars in a given area, allowing passengers to request taxis and the driver to approve such requests, and allowing the passenger to pay for the service using the e-hailing application. Furthermore, people favor Grab, an e-hailing service, because it is inexpensive and quickly available via the Internet (Jayaraj et al., 2019). Furthermore, users with the e-hailing app and a good Internet connection can quickly book this e-hailing service. They can book a ride whenever and anywhere they choose, according to their convenience. Besides that, customers can monitor their driver’s position and expected arrival time by using the e-hailing applications. It also makes driver identity tracking for customers. e-Hailing has been newly used as the ranges of apps for transportation services. In Malaysia, Grab and Uber are the top 2 apps. The services are basically to bring

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travellers from point A to B from their house to many places. Between the two apps, Grab seems to be the most famous because of the add-up values they provides to their users. Grab has been in eight countries across Southeast Asia. Among other added value offered by Grab are food, transport, mart, delivery, prepaid, clean and fix, bills, gift cards, and also hotels. It is a smart option for the travellers who need to go many places, for example, to school, attending classes at the university, to work, to send packages, to buy groceries, and many others. Those days, car pool has been an initiative by the government to reduce the number of cars on the road and promoting public transporting as part of initiative in reducing road congestion especially traffic jams and also reducing air pollution been released to the air. Grab also has been seen operating not only in the big city but also to other city than Kuala Lumpur up to Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, and other capital city in 14 states in Malaysia. Therefore, travellers have the option for not to park at the transportation hub such as the Kuala Lumpur International Airport or KL Sentral which is known for charging expensive rates for short-term and longterm parking. They can travel from their home directly to the airport, and the waiting time at the airport when they returned is acceptable and reliable. Due to that scenario, their services have become famous and a good savings for their customer who require to travel local or abroad. For the tourist, Grab is another option to them other than public transport, i.e., taxi, bus, light rapid transport (LRT), and mass rapid transport (MRT), to travel from one transportation to city and within city travelling. In the areas of transportation, Grab’s user can choose their destination and the types of transportation under options list from their present location with fare. Once chosen and agreed, user will be informed on the plate, color, and type of car/model. The driver also can send text asking how many customer, how many bags, and size of the bag before accepting the call through the apps. If agreed, they will come, and the apps will show their location and how long they will arrive to your picking up location. Once sent to the designated location, payment is made through various options, and customer can rate the service which has been provided. Later the driver will be given points, and they can use it for future service on transportation and other services. For students and fresh graduates which just started working and do not have any car, Grab has given them options to go to school, work, and travelling in cities from one point to their destination comfortably. They do not need to worry about paying tolls, paying parking fees, where to find parking, no monthly payments for new cars or second hand cars, and monthly maintenance owning a car for servicing. Some of the places which do not have public transportation and/or less services or inefficient, Grab has been able to give them more efficient, reliable, and comfortable options. Besides that, Grab Apps attracts their customer by offering reliable transportation service in which most of the vehicles are new (within 5 years) and clean as well as the opportunity to rate the driver’s performance. They also offered many initiatives for the driver as well, i.e., they provide new car installment scheme with recommended range of brands to make their customer have the best services.

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During the 2020 Malaysia Movement Control Order (MCO) due to COVID-19, Grab delivery services have assisted quite a number of Malaysian entrepreneurs especially in Klang Valley (i.e., Kuala Lumpur, Selangor Darul Ehsan, and Putrajaya). The products covered delivery of many items from cookies, garments, Eid Fitr men’s and women’s clothes, beverages, and many mores. Directly, both services have blossomed during the MCO period and still until today. Despite all the good advantages, Grab also has some of the challenges faced by their customer as such cancellation of car rides by the driver, spiking prices during high peak period, difficulty to pin pick up location accurately, and short of money changes by the driver. This makes the new arrival of SOCAR, another new app for affordable car rental introduced in South Korea and now growing its interest in Malaysia. Both customer and driver are getting good benefits of using their services up to receiving compliments services or discounted rate as their frequent customers and when their driver also being as their customer as well. Indirectly, this application is supporting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) no. 13 on climate change in reducing travelling times, reducing vehicles on the road, and reducing the amount of carbon dioxide, airborne particulates, and other pollutants been released to the air in line with United Nation Agenda in controlling and minimizing global warming impacts on earth in the long run. Through their successful year since establishment, Grab has won 2019 Merit Kancil Award (kancilawards.com/winners/entry/2019/5800), and they also give award under services by GrabFood companies under their umbrella as i. Rising Star, GrabFood; ii. Rising Star, GrabMart, Best Eater Experience; and iv. Eater’s Choice and also Most Creative Merchant on Social Media. Grab also raised up to RM275,157.00 through charity donations. According to a study, there is a positive association between service quality and client satisfaction (Man et al., 2019). In order to be competitive, e-hailing companies must maintain high service quality standards in order to assure customer happiness. The findings revealed that tangibility, reliability, and empathy had a significant impact on customer satisfaction, with responsiveness and consistency having a moderate impact on customer satisfaction. Consequently, the investigation proved that service quality is the most important factor in determining customer satisfaction; it is critical for Malaysian ride-hailing service providers like Grab, Riding Pink, PICKnGO, Dacsee, and MULA to recognize and improve customer service to gain a larger market share, effectively grow their brand name, and become the industry’s top provider.

Klook Klook is another app widely known to facilitate booking of tour and travelling booking application to variety ages tourist made by Klook Travel Technology Limited. Besides providing day trips and attraction information to the tourist, their customer could get benefits on local transportation, local tours and activities, Wi-Fi

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and SIM card services, ranges of gourmet experiences, and most importantly convenience for their customer at their fingertips, and they can explore more than 300 over destinations. In the travelling industry, travelling apps has been seen in giving more travel information, products, and services, and also travel managers or travellers are able to build marketing strategies for providers (Kuo et al., 2019). Dewan and Benckendorff (2013) also agreed that having all of the information available in real time when travelling will help most travellers make decisions while on the road and at their destinations. Most importantly, travellers will be getting benefits at the end of the experiences after coming back from their visits. With Klook, besides suggesting best foods and must eats in the picked places, travellers have many varieties and opportunities to taste the local delicacies and experience the local foods based on the region or during particular festival celebrations. Under hotels, Klook linked up with big hotel booking player with discounts for each booking (i.e., i. Agoda [7% discount with a Klook discount code], ii. Booking.com [earn 6 Klook Credits for every 10 Hong Kong Dollar spent on hotels], and iii. Hotels.com [10% discount with a Klook discount code]. Klook also provides steps on how to book hotels with Klook Discount Code and Frequently Ask Questions (FAQ). The questions are related to how do travellers book hotels and earn Klook credits, track orders if they forget to enter traveller’s unique rebate code, when to use Klook credits, and also difference between a Klook Discount Code and Klook Rebate Code. Best part, they also have Klook Help Centre in relation to booking process, coupons and credits, on the trip, and also trait tickets and passes. And if say the question is yet to be answered, Klook also provide platform for the traveller to get in from their dedicated operator at “Ask Klook.” Meanwhile, for the elderly travellers, they do have fund and time to travel as they already retired. Guo et al. (2017) identified the following technology design issues that are affecting the elderly: i. poorly designed keypads, ii. complicated interfaces, iii. Counterintuitive or difficult navigation, iv. over-functionality or design for the sake of design, v. lack of support in relation to technical issues, and finally vi. trust and believe. The issues raised from the smartphones but the researchers found that tablets, including the iPad, were one of the most cited examples of “good” technology having both ergonomic and design perspectives in the way of i. natural and intuitive navigation and transaction; ii. simple to use for easy and common task,; iii. Straightforward visualization, embedded reversibility, and tolerance principle; iv. large keypad or touchpoints; v. visible options with distractions; v. built-in feedback availability; vi. tolerating varied inputs and sequence; and vii. Maintaining consistency with purpose so the user does not have to rethink and remember. Klook also helps to facilitate travelers in the stage of pre-visit (i.e., to do budgeting, booking, and planning), and also during travelling period itself example let say an event were cancel last minutes and booking has been made quite far from the main city, Klook can give options to travellers to re-plan their itinerary within their time, budget, having language translator, reviews and enjoy the overall trips with their love ones. With all the services online they provided, Klook makes traveller feels very welcome, secured, a local good friend that we can rely on in a

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foreign country, collecting points for future visit, and travelling in style with us on budget. In terms of advantages of Klook, it is known as very convenient to purchase tickets for travelling purposes, secured payment method platform, offering a lot of discounts and promotion, and easy ticket redemption, and they also give fast lane queue for Klook user. While as for the disadvantages, the apps seem to have less marketing for the app promotion, and some feels that it is unattractive as overall. Therefore, it is very interesting comments for the app developer to pick up and improve further for future prospects during the MCO period in Malaysia.

E-Wallet Electronic wallet (e-wallet) is a type of e-payment that makes use of communication technology to allow smartphone users to make payments using Internet-connected smartphone devices (Junadi & Sfenrianto, 2015). It is obtained by transferring a first amount of money to the issuer, either directly or through agents of the issuer, or by debiting an account at a bank, and some can even store cryptocurrencies (Junadi & Sfenrianto, 2015). An e-wallet is a payment method that is handled and received electronically (Trivedi, 2016). It allows people to do online transactions from anywhere at any time, boosting both local and international trade. In reality, e-wallets have surpassed cash payments as the preferred mode of payment and may be used for a variety of purposes, including mobile payment, mobile ticketing, vouchers, and couponing, digital identity, loyalty cards, and tailored offers. This is particularly useful to travellers. In other words, e-wallet provides “all-in-one” travelling solutions as they support and enable mobility. Although cash payments still have a place among Malaysian, travellers are likely to spend more if payment transaction through e-wallet is accepted. For instance, the Chinese outbound travellers would use e-wallet during an overseas trip especially for food, beverages, accommodation, flight tickets, and tourist attraction. This demonstrates how e-wallets can alleviate many of the annoyances of travel. The foreign exchange rate is currently one of the most inconvenient aspects of travelling (Leo, 2016). It takes a lot of time and effort to find an ATM and a money exchange merchant. This technique may become obsolete with the arrival of e-wallets. In Malaysia, with high Internet penetration rate at 80% and smartphone penetration at 63%, e-wallet will be the direction of the financial system. Currently, more than 40 e-wallet apps have been registered with Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM) which includes about 5 banks and 37 non-banks. The apps have been established either by private, banks, or also tele-networking company. WeChat Pay, Grab Pay, Boost, and Touch ‘n Go e-wallet are examples of network-based e-wallets that keep digital money in the cloud. An e-wallet that is based on a card network, such as Visa or MasterCard, is called a card-based e-wallet. Among the top card-based e-wallet are BigPay, Merchantrade, MPay Wallet, AEON Wallet, etc. There are generally four ways to top up e-wallet in Malaysia: i. credit card, ii. debit card, iii. Online bank transfer, and iv. MOLPay cash at 7-Eleven stores. The penetration rates, types of

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merchants, incentives, and advantages all play a role in deciding which e-wallet to use. Consumers, on the other hand, can own multiple e-wallets, depending on which one best meets their needs and provides the most rewarding experience. Touch ‘n Go e-wallet is among the widely used and the fastest-growing e-wallet in Malaysia after it was launched in 2018 that is also becoming popular among the travellers. It all started as card technology used to pay tolls, attached with smart tag for faster tolls payment at highways, and now has embarked to e-wallet connecting purchasing more than 100,000 merchants on its platform with more than 5 million registered users. Touch ‘n Go e-wallet is also integrated into the local transport system. Travellers can use Touch ‘n Go to travel on the other mode of public transportation, for example, the LRT, Rapid Bus, and Monorail. Travellers have benefited the most from using one card, as they have been able to travel at a reduced fee, making it easier for day trippers or visitors who do not need to acquire weekly passes or the like. Moreover, Touch ‘n Go e-wallet also offers services such as electronic parking tickets, flights, movies, prepaid, postpaid, RFID, bills, etc. Another popular e-wallet platform in Malaysia is GrabPay. Officially launched in 2018, GrabPay has become the most actively used apps due to its feature that integrating its ride-hailing (e-hailing), food, delivery, bills, prepaid reload, and other featured all under a single application. It also can be used to make QR payments at merchant stores as well as in-app payment integration with third-party platforms like OYO, SOCAR, Agoda, JomParking, and more which is very helpful for travellers. Similarly, BOOST, a Malaysia’s homegrown e-wallet app, is popular in terms of topping up due to its strong partnership with most of the major banks in Malaysia such as CIMB, Maybank, RHB Bank, Hong Leong Bank, Bank Islam, Public Bank, and many more. Introduced in 2017, currently Boost has about 7 million users on-board, and the number keeps growing. Customers can enjoy instant cashback, loyalty program, and regular promotions whenever they shop (online and physical stores), travel, dine, and even make donation. In other words, Boost e-wallet gets all payment done easier, faster, and safe. Travellers would enjoy this platform as they do not have to carry physical money and no longer need to deal with loose change. Although Malaysian is already very familiar with online banking, debit cards, and credit cards, nevertheless, e-wallet in Malaysia is still at the infancy stage. Hence, the awareness campaign and promotion is needed to increase the users as well as to have more banks to give supports on the services in terms of the banking payment and transfer made from the customer account onto their registered e-wallet apps. Additionally, e-wallet platforms must offer better saving scheme to make this payment method even more attractive. For instance, providing cashback, bonus points, rewards, and promotion within the apps can essentially be motivating factors to the users.

Online Food Apps Many businesses, including online meal ordering, have benefited from the consumer response to Internet services. Food delivery services are now one of the fastest-

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expanding divisions of the e-commerce industry. The meal ordering application, according to Rathore and Chaudhary (2018), is an online food ordering system that allows customers to place orders at any time and from any location. Online food ordering, in particular for busy city dwellers, allows them to make an order online and have it delivered to their home in a matter of minutes. In other words, online food ordering application is a platform that connects consumers to their favorite restaurants. Meal ordering over the Internet differs from previous methods of ordering food in that it encourages one-on-one communication between the seller and the end consumer, as well as 24-hour customer care. Customers may browse the online menu quickly and conveniently, estimate how much they will spend on food, and place orders with only a few clicks. Food ordering systems allow for specific operations such as feeding real-time menus, checking the availability of food at the restaurant, receiving orders, confirming orders after deciding on a payment method, and gathering customer information such as address and phone number, specifying delivery time, placing orders, tracking orders, and finally delivering orders within the specified time frame (Gawande et al., 2019). The system also upholds customers’ database and offers discounts and rewards points system to attract new customers and to retain current customers. Online food delivery services bring in value for money to their loyal customers especially on this current economy and high living cost. Time has been an issue to most of working parents, and time to cook for the family is generally limited. Online food delivery has been a great opportunity to offer food services from the restaurant direct to our home door. Most importantly the foods are warm, and some are as equally good as home cooking. It has been seen to assist busy parents in providing their kids and parents food, while they are still at work, having meeting, travelling, or not being able to come back home immediately. Having these brilliant apps would help a lot to ease their schedule and on the same time their loved one getting goodquality food on time delivered as per their order. In other words, online food delivery is useful in reducing travelling time on the road, savings time, savings petrol and towards the ends reduce the amount of carbon been released from 4-wheeled types of transportation. In a research conducted by Gupta (2019), the reasons for using food delivery app are as follows: i. it is easy to use and offers high convenience with time and effort saving, ii. offers flexible payment options in which customers can choose various mode of payment, iii. Has real-time GPS tracking systems in which customers are able to track the delivery process, and iv. offers loyalty points to encourage future orders. By 2026, the Internet meal delivery market in Malaysia is anticipated to be worth over 319 million US dollars. People have already adopted and accepted the Internet distribution system, and its performance has been relatively satisfactory. There are various food delivery services platform such as “Dahmakan,” “Hungry,” “DeliverEat,” “Foodpanda,” “GrabFood,” “Bungkusit,” “Honestbee,” “FoodTime,” etc. operating in the market. Restaurant-to-consumer and platform-to-consumer delivery are two types of online meal delivery in Malaysia. Restaurant-to-consumer delivery is when restaurants send meals to customers directly. In most cases, the

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order is placed directly on the restaurant’s website. Domino’s, Pizza Hut, McDonald’s, Starbucks, Marrybrown, and many others are examples. The platformto-consumer delivery segment, on the other hand, provides food delivery services from partner restaurants that are not required to provide meal delivery. This means that the website serves as a marketplace where clients can search for nearby restaurants, view their menus and offerings, compare pricing for similar food products, and place their order. Among the most popular platforms offer a wide range of food choice are GrabFood, Foodpanda, and Bungkusit. Foodpanda is one of the famous food delivery services in pink color delivering from over 700 restaurants in Malaysia. It is an international online meal delivery platform based in Berlin, Germany. In other parts of the world, they are known as “Hellofood.” In Malaysia, it started in Klang Valley (Kuala Lumpur and Petaling Jaya), ever since Foodpanda has grown throughout Malaysia and now operates successfully in more than 85 cities. The other widely used online apps is GrabFood. Grab, a Singapore based, has started its services in e-hailing as similar to UBER apps and later has extended its services on online food delivery services. With the green color features, GrabFood is the fastest-growing food delivery service in Southeast Asia. Both Foodpanda and GrabFood have been a major hit due to the high demand of food delivery services from both the local and the tourists. This is due to the fact that online meal delivery services meet the needs of busy city dwellers who place their orders through the provider’s website or application and receive delivery within a few minutes by courier. Food, like other aspects of the tourist industry such as lodging, transportation, and attractions, is a critical component of the tourist experience. Food intake, according to Frochot (2003), allows people to fulfill the majority of their travel aspirations in terms of enjoyment, relaxation, prestige, education, and lifestyle. To put it another way, food is more than a substance (Mitchell & Hall, 2003), and it can be a major or secondary motivator for tourists (Quan & Wang, 2004). As food delivery service allows tourist to order food they wish to have at any time and at any place, finding the local or own comfort food when visiting unfamiliar destination is no longer a troublesome. By browsing the apps, various choices of food are available due to the cooperation with favorite local restaurants and fast-food chain on the platform. In other words, food is just one click away! Exploring unfamiliar food is not an easy endeavor to a certain people. Even though food can be the motivation of travelling, there are some people who can be skeptical to unfamiliar food (Shukri, 2017) or uncertain on what they should look for. To this type of tourists, online food ordering can be very convenient because they can search for their comfort food or at least food that they are familiar with. Customer can use the apps search and filter functions to browse through abundance of food varieties or restaurants. It also helps to distinguish the local and other international cuisine which tourist can select especially when they are not sure what to order. The recommendation and rating indicator are also available to help tourists make decision. Similarly, when travelling in groups, seldom tourists face difficulty in satisfying individual’s preference of food. Dining at a restaurant may only have limited choice

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of food to choose from. Therefore, through online food services, tourist can order different food from different restaurants and have it together at their preferred place. Enter the address, and the food will be delivered right to their doorstep. Additional, the service is operated 24 h; hence tourists can enjoy their food at any time as they wish. Budget tourists are likely to benefit from using online food ordering as most of the delivery service platforms offer attractive deals and discounts such as daily discounts, free delivery on orders, vouchers, promo codes, and many more deals to encourage more customers to use the platforms. Discounted rates and loyalty points are more desirable for them and able to get them indulge in online food ordering on regular basis. Tourist can enjoy food from popular restaurants and stay within the budget. In the case of tourists with special dietary requirements, such as Muslims concerned about Halal food, the feature in the apps allows some level of identification to meet the customers’ requirements, as other religions have similar restrictions and prohibitions (e.g., kosher rules for Jews and beef prohibitions for Hindus and Buddhists). For example, customers can select the icon for Halal to browse only Halal food on the apps. This feature is especially popular with Muslim travellers from Indonesia, Brunei, and the Middle East, who want a higher level of confidence about the halal certification of the food they eat.

Conclusion Consumer response to the Internet has extended opportunities for many firms, from tiny to huge corporations, in the digital age. The tourism business is no exception to the global boom in the digital industry. When looking at technological advancements, it appears that the advancement of ICT is helping to the enhancement of tourist experiences. To put it another way, technical advancements such as online booking tools, virtual tourist communities, mobile devices, and virtual life enable businesses and consumers to collaborate to improve experiences. All the apps discussed have its uniqueness and are giving better values to Malaysian. Even though the millennial groups are known to group of people from teenagers up to 39 years old, the user has grown toward elder group as well since as they have developed trust and confident to the system knowing that all the apps has improved their quality of life better in supporting 3 out of 17 United Nation Sustainable Development Goals to transform our world a better place (i.e., Agenda no. 8, Decent Work and Economic Growth; no. 11, Sustainable Cities and Communities; and also no. 13, Climate Change). Some of the apps also has offered multitasking services, in giving their loyalty customers more benefits within the same apps rather than need to do other tasks at other apps. The trust of the Malaysian on the payment online has made the apps grow vastly in giving best value of their money in the aspect of shopping, food delivery, transportation from one destination to another place, and travelling local and international with their loved one.

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Promoting Cultural Events in Indonesia Through Millennials: Lesson Learnt from Yogyakarta

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Putu Diah Sastri Pitanatri and Sabda Elisa Priyanto

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Who Is Generation Y? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keraton of Yogyakarta (Royal Palace of Yogyakarta) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cooperating with the Millennials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Confine Intertwine Concept of Yogyakarta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lessons Learnt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

As a world cultural tourism destination, Yogyakarta has become a magnet for those seeking diverse authenticity. In contrast to Bali, which is a melting pot for international tourists, Yogyakarta, as one of the unique regions of Indonesia, is infamous for its “Keraton” (Royal Family of Yogyakarta). With the dominance “Keraton” has made, cultural events are relatively rigid because it follows the royal rules. Nevertheless, cultural events taking place in this destination are dominated and driven by millennials. Regardless of the generation difference that exists, millennials have been able to conform to the kingdom’s stringent rules through the use of technology applications and digital marketing. Naturally, this implies that cultural activities held at this destination are generally successful. This study examines the concerns, challenges, and triumphs faced by technologically savvy millennials. Throughout the in-depth debate and joint literature P. D. S. Pitanatri (*) School of Postgraduate of Tourism Studies, Universitas Gadjah Mada Indonesia & Hospitality Department Bali Tourism Polytechnic Indonesia, Bali, Indonesia e-mail: [email protected] S. E. Priyanto School of Postgraduate of Tourism Studies, Universitas Gadjah Mada Indonesia & Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Ambarrukmo Institute of Tourism (STIPRAM), Yogyakarta, Indonesia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_33

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reviews, it has become clear that cultural tourism and technology should not be made into a dichotomy. Instead, it should become an integral element of cultural preservation. Keywords

Millennials · Cultural tourism · Technology · Digital marketing

Introduction Yogyakarta, Indonesia, is more than a collection of magnificent temples and palaces. It is the stories and profound culture that lay the groundwork for why people keep returning and finding reasons to stay. From history to noteworthy tourism experiences, it has developed into Java’s heart and soul. Yogyakarta is considered as a vital hub for classical Javanese fine arts and culture, including ballet, batik textiles, drama, literature, music, poetry, silversmithing, visual arts, and “Wayang puppetry.” The majority of those named still exist in the province and have been ingrained in the life of the residents. Regardless, this territory is currently administered by a monarchy; it is also one of only two provinces in Indonesia (together with Aceh) to be accorded “special region” status. For the latter, this entails the monarchy of Yogyakarta receiving recognition and certain autonomy despite being a part of the Republic of Indonesia. This leaves city planning, government, and cultural nurturing in the hands of the monarchy, which continues a centuries-old practice. Festivals and events of yore are woven into the fabric of daily life. Still today, the royal palace of Yogyakarta remains at the core of traditional life. The location marks the focal point of the Sultan’s entire territory, as it creates an imaginary line with Mount Merapi at its north, the Yogyakarta monument, and the mystical South Sea. This palace is still home to the royal family, but parts of it are open for tourists. Different ceremonial rites still carried out within its walls, some daily, others according to the traditional almanac. Even the architecture of this grand palace reflects profound symbols and philosophy of the Javanese in every little detail. The “Abdi Dalem” or the loyal servants and caretakers to the kingdom, with their meticulously regulated manners and attire, are still visible until today. Preserving and nurturing their cherished historical culture is a mission that Yogyakarta takes very seriously. Both the sultanate and the private sector have an inclination to uphold the conventions and traditions upon which they were raised. From ethnic eateries that serve historical cuisine to a batik-making village, culture is perpetuated on all fronts. By continuing to perform the intricate ceremonies and rituals of old Java and imparting them to younger generations, the sultanate serves as a birthplace for the Javanese civilization that was once dominant on the island. Yogyakarta is a cultural and traditional powerhouse. Nonetheless, it strikes a balance between the old and the modern. Throughout history, the monarchy has

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demonstrated an ability to adapt and accept the best of both worlds. Additionally, it was named the ASEAN City of Culture in 2018 during the ASEAN Ministers Responsible for Culture and the Arts’ ninth meeting (AMCA). Additionally known as the city of tolerance and the city of students, it acts as a melting pot for people from many backgrounds to come together and coexist peacefully. As an example of the application of dynamic culture carried out in this city, millennials invited to participate in various cultural events. Technology makes almost no longer a barrier between the monarchy palace with the young generation in Yogyakarta. It is interesting because different from the previous generation, millennials are a target audience with quite difficult product penetration. Born into a digitally native generation, they are more sensitive to changes that cannot separate from their mobile devices. In the HubSpot 2018 Report, it was mentioned that millennials access information and make online purchases directly from their respective smartphones. In terms of searching for travel packages, for example, 64 percent of millennials book hotels directly from mobile phones after searching online. HubSpot also explained that 65 percent of millennials interact with brands or products online on social media, especially Facebook and Twitter. They want to know whether the brand is worthy of loyalty. This chapter will discuss how technology enables millennials in Yogyakarta to collaborate with generations far above them, with a hierarchy firmly attached to the monarchy. This chapter will discuss three fundamentals: first, who is the millennial generation, both forms of cultural event collaboration and how technology is applied to help event marketing and the third impact and lesson learned from this collaboration.

Who Is Generation Y? They are referred to by a variety of titles, including Generation Y (Gen Y), millennials, Nintendo Generation, Internet Generation, and Generation 2001. Between 1980 and 2000, they became the majority of the workforce’s demographic. Millennials are born networkers who navigate the digital world seamlessly on their smartphones and other electronic gadgets. They are technologically savvy and have a higher degree of education. They share information freely (at times excessively), and data flows swiftly through their communication networks. Without a doubt, they have developed into a rapidly growing tourist industry that will soon surpass the Baby Boomer Generation. Gen Y, according to studies, will spend and travel more than prior generations (Pendergast 2010; Irmanti et al. 2017). Additionally, the same study indicates that they have a need for immersive products, a thirst for exceptional travel experiences, and a proclivity for information dissemination via a variety of channels (including social networking sites). They will spend time researching the destination before to booking to guarantee the trip is rewarding. As a result, tourism destination managers must develop a thorough and strategic grasp of the kind of experiences

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desired by this segment of the tourism market. Additionally, it is unquestionably necessary to analyze what motivates Gen Y to promote others via knowledge sharing, particularly on social networking platforms (Ralston et al., 2007). Previous research has examined Gen Y’s dedication to and use of social media to gather knowledge about travel-related products (Bolton et al., 2013; Nusair et al., 2013). Additionally, social networking sites have enabled consumers to engage in consumer-to-consumer interactions (Chu & Kim, 2011; Mangold & Faulds, 2009; McWilliam, 2012; Pitta & Fowler, 2005; Slack et al., 2008). Currently, Gen Y is a significant market sector when it comes to creating online content about their consuming experiences (Noble et al., 2009). Thus, Gen Y become catalyst for the change in electronic word of mouth via social networking sites (Dellarocas, 2003). As a result, Gen Y has developed into digital natives who are more accustomed to using technology as a mode of communication (Bennett et al., 2008; Bilgihan et al., 2013; Black, 2010; Jones & Czerniewicz, 2010). Strutton, Taylor, and Thompson (2011) quoted Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are three of the most popular eWOM channels for Gen Y consumer-to-consumer conversation; this is because millenials are more digitally educated than their parents. Regardless of the direction of the debate, Gen Y consumers’ conversations on social networking sites are frequently seen as trustworthy and comparable to offline word-of-mouth contacts by others (Fong & Burton, 2006; Litvin et al., 2008; Moran & Muzellec, 2017). Cantallops and Salvi (2014) believe that social networking sites may provide a more trustworthy eWOM channel than other channels. In comparison to traditional channels such as television and print advertisements, the material is generated by genuine friends or acquaintances with comparable tastes and preferences to the user reading and responding to the eWOM comments. Thus, when Gen Y consumers share their festival consumption experiences, the level of trust improves with content provided by actual participants. Additionally, Richins (1994) state that customers place a higher premium on things with social and personal significance. This suggests that when customers consume an experience that is personally meaningful and memorable, they are more likely to provide eWOM (Kim et al., 2015). In the case of Gen Y traveling to a Caribbean island to attend a music festival, consuming is personal because the genre of music is symbolic of the generation’s musical likes and preferences (Anderson, 2009). Thus, if the 5Es (entertainment, education, aesthetics, escapism, and economic value) are sufficient for Gen Y visitor to create a memorable music festival, the possibility of Gen Y attendees recommending the consumption experience on social networking sites appears to be high.

Keraton of Yogyakarta (Royal Palace of Yogyakarta) The history of the Royal Palace of Yogyakarta (Keraton Yogyakarta) dates all the way back to the sixteenth century, when it was founded by an Islamic state named the Kingdom of Mataram in south-central Java. Originally located in the Kota Gede area

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(southeast of modern-day Yogyakarta), the kingdom later expanded to include Kerta, Plered, Kartasura, and Surakarta. Mataram’s sovereignty was gradually eroded as a result of Dutch meddling. As a result, an anti-colonial movement was formed under the leadership of Prince Mangkubumi, who fought the invaders and some local people susceptible to Dutch influence, such as Patih Pringgalaya. The dispute reached the Giyanti Agreement or Palihan Nagari. On February 13, 1755, an agreement was signed stating that the Kingdom of Mataram was divided into two, namely, the Surakarta Hadiningrat Sunanate and the Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat Sultanate. Surakarta (in Solo) was led by Susuhunan Paku Buwono III, while Ngayogyakarta or commonly called Yogyakarta was led by Prince Mangkubumi, who later held the title Sultan Hamengku Buwono I (Fig. 33.1). The Giyanti Agreement was followed by a conference in Lebak, Jatisari, on February 15, 1755, between the Sultan of Yogyakarta and Sunan Surakarta. The gathering deliberated on the establishment of a cultural foundation for each kingdom. This arrangement, dubbed the Jatisari Agreement, resolves the conflict between the two territories, which have developed into two distinct kingdoms. The agreement specifies procedures for dress, customs, language, gamelan, and dances, among other things. The essence of this agreement is that Sultan Hamengku Buwono has chosen to continue the Mataram culture’s ancient legacy. Meanwhile, Sunan Pakubuwono III consented to modify or establish new cultural forms. The meeting of the Jatisari was the catalyst for the formation of distinct cultures between Yogyakarta and Surakarta. March 13, 1755, is a watershed moment in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta’s history. The proclamation or Hadeging Nagari Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat was held on this date. On October 9, 1755, Sultan Hamengku Buwono I began building of the Yogyakarta Palace. The development phase took about a year. Fig. 33.1 Royal symbol of Yogyakarta. (Source: KratonJogja, 2020a)

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March 13, 1755, is a watershed moment in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta’s history. The proclamation or Hadeging Nagari Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat was held on this date. On October 9, 1755, Sultan Hamengku Buwono I began building of the Yogyakarta Palace. The development phase took about a year. Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono I and his family lived in Pesanggrahan Ambarketawang throughout the development process. On October 7, 1756, Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono I and his family and followers entered the Yogyakarta Palace (Kemis Pahing, 13 Sura 1682 TJ). This event is commemorated in the Javanese calendar year (TJ) by memetalan: Dual Naga Tunggal and Dwi Naga Rasa Wani. Following the establishment of the Republic of Indonesia on August 17, 1945, the next big shift happened. Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX, the King of Yogyakarta, instantly congratulated the proclaimers of independence on the foundation of the new republic. On September 5, 1945, Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX and Sri Paduka Paku Alam VIII issued a mandate declaring their kingdom land to be part of the Republic of Indonesia. Accepting the mandate, Ir. Sukarno stipulated that Sultan Hamengku Buwono and Adipati Paku Alam were the Special Region of Yogyakarta’s exclusive dual overlords (DIY). After a few years of uncertainty, the privilege’s status was strengthened following the passing of Law 13 of 2012 concerning DIY Privileges. Thus, it is anticipated that all forms of cultural heritage can be conserved and sustained in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta and the Pakualaman Duchy. A part of a special region of Indonesia, Yogyakarta is also infamous as a tourism destination. As its roots grow deeper in the Keraton, Yogyakarta has hosted numerous cultural-based tourism events. The enormous volume of domestic and international visitor visits necessitates that tourism events in Yogyakarta be well-designed and promoted, incorporating a variety of factors, including the millennial and digital generation. The Jumenengan of Sri Sultan Hamengkubu Buwono X is one of the Sultan’s Palace’s cultural events, and its implementation involves the millennial generation and the role of Internet promotion. Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X was crowned for 31 years in 2020. Throughout March 2020, the location will host a variety of activities, including a Cultural Exhibition, an International Symposium, Adiluhung Performing Arts, and traditional activities such as Ngebluk, Ngapem, Sugengan, and Labuhan. As it roots grow deeper in the Keraton, there made many cultural-based tourism events held in Yogyakarta. The high number of domestic and foreign tourist visits makes tourism events in Yogyakarta well-created and promoted, involving many elements, which involves millennial and digital generation. The Jumenengan of Sri Sultan Hamengkubu Buwono X is one of the Sultan’s Palace’s cultural events, and its implementation involves the millennial generation and the role of Internet promotion. Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X was crowned for 31 years in 2020. Throughout March 2020, the location will host a variety of activities, including a Cultural Exhibition, an International Symposium, Adiluhung Performing Arts, and traditional activities such as Ngebluk, Ngapem, Sugengan, and Labuhan.

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Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X, Mangayubagya Tingalan Jumenengan Dalem, was anointed as the tenth King of the Yogyakarta Sultanate Palace. Thus, in addition to the normal activities, each March 7 commemorated the coronation of Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono X according to Christian calendar calculations. This event exemplifies the convergence of technology and tradition, as well as the cooperation of the older generation and millennials (Fig. 33.2). Each year, during the Jumenengan, or celebration of Dalem Sri Sultan Hamengkubu Buwono X’s enthronement, at least five major activities are held, namely: 1. Customary activities; these mostly include the palace’s cultural traditions. Several of the traditional activities included in the Jumenengan program are closed to the public during this event due to their sacred nature. Some of the less sacred activities are open to the public. (a) Hajad Dalem Ngebluk in the Sekar Kedhaton Ward, Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat Palace (closed to the public) (b) Hajad Dalem Ngapem in the Sekar Kedhaton Ward, Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat Palace (closed to the public)

Fig. 33.2 Day ascended the throne of the king of Yogyakarta as in Instagram account of Keraton Yogyakarta. (Source: KratonJogja, 2020b)

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(c) Hajad Dalem Labuhan Parangkusuma and Labuhan Dlepih (open to the public) (d) Hajad Dalem Labuhan Merapi and Labuhan Lawu (open to the public) 2. International Symposium The theme of the 2020 Symposium and Cultural Exhibition was “Clothing and Civilization in the Yogyakarta Palace.” The International Symposium took place at Yogyakarta’s Royal Ambarrukmo Ballroom Sultanate. Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X inaugurated the symposium by delivering Beksan Lawung Ringgit, a gift from KHP Kridhomardowo Keraton Yogyakarta. The International Symposium Agenda will feature national and international speakers. Additionally, there were speakers from selected call for papers, in which academics, scholars, and aficionados of Javanese culture from across the archipelago and overseas participated. After a month of registration, eight speakers were chosen from a total of 108 registrants. 3. Exhibition In Yogyakarta, the development of batik (traditional hand painted textile) themes did not begin within the palace. Each nobleman has his own batik pattern that corresponds to his social level in order to establish an identity. This process resulted in the development of numerous batik patterns. Not only the palace but also the princes in their domain added excitement to Yogyakarta’s fashion civilization. Indeed, the nature of clothes makes it difficult to pass along. Thus, through clothing, a civilization’s story is told. This serves as the foundation for the Mangayubagya Jumenengan Dalem Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X exhibition, which carries the overarching theme of “Clothing and Civilization in the Yogyakarta Palace” entitled “Abalakuswa,” which corresponds to the symposium’s theme. The event was divided into two parts. The first is referred to as the exhibition’s opening reception. The exhibition debuted the mat Wayang Wong Golek Menak “Jayengrana Jumeneng Nata” during the inaugural reception. The British Library provided the script for this performance, which was sent to the palace in digital format. The performance took place in Kagem Dalem Bangsal Pagelaran, and the exhibition was on display for 1 month. The second event is a series of displays showcasing scientific debates, namely, thematic scientific debates. This has become a defining feature of each exhibition held in the Yogyakarta Palace. Visitors get knowledge not only from the collecting information on the label but also from a broader conversation about literature and clothing through scientific discussion. Additionally, there are classes in traditional dress that serve as a practical area for tourists to learn how to dress in Yogyakarta’s traditional costume. 4. “Adiluhung” Performing Arts To commemorate the Jumenengan Dalem Tingalan, which lasted around 1 month, several important dance works will be performed at the Yogyakarta Palace, specifically Beksan Trunajaya at the Mangayubagya Tingalan Jumenengan Dalem event. The dances were performed exclusively at special gatherings. Certain dances have also been passed down through generations for hundreds of years.

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The performing arts on display are all classical works that are only performed on rare occasions. While some dances are performed exclusively for the royal family, many others are performed for the general public. The performance of this performing art is always crowded with audience members from both domestic and international locations, since it is the ideal opportunity to experience Jogja’s heritage through its dance. 5. Palace Film Festival During March 2020, Yogyakarta Palace, in partnership with the Yogyakarta Sonobudoyo Museum, will screen films about the palace. This is to enliven Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X’s Jumenengan Tingalan Series this year. Every hour between 17:00 and 18:00, a film begins. This film festival becomes extremely famous due to the rarity of films being presented publicly. The majority of the video is devoted to a rare personal collection of the sultanate. These videos mostly focus on the Sultanate of Yogyakarta’s history. As a result, many international students studying in Yogyakarta were flooded during the celebration.

Cooperating with the Millennials Keraton Yogyakarta is fully aware that the culture that they maintain on one side only grows and is maintained well within the palace environment; many people outside the palace want to know more about all activities of the palace. From this, the palace formed a team called “Tepas Tandha Yekti,” which would provide new technology-based information to the broader community. This team involves the palace servants (people who work under the King/palace) and involving people outside the palace, such as academics, writers, and young people who have creativity. It is hoped that from this team in the future, all information about the palace will be able to be provided to the public with a more contemporary approach. The role of the millennial generation in conducting digital promotions at cultural tourism events in the Yogyakarta Palace is based on the research of the Judge’s research report (2019) on the concept of Indonesian tourism advertisements for Millennial Tourists case studies in Indonesia. This millennial generation has different characteristics compared to previous generations, including the scope of their travel patterns. This difference is also evident in the interest in contemporary media and the way they consume them (Judge: 2019). Therefore, the promotion to millennial approach requires a different way; in his research, Hakim (2019) said that in the promotion to millennial, they must pay attention to (1) election relevant promotional media and (2) selection of content according to millennial needs. The Tandha Yekti team (Data Information Center) act as a center for information and communication information for the Yogyakarta Palace. This center is strengthened by millennials. It is place where ideas from Sultan Hamengku Buwono X and his fourth daughter GKR Hayu become viable to the public. Apart from being filled by senior Abdi Dalem (over 50-year-old royal staff with only high school education), the center is also filled with young graduates. The young staffs of Dalem brought the modern atmosphere in the palace, bringing

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the palace into the world of the millennial generation without leaving the customs of the palace. Tepas, who initially did not know the server, is now server-friendly, which previously was not very familiar with the digitalization of technology; now it is familiar, thanks to the intervention of young people in it. Tandha Yekti Tepas Operations are supported by 30 young people, the scholars who are recruited by Tepas according to the needs of each of Tepas’ owned programs. These young people are from the Abdi Dalem (people inside the palace) and also people from outside the palace who are invited professionally. The existence of young people in the Tepas Tandha Yekti team brought a new breeze in providing information about the palace. The touch of work from the youth team in Tepas Tandha Yekti can also be a new bridge between the Yogyakarta Palace, which is thick with the culture so that it can go hand in hand with technological advances in the present. They are in charge with the selection of promotional digital media. Palace activities that are highly influenced with Javanese culture in the past were reported to the people by loudspeakers around the Yogyakarta Palace so that all the people could hear them. However, now, news and information about the palace events that can be known to the public are shared on social media managed by the palace, namely: (a) Facebook Facebook, known as a millennial platform, is a source of inspiration for traveling. 87% of millennial Facebook users use this platform to seek travel inspiration (Brown, In Hakim, 2019). The most inspirational type of media is travel photos from friends and millennial friends. Furthermore 52% of Facebook users say that photos of friends inspire their travel plans. For millennial Facebook users, a shadow of a tour can emerge even when they are not specifically planning a tour (Hakim, 2019) (Fig. 33.3). For that particular reason, Facebook is the first social media choice used by the Yogyakarta Palace. The Keraton Facebook account was attended by 122,520 people and 118,180 times liked (March 8, 2020). Facebook remains a good promotional choice for targeting the wider community. The information about Keraton Cultural Events such as “Jumenengan Dalem” is also shared on the palace’s Facebook page. From this post, it was enough to get a big response from the community, by getting 2.8 k likes and 67 comments, and was shared 280 times. (b) Twitter Twitter became one of the platforms used by millennials to make travel decisions. The form of tweet, hashtag, and “retweet” are things that are consumed by millennials in finding information related to it (Hakim, 2019) (Fig. 33.4). Twitter account @Keratonjogja is followed by 56.2 thousand and has received verification from Twitter. This account has carried out around 14.6 thousand tweets since it was in June 2015. This Twitter account is quite active in promoting followers to all kinds of activities carried out by the Yogyakarta Palace. (c) Instagram Instagram users are growing fast. In 2017, there are 200 million new users with 250 million story uploads every day. Instagram itself has features that are

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Fig. 33.3 Use of Facebook for media promotion as in Facebook account of Keraton Yogyakarta. (Source: KratonJogja, 2020c)

close and millennial friendly. Improved quality of live video features make Instagram more focused on organic uploads. This feature is what distinguishes Instagram compared to other social media, where user involvement in videos can

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Fig. 33.4 Use of Twitter for media promotion as in Twitter account Keraton Yogyakarta. (Source: KratonJogja, 2020d)

be easily accessed and explored. This can broaden the choice of advertisers in advertising, including advertising in the story format (Hootsuite in Hakim, 2019) (Fig. 33.5). The Keraton of Yogyakarta account’s “@Keratonjogja” was followed by 198,000 followers and had posted 808 submissions. This account, which has been verified by Instagram, is also active in providing live broadcasts and providing “stories” related to Yogyakarta royal events. (d) YouTube Millennials are looking for information on their tour itineraries with their wide and open preferences. It is almost impossible to force them to follow a certain pattern of preferences, as conventional tourism advertisers do. Millennial tourists have control over what they want, including determining where they go, to specifically determine their tour activities. On the YouTube platform, millennial has the power to choose their own videos they like, the reviews they want to read, and information about help and input about their chosen destination (Fig. 33.6). Keraton Yogyakarta has a YouTube account called “Kraton Jogja,” and this Keraton account has 39.9 thousand subscribers. This YouTube account began on July 23, 2015, and already has 3.1 million viewers (March 8, 2020). Videos that stop on this YouTube account are several palace events and also a series of video events held in commemoration of Jumenengan Dalem, so that people can follow every event that is held.

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Fig. 33.5 Use of Instagram in the promotion of media for the palace as in Instagram account of Keraton Yogyakarta. (Source: KratonJogja, 2020b)

Fig. 33.6 Use of YouTube for media promotion as in YouTube Keraton Yogyakarta. (Source: KratonJogja, 2020e)

(e) The website Yogyakarta’s official palace website is managed directly under the Tandha Yekti Yogyakarta Keraton Tepas Team (www.kratonjogja.id). It is hoped that it can provide information about the palace, palace cultural events that are being held by the public at large. This website starts on March 7, 2017, and was prepared with

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the hope that certain themes can be discussed in more depth. Specific sections that are designed include events, presenting information regarding coverage of activities at the palace. Its contents include (1) Rakiting Building Arrangement, presenting information related to a series of spatial concepts, buildings, decoration, and the function of buildings in the palace; (2) Hajad Dalem, an in-depth review of ceremonies celebrating Islamic holidays, commemoration of the Sultan’s throne, and the life cycle ceremony; (3) Kagungan Dalem, containing a discussion of cultural heritage, both material and immaterial; and (4) variety, discussing figures and general issues related to the Yogyakarta Palace (Fig. 33.7). In terms of millennial generation target, the “Tepas Tandha Yekti” team choose only millennials in their team. Every content shared on social media used by the palace always focuses on experience and creativity. This process of sharing experiences seeks to get people who enjoy the communication process in digital promotions to get the same experience. This can be seen from the logo design, posters, pictures, or visualization of information about the palace that is made demanding creativity. The content created by the “Tepas Tandha Yekti” team is not only able to convey information to the wider community, but in every information delivered has social message values. Content that not only contains information but has social messages is content that is loved by millennials. Millennials feel good when the activities they carry out contain social messages. For example, in the Jumenengan Dalem cultural event, the content provided is not just about giving information, but it contains social messages. In delivering social messages, it takes a good figure to deliver it. As with the international symposium on Javanese culture (which is a series of events in jumenengan dale mini), this event invites experts from a variety of fields to communicate with the public.

Fig. 33.7 Official website of Keraton Yogyakarta. (Source: KratonJogja, 2020a)

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In targeting the millennial generation, the “Tepas Tandha Yekti” team creates promotional content that can adjust to the characteristics being targeted, for example, the millennial generation. Millennial generation performance in promotion using social media can be seen from the content created, which is also millennial. Hakim (2019) explains that millennial promotional content is content that is focused on experience, keeps messages short and simple, has social messages, and is original and authentic. (a) Focus on experience and creativity Every content shared on social media used by the palace always focuses on experience and creativity. This process of sharing experiences seeks to get people who enjoy the communication process in digital promotions to get the same experience. This can be seen from the logo design, posters, pictures, or visualization of information about the palace that is made demanding creativity (Fig. 33.8).

Fig. 33.8 Jogja palace soldier information poster design as in promotional leaflet of Keraton Yogyakarta posted on Instagram. (Source: KratonJogja, 2020b)

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The palace logo designs that tend to be classic can be transformed into a more recent and creative event logo. The event about introducing the types of palace warriors was also made with interactive media, so the message conveyed contained elements of deep experience for visitors. (b) Simplify and shorten messages As a palace that still maintains a very strong tradition, sometimes some hopes or messages from each palace event are too heavy for the public to digest. Like the three sections that will be added to the palace on an ongoing basis based on the research process carried out, the three parts are (1) Building Rakiting, (2) Hajad Dalem, and (3) Kagungan Dalem. The message is certainly very difficult to understand, especially for millennials; therefore, the three parts in the process of providing information are made simple by giving a short message. Building Rakiting Arrangement is a way to present information related to a series of spatial concepts, buildings, decoration, and the functions of buildings in the palace. Hajad Dalem is an in-depth review of the ceremonies celebrating Islamic holidays, commemoration of the Sultan’s throne, and the life cycle ceremony. While Kagungan Dalem contains a discussion of cultural heritage, both material and intangible contain a simple discussion about the goods belonging to the palace (Fig. 33.9). Pramutama is the most read content from the Jogja palace website. The information in it has been simplified, so it is easy to understand. Making each “post easier to understand” has implications for the extent of the audience who

Fig. 33.9 Sample of simplified message as in Facebook account of Keraton Yogyakarta. (Source: KratonJogja, 2020c)

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are interested in seeing the event. Hence, cultural preservation in Yogyakarta will sustain through younger generations. (c) Have social messages The content created by the “Tepas Tandha Yekti” team is not only able to convey information to the wider community, but in every information delivered has social message values. Content that not only contains information but has social messages is content that is loved by millennials. Millennials feel good when the activities they carry out contain social messages. For example, in the Jumenengan Dalem cultural event, the content provided is not just about giving information, but it contains social messages. In delivering social messages, it takes a good figure to deliver it. What is meant by social messages here are examples of things related to norms, rules that are delivered in interesting ways, often in the form of comedy shows that give moral messages. Not infrequently this show is also used to criticize a regulation or a situation that is considered viral. (d) Original and authentic The content provided and liked by millennial is original and authentic. The originality of the content is made visible from the information content that can only be obtained from one source, as information about clothing and authenticity of the palace, where information like this will only be obtained from within the palace environment (Fig. 33.10). In a series of mini jumenengan dale events, there is an international symposium event; one of the themes raised is about fashion and the gathering at the Yogyakarta Palace. Providing information about how clothing can be an element of culture, from fashion, you can talk about the characteristics of the user and make symbols in society, starting from the position in the palace to the function of each outfit.

Confine Intertwine Concept of Yogyakarta In its development, there is at least a bonded relationship in the development of tourism in Yogyakarta. It is this intertwine confine that then makes cultural tourism in Yogyakarta become so dynamic because it involves cross generation so that it will not be eroded by time. In Yogyakarta itself, culture, tourism, and education go in harmony. These three aspects are supported by six factors, namely, academicians, business, government, community, media, and tourist. All elements must contribute to a country’s or region’s development capacity. These elements should coexist because no development can be accomplished solely by one element. Then comes the concept of “confine intertwine” development in which elements of government, society or community, academics, entrepreneurs, and the media unite to build togetherness in development (Fig. 33.11). The approach in involving millennial generation in participating in promoting cultural tourism events in the Yogyakarta Palace can be seen in the concept of “confine intertwine” or the “limitation of relations.” This concept is used as an effort

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Fig. 33.10 International symposium to allow broader audience to learn more about the palace as in Instagram account of Keraton Yogyakarta. (Source: KratonJogja, 2020b)

Fig. 33.11 Confine intertwine of Yogyakarta. (Source: the authors’ construct, 2020)

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to solve the problems that occur because of differences in the way of thinking between millennial generation and concepts built by older generations in the tourism development of Yogyakarta. Hence, the linkage of these actors is undeniably important in order to create a positive collaboration in promoting cultural tourism events. The challenge is to find and express “confines” that can help millennial and previous generations to negotiate with each other in a good relationship. These limits can be formed from differences in views that are influenced by age and experience of millennials which are considered to be still small when compared to previous generations. The limitation of manners in the social and cultural order in the Yogyakarta Palace also makes it even more complicated. Establishing boundaries in the pillars of tourism development in Yogyakarta, as well as placing other components in tourism development, such as the position of government, academics, business, tourists, media, and community is a big challenge for millennial generation. This practice in forming millennial generation boundaries can be carried out in synergy even though it is limited by the monarchy of the Keraton Yogyakarta. However, it must be understood that whatever conception is determined, they will represent a picture among the many possibilities that could arise. Therefore, the more images we get from millennials, the more clearly defined boundaries are in supporting millennial involvement in promoting cultural tourism events in Yogyakarta. In promoting cultural tourism events, millennial generation is expected to be able to explore the capabilities of their characteristics such as the ability in the Internet world. The limitation happens because of the traditions as many are still considered “sacred” in the Yogyakarta Palace. Places and events that are sacred are prohibited to be exposed to the outside world. Hence secrecy is what makes this place so special as not all are open to the public and visitors. At one point, this limitation needs to be looked thoroughly as there are clear boundaries where the millennial position in merely promoting or engaging in translating the “identity” of the palace. When it is “secret,” they will try to explore further even though it is prohibited. Exploration from the millennials must be given clear boundaries so that they can understand the extent to which they will explore the attractions for the sake of cultural tourism. The identity of millennial generation is not a solid identity, as they cannot always be expected, nor is it something that can be leveled for all. In fact, millennials become more complex and have differences on each side, depending on the environment around them. When finding complex problems within the boundaries formed, finally the original identity of this millennial generation will be clearly visible. This makes the need for good communication so that there is no misperception. The inability of millennial generation in carrying out message from specific cultural event has sometimes a disadvantage in creating promotional content. Millennial, when in the beginning, will do the idealistic thing from themselves that makes it difficult to understand by the public. Hence the millennial team in The Keraton Yogyakarta must be able to as they must understand that boundaries exist. Especially cultural events held in Yogyakarta Palace, traditional rules and customs

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must be obeyed as the palace itself is also considered sacred to the people of Yogyakarta. Promotion in the tourism service industry is a form of building communication between destinations, attractions, marketers, and tourists. Reading messages that are on the appeal of cultural tourism by marketers who then reach tourists need good communication, while the power and energy of cultural tourism attractions is a message that must be communicated by marketers in the form of appropriate promotions to tourists. So, external, internal, and interactive communication is needed in building synergy in promoting cultural tourism events in Yogyakarta: internal, from tourist attraction to marketers, external from marketers to tourists, and interactive between cultural tourism attractions with marketers. Clear boundaries that are well communicated will form a good relationship (intertwine). Relationships in promoting cultural tourism events by millennials are supported with the application of technology. The relationship of the restrictions given to millennial in making relations with the tourism, education, and cultural components which are the pillars of the development of tourism destinations in Yogyakarta become a synergy with millennial relations in promoting cultural tourism events in Yogyakarta. Intertwine is twist that twine together, circling one to another that coexisted together. This intertwine also connects or links two or more things. The existing circles in Yogyakarta as the cornerstone of tourism development are culture, tourism, and education interconnected and tightened. Intertwine of the three circles in promoting cultural tourism events places millennials in the inner circle to maintain balance with the boundaries that have been communicated. Intertwine which was formed in the promotion of cultural tourism events put millennial generation in the middle, as the center that drives the pillars of tourism development in Yogyakarta. Millennials, even though they are in the middle as marketers in promoting culture in the palace, still have clear boundaries where millennials cannot touch all the circles in the pillars of tourism development, but are given the opportunity to maximize the characteristics of this millennial generation. The limitation of the relationship (confine intertwine) in promoting cultural tourism events in the Yogyakarta Palace is circled by the desires, needs, and expectations of tourists, academics as components that form a scientific approach, business as a mobilizer, the media as a messenger, the community as a host, and the government in making policy. The government element has the political power to formulate a policy through decisions. While the community or community is called social power. Academics produce knowledge that makes life easier, faster, and cheaper. Then, there’s business people or entrepreneurs who will create creative industry within the city. The media can spread the good news and create image of Yogyakarta, lastly the tourist who also co-created the city until to-date. Confine intertwine in the education sector can also be done, namely, in community activists or care about education, where when there is a problem with non-school children with a category of children not yet in school, children dropping

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out of school, and children not graduating further, then the concept of pentahelix is very appropriate, there is involvement between the academic elements, community, government, CSR, media, and community participation. With universities and academics, collaboration can be carried out through academic studies, by compiling appropriate local tourism business acceleration baselines in one region, how they see their purchasing power, and regional inflation trends, including constraints and problems and alternative solutions, while providing alternative policy directions for regions so that regions that were previously empty of business actors then grow “subir” even mushrooming small business businesses. On the regional policy side, for example, local communities are given broad opportunities to be able to access capital, including the help of appropriate tools, or if the budget is limited to local governments, then there are business services that can be accessed by citizens when opening new businesses or free sector consulting services small and medium business. As an education city, Yogyakarta is increasingly benefiting from the emergence of tourism ambassadors from among students. A total of 110 public and private universities with a total of 377,329 students in 2018 will be ambassadors to promote the existence of Yogyakarta tourism nationally and internationally. Students who are conducting their studies in Yogyakarta also play a role as catalysts for tourism development. Students from almost all regions in Indonesia will share the beauty and diversity of tourist attractions that are spread throughout the districts/cities. With such a complex tourism capital, the realization of Yogyakarta as a tourist destination city will be realized if the community is able to preserve culture, create tourism development innovations, and can make tourism as a driving force for other economic sectors. Through millennials, presenting cultural content can be exiting, because the concept can actually be processed to be more contemporary. Working on culturebased tourism undeniably enhances this sector to become the locomotive of the creative economy. Confine intertwine becomes very important, but there must be a foundation and conductors so that they do not run individually. Here, the ego must be muted in order to build greater tourism. There is a mission and vision contained in it that is compact, mutual support, and cooperation in building target targets. Through a strong partnership and a conducive climate, any sector can be done either the tourism sector, small and medium businesses, cooperatives, or the franchise sector. The tourism sector, which needs development, also requires young people who struggle to develop the sector so that it can be used to improve the welfare of the community (Pitanatri & Pitana, 2019). Guiding young people from an early age or regenerating youth who are tasked with advancing the tourism industry in their regions is urgently needed. Until now, one of the efforts of the central, provincial, and district/city governments to involve youth in advancing the tourism industry by doing a cadre of youth in the tourism sector is the holding of the tourism ambassador election. The government hopes that early development of the young generation in the field of tourism will produce superior and competitive human resources so that the tourism industry in the region is progressing.

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Efforts for community empowerment can be assessed from three aspects: first, enabling, namely, creating an atmosphere enabling the potential of the community to develop. Every society has potential that can be developed; in other words, there is no society without power. Empowerment is an effort to build power by encouraging, motivating, and raising awareness of the potential of the community and efforts to develop it. Second, empowering is to strengthen the potential of the community through concrete steps that involve providing various inputs and opening up in various opportunities that will make the community more empowered. Third is protecting, namely, protecting and defending the interests of the weak community. To increase community participation in the decision-making process concerning themselves and their communities is an important element, so that community empowerment is very closely related to the stabilization, civilization, and experience of democracy. Policies aimed at regulating and promoting sustainable tourism could have a significant impact on these locations’ competitiveness. According to Ekanayake and Long (2012), tourism may be a growth engine in underdeveloped countries. The researchers determined that, on average, tourist development does not result in economic expansion in a developing nation, even though the strength of this association varies according to the circumstances in which the country finds itself (Pulido-Fernandez et al., 2014). This reasoning is consistent with the ideas of Dwyer et al. (Dwyer, Forsyth, & Spur, 2004; Dwyer, Mellor, et al., 2004) and Rosentraub and Joo (2009) that tourism expansion can influence socioeconomic development under the right conditions. Political stability, supportive institutions, and decentralized structures are critical for developing countries to apply a sustainable tourist planning approach (Tosun & Timothy, 2001). Only by addressing these challenges will tourism be able to significantly impact the quality of life in these communities. According to Lee (2001), cleaner manufacturing can be defined as the continuous improvement of products and services in order to decrease the use of natural resources and the risk to the human population and the environment. Cleaner production, as a broad method based on the idea of “prevention,” has significant social and economic ramifications, as the majority of environmental effects also have social and economic impacts. Butowski (2017) advanced a hypothesis that he tested in five Polish destinations: that a tourism destination’s sustainability serves as a proxy for its tourism development. The researchers stressed the critical nature of demonstrating how sustainable tourism may boost economic output, raise wealth, mitigate environmental risk, and promote prosperity (Pulido-Fernandez et al., 2015). All of these principles are inextricably linked to the concept of destination competitiveness. Thus, the critical problem is to demonstrate that sustainability can help poor nations improve their destination competitiveness by thoroughly evaluating Hypothesis 1. “Competitiveness is illusory without sustainability; for a destination to be competitive, its tourist growth must be sustainable, not just economically and ecologically, but also socially, culturally, and politically” (Ritchie & Crouch, 2000: p. 5). The development of the tourism industry requires support from various elements, ranging from the government, local communities in the tourism destination, and

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communities outside the destination, and no less important is the support of the younger generation or so-called the “millennials.” This generation has a strategic role and position in advancing the survival of the nation and the country in the future, as well as the progress of tourism. Central, provincial, and local governments should create a conducive atmosphere that stimulates the birth of creative and innovative ideas among the younger generation. All elements of society should also contribute to creating a conducive atmosphere and, more importantly, develop a spirit of achievement in young people. The spirit born of the younger generation is expected to create great works that enhance Indonesia’s tourism worldwide.

Lessons Learnt The concern of the people of DIY is supported by local governments in preserving culture so that culture is hereditary. The results of the 2018 Socio-Cultural and Educational Module show that as many as 11.56 percent of the population aged 5 years and over still play traditional/folk games; 84.02 percent know fairy tales/ folklore; and 75 percent more use traditional products. Cultural preservation has also been carried out by various generations. During the same year period, 1.82 percent of households still held traditional ceremonies, and 4.52 residents had participated in art performances. Reflecting on developed countries such as South Korea and Japan with extraordinary technological advancements, the culture in the country is still held in high esteem. The aim is the same, which is to make culture a reflection of development policy making. No wonder if in the development policy making in modern times this should not violate cultural values including historic buildings. As in the construction of the toll road that passes through DIY, it should not interfere with historical buildings, namely, the Yogya Philosophy Axis (Mount Merapi, White Pillar, Kraton, Krapyak Stage, to the South Sea) which are being proposed as world heritage to UNESCO. Community life in this destination has reflected cultural preservation. This historical place has become a tourist attraction. There are at least 33 cultural tourism historical places that enrich Yogyakarta. This historical place is also supported with local community-based tourism. To date there are 132 tourism villages in Yogyakarta. The aim is none other than so that the local community can directly enjoy the benefits of tourism development. Tourism is able to foster various economic sectors, open up employment opportunities, and create new jobs such as trade, food and drink supplies and accommodation sectors. This is undoubtedly consistent with Tourism 4.0 notion by Korže (2019: p. 37), who views tourist 4.0 as a new stage of tourism 730 development in comparison to E- and M-tourism. E-tourism refers to the digitization of tourism, which involves commercialization over the Internet to offer tourism services such as lodging bookings and transportation, whereas Mtourism refers to tourism-related interactions via cellular devices such as GPS, electronic maps, and so on (Korže 2019, p. 37). Tourism 4.0 is a relatively new concept, and as a result, each country has developed a unique plan.

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Tourism 4.0 has emerged as a trend in recent years as a means of improving the tourism business in a number of nations worldwide, including Indonesia. The Indonesian Ministry of Tourist described this as a shift of the tourism strategy toward Tourism 4.0 as part of the government’s endeavor to promote the Indonesian tourism industry. These tactics are reflected most prominently in Wonderful Indonesia’s national branding. Digital Tourism 4.0, Strategic Imperatives for Transforming Tourism Human Resources to Compete Globally in Industry 4.0, 5 Technology Enablers, 9 Key Discipline Execution Initiatives, and a Pentahelix Collaboration Approach 2019 Tourism development are targeted toward millennial tourists with several growth targets, with millennial travelers expected to account for 50% of all international visitors to Indonesia by 2025. The tourism sector, which needs development, also requires young people who struggle to develop the sector so that it can be used to improve the welfare of the community. Guiding young people from an early age or regenerating youth who are tasked with advancing the tourism industry in their regions are urgently needed. Until now the efforts of the central, provincial, and district/city governments to involve youth in advancing the tourism industry by doing a cadre of youth in the tourism sector one of which is the holding of the tourism ambassador election. The government hopes that early development of the young generation in the field of tourism will produce superior and competitive human resources so that the tourism industry in the region is progressing.

Conclusion Millennials through digitalization play a significant role in cultural tourism in Yogyakarta. The collaboration of millennials as a catalyst for the synergy that occurs between culture, education, and tourism further enhances the harmony. What happens in Yogyakarta can be effective because it is supported by a community that is so strong in maintaining its culture. In addition, the collaboration of actors involved such as academics, business, government, community, media, and tourists is an important essence of cultural tourism that can develop in this destination. On the one hand technology holds a role that is so important for the development of tourism in Yogyakarta. Through technology, the barrier between millennials and the older generation, especially in the Yogyakarta Palace, seems to be melting. Nevertheless, research related to millennials and their influence on the holding of cultural events in Yogyakarta is still very limited. Research published internationally is also still difficult to find. Therefore, further research is needed to further explore how millennials create new patterns in promoting cultural events not only in Yogyakarta but in other destinations in Indonesia. These studies are expected to not only enrich understanding of patterns of collaboration across generations but also provide a more comprehensive picture of the success of a contemporary cultural event that combines the application of technology.

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Technology Application in the Hong Kong Tourism and Hospitality Industry

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Information Technology (IT) Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Online Marketing in Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tourism in Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Tourism Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Internet and Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Adopted by the Hong Kong Tourism Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recent Activities in Some Hotels in Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of Big Data in Hong Kong Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virtual Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Tourism and hospitality are rapidly growing industries worldwide, and information technology plays a critical role in these industries. Information technology is a significant tool for business and trade, and in the tourism and hospitality M. Alauddin (*) Department of Marketing, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong Department of Business Administration, International Islamic University Chittagong, Chittagong, Bangladesh J. J. Li Department of Marketing, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong M. A. Kamal International Tourism and Convention Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong Department of Management Studies, Faculty of Business Studies (FBS), Bangladesh University of Professionals, Dhaka, Bangladesh © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_34

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industries (THI), its role has altered from supporting operations to assisting aspects of strategic decision-making. It is almost incredible today for any tourism enterprise to succeed without the use of information technology. This chapter will focus on the application of technology in Hong Kong’s tourism and hospitality industries. Hong Kong is renowned as a global tourist attraction. Its many islands and sightseeing venues attract millions of foreign tourists annually, and technology is a key enabler of its success. This chapter will also cover how Hong Kong uses technology to develop and maintain its tourism and hospitality sectors. This chapter will provide tourism entrepreneurs with information about the updated technologies used in the THI and facilitate them to make better business decisions. Thus, the findings in this chapter are insightful for a number of tourism destinations and the application of technology in the Hong Kong THI. Keywords

Information technology · Tourism · Hospitality · Application · Hong Kong

Introduction Tourism and hospitality industries (THI) are dynamic businesses that bring together service providers and members of the public in a unique and personal way. Hence, many tourism and hospitality operators try their best to ensure standard service quality. This industry is becoming a great source to earn foreign currency. Travel and tourism contribute substantially to virtually every economy in the world, and these two industries continue to grow exponentially (WTTC, 1995). THI is one of the leading industries in the world in terms of creation of job (Mowlana & Smith, 1993). Most of the developed countries earn huge foreign currency from this sector. Thus, it helps to increase the GNP of many countries. Modern technology has made travel easy and comfortable for tourists, and both IT and ICT have become essential in this industry. In today’s tourism and hospitality business, the use of IT is particularly essential to attract a large number of local and foreign tourists. Tourism entrepreneurs now are expanding their businesses with the help of IT. Statista (2018) reports that the sales of global digital travel increased from US$470 billion in 2014 to US$629 billion in 2017. Many experts on industry proclaim that the transfer from “offline to online booking” will increase in the upcoming years due to improved mobile-based experiences (Phocuswright, 2017). ICT is closely related to the tourism industry, and different tourism operations are organized and planned based on ICT. Although the sector of the hospitality industry is human intensive, different operational activities of hotels, restaurants, motels, and airports use robotic technologies to smooth the activities. Advanced technology is empowering the tourism industry and helping to form new markets so that tourists get the best services. Xiang (2018) stated that “technology had become a window to gain access to various aspects of travel behavior and the tourism experience and technology now played a pivotal role in knowledge creation” (p.149). For that

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purpose, ICT has made a good position in the THI, and these research papers have been assembled in different reputed journals, thus proceeding the theoretical understanding and providing industry partners with real-world solutions in the field of IT. Lamberton and Stephen (2016) reinforce the notion that frequently revisiting the movement and development of domains is justified so that academicians and experts can chart the following phase of pioneering, demanding, and pertinent research. Navío-Marco et al. (2018) reconsider the breakthrough study of Buhalis and Law (2008) and “traces the progression of eTourism research.” Many new technologies such as “augmented reality, virtual reality, robotics and artificial intelligence” have added a new dimension in the THI. According to Laudon and Laudon (2006), “information technology (IT) is inseparable from business operations, customer consumer services, cost control, and strategic planning.” To make a better decision in the tourism industry, the role of IT is immense to support different operational activities (Winata & Mia, 2005) and marketing (Connolly et al., 1998). Jeong et al. (2003) explore that the significance of online information is connected to information satisfaction. The adoption of ICT is much required, as the competition is getting intense in the THI. Most of the tourism entrepreneurs are formulating their business strategies focusing on IT especially in the hotel and motel industry, the restaurant industry, and amusement industry. The hotel industry is considered as a crucial aspect for the growth of the tourism industry. Davis and Davidson (1991) claim that information technology could help to reshape the hotel industry and identify the tourist’s needs and demands that will help the hotel manager deliver the tourist best services. Likewise, Cho and Olsen (1998) stated, “IT can transform the nature of products, processes, companies, industries, and competition in the hospitality industry” (p.388). The hotel industry in HK increased due to the rapid development of the HK tourism industry during 1990 to early 2000. From 1992 to 2001, “Hong Kong attained an average hotel occupancy rate of over 80 percent, while the corresponding figure for worldwide hotels was less than 70 percent” (HKTB, 2002). It is very difficult for the hotel managers to maintain hundreds of rooms without using proper information technology.

Information Technology (IT) Applications There is a common misconception that the tourism industry does not use modern technology. In fact, however, IT systems are applied throughout hotels. Fuchs et al. (2009) list “eleven applications that are typically employed in hotels, including PMSs, costing and accounting systems, enterprise resource planning, yield management, human resources management (HRM), electronic customer relationship management, intranet, email marketing, websites with booking functionality, e-procurement, and online platforms” (p.272). Most of the hotels are installing better technology systems to improve the operations. Moreover, David et al. (1996) found in their study that hotels (CFOs) assumed that using computer applications would bring more impact that is positive on productivity in the front office but that improvements to back-office

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systems would have less effect. Some scholars recommended that the functionality of current back-office systems is required to augment strategic planning and decisionmaking of marketing managers (Siguaw et al., 2000). Earlier researchers also found that the link between IT and hotel management is positive. For example, Kim and Ham (2006) found some hotels improved their service quality due to implementing IT applications and indicated IT implementation helps to develop service and raise employee morale in full-service hotels. IT can play a significant role in designing the THI. Law and Jogaratnam (2005) decided that the hotels in HK tend to have low levels of technology adoption. IT adoption helps hotels to minimize different types of cost, for example, transaction cost (Chathoth, 2007), and hotel managers perceived performance has been revealed to be completely related with their interaction with IT and economic participation (Winata & Mia, 2005). Chen and Schwartz (2006) proposed a model of customer booking decision and established that knowledge of demand affects willingness to book. Today’s customer can book hotels in advance and can communicate very easily over email and the Internet with the managers of hotels.

Online Marketing in Tourism Industry Tourism business has become easier due to the easy access of the Internet, which is considered a low-cost marketing channel. Today’s communication system has become easier due to the Internet, and it has made the relationship easier among the different parties involved in tourism business. Stockdale (2007) suggested using “self-service technology to handle customer relationship management” (CRM) to manage this issue. Moreover, the connection between companies and clients has become closer due to the e-relationship marketing (e-RM) with research results showing that there is a positive association between e-RM and hotel businesses (Bai et al., 2006). The adoption of digital tech could support different organizations related to tourism business to maintain attractiveness and improve sustainable link with customers. For example, it is found from a case study that most of the hotels in Singapore maintain database collection (Gan et al., 2007) and that customers with diverse cultures had a noteworthy willingness to provide personal information for permission marketing. These types of information help the businesspersons to get the updated data from the tourists (Brey et al., 2007). Researchers emphasized the use of social media can play a strategic role to improve the network among the tourists, hotel managers, restaurant managers, etc. (Lin et al., 2020). Hu et al. (2005) stressed maintaining a better networking with the potential clients is needed not only in the hospitality industry but also in the academic societies and suggested “using database management techniques” to provide competent solutions to strengthen interactions with prospective clients. The strategies of travel agents also change due to the changes of online distribution (Kozak, 2006) and also change the hotel room allocation policies (Christodoulidou et al., 2007). In the upcoming, these strategies are going to become important tools for tourism marketing (Cooper & Macneil, 2005). Tso and Law (2005) found that “a comparison of websites with

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different business models revealed that the websites of local travel agents offer better room rates than online websites” (p.305). Because customers can now easily shop around to search for the best rate (Thompson, 2005), also international hotel chains also offer, “best price guarantees.” However, some middle-level hotels still rely on “traditional distribution channels” due to their lack of information about e-commerce (Dabas & Manaktola, 2007).

Tourism in Hong Kong Hong Kong is one of the famous cities for tourism where tourists can enjoy many siteseeing spots (Lam & Zhang, 1999). It is a city of a variety of the combination of eastern and western culture. It has many shopping malls, which are of excellent standards. Tourists also come to enjoy the international cuisine of HK (Choi, 1999). In 2001, “the city, with a population of 6.7 million, received more than 13.7 million visitors from all around the world, and total receipts reached $HK64.2 billion or $US8.2 billion, contributing about 5 percent to the gross domestic product (GDP)” (HK Census and Statistics Department, 2002). It drew the tourist’s attention due to its position in the global market. For instance, Lew and Mckercher (2002) classified the HK tourism as a “single destination, gateway destination, egress destination, touring destination and hub destination through the examination of tourists’ itineraries” (p. 612); Law and Au (1999a, 1999b) applied an expert system to estimate the demand for Japanese for travel to HK; and Wong and Law (2003) assessed “tourists’ satisfaction with shopping” in HK; Qu and Ping (1999) studied the “motivation and satisfaction of Hong Kong cruise travelers”; Qu (2000) examined HK “as a hub of international conference in Southeast Asia.”

Smart Tourism Concept The vision of smart tourism is a popular term, and it requires huge managerial skills and required data to implement it (Fesenmaier & Xiang, 2016). Xiang and Fesenmaier (2017) stated that “the technological foundations of smart tourism is multidimensional, consisting of the ubiquitous infrastructure, mobile and contextaware information systems, and the increasingly complex and dynamic connectivity that supports interactions not only with one’s physical environment but also the community and society at large directly or indirectly related to the traveler” (p. 303). Zhu et al. (2014) argued the tourism and hospitality industry could be benefitted from the growth of smart tourism vision by providing appropriate access to information for tourism organizations. This concept is getting more popular worldwide. Tourism entrepreneurs are putting great efforts into using ICT to develop businesses. Scholars have also emphasized the importance of smart tourism. It is also getting popular in the academic arena. Tourism entrepreneurs try to make everything related to tourism activities “smart.” It is mainly based on ICT that assimilate different hardware and software to provide real-time attentiveness of the real world. The word

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Table 34.1 Shift of tourism Sphere Core technology Travel phase Lifeblood Core activities

e-Tourism Digital “Internet and web-based technology (websites, social media, OTAs, GDS, CRS, PMS)” Phase dreaming, searching, post-trip experiences Information “Searching, booking co-creation”

Smart tourism Digital and physical Sensors, mobiles, IoT, cloud computing All phases (focused mainly on during the trip phase) Big data “Co-decision, product personalization”

Source: Gretzel et al. (2015)

“smart” is used to clarify a mode of action performed in a business space (Gretzel, Werthner, et al., 2015). Li et al. (2017) state that “the connotation of the word smart is fairly comprehensive and that the concept expresses the ability to do what is right even in very complicated situations” (p.294). The variation of smart technologies is the basis of smart tourism and that numerous changes in present applications of management, operation, and distribution using ICT create smart tourism practices. Smart tourism is a social phenomenon that integrates information technologies fully into the tourism experience. Smart tourism can also be experienced “as a technological information exchange channel using the internet and applications such as virtual reality and augmented reality” (Hunter et al., 2015, p.106). According to Gretzel et al. (2015), “smart tourism is a novel concept that enables the use of information communication technology in the tourism sector by destinations, businesses, and tourists, allowing large amounts of data to be transformed into valuecreating structures” (p.179). Smart tourism is an approach to the tourism industry where smart technologies are used throughout the value chain, tourism experiences are enhanced with advanced systems, and better services are ensured. The influence of ICT on the hospitality and tourism sectors started in the early 1990s (Buhalis & Law, 2008). Mobile technology, social media, and websites became commonplace as connecting media between the THI and the traveling public (Law et al., 2018; Sotiriadis, 2017; Leung et al., 2013) (Table 34.1).

The Internet and Websites The Internet is a ubiquitous worldwide communication channel. According to Law (2000), the Internet is a universal computer network connecting millions of computers in countries over the globe. Internet consumers use various types of services such as web browsers, use net newsfeeds, file transfers, and electronic mail. With the accessibility of modern distribution networks via the Internet, travel service provider such as hotels, rental cars suppliers, and airlines have been able to transform their distribution systems by introducing their services through the Internet (Law et al., 2002; Kasavana et al., 1997; Morrison et al., 1999; Montgomery, 1999). With the growing number of self-dependent travelers, many hotels and airlines have seized

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the opportunity presented by the independent culture to minimize operating costs by permitting visitors to confirm reservations through the Internet (Law & Leung, 2000). Airlines such as “Cathay Pacific and American Airlines” have adopted their own online homepages and marketing services (Law & Leung, 2000). Likewise, most hotels have websites that allow consumers to reserve rooms via the Internet (O’Connor & Frew, 2000; O’Connor & Horan, 1999; Morrison et al., 1999). In addition, regional and global tourism boards via the Internet present an abundant amount of destination-related information (Weeks & Crouch, 1999). Travel-related websites in Hong Kong started in the late 1990s (Law et al., 2002), and today’s tourism business relies heavily on the Internet. The tourism industry now depends on websites instead of travel brochures to meet travel information needs for essentially all destinations and attractions and for every travel-related service worldwide in order to capture the overall market and satisfy clients effectively and efficiently. By connecting millions of people across the world, the Internet makes it easy for international tourists to access information about tourism destinations in any country.

Mobile Technology Mobile technology is an increasingly popular channel for consumers to communicate with hotel and tourism service providers and to get updated information regarding tourism sites. Mobile applications (apps) on tablets and smartphones have become key tools and essential ingredients for consumers to communicate through the Internet (Wang et al., 2012). Storytelling portable tour directors can enrich the visitor experience not only by delivering general historical evidence but also by adding role-playing games that extend guests’ attention (Kim & Schliesser, 2007). These apps can be personalized to individualistic likings. Mobile technology plays a vital role in event management and harmonization during large festivals (Lexhagen et al., 2005). Wong et al. (2020) found that users favored mobile website design to get updated information on hotels booking. Hackernoon (2017) argues that there has been a great technological shift in people’s behavior. He found that adults typically spend an average of more than four hours per day using smartphones for communication and social networking. Moreover, this technology has radically transformed business processes and visitor behaviors in the area of tourism and hospitality (Wang et al., 2016). Tourist acceptance of mobile technologies has encouraged the advancement of travel-related mobile service information such as “app-based mobile tour guides (AMTG) or mobile electronic tourist guides (METG) and near-field communication (NFC) for mobile payments.” Experts also point out the benefit of global positioning systems (GPS) that helps make location marketing effective (Yoon et al., 2017; Mak et al., 2015; Beldona et al., 2012). Consumers find mobile technologies easy, convenient, and useful when they are engaged in travel-oriented activities, such as ordering food (Okumus & Bilgihan, 2014), making payments and reservations (Morosan, 2014; Fong et al., 2017; Ozturk et al., 2016), searching for information

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(No & Kim, 2014; Kim et al., 2013), and moving around a destination (Lu et al., 2015). Chen et al. (2016) identified five distinct features of hotel mobile technology applications, to wit, social media links, hotel functions, hotel information, reservation information, and additional features. Mobile technologies influence hospitality and tourism firms’ service offerings and generate additional income (Lee et al., 2010; Jung et al., 2014; Law et al., 2018). Hotels that utilize mobile technologies have been found to have higher operating incomes and better occupancy rates (Makki et al., 2016). Law et al. (2015) argued that mobile technology is in a developing stage for hotel and travel agencies in Hong Kong. The implementation of technology is concentrated on social media and websites. In addition, mobile technologies have been found to influence customer segmentation to satisfy tourists (Law et al., 2018).

Technology Adopted by the Hong Kong Tourism Board Nowadays, cultivating online content is essential, as a good number of people refer to reviews, endorsements, videos, and other evidence on websites and social media when planning a trip. To gain consumer interest, the HKTB is looking to involve travel websites and magazines, streaming and TV channels, and overseas and local organizations and personalities to generate more than 200 genuine stories presenting the tourism experiences in Hong Kong. These real stories will present local content through storytelling and creative media with the help of updated filming technologies delivered through different channels (Legislative Council Panel on Economic Development, 2018). The HKTB also plans to work with Google to develop websites and ensure seamless assimilation across tablet, mobile, and desktop. The HKTB’s mobile app, My Hong Kong Guide, will integrate with its website enabling users to functionalize Google features such as “Google Maps navigation and Google Trips and Destinations” without installing or downloading the application. The system will also send notifications to users about destination information, such as fascinations, dining and shopping, and mega-events. To attract visitors, HKTB will display QR codes so that users can access interesting facts, historical background, and recommended routes. Moreover, AR and VR technologies, video and voice livestreaming, and navigation will be engaged to deepen consumer interaction (Legislative Council Panel on Economic Development, 2018).

Recent Activities in Some Hotels in Hong Kong According to South China Morning Post (2019), hotels are increasingly utilizing technology in day-to-day activities. In January 2019, Hilton declared that they allow visitors to stream Netflix on in-room TVs in its “connected rooms,” ensuring it as the first hotel to collaborate with the media firm. The feature is incorporated into the

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“Hilton Honors smartphone app” and can be activated prior to the consumer’s stay. This app also operates the TV channels, temperature, and lighting in rooms (Carter, 2019). The Hong Kong-based IT organization Neoma is working with the “Hong Kong and Shanghai Hotels (HSH)” on its Kaleidoscope Lab program. The aim of this program is to develop innovations for the luxury hospitality industry. HSH runs Peninsula Hotels in ten cities worldwide including Hong Kong. According to the CEO of Neoma, Francois Chabudie visitors are not patient anymore and imagine hotels to deliver them an updated and unified experience at each stage of their visit. He also pointed out “we realized it takes a lot of time and energy for staff to do so, so we created Gaia, the world’s first AI assistant helping staff serve the 21st-century guest.” The Internet of things relays guests’ data to hotel staff using a smartphone app. Gaia receives signals from room keys through Bluetooth signals indicating guests’ location in the hotel and their VIP status and provides suggestions for serving them. For example, a staff member could be briefed about a guest’s language or preferences. Location intelligence can, over time, suggest the guest’s behavior patterns. Chabaudie says that employees will be informed when a VIP enters a particular location and be recapped about a table booking when the visitor reaches. Gaia is the outcome of 5 years of research. It can count 100,000 records in a second. For large resorts, Gaia can cover outside zones so that parents can find their children. However, this location-based information will set warning bells ringing to anyone alarmed about their privacy. Chabaudie says that they consider privacy seriously and do not interfere with visitors inside their rooms. If visitors do not favor this customized method, they have the option to stay fully unidentified. Chabaudie explains that Gaia will not minimize costs, as hotel staffing will not be reduced (Carter, 2019). In 2018, Hotel Flyzoo, owned by Alibaba, introduced robotic receptionists in China. The robot uses facial recognition identification to check in visitors. Guests utilize voice power to request room service, change room temperature, operate lights, or alter the TV channel in the room (Carter, 2019).

Use of Big Data in Hong Kong Tourism Due to the development of ICT, big data is being used in some developed countries. This term refers to a huge amount of digital information gathered from several sources such as browsing the Internet as well as purchasing history, smartphone apps, and financial contacts. The collected data is then examined to recognize trends and specific tastes to fit products or services for consumers. The tourism and hospitality industries of Hong Kong are going to adopt the influence of big data to discover ways to increase sales and patrons through the personalization of visitors’ experiences within a recent tourism slump and in the face of fierce global competition for tourist dollars. This is fundamental to its survival as tourists are more than ever planning and reserving holidays online, and travel agencies with physical shops in Hong Kong are becoming progressively rare due to databases and smartphone apps, which deliver the similar purposes (Singh, 2017).

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Virtual Reality Shangri-La Hotels and Resorts is a renowned global hotel chain that is making a huge investment in new technology to appeal to guests and global visitors at its various sites around the world. Recently Shangri-La Hotels introduced “Samsung Gear Virtual Reality” headsets to some guests, a product made by VR technology leader Oculus. The aim of this initiative is to give prospective guests an immersive 360-degree video experience simply by strapping on a comfortable headset (Shangri-La, 2015).

Smart Rooms The Peninsula Hotel, a property of the Hong Kong and Shanghai Hotels, has taken room enhancement initiatives with new in-room technology and interior design. The initiatives include collaborative “digital touch-screen tablets” pre-set in one of five languages: French, English, Simplified and Traditional Chinese, and Japanese. Visitors can manage all in-room facilities via the desk and bedside wall panels and tablets. The Peninsula Hong Kong offers free long-distance VOIP phone calls from the hotel’s Rolls-Royce fleet and from guest rooms. Other in-room enhancements include increased in-room audio-visual facilities and personal electronic devices to wireless connectivity. The in-room audio-visual features include a 46in flat-screen, Internet TV, Blu-ray LED, iPad/iPod docking station, sound bar speaker system, and memory-card reader. To attract foreign tourists, Hong Kong tourism entrepreneurs are making everything smart to get the attention of tourists (Carter, 2019).

Conclusion Due to the service-orientation of the tourism industry, many executives and employees find it difficult to keep up with advances in information technology and information communication technology affecting the industries (Law & Jogaratnam, 2005). Tourism entrepreneurship should continue to sightsee the probable chances emerging through IT to achieve competitive advantage and be even more practical in recognizing the competence of technology. To attain these goals, managers related to THI should conserve a better relationship with local and foreign tourists by using technology-assisted tools. This paper reviews recent developments and applications of information technology usage in the THI in Hong Kong. The authors also analyzed various issues related to tourism, such as mobile technology, the smart tourism concept, and big data in the THI. It will empower local and foreign tourists, in general, to better understand the latest applications of information and communication technology in Hong Kong. This city is developing exponentially in all sectors, and tourism is booming. Many hoteliers are experts in the technological field and use updated technology. For those reasons, international tourists like this city very much.

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This chapter covers some innovative initiatives, which have been taken by the Hong Kong Tourism Board regarding IT use in the THI in Hong Kong. This chapter will help not only tourists but also hotel and motel managers, policymakers, tourism entrepreneurs, etcetera. Information and communication technologies make travel easier and richer for tourists as well as speeding up operations and providing quick, easy access for tourists to make changes in tour packages and other travel products and tourism destinations. Information technology not only benefits local and foreign tourists, but it also adds value to the visitor experience, saves time, and costs throughout the value chain.

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Costs and Benefits of Adopting ICTs in Tourism Enterprises: Case study in Travel Agents and Tour Operators in Phnom Penh

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Lim Sengtong, Nhem Sochea, and Ou Phichhang

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICTs in Travel Agents and Tour Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roles of ICTs in Tourism Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adopting ICTs in Tourism Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Affecting ICT Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Findings and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ICT Infrastructures and Their Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SWOT Analysis of ICT Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Affecting ICT Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion and Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Travel Agents and Tour Operators (TATOs) have traditionally been a crucial part of a tourism ecosystem which play essential roles as an intermediary in tourism services delivery. However, the recent wave of unprecedented growth of new inventions of information and communication technologies (ICTs) have been posing a lot of pressures and threats toward the survival of TATOs, especially the multiple innovative digital business platforms. As a result, TATOs either choose to adopt the technology or face the threat of being out of business. In this study, researchers critically analyze the costs and benefits of adopting ICTs L. Sengtong 12Explore, Phnom Penh, Cambodia N. Sochea (*) Department of Tourism, Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia O. Phichhang Department of International Business Management, Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_35

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among TATOs in Phnom Penh. The study attempts to investigate the current ICT infrastructures in TATOs, SWOT analysis of ICTs, adoption factors of ICTs, and lastly the strategies TATOs consider to cope with the growth of ICT development. The qualitative approach is used for this investigation. Primarily, semi-structured in-depth interviews are carried out with 17 owners/managers of TATOs, industry leaders, and experts in the field. The study uses content analysis technique. The study reveals that only a small number of TATOs have adopted ICTs and have general knowledge and understanding of it. It shows that the level of ICT infrastructure in the current situation of TATOs is still on the surface level and mostly outdated. The findings of this study further point out that despite many challenges in ICT adoption, in return, it brings considerable benefits. TATOs continue to harness for their healthy growth in the market even if the threats of ongoing ICT inventions are substantially provided that they are striking to overcome the challenges of adoption. The study suggests some recommendations and implementations resulted from SWOT matrix analysis that was selected for TATOs to adopt to keep up with the growth of ICTs and become more resilience in the marketplace. Keywords

Travel agent/tour operator · ICTs · Cost and benefits · Adoption · Strategies

Introduction A revolution of technologies has become a significant change in the global economy and almost all aspects of human life (Kasem, 2014). Empowerment of e-business is an essential part of the success of an organization in this emerging high-tech environment, particularly the tourism industry given its benefit is performance optimization and marketing edge (Bandara & Silva, 2016). Tourism has been taking significant advantages on the offer of multimedia, communication technologies, and information system development to support the transformation of information in the industry (Buhalis & Deimezi, 2004). Thus, the successful adoption of ICTs in enterprises has also been recognized by the public over the years (Ashari et al., 2014). A lot of innovative business emerged as more people start to adopt the technology including peer-to-peer business model, the search engine portal, the online market place, etc. At the beginning of the new millennium, people are more interested in computing, dissemination, and content communication which have led to what we call information and communication technology (ICT). ICTs have just recently gained a lot of attention from both customers and suppliers in Cambodia market. The various sectors in Cambodia, including but not limited to the transportation sector, financial sectors, non-governmental organizations, and government, have gradually begun to adopt. There are also a lot of high-tech company expansions in the country as well. However, World Bank (2017) underlines the essential to do so to enhance the

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tourism sector’s readiness to reap more benefits and taking advantages of the ongoing surge in tourists’ arrivals. Based on Bradley, Hausman, and Nolan, cited from Buhalis (1998) and Seng (2014), TATOs are considered one of the backbones of the tourism industry as they have been playing critical roles as intermediaries between suppliers and consumers (Kasem, 2014). Currently, there are 682 TATOs in Cambodia, employing over 3000 people (MOT, 2017). Zaidan (2016) notes that advances in information technology have led to disintermediation and increasing online booking in time. Such advances have posed a significant threat for TATOs as mentioned by Tse (2003) that TATOs are being wiped out in the market because their roles are no more than being the middlemen which are no longer needed, especially when cost-efficient direction distribution channels are made possible through ICTs (Cazares, 2016). In order to thrive, Garkavenkoa et al. (n.d.) suggest that the integration into the market will largely depend on understanding and adoption of ICTs as it helps to reach their prospective customers, as well as to improve operation’s efficiency due to its potential and high growth of customer adoptions. This study is proposed to investigate the costs and benefits of adopting information and communication technologies (ICTs) among TATOs in Phnom Penh, one among four main tourism poles in Cambodia. It is the center of technology development in Cambodia as a case study. This study intends to identify existing ICT infrastructures in TATOs, to analyze SWOT of ICT adoption, figure out the adoption factors, and draw strategies for TATOs in light of ICT ongoing development.

ICTs in Travel Agents and Tour Operators There has been a growth of using ICTs in service-based businesses, and most of which are in cloud, mobility, and analytics (IDC, 2016). Those infrastructures include some necessary tools such as email, document management, enterprise resource planning or human resource system, web technologies, and other forms of e-training in business (First Cambodia, 2015). Besides, there are also some sorts of sophisticated applications such as integrated financial management, automating the process, electronic database, recorded payment and online report, budget preparation and development, procurement, accounting system and cash management, electric document management system, and online transaction. Similar to these, Gazem and Rahman (2014) categorize the roles of ICTs into several majors divisions in a service-based business. These include automating devices, knowledge dissemination, business productivity systems, contracting, entertaining, marketing, storage, ticketing and reservation, and transactions.

Roles of ICTs in Tourism Enterprise ICTs have primarily been used in training, database management, ongoing operation and technical support in the business (World Bank, 2010). According to Kamau

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(2015), these roles are clustered into two – operation and strategy. The former mainly deals with the internal system of operation of a company including acquiring information for administration, accounting processes, marketing and customer relationship management, and other forms of internal company operation (Cazares, 2016). Ashari et al. (2014) note the essential use of ICTs in tourism enterprises. The function and flow of the use of ICTs in an organization have been divided into three main areas. These include intra-organizational function, the inter-organization function which supports the communication and interconnection among or between an individual organization in the industry across transactional boundaries (Pease & Rowe, 2018), and distribution function which enable customers to access the information and make reservation and booking. Innovation and advance technology contributes to better opportunities to interact with customers in a more flexible way (Barnett & Standing, 2016). On strategic role of ICTs, according to Buhalis and Law (2008), the growth of public interests on the Internet has made it the most powerful tool tourism industry. The use of the Internet in travel agents (TAs) includes customizing service; attracting more customers via virtual brochures; bidding for contracts; communicating with customers; having access to the international market; providing information about suppliers, customers, and competitors; and assisting on online training (Zaidan, 2016). Cheung and Lam (2009) said that technologies have profound impacts on some generic strategies including:

Cost Advantage Technology has reduced the cost of operation in business and increase the efficacy of operation, which result in profitability. With the use of multimedia in the free platform such as social media, TATOs also allow customers to understand the products better (Cheung & Lam, 2009). The cost of production toward the quality of products and services will be both attractive in the marketplace with a lower cost of product delivery (Hemmatfar et al., 2010). Product Leadership The role of technology reshapes firms’ value chain since consumers are gradually adopting new technology due to valuable information and the ability to collect and analyze those information (Shanker, 2008) which then renovate and differentiate product and service to gain more competitive advantages (Hemmatfar et al., 2010). Technology also enhances some product attributions and its quality. Customer Focus ICTs have evolved dramatically in providing and innovating new tools for tourism marketing and support the connectivity between firm and consumers (Buhalis & Law, 2008). It helps maintain and enhance relationships with their customers via effective communication, and it also provides opportunities for the firm to target customer with specific offers and mass-customization (Cheung & Lam, 2009). The invention of social networks has made communication a lot easier and faster in spreading information (Cazares, 2016).

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Business Process ICTs support a variety of business performs by having more connection between suppliers as well as within the firm with faster speed and cost reductions. Also, it helps assist in all aspects of the planning in business flow (Hemmatfar et al., 2010). Wireless and mobile networks are extensively used for communication, networking within the flow process of organization and functions, which make it far more convenient within the business process (Buhalis & Law, 2008).

Adopting ICTs in Tourism Enterprises ICTs have provided tourism industry more competitive environment and become more critical to every part of business development (Berne et al., 2015). The foremost advantage of ICTs in tourism enterprise is the change in information distribution channel which enables more comfortable, faster, and more accessible information among the much larger audience (Ashari et al., 2014; Januszewska et al., 2015; Wahab, 2017). Since the sales cycle and flow of tourism products and services are hugely dependent on information, ICTs have become very useful for tourism enterprises (Nwakanma et al., 2014). Additionally, Berne et al. (2015) comment that ICTs are also significant for business performances in two main areas: firstly, a market performance which includes competitive advantages, acquisition of new customers, increase in sales, and rise in market share. Online and technology experience gives the customer more significant potential in buying since the use of visualization is more interactive (Bogdanovych et al., 2006). Secondly, financial performance which includes increase in profitability and expansion of produce lines. Wahab (2017) points out that the use of ICTs helps reduce the cost of operation. This has also seen in the growing number of firms in Cambodia, adopting more ICTs for cost efficiency and financial performance (Eurocham Cambodia, 2017). ICTs have been recognized as the tools in relationship enhancement between all stakeholders in the distribution channel, which is suitable for management solution. Besides, the improvement in this relationship also enables firms to gain competitive advantages and efficiency since it could maintain the collaborative relationships between firms and suppliers which could result in increasing business performance (Berne et al., 2015). Similarly, Maditinos et al. (2014) note that online activities do give stronger relationship not only in the firm itself but also with external stakeholders including clients, suppliers, and other collaborators. Key industry players agree on the usefulness of ICTs in marketing channels which helps agents stay relevant in the market with a lower reasonable budget (van Rensburg, 2014). ICTs leverage the power of marketing well mainly in terms of having a contact database for marketing and analyzing, an electronic campaign for keeping brand visible to customers, as well as reviewing and sharing of customers’ opinions and feedback (Jadhav & Mundhe, 2011). Concerning decision making, ICTs are also possible in identifying consumers and reaching potential clients through personalized and up to the trend of market needs

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(Buhalis & Law, 2008). ICTs help users support their decision making process by using old data or preferences (Bogdanovych et al., 2006). Hemmatfar et al. (2010) also point out the benefits of ICT adoption in decision support system. In the meantime, there are also drawbacks of adopting ICTs among tourism firms. MacGregor and Vrazalic (2005) identify several weaknesses that stop enterprises from adopting them. The effective use of ICTs requires the right knowledge and skills (Ashari et al., 2014), and therefore, it poses several difficulties to firms. In addition, Garkavenkoa et al. (n.d.) comment that firms reject ICTs mainly because that requires more upfront and ongoing cost and specialists which could affect the profitability of the company (Buhalis, 1998). More importantly, the development of ICTs in Cambodia also obviously encounters in the weak enforcement of intellectual property rights, which are largely challenging for Cambodia enterprises (Eurocham Cambodia, 2017). According to Zaidan (2016), other barriers in adopting ICTs also include the limitation in financial resources in support of those high-cost technologies, limited resources on security concerned, limited skill labor, and lastly the lack of customer awareness as well as readiness. Unavailability of ongoing training on the use of ICTs in firms also inhibits the adopting ICTs (Januszewska et al., 2015). It is reported that the limited human resources and financial resources have stopped and slowed down the adoption of ICTs in Cambodia private sectors (UNCTAD, 2017). Interruption on the operation is another major constrain in adopting ICTs among tourism firms. Speed, crashed software, and the lack of professionalism and ethics critically slow down the process of business (B2B Cambodia, 2015). A study by Selim (2008) similarly shows that the complexity of ICTs is a likely cause of employees’ productivities decline. Additionally, system breakdown and software virus attacks, pricing to update new innovative technology, lack of expertise, and further information gaps are contributing to operation interruption as well (Kamau, 2015). Given the ICT’s ability in speed and accuracy of the information, it also enables the firm to interact more positively with customers and improve their satisfaction. Law et al. (2009) mentioned that the speedup of management procedures and efficient functioning of ICTs in tourism enterprises allows the firm to take better advantage of the resources. They further suggest that ICTs have a high impact on running a business in the travel and tourism sector in terms of speed of customer service, higher income, and company image improvement. With direct contact and trust with customers, travel agents could be more resilience in the new informational technologies and having better competitive advantages. Information business or industries face seismic threats from the growth of modern technology, particularly Internet advancement because their revenue stream relies on selling information which consumers can, in turn, obtain directly from the Internet (Teece, 2010). Such innovations have also developed direct distribution channels linking suppliers and customers straightway by removing several intermediaries. Torres (2017) comments that, in the coming years, the recent development of ICTs, including smartphone devices, and machine learning will transform the whole industry and challenge each company to restructure their core businesses. Importantly, in the emerging of a baby boomer, it has been predicted that over the next few years, another

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one billion people globally will use the only online channel in the emerging market. Therefore, mobile devices will be used extensively to assist travelers. Global distribution system establishes sophisticated connections among service providers and travel industry such as airlines, hotels, and car rental companies and enabling automated transaction between travel service providers and TATOs. It enables TATOs to search, report, manage, and cater partners and travelers’ preferences (Barnett & Standing, 2016). The proliferation of the Internet of things have led to the debatable future of TATOs since major airlines and wholesale tour operators, as well as other services providers, try to market their products directly to the consumers, for instance, through their websites which result in severe commission cut for TATOs (Barnett & Standing, 2016). These waves of ICTs changes have forced a lot of TATOs to shut down their operations or to transform due to emerging online and global competitions. The challenging factors, including the increasing competition through globalization, the rise of customer demands and expectations, and customers, are becoming more knowledgeable and growing accustomed to automated technologies (Cheung & Lam, 2009). Plus, there are increasing numbers of virtual travel agencies (VTAs) or online travel agencies (OTAs) in the market which pose a higher risk in the marketplace such as Microsoft’s Expedia and Travelocity which have the potential to pass economies of scale onto the consumer. Moreover, various online brokers have also appeared which also affiliate other airline tickets and other travel products (Barnett & Standing, 2016). On another important note, Emily et al. (2007) show that overdependence on technology could potentially cause chaos once the whole system is down, especially when there are no sufficient backup systems. Also, inaccuracy of data or information could cause failure in operation as well, while sometime staffs could not even operate or perform without technology. The ICT sector can also quickly become a bubble which could cause chaos in the market (Denise, 2016).

Factors Affecting ICT Adoption Adopting of ICTs can be defined as the use of new technology including hardware and software application in business as well as the use of Internet-based to support operation, management, and decision making (Selim, 2008). Changsoo and Tewei (1999) show that the internal factors of ICT adoption mainly include inclination toward new technology, absorptive capacity, top management support, the existence of champion which are the references that have been proofed before, and lastly cost incentive. The inclination toward new technology has been identified based on the organizational structure of enterprise, their process and size, based on Aguila and Padilla (2006). Maditinos et al. (2014) showed that the bigger the firm, the better its ability in adopting innovative technologies. Given that small tourism enterprises dominate the tourism industry in Cambodia, ICT adoption is seen very slow (Seng, 2014). Moreover, costing has become one of the key factors inhibiting ICT adoption because the investment is inhibitive (Ali & Frew, 2012).

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According to Nwakanma et al. (2014), the factors influencing the decision in ICT adoption are mainly fueled by the firms’ attitude and belief in ICT innovation, their capabilities in handling ICT innovation, and sources for enhancing competitive advantage. Similarly, Selim (2008) indicates several factors affecting ICT adoption in the firm. These include IT readiness, financial resources readiness, staff readiness, and management support which consists of the recognition of the importance of ICTs from the level of management, their support and leadership, firm strategy, firm culture, and firm size. The very high interest rates, requests for tangible assets, or a lack of trust in online ventures diminishes the enthusiasm of ICT development in Cambodia. As a result, most private enterprises cannot invest in their infrastructures and in e-commerce operations to expand their business (UNCTAD, 2017). Andreu et al. (2010) conclude that there are two main external factors affecting firms’ ICT adoption. These include, firstly, customer pressure, as he notes that it helps in enhancing communication. Bandara and Silva (2016) also agree that the complex demand of the market and the rapid expansion of new products such as niche market segments are from customer-driven which further adoption of ICTs in their firms. Research conducted by Google shows that the evolution of technology has changed travel habits. The survey on travel habit shows that tourists frequently involve shopping prices comparison using the web as their now-and-first-choice for planning and searching the information (van Rensburg, 2014). Secondly, pressure from the competitors and peers force firms to adopt to the new technology (Andreu et al., 2010). TATOs are likely to argue that they would be lagged behind without adopting all of ICTs to keep up with their peers (Andreu et al., 2010). This study employs qualitative case study design as according to Kumar (2011), it is useful in exploring an area where little is known in the particular context and focusing on more in-depth understanding rather than confirming or qualifying (Kumar, 2011). Waters (2017) advises that qualitative is suitable as it focuses on the meaning of lived experience and, in this case, the experience of respondents in ICTs in their tourism firms. In-depth interviews were conducted with a total of 17 owners or managers in TATOs, leaders in travel and tourism associations, and experts in ICTs and tourism. The use of in-depth interview created rapport with respondents who make them feel more comfortable and generate more insightful responses. Plus, the interviewer has the opportunity to dig deeper on issues from respondents, unlike other forms of tools without getting distracted (Steber, 2017). Purposive sampling was chosen for the study since the goal is to mainly understand complicated details of a problem or experience and perception of respondents instead of trying to generalize (Laerd Dissertation, 2012). Purposive sampling helps in choosing the best and informative respondents who can and are willing to provide the information by their virtue of knowledge and experience (Bernard, 2002). Content analysis was used as a tool for analyzing primary data collected. Vaismoradi et al. (2013) recommended that content analysis is more suitable in the exploratory study where not much is known since it is good at reporting simple context or issue. Content analysis is a research tool used to analyze words or concepts within the actual contents whether it is texts, recorded communication, or picture, and it aims at

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analyzing the complexity of human thought on something (Obaid, 2011). In this process, data from in-depth interviews were transcribed using Microsoft Word. These transcribed interviews were then carefully studied and broken down into manageable categories based on question guideline as a framework. Then researchers implemented coding process on categorized content and lastly analyzed coding was grouped based on themes and was interpreted (Colorado State University, 2018).

Research Findings and Discussions ICT Infrastructures and Their Functions Although there has been considerable growth in ICT adoption in business (IDC, 2016), the current study shows that this is not the case. Various forms of ICT infrastructures have not been adopted widely among TATOs in Cambodia. If they adopt, they prefer software to hardware. While some previous studies show that automatic devices that assist TATOs operations are broadly used (Gazem & Rahman, 2014; World Bank, 2010), this study reveal that such things are not common in TATOs operations. Only a few invest significantly on auto ticketing system on their website, which allows their customers to do self-service. The system mainly will enable customers to check and book air ticket for themselves. There is also Tour Plan system which is used for automatic price quoting of the package tour and arranging all the information and the reservation needed to be sent to suppliers. However, some hardware systems such as automatic electrical management, electrical generator system, or UPS and some basic systems such as automatic timing on/off electrical switch and automatic computer database backup are adopted. Similar to the previous study by Shanker (2008) who noted that TATOs’ websites are mainly for distributing and displaying the information of products and services to audience, this study reveals that TATOs use website as a primary mean for displaying information to their customers, especially inbound tours. However, the majority of respondents confirm that some forms of sophisticated systems such as IDS, DIS, and e-learning are not embraced as they note that these are not essential. Additionally, some forms of social media such as Facebook, Skype, Line, WeChat, WhatsApp, Viber, Telegram, and Instagram have become increasingly crucial for TATOs for distributing information of products and services to customers. ICT infrastructures adopted for business productivity by TATOs are quite basic such as PC, Word, and Excel and communication systems such as social media including Facebook, Skype, WeChat, Line, WhatsApp, Viber, and Telegram. This reflects that majority of small and medium tourism firms invest less on these. Similar to Cheng and Cho (2010) point on dynamic package tour and accounting systems in TATOs, the finding confirms that tour plan system has been adopted which assists package tour arrangement and sends the reservation to all service providers in place, while accounting systems have been adopted widely by all of them, mostly QuickBooks and Peachtree.

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With regard to consumer relationship management, similar to the previous study by Shanker (2008), CRM is commonly used among TATOs. Apart from this, email and social media platform are also popular in organizing and assisting in customer relationship. Unlike Kamau (2015) who pointed out on the use of more sophisticate system for entertainment such as virtual tour, audio tour, or virtual reality as entertaining platforms for both customers and employees, this study shows that these are not the case. Majority of respondents indicate that ICTs are utilized for operation, communication, and marketing. Jadhav and Mundhe (2011) found out that digital marketing is still pervasive for firms. Similarly, this study reveals that digital marketing, especially in the forms of social media, has become very popular among TATOs, primarily because it is costeffective and convenient. A few TATOs use MIS or MKIS for database management which also serves marketing purpose, particularly Facebook Pixel or cold call because these are effective and more interactive with their customers. Data management and storing among TATOs are quite basic. The finding shows that Google Drive is the most common use for cloud storing for TATOs. Mainly because using sophisticated ICTs for this function is costly among small TATOs. Many of them, in turn, choose to adopt some basic storage such as PC server or Extern HD instead given by the scope of their operations. On the contrary, a few bigger TATOs incline to invest substantially on building an external server for storing their data. The study shows the forms of booking and reservation among TATOs. Ticketing systems inducing CRS and GDS are primary tracking and reservation system for TATOs, especially in booking air tickets which is commonly used. Apart from this, some TATOs also use website ID, which is quite common among some of their hotel partners for accessing to their room inventory. Regarding the financial transaction, this study shows that very few TATOs use e-banking such as visa or master care while most of their transactions proceed through Pipay, Wing, or e-money.

SWOT Analysis of ICT Adoption The finding was also reported by Wahab (2017) that ICTs change the entire information distribution channels in the tourism industry to be much more accessible, more convenience, and a lot faster than ever before. Since tourism is the informationdependent industry, ICTs are far more critical in TATO operation, and the trend is, even more, promising in the future. The wealth of information is connected from one to another network and stored in the cloud, which enables information flow far less complicated. In supporting this view, a respondent comments that: . . .customers have to come to the office in person for the information they need, and as a result, TATOs receive very few customers. . .but nowadays they can send all information directly to their customers via cloud very fast and convenience. . .. [KI #2]

Ashari et al. (2014) similarly agree that ICTs connect from one to another network effectively, which improve communication tremendously. This study shows no

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different result. Besides, key respondents generally confirm that data or information can be traced back anytime and can be used to track the performance of their firms such as operation, employees, strategies, or sale. All respondents generally agree that ICTs boost business performance by reducing some workload through automation, thereby reducing operational costs. This is also confirmed in a study by Berne et al. (2015). Similar to a study by Bogdanovych et al. (2006), this examination also reveals that ICTs help TATOs in reaching out to wider customers which may lead to better sale performance. All respondents consistently note that all TATOs utilize ICTs as primary means in communication. This fast and reliable communication helps them improve their relationship with their business partners and customers significantly, especially in terms of personalization of customer data, consistent engagement, and targeting. In marketing TATOs’ products and service, it is generally agreed that ICTs improve visibility of TATOs in the market with considerably low cost. Study result also agrees with Jadhav and Mundhe (2011) who mentioned that ICTs are handy in collecting customers’ data which later allows TATOs to understand customers’ needs much better and subsequently help TATOs in targeting right customers. Mostly in the forms of social media, ICTs support TATOs’ marketing greatly. Overall, TATOs believe that digital marketing is far more effective and cost-saving than traditional marketing. A manager of a travel agency notes that: . . .using Facebook for marketing helps save resources, reach out wider market and effective. . .offline marketing is classic and no longer useful for us. . .offline travel agencies will be disappeared in the market. [TATO #3]

Majority of respondents in this study indicates that Phnom Penh-based TATOs do not generally depend on ICTs in their business decision. Even if customer data is available, it is mostly used in cold call and marketing purpose only instead of assisting in decision making process. However, a few tend to agree with Buhalis and Law (2008) who commented that the strength of ICTs is assisting in any forms of decision making in firms, particularly identifying customer needs and market trend. Research shows varying degrees and forms of difficulties when adopting ICTs in TATOs. These difficulties are mainly associated with people involved, types of system, and the investment. The people factor is pressing issue because combined expertise in both fields – ICTs and tourism – is so scared in Cambodia. Majority of respondents are consistently concerned with general knowledge, technical knowhow, ethic, and attitude of using ICTs. These are even more daunting when ICTs are changing all the time. Staff training is either time-consuming or costly, which diminish TATOs’ effort in such investment. Yet, a few TATOs still commit to spending resources and time, expecting that their effort will be paid off in the long run. Investing and funding are other major concern. Some key respondents agree that most systems are prohibitive. Hence, they are quite cynical about the return of the investment. They further demonstrate that adopting ICT requires TATOs to have a healthy cash flow since the investment takes so long. As noted by the owner of a travel agency:

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It is very challenging for me. . . To be honest with you, I am not technology savvy, and I do not like technology at all, but I have to use it since everyone is using it including my suppliers and customers. . .. [TATO #7]

Garkavenkoa et al. (n.d.) agreed that the customer sometimes found ICTs are not user friendly. This study does not concur with these authors because most TATOs do not encounter these challenges. It is not always the case that ICTs bring benefits to TATOs. Similar to what Garkavenkoa et al. (n.d.) pointed out, few respondents in the study reveal that ICTs are not suitable for personalized packages or corporate strategies since there are still huge demand on highly creative and personalized products. A manager of a travel agency notes that: . . .I do not use ICTs in my company since it is not suitable for my products and services. . . Mostly, my customers want highly personalized packages, and we arrange them without using ICTs. . .. [TATO #3]

According to Zaidan (2016), resource limitation is mostly associated with finance, security, skills and knowledge, and customer readiness. This study reveals that lack of expertise in this area is quite severe. It requires persistent effort and longterm investment to have the needed labor. This is similar to Januszewska et al. (2015) who believed that ongoing training on ICTs is long-term, nonstop investment. Financial resources are also a concern in adopting ICTs because it is very costly. Extra costs and unplanned costs are also possible, and this affects the firm return on investment. On the other hand, the study finds out that security is another primary concern for TATOs. Majority of respondents note that the fears of the customer on privacy and security have become more critical for both customer and firms in adopting ICTs. This is supported by views from managers in travel association and travel agency who note that: . . .human resources shortage in this area is prevalent in Cambodia. . .” [KI #2]; “. . .security of Database is another major concern. . .. [TATO #12]

It is quite common that interruption of the operation involves an error of the system, disconnection of the network, and electricity cut. A few TATOs encounter some forms of these interruptions. It is probably because the level of ICT adoption among TATOs is still low that disruptions on the operation caused by ICTs are not major concerns. ICTs bring several additional opportunities to TATOs mainly because this information-dependent industry needs a constant update, accuracy, and better speed in sharing their contents. It is also interesting to note that in the form of virtual reality, ICTs can potentially reduce the number of travel considerably, and in this case, TATOs existent may be somehow affected. Cheung and Lam (2009) recommended investment in ICTs due to its ability to improve the firm’s strategies that could help TATOs avoid the threat of

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disintermediation. The current study shows that ICTs is critical in bringing consumers and suppliers together. ICTs also allow TATOs to collect and target their customers effectively. Furthermore, they also enable TATOs to consistently engage with customers to improve their relationship and understand their needs. Similar to what Law et al. (2009) pointed out, this study shows that TATOs can strategically use their resources for better customer service, increasing sale and branding which enables TATOs to be more resilient in this competitive market. Moreover, it was also generally agreed that ICTs allow TATOs to speculate clear direction by using more reliable information. A manager of a travel agency points out that: . . .they [ICTs] help to collect fundamental information at no cost, and they help to give a clue or even clear direction and indicate the way forward for our business. . .. [TATO #12]

ICTs’ overall infrastructures are growing gradually, but the study shows that such growth is almost disconnected from TATOs’ need to thrive. Majority of respondents seem to pay less attention to this external force. However, some agree that the development of ICTs can positively influence overall online market and subsequently support travel firms. It is believed that external supportive infrastructures help small firms or those that do not have enough resources to access suitable ICT infrastructures to improve their overall operation and to reduce errors or faults of the system. Data shows a growing number of digital consumers. This trend is an excellent opportunity for TATOs to expand themselves into a broader market by leveraging ICTs as their main marketing tools and get more customers with a lot less cost and far more convenient. Surprisingly, the finding also indicates that some TATOs want to transform themselves into OTAs. Policy and government support in overall ICT adoption are considered as another opportunity for TATOs. Yet, the study shows that limited government intervention on this area is mainly due to the overall awareness, perceived significance, and the limited investment capacity. Hence, most TATOs do not think they receive sufficient support and do not even bother with any rule or regulation imposed by the government. A manager of travel agency comments that: . . .I do not think we have anything to do with the government on this. . . The government does not play role. . . We do what we are doing. . .. [TATO #6]

The study shows that the growth of modern ICTs such as high-speed Internet has posed many threats among TATOs. First of all, although a few respondents are not concern if ICTs can replace their businesses, the majority of them observe that endto-end service supply chain is more apparent. More suppliers reach their potential customers directly and vice versa, which reduce some unnecessary intermediaries. This means that many TATOs’ roles as a trip facilitator is on the verge and subsequently affect their revenue stream (Teece, 2010). Second, more customers are very price sensitive while suppliers are fiercely competing. For travelers, ICTs help them to search and compare for the best price easily via new emerging business

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model such as search engine portal and peer-to-peer model that allows price comparison, and this has put many TATOs in a difficult position if they do not adopt appropriate strategies. Some TATOs argue that the invention tends to help customers more than they do to businesses which is similar to Torres (2017) who notes that new generation of technology will push TATOs to restructure themselves because the online version is far more helpful. However, few TATOs also note that there is still a considerable market as those who do not even have time or knowledge to organize their trips, and they still prefer traditional TATOs. Consistent with previous findings by Cheung and Lam (2009) and Burrus (2014), this study illustrates that market competition brought by ICTs is considerably high because they create higher consumer expectations, a new dynamic of competition environment since anyone on the system can directly market themselves to consumers. ICTs allow both customers and TATOs to keep track of one another and be able to retrieve any form of information they want. This study also reveals that the majority of TATOs do not currently notice the significant pressures from such development. Therefore, some that take advantages from the ICTs will continue to thrive, while those that overlook the trend may be out of business. Some TATOs argue that overreliance on ICTs may not be the case in Cambodia at the moment. This is mainly because not many TATOs have fully and deeply immersed in ICTs. Also, some inhibiting factors such as operational cost and skepticism about the ICTs prevent TATOs to overly rely on them.

Factors Affecting ICT Adoption Overall, adopting ICTs at certain degrees among TATOs is very common. In line with Maditinos et al. (2014) and Changsoo and Tewei’s (1999), this study indicates that inclination toward ICTs has been determined by size and operation of the TATOs because it accelerates the benefits that TATOs could harness. The bigger the company, the more systems they need because the whole structure and operation of the bigger firms need a lot more supports from ICTs. However, the study also confirms that this is not always the case. As commented by a key informant, firms’ size does not entirely determine whether to adopt ICTs. . . . I think the size of the firm does not matter at all. It doesn’t have to be small or big to adopt technology since it is a must to have a platform. The only way is to be able to adopt technology that best fit with our firm’s size. You do not have to adopt thing that is too big for you. . .. [KI #1]

The degree of adoption is influenced by the attitude and culture of owners or managers, which is also confirmed in a previous study by Nwakanma et al. (2014). Firms’ top management support and initiative are also vital for ICT adoption. This is accelerated by their capacity and familiarity as well as willingness as also confirmed in Weigel and Waldburger (2004) investigation. A manager of a firm noted that:

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...one of our founders of this company has extensive experience in IT. . . He constantly introduces and updates new forms of ICTs into our operation. . .. [TATO #10]

The finding further points out that employees’ readiness and knowledge do not determine if firms should adopt any degrees of ICTs because they can always be trained afterward. In line with one of the points Selim (2008) made, several respondents consistently suggest that firms’ financial resources play an essential role in determining which and what degrees of ICTs to adopt. Since there are many competing priorities in their ongoing operations, investing in ICTs receive less attention among firms’ top management. This suggests that TATOs are behind the current pace of ICTs and are not ready to reap the maximum benefits from them. The result corroborates the idea of Andreu et al. (2010), who suggested that the norm and customers’ needs are pressuring TATOs to adopt ICTs. The major pressure that pushes TATOs hard toward ICT adoption is mainly the growth of modern technology, both globally and locally. All of their stakeholders including suppliers, or even their partners, have continuously adopted various degrees of ICTs into their operations such as booking, updating information, or communication, particularly among airlines and hotels, and as a result, TATOs cannot ignore this virtual trend. This view is echoed by an informant who commented that: . . .since travel agents need to stay connected with the outside world or partners, they have to adopt them (ICTs), because all partners have already done so. We have to keep up with the pace. . .. [KI #4]

On the other hand, it is generally agreed that within this inevitable trend, TATOs have to keep pace with their customers’ needs as so many of them go online when searching, arranging, and organizing their trips. The influence from the unprecedented growth of millennial in traveling has put TATOs in an uneasy state if they do not consider ICTs because millennial is, more than ever, dependent almost entirely on technology when traveling. As respondent from travel agency notes: . . .people are more technology-dependent now than any other time, and this continues... You know that using technology for doing daily activities is not strange any more since people are getting used to it right now. If I want to have more customer, I have to plan ahead. In the next few years, young people are going to use more technology, so I have to use it too. You know the market is not the same anymore, people like buying online because it is more convenient and fast. [TATO #7]

Surprisingly, the finding of the current study does not support the previous research by Cheung and Lam (2009) and Burrus (2014), who commented that adoption of ICTs is fuelled by fierce market competition. It seems possible that these results are due to the traditionally operated market structure. Additionally, they could not foresee any potential threats in the market brought by their competitors who are more technology savvy.

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Another possible explanation is that the competition is not so tense, which allows many TATOs to follow their usual pace to survive. Ali and Frew (2012) show that the government can play major roles in ICT adoption among businesses. The current study shows that this is not a case. Possibly, this is mainly due to the substantial investment in overall ICT infrastructures which government does not prioritize presently. As a result, no major achievement has been proven to the industry on this specific area, and in light of this, a travel association representative notes that: I do not think the government has any power to play in influencing technology adoption in our business . . .people always try to find a way to keep using technology if they want more. [KI #3]

Conclusion and Implications TATOs play critical roles in connecting tourists to various services providers. Yet the unprecedented growth of ICTs can potential replace traditionally operated TATOs. Some previous studies suggest varying degrees of ICT adoption. However, the current study demonstrates that the adoption pace is plodding among Phnom Penh-based TATOs. And if they adopt, only a few basic ICT infrastructures have been used. This is mainly due to the general lack of awareness, limited digital literacy, unavailable information about ICTs, and the skepticism of necessity of adoption among the majority of TATOs. In addition, investment in ICTs is prohibitive, and this largely discourages small TATOs from considering ICTs. Even though the ICT adoption is low, there is a positive trend that TATOs are considering ICTs, and they are slowly paying attention to this development into their operation and strategy. Such a trend is accelerated by the growing market pressure and partners and potential benefits they can reap. Following SWOT analysis, there are a number of issues hindering ICT adoption. These are insufficient resources and skills, growth of competitors in the market, OTAs or other service providers, general lack of awareness, and the inability to foresee what ICTs bring to the business operation. On the contrary, the study also shows several interesting incentives that support ICT adoption among TATOs. These include better information distribution, improved business performance, relationship enhancement, marketing, and decision making.

Implications SWOT matrix analysis helps draw potential strategies and implications for TATOs in the way that they can reap maximum benefits as well as to be more resilient in the constant ICTs’ changing world. This chapter introduces the essential strategies that have been studied, analyzed, and determined for the courses of feasible actions following David (2011) on strategic management process which generates the feasible alternative strategies for TATOs and subsequently draws implications.

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Table 35.1 SWOT matrix analysis

Opportunities Characteristic of tourism products Strategies viability Development of infrastructures Market trend Threats Disintermediation Zero commission Competition Overreliant on ICTs

Strengths Information distribution channel Business performance Relationship enhancement Marketing Decision making SO strategies Adopt more ICTs into the organization (S1, S2, O1, O3) Reinvent structure into EC-able intermediary (S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, O1, O2, O3, O4) Utilize more digital marketing (S3, S4, S5, O4) ST strategies Adopt customer focus strategies (S3, S4, S5, T1) Create a niche market (S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, T2, T3)

Weaknesses Too difficult Unsuitability Lack of resources Interruption on operation WO strategies Adopt more ICTs into operation (W2, O1, O2) Stay alert to alternative and new modern technology (W4, O3)

WT strategies Corporate or joint venture with IT company (W1, W3, W4, T3, T4) Focus on wholesale products and services (W1, W3, T1, T2, T3)

Source: developed by the authors as the summary of results

Table 35.1 shows the issues that are studied and analyzed to generate feasible and appropriate strategies for TATOs to consider. Several alternative strategies are developed from SWOT matrix analysis, and only a few promising strategies are selected for TATOs to consider. These include:

Adopt More ICTs into Organization and Operation ICTs support information distribution greatly and subsequently improve business performance substantially since information is the backboned of the company. Adopting more of ICT infrastructures into the firm is one of the best alternative strategies for TATOs to be more resilient in the current market. The speed, accessibility, convenience, and efficiency of information distribution made possible through ICTs allow TATOs to create edge over competitor, strengthen the opportunities, and reap the maximum benefits. On the other hand, ICTs able TATOs to boost their performance and communication. Adopting more of them could accelerate branding and operation of the firm. Reinvent Structure into EC-able Intermediary Electronic commerce-able intermediary (EC) is the new form of TATOs structure that reinvent themselves from traditional TATOs into EC commerce-able intermediary who operates with both conventional and online. With the growth of modern ICTs and development of infrastructures, it would be an excellent opportunity for TATOs to reinvent themselves to EC-able intermediary. Such transformation helps TATOs to cater more market share of this industry by leveraging every strengths and

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opportunity that ICTs could provide. EC-able intermediary will allow TATOs to add more sale channels and create more exposure in online market.

Utilize More Digital Marketing The growth of the online market in Cambodia shows the best opportunity for TATOs to leverage the power of digital marketing in capturing more potential customers in the online market, especially through various forms of social media. In additional to the growth of user based on the Internet which result in more exposure, ICTs also assist in collecting and analyzing data which allow TATOs to be able to enhance their overall relationship with customers and decision making. Digital marketing helps TATOs to connect with customers and able to understand their need actively. It also allows TATOs to reach a wider market and target their customers in a timely fashion. Stay Alert to Alternative and New Modern Technology The lack of proper development of overall ICT infrastructures has given ICTs the liability to TATOs on the risk of affecting their overall performance and result of the company once there are some accidental errors or break down of the system. However, with the consistent updating of ICTs that people have kept reinventing it to be more sophisticated and better, there would be indeed a better solution for the future. Moreover, given the fact that the development of ICT infrastructures in Cambodia is growing gradually, TATOs would have higher chance to adopt new modern ICTs that could minimize the risk in operation because technology is in fact going to keep evolving in order to cater the demand of the market. Adopt Customers Focused Strategies TATOs could leverage their essential uniqueness with ICTs by focusing more on their customer need and desire. Human touch and relationship are indeed the things that ICTs cannot take over. It still requires human touch in order to improve customer experience. Therefore, focusing on customer experience enhancement would give competitive advantage for business over technology. Additionally, TATOs can also leverage the use of ICTs since it enables TATOs to enhance the relationship with customers through the use of digital marketing. Leverage the use of ICTs on enhancing the relationship with customers through the use of digital marketing. Create Market Niche When the market become more competitive due to the emerging of new technology and new comers, it is good time for TATOs to start narrowing down the market and become specialized in something that could potentially create a niche in the market since the revenue stream of TATOs can no longer rely on commission from their suppliers. Plus, using ICTs can be an alternative strategy to capture more attention and delve into a specific niche market. This could be in the form of a personal or private package tour, customer care, and travel consultant which are the activities that ICTs cannot take over.

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Corporate or Join Venture with IT Company Integrating between IT firm and TATOs can potentially be an ideal option. The corporation helps TATOs tackle any fault or technical challenge they encounter and therefore lead to effective performance. As a result, TATOs do not have to face the risk of being distrusted by the fault of technology. In return, they can also focus more on improving product and customer experience engagement that help them stand out in the competitive market. Wholesale Products and Services Another alternative way to avoid some threats such as disintermediation, reduction of commission, and tight competition in the market is that TATOs need to move their target market to focus more on corporate strategies. They can choose to focus more on wholesale of their products and services by becoming the suppliers or main distributor in the market. This strategy allows them to narrow down their operations and expand their sale channel via either traditional TATOs or OTAs. Instead of being the direct competitor with other TATOs and emerging OTAs, they can leverage them as sale channel that help them capture more market shares. Overall, this study is not free of limitation. Approaching owners or managers of the business organizations during the busy time is quite challenging. Some key respondents did not fully participate in the study. Consequently, some important aspects may be missed out. Further, some of the key questions bind with some degrees of commercially sensitive information, and therefore, some respondents did not give detail account on those particular aspects. Drawing from this investigation, authors point out that future research avenue foci should focus on strategic stages that TATOs should invest more in ICTs and how they should prepare to become more resilience in the fast-changing digital world.

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Technology Application in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry: The Contexts of India and Bangladesh

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Yeasmin Islam, Rupa Sinha, and Azizul Hassan

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technological Expansion through the Ages: A Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technological Application in Tourism and Hospitality Sector in India: Recent Trends and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Websites and Apps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Media and Internet Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Augmented Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blockchain Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Application of Information and Communication Technology in Tourism and Hospitality Sector in India: Present Scenario in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changes and Future Predictions of Hospitality Industry with the Application of Innovative Technologies in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations for India to Overcome Technological Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Application in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Bangladesh: Recent Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Websites and Apps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Media and Internet Banking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Augmented Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blockchain Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Y. Islam United International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh R. Sinha (*) School of Hospitality & Tourism Studies, SRM University, Sikkim, India A. Hassan Tourism Consultants Network, The Tourism Society, London, UK © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_36

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The Application of ICT in Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Bangladesh: Present Scenario in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changes and Future Predictions of the Tourism and Hospitality Industry with the Application of Innovative Technologies in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations for Bangladesh to Overcome Technological Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Depending on tourist attractions, few of the countries of Asia hold superiority in advanced tourism and hospitality industry. Bangladesh and West Bengal of India, in reality, share similarities in culture, language, and traditional customs. Advancement of technology also adds inimitable dimensions for tourism industry in both cases. Tourists become more technology oriented and collect information from searching destinations to booking a hotel online in developed countries. The availability of applicable innovative technologies for tourists also varies between countries when few countries are the global leaders (i.e., Japan, China, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc.). Even with diversified tourism market, Bangladesh and West Bengal seemingly stay far behind using innovative technology than other countries of the region. This chapter focuses on the contexts of innovative technology application in Bangladesh and West Bengal of India. This conceptual paper reveals that the number of technological oriented tourists is increasing, as well as there are different organizations that developed tourist-friendly applications for both tourist and tourism enterprises. Still a gap exists between tourist expectations and the offers in relation to innovative technologies for tourism in both cases. There is a lack of skilled human resources who can serve. The study also explores that tourists can hardly get enough support underdeveloped technological applications and infrastructure provided by the authorities of both Bangladesh and West Bengal, India. This research suggests the creation of support systems and making necessary information accessible on the Internet as well as enforcing knowledge-able HR. The chapter also suggests making and implementing strategies for the betterment of tourist experience from the use of innovative technological application. Keywords

Tourism · Experience · Technology · Bangladesh · West Bengal

Introduction To maintain the intense competition of today’s business environment tourism and hospitality industry is evolving significantly with innovative ideas and practices. To develop the competitiveness, the integration of technology is inevitable in this

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changing scenario. Mostly information technology in the tourism industry used to manage the operation processes. The application of technological tools in promotion and marketing, customer management process is yet to be explored (Khatri, 2019). The expansion of modern technologies has brought a series of changes in the entire tourism business that is apparent on both tourism demand and supply of services (Januszewska et al., 2015). Hence, to improve service quality, it is obligatory for the stakeholders and/or travel agents/tour operators to incorporate technological tools; nevertheless to improve the knowledge about information technology (IT) and integrated into their business will facilitate to engender skilled employees which will increase the level of satisfaction of a tourist concurrently. Information and communication technology seem to offer a revolutionized commercial paradigm by gaining competitive advantage, improving productivity, enabling new ways of management, and emerging new industries (Gruescu et al., 2009). Information and communication technology (ICT) authorizes operator to identify and modify acquisition tourism products and support the globalization of the business. As technology acts as driving power in latest developments of tourism and hospitality industry by offering quality guest experiences, majority of the tourism organizations and hospitality enterprises are now able to control and manage their actual even also potential customers through e-tourism and e-commerce systems. The effective use of technology can increase the operational efficacy and competitiveness. Albeit technology has thriven in changing the entire image of tourism business, it enables real-time information readily available while offering more personalized services to the tourists with excellent marketing opportunities. Technology has emerged toward the mobile and web applications and extensively used in two interconnected industry hospitality and tourism. Mostly, it is being used to provide information to the tourists and optimize communication between tourism service providers and tourists. Hence, it is an obvious part to integrate different technologies in tourist sites, transportation, accommodation, and allied services. In recent times, the practice of tourism or digitalized tourism is on its height with the provision of online reservations, package booking, e-tour guides, and online platforms for other related services and so on. Certainly, the use of technology has eased off the operation, and travel became more pleasurable. Integrated websites are used widely for marketing activities to reach out to a large number of consumers, enabling online package booking, reservations, and other allied services. The role of social media is unparalleled; customers merely relied on review and started believing in Google rating; social media considerably help in pre-trip travel planning and to make a decision. Customers are making their tailormade itinerary on their own and making it more personal with the extensive research online, moreover with the help of several technological tools like expert system, chatbots, and so on, opting end number of information regarding the destination they are going to visit or other related services they wish for. Consequently, the adaptation of information technology has substantial effects in the entire hospitality and tourism industry.

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Technological Expansion through the Ages: A Historical Development Concurrently tourism sector witnessed unparalleled growth with the evolution of technology (Poon, 1993; Sheldon, 1997). In the early days of mass tourism, computer systems were used to support the internal functions of various services. Since the year 1980s, globally information and communication technology has transformed the entire hospitality and tourism industry in terms of changing the dimension of doing business, strategies of business practice, as well as the infrastructure. Innovation of computer reservation systems (CRSs) in the year 1970s and global distribution systems in the 1980s (GDS) have changed the mode of operandi and strategic practice in the tourism industry drastically (Buhalis, 2003; Business W@tch, 2006; Emmer et al., 1993; O’Connor, 1999). The success story of CRS (computer reservation system) and GDS (global distribution system) paved the way for the establishment of the Internet on the year 1990s, enabling this industry to exploit its strengths in more effective way. Subsequently, Internet technology has become a significant communication tool for travellers as well as the stakeholders (Werthner & Klein, 1999). Series of changes have been observed in respect of industry structure, business strategies, and consumer/ traveller behavior just after the insurgency of this technology. But the last 20 years’ tourism industry is experiencing true transformation in terms of the communication technologies, which enabled scope for the development of the various technological tools in terms of mobile technology, website development, Google analytics, social media, augmented reality, blockchain, and services that facilitate to enhance the interaction between the stakeholders and key players of tourism industry globally. Utterly, the choices of online reservation and payment options have augmented the urged for travel specifically within the tech savvy millennial, and nevertheless tourism has beheld as the most imperative sector in e-commerce also (Destination Reporter, 2018). With the introduction of e-commerce, customers not only have various choices but also can get easy access with the information of various tourism products. Destination management organizations have too adopted e-commerce in more promising way to provide wider information about the range of products and services; so far this adaptation of e-commerce not only offers better services but also prompts ongoing organizational changes in the industry (Werthner & Ricci, 2004). Certainly, the development of search engines and Internet speed have influenced the travellers for planning and experiencing a trip to a destination seamlessly even in a very short span of time. Advances in wireless technologies give chances to innovate more new application for easy travel that will spur enduring more innovation in the industry which enable to increase the competitiveness of a tourism destination and organizations.

Technological Application in Tourism and Hospitality Sector in India: Recent Trends and Challenges Nevertheless, technology has improved tourism and hospitality industry continuously, but India still is in nascent stage (Express Food & Technology, 2019). Compared to other sector, this sector is yet to exploit technology to its full potential.

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However, like other industry hospitality and tourism industry too is affecting by incorporating certain technological tools to some extent and the new developments enable even more interactive and exciting experience to the guest over the last decade while they helped to reduce cost and improved operational efficiency. Based on empirical study, authors have tried to give insights on recent trends on technological application and their benefits while identifying some technological tools which are using or can be used in the coming future throughout tourism and hospitality business in India.

Websites and Apps Websites are exceedingly important as it, used as a cost-effective marketing tool, not only engenders more business opportunity but also supports the interactivity with an individual customer. The fundamental of travel behavior of a tourist has changed radically with the advent of technologies since it plays a very significant role in tourist information search and destination choice process. With the use of website and online apps, customers can book the tour or any other allied services seamlessly as it provides information, reviews, and price comparisons for services including transportation, accommodation, car rental, etc. Travellers can retain the real-time information by using different apps; moreover various airline companies are using loyalty point programs to check the flight status and redeem their points. Apps like Airbnb and OYO connect traveller directly with the owner of the property and other traditional services. Furthermore, West Bengal Tourism Department has launched a mobile app based on theme “Experience Bengal.” Alongside the places of interest including information on each district, the app will facilitate maps and direction of the place; activities can be taken up while visiting various festivals of the state. Through this app, one can access the page of WBTDC and Bengal cuisine websites and book online any service, which undoubtedly brings more business opportunity. Indian tourism companies including start-ups and SMEs are utilizing its benefits utmost.

Social Media and Internet Marketing Staggering growth of technologies affected tourism and hospitality industry profoundly, whereas online marketing has become a strong marketing tool for any service providers as they effectively utilize online advertising through social media, blog posting, videos, and pictures which supports in tourism destination promotion and building brands while helping the customer in destination choice process along with the service providers in focusing the best practices through the response they are getting from the social media posted by tourist or other customers. Modern tourism companies and international hotel chains in India are exploiting this tool for Internet marketing very intensely to engender more tourism.

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Mobile Technology This is certainly the main components of the new ways of travel. Cell phone became personalized tour guide, online travel agency, restaurant locator, maps for direction, and more. According to trip advisors, 45% of the customers are using android phones for having each service with their vacations. This way, all the relevant information including flight status and boarding pass users can get within their hand. Through app downloading, fun-loving guest can enjoy their trip by facilitating different entertainment service along with room entertainment facilities in the hotel. In India, mobile technologies are widely being used by tour operators/travel agencies or other service providers to boost their business while giving service to customers.

Augmented Reality Virtual reality (VR)/augmented reality (AR) can be emerging backbone of tourism and hospitality industry (IBERDROLA, n.d.; REVFINE, n.d.-a). VR typically allow a user to enter into a digital environment through the images, 360 degree video, sounds, and other physical sensations by using a VR headset. This technology is also integrated by tourism service providers to provide unified service to their customers. Typically, customers are putting so much effort on their destination choice process by retaining the information, but this process can be condensed considerably through the intelligent use of VR. In developed countries, many hotels and travel companies are offerings VR tools on their website to have firsthand experience on hotel rooms or nearby attractions digitally. Hence it provides a kind of “try and buy” options, through 360-degree image only which is companionable with social media platforms too, while potential customers can have digital experience. Apart from that VR offers an entire booking process and user interface that can be experienced virtually and last but not the least a virtual travel experience too that are likely to draw them to location they are going to visit; these definitely help in their destination choice process effortlessly. But in India the use of VR technology in hospitality and tourism industry is still in infant stage, but a growing number of multinational corporation (MNC), tourism companies, and international hotels are trying to embrace it into their business to boost their industry in the near future.

Blockchain Technology This technology is yet to be integrated into Indian tourism business; so far many MNCs are trying to incorporate into their day to day business to ease and secure the payment methods. In terms of using blockchain, one can make access and storing important information. The decentralized nature of blockchain, information will never be lost through malicious cyberattack or accidental deletion, ensures any transaction traceable (REVFINE, n.d.-b).

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Artificial Intelligence The role of artificial intelligence (AI) is unparalleled within the tourism and hospitality industry (REVFINE, n.d.-c). But the scenario in India still is in emerging stage. The concept is strongly connected with automation technology with slight or no human interference. During the customer journey, it can offer direct messaging, speech translation, and online communication through chatbots and voicebots. Countless hotels are highly relying on providing excellent customer service, while AI can assist through improving personalization and customized recommendation by offering fast responses even in the absence of the employees. Despite the advancement of technology, the hospitality and tourism industry in India is facing some challenges to incorporated technological tools wholly to optimize tourism business in an effective manner. Albeit it has been perceived through different studies that by integrating different technological tools, tourism and hospitality sector can generate more revenues, save cost and time, influence competitiveness, increase service quality, efficiently manage human resources, ease service operations, maintain standards, increase in online revenues, reduce guest complaints, increase customer service ratings, and many more which accelerates the business in more big way, it has been also observed some pragmatic challenges are encountered by various hotels, tourism, and allied service sectors including small and medium-sized enterprises (SME). Challenges include interoperability, i.e., there is no uniformity or lack of standardization; this sector does not maintain any systematic procedure; often MNCs develop their personalization technologies to provide services, whereas small and medium enterprises failed to incorporate those tools across the different intraorganization. Moreover, hotel industry is facing huge technology deficit due to interconnectivity problems and scrappy systems. In order to provide more secured service, the sector needs to take more robust security measure; the sector is facing challenges in privacy and security service while serving to customers. Since information technology and communication development becomes classier, industrial experts, academicians, and policy makers are finding difficulty in selecting, analyzing, executing, and operating new-fangled systems. Often the problem is arising with lack of tech savviness among the employees and/or lack of proper skills, education, and professional development; the use of hospitality technologies in India is not noteworthy. On the other hand, with the advancement of technologies, customers became more technology freaking and demanding unique products and services. Thus, this is often creating challenges to the tourism stakeholders as well as small and medium tourism and hospitality enterprises since they need to manage and integrate technological tools within the least cost to meet the expectations of the consumers. Furthermore, recent climb of this industry in recent years has brought lot of challenges that required to be solved by adhering strong strategies by all stakeholders. Unless the tourism and hospitality industry will improve its compatibility and competitiveness through uses of technological tools and groundbreaking management methods, it will be difficult to survive in the marketplace even if it will be

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jeopardized to remain in the existing position, whereas only technologically sound innovative and creative suppliers will be able to endure the competition of new epoch.

The Application of Information and Communication Technology in Tourism and Hospitality Sector in India: Present Scenario in India Hospitality automation is the application of information and communication technology in tourism business and has comprehensively distorted the role of service providers, associated with tourism and hospitality market. Tourism entrepreneurs as well as customers/travellers are being encouraged to adopt the modern technologies to acquire the benefits available from such expansions. The unprecedented growth of technology radically transformed the customer-brand interactions. The way consumer connects with products as well as services has undergone a drastic change persuaded by ever-improving technologies, and the tourism industry has not been any different. This paradigm shift also changes the way visitors decide before making a final tour plan and access of other allied services. According to Google travel study, majority of the travellers are using technological tools to make their itinerary, while very low percentage of travellers are going to traditional travel agency to make flawless tour plan. As discussed earlier that this is not new as the use of ICT in tourism and hospitality industry has existence over 30 years, particularly in computer networks, with the use of computer reservation system, specifically airlines industry and other service provider used booking tools. Through global distribution system like Amadeus, Galileo, Sabre, and Worldspan, service providers of hospitality and tourism industry booked air tickets, hotel room, and car rental and retained realtime information like flight availability, flight timing, transit time, etc. (Gomis & Francesc, 2012). During the 1990s and beyond, the next foremost transitional technology integrated by the tourism and hospitality industries is the adaptation of the Internet. In the service delivery process, the Internet has played a strategic role as a transformational tool. Poon (1993) remarked that adaptation of such technology has made the difference between the “traditional tourism sector” and “new tourism industry” as more customers and DMOs adopted this new trend. Consequently, tourism products became globalized which empowers to increase ranges for the customers while increasing competition for the service providers. Other related technological tools like mobile technologies, organizational website, social media, and virtual reality are also incorporating into tourism and hospitality business that enables traveller to find best deals, self-guided tours, and real-time updates. Although change is the only constant, the innovation and application of technology in hospitality and tourism sector are still in blossoming stage in India though the technological and analytical developments became the cry of the hour. Due to dearth of enough technology application in this sector, tourists are not experiencing the best

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service quality while undertaking services. Based on empirical study some gaps have been cropped up and discussed in this section. Technology is such a field which requires skilled workforces. In India, hospitality and tourism sector is basically a sunrise industry which fails to incorporate proper tech skills within its perimeter. India, in a broader aspect, not only lack the skilled labor force but also does not support training institute which could assemble such skills in the time of Analytics 2.0. There is gap persist between customer expectation and the service offered. Customers in this time of high competition want best service from the service providers. Tourism and hospitality enterprises lack to provide an optimal app-based solution and web information to cater their needs. We are living in the time of Industry 4.0, but the study found that the sector is lacking an optimal automation and computerization which can innate to provide the interim solutions to the customers. Again, the gap of the study claims that the industry practices need to be trained in the upcoming and new technologies to sustain and could provide the customer delight effect in this competitive market scenario. So far, it has been observed that there is lack in tourism and hospitality technical infrastructure, and it is very shocking that government does not play a key role to impose the same, but other hospitality and tourism enterprises are trying hard to incorporate new technological tools to serve quality service while fulfilling high demanding customer’s need, enabling to fetch more revenues. Since social media becomes a very fundamental part of today’s life and using as a marketing tool inestimably, people are highly influenced with this social media platform. Thus the tourism and hospitality sector, being a service-driven industry, must utilize as a promotion tool to connect with their potential customer. But with the lack of proper knowledge and efficiency of their employees, many Indian traditional tourism company and underrated hotels failed to utilize properly which leads to have negative impacts on tourist experiences. DMOs and other hospitality organizations are still struggling to exploit e-marketing tools in their promotional strategy to reach to the large geographical location which might increase their business and can endorse their product and services on international standards. The cybersecurity, online data breaching, and security issues are really being a great problem in this era of technological development in the field of tourism and hospitality sector. Often it is founded that a lot of tourism companies using the payment gateways are not safe. The mode of e-transfer of the data and also service charges are not at all safe and having lot of complexities from the users’ end. This needs to be solved through adaptation of strong and secured payment gateway which can enable users to have seamless transactions. However, websites are being used by modern tourism companies as well as other hospitality sectors, and some traditional companies too are trying to imbibe these modern technologies to ease their operations, but most of the traditional companies are very rigid on this particularly, and they have false believed with the existing infrastructure they can deliver quality services leading to dissatisfaction of tourism experiences. Some of the problems have been observed including that most of the websites are not up-to-date and well featured and not compatible with mobile; thus, “n” number of mobile users could not able to get to know about their products and access their

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online services. Albeit the presence of online travel companies and hotel sectors has eased the service vigorously, still many Indian traditional companies don’t have any online presence. VR, AI, and blockchain are helping to develop modern industry, and globally these technologies are embracing by tourism and hospitality enterprise to get competitive benefits, while India is lagging behind and far way to implement these technologies. Robot technologies are replacing human interactions, and many advanced countries are embracing this technology within hospitality industry to expurgate the human dependency to serve better customer experiences even on the absence of personnel.

Changes and Future Predictions of Hospitality Industry with the Application of Innovative Technologies in India Information technology has triumphed in each extent of operation and management where “information” is the lifeblood of this sector. Despite the challenges and uncertainty in tourism and hospitality industry, “change” is the only constant. Thus, the adaptation of information technology has induced to bring changes into hospitality and tourism operations, which have radically transformed the nature of tourism and hospitality products, processes, and the dimension of doing business. Undoubtedly this change has been advantageous for managers, industry associates, and other practitioners. DMOs and other hospitality enterprises have embraced several technological tools to ease their day-to-day operation; alternatively tourism millennial and other customers have been benefitted through customization and personalization of their need and experiences. This transformation literally has excavated the space for tourism enterprises to explore its potentiality and possibility. And the nexus between the new tourism industry and traditional tourism industry has reshaped the entire model of this industry where tourists are gradually adopting new trends and products and other related services are reengineered by the industry practitioners and other hospitality enterprises. The rising growth of technology has not only eased the transaction process but also changed the way of operations of hospitality services altogether. The face of hospitality industry has changed completely as technology has enabled service providers to make any deal through online, promote their products/services in online platform, and make reservation process more secured and eased and above all, service providers are more into developing their business through embracement of technologies, while the Internet has become the biggest platform to advertise/ branding their products. Tourism and hospitality industry has projected growth with the technological application certainly which has enabled online tour booking, personalizing itineraries, creating invoices, booking travel insurances, and booking of other amenities and associated services which definitely can save huge time; service providers will get purge from tedious paper work where customers will experience seamless travel. Having integration of professional websites of each tourism companies, hotels, restaurants, other suppliers, and the uses of several tools like chatbots, voicebots,

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blockchain, expert system, e-brochures, 360-degree videos of the particular property, and available attraction at the destination, the complexity of marketing has been eased extensively which enabled them to provide innovative services for better customer experiences, and on the other hand decision making process of a customer has been alleviated to a great extent. The future prospect of hotel industry and tourism industry will transform on the basis of marketing strategies and technological adaptation; moreover it will be relied on progressing of new technology and how new generations are adopting the innovative technology which will ensure to enhance guest experience, expanding guest convenience with hotel technology like smart in-room technology, mobile check-in and check-out, and messaging services to have unified experiences. With the AR, guests feel more connected with the property through visual experiences. AR technologies are changing the future of hospitality sector by espousing the augmented hotel technologies through virtual experiences, gamification through more innovative games which will help to increase brand value of the hotel, conversational hotel rooms, and beacon technology with the support of Bluetooth which helps the customer with required information after arriving to the destination. Robotic personnel can transform the model of hospitality business by providing room service, delivering luggage, and/or giving required information to the guests. Mobile key, finger recognition, biometric these technologies will compatible with the mobile devices which will give consent for payment of services, checking- in-out formalities and many more. Finally, experts and industry practitioners are hypothesizing that there will be always presence of personnel despite the progression of technology, so there is still a long way where robots and chatbots can meet the desire of the customers with even least interaction of humans.

Recommendations for India to Overcome Technological Challenges Moreover, India is slowly pacing toward e-tourism, as well as a good number of traditional travel agencies have been replaced by online travel agents. It has been observed maximum number of travel agency and other hospitality sector are having online presence and trying to integrate facilities, but to increase the competitiveness, hospitality and tourism industry needs more robust technological support in terms of updated application, infrastructure, proficient workforces, and so on to provide quality service to tourism millennial and other customers. Here are some recommendations to overcome the present technological challenges fronting by the entire hospitality and tourism sector in India. On the time of Industry 4.0, people particularly Generation Y of India became more tech freaking and more demanding in nature while undertaking a trip or making a tour plan. They want an application-based platform which will be easily accessible on smartphone which will offer range of service including booking of car rental, ticketing, hotel, and many more. The country needs to develop more updated application with the collaboration of technology research institute. To increase the awareness and produce

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more skilled workforces, the country requires to develop more training institute, and all the hospitality and hotel institutes should collaborate with technological institute like IITs and/or other institutes to provide hands-on experience to new generation which will ensure a strapping technological support to all hospitality stakeholders. Government body and associate stakeholders should take into consideration this matter through inclusion of several technology training on its application in hospitality industry into “HUNAR-SE-ROZGAR” scheme, an initiative of ministry of tourism in India. Technology application should be added in vocational courses from grass route level in order to produce more proficient personnel which can ensure successful integration of technological tools in hospitality and tourism sector. To utilize GDS in more effective way, IATA training should be mandatory which will ensure more use of online ticket booking. To avoid technological interoptibility, centralized server-based application should develop to have standardized tools. Apart from the above, Indian hospitality and tourism organizations need to have online presence more effectively by updating their website while offering range of facilities; again they should do apposite utilization of social media by promoting and branding their products and services so that customers can have hassle-free experience. Each traditional companies of the country should have good presence in social media to showcase their offers ensuring huge possibility to convert potential customer to actual customer. Top MNC companies should use modern technologies by expanding their infrastructure including AI, VR, and robotics to offer quality services to the customers; in this regard government should provide fund to develop such technologies in India so that tourism and hospitality enterprises including SMEs can embrace modern technologies. Nevertheless, top-level management of an organization should be aware about the new technologies and its application in order to succeed their business while providing better customer experiences. Although the Internet became the biggest arena in digital India, it has been observed that with the lack of infrastructure availability, many traditional companies have failed to embrace new technologies. Hence, government and other stakeholders should give financial assistance to restructure the companies by integrating modern technologies; in addition these technologies and Internet facilities should be available in low cost in rural and urban areas in developing country like India. Undoubtedly, that will enhance the uses of the technological application in the country which will give better tourist experiences. In this respect all the hospitality and tourism stakeholders should adopt e-marketing strategy more efficiently to provide intensive information including real-time information to “n” number of customers including niche customers in bare minimum time frame. To avoid cybercrime, the country needs more robust technology to avoid data fishing along with a requirement of more secured payment gateway. So far, in today’s world, people are seeking for more modern technologies in terms of paperless money, while travelling tourists want to have FOREX card to have seamless experiences; country should offer such facilities in more or less every popular tourist spots. To provide better customer experience, the country needs to develop “one stop solution” application to increase the competitiveness of the business and have positive impacts in service quality.

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Technology Application in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Bangladesh: Recent Trends The Daily Observer (2018) coins that the “Digital Bangladesh” is a vision declared by the government of Bangladesh (GOB) that motivates the digital technology use in the country. The government formulated strategies to attain this vision through the access for digital technology by all citizens, promoting ICT to easy access in the market and establishing digital government. From communication to education in everywhere, it shows its necessity and people taking it in a positive way to make their life more comfortable. But because of less interest and not having developed structure, the tourism industry did not get the maximum benefits from the advancement of information technology. Even in 2020, most of the hotel still maintains year’s old structure and method to deliver services to the customers. Where other neighboring country uses different technology to make it easy and comfortable for the tourist in Bangladesh, they have lack of experience and investment to make it happened.

Websites and Apps World Wide Web is a wireless connection to the world. It makes the world close and the people closer. Now by one click, people want to collect every information according to their needs. To buy groceries online and to give booking for air ticket, in every way, people gets used to this websites and apps where they can easily get every information they need. In case of tourism, the importance of using technology is undoubtedly huge. To make plan for any tour whether it is inside the country or outside, people like to use website and apps to get to know more about the country or the place they want to visit. They also search for relative information to get more knowledge about their upcoming tour, and it helps them to take decisions according to their budget. If they do not get enough information through website, they feel less interested to visit the place of country. So the country should maintain a separate website regarding their tourism activities, and all the private and public organizations including travel agency, airlines, hotel and motels, resorts and tourist place restaurants, spa, and tourist activities agency should maintain a well-structured and updated website and apps to make all the related information available to everyone. In Bangladesh, most of the organizations use this technology, but they are not that much updated and not very user-friendly. So user most of the time does not get up-to-date information, as well as they don’t get information that they are searching for. The analogue tourism and hospitality industry in Bangladesh has been changing fundamentally with the rapid rise of online travel agencies (OTAs). An increasing number of tourists are using online travel services for availing diverse tourism and hospitality services ranging from flight booking to hotels or even to find relevant data and information. A good number of active OTAs dominate the Bangladesh tourism and hospitality market when the market share of the OTAs is rising 5%–20% in the last few years (Future Startup, 2020). Leading OTAs like Amarroom, ShareTrip, Flight Expert, Vromon, and Go Zayaan are getting global recognition (World Travel Awards, 2019).

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Social Media and Internet Banking According to Karim (2018), social media become a new market place for everyone and for every business. Now people do most of the business over the Internet, and social media become one of the easiest and comfortable business platform. Tourism industry in other countries also focuses on creating business and attract new tourist by using social media. They made attractive video and short film to give a glimpse of their tourism attractions to the tourist. Social media user gets easily attracted by the video and short film or the video crated by the individual tourist who visited the place and make video on their individual tour. In Bangladesh the private sector and the individual tourist are very active on social media to promote tourism, but the public sector and organizations are not that much active to get this huge advantages and to promote the country worldwide. Tourist always loves to plan a tour in budget, but sometimes for emergency reason they need extra money out of their budget. For that reason, they try to make a backup plan for it, and Internet banking makes it easy for the traveller to travel the world without physical money. Now travellers use different cards and mobile applications to use money on different purposes inside the country or outside the country. The banks and different tourism authorities make it available for the tourist to spend their expenses without using physical money. In Bangladesh the banks are very active and updated on Internet banking, but most of the tourism authorities are yet not used to Internet banking which makes it difficult for the tourist to visit different places of Bangladesh without physical money.

Mobile Technology Taking and uploading photos on different media, making videos, or doing blogs all this help to promote tourism activity, and to do this mobile technology plays a very intense role for tourism. Searching information for destinations; booking ticket or checking flight status; searching locations on GPS for hotel, travel place, and restaurant; or renting a car, people now use mobile technology. Tourists cannot even think of going somewhere without mobile whether it is inside or outside the country.

Augmented Reality One is used with headset and another is not this is the basic difference between VR and AR. This two are computer-generated environment with scenes and objects that appear to be real, making the user feel they are immersed in their surroundings including 360-degree view. For tourism industry, this two can work as technological blessings. User can get a better idea about their destinations and hotel or motels rooms and surroundings if the authorities incorporate with this technology. This will also help the tourist with a condensed idea about their future visited place to take better decision. Unfortunately, unlike many tourism-based

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countries in the world, Bangladesh did not give enough effort to make this technology available in this country, and most of the tourism authorities do not take it seriously, and that is the reason they lose their potential tourist.

Blockchain Technology Blockchain is blocks of data sequentially added to a chain of similar blocks. Once a block is in place, it can hardly be moved or changed without taking the whole chain apart (Nault, 2017). Though it is used by many travel-based organizations around the world including Webjet and Airbus, in Bangladesh yet the technology is lacking behind because of less interest and knowledge about it. But the increasing use of this technology in another country can increase the competition in the market of tourism for Bangladesh (The Daily Observer, 2018). So, the country needs to focus on introducing this technology in tourism industry.

Artificial Intelligence AI is a new way of giving highest level of customer satisfactions with less/without any human interactions. The impact of AI in tourism industry is unbelievable. Through this, customer can communicate with the tourism organizations by sending message, online chatbots, voicebots, and speech translation. Many hotels around the world are now using this technology to deal with numbers of customers within minimum amount of time to introduce better services. To become digital Bangladesh and to give high-end service to the tourist, tourism industry should also focus on this technology (The Daily Observer, 2018).

Machine Learning According to Ghani et al. (2018), “Amar Bangladesh” is the first tourism-based smartphone application for introducing machine learning in its program. This mobile application is using the Google Maps API. The application finds out all points of interests’ location added to the database by the admin. The user is enabled for logging in to this app with the use of Facebook details or their primary information. After logging in, the users can plan their day-long trips. This trip normally starts from the nearest attraction, as well as the users can deselect non-preferred attractions. The ML program that is used in this application will search for the most convenient and suitable routes for reaching the destinations one after the other. The user will be suggested through machine learning each time of choosing their points of interest. Also, the users will be able to write notes in the form of diary entry to be saved on their smartphones’ offline database. Users can be allowed to either share or restrict their entries publicly (Kumar et al., 2020).

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The Application of ICT in Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Bangladesh: Present Scenario in Bangladesh According to Bangladesh Post (2020), the tourism and hospitality industry of Bangladesh has enjoyed the rise of low-cost airlines and a growing middle class that helped its immense changes. Technology application has been playing critical and significant roles in many of the travel and tourism industry advancements. In Bangladesh, only a few years ago, tourists had to either print or buy a map, whereas they can access one on their smartphones with their fingertip nowadays. Like in any other country, technology has not been the single changing factor of the global tourism and hospitality industry. The lifestyles of tourists at present are also completely different when they have more information, more access, and importantly overall higher expectations for their travelling. Some of the latest trends in the tourism and hospitality industry in 2020 are micro trips, online booking, more personalization, more personalization, AI, and machine learning. ICT can be useful for a country, but for tourism it creates a new dimension of business, and it opens new opportunities that can lead this industry in a different level. Hotel, motels, resorts, and travel agencies are now trying to introduce new technology to make it easy and comfortable for the customers. ICT is a broad area referring to multiple communication technologies which range from simple and complex, namely, cell phone applications (SMS), digital cameras, Internet, wireless (Wi-Fi and WiMAN), VOIP, GPS, GIS, convergence (data, voice, media), and digital radio; these technologies are creating a new global market place, which is more competitive. With e-commerce and e-business, the market has more opportunities and possibilities than ever before in the tourism and hospitality industry of Bangladesh (Mowla, 2019). Not only the related business of tourism gets benefit from ICT, but also the customer also gets different benefits from this (Sardar & Hossain, 2019). The hotels and motels owners now keep investing in digitalizing their system to give better experience to their customer about their services. The customer also uses digital device to make their stay and travel relaxed and budget friendly. By using ICT in tourism and hospitality industry, the industry itself creates a great impact on economic growth of the country. Tourism has considerable position in Bangladesh GDP, and it has good perspective scale to the maintenance of sustainability and development (Das & Chakraborty, 2012). The area of tourism is increasing, and it also needs infrastructural development to support the industry as a whole. But in Bangladesh there are different issues regarding infrastructural development. Most of the area of the country have no or poor Internet connections. And also the price of the mobile services is also very high compare to other countries. There is also lack of skilled labors who knows every aspect of ICT applications. For that reasons, the authority cannot get skillful employee at the right place to serve the customer effectively. Customer also gets poor service for lack of skilled labor. So the industry needs to create training and educational opportunities for the interested people who want to serve this industry. Though BPC (Bangaldesh Parjantan Corporation) and tourism institutions offer different courses, they are not that much updated and well organized, and their curriculum is also years’ old which have

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less connections to the ICT. In collaboration with a2i (Access to Information), BPC has undertaken diverse programs (i.e., public awareness campaign, branding, introducing Bangladesh tourism on YouTube, etc.). In all its owned hotels and motels, BPC has also ensured online payment and booking services for tourists as well as upgraded their websites. For accepting complaints and redress simultaneously, BPC has installed the Grievance Redness System (GDS) allowing tourists to lodge complaints and send feedbacks from anywhere. In addition, BPC places digital initiatives for resolving any issues by the tourists using the latest technological applications (The Financial Express, 2018; Daily Sun, 2018). Bangladesh also failed to create globalized tourism product and services unlike Thailand and Malaysia. Most of the countries are using their technological advancement to create and promote their tourism product and services. Advancement of e-commerce through ICT makes it easy to introduce the local product to worldwide for the tourism entrepreneurs. They also use e-marketing to promote and attract their product around the world. E-commerce is improving the culture of business. There are now better intra-firm communications, cost savings procedures, and reductions in the inventory costs leading to better management. Thus ICTs are the backbone of the capital accumulation (Mowla, 2019). The social media create a great platform for most of the tourism based nations, but in Bangladesh the tourist organizations are not that much organized and updated with it. They have less interest to invest money in this potential area which causes ignorance about the market, and they failed to fulfill customer needs and demands. The tourism organizations and administrations are also less aware about modern ICT tools like AR, VR, blockchain, mobile apps, and Internet banking. After evaluating the present scenario of Bangladesh tourism and hospitality industry, it has been found that this industry knows the benefit and the opportunity of using ICT in every aspects of tourism, but they are not physically and mentally preparing to create a smooth path for ICT applications development for this industry.

Changes and Future Predictions of the Tourism and Hospitality Industry with the Application of Innovative Technologies in Bangladesh Change is inevitable! Everything is changing time to time, but the changes and innovation in technology and its application are beyond our imagination. Even some decades ago, it was quite impossible to think of an application where we people can buy or sell goods without any physical currency. But now people can do it not only in their country but also when they are travelling to another country. There are many examples of technology applications such as mobile key, robots, blockchain, biometrics, virtual reality, augmented reality, social network, voice and natural language processing device, eTourism, eMarketing, etc. that makes revolutionary changes in our tourism and hospitality industry. In the past the tourist only depends on geographical, cultural, and historical knowledge for travelling, but at present tourist mostly depends on to make their travel plan on technology applications. In the future

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the dependency will increase, and like other country, Bangladesh needs to focus on future technology advancement to serve tourist best experience about their travel. However, there are different gaps present in using this technology application appropriately that are the reason tourists are not experiencing best service quality from this industry. Some of these gaps are discussed below. First, tourist generally prefers tourism and hospitality organizations to be application based where they can use their mobile to get information easily (Bethapudi, 2013). But most of the tourism and hospitality websites are not ready for mobile applications in Bangladesh. Even these websites are not well designed and cannot serve all the purpose that tourist wants. Second, being updated and adding new features is most important to give good tourist experience. In Bangladesh most of the top-level management is not aware about this issue, and that is the reason tourist experience lower service from the technology application of the organization (Bethapudi, 2013). Third, from searching destinations to hotel reservation and other technological support, all is done by the computer. But in Bangladesh most of the tourism and hospitality organizations do not use proper computerization in their system and that’s why tourist experience lack of help from technology application. Fourth, to use right technology, the industry needs accurate education that most of the country is lacking off, and Bangladesh is one of those countries who know the technology but don’t know how to use it appropriately. This is the reason tourist do not get the satisfaction they are expecting from this country. Fifth, technology is dynamic. It changes constantly. To cope up with this rapid change, the employee of tourism industry needs relevant training (Bethapudi, 2013), although most of the tourism and hospitality organization in Bangladesh did not give enough importance in this issue and that causes least customer satisfaction. According to Bethapudi (2013) having lack of training is not the only problem that organizations face; rather they face finding appropriate trainer and training institutions that can provide advance training to the employee about technology. Sixth, tourism and hospitality industry in Bangladesh still depends on traditional tools that are inappropriate to satisfy and give good experiences to the modern tourist who mainly depends on technology application. Integration with modern technology is most of the time ignored by the tourism enterprise and that causes customer dissatisfaction about the service. In Bangladesh we acknowledged it but do not take enough steps to impose it in tourism sector. Seventh, social media become parts of our daily life. Tourists are highly influenced by this too. However, most of the tourism and hospitality organization cannot utilize this for their development of business because of lack of knowledge and effort that create bad influences on tourist experience (Bethapudi, 2013). In Bangladesh the tourism and hospitality enterprise is still struggling to effectively use this social media for their business development. Eighth, infrastructure is the backbone of any industry. For the greater use of technology, any country need modern infrastructure. Although in Bangladesh it lacks well-established infrastructure to give satisfactory support to the tourism and hospitality industry and customer.

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Ninth, advanced country now targeted their customer through e-marketing for every industry, and tourism is not exceptional. It also depends on e-marketing to endorse tourist destination and to promote tourism product and services. However, the tourism and hospitality in Bangladesh still depends on traditional way of tourism marketing. For that reason, tourists experience lack of marketing about this country. Tenth, VR and AR are the modern technologies to support the tourism industry development. This new technology application is now on their way to capture the market, and that’s why many tourism and hospital industry in advanced country try using this application to get competitive advantage in the market. But Bangladesh is way behind in developing this technology in the tourism sector, so customer is depriving from this modern technology. Eleventh, robots now replace human from different workplaces (Luebke, 2018). Though tourism is mainly based on human resources, now this industry tries to cut the human dependency by introducing robots to do those task that needs minimal human interaction and to create ultimate tourist satisfactions, but in Bangladesh there is no attempt to use robot in tourism and hospitality sector. Twelfth, tourist now wants to travel with e-money and e-card rather than physical money to make the travel safe and secured (Bethapudi, 2013). In different country, there is enough support for e-money and e-card, but in Bangladesh most of the organization cannot give support for this purpose that makes tourist dissatisfactions. Thirteenth, different countries now build an application where the customer gets all the relative services and they do not need to check multiple websites. Although in Bangladesh, there is no such application which can provide comprehensive support for tourism and hospitality customer.

Recommendations for Bangladesh to Overcome Technological Challenges Bangladesh is now moving forward to become digital country in every sector. Tourism and hospitality is one sector who needs technological support to increase tourist satisfactions about their visit in this country. Being digital not only depends on theoretical knowledge the country needs to convert it to their application for this industry. In their research Ali and Parvin (2010) suggested the improvement of effectiveness and efficiency of tourism services followed by the arrangement of better facilities, cost-cutting techniques, innovative technological applications, and infrastructural development. So the following are some recommendations. First, from social media to rent a car, now tourists use mobile applications for this service. The tourism and hospitality-related enterprise should introduce their own website-based activities through applications or apps to attract potential tourist and also to give a great experience to their existing tourist to offer information as much as possible and enhance their web presence through SEO and other efficient techniques (Dorsi, 2019). Therefore, tourist can use their mobile to use all the tourism-related information at their convenient time.

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Second, the top-level management of any organizations should be prepared for adopting new technology that increases the success of the enterprise (Bethapudi, 2013). There is no exception for tourism. So the top-level should become more aware about adopting new features and update it time after time to satisfy the tourist expectations. Third, tourism and hospitality industry requires skilled employee to support every need of the tourist. To become skilled employee, they must be trained about modern technology applications. For that reason, they need suitable trainer and training facilities (Bethapudi, 2013). Tourism and hospitality organizations in Bangladesh should emphasize on providing this training facilities to increase better tourist experience as well as accurate educational support to know the best use of the available technology. Fourth, to offer better support and customer satisfactions, the tourism and hospitality organization needs to focus on using modern technology like robots, VR, AR, blockchain, biometrics, mobile key, etc. (Luebke, 2018). Most of which is already being used by the advanced country to meet tourist demands. Cryptocurrency now become one of the modern ways to reward customer with ultimate travel experience (Hausold, 2017). Bangladesh needs to give their focus to use these modern tools to provide better tourist experiences. Fifth, by using modern and technological tools and technique is not all. The tourism and hospitality organization needs to be integrated with it all the time; otherwise there will be no benefit of presenting it without proper integrations. Sixth, social media become one of the biggest media to promote for any business. Tourism industry around the world also takes the advantages of this. Bangladesh tourism and hospitality organizations like tour operators, hotel, motel, resort, and recreational park also use this to promote their offerings and services, but that should not be the only focus they should do; rather besides promotions they need to use this strong media for their further business development. Seventh, tourist can only be served bests if the industry can build strong and wellestablished infrastructure for technology also at a lower cost. Bangladesh is a developing country with growing infrastructural support, but to become recognized as a digital country, they need to provide advanced infrastructural support to this industry. According to Chowdhury (2017), Bangladesh have joined the “Alliance for Affordable Internet (A4AI)” to reduce the cost of the Internet that will increase the availability and uses of technology application in this country. Eighth, to offer excellent services, the tourism organizations require to give more emphases on global trends like e-marketing. Organizations and authority should keep focus on this technological aspect to set their market strategy. This is the platform where you can target unlimited customer with unlimited information at a very minimal time frame. Ninth, according to Bethapudi (2013), paperless money has become the new and popular trend for the tourism industry. Tourists want to travel with e-money and e-card. It makes their stay effortless and secured. So to support this new trend of money, Bangladesh tourism and hospitality enterprise need to make sure there are enough technological applications for the tourist like availability of international

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card, supported ATM booth, money exchanger, and international banking facility in every tourist spots. Tenth, tourism includes several activities that are the reason the need of the tourist is much diversified. To support these needs, there are different technological applications, but it creates complication if the tourist need to use each and technological applications. So Bangladesh tourism and hospitality should focus on creating a single stop support to provide comprehensive support that covers every need.

Conclusion This conceptual paper studied the developments of information and communication technological tool usage in the tourism and hospitality industries, and for better understanding of the latest findings, present scenario has been discussed in particular for tourism enterprises and other stakeholders for the effective embracement of ICT in the said industry. Since there is a Prevalence of competition in tourism & hospitality sector industry as well new marketing strategies which best suits with the changing pattern of tourism market while furnishing demand of customers through endowment of quality experience to the tourists. The study reveals that both the countries are on promising stage when we talk about the technological development; albeit, since last decades, many traditional companies have come up with strong policies to revamp the business dimensions and strive to integrate advance technological tools to provide quality services to the tourists, it has been observed that several tourism enterprises and hotel sectors are having good online presence after the evolution of the Internet. To overcome the challenges, a well-defined policy as well as collaboration with the stakeholders is much needed for the advancement of technological application within the entire hospitality industry. It is further recommended that key players DMOs, travel agents, and hotel associates need to do market research and market segregation followed by conducting several awareness program before embracing any technological tools. If both the country India and Bangladesh and the associated stakeholders adhere to the recommendations made in the study to boosting e-business, the remarkable development of the usage of technological application is not so far. It has seen the use of IT in operation management process and competitive benefits as it is a new arena to exploit with full potential of technologies. However, the study has some limitation since it is a conceptual paper & an empirical approach was adopted, no first hand data has been provided. So, the future research study has lot of potential to explore this area more robustly.

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Indigenous Tourism: A Shift Toward Innovative Technology Application

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Azizul Hassan, Nazmoon Akhter, and Isha Sharma

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The “Indigenousness” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The “Indigenousness” and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indigenous Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drawbacks in Indigenous Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology-Supported Indigenous Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Supported Indigenous Tourism and Poverty Alleviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indigenous People in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Features and State of the Indigenous Peoples in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chakma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tripura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tanchangya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bawm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kheyang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Khumi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lushai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pangkhua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Santals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Khasi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Jaintia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Garo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manipuri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keot (Kaibarta) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Muslim Tribes “Pangal” or “Pangan” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . National and International Organization for Indigenous People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current Scenario of Indigenous Tourism Capitals in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology-Supported Indigenous Tourism, Poverty Alleviation: What Happens in Bangladesh? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Indigenous tourism has widely expanded in many countries of Asia. From the very beginning of its introduction, a good number of issues have been accompanying this concept. In these years, indigenous tourism is granted as capable to have positive contributions toward tourism as one of the important industries of the national economy of a country. Medical tourism is also said as contributing to poverty alleviation. Innovative technology application in diversifying and creating appeal to indigenous tourism products can possibly help. While taking Bangladesh as the case, this conceptual study critically discusses indigenous tourism. The study outlines six indigenous tourism capitals such as natural, human, cultural, social, built, and financial capital that can be used as market product to develop indigenous tourism market niche. The study then shows relevant concerns with the innovative technology-supported indigenous tourism fair that can help indigenous tourism in terms of poverty alleviation of the indigenous people. The study then offers some basic marketing and promotion ideas that can support this concept. Results identified that indigenous tourism suffers from diverse issues, mostly political. However, the application of innovative technologies can support alleviating poverty in Bangladesh. Results also mention that good marketing communication and following effective market planning in relation to the application of innovative technologies can significantly have positive influences on indigenous tourism promotion and poverty alleviation. Again, indigenous tourism can help to alleviate poverty when effective and innovative technology applications are attached to it. The study suggests some generic marketing techniques with an example of a technology-supported indigenous tourism fair and concludes that indigenous tourism has immense prospects. However, the application of effective and good technologies is essential to bring the best out of it. Keywords

Indigenous · Technology · Tourism · Poverty · Development

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Introduction Indigenous tourism as an appearance of special interest tourism has been claimed to motivate the tourists. Characteristically, this type of tourism has more influence on the tourists than any other tourism types. According to Harron and Weiler (1992), there is a clear similarity between the ethnic tourist and the indigenous tourist. This type of tourists tends to seek for the authentic, firsthand, and very often close contact with the tourists who tend to have different views from all other types of tourists. The indigenous tourists mostly look for experiences; those are generated through direct contact with the indigenous population. This kind of tourists is more attached with the human-led activities with authenticity and more nearness. This can be classified as cultural contact where there is more involvement of the cultural artifacts. Indigenous tourism has also been traditionally linked with heritage, arts, adventure, nature, or environment-based tourism. However, the main motivation for indigenous tourism has been still unexplored, and there is more than one reason. There are diversities in participating in indigenous tourism activities like the human nature of curiosity, the elite class attitude, and even the intimacy with the local populations. Whatever the reasons are, the demand of indigenous tourism has been increasing and is influenced by the marketing activities. The very elementary character of indigenous tourism lies to its perceived image by the tourists. This conceptual study presents the present scenario that indigenous tourism with the application of innovative technologies outlines how this product can be better designed to support poverty alleviation among the indigenous people. This study then identifies some key facts for promoting the indigenous tourism and discovers the ways through which the application of innovative technologies can help indigenous tourism in Bangladesh as the case.

The “Indigenousness” The traditional exotic attraction of the indigenous population has always played key role in attracting the tourists from all over the world. The conventional indigenous livelihood is mostly away from the complexities. From terminological perspective, the term “ethnic,” “indigenous,” and “aboriginal” is mostly interrelated with each other representing the similarity in meaning. Indigenous tourism can be identified as activities that are related with tourism and with the indigenous population. Typically, this kind of tourism is attached with representing necessity of the tribal or indigenous control on their culture and the attraction as well. Hinch and Butler (1996) have attempted to describe typology of the indigenous tourism through the use of a kind of matrix. A variety of issues have been raised by them. But these were mainly restricted within the two key aspects of attraction’s indigenous theme and the control over culture. These have produced four types of scenarios: first, at this stage there is visibly

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higher control over culture by the indigenous population. At this stage of “Culture Controlled,” the indigenous theme has strong presence. Second, here also there has been a higher degree and control by the indigenous population. However, the indigenous theme has been clearly absent at this “Diversified Indigenous” stage. Third, at this stage of “Culture Dispossessed,” there is lower degree and control of the indigenous population with the presence of indigenous theme. Fourth, in this stage of “Non- indigenous tourism,” there is a lower degree of indigenous control without the presence of any indigenous theme. In general, indigenous tourism takes place within a global arena that is largely dominated by the non-indigenous actors. All of these contexts in turn raise issues like the control by the natives, the wider industrial synergies, transport, marketing, and power use. The term “indigenous” has been referred to as having more inclusivity than the term of “aboriginal.” However, there has been a clear similarity between the two terms in their meaning and covering areas. Aboriginal tourism typically includes the employees, employers, venture partners, and even the investors that mainly show that the indigenous tourism is a traditional cultural product (Pitcher et al., 1999, p.3). Also this is very often represented as an element of the mainstream tourism product. However, through both of the terms, this means that this kind of tourism mainly seeks to involve the indigenous populations’ participation more closely. These two aspects cannot be considered as separate. Rather, they are integrated and in a sense are more beneficial for generating developed tourism products and helping to build the tourism infrastructures. During the latter part of the twentieth century, this term “indigenous” has been referred to as the ethnic groups that are historically tied with territories. These groups of peoples typically exist in the territorial location for long time and before forming the nation or colonization. They are culturally and politically separated from the traditional mainstream ways of politics, society, and cultural setup within the places these groups are located. These groups of peoples are typically vulnerable, subjects to exploitation and oppression from the national states (Ryan & Aicken, 2005). A set of specialized political rights has been set by the international agencies on the basis of existing international law. The International Labour Organization (ILO), the World Bank, and the United Nations are the main agencies for the purpose. The United Nations has declared the indigenous people’s rights with the aims of protecting their identity, cultural, language, health, employment, educational, and the natural resources. In an estimate, total number of indigenous people in the whole world has stood at more than 220 million from 1997 to 350 million in 2004. Increased number of indigenous population across the world has forced countries to adopt strategies and thus to implement the set strategies designed for the wellbeing of indigenous populations. Countries across the world have set up the indigenous peoples’ rights labeling terms like the Native Americans, Inuit, the First Nations, Metis, the Hill tribes, Aborigines, Adivasi, or the scheduled tribes and ethnic minorities.

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The “Indigenousness” and Tourism In a recent study on the indigenous tourism in Argentina, 54 indigenous communities participated in the Project of Indigenous Community Development. There has been a trend of overwhelming responses from the local populations regarding the participation and engagement in the economic and livelihood development activities. Most of the beneficiaries viewed the tourism activities as having immense positive impacts on well-being of the tribal communities. The shift of income and economic benefits generation has been gradually effecting the populations (Butler, 1992). Coordinator of the Mapuche, an organization devoted toward the economic development through indigenous tourism activities, has identified the project activities as an element for increasing personal income generation along with developing the communal harmony. However, indigenous tourism has the capacity for bringing self-confidence and empowerment to the deprived indigenous population. Tourism and the local development are intertwined with the options for providing the ways to overcome issues on development and survival. In Bolivia, indigenous communities like the Solar de Uyuni and the Chalalan have been largely benefitted through tourism-related activities and programs. Indigenous tourism has offered them grounds for development and survival (Butler, 1994). In addition, spiritual values can also be brought through the adoption of indigenous tourism. Director of the FIEC Social Responsibility Institute of Brazil, Mr. Egido Guerra, has argued that the indigenous tourism can bring both the political and spiritual benefits to the local indigenous populations. Experiences from indigenous tourism in the Latin America countries show that this kind of tourism traditionally represents better respect and authority for the local populations. Indigenous tribal communities have been attached with the tourism planning processes with the development of such type of tourism. The delegate of the Tatatao Ecotourism Monitoring Programme, Mr. Andres Barona, has pointed out that the ecotourism activities very often benefit the indigenous tribal population. Such activities are mostly harmless for the environmental and social consequences. In addition, most of these initiatives are able to increase and support the indigenous communities through reducing the possible pressures on the natural and environmental resources. The indigenous tour operators and agents are becoming more sensible for the environmental and social well-being. Moreover, they are getting more motivated by ecotourism that can become a potential ground. Demand for creating a circuit of ethno tourism has been felt by the vice minister of tourism of Colombia. Indigenous tourism very often passes through the geographical territory in a meaning that countries negotiate to form regional groups within themselves. However, modernization process of the indigenous tourist spots has been getting wider importance from all over the world. The Kogi, arguably the most beautiful and popular landscape of Colombia, is enriched with indigenous tourism resources. This has attracted the national level policy planners to adopt the developmental initiatives to transform the Kogi as a popular indigenous tourism destination that can possibly become an ultimate choice for the

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tourists all over the world. Surprisingly, the Kogi did not agree with the government for implementing the set policy frameworks. Main reason for this was that they wanted to survive with their identity than as a tourist destination with the possible presence of tourists across the world. The Kogi has also sought after the necessary protection that will keep them away from the traditional mass tourism. Importantly, this part of Colombia was more concerned regarding their sustainability than appearing as a popular indigenous tourist destination. The delicacy in culture and environment can be easily disturbed with the effect of mass tourism. This kind of circumstances cannot be considered as rare in the current global context, as many countries in the world are now more conscious about the fragile environmental and cultural setup. These countries are more interested to save the authenticity and diversity at any cost. On the other side, they often believe that the benefits that are directly produced through tourism cannot benefit the community at all the time. Such claim has been evident through statement of the Colombian Amazon’s Yewae Visitor Center (YVC). As it is claimed that the local communities hardly get about only 10 percent of the income from the equity partnership with only 20 employments for the members from these communities. However, the local communities have to pay huge environmental and cultural costs for the purposes. The number of visitors has reached four times to the site in consideration to the number of that time. This has created additional pressure on the natural and environmental resources along with the available food or crafts for tourists. Indigenous tourism can be very often viewed as it has reached a certain level of consumerism. The development and growth of indigenous tourism can also lead to reasonable demand for resources allocation. The indigenous cultures and ritual settings can also be effected. For example, in this area within 5 years of time, the young generation expressed their clear disinterest to carry out their own language. The Tikuna language could not been able to keep the local young peoples to be attracted to their own identity. The Colombian Amazon has been showing sensitivity in terms of mass tourists’ visitation. The introduction of capital economy along with the degrading biodiversity and the clear demand for responsible tourism has been sought out by peoples from all over the world.

Indigenous Tourism Theoretically, there have been numerous ways and angles to define indigenous tourism. Many academics have attempted to underpin and explore the key areas related with this type of tourism. Hinch and Butler (1996) in a simple manner have tried to describe that the indigenous tourism is such kind of tourism that is attached with the tribal and marginal population. This tourism is typically attached with both the cultural aspects and the image representation. The capacity of controlling cultural resources is an important aspect of the indigenous tourism along with the capacity of offering tourism-related resources. Involvement with the tourism and other activities are another concern of such tourism. The control and power exercise over the resources are very essential elements of the indigenous tourism. Development and popularization of the tourism-related activities can be considered as the basic

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phenomenon of such type of tourism. Indigenous tourism by its character poses the capacity of representing the cultural values along with the uniqueness of the sociocultural structure. Power structure and the control have been evidently identified as key elements for the development of indigenous tourism. These are the means on which this type of tourism can develop and progress. Exploring the diversities in culture is the other main fact for the popularization and growth of indigenous tourism. In a sense, this type of tourism is more or less attached with the key areas like the power, control, and cultural diversity. On the other side, conventionally tourism has direct or indirect influences on the local populations’ livelihood and their ways of survival. Hence, indigenous can have profound impact on development and progress of the tribal population. These tribal groups have the potentials to contribute in the conventional means of tourism potentials and development. However, there have been always issues attached with the development and growth of this type of tourism activities. Tourism can have positive influences on the income generation and accelerating the economic activities within the tribal societies (Leßmann, 2011). Such activities have also been profound and mentionable in the tourism-related activities in the tribal societies.

Drawbacks in Indigenous Tourism Issues in the indigenous tourism tend to be harmonized with the institutional circumstances. That is, numerous institutions with their diversified activities are present in the research world. These have helped the aspects of indigenous tourism to appear in the global media and thus to help to attract attention of population all over the world. Homogeneity is a fact that has been attaining the modified shape parallel to modernization. The authenticity in culture and livelihood of the indigenous population has been kept for hundreds of years. These are regarded as basic strengths of the indigenous population that attract the tourist for years. Indigenous tourism has been believed to have positive benefits on the societal structure and the economic well-being. These have directed such kind of tourism toward the cultural renaissance, the income generation with the economy-related initiatives. However, the creation, development, and popularizing of the indigenous cultural setup as the product has not been straightforward and easy. From the spiritual perspective, indigenous tourism denotes special features as meeting demand of the local population along with the tourists. Expectedly, the indigenous tourism plays responsible role for the culture and the society of the tribal or indigenous population. Indigenous tourism has managed to produce strong and solid ground on the basis of livelihood impacts and economic contribution in many parts of the world like Asia, North America, Australia, and India. However, success of indigenous tourism lies on its offering abilities for empowering the local populations and to offer them voice. So far, the well-being of the indigenous population and consideration of their economic benefit have been largely ignored. There have not been any special or particular approaches that can be considered as beneficial for this tribal population, There has not been any approach to create link between the stakeholders, authorities, and the

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direct beneficiaries with the poverty alleviation process. The academic ground of indigenous tourism has been more or less contributed by many of the scholars and academics. All of the approaches have been focused on exploring diversified issues that are directly or indirectly attached with the society or culture. Indigenous tourism helps in promoting and contributing the communal developmental initiatives. The community and society can get the maximum outcome from indigenous tourism through the efficient utilization of this. The host community and tourism dynamics have interrelationship that can be considered as a basic phenomenon of academic interest from any broader perspective. Access and control of resources for the indigenous tourism are other issues that deserve clear and proper attention through the systematic and organized ways. There is an obvious interrelationship between the host tribe and the tourists aimed toward the promotion of tourism in the most significant way. This can be identified as creating and extending the socioeconomic network and thus to shape the way to contribute indigenous development, because tourism has been found as having capacity to contribute in the developmental process. The economic or development processes are more or less concerned with the control and geopolitical issues. Indigenous tourism has been attached with poverty and power control.

Technology-Supported Indigenous Tourism Innovative technologies can be applied for supporting indigenous tourism. These technologies can showcase indigenous tourism with more precision and appeal. Social media can also be effective. Experiences gathered through indigenous tourism, destinations, and products have been mainly operated and owned with the active participation of the local communities and the indigenous groups of people. There has been a clear reflection of their traditional lifestyle on the aspects of such type of tourism. Goeldner and Ritchie (2005) argued that, in the year 2005, third global summit of the International Institute for Peace through Tourism, a guideline list has been developed for participants of the Indigenous Tourism Forum. The main guidelines are as follows: first, tourism mandatorily has to ensure social, cultural, economic, and environmental benefits toward the host communities through minimizing the impacts on sustainable factors. Second, activities for poverty alleviation have to be the basic goal for the development of indigenous tourism. Third, the developmental activities generated through tourism have to be controlled and approved by the community. Fourth, tourism has to be managed properly with the involvement of host communities and the government. Fifth, indigenous cultures deserve recognition and true respect by the general tourism industry. Sixth, developmental ways of the tourism industry have to necessarily participate with the options like role play by the non-governmental organizations, government, the host communities, the tourism industry, and the grass root level-based community organizations. Seventh, the tourism industry deserves to be complementary toward the indigenous and local economy. However, evidently there has not been any clear claim that these guidelines have been accepted and in use for the purpose. This

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forum has also accomplished a set of recommendations on issues like the ways of planning, implementing, and maintaining a respectful indigenous environment that is maintained and respected by the concerned authorities all over. The community empowering, determination of the community, community definition, ownership of the community, the partnership of public and private enterprises, the framework of tourism, development of skill, and many more are attached here with Brohman (1996). Opportunities in indigenous tourism vary in accordance with the circumstances and on the basis of local cultural settings. Terminologically, indigenous tourism has been considered as creating gap between the local and the indigenous population. There has also been an increased concern about the ways through which this type of tourism gradually moves forward and flourishes. Indigenous tourism necessarily is involved with the generous participation of the local population and more or less helps to resolve the increased gap between the tourists with them. For the reason, such type of tourism has been expanding almost all over the world.

Technology Supported Indigenous Tourism and Poverty Alleviation Technology supported indigenous tourism and poverty alleviation can have mutual effects. The term poverty outlines the human poverty status. There is evidence that technology application can support indigenous people poverty alleviation (Thompson, 1999; Tchale et al., 2005). This obviously represents the lack of main basic human needs of food, clothes, medical care, education, and shelter. These necessities can be identified not only as very basic facts for survival not for luxury. Povertystricken population requires fulfilling their needs to lead a better and improved lifestyle. The alleviation of poverty through diversified activities and programs needs to be considered as essential to provide the poverty-affected population an improved lifestyle. According to Pearce (2012), the poverty alleviation schemes or programs are prepared to uplift the living condition of distressed population to a better level. Poverty alleviation programs are mainly designed and developed with an aim of improving and to bring positive effects on the rural peoples’ lifestyle. Poverty and poverty alleviation schemes tend to have different angels in the indigenous tourism domain. The indigenous people’s poverty alleviation programs cannot be considered as having separate characteristics. Rather, these are more closely intertwined with the national level poverty alleviation agendas. However, the traditional lifestyles of the indigenous populations are very often affected through these programs. All of which can have impact on the local socioeconomic scenario and very often can raise controversies. Poverty cannot be restricted within a certain geographical territory or any specific location. This can persist in both the developed and developing country context. This has led both types of countries to adopt and implement alleviation strategies. From the historical perspective, poverty has been widely considered as an inevitable tool of the non-industrialized economy where there has

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been a trend of inequality in resource distribution. Poverty alleviation process or the poverty reduction can become the outcome of general economic circumstances. Shortage of resources and social divide can become the key factors for massive spread of poverty across the globe. The industrialization progress has allowed the peoples for engaging into the poverty elimination and economic development programs. Poverty has been progressed in some places but not necessarily in every part of the world. The freedom in economic activities can sometimes slow down and have negative effects on the economic developmental process (Cohen, 2010). Access and ownership of the land property can become an inevitable component for poverty alleviation within the tribal communities. Along with this, finance-related activities like savings can have positive influence on the poor in terms of economic development and accelerating the socioeconomic progress. Corruptions, institutionalized inefficiency, and instable sociopolitical situations can pose negative effects on the investment process. Supports from the government and the non-governmental organizations in sectors like education, health, and infrastructures are beneficial for increasing the pace of poverty alleviation schemes across the globe. These can be in forms of aid, grant, or donation which can necessarily have effects on the poverty alleviation programs. Poverty alleviation initiatives are clearly attached with the betterment of living status of the poverty-stricken population (Scheyvens and Russell, 2012). Supports like aid in the areas of medical, social, and economic benefit can positively help to provide improved lifestyles. However, this type of aid very often has negative impacts on the beneficiaries as they are bound to purchase services or products that typically are more expensive and generate from a single country of origin. Conventional viewpoints show that the small types of changes are capable of eliminating poverty in the whole world (Sachs, 2005). The indigenous peoples are viewed as those peoples who belong to the ethnic groups (Sinclair, 2003). However, this view cannot be affirmed as globally accepted. Generally, the term indigenous is considered as representing an indigenous area. But in most cases, this can sometime attach the indigenous population as well.

Indigenous People in Bangladesh According to Minj and Khakshi (2015), in the world, over 400 million indigenous people live in almost 90 countries; these people originate from more than 5000 ethnic groups; in Bangladesh, over 50 indigenous ethnic groups live and speak in more than 35 languages. Table 37.1 presents the indigenous ethnic groups in Bangladesh from three references. Most indigenous people in Bangladesh live in the rural sector of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), composed of three hill districts, namely, Rangamati, Khagrachari, and Bandarban, and in the region of Mymensingh, Sylhet, and Rajshahi (Quader, 2008). Table 37.2 summarizes the changing patterns of indigenous-Bengali populations living in the CHT for more than 140 years: from 1872 till date.

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Table 37.1 Indigenous ethnic nations in Bangladesh Bangladesh Adivasi Forum (“Solidarity” by BAF in 2005) Asam, Banai, Bawm, Bediya, Bagdi, Bhumij, Chak, Chakma, Dalu, Gurkha, Garo, Hajong, Kharia, Khasi, Khiang, Khumi, Kole, Koch, Karmakar, Khondo, Khatriya Barman, Lusai, Mro, Marma, Monipuri, Munda, Mahato, Malo, Muriyar, Mahali, Musohor, Oraon, Paharia, Pangkhu, Patro, Pahan, Rakhaing, Rai, Rajuar, Rajbongshi, Shing, Santal, Turi, Tripura, Tangchangya

Small Ethnic Group Act (passed in 2010 by the parliament) Bawm, barman, Chakma, Chak, Dalu, Garo, Hajong, Khumi, Khasia, Khyang, Kole, Koch, Lushai, Manipuri, Malpahari, Mong, Marma, Munda, Mro, Oraon, Pankhua, Pahari, Rakhain, Santal, Tripura, Tanchangya, Ushai/Usui

Roy 2009 Barman, Bhumil, Bhuiya, Buna, Bhumiji, Brong,Bom, Chakma, Chak, Dalu, Gond, Garo, Gurkha, Hadi, Ho, Hajong, Horizon, Kharia, Karmakar, Khando, Khasi, Koch, Kharwar, Khatriya Khumi, Khyang, Kora, Kole, Lushai, Mal, Maches, Mahato, Mahali, Malo, Marma, Monipuri, Munda, Mro, Musohor, Muriyar, Oraon, Pahan, Paharia, Paharia, Patro, Pangkhua, Rai, Rakhaing, Rajbongshi, Rajuar,, Sauria, Santal, Shing, Paharia, Tripura, Tangchangya, Turi, Urua

Source: Minj and Khakshi (2015)

Table 37.2 Number of indigenous-Bengali populations who lived in Chittagong Hill Tract during 1872–2011 Year 1872 1901 1951 1961 1974 1981 1991 2001a 2011b

Indigenous Number Percentage 61,957 98.26 116,063 92.98 261,538 90.91 335,069 87.01 409,751 80.60 441,796 59.17 501,144 51.43 736,682 54.86 845,541 52.90

Bengali Number 1097 8762 26,150 50,010 98,628 304,873 473,301 606,058 752,690

Percentage 1.74 7.02 9.09 12.99 19.40 40.83 48.57 45.14 47.10

Total (100%) 63,054 124,825 287,688 385,079 508,379 746,669 974,445 1,342,740 1,598,231

Administrative Era British Pakistan Post-independence: Bangladesh

Source: Rahman (2019) The official census data of 2001 did not categorize indigenous and Bengali populations. Data shown in the table is sourced from Dhamai (2014, p. 12). b Following 2001, the official district statistics data did not disaggregate indigenous and Bengali populations except the Khagrachari one where the “tribal” population counted as 316,987 encapsulating Chakma, Tripura, Marma, and others. Data shown in this case is also sourced from Dhamai (2014), while the total number of population is cross-checked with other sources. a

From the end of East Pakistan (Before independence, Bangladesh was known as “East Pakistan,” and what is now called Pakistan was called “West Pakistan”)., Bengali migration rate begun increasing with government support. From the table, it is showed

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that the Bengali population is increased at a higher rate between 1974 and 1981, which was followed in subsequent years at lower increase rate except for slight fall in 2001, although in terms of percentage only. During 2011, 52.90% are indigenous, and the remaining 47.10% are Bengalis of total population who lives in CHT.

Features and State of the Indigenous Peoples in Bangladesh In Bangladesh, more than 50 indigenous ethnic nations live, and the tribal peoples mostly live in the Chattogram Hill Tracts, Sylhet, Mymensingh, Barisal, and North Bengal areas (Wikipedia, 2020). According to census report 2011, the number of ethnic population groups of Bangladesh is 27. Most of them are Chakma, consisting of 444,748 people while the second largest ethnic group is the Marma, having 202,974 persons (Wikipedia, 2020a). The basic distinct features of major indigenous peoples in Bangladesh are as follows:

Chakma The Chakma, also known as the Changma are the largest indigenous group having their own culture, language, and customs and Buddhism as their religion (Wikipedia, 2020a). This tribe’s head is termed as the Chakma Raja (Chakma King) and thy mostly live in the Rangamati District. Their occupation is eco-friendly agriculture, called the “Jhum” cultivation and weaving cloths (Barau et al., 2019).

Marma The second largest ethnic group in Bangladesh is Marma, which are also known as Magh or Mog and mostly live in and around the Bandarban District. These people are also regarded as Burma (Myanmar). Their language is Marma, and the majority are Theravada Buddhist. Sangrai is their biggest festival that is celebrated to welcome the “New Year” and held for 3 days. They also engage in cultivation, which is locally called Jhum. They have also their own language, tradition, culture, etc. (Wikipedia, 2020a; Barau et al., 2019).

Tripura Bangladesh Ethnobotany Online Database (BEOD, 2020) reveals that the Tipra or Tripuras live both in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and the plains in Bangladesh. Though Tripuras are mainly the Hindus, their beliefs and religious practices are different from caste Hindus. “Boishu” is their main festival (Wikipedia, 2020a; Barau et al., 2019).

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Tanchangya The Tanchangya are the CHT’s fifth biggest indigenous ethnic group (BEOD, 2020). They also live in Bangladesh’s Ukhia and Teknaf (Cox’s Bazaar district), North-east Indian states (Assam, Mizoram, and Tripura), and Myanmar’s Rakhine State, particularly in reserve forest regions. “Forest (Amendment) Act 2000” is declared by the Government of Bangladesh (GoB) on 10 April 2000 and made the cultivate on reserve forest lands illegal that made the Tanchangya’s survival difficult in the area. They practice Buddhism and have their unique sociocultural activities (Wikipedia, 2020a; Barau et al., 2019).

Mro The Mro are also known as Mru, Murung, and Mrung and live on the border with Myanmar, India, and Bangladesh, especially in the Chittagong Hills. They migrated from Arakan of Burma in Myanmar a few hundred years ago (BEOD, 2020). Jhum cultivation is their main occupation, and they eat wild animals such as dogs, goats, tigers, pigs, deer, poultry, cow, and birds. They practice Buddhism, Christianity, and Khrama religions, and their language is Mro language (Wikipedia, 2020a; Barau et al., 2019).

Bawm They are also referred to Bom, Bawn, or Bawng. The name of Bawm has two historical meanings; one is union/united/join together/sharing/combined, and another is basket, bag, pocket, and so forth. Wikipedia (2020b) exposes that Bawms are mainly known as “Kuki” by the Bengalis and their occupation is fruit gardening. These people are mostly Christians and speak Bawm language (Barau et al., 2019).

Kheyang The Kheyang migrated from Myanmar centuries ago, having two groups in Bangladesh: Laitu and Kongtu. They follow a patriarchal system (Wikipedia, 2020c; Barau et al., 2019).

Khumi According to Wikipedia (2020a), the Khumis live in the CHT. They were the war-like people (BEOD, 2020) who have severally engaged in warfare with the

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Bawm and Mro. They are animists, keep long hair, and tie it into a bun on the head, and their occupation is Jhum cultivation (Barau et al., 2019).

Chak The Chak are also known as Chaak, Chakar, or Sak (Joshua Project, 2020). They mostly depend on agriculture and hunting for survival (BEOD, 2020). They practice Buddhism (Wikipedia, 2020a; Barau et al., 2019).

Lushai The Lushai are also referred to Hugi or Khuki in Bangladesh. They came from China to Myanmar and then to CHT in Bangladesh. Some of them are animists; some are Christian. Their occupation is agrarian and weavers (Wikipedia, 2020a; Barau et al., 2019).

Pangkhua The Pangkhua is also termed as Paang or Pangkhu, which originated from the Lushai language, but language difference exists between Pangkhua and Lusha; the Jhum cultivation is their occupation that reflects their culture and livelihood (Wikipedia, 2020a; Barau et al., 2019).

Santals The Santals is one of the oldest and largest indigenous communities in the northwestern belt of Bangladesh. They normally live in the northern districts of Dinajpur, Naogaon, Thakurgaon, Panchagarh, etc. Their dresses are known as Panchi, Panchatat, and Matha. They wear tattoos on their bodies. Most of them are animists. They mostly depend on agriculture. They celebrate various festivals such as Nabanna and Holi, and their year starts with the month of Falgun (roughly, 15 February–15 March) (Wikipedia, 2020a).

Khasi The Khasi live in the State of Meghalaya in north-east India, with small populations in neighboring Assam, and in parts of Bangladesh. They mainly produced crops such as betel leaf, areca nut, and oranges. They are matrilineal society. They follow their tribal religion, called variously Ka Niam Khasi and Ka Niam Tre in the Jaintia

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region. Some of them are Presbyterian, Anglican, Unitarian, and Roman Catholic, and very few are Muslims. Their language is Khasi, the northernmost Austroasiatic language (Wikipedia, 2020a).

The Jaintia Jaintia is also known as Synteng and lives in Sylhet region. Their occupation is agriculture and society is matriarchal. The Jaintia society consists of a number of tribes, such as Nayang, Sarty, Lanong, Kayang, Yangyoung, Dkhar, Rymbai, etc. Some of them are Hindu and some are Christian. Their religious festival is Hoktoi that is celebrated for 2 days (Wikipedia, 2020a).

Garo The Garo are an indigenous Tibeto-Burman ethnic group in the Indian subcontinent, notably found in the Indian states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, and neighboring areas of Bangladesh, notably Mymensingh, Jamalpur, Netrokona, Sherpur, and Sylhet. They are matrilineal societies in the world. Their tribal religion is popularly known as Songsarek (Pagan). Most of them are followers of Christianity, but they celebrate Wangala festival in Bangladesh each year with the new spirit as a thanksgiving for the creator (Wikipedia, 2020a).

Manipuri During the time of Rajarshi Bhagyachandra (1764–1789), the Manipuri moved to Bangladesh, and the process was expedited by the Manipuri-Burma conflict. They dwell in the Moulvi Bazar district’s Kamalganj, Sreemongal, Kulaura, and Baralekha upazilas; Habiganj district’s Chunarughat upazila; and Sylhet division’s Sunamganj district’s Chatak upazila. The popular culture of Manipur is their dance, Rasa dance. Another popular festival of the Manipuri is the Gopi dance celebrating the romantic liaison of Radha and Krishna. They also celebrate Holi (Wikipedia, 2020a).

Keot (Kaibarta) The Keot (Kaibarta) in Bangladesh belongs to the Austric stock. They generally rely on fishing and agriculture for livelihood. They live in Assam, North Bengal, etc. Despite the fact that they have lost their native tongue and now communicate in Bangladeshi, they have maintained their cultural, racial, and traditional identities (Wikipedia, 2020a).

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The Muslim Tribes “Pangal” or “Pangan” Pangal are also called as Meitei-Pangals, a subgroup of the Meitei ethnicity, is the only Muslim indigenous community of Bangladesh. They live in Sylhet and Moulvibazar (Wikipedia, 2020a).

National and International Organization for Indigenous People Many national and international development agencies comprising various wings of United Nations and financial institutions follow specific policy to improve indigenous peoples in Bangladesh (see Table 37.3).

Current Scenario of Indigenous Tourism Capitals in Bangladesh According to Rahman (2019), five types of tourism capital are exited in indigenous tourism such as natural, human, social, cultural, built, and financial. He defined natural capital as landscapes, forests, wildlife, and environmental systems that provide legal and societal protections to the existing natural resource stock; human capital is comprised of knowledge, information, health, and skills embodied in people; and social capital is comprised of trust, networks, values, and cooperative norms that influence the functions of other types of capital, such as financial capital. Infrastructure, superstructures, tools, and equipment that allow information and communication exchange make up built capital. Receiving financial assistance or loans for tourism and/or development initiatives is referred to as financial capital. Further, he found cultural capital in his research explaining unique status regarding historic elements of indigenous people in Bangladesh. He investigated these capitals of two places that are Bandarban and Rangamati where most of the indigenous people of Bangladesh lead their lives where he found the following (Table 37.4). However, Shamsuddoha, Alamgir, and Nasir (2011) found the following when he investigated cultural tourism of Chittagong Hill Tracts (Table 37.5).

Technology-Supported Indigenous Tourism, Poverty Alleviation: What Happens in Bangladesh? Bangladesh has been widely popular for indigenous tourism having many sites as the popular destinations for the tourists. Research affirm that the country has been working toward a developed tourism industry even having policy limitations (Hassan and Burns, 2014; Hassan and Kokkranikal, 2018). The country has been termed as poor where the intervention of NGOs and relevant organizations has been dominant to alleviate poverty (White, 1999). The concept of technology-supported indigenous tourism is relatively new in Bangladesh. However, indigenous tourism in general is fairly common in any part of the world including Bangladesh (Fig. 37.1).

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Table 37.3 Programs by national and international organization for indigenous people

No. 01

National and international NGOs National

Name of organization Manusher Jonno Foundation (MJF) http://www. manusherjonno.org

Coverage Women, children, adolescent, ethnic, minorities, disable

02

Development Organization for the Rural Poor (DORP) www.dorpbd.org

Rural people, poor, women, ethnic, disable, adolescent

03

Ethnic Community Development Organization (ECDO) www.ecdo-bd.org Adivasi Unnayan Shongshta https://sagarika-bd.org

Ethnic people

04

05

Ain-o-Shalis Kendra www.askbd.org

06

BRAC www.brac.net

06

International organization

UNIPP (United Nations' Indigenous Peoples' Partnership) have partnership with ILO, OHCHR, UNDP, UNFPA and UNICEF

Ethnic people

Women, refugee, ethnic, religious minorities, political victims, Extreme poor/ ultra-poor

Indigenous peoples

Benefit package (policy) Ensuring rights of the marginalized population, healthcare services, education, skill development training, and income-generating activities Agriculture, health, education, micro credit, HIV-AIDS prevention, resettlement and rehabilitation, afforestation, gender issue, environment, human rights, water, and sanitation Ensure that basic healthcare facilities are accessible Ensuring rights of the marginalized population; combating violence against women; protection of working children and vulnerable workers Legal support, advocacy, documentation, awareness

Microfinance, health, nutrition, WASH, gender equity, integrated intervention to improve access to information and services, human rights, legal aids Implementation of international standards on indigenous peoples

(continued)

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Table 37.3 (continued)

No. 07

National and international NGOs

Name of organization The World Bank (WB),

08

European Union (EU)

09

Asian Development Bank (ADB)’

10

The African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR)

11

Inter-American Development Bank (IADB

12

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

13

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)’

14

The World Conservation Union (IUCN

15

Coverage

Benefit package (policy) All investment projects on indigenous peoples (OP) Main guidelines for support to indigenous peoples ADB procedures and policies for dealing with indigenous peoples in ADB projects The African Commission’s conceptual framework for the promotion and preservation of indigenous peoples’ rights in Africa Have policy that is authorized as “'Strategy for Indigenous Development” A Policy of Engagement is a summary of UNDP’s policy and engagement with indigenous peoples, as defined by the United Nations charter Adopt the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity in 2001, which covers the major points of an action plan for UNESCO's Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity implementation The unit’s work is governed by the resolutions of the World Conservation Congress (WCC), which have a wide policy agenda for indigenous peoples and conservation Aims to integrate indigenous peoples’ (continued)

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Table 37.3 (continued)

No.

National and international NGOs

Name of organization Danish International Development Assistance (DANIDA)

Coverage

16

The Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD)

17

International Labour Organization (ILO) http://www.ilo.org/ dhaka/lang–en/index. htm

Women, children, HIV plus, Ethnic, poor

18

UN World Food Programme (WFP) https://www.wfp.org/ content/wfp-bangladesh United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) www.bd.undp.org

Mother, children, ethnic

19

20

Helen keller Bangladesh www.hki.org/

Poor, women, ethnic

Ethnic, extreme poor, women, children

Benefit package (policy) concerns into Denmark’s foreign policy and development cooperation at all levels, as well as to elevate indigenous problems via policy discussion with partner nations Policy on indigenous peoples is entitled 'Guidelines for Norway's Efforts to Strengthen Support for Indigenous Peoples in Development Cooperation Health, discouraging child labor, safety at work, Gender equity, disability, maternity protection, social protection Nutrition

Strengthening women, social protection policy support, CTH development, poverty reduction Improved health

Source: Nahar et al. (2018), Minj and Khakshi (2015)

Tourism industry’s development cannot be isolated from overall development of an economy as tourism by its nature is interacted with other industries. On the basis of findings from Rahman (2019) and Goeldner and Ritchie (2005), the above figure proposes how technology-supported activities through indigenous tourism in Bangladesh will alleviate indigenous people’s poverty. As market niche, indigenous tourism capitals such as natural, human, social, cultural, built, and financial capital can be used as product to create market. Natural,

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Table 37.4 Livelihood resources and outcomes for sustainable indigenous tourism Coding framework Livelihood resources/ tourism and community resources

Base themes Natural capital

Human capital

Social capital

Cultural capital

Built capital

Financial capital Livelihood outcomes

Sustainable tourism development

Community well-being

Status Natural resources are dwindling as a result of deforestation caused by corrupt institutional activities, and the unresolved land ownership problem is cited as a major source of worry Local governments are expected to play policy and planning responsibilities in skill development Intra-community trust is believed to be strong, but it is found to be poor, particularly between Bengali and other indigenous groups Values, cultural variety, and conservation of (indigenous) cultures are used to assess a community’s cultural capital Mixed responses are found about current communication infrastructure from different stakeholder groups. Besides, tourism-based structures are found to have remarkably failed for providing adequate amenities and activities Financial help is not available or not easily accessible as the community needs to provide collateral or security against loan Local supply chain that is community involvement and awareness and master plan reiterated from a local government are emphasized to sustain the economic gains at local level For community well-being, education is reported as fundamental key. Besides, income for material needs and social security and communal identity are also emphasized

Source: Rahman (2019)

cultural, and social capitals are considered tourism’s foundation resources as these capitals act as point of attraction for tourists. To increase attraction, as tourism development strategies, these capitals need exogenous involvement from both public and private sector (Keller, 1987). The study proposes to create demand for indigenous tourism capitals where: • Natural capital refers to natural resource stocks (soil, air, water, genetic resources, and so on) as well as environmental services (pollution sinks, hydrological cycle, and so on) from which resource flows beneficial for lifestyles are derived (Scoones 1998: p.7). Natural capital is the basis for livelihoods, particularly for indigenous peoples, but both natural and cultural capital have the potential to boost total financial stock by attracting visitors and tourism enterprises. • Human capital explains individuals and their personal attributes. Normally, human capital indicates abilities, human skills, health, and knowledge, resulting

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Table 37.5 Problems and recommendation of cultural tourism of Chittagong Hill Tracts Problems Most of the tourists have no clear idea about cultural tourism of Bangladesh Promotion policy is not available in cultural tourism in Bangladesh Accommodation facilities are insufficient in the tourist spot especially in the hill tracts of Bangladesh Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation’s (BPC’s) role for promoting cultural tourism is poor Lack of safety and security hinders cultural tourism potentiality in Bangladesh Transportation problem hampers cultural tourism development Law and policy of cultural tourism in Bangladesh is not sufficient Foreign tourists experience lack of information about tourist spot due to insufficient number of tourist guide

Recommendation Newspaper and broadcast media along with government and other private entrepreneur’s initiative can be effective to create awareness about different rituals, festivals of tribal people in Bangladesh to tourists Tour operator should offer attract packages both for domestic and foreign tourists More hotel and motel required to be established at tourist spots BPCs should arrange seminar as well as training programs along with other tour operators Special security force or secured zone should be created for tourists Bus service, train services should be introduced

Source: Shamsuddoha et al. (2011)

Use Tourism Capital • Human Capital • Natural Capital • Cultural Capital • Social Capital • Financial Capital • Built Capital

Planning and Approving Technology Supported Policy and Activities by Communityand Government for Tourism • Branding Tourism Capital • Recognizing Tourism Capital as Product • Valuing/Pricing Tourism Capital • Distributing/Plac ing Tourism Capital

Involvement of Host Community and Government to Accomplish Technology Supported Activities

• Increased Employment and Income • Increased Social Interaction

Sustainable Tourist Development

Community Wellbeing

• Education and Awareness • Increased SocialCultural Security

Financial Help by Government, Private Organization and International Organization

Fig. 37.1 Technology-supported indigenous tourism to alleviate poverty. (Source: developed by the authors)

from expenditure on-the-job training, on education, and medical care (Turner et al., 2016; Stone and Nyaupane, 2017). • The indigenous people’s cultural capital, which consists of values and other cultural aspects such as language, dress, dances, and so on, is seen as a vital resource for attracting visitors. The majority of visitors are drawn to natural landscapes (nature-based tourism) and various cultural manifestations (cultural

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tourism); thus, natural, social, and cultural capitals are highly interconnected resources for tourism and/or destination development (Jakariya and Ahmed, 2013; Shamsuddoha et al., 2011). • Social value and norm role are crucial in the management of natural resources as some indigenous communities prefer for living deep in the forest (e.g., Mro); also, some prefer for living in topographic basins (e.g., Marma); some Chakma and Bengalis prefer town/urban areas. • Built capital is physical facilities and infrastructure availability for community use (Moscardo et al., 2013). Researchers define (i.e., Turner et al., 2016) built capital as manufactured goods, like tools, equipment, roads, and buildings, useful for achieving sustainable human well-being. Built capital has both positive and negative impact on natural capital. Built capital improve infrastructure (i.e., building a resort, improving communication infrastructure or road condition) which create opportunities for indigenous people but sometimes create harmful impacts on the natural environment. • Financial capital directs to the funding’s income, savings, and access for investment (Moscardo and Murphy, 2014: p. 2542). The built capital’s increased financial stock also benefits the present financial capital level (Rahman, 2019). There is interdependence and relationship between human capital, social capital, and cultural capital indicating that the social receptiveness and cultural values determine human capital, and also the existing social networks can be affected by improved human capital. For example, the wider social network has influential impact on the behavior of a small professional group. Besides, human capital improvement requires training and education opportunities. In this regard, government policy and community’s participation is necessary to make the training and learning processes effective. Financial investment is required to implement such policy which will have impact on tourism-based establishments’ or structures’ effective performances that can contribute to the host country’s increased financial gain. Also, for protecting natural resources, formal institutional bodies that represent central government (i.e., the Forest Department) should do their responsibility properly. In this regard, communities (especially indigenous communities) should come forward and use their local knowledge of protecting natural resources (Rahman, 2019). The proper allocation and availability of tourism capital lead to create markets (domestic/international) and the tourism development. For instance, as a built capital, improving road infrastructure facilitates both general and tourism development. Tourism market orientations influence tourism products, tourism strategies, and tourism activities (Shen et al., 2008). In this regard, researchers report that tourism product and services should be highly sophisticated to attract foreign tourists as foreign tourists’ contribution toward an economy is more than domestic tourists (Çakir et al., 2018). For this reason, more investment (i.e., financial capital) is required to attract foreign tourists. As the technology supported indigenous tourism product, the trend of organizing small fairs can support poverty alleviation. These technologies supported indigenous

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tourism product based small fairs. Still, these fairs are less likely to be institutionalized mainly due to the lack of effective marketing policy adoption. In a simple meaning, indigenous tourism fair is such a fair that needs to transform the indigenous livelihood and culture of the indigenous peoples into market commodity, tourism product, and subject of tourist attraction. This area of tourism can be attached with cultural, rural, event, or many other niches of tourism. In this regard, newspaper and broadcast media along with government and other private entrepreneur’s initiative can be used to create awareness about different rituals and festivals of tribal people in Bangladesh to tourists. Due to the wider availability of tourism facilities, Dhaka is already familiar with different diversified segments of tourists, and thus the analysis of marketing issues of the technology-supported indigenous tourism fair needs to have a detailed market plan presented as below. Branding for this technology-supported indigenous tourism product is important. Branding assessments entail the fortitude of a letter or word for identifying the tourism service or brand name (Witt and Moutinho, 1994), and branding has affectivity for promoting tourism products and services (Morgan et al., 2004). Brands are dominant means that allows the organizations to converse schemes about their services, products, or significances to audiences (Holt, 2004). Attractions or destinations are not usually recognized as brands by the common people (Foley and Fahy, 2004). Branding decision should depend on highlighting the established internal contexts of the organization for a possible value addition (Davis, 2010). This helps the consumers to anticipate the typologies of product or service delivery by the organization for a rapid decision making than making them confused (Kolb, 2006). Consumers or visitors attempt to obtain advantage from branding through the recognition of loyal brands by avoiding dissatisfied brands (Berkowitz et al., 2000). The development and diversification of technology-supported indigenous tourism product also render proper attention. The tourism product by nature cannot be solely tangible; rather it is composite and embraces both tangible and intangible features (Berno and Bricker, 2001). The concept of “product” in tourism is comprised of three diverse types: the tourism products, the place product, and the tourism experience (Ryan, 2002). Likorish and Jenkins (1997) have suggested that tourism encompass three kinds of business or “trades,” in general: first, the primary trades are related with tourism (e.g., tourist attractions, transport, accommodations, and catering facilities); second, the secondary trades which assist support tourism, though are not exclusive to tourism (e.g., leisure and entertainment facilities, retail shopping, and money exchanges or banks); and third, the tertiary trades that offer the fundamental infrastructural support for tourism (e.g., public sector services). However, the offerings of a tourism organization should represent both tangible and intangible nature of product and services (Lew et al., 2004). Price analysis is relevant. In response to the spending capacity of the tourists, there is an option for inflating the prices (Sethi, 2005). Pricing for tourism organization is a very difficult fact for the diversified characteristics of the visitors, their sensitivity to prices, product exclusivity, market competition, and demand forecasting (Arikan et al., 2008), and setting the right price is a challenge for the tourism organization (Pavesic, 1989).

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Place analysis is also important. Place is frequently named as distribution, intermediaries, or channels. Distribution channels for the tourism enterprises, agents, operators, organizations, and consumers have experienced and embraced technology-based advanced formats (Buhalis and Laws, 2001). Place strategies can be comprised of specialized channels as promotion firms and incentive travel agents. Exclusive distribution strategy depends on the number and types of outlets and is usually successful for well-priced products and services (Fyall and Garrod, 2005). Location of tourism product and service offerings can have influence on the visitors’ decision making, typologies, and origin (Hoyle, 2002). Promotion analysis for the technology-supported indigenous tourism product is necessary. Marketing communication and the word “promotion” are interrelated (Pickton and Broderick, 2001), following the suitability of the “AIDA” (attention, interest, desire, and action) model for promotional activities in tourism sector (Tyagi and Kumar, 2004). The offline promotions are traditionally accepted by the people, and the prospects of online promotions are that they will be called as simply “promotion” than online promotion in coming years (Carmody, 2004). For marketing in the tourism sector, some useful communication instruments are advertising, word-of-mouth, the Internet, e-commerce, and media sponsorships (Smith et al., 1998). Consumers frequently talk about issues of any organization’s staffs, services, and newly developed products (Smith, 1998). Incentives of the sales promotions as discount coupons or seasonal price reductions persuade consumer behavior to become involved with the offered tourism service or product (Duncan, 2002). Other than word-of-mouth and the Internet, network tools of effective viral marketing can range from e-books, images, or video clips (Blythe, 2006). Website can become a solid platform for e-commerce for offering detailed product or service information and supplementary information with credentials (Lawson, 2004). The social networking site has created Internet-based community comprised of billions of people for breaking down geographical barriers (Reynolds, 2010). Negative publicity can influence consumer’s perception and to be reduced through improved product service, liaison with the press, and well-designed marketing operations (Loda et al., 2007). To improve indigenous tourism, it becomes imperative for government and community of host country to focus on planning and approving tourism development policy. Additionally, financial support from local government, private organization, and international organization is required to implement the policy properly. In this regard, indigenous peoples’ involvement in tourism development policy and implementation should be focused. Such involvement will generate job opportunities and will be useful if education and training program for tourism human capital is effective (Rahman, 2019). Moreover, sustainable tourism development can be achieved through community well-being. One of the reasons is that the involvement of a community for making tourism capital decision processes can be seen as the essential consideration for sustainability; the development of tourism is thus viewed as a strategy for livelihood diversification (Tao and Wall, 2009). Besides, community well-being also relies on

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sustainable tourism development as with tourism development and community (i.e., indigenous peoples’ living standard is also improved).

Conclusion As the basic of this conceptual study, discussions cover the criticality of indigenous people and the tourism type relevant to it. Indigenous people have been a subject of politics. However, the form of indigenous tourism has actually been able to divert indigenous people toward a more marketing setting. In this regard, indigenous tourism capitals such as natural, human, cultural, social, built, and financial can be used as product to develop indigenous tourism market niche. Besides, the host government, national and international, should plan and implement policies to develop indigenous tourism. As a result, indigenous tourism has also been able to leave positive effects on poverty alleviation. The attachment of innovative technologies with this tourism type can have effects leading toward poverty alleviation. Indigenous tourism fair in a country like Bangladesh can have obvious effects in the actions of alleviating poverty. However, effective marketing techniques are the requirements in this regard. The study lacked primary data that is rather a limitation. Future studies can cover and focus this area with more details.

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pakistan and Mobile Tourism Shopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Tourism Shopping and Innovation Diffusion Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Tourism Shopping and Technology Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Development of Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perceived Relative Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Presence (SP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perceived Enjoyment (PEJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perceived Ease of Use (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perceived Usefulness (U) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mediating Role of E, U, and PEJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methodology and the Measurement Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Collection and the Method of Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample’s Demographic Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Survey Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common Method Bias (CMB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measurement Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural Model Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mediation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implications and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theoretical Implications of Mobile Tourism Shopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Managerial Implications of Mobile Tourism Shopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Implications of Mobile Tourism Shopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion, Limitations, and Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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M. Jawad and M. Naz

Abstract

Customer adoption of technology (mobile, website, software, channels)-based tourism application is dynamic but ignored area in context of tourism research in developed and developing countries. To fill out the possible scope of such research gap, this study efforts to constitute the parameters after proposing the multi-mediation technologies elements to enhance the tourism in developing and developed countries. Explicitly, we applied partial-least-squares with structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) on 786 responses collected from mobile-, website-, software-, and channel-based respondents who recently purchased and utilize tourism products using a different advance device(s). It was explored that TAM social presence, directly and indirectly, persuades tourist intentions toward technology-based tourism products. Furthermore, the results showed TAM the tourists’ observation of compatibility with technological elements and relative strengths of technology-based tourism products have insignificant influence on their intention to acknowledge. Findings and implications of this research provide new dimensions and areas to research communication and administrative significance. In the context of economics, the research described the basic knowledge TAM could increase income in tourism industry and create new jobs in the host country. Keywords

Technology · Tourism · TAM · PLS-SEM · Multi-mediation

Introduction Mobile commerce/trade these days is one of online organizations TAM is generally significant and dynamic (Chi, 2018). Because of compelled mechanical capacities, cell phones have been utilized principally for literary substance and bringing in the course of the last not many decades (Tan et al., 2017). The full-size patterns in versatile systems, for example, fourth era systems (4G) and cell discussion (M-gadgets), have prevalent the portable cell phone stage from simple verbal trade to a multi-utilitarian framework TAM encourages intelligent communication. Portable applications have made a practical decision for the purchasing of the travel industry-related items, which is the reason this channel bears vacationers a superior want (Tan et al., 2017). Innovation is continuing on with to fortify and a scope of business openings rise up out of a cell perspective dependent on the progression of versatile mechanical ability, for example, online shopping (Mahapatra, 2017), M-bank use (Singh & Srivastava, 2018; Alalwan et al., 2016), cell learning (Martin & Ertzberger, 2013), portable services (Nikou & Mezei, 2013), portable advertising (Grewal et al., 2016), portable healthcare (Meagher & Kousvelari, 2018), and versatile payments (Oliveira et al., 2016). It is conceivable to utilize m-web science for cell obtaining and a wide range of related services (Kim et al., 2015). Purchasers

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can quickly at without fail and anyplace open/peruse any web webpage and purchase any item utilizing a cell phone since it is the easy-going and helpful source (Hoehle & Venkatesh, 2015). A buyer can utilize a cell phone for performing diverse acts; for example, item value examination, online item journey, and item purchase (Neves et al., 2014). Also, Werthner and Klein (1999) clarified TAM clients do not need to hold up in lines when acquiring on the web products due to sparing time, a favorable position over certifiable shopping (e.g., at “blocks-and-mortar” stores). As of late, as the world has been embracing versatile situated exchanges, the fast headway in the portable innovation has influenced the travel industry and speaks to huge potential for vacationers, advancing the travel industry items from the versatile innovation viewpoint (Tan et al., 2017; Hew et al., 2016). Hew et al. (2018) found TAM purchasing travel items was never again restricted to purchasing on the web, at genuine stores, or through PCs but at the same time is rapidly moving to cell phones. In the mid-2016, Makki et al. (2016) referenced TAM the portable innovation would dominate and make life increasingly loose. Buyers will like to utilize their versatile device(s) for web-based shopping as opposed to going out to the physical market. Also, Schaal (2014, 2015) referenced TAM as more than 33% of the global Orbitz Hotel reservations are made by utilizing m-gadgets. As per Johnsen (2012), 68% of clients utilize their cell phones to purchase on the web and furthermore look for store areas (62%), 58% utilize these gadgets to check and analyze costs, and half of clients utilize these gadgets to get item data. Portable innovation is progressively helpful and simpler for acquiring vacationer items when contrasted with the conventional strategies for buying such items at physical stores. The travel port commerce stage has evaluated TAM over 70% of movement exchanges will happen because of cell phones throughout the following 3 years (Loureiro, 2017). An eMarketer study (2017) detailed TAM movement appointments utilizing m-gadgets are required to hit an estimation of US$ 108.75 billion by 2021, in this way covering the greater part of the aggregate sum of such incomes by m-gadgets (eMarketer, 2017). Such projections demonstrate the expanding propensity for travellers to utilize cell phones to buy the travel industry items/administrations and in this manner bolster examine requests in the travel industry research (Liu & Yu, 2017). Subsequently, we infer TAM the job of cell phones in the present period of portable the mobile tourism shopping (mobile tourism shopping) will influence future exercises and research endeavors. A few examinations have inspected the utilization of cell phones to buy the travel industry-related items, for the most part utilizing (IT) or IT (IS) systems (Tan et al., 2017; Morosan, 2014). In any case, in creating nations, the utilization of cell phones to look for administrations/items identified with the travel industry is inadequately comprehended. The present examination along these lines adopts an exceptional strategy to looking at the impacting factors influencing the goals of shoppers/voyagers to purchase online the travel industry items utilizing a mobile device(s) by utilizing an integrative model. The suggested model depended on two hypothetical models being incorporated: the hypothesis of development dissemination presented in Rogers (1995) and the

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model of innovation acknowledgment in Davis et al. (1989). The reconciliation of two models can give a more extravagant clarification of the mobile tourism shopping reception (higher R2 value) (Sun et al., 2013). These hypotheses have increased significant experimental help in portraying client acknowledgment of innovation in a few research fields (Amaro & Duarte, 2015; Agag & El-Masry, 2016), and such integrative models are progressively valuable for specialists to understand changing standards to advance innovation appropriation in the administration sector (Yi et al., 2006). Past examinations contended TAM; the TAM would be coordinated with different models to adapt to fast innovative change (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011; Lee, Yejean Park, et al., 2011). Likewise, the two models (TAM and IDT) are commonly integral as the TAM is viewed as a subset of saw innovation (Wu & Wang, 2005; Giovanis et al., 2012). Following an exhaustive assessment of the past writing, the writers reason TAM there is no earlier investigation to look at the utilization of mobile tourism shopping in creating economies TAM comprises both the viewpoints of advancement-based and innovation-based selection.

Pakistan and Mobile Tourism Shopping The travel industry area has snowballed everywhere throughout the world in the course of the most recent couple of decades. The travel industry will in general be viewed as a financial motor since it adds to GDP, diminishes neediness and brings down swelling, makes employments, and gives different advantages of this sort. The travel industry is viewed as significant for keeping the economy toward development as it increments per capita pay, produces personal expenses, makes occupations, fortifies national framework, invigorates business movement by supporting the private part, advances and makes open doors for remote speculation, and raises outside stores, just as expectations for everyday comforts for people (Habibi, 2017; Jalil & Idrees, 2013). The present investigation centers principally on a creating nation, Pakistan, to investigate the shopper’s readiness to grasp portable innovation to get to the travel industry items and administrations. Little research work is accessible to distinguish factors influencing acknowledgment of versatile the travel industry in creating nations, particularly in Pakistan. Research incorporated in Pakistan’s travel industry part has so far been constrained to specific perspectives, for example, fear mongering and the travel industry, the travel industry development, archaeological and authentic the travel industry, experience the travel industry, and selection of online shopping (Jalil & Idrees, 2013; Arshad et al., 2018; Fakhar, 2010; Khalil et al., 2007; Ashraf et al., 2014); however mobile tourism shopping has not been given explicit attention (Mahrous & Hassan, 2017). The expanding use and progression of the portable innovation in the travel industry have moved the developing channel of versatile shopping from blocksand-mortar to snaps-and-mortar. Versatile shopping is characterized by Wong et al. (2012) as “any financial transaction(s) identified with acquisition of products/

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benefits through web empowered cell phones or over the remote media transmission arrange.” Mahrous and Hassan (2017) found TAM, in developing markets, buyers want to use the trip specialist administrations for a specific stage, the installment and booking stage, though the m-gadget is utilized uniquely for arranging the movement. The developing use and advancement of portable innovation in the travel industry has moved from blocks-and-mortar to snaps-and-mortar the new mechanism of versatile shopping. Wong et al. (2012) characterized versatile shopping as “any monetary transaction(s) identified with the acquisition of merchandise/administrations through web empowered cell phones or by means of remote broadcast communications systems.” Mahrous and Hassan (2017) found that TAM, in developing markets, customers want to utilize trip specialist administrations for a particular procedure, installment, and booking stage. Hua (2016) restated TAM in the field of accommodation and the travel industry, versatile angle thinks about fall behind modern practice. As a result of the significance of m-gadgets, mobile tourism shopping is described as “the utilization of cell phones to search for the travel industry items and administrations.” Kim et al. (2015) found TAM the acquisition of the travel industry-related items utilizing a cell phone is totally unique and simple contrasted with the customary channel buy. As per Raun et al. (2016), clients have expanded the utilization of cell phones to buy the travel industry things. Tending to the above research hole, the momentum look into adds to the current writing in different manners. To start with, the examination recognizes the most basic variables influencing the aim to utilize a cell phone to purchase the travel industry items. Second, the examination utilizes an integrative model dependent on TAM and IDT, offering a far-reaching perspective to additionally analyze the reception of mobile tourism shopping by clients and the subsequent advancement and innovation-driven profits. Cap and IDT have gotten huge observational help in portraying the client’s acknowledgment of innovation in various zones, specifically data frameworks (IS) and data innovation (IT) and explicitly web-based shopping and mobile tourism shopping (Hew et al., 2018; Agag & El-Masry, 2016). This one of a kind methodology will in this way evaluate not just the noteworthy variable TAM influences the acknowledgment of versatile the travel industry shopping, yet in addition that TAM have the best effect, improving our comprehension of mobile tourism shopping. The assembly of the two hypothetical models along these lines gives a one of a kind and more extravagant view TAM incorporates the features of innovation and advancement in grasping m-gadgets in rising the travel industry investigate. Second, the present examination investigates the intercession effect of apparent utility, saw delight, and saw ease of use between mobile tourism shopping ‘social presence and traveller acknowledgment. The flow look into is the first to feature mobile tourism shopping, utilizing Pakistan as a model, in the feeling of creating Asian nation. The travel industry in Pakistan has fantastic development potentials. The ongoing Prime Ministersponsored government has assembled the travel industry and added the multiplication of innovation selection in the travel industry. This suggested hypothetical model

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enhances the current writing using TAM and IDT to propel comprehension of mobile tourism shopping and client aim. The accompanying segment introduces the hypothetical premise, joining TAM and IDT, on which this investigation is based.

Theoretical Background Mobile Tourism Shopping and Innovation Diffusion Theory The hypothetical worldview, advancement dispersion hypothesis (IDT), decides why individuals are embracing new thoughts/innovation (Rogers & Williams, 1983). Until this point in time, the IDT got a higher help in investigating customers’ acknowledgment in numerous orders, overwhelmingly, in on the web/E-shopping (Amaro & Duarte, 2015), vacationer conduct (Agag & El-Masry, 2016), innovation appropriation by seniors (Kim et al., 2019; Sugarhood et al., 2014), and the acknowledgment of informal organization locales (SNS) (Chiang, 2013). Advancement is “a thought, practice, or article TAM is seen as new by an individual or another unit of reception” (Rogers, 1995). Dispersion, from another perspective, is “the procedure by which a development is imparted through specific channels after some time among the individuals from a social framework.” IDT is a method for an objective reasoning TAM clarifies the inquiries (how, where, and why) to spread the new thoughts and new innovation to people (Rogers, 1983; Robertson, 1967). The advancement in the travel industry passes on the message TAM the correspondence channel has been changed to cell phones and TAM can make an incentive for the travel industry (Dabphet et al., 2012). IDT is utilized to comprehend moral engendering of voyagers’ conduct through the populace, illuminating the relationship of moderately static the travel industry development and the spread of advancement (Wooliscroft & Wooliscroft, 2016). IDT was finished up as a fitting model for understanding buyers’ goals in the network of Internet voyaging where its developments were discovered legitimate in clarifying customers’ conduct (Agag & El-Masry, 2016). Subsequently, IDT contends TAM “potential clients settle on choices to receive or dismiss advancement dependent on convictions TAM they structure about the development” (Agarwal, 2000). In simple words, the IDT clarifies the elements TAM invigorates the expectation to acknowledge new innovations, thinking about intricacy, similarity, trainability, deceivability, and relative bit of leeway. Inside the expressed variables, a relative preferred position has been broadly considered, and it has passed on the most predictable translation of shopper want to use the new innovation (Lu, 2011).

Mobile Tourism Shopping and Technology Acceptance The innovation acknowledgment model is the most generally utilized hypothesis in data framework look into, investigating singular utilization of systems or selection of any innovation. The model presents basic components affecting clients’ expectations

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to receive any new framework or innovation (Cheng et al., 2015; Scherer et al., 2019; Park et al., 2014; Shukla & Sharma, 2018). TAM is a changed type of the hypothesis of contemplated activity TAM was at first settled by Fishbein and Ajzen (1980), disclosing conduct identified with the acknowledgment of PC use. TAM characterizes the disposition of clients and furthermore recognizes the job of convenience and value to explain the acknowledgment of any data framework (Taylor & Todd, 1995; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). Albeit impressive research studies have embraced TAM, its temperament is reprimanded for not completely imitating purchaser appropriation. In our examination, TAM gives an association between visitor conduct and the selection of a particular innovation. A few investigations (Kim, 2016; Morosan & DeFranco, 2014; Manis & Choi, 2019) have extended the TAM structure with an extra forerunner for getting the best logical power. Also, the TAM hypothesis depends on the possibility TAM individual EOU and U are two deciding components TAM characterize the reception of any framework/innovation. Perceived usefulness (U) depicts “the degree to which an individual accepts TAM portable shopping administration is valuable for improving web based shopping execution” (Lu & Su, 2009). Perceived ease of use (E) is alluded to the extent TAM buyers can utilize innovation or items effectively and easily (Davis et al., 1989). With regard to the travel industry and accommodation, numerous analysts have applied and stretched out TAM to investigate reception of new innovation, for example, in lodging front office frameworks (Kim, et al. 2018), shopper expectation to buy online travel (Amaro & Duarte, 2015), and biometric framework selection in inns (Morosan, 2012). The aftereffects of these investigations show TAM U and E both are the most powerful and basic variables of purchaser acknowledgment of new innovation. Accordingly, TAM was viewed as a reasonable model for accomplishing the target of this exploration study. Although applying in various settings, the TAM acquired different expansion and changes, for example, Venkatesh and Davis (2000) included emotional standard just as picture to the current builds of TAM, and this new form was termed TAM-2. Basically, the model (TAM-2) was progressively adjusted with expansion of saw delight and known as TAM-3 (Venkatesh & Bala, 2008). These expansions helped spread the various restrictions of TAM like absence of real direction (Lee, 2003) and unsatisfactory quality in specific circumstances (Esmaeilzadeh et al., 2014).

Development of Hypotheses Perceived Relative Strengths Perceived relative strengths (RS) is one of the basic components presented by IDT. RS is the “degree to which development is viewed as higher than its present practice” (Rogers & Shoemaker, 1972). Individuals will in general embrace development when they feel TAM it is increasingly helpful and is probably going to build their presentation and proficiency (Lin & Chen, 2012). Seen relative bit of leeway might

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be thought of as a superior decision of portable the travel industry shopping when contrasted with physical shopping. In this examination, relative favorable position might be understood as the degree of utilizing a cell phone for the travel industry items, a bit of leeway TAM at last gives advantages to voyagers, for example, accommodation, efficient, and ease. Recently distributed examinations have demonstrated TAM the relative focal points have a positive and generous association with the client’s aim to acknowledge any innovation, for example, portable business (Chung, 2014) and versatile installment (Duane et al., 2014). Shoppers who see the general preferred position of utilizing a cell phone for acquiring the travel industry items are bound to receive the framework. In this way, this examination recommends TAM purchasers’ apparent relative favorable position and the quality of IDT anticipate the buyers’ aims of mobile tourism shopping. Hence, this examination recommends H1: saw relative bit of leeway has a positive and critical impact on shopper aims to utilize a cell phone for obtaining the travel industry items.

Compatibility Rogers (1995) clarified TAM similarity is “how much a development is seen as being reliable with existing qualities, past encounters, and needs of potential adopters.” Furthermore, recently distributed investigations have expressed TAM similarity is a dynamic driver for new innovation acknowledgment (Zhu et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2008). The past research directed in the background of web-based shopping have bolstered the huge and positive connection among frame of mind and Internet shopping conduct (Amaro & Duarte, 2015; Agag & El-Masry, 2016; Vijayasarathy, 2004; Chen et al., 2002). The present investigation proposes TAM the characteristic of ID (i.e., similarity, foresees the vacationer selection of mobile tourism shopping). In this way, the examination sets the accompanying H2: similarity altogether impacts purchaser expectations to utilize mobile tourism shopping.

Social Presence (SP) Considering the clarification of Qiu and Li (2008), social presence (SP) can be characterized as “the degree to which a medium is seen as friendly, warm, touchy, individual, or personal when it is utilized to communicate with others.” Social presence is a crucial idea in light of the fact TAM the contemporary advancements (like long range informal communication locales) offer and build up this job of being socially present (Han et al., 2015). Social presence is a noteworthy develop in the zone of PC interceded interchanges (Biocca et al., 1995). Social presence is the degree to which correspondence channels encourage the familiarity with correspondence accomplices and relational connections during associations (Fulk et al., 1987). As per the correspondence hypothesis of social presence, the channel falls along one

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continuum “social presence” (Parker et al., 1978). Past investigations have moved toward the social presence attracting different perspectives: (1) it was assumed of as an innate quality in the correspondence channels; (2) capacity for sending data on face appearances, stances, and nonverbal motions; and (3) associations with abundance of data and intuitiveness (Massey & Montoya-Weiss, 2006; Rice et al., 1989). Social presence is a critical idea in view of its superb job in the advancement of innovation and its viability in web-based selling TAM conveys the possibility of a human touch (Tu & McIsaac, 2002; Pavlou et al., 2007; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). The hypothesis of social presence (Parker et al., 1978) brought forth the development of social presence that is appropriately interpreted as an essential component in the field of online long range informal communication. As indicated by Wei et al. (2017), the hypothesis of social presence advocates TAM if a middle person has a socially reasonable degree of employment participation, the association will be increasingly successful. As of late, social presence is created as a momentous idea in versatile innovation and online systems (Han et al., 2015; Ogara et al., 2014). Aside from the expanding utilization of online informal communities (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011; Lee, Yejean Park, et al., 2011; Park & Lee, 2010; Xu et al., 2012), the social presence factor is seen as one of the positive determinants influencing E, saw satisfaction, and U in the electronic condition and in electronic shopping (Cyr et al., 2007; Hassanein & Head, 2005, 2007; Shen, 2012; Smith & Sivo, 2012). The present paper conceptualizes TAM social presence rouses purchasers toward mobile tourism shopping expectation that is spoken to by E, U, and saw satisfaction. Steady with the above contentions, we suggest the accompanying hypotheses: H3, there is a positive connection between social presence and saw enjoyment; H4, there is a positive connection between social presence and saw simplicity of use; H5, there is a positive connection between social presence and saw usefulness; H6, social presence affects customer aim to utilize mobile tourism shopping.

Perceived Enjoyment (PEJ) Davis et al. (1992) clarified PEJ as “the degree to which the action of utilizing a framework is seen to be agreeable in its very own right, aside from any exhibition outcomes TAM might be envisioned.” Davis et al. (1992) clarified TAM PEJ is the inherent upgrades originating from a specific movement. Delight engages clients who see trouble to concentrate on the utilization of any innovation, which further prompts an extensive happiness process (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000). In past examinations, PEJ was embraced as a huge antecedent of social aim in various portable investigations (Liu & Li, 2010; Karaiskos et al., 2012). Also, Jeng (2013) found TAM customers stay cheerful when they are scanning for online the travel industry items. Im and Hancer (2014) found TAM buyers utilizing cell phones while searching for data on movement destinations are regularly simultaneously associated with companions, associations which conceivably give them delight and pleasure.

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Furthermore, Scholl-Grissemann and Schnurr (2016) found TAM tweaking make a trip items prompts charming customer encounters. Consequence methodologies have been additionally proposed by Ozturk, Nusair, Okumus, and Hua (2016), and PEJ was viewed as a fundamental factor in the improvement of portable appointments for an inn. Consequently, the accompanying speculation is proposed H7: there is a positive connection between saw satisfaction and traveller expectation to utilize a cell phone for shopping the travel industry items.

Perceived Ease of Use (E) Davis et al. (1989) characterized E as “how much an individual accepts TAM utilizing a specific framework would be liberated from exertion.” In this examination, we characterize E as how much voyagers/purchasers accept TAM the mobile tourism shopping will be an easy and simple activity for them. When utilizing the framework requires little exertion and it is anything but difficult to learn and comprehend, purchasers are bound to acknowledge the framework (Pikkarainen et al., 2004). A few past investigations have utilized the develop of E to examine the appropriation of data innovation and found a positive connection among E and selection of innovation, for example, web-based shopping (Ayeh, 2015; Zhu & Chang, 2014), versatile advances (Dutot, 2015; Choi & Totten, 2012; Sim et al., 2014), e-learning (Lee, 2006), and Internet games (Hsu & Lu, 2004). In this manner, it very well may be inferred TAM acquiring the travel industry items utilizing a cell phone will be increasingly valuable in the event TAM it is seen to be simple being used. Thus, we set the hypothesis H8: saw usability TAM epically impacts customer aim to utilize mobile tourism shopping.

Perceived Usefulness (U) By the meaning of Davis et al. (1989), U is “how much an individual accepts TAM utilizing a specific framework would upgrade their activity execution.” In the present examination, saw value eludes to the degree where the purchaser accepts TAM utilizing a cell phone for the travel industry shopping will progress his/her exhibition. Adams et al. (1992) found TAM U is one of the pivotal components distinguished by TAM. TAM predicts customer expectations and execution. Liao et al. (2008) proposed in inspiration hypothesis TAM individuals will be progressively compelling and acknowledge new innovation on the off chance TAM they understand TAM the action prompts positive presentation. Past research broadly considered U in various settings, for example, long range informal communication (Chang et al., 2015; Nikou & Bouwman, 2014; Liébana-Cabanillas et al., 2014; Rauniar et al., 2014). There is an absence of writing explaining the purchasers’ convictions TAM utilizing mobile tourism shopping could bring about a positive result and how those convictions influence aims. Thusly, we recommend the accompanying

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hypothesis H9: saw handiness TAM epically influences visitor goal to utilize mobile tourism shopping.

Mediating Role of E, U, and PEJ As indicated by TAM, E, and U, conceives the genuine acknowledgment of people to utilize a framework, with conduct aims as a middle person between the given indicators and the real utilization of the framework (Davis, 1989). Jiang and Xu (2009) affirmed a generous impact of fulfillment and saw convenience on the continuation goal of e-government in China. Also, an examination led (Hu et al., 2009) uncovered TAM U is a basic marker of the proceeded with utilization of e-charge administration in Hong Kong. So also, Hsu and Lu (2004) directed an examination on web-based games where they decided the positive effect of E on producing the involvement in submersion. Additionally, Chitungo and Munongo (2013) established a positive connection among E and utilization goal in m-portable use. With the expanding significance of epicurean highlights of the cell framework, data framework examine has checked the huge job of PEJ (Sanakulov & Karjaluoto, 2015). In straightforward words, the indicator esteem and intervening job of PEJ have been recommended in broad writing while at the same time clarifying the reception of new advances (Pan, Bing, Yang, Yang, 2016). As indicated by Kawaf and Tagg (2012), utilizing the improvement creature reaction worldview, both U and E, just as the reaction (PEJ), are assumed as arbiters between outer boosts (i.e., social presence, saw portability, and the framework) and the arrangement of value administrations. In light of the various investigations (e.g., Guriting & Oly Ndubisi, 2006; Wu et al., 2007; Ramayah & Lo, 2007; Hsu et al., 2012), the present examination guesses TAM, PEJ, U, and E will intervene the connections between social presence and shoppers’ real use of mobile tourism shopping. In light of tremendous writing search, the writers accept TAM no earlier examination has tried the intervention in the connection between social presence and real utilization in the point of view of versatile the travel industry shopping. Accordingly, we theorize the following: H10, saw delight fundamentally intervenes the connection between social presence and traveller mobile tourism shopping intention; H11, saw convenience decidedly intercedes the connection between social presence and vacationer mobile tourism shopping intention; H12, saw handiness TAM epically intervenes the connection between social presence and visitor use of mobile tourism shopping. To summarize, it is normal TAM the exogenous factors can legitimately and TAM epically impact the customers’ goals toward portable the travel industry shopping. Additionally, almost certainly, the connection between social presence and use aim toward mobile tourism shopping is interceded by PEJ, E, and U. To this end, in view of thorough writing on the relative points of interest, similarity, and social presence with regard to mobile tourism shopping, we suggest a multi-mediation model, as showed in Fig. 38.1.

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Relative Strengths

Compatibility

Perceived Enjoyment

Social Presence

Perceived ease of use

Adoption of mobile tourism shopping

Perceived usefulness

Fig. 38.1 Conceptual model

Methodology and the Measurement Development Data Collection and the Method of Sampling The information assortment process was done from August to October 2018 in Karachi, Pakistan. Printed versions of the survey were conveyed among the members, and the poll was rounded out through eye to eye communication with the respondents (Hunt et al., 1982). The examination overview was directed in four distinct shopping centers in Karachi, in particular, Dolman Mall Clifton, Dolmen Mall Tariq Road, Lucky One Mall Karachi, and Port Grand. As indicated by Kasim and Alfandi (2014), the malls approach for information assortment is the most ideal approach to gather information from advertisers/purchasers. Different specialists additionally expounded TAM the shopping center catch technique is a progressively unprejudiced and reasonable information assortment strategy in light of the namelessness and irregular instructed reactions (Bhukya & Singh, 2015; Elbedweihy et al., 2016). Likewise, the methodology comprises a suitable inspecting (Hew et al., 2017). With regard to portable the travel industry, a similar methodology has been suggested by different scientists in Malaysia (Tan et al., 2017; Hew et al., 2017). Subsequently, the creators chose to pick Karachi that is a metropolitan city in Pakistan and a perfect city for possible voyagers and mobile tourism shopping. Four research associates were additionally enlisted to aid the information assortment, and along these lines an aggregate of 1000 review surveys were appropriated among the purchasers during the diverse time interims. The buyers were reached and were courteously inquired as to whether they were

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utilizing a cell phone for acquiring the travel industry items or have had involvement in mobile tourism shopping; their reactions were invited, and they expressed gratitude toward for their ability to finish the overview. The information assortment process was done in three continuous months. Sums of 822 finished polls were gotten. Resulting examinations uncovered TAM solitary 786 reactions were useable for factual investigation in the wake of expelling anomalies and reactions with missing things.

Sample’s Demographic Characteristics The statistic highlights of respondents are male and female; male respondents represented 462 (58.77%) reactions in the example, while 323 were from females (41.22%). A vast dominant part of respondents (70.4%) were matured somewhere in the range of 20 and 39 years (17.6%, matured 20–24 years; 25.2%, matured 25–29 years; 16.5%, matured 30–34 years; and 11.2%, matured 35–39 years). As far as training, the biggest gathering of respondents was those with probably a secondary school instruction, 41.91%. Also, regarding experience utilizing a cell phone, 36.4% had less than 3 years’ understanding, 32.8% had 3–5 years’ understanding, and 30.8% had over 5 years’ experience utilizing a cell phone to search for the travel industry items.

Survey Instrument The estimation things of the present investigation were adjusted from past examinations and changed by the point of view of mobile tourism shopping. All of the indicators were measured on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from “1, strongly disagree” to “7, strongly agree.”

Common Method Bias (CMB) The investigation gathered the information utilizing a solitary hotspot for both needy and free factors; thus for checking for issues of the conceivable regular technique inclination, we utilized Harman’s single-factor test (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Measurably, on the off chance TAM the consequence of Harman’s single-factor test accounts 40% or above, at TAM point there might be a CMB issue in the information. In this examination, all components were transferred with a solitary factor. The examination found 37.2% difference in information, which is beneath the cut-off estimation of 40%. Additionally, the build relationship lattice (Table 38.1) likewise shows TAM each estimation of inter-construct connections is under 0.76 as CMB might be an issue when relationships are more prominent than 0.9 (Falatam et al., 2018; Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Along these lines, it is reasoned TAM no issue of CMB exists in the information.

Variables Mobile Tourism Shopping adoption Compatibility Perceived enjoyment Perceived ease of use Perceived usefulness Relative Strengths Social presence

AVE 0.811 0.610 0.667 0.612 0.789 0.559 0.671

Table 38.1 Correlations and inter-construct reliability CA 0.897 0.673 0.826 0.710 0.886 0.749 0.749

1 0.881 0.569 0.567 0.541 0.658 0.210 0.651

3

0.818 0.489 0.379 0.231 0.510

2 0.772 0.637 0.439 0.309 0.169 0.610

0.781 0.361 0.267 0.439

4

0.898 0.238 0.359

5

0.749 0.211

6

0.809

7

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Results and Discussion To test the various ways in the suggested model, we applied incomplete least-squares auxiliary condition displaying (PARTIAL-LEAST-SQUARES-SEM). PLS-SEM is an exhaustive displaying approach TAM assists scientists with estimating the connections between builds too the unwavering quality and legitimacy of any exploration model (Hair et al., 1998). With regard to the travel industry writing, the PARTIAL-LEAST-SQUARES-SEM has gotten significant acknowledgment among scientists (Kim et al., 2018). Besides, PARTIAL-LEAST-SQUARES-SEM is a groundbreaking system and can foresee a confounded model with no need of dispersion suspicions, and it can likewise deal with non-normal disseminations of information (Hair Jr. et al., 2014). Given the upsides of PARTIAL-LEASTSQUARES, the ebb and flow inquire about inspected the components TAM influence the shopper’s acknowledgment of versatile the travel industry shopping through PARTIAL-LEAST-SQUARES, which is viewed as appropriate to assess the connections in any structure model, explicitly in the IS setting (Khan et al., 2018). We utilized the product Smart PARTIAL-LEAST-SQUARES 3 to do as such.

Measurement Model We inspected the estimation model by utilizing CFA (Hair et al., 1998). Prominently, we checked substance legitimacy, merged legitimacy, and discriminate legitimacy. After a basic survey of past writing and pilot testing, we estimated content legitimacy. Surveying joined legitimacy, we assessed the estimations of factor loadings, Cronbach’s alpha (CA), composite unwavering quality (CR), and normal fluctuation removed (AVE). The CFA results show TAM the factor loadings of all things were more critical than 0.70 with the exception of SP, U, and E; these three things were expelled in this manner from the last investigation (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1978). As demonstrated in Table 38.2, the CFA results satisfy the suggested standard degrees of CA, CR, and AVE that were higher than 0.7, 0.7, and 0.5, separately, in this manner indicating great joined legitimacy (Hair et al., 1998; Nunnally & Bernstein, 1978; Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Discriminate legitimacy, which shows TAM the proportions of one variable are not the same as the others, is assessed by three techniques (Henseler et al., 2015). As contended by Fornell and Larcker (1981), first we analyzed the relationship among the connections among factors and AVE of the considerable number of theories. Table 38.3 shows TAM, for all develops, the AVE square root is over the relationship esteems, indicating worthy discriminated legitimacy. Second, we thought about things loadings and cross loadings, and as demonstrated in Table 38.3, we find TAM the things loadings are higher than the cross loadings of other dormant factors that show great discriminate legitimacy (Hsu et al., 2009). Third, utilizing the heterotrait-monotrait proportion (HTMT) strategy with the total bootstrapping system of 2000 examples, we surveyed discriminated legitimacy.

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Table 38.2 Results of the measurement model

Variables Relative strengths (RS)

Compatibility (COM)

Social presence (SP)

Perceived enjoyment (PEJ) Perceived usefulness (U) Perceived ease of use (E) Mobile tourism shopping adoption

Items 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

Loadings 0.731 0.709 0.821 0.739 0.718 0.821 0.820 0.789 0.809 0.821 0.839 0.869 0.839 0.749 0.879 0.911 0.881 0.779 0.791 0.789 0.889 0.921 0.879

Cronbach’s alpha 0.749

Composite reliability 0.841

Average variance extracted 0.559

0.689

0.829

0.619

0.841

0.891

0.671

0.759

0.859

0.681

0.871

0.921

0.789

0.711

0.829

0.619

0.879

0.931

0.813

Table 38.4 demonstrates TAM the most extreme incentive in the is 0.83 that is beneath the cut-off estimation of 0.85 and the certainty interim proportion of all factors is underneath 1, in this manner indicating sound discriminated legitimacy.

Structural Model Results The conjectured connections among the developments were inspected utilizing institutionalized way assessment. The immediate and circuitous impacts of ward factors on the free develop were inspected and give professionals potential outcomes concerning circumstances and logical results connections. The outcomes are exhibited in Table 38.5. We evaluated the way essentialness levels by a bootstrap strategy with re-sampling multiple times (Sarstedt et al., 2016), with zero change choice, which accomplishes the most customary outcomes (Hair Jr. et al., 2016). All the 12 theories were tried; 2 speculations were seen as irrelevant, and the rest of the theories are noteworthy at the level. The outcomes demonstrated in Table 38.5 show TAM social presence decidedly impacts customer PEJ (β ¼ 0.511, p < 0.0001), U (β ¼ 0.369, p < 0.0001), E (β ¼ 0.439, p < 0.0001), and the mobile tourism

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Table 38.3 Cross loadings COM 1 COM 2 COM 3 PE 1 PE 2 PEU 1 PEU 2 PEU 3 U1 U2 U3 RS 1 RS 2 RS 3 RS 4 SP 1 SP 2 SP 3 SP 4 Usage 1 Usage 2 Usage 3

COM 0.711 0.831 0.819 0.659 0.379 0.261 0.353 0.439 0.279 0.311 0.249 0.119 0.081 0.141 0.161 0.471 0.439 0.489 0.549 0.489 0.509 0.471

PE 0.289 0.489 0.688 0.911 0.831 0.281 0.28 0.389 0.251 0.341 0.261 0.089 0.111 0.159 0.131 0.389 0.297 0.359 0.319 0.399 0.481 0.411

PEU 0.339 0.387 0.331 0.369 0.333 0.777 0.791 0.791 0.331 0.359 0.243 0.151 0.192 0.2 0.239 0.347 0.359 0.319 0.411 0.481 0.525 0.383

U 0.259 0.261 0.230 0.279 0.27 0.283 0.250 0.310 0.879 0.911 0.881 0.09 0.111 0.21 0.265 0.211 0.189 0.329 0.431 0.619 0.639 0.596

RS 0.05 0.193 0.141 0.120 0.181 0.271 0.159 0.210 0.209 0.227 0.211 0.729 0.711 0.819 0.749 0.171 0.211 0.131 0.191 0.209 0.199 0.141

SP 0.391 0.539 0.491 0.431 0.279 0.265 0.351 0.421 0.369 0.33 0.289 0.149 0.127 0.159 0.181 0.779 0.791 0.831 0.849 0.639 0.581 0.556

Usage 0.412 0.479 0.394 0.451 0.371 0.399 0.369 0.443 0.611 0.636 0.591 0.109 0.095 0.190 0.171 0.386 0.389 0.581 0.712 0.892 0.911 0.891

shopping aim (β ¼ 0.347, p < 0.0001). These discoveries show TAM H3, H4, H5, and H6 all hold for mobile tourism shopping selection, so these four speculations are upheld. Additionally, PEJ (β ¼ 0.151, p < 0.0001), E (β ¼ 0.119, p < 0.0001), and U (β ¼ 0.461, p < 0.0001) did altogether influence mobile tourism shopping aim; hence, these outcomes give measurable help to speculations H7, H8, and H9. Additionally, we found immaterial connections of RS (β ¼ 0.049, p > 0.0001) and COM (β ¼ 0.051, p > 0.0001) with mobile tourism shopping goal; thus, H1 and H2 are unsupported. Second, the fundamental objective of PARTIAL-LEAST-SQUARES-PM is to assess the prescient intensity of a proposed model to the key builds; subsequently, it is essential to survey the structure model by assessing the coefficient esteem, R2, of the developments as detailed by Hair, Hult, Ringle, and Sarstedt (2016), demonstrating the fluctuation in the builds of the proposed research model. As appeared, the outcomes express TAM PEJ (R2 ¼ 0.193), E (R2 ¼ 0.202), and U (R2 ¼ 0.144) meet the necessities, in this manner demonstrating a satisfactory degree of consistency. By and large change in the multi-mediation model was estimated at 69% in mobile tourism shopping (R2 ¼ 0.694), demonstrating TAM the fluctuation clarified by the free factors speaks to a magnificent illustrative power. Ultimately, we utilized the blindfolding methodology as recommended by Hair, Hult, Ringle, and Sarstedt (2016), to produce the cross validated excess measure Q2. Hair, Sarstedt, Hopkins,

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Table 38.4 TAM interim proportion COM COM PE 0.846 PEU 0.631 U 0.412 RS 0.221 SP 0.779 Us 0.692 Path PE!COM PEU!COM PEU!PE U!COM U!PE U!PEU RS!COM RS!PE RS!PEU RS!U SP!COM SP!PE SP!PEU SP!U SP!RS Us!COM Us!PE Us!PEU Us!U Us!RS Us!SP

PE

PEU

U

0.569 0.413 0.229 0.551 0.612

0.449 0.363 0.559 0.651

0.269 0.408 0.777

RS

0.261 0.229 CI ratio 0.949 0.741 0.691 0.529 0.536 0.559 0.369 0.382 0.511 0.409 0.871 0.668 0.671 0.541 0.389 0.789 0.709 0.729 0.891 0.368 0.791

SP

Us

0.743

and Kuppelwieser (2014) utilize Q2 to guarantee the prescient capacity of any examination model. On the off chance TAM, the estimation of Q2 for endogenous develop is certain (more than zero); it shows TAM the model consistency is important and satisfactory (Hair et al., 2017). The estimation of Q2 > 0 speaks to the model’s prescient significance for the individual connections of PEJ, E, and U with mobile tourism shopping goal.

Mediation Analysis To test the different intercession impact, we pursued the strategy recommended by Hair et al. (2017) and Zhao et al. (2010) as opposed to utilizing the proposition of Baron and Kenny (1986). The later papers portrayed three sorts of the intervention

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Table 38.5 Results of the estimated auxiliary model Hypotheses (H1 to H9) H1: RS!MTS adoption H2: COM!MTS adoption H3: SP!MTS adoption H4: SP!PEJ H5: SP!E H6: SP!U H7: PE!MTS adoption H8: E!MTS adoption H9: U!MTS adoption

Path coefficient 0.049

Standard error 0.029

T value 1.658

value 0.089

0.051

0.048

0.991

0.319

0.347 0.511 0.439 0.369 0.151 0.119 0.461

0.041 0.043 0.047 0.049 0.042 0.038 0.051

7.641 11.182 10.469 6.691 3.289 3.534 9.311

0.000

Study results Not supported Not supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported

procedure and two kinds of non-mediation methodology. On the off chance TAM both the immediate and circuitous intercession impacts on the connections among reliant and free factors are irrelevant; at TAM point the particular way has a non-mediation impact. Assuming, be TAM as it may, the immediate impact on the needy variable is huge, at TAM point the way has just a single non-mediation impact, yet on the off chance TAM the immediate impact is unimportant, at TAM point the analyst should assess the hugeness of circuitous impacts to additionally separate between corresponding fractional, full, and focused incomplete intervention. Essentially, reciprocal fractional intercession happens when both the immediate impact and circuitous impacts are moving the comparable way. Second, focused fractional intervention happens when there is a positive direct impact. However, the development is at the contrary track. At last, full intercession will happen if there is an immaterial direct impact. Theories H11 and H13 place TAM, E and U halfway intervene between the social presence and mobile tourism shopping reception, and H12 sets TAM PEJ has no intervention sway on the association between social presence and mobile tourism shopping selection. Following Ringle et al. (2015), we received the bootstrapping technique for testing intercession impacts. The outcomes recommend TAM social presence has critical roundabout impacts (β ¼ 0.299, p < 0.0001) on mobile tourism shopping selection, while the immediate impact of social presence is additionally huge. Consequently, we reason TAM E and U have a fractional interceding job in the present examination, along these lines supporting H11 and H12, and TAM and PEJ has no intercession impact, so H10 is unsupported (Table 38.6).

Discussion This examination exhibits a novel and coordinated model looking at key factors TAM impact sightseers’ aim to utilize versatile device(s) for web-based shopping of the travel industry items and administrations. In the recommended model, social presence, relative favorable position, and similarity go about as forerunners of buyer

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Table 38.6 Multiple mediation analysis

Hypotheses and path H11: SP!E!MTS

Specific indirect effect 0.067

Direct effect 0.451

Total effect 0.29

H12: SP!PEJ!MTS

0.031

0.434

0.29

H13: SP!U!MTS

0.169

0.381

0.29

Type of mediation Complementary partial mediation Direct-only non-mediation Complementary partial mediation

Remarks Partially supported Unsupported Partially supported

goals toward versatile the travel industry shopping. Likewise, saw pleasure, saw usability, and saw helpfulness are arbiters between the relationship of social presence and selection of mobile tourism shopping. In this regard, as anticipated by speculations related with the immediate impact of relative bit of leeway, the outcomes show TAM the connection between relative favorable position and buyer aim toward mobile tourism shopping is unimportant, steady with the consequences of the past investigations (e.g., Qazi et al., 2018; Sahin, 2006). Our outcomes are in opposition to Ainin et al. (2015) who found a huge relationship between Internet-based life and relative bit of leeway among Malaysian SMEs. One of the potential purpose behind the inconsequential connection between relative preferred position and portable the travel industry shopping appropriation is TAM the versatile the travel industry innovation is new in Pakistan and consequently the respondents are moderately new to this new innovation. This may improve their capacity to utilize successfully, dispensing with its essentialness of relative favorable circumstances in unequivocal social expectations. Consequently, this irregularity doesn’t imply TAM the innovation supplier thinks tolerating mobile tourism shopping has no specialized favorable position over different other options. Amaro and Duarte (2015) found a noteworthy connection between customers’ mentality toward taking an interest in the online travel network. Hung et al. (2010) contemplated the selection of the CRM framework in clinic and found a noteworthy connection between relative bit of leeway and CRM appropriation framework. Mallat and Tuunainen (2008) investigated a positive relationship relative bit of leeway and adopter see on the new installment innovation framework. Lin (2011) found TAM relative favorable position impacted buyer reception of versatile banking. Earlier research likewise found a noteworthy relationship between relative favorable position and (B2B) web-based business reception by Egyptian producer in SMEs (Hamad et al., 2018). Hussein et al. (2019) explored and effectively distinguished TAM relative favorable position assumes a noteworthy job in utilizing B-to-B online business among the Jordanian assembling SMEs. Our outcomes demonstrate TAM relative bit of leeway isn’t important with regard to utilizing advancement. It might because of the particular attributes of the respondents TAM they incline toward up close and personal shopping and don’t consider the benefits of versatile shopping or the respondents need recognition with the portable based the travel industry as a reasonable option in contrast to the physical

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store shopping. Another theory about the impact of similarity with the buyer utilizing m-gadgets is likewise unsupported, demonstrating an unimportant association with mobile tourism shopping. Inconsequential aftereffect of similarity was likewise announced in Hamad et al. (2018) with regard to Internet business selection. The outcome is additionally in accordance with the consequences of Ahmad, Abu Bakar, and Ahmad (2019), who found an irrelevant connection among similarity and web-based life acknowledgment. In the interim, the impact of similarity on mobile tourism shopping acknowledgment isn’t huge. This irrelevance can be clarified by taking note of TAM most customers don’t utilize versatile device(s) to do Internet shopping in Pakistan or it might identify with the explicitness of the information gathered. Agag and El-Masry (2016) found a noteworthy relationship of buyers’ frame of mind and on the web (the travel industry) shopping. Qazi et al. (2018) examined the acknowledgment of digital book perusing among advanced education understudies and found TAM similarity influences buyers’ (understudies’) aims and significantly affects purchaser’s demeanors toward receiving digital books. Past research additionally found a critical relationship among similarity and buyer’s acknowledgment and selection of portable ticketing administrations (Tussyadiah, 2015). Lu et al. (2011) found TAM relative favorable position and similarity had a huge and positive effect on customer appropriation of development. Accordingly, relative favorable position and similarity of portable the travel industry shopping loses its impact in such cases. As anticipated by H3, H4, H5, and H6, our discoveries in regard to social presence express the critical impact of apparent value, saw convenience, and saw happiness, on vacationers’ expectation toward mobile tourism shopping. The outcomes uncover TAM the social network or being socially present is a significant element of portable based the travel industry shopping. Moreover, the clients’ capacity to interface through cell phones and shop online adds to the essentialness of social presence. Accordingly, speculations H3, H4, H5, and H6 are bolstered. These consequences of our investigation likewise compare to those in the past writing (i.e., Tussyadiah, 2015; Ye et al., 2019). Additionally, saw convenience legitimately influences mobile tourism shopping goal and intervenes the impact of social presence on MOBILE tourism shopping reception. These discoveries are in accordance with the investigation of portable informal community destinations by Leong et al. (2018) who found TAM apparent convenience affects shopper aim and contended TAM the outcome is because of the good experience of portable utilization for long range informal communication among purchasers that guides them for utilizing SNS effectively for learning and shopping exercises. Correspondingly, Nunkoo and Ramkissoon (2013) recognized TAM at waver point a traveller has thorough information on online the travel industry shopping; they are increasingly centered on using the handiness of online the travel industry shopping. Our outcome clarifies and bolsters the noteworthy job of apparent handiness in mobile tourism shopping reception. In our investigation, saw pleasure was another indicator of traveller goal to utilize a cell phone to buy the travel industry items, which concur with past examinations which portray the noteworthy job of PEJ in innovation acknowledgment (Yang et al., 2016; Alalwan et al., 2018). Ha and Stoel (2009)

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found TAM apparent happiness (PEJ) has a considerable and direct impact on shopper goal toward mobile tourism shopping expectation. Our investigation’s decision about PEJ is comparative and accepts the prescient capacity of PEJ. Consequently, it is inferred TAM as long as clients imagine TAM the mobile tourism shopping includes fun and delight, they mean to acknowledge mobile tourism shopping. Our outcomes affirm the appropriateness of TAM in anticipating sightseers’ goal toward mobile tourism shopping (Davis et al., 1989). Ye et al. (2019) found TAM the effects of social presence on saw convenience, saw usability, and saw delight are sure, and they inferred TAM the more the site is appreciated, the more it is significant and simple to utilize. Our outcomes bolster the numerous intercession examinations, demonstrating TAM U, E, and PEJ each intervenes in the relationship between social presence and mobile tourism shopping selection. These outcomes are additionally steady with past investigations (Davis et al., 1989; Ye et al., 2019; Van der Heijden, 2003; Henderson & Divett, 2003). By and large, the selection of the multi-mediation model has been settled in the point of view of mobile tourism shopping.

Implications and Conclusion Theoretical Implications of Mobile Tourism Shopping Given the expanding significance of portable innovation in the travel industry and neighborliness, this exploration adds to scholarly research with regard to creating nations. The ebb and flow inquire about work; we utilized two speculations (TAM and IDT) to look at buyer expectation toward the reception of mobile tourism shopping. This examination has rich hypothetical commitments to the travel industry research and portable applications in the administrations parts. The exploration joins two realized hypotheses to comprehend the appropriation all the more exhaustively. The first, IDT, clarifies how development spreads among individuals (Wang et al., 2012), while TAM is widely utilized in the travel industry and accommodation industry to analyze TAM how shoppers receive new innovation (Kim, 2016; Morosan & DeFranco, 2014). Past examinations show TAM incorporated hypothetical models are progressively pertinent and agent in the travel industry inquire about. Likewise, this examination has added to the improvement of the travel industry, promoting, and accommodation writing in creating economies. The utilization of the incorporated model speaks to another road for additional exploration in the IT/IS space in numerous different settings. We utilized PARTIAL-LEAST-SQUARESSEM, an exhaustive measurable system, which adds to the hypothetical commitment in the region of the travel industry. In addition, our outcomes supplement past examinations which tried the intervening jobs of PEJ, U, and E in online innovation acknowledgment just as studies researching the shopper social goal and genuine utilizations. The relationship of social presence and the reception of mobile tourism shopping with the intercession

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of U, E, and U is another expansion in the mobile tourism shopping viewpoint. This will have significant hypothetical ramifications for the IDT and TAM models, similarly as the intervention brings about the new setting include to the current writing the travel industry, IDT, and TAM look into. Hypothetically, this examination opens better approaches to explore the utilization of versatile innovation in the travel industry. The integrative model benefits the academician in framing future research models in increasingly strong manners.

Managerial Implications of Mobile Tourism Shopping This investigation depends on the reason of an examination hole TAM past research disregarded the variables TAM cause visitors to acknowledge mobile tourism shopping, particularly in creating nations. Subsequently, we focused on a vigorous exact examination to dissect the determinants of visitor expectations to take an interest in mobile tourism shopping. Other than the hypothetical ramifications, the discoveries of the ebb and flow examine give a lot of significant ramifications for experts, supervisors, vacationers, and controllers. With a sound comprehension of the aim of portable customers and the intervening impacts of U, E, and PEJ, different partners (aircrafts, cell phone originators, programming engineers, travel associations, and the travel industry-related associations) can additionally fortify their advertising and financing strategies for the travel industry items by considering the critical elements recognized in this paper. The outcomes may be useful to structure methodologies to propel more buyers for mobile tourism shopping, and consequently, it can increase the value of the travel industry just as other applicable associations. The administration, particularly the Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation, can use the discoveries in a superior method to advance portable the travel industry shopping in Pakistan. This won’t just make openings for work yet additionally help the legislature in reporting the shopping channel. Besides, the focal point of this examination is limited to Pakistan the travel industry shopping through versatile use. More research can deal with the cross-cultural concentrate to affirm and approve our discoveries. We prescribe testing the exploration model in various periods of shopping as when just as during the movement to decide how well such connections exist in different economies. This can likewise be a commendable interest later on to concentrate on shopping time and spots (i.e., office, home, voyaging locales, or working day or end of the week). The forthcoming scientists can focus on multifaceted investigation bunches TAM can be useful in investigating the distinctions among different the travel industry administrations/items, similar to inns, carrier organizations, eateries, and rental-vehicle administrations. The heterogeneous idea of mobile tourism shopping appropriation crosswise over various enterprises can help the promoting chiefs to devise their procedures as indicated by the idea of different fragments, similar to carriers and inns. This division will be exceptionally encouraging to the customers’ prosperity and fulfillment.

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Social Implications of Mobile Tourism Shopping This examination additionally gives social ramifications by investigating the sightseers’ goals and featuring the elements of utilizing cell phones for the travel industry shopping. The portable utilization for such purposes can be understood of as a social worth, which may impact society in such manner. Such use likewise influences others, as it advances the social judgment of others toward the mobile tourism shopping reception. In this manner, the expanded comprehension can likewise prod the appearance of sightseers to Pakistan that is convenient since Pakistan has an incredible potential for the travel industry, and the present government has started moves to build up the travel industry. This information will likewise add to the multiplication of innovation reception in the travel industry division. In a roundabout way, mobile tourism shopping can be demonstrated to be a monetary motor and a specialist of social change in light of its commitment to GDP, diminishing of joblessness, expanding of nation salary, and formation of chances for the travel industry-related occupations.

Conclusion, Limitations, and Future Research Directions Versatile the travel industry shopping isn’t just viewed as a progressive development in the travel industry point of view yet in addition to a stylish example where the sightseers utilize cell phones for purchasing the travel industry-related items. Since tolerating the m-contraptions for the travel industry is the slanting examination region, the flow looks into proposed a coordinated structure to inspect the visitors’ expectation to acknowledge mobile tourism shopping. The current research contributes hypothetically and authoritatively and furthermore has social ramifications, subsequently profiting both the writing and practice. Whereas the suggested model is created on a rich hypothetical premise, the ebb and flow look into has different inevitable confinements TAM should be shrouded and centered in future research. Most importantly, this examination utilized a comfort inspecting technique; consequently, future investigations may utilize arbitrary testing from general different clients or gatherings of clients. Second, the extent of our investigation is limited to Pakistan par the discoveries. However, possible generalizable to some other creating nations may not be material in settings with altogether extraordinary social, strict, or political highlights. Tending to the issue in different nations and settings is advantageous. Third, this examination does not consider cross-cultural issues in light of the fact TAM the utilization of ICT use conduct is progressively solid in a solitary national culture (Bankole & Bankole, 2017). So it is fitting to concentrate on multicultural foundations or utilizing social measurements, for example, those as recommended in Khan et al. (2017). Fourth, information were gathered cross-sectional and were broken down through PARTIAL-LEAST-SQUARES-condition demonstrating. Researchers expect TAM the information are homogenous, and this presumption can be ridiculous (Ringle

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et al., 2009). Along these lines, the creators recommend TAM future research may consider longitudinal information with multi-group investigation. In savvy PARTIAL-LEAST-SQUARES, this can be dealt with through the FIMIX-PARTIALLEAST-SQUARES apparatus. Fifth, the flow study intended to inquire about mobile tourism shopping from the travellers’ point of view. The spread of any mechanical development additionally relies upon associations, shippers, and different vendors; this viewpoint could be concealed in perusing explore ponders. The all-inclusive models of TAM (like TAM-2 and TAM-3) are likewise worth researching in various settings. At last, new factors pertinent to versatile the travel industry, for example, social, strict, or political components, can be incorporated that will be useful to analysts in future research.

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Technology in Tourism and Hospitality in Pakistan: The Tourist Experience Perspective

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spiritual Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Archaeological and Ancient Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ecotourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adventure Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pakistan’s Ranking in World Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Role of Tourism in Employment Generation and Gross Domestic Production (GDP) of Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Worldwide Tourists in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Constructive Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Negative Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Complications in Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonavailability of Tourism Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Low Priority of Tourism Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Protection of Tourists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Complications in Getting Visas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deprived Coordination Among Departments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Private Sector Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ineffectiveness of Tourism Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonavailability of Criteria and Certifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lack of Proper Marketing and Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Adverse Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonexistence of e-Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Insufficient Usage of Information Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ineffective Participation in Global Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Decrepit Tourism Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deficiency of Human Resource Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proposals for Tourism Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Enforcement of Law and Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Health Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Capacity Building for Tourism-Associated Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Formation of Code of Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elevation from Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Specialized Education and Skills Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tourism Infrastructure Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Strategy Preparation and Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Upgradation of Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Protection of Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Public and Private Sector Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Revolutionizing Hospitality and Tourism in Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Technological advancements play a major role to enhance tourism and hospitality service experience delivery capacities. Through these, business organizations reduce their operational and nonoperational cost, improve quality of their services, enhance effectiveness of resources, and satisfy customer need for rememberable experience. Several countries in the world can be examples. Pakistan is a South Asian nation, and this can be viewed as a major player in the world. This chapter briefly describes all of the elements considered as relevant to tourist experience in the tourism and hospitality industry. In the Pakistan context of technology integration and further their outcomes, this chapter also offers some guidelines. Furthermore, technology application in the tourism and hospitality can possibly be divided them in different categories regarding their attributes and development. Thus, this is better to evaluate a specific technology’s magnitudes and impacts. This was found after comprehensive analysis of all elements that technology can entirely change the pace and structure of the tourism and hospitality sectors. Moreover, technology application enhances market competitiveness, environment friendliness, and employing local people both directly and indirectly. Lastly, this paper suggests that relation to Pakistani hotel, the involvement, and role play of relevant public agencies can allow better experiences to the tourists. Keywords

Tourism · Technology · Hospitality · Development · Pakistan

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Introduction Individuals travel to countries or areas outside of their native countries for personal or professional purposes, making travel a cultural, social, and economic component. It is a multifaceted business movement with a high employment age limit, income generation primarily from the inn segments, profit from massive remote trade and connection of multifaceted trepidation and participation, business opportunities for business visionaries, and monetary development of the country due to the serious nature of the work (Khalil et al., 2007). This part aids in the alleviation of need and the maintenance of peace, as well as facilitating quick and broad financial mobility (Rana, 2015; Sinclair, 1998). It is in any case called the greatest purposeful trade of money from rich to poor nations (Mitchell & Ashley, 2009). Over the span of the latest couple of decades, worldwide the movement business has gotten observable quality in a couple of economies around the globe. The movement business may in like manner be a wellspring of compensation to understudies, gatekeepers, retirees, and various others by giving low support vocations (Jucan & Jucan, 2013). By allowing intermediation and building a bridge between civilizations, the tourism industry has a lot of potential to promote world peace. The tourism business helps target countries improve family income using the following two techniques on a global scale (Oh, 2005). It immediately increases viability by increasing competition among travel-related enterprises, as well as assisting small businesses in taking advantage of economies of scale (Baloch, 2007a, 2007b). The growth of the tourist business enhances family pay and job opportunities in both the formal and informal sectors of the destination country. It might play a role in reducing severe family poverty while also boosting economic growth (Zortuk, 2009). Increased tourism can help middle- and low-income countries thrive economically; however, the same cannot be said for affluent ones (Eugenio-Martin et al., 2004). Price increases and currency growth are skewed in favor of nations having a larger outbound business travel industry (WTTC, 2011). This developing industry turns into a central monetary division since this industry granted 7.6 trillion US dollar to the world economy (10.2 percent of the world’s Gross Domestic Production) because of going of 1.2 billion vacationers to worldwide goals and furthermore produced 292 million employments (1 of every 10 occupations in the globe) in 2016. There is a considerable reciprocator relationship between worldwide exchanging and overall voyaging (Shan & Wilson, 2001) and furthermore among Gross Domestic Production and the travel industry receipts. This industry is a fare industry, and its commitment to global exchange is about 7 percent (WEF, 2017), and about 30 percent to the world’s administrations sends out (UNWTO, 2013). This segment has an extraordinary limit with regard to furnishing work with around 90 livelihoods delivered for one million (Indian rupees) of speculation which helps in mitigation of destitution and helping with continuing individuals (Kulendran & Wilson, 2000). The UNWTO gauges that the travel industry segment will give 296 million employments in the worldwide economy in

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2019. Visitor costs imply an addition of new money into the monetary arrangement of the nation (Archer & Cooper, 1998; Fletcher, 1994; Frechtling, 1987). Different inquiries about have looked to recognize the causative relationship between worldwide exchanges, especially trades improvement and monetary development (Bahmani-Oskooee & Alse, 1993; Chow, 1987; Marin, 1992). The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) has anticipated that the movement and the travel industry division has been developing constantly at the pace of 4 percent yearly which is quicker than other budgetary administrations, for example, assembling and transport (WEF, 2015). The travel industry has an assorted variety of money-related impacts (Tureac & Turtureanu, 2010). It likewise upgrades the exercises of other various parts including lodgings, eateries, discount exchange, retail exchange, street transport, air transport, correspondences, and work, for example, visitor guides, doormen, cooks, and so on (Rana, 2015). It is a massive method for help for foundation advancement and social concordance and harmony (Bahuguna, 2005). Travel and the travel industry represent about 5 percent of all carbon discharges (UNWTO, 2008), and the travel industry can be acknowledged as a significant factor to accomplish green economy destinations (Dixit, 1997). Travel has been a part of every human civilization from the dawn of time, but the travel industry has only been a substantial global sector since the middle of the twentieth century (Ayres, 2000). A visitor is someone who travels to and stays in locations other than their home for less than a year for pleasure, business, or other reasons. He for the most part goes to visit various destinations; sees various celebrations and occasions; watches various atmospheres, normal zones, societies, customs, expressions, nourishments, dialects, and old authentic structures and landmarks; and so forth. Pakistan has extraordinary potential in the travel industry segment, different legacies and societies, rough mountains, exquisite lakes, streams, deserts, coastlines, and social and accommodating individuals. Pakistan has generally excellent possibilities for the travel industry, having an assortment of societies, intriguing scenes, dazzling seashores, and has a great deal of attractions and destinations that fulfil the necessities of the residential vacationers just as universal voyagers. The principle kinds of the travel industry accessible in Pakistan can be grouped into four classifications. Pakistan has a population of about 160 million people, with the great majority of the population earning less than US$1 per day. Pakistan, like any other fantastic European nation, is a key market for the travel industry since it provides natural beauty as well as organization and a wider variety of socioeconomic classes. In fact, the tourism sector is the most helpful and entrepreneurial business, particularly for those living in mountainous areas, since it creates new work opportunities and reduces unemployment. Nonetheless, travellers’ visits to Pakistan are dwindling year after year, amid good and bad times.

Spiritual Tourism Making a journey to visit a holy site, a holy location, or a love structure, as well as linked travelling for fulfilment, is considered strict in the travel business (Yeoman,

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2009). This aspect of voyaging is linked to following one’s own convictions or exchanging precise information with others (Kasim, 2011; Yeoman, 2009). Pakistan is the birthplace of Sikhism and is home to followers of three magnificent religions: Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. The country is not just rich in Islamic heritage but also in the heritage of other religions. Master Nanak, the founder of the Sikh faith, adored locations like the Gurdwaras at Nankana Sahib and Hasan Abdal, which hold a special place in the hearts of Sikhs all over the globe. There are several Sufi and holy people’s holy sites that attract a large number of pioneers from throughout the country as well as from other parts of the world. These are the shrines of “Data Ganj Bakhsh Ali Hujwairi, Hazrat Baba Fariduddin Ganj-e-Shakar, Mian Mir, Shah Hussain, Bahauddin Zakariya in Punjab, Shah Abdul Latif Bhattai in Sindh, and Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Punjab” (Rasul et al., 2016). Some faiths, such as Kalash, are animist in nature and believe that all places, objects, and animals have a profound embodiment. Kalash culture is extremely old, and it is thought to be the Albanian foundations of European culture. Their celebrations are notable for their shading, singing, and movement across the globe.

Archaeological and Ancient Tourism Pakistan is home to many ancient human developments such as the Buddhist Gandhara progress, such as “Takht Bhai and Pushkalavati”; Indus Valley civic establishments, such as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa” (5000-year-old urban centers); and the Mughal Empire (Fakhar, 2010). The term Gandhara refers to an ancient kingdom (Mahajanapada) that formerly flourished in north Pakistan and east Afghanistan. According to the Zend Avesta, Gandhara was the sixth most beautiful place on the planet. “Purushapura (present-day Peshawar, often known as the City of Men), Varmayana (present-day Bamyan), and Takshashila (present-day Taxila)” were the major cities of this kingdom. This kingdom lasted from the mid-first millennium BC until the eleventh century A.D. Gandhara Civilization collections may be found in many historical sites in Pakistan. According to historians, the Indus Valley Civilization lasted from the Bronze Age through the Middle Ages, covered 1.2 million square kilometers, and had a population of about five million people. The Harappan Civilization, which lasted from the third to the middle of the second thousand years BC, was the peak of human civilization. Harappa was a major city surrounded by a massive block barrier. For the enjoyment of the visitors, this socially diverse nation offers a variety of conventions, rituals, and festivities. The Mughal Empire’s documented locations and border time landmarks are also fantastic attractions.

Ecotourism Ecotourism is viewed as a means of alleviating poverty that will contribute to the UN’s Millennium Development Goals. Ecotourism is occasionally combined with

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social and natural resources to create a single product. Celebrations, occasions, exhibition halls, hard effort, expressions and specialties, and neighborhood cookery are the major social assets in ecotourism. Ecotourism is a branch of the tourism business that involves trustworthy travel to fragile, unspoiled, and largely secure areas while attempting to have minimal environmental effect. Its goal is to teach visitors about safety, asset management for the financial growth of neighborhood networks, and respect for the way of life and human rights. Pakistan has some of the greatest ecotourism destinations on the globe. High mountains (Himalayas, Karakoram, and Hindu Kush ranges), ice sheets, difficult bluffs, raised glades, evergreen timberlands, submountain clean backwoods, endemic and temporary vegetation, deserts, sea beaches, coast line, and wetlands are examples. Pakistan has ten warm-blooded animal species, including the Mediterranean pygmy shrew (the world’s tiniest well-developed mammal) and the blue whale (the world’s largest vertebrate) (Israr et al., 2009). Pakistan, a country rich in adventure and natural beauty, with activities such as trekking, mountaineering, mountain biking, wilderness boating, mountain and desert jeep safaris, wild pig chasing, trout angling, winged creature watching, camel and yak safaris, and Indus dolphin viewing can attract eco-voyagers/travellers. The “Shandur Polo Festival, Silk Rout festivities, Kalash celebrations, Khanpur water sports celebrations,” cuisines, costumes, and the host network’s hospitality are all part of the way of life celebrations. Shandur Polo is a traditional competition held every year on the Shandur Pass at the world’s highest Polo pitch, at a height of about 3700 meters above sea level. Currently, an outdoor town is being created, as well as music and movement programs for the public. Ecological or experiential the development business is the most important part of the development industry since Pakistan is surrounded by world-class mountains, lakes, valleys, ice sheets, and passes. Travellers come to the location just to engage in activities such as skiing, climbing, surfing, being outside, and cruising. Explorers consider mountaineering and hiking as the most enabling activities. Pakistan is also home to the world’s second most famous peak, K2, as well as Asia’s Switzerland, Swat Valley. The Silk Road is another one of Pakistan’s attractions, since it is a historic trade route that connects the east with the west. Pakistan also has 31 natural and fictitious lakes and supplies. The helicopter or train safari is very popular among guests who want to experience the most magnificent views of sceneries and mines around the country. The helicopter safari is one of the most current methods of travel since it takes you high in the air, allowing you to see the most beautiful scenery in the north and deserts in the south (Tourism in Pakistan, 2008).

Adventure Tourism There are few places on the world that compare to the heavenliness and majesty seen in the country’s northern regions. Swat, Kalam, Malam Jabba, Shangla, Balakot, Ayubia, Murree, Chitral, Gilgit-Baltistan, Hunza, Kaghan, Naran, and

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Neelam valleys are among these locations. This area has a distinct feature: it is unrivalled in its endowment of blocked-in-civilization. The area has stunning goals, the most beautiful valleys, lakes, waterways, icy masses, and tops, as well as the association of four of the world’s most famous mountain ranges, such as the “Himalayas,” “Hindu Kush,” “Pamir,” and “Karakoram,” all of which offer unparalleled views and appeal to mountain dwellers, climbers, trekkers, and explorers (Khalil et al., 2007). The Deosai Highland, located on the outskirts of the Karakoram and the western Himalayas, is regarded as the world’s most significant level. During the summer, it boasts a lovely climate and plenty of vegetation. Currently, a variety of flora and animals may be found on this level, which also serves as the home of the critically endangered Himalayan Brown Bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus). K-2 (8611 m; second highest peak on the earth), Nanga Parbat (8125 m), Gasherbrum I (8068 m), Broad Peak (8047 m), and Gasherbrum II (8047 m) are among Pakistan’s 14 pinnacles (8035 m). With the exception of Nanga Parbat, which is located in the Himalayan range, all pinnacles are located in the Karakoram.

Pakistan’s Ranking in World Tourism The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI) evaluates “the set of challenges and methods that permit the controllable progress of the Travel and Tourism sector, which, in turn, contributes to a nation’s development and competitiveness.” There are 14 columns in the TTCI, all of which are dependent on a few components. The TTCI is planned using around 90 variables. The positions in TTCI provide a rapid assessment of the characteristics, opportunities, weaknesses, and threats to travel and the nation’s travel sector. According to the 2017 TTCI Report, Pakistan’s overall condition is 124 out of 136 nations, which is severely poor. Pakistan’s overall low ranking indicates that the current state of the travel sector is subpar for a variety of reasons. The business situation (119/136 nations), safety and security (133/136 nations), health and cleanliness (101/136 nations), human resource and labor market (134/136 nations), prioritization of travel and tourism (122/136 nations), and ICT preparation (126/136 nations) are some of the most visible components right now. Environmental manageability (133/136 countries), travel industry administrations foundation (125/136 countries), air transport framework (99/136 countries), ground and port foundation (80/136 countries), and regular assets (120/136 countries) all have poor rankings. Pakistan is regarded as a small republic in the world, ranking 29th out of 136 countries in terms of price competitiveness, which is a positive factor for tourists. The country was ranked 59th out of 136 countries in terms of cultural resources and business travel. Unfortunately, Pakistan’s dire situation stands in stark contrast to the principles governing corporate development. The movement business authorities have not been effective in manhandling the features of the movement business to establish Pakistan as an acknowledged guest destination around the world in the previous six decades.

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Role of Tourism in Employment Generation and Gross Domestic Production (GDP) of Pakistan The immediate commitment of the movement and travel sector was US 7.6 billion dollars (2.7 percent of GDP) in 2016, and it is predicted to grow by 5.1 percent (PKR 833.8 billion) in 2017 and by 5.6 percent to PKR 1, 432.1 billions of GDP by 2027. The contribution of movement and the travel sector to Gross Domestic Product was 6.9% (US19.4 billion dollars) in 2016, and it is expected to rise by 6% in 2017 and to 5.8% (US 36.1 billion dollars) in 2027, accounting for 7.2 percent of GDP (WTTC, 2017). In 2016, the immediate commitment of the movement and travel sector was 1.337 million occupations (2.3 percent of all out business), and it is expected to increase by 2.3 percent in 2017 to 1.368 million occupations and by 2.5 percent in 2027 to 1.757 million occupations (2.3 percent of absolute work). Regardless, the absolute share of company was around 6%, and the backhanded promise of the firm to add to work was around 3.550 million jobs. This is expected to grow by 3% in 2017, to 3.657 million jobs, and by 2.7 percent in 2027, to 4.783 million jobs (6.3 percent of total employment) (WTTC, 2017). Guest sends out are an important component of direct association in the movement and travel industries. In 2016, visitor sends out contributed about US 893.8 million dollars (3.6 percent of total fares) and were expected to grow by 3.1 percent in 2017, bringing in about 1.179 million global traveller appearances, and about 2.173 million global visitor appearances are expected to grow by 7.7% dad to US 1942.8 million dollars in 2027 (2.8 percent of total), though (11.4 percent of aggregate) (WTTC, 2017).

Worldwide Tourists in Pakistan The World Bank’s World Development Indicators emphasize that global vacationer appearances and revenues are based on security concerns. In the years 1995–2000, total traveller appearances increased by 8% each year; however, the 9/11 psychological militant attacks in the United States and the subsequent security actions in the country had an impact on international traveller appearances in the years 2001–2003 (negative 11 percent). In 2007–2008, worldwide vacationer arrivals continued to rise, with scorn for back sets. In the years 2003–2011, the annual growth rate of international tourist arrivals increased by 11%, with a peak of 1.161 million visitors arriving at the end of the period. As a result of a series of inland fear monger attacks, vacationer appearances dropped by 17% in 2012. The improvement in national security conditions in 2015–2016 is encouraging, which might explain the subsequent increase in tourist numbers (World Bank, 2017). The first author went to the Ministry of the Travel Industry and the PTDC to see whether the results of my survey were true and to see if the rate of traveller

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appearance is dropping. Because the information they provided was jumbled, I had to go through and compare the last 14 years to arrive at my desired result. According to statistics obtained from the Ministry of Tourism, PTDC, and the Tourism Serious Report 2009, Pakistan had tremendous potential in the tourism sector. We can observe from the table that Pakistan’s travel sector has a pattern of highs and lows during exchange years. It has never progressed at a rapid rate. Because of less development in terms of innovation and foundation, the number of travellers appearing in the 1990s was lower than in the year 2000. In the year 2000, as this sector grew in popularity, the number of tourists that visited climbed, but by the end of the decade, the number of visitors had drastically decreased. The reason for this is due to security concerns. If we look at Table 39.1, the visitor appearance rate in 1995 was 378.4, and it continued to rise until 2006, when it reached about 898.4. Albeit the previous government declared 2007 to be the Year of Tourism, yet it was the most restrained year for the tourism sector, with an 8% drop in arrivals. This also lowered the national pay rate from 276.1 to 131.5 percent.

Table 39.1 The effects of tourism on the economy (source: World Bank, 2017) Year 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Number (hundred thousand) 378.4 368.7 374.8 428.8 432.2 556.7 499.7 498.1 500.9 648.0 798.3 898.4 839.5 823.0 855.0 907.0 1161.0 966.0 565.2 557.5 563.4 916.1 1047.6

Receipts US$ (million) 582 590 618 556 492 551 533 562 620 765 828 919 912 986 950 998 1127 1014 938 971 915 793 875

Gross Domestic Production (percent) 4.963 4.847 1.014 2.55 3.66 4.26 3.554 2.508 5.777 7.547 6.519 5.899 4.833 1.701 2.832 1.607 2.748 3.507 4.396 4.675 4.731 5.527 5.554

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Kakar and Khalil (2007) proposed a relationship between the tourist industry and employment in Pakistan in their exploratory proposal. The purpose of this study was to assess the rate of business produced in various travel-related occupations. The assessment was conducted by paying close attention to accommodations, restaurants, gift shops, travel gurus, vehicle rental companies, visit administrators, and airline offices. They prepared a survey for this reason. Because the study was conducted only in two Pakistani cities, Swat and Abbottabad, and only in hotels and restaurants, its reach was limited. There was no attempt to determine the travel industry’s overall impact on numerous business divisions such as taxis, guides, diversion, travel offices, and so on. Furthermore, the quantifiable information provided on the number of accommodations, beds, and people used is limited because there is no genuine data regarding the time/date/year in which the information was collected. Baloch (2007a, 2007b), in his investigation of monitoring the travel industry in Pakistan, addresses the subject of identifying the cause of the sluggish nature of Pakistan’s travel industry development and recommending strategies for bolstering the sector via regular genuine and social assets. At a sense, the examination was concluded in Chitral valley. The system was used to record the opinions of tourists, locals, hoteliers, and information gathered from the PTDC and the Ministry of Tourism. The exploration is limited because to the industry’s disintegrating status, which was just explained in 2006, and there is no authentic factual information available for the Chitral valley. The data was obtained from the relevant offices, and no valid findings were made from travellers or hotels. Although some of the studies researched and discussed above are related to the travel business in Pakistan, there isn’t really any research that focuses on the positive and negative factors impacting Pakistan’s travel industry as a whole and compares it to its neighboring countries. My research focuses on the variables that influence the travel sector, its impact on business, and the revenue generated for the entire country. The investigation includes quantifiable data over the previous 14 years, which aided in comparing the presentation of this division and other nations as well. The difference in approach resides in the fact that the system was used to meet local and international travellers not only in Pakistan but also in other countries. It aided me in the sense that I was able to evaluate the industry’s strengths and weaknesses based on the opinions of travellers. The preceding just looks at 1 year’s worth of findings, whereas my idea focused on the last 14 years. In addition, there are certain recommended solutions in my work that can assist improve the current situation of the travel business in Pakistan if they are considered by the government, Ministry of Tourism, PTDC, and even Pakistan’s neighboring countries.

Theoretical Background Positive and negative factors influence the tourism sector in Pakistan, determining its strengths and weaknesses. These elements are gathered through meetings and polls conducted by travellers in Pakistan and abroad, as well as information based on personal experience.

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Constructive Factors Vacationers travel to explore new places and things, such as different atmospheres, nature, societies, individuals, traditions, expressions, cooking techniques, languages, novel festivities, historic buildings and locations, and so on. Pakistan’s tremendous potential in the travel sector stems from the fact that it forces everything that might meet the needs of visitors. The types of travel industries in Pakistan are as follows:

Tradition Tourism Pakistan is home to some of the world’s most amazing ancient cities, including the “Indus and Gandhara human progress.” Historical centers Taxila, Mohenjo-daro, and Harappa, Mughal heritage and the silk route, Badshahi Masjid, Shalimar Gardens, Jahangir’s Tomb, and the Lahore Fort” and the amazing Mughal legacy in Punjab (Tourism in Pakistan, 2008). Religious/Spiritual/Pilgrimage Tourism Pakistan’s love and refuge centers are quite valuable. Not only Muslims from other nations visit Pakistan on a regular basis to visit the sacred blessed locations but also Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhists (Tourism in Pakistan, 2008). Social Tourism Apart from ancient sites and technical marvels created by Mughal emperors and British forefathers, Pakistani food and festivals are another fascinating aspect of the country’s diverse culture. Tourists are increasingly drawn to Pakistan’s food avenues because they may enjoy both local Pakistani cuisine and the colorful roadways and people shopping in the avenues at the same time. “Food road Gawalmandi and Anarkali in Lahore, Melody and Blue Area nourishment road in Islamabad, Burns Road in Karachi, and Ghanta Ghar in Peshawar Festivals” will in general give celebration, joy, and mental and physical refreshment to nearby individuals as well as travellers who accompany the point to investigate and appreciate various societies. Lok virsa mela, horse and steers shows, Basant or kite flying, Celebration of Lights Northern Region’s festivities including the well-known (Kalash festivals, Silk course celebrations), and so on are some of the well-known social activities and celebrations of Pakistan (Tourism in Pakistan, 2008). Wildlife Tourism There are around 14 national parks in Pakistan that provide an excellent view of the country’s diverse flora and fauna. There are also two safari parks featuring tigers, lions, monkeys, elephants, giraffes, pythons, feathered creatures, deer, and other species (Tourism in Pakistan, 2008). Athletic Tourism Pakistan is well-known as a sports holiday destination. The Himalayan range, which includes the world’s highest mountain ranges, necessitates both expert and general hiking. Wild pig chase in the deep woods, Shandur Polo matches, mountain biking,

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golf, ice climbing, rock climbing, snowboarding, skiing, giving in, and pot holding are some of the different activities available in the tourism business. For deer chase in Pakistan, wealthy folks and princes go from the Middle East (Tourism in Pakistan, 2008).

Negative Factors The points of view and assessments of family and all-inclusive visitors obtained via techniques of study and meeting are the negative factors impacting Pakistan’s tourism industry. As shown by the tourists, the most worrisome issue they are facing when travelling is security concerns, which harkens back to Pakistan’s current uprising. Even family vacationers would prefer not to go within their own nation. The second source of visitor dissatisfaction is the bad image of Pakistan projected by the media to the rest of the globe. Nonappearance of system; lack of limited time courses of action; insufficient vacationer’s organizations and workplaces; nonattendance of action by concerned government offices; insufficient data and staff preparation in the transportation industry; harmony situation, particularly in high excursion goal districts; inadequate establishment workplaces; nonappearance of inspiring powers in outperforming and changing administrations and associations inside the nation (army control); as well as a fast growth rate are the main factors that have rendered Pakistan’s transportation industry ineffective. The Ministry of Transportation does not anticipate adequate jobs, and tourists have difficulty obtaining useful visas and other information. The movement business masters must concentrate on this division, as it is the main zone that may substantially contribute to the desperation enabling and boosting the wants for everyday solaces of the close by arrangement.

Complications in Tourism Industry Nonavailability of Tourism Body In June 2011, the Federal Ministry of Tourism was declared illegal by the eighteenth amendment to Pakistan’s Constitution. This has left a void for a national evaluation of the movement business segment’s efforts. There are various issues in the travel industry that can be resolved specifically by the legislature, such as improving the country’s image abroad, understanding the difficulties in issuing visas to tourists, dealing with the country’s security situation, and maintaining a high standard of significant worth and organization in the travel industry.

Low Priority of Tourism Sector The travel sector segment has received little attention from the government or the general public, despite its great importance to Pakistan’s economy and people. This is also supported by the 2015 movement and travel industry intensity report,

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which gave Pakistan a score of 120 in terms of movement and travel industry prioritization (WEF, 2015), which dropped to 122 in 2017 (WEF, 2017), and a score of 123 in terms of travel and travel industry encouraging circumstances (WEF, 2015).

Protection of Tourists Pakistan is fighting a true fear-based oppression problem that is wreaking havoc on the global tourist sector. Pakistan joined the fight against fear mongering after the 9/11 attacks in the United States. Because of the fight against fear mongering, the country has suffered enormous human and financial suffering. Fear mongering had a serious impact on the travel sector, which weakened the foundation. Pakistan is seeing a drop in tourism sector activities as a result of fear mongering and an outdated framework. The fear mongering attacks have a significant impact on the travel industry’s operations (Henderson et al., 2010). Remote travellers avoid visiting countries with a terrifying domain due to psychological persecution. Exact study in a number of countries reveals a detrimental link between tourism sector activities and fear mongering (Chen & Noriega, 2004). The safety and well-being of travellers are critical for the growth of the tourism sector and the national image. The country’s peace situation is perhaps the biggest impediment to the growth of the tourism sector. The awe of fear-based oppression is growing in our everyday lives. Fear-based oppression has not only rendered people’s lives meaningless, but it has also cast a bad image of the country throughout the world (Seddighi et al., 2001). In Pakistan, psychological warfare has a significant negative influence on the travel sector, both in the short and long term (Raza & Jawaid, 2013). One of the key challenges for the development of the country’s tourism sector is the country’s uncommon peace and well-being. The travellers are fearful and have no inclination to monitor the areas where security forces are stationed on streets and in metropolitan areas. In a few cases, security officials reside in accommodations that are indistinguishable from those of tourists, and they believe they are in grave danger. The tourists are perplexed as a result of these factors.

Complications in Getting Visas Visitors were unable to get visas for Pakistan without difficulty due to the country’s fragile security and geopolitical situation. When travellers enter Pakistan from India, this problem becomes more acute.

Deprived Coordination Among Departments Various offices, such as ranger service, condition, natural life, parkways, and so on, are associated with the travel industry segment. Every single one of them is laboring in despair, unable to establish connections with tourism. As a result, several

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opportunities for the travel industry’s development and opportunities for monetary gains have been squandered.

Private Sector Contributions The tourism industry foundations require a lot of money to grow, and getting these funds is difficult for the government to come up with. The greatest option is to keep working on getting the private sector to engage in tourism industry development projects. For this to happen, a supervisory structure is required that may depict the capacities and responsibilities of both partners, such as open and private portions. There is currently no mechanism in place that can attract private sector investment in the travel business.

Ineffectiveness of Tourism Institutions Tourism management is the responsibility of provincial governments and federal territories. Each province/federal territory has its own tourism department or cell, such as the “Tourism Development Corporation of Punjab (TDCP), Tourism Corporation of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (TCKP), Sind Tourism Development Corporation (STDC), Culture Tourism and Archives Department Balochistan, Tourism Department Gilgit-Baltistan, and AJ&K Tourism and Archaeology Department.” These organizations lack the capacity to promote and research innovative growth, archaeology, and local culture/traditions, as well as the skills to do so.

Nonavailability of Criteria and Certifications At the moment, hotels and restaurants are not following accreditation requirements or understanding the nature of their administrations. Star systems are supposed to be used in the nation’s accommodations to control the quality of services; however, in reality, these criteria aren’t used. The execution of laws is highly important in order to preserve the rules of lodgings, travel organizations, and tourist guides in order for the travel sector to function properly. The following demonstrations are included under the laws: the Pakistan Tourist Guides Act of 1976, the Travel Agencies Act of 1976, and the Pakistan Hotels and Restaurants Act of 1976 are all examples of legislation passed in Pakistan. In other administrations associated with the travel business, such as transportation, there is also poor execution of criteria and confirmations. The cars hired by travellers lack a health accreditation framework as well as a standard of transportation rates among various destinations.

Lack of Proper Marketing and Promotion Pakistan may not be able to establish itself as a world-renowned tourism destination with prestigious holiday locations. One of the primary causes is the failure to devise

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a well-thought-out advertising and promotion plan for local and worldwide media. Because of a lack of expertise and a sufficient shop piece, travel industry professionals recognized that travel industry exposure was complex and unskillful and the entire showcasing endeavor was bad. Pakistan has not had the opportunity to build a successful brand for its tourism industry attractions in the last six decades, as having rich regular, noteworthy, archaeological, and social resources. These objectives can help Pakistan tourism develop a brand fast and effectively. The great majority of countries on the world have successfully marketed their tourism attractions, for example, Indian travel industry experts have created a brand for India called “Amazing India.”

Adverse Image One of the most notable aspects for advertising attractiveness and maintainability of the tourism sector is the image of a country. This will attract explorers, and their visit and expenditures will support the country’s ongoing goals for gradual progress (Adventure Travel Trade Association, 2010). Because of security concerns in Pakistan, the world’s media painted a bad picture of the country. Despite the fact that peace concerns sometimes arise in some parts of the country, they are significantly different from what is recognized. This unfavorable image is a significant barrier to international travellers visiting Pakistan, as well as discouraging local tourists from visiting. Broad communications may play an important role in projecting a favorable image of Pakistan throughout the world. This training will attract more individuals to the country’s diverse areas and communities. The media has the ability to profoundly influence public opinion and modify people’s perceptions.

Nonexistence of e-Tourism Despite the fact that the e-travel business is a booming IT tourism hybrid industry all over the world, it still lacks a sufficient presence in Pakistan’s tourism industry. Despite the fact that a few global e-travel industry specialist cooperatives, such as TripAdvisor and Expedia, are successfully offering types of assistance in Pakistan, there is a gap for a local speculator or a start-up to provide a privately worked startto-finish answer for the curious outside as well as nearby voyagers. Despite the fact that the advent of Internet-based living has contributed to a greater awareness of Pakistani travel aspirations both locally and globally, a systematic strategy to data streamlining is still lacking. Because the hospitality industry is linked to the type of administration it provides to its customers, it must find ways to maintain and improve this experience. The lodging segment is modifying its strategy in several ways, one of which is via innovation. Because of the comfort and increased options that it provides to clients, the use of innovation in the lodging industry is critical. Clients may order food and reserve a hotel room, among other things, with simply a few clicks. From the perspective of

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many lodging organizations, innovation is a means of attracting more customers to its various administrations, which include travel and the travel sector, as well as recreation.

Online Site A few new businesses have successfully emerged on the web-based business market in Pakistan, thanks to the Internet stage allowing them to distribute their organizations through media other than the traditional physical store. These businesses provide improved online search tool options on their websites, which can improve the quality of their customers’ experiences. Additionally, these new firms’ online journals and counsellors prove to be quite useful in educating clients on many topics. Cell Phone Application Individuals involved in the cordiality field all across the world have benefited from technological advancements. Individuals may not only order food from their favorite cafés, but they can also book lodgings by just touching on their phones. Aside from websites, businesses have launched applications to assist customers. Extranet Application The cutting-edge technology selects spins to ensure that all partners are in the same location. This is due to the fact that it enhances customer loyalty and the overall worth of the method. As a result, it must ensure that all of its inn’s associates are on the same page.

Insufficient Usage of Information Technology The majority of the travel industry’s promotion foundations have confirmed their actuality on the web via their websites. Because they lacked administrations for online data about accommodations, visitor aids, and transportation, their sites were unable to meet the demands of travellers. There is a requirement to provide comprehensive Internet travel industry exposure for the study of country places and the attraction of tourists.

Ineffective Participation in Global Tourism Support at international fairs is an important tool for the nation’s tourism sector to grow. In terms of the viability of advertising and marketing to attract tourists, Pakistan is ranked about 125/136 (WEF, 2017). On a global scale, the devotion to fairs is not very strong. Furthermore, the persons chosen for delegations are frequently unimportant in the tourism business. India, our neighbor, is pushing the growth of the tourism industry sector by attending fairs and presentations all over the world.

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Decrepit Tourism Structure Structure is necessary for attracting explorers to the movement business. Air terminals, road access, road transportation, railroad lines, flights, organizations, bistros, comfort workplaces (lodgings, motels, and youth hotels), visit chairman, excursion destinations, and stores are all important components of the structure. The area is less developed, with unique guest spots, a reasonable pace, roadside organizations, boarding and lodging organizations, and individual by walking sites. Since the last two decades, virtually little effort has been made to develop new tourist attractions in the country. Since nearby tourists are being drawn in to see recently produced locations, new aims are becoming increasingly important for family units in the transportation sector. There are no suitable preparations in place to upgrade new visiting goals. The rapid improvement in and near explorer locations is unsuitable for regular land. The structure of the streets and railways has been significantly upgraded. Tracks/lanes for vacationer objectives must be repaired, as well as reclamations (Baloch, 2007a, 2007b).

Deficiency of Human Resource Development Because it is a service-oriented sector that demands skilled labor, the significance of human asset development and limit building is obvious in the travel industry division. Travellers are hampered by a lack of skilled personnel, as well as repercussions from the poor quality of services provided to visitors and difficulties with rule enforcement. In the nation’s travel business sector, there is a lack of a unified method for ensuring the arrangement of gifted human assets. At the moment, notable colleges in the open region do not provide degree-level courses in the tourism sector or inn management. In any case, some private universities and colleges provide endorsement and postgraduate level courses with very poor standards in any event. Two organizations, for example, the College of Tourism and Hotel Management in Lahore and the Pakistan Institute of Tourism and Hotel Management in Karachi, provide short courses in board development and cheerfulness, but they fall short of meeting overall quality requirements (Rana, 2015).

Proposals for Tourism Development Enforcement of Law and Order Harmony and security of persons in the target economy are one of the most important aspects of the travel industry’s development. The travel sector is heavily reliant on peace and stability across the world (Pizam & Fleischer, 2002). Financial prudence and legal rules are the consequence of a political monetary framework in the target economy that protects health and entices foreign visitors, which in turn impacts financial activities in the country. The government should ensure that vacationers

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have a safe environment when travelling and visiting points of interest, so they may enjoy their time off without worry. Extraneous requirements for the development of foreign tourists might be eliminated, and a controlled instrument could be developed to ensure the timely distribution of grants for hiking, climbing, and other travel-related no-protest authentications. The federal and state governments should play a critical role in reducing psychological warfare exercises in order to promote travel industry exercises in the country, which will result in an increase in travel industry pay. The nation’s peace situation would improve as a result of the “Zarb-e-Azb and Radd-ulFasaad” operations against oppressors who operate on the basis of terror.

Health Services The human services offices available in a country have a major influence on people’s wellness, because a healthy neighborhood population is more likely to be able to start new businesses and properly maintain existing ones (Adventure Travel Trade Association, 2010). The current health-care systems must be improved, and mobile medical clinics/dispensaries should be set up at tourist areas to provide tourists with information about their health risks.

Capacity Building for Tourism-Associated Employees Project preparation should be accelerated in order to prepare aides and watchmen. To provide prepared assistance to guests, visit administrators must use prepared aides and doormen. They should be able to converse in Urdu and English languages in order to assist the visitors as trustworthy aids. To increase the limit of the branch of the trip industry’s personnel, visit and lodging administrators, trekking organizations’ legitimate, aides, and watchmen, limit building preparation programs for quality confirmation should be done (Baloch, 2007a, 2007b). A customer relations training program is also overseen by officials from the Department of FIA, Customs, and the Air Force Security Force in order to enhance the services provided to visitors by these departments. NGO conservation groups like as the WWF and the IUCN may also collaborate with their partners to provide short-term awareness training programs on current preservation concerns for guides, watchmen, and others (Ahmed, 2003).

Formation of Code of Conduct Despite the fact that everyone enjoys looking at a large number of guests, no one enjoys looking at piles of waste at camp areas, as well as plastic jugs behind inns, trees being cut down, toilet issues, paper being strewn alongside tracks, residents being upset with guests for dressing inappropriately, and trekkers quarrelling with

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aides and doormen over wages. In the case that questions arise, implicit rules might be developed to resolve them. When travellers believe that conflicts are likely to occur in tourist areas, they avoid going there, regardless of how beautiful the area is.

Elevation from Media Right now, it is important to promote the key features of vacationer aims and social importance, such as conferences and celebrations, in order to attract both domestic and international travellers. As a result, it is critical to discover and employ practical techniques for dispersing channels in order to promote the uniqueness of prospective visitor goals. Different TV stations, radio stations, print and electronic media, handouts, websites, shows, and symposiums are the most ideal instruments for exposing the aims (Buhalis, 2000). In today’s world, the Internet has become the most effective tool for marketing travel-related products. To attract international travellers, Pakistan government offices/high commissions in other countries may also play an important role in advancing the tourism sector. In these, contact offices might be set up to provide visitors with information on visas, aims, and other requirements. Furthermore, because they are in touch with them for the arrangement of administrations to deal with vacationers’ itinerary items for a particular purpose, common travel industry offices may seek assistance from residential and international visit administrators to advance the travel industry. The administration officials of the travel industry divisions should also attend national and international meetings and presentations in order to develop the travel business. The use of mottos in promoting traveller aims is quite important. Diverse slogans can be used to entice visitors to visit various destinations (Arshad, 2015). On the 27th of September, World Tourism Day should be celebrated with zeal at the federal and state levels. This will also help to raise awareness and enhance knowledge about the importance of the travel sector among the general public. The administration should place a high priority on the travel business. Our administration should make use of platforms such as ASEAN and SAARC member countries, which would be regarded a commendable step forward in the tourism sector. In order to determine the true value of the tourism sector, lawmakers should consider its long-term positive impacts on individuals rather than judging it just on the basis of specified financial criteria. It should be noted that the travel business is not a common field that may flourish; rather, it is as basic as other mechanical components. In order to display the aims, further study on visitor demands and advancement is necessary. Pakistan has tremendous potential in the strict travel industry; as a result, the government and local governments should devise strategies to advance the strict travel industry on the planet, as well as develop plans to safeguard strict locales and provide warmth and services to tourists visiting sacred sites. This will help to create a favorable image of the country.

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Specialized Education and Skills Development A tourism destination is a collection of disparate elements that incorporates the benefits of several partners. As a result, all things considered, the involvement of travel industry professionals who have the capacity to manage and deal with the goals is necessary. The aim should not just be a geographic region but also a perceptual notion, which may be accomplished by a variety of factors such as visitor education (Buhalis, 2000). In this sense, both the goal administrators and the sightseers require guidance. In the country, there are no specific training offices for the travel sector. Only a few institutions offer expert-level degree programs in the travel industry across the board. It is critical that the administration expands the number of educational institutions that provide training for CEOs in the tourism sector. The planning projects should be launched on a regular basis to ensure that the authorities working in the travel industry offices have access to the most up-to-date information and are able to enhance their skills. Trainings in other countries may also be arranged to share experience with various countries about the travel industry’s trends and the board. New courses should be introduced at the college level to educate students about the importance of the tourism sector. Visit administrators act as frontline advisors for visitors, allowing them to be well-prepared and provide the best service possible (Arshad, 2015).

Tourism Infrastructure Development There are two types of framework in the travel industry: harsh and sensitive. The hard foundation consists of streets, airports, and housing offices, while the delicate framework consists of historical and cultural data, trail maps, suppliers, ground administrators, and training programs for travel industry workers such as vacationer guides, reporters, and so on. Hard frameworks may need a large investment for longterm development, whereas sensitive foundations necessitate only a little investment for long-term development (Adventure Travel Trade Association, 2010). According to Khan and Rasheed (2016), foundation is one of the most important components for travellers, and the travel business is inextricably linked to it; a 1% increase in framework results in a 1.76 percent increase in the travel industry. Better infrastructure is a huge draw for visitors who want to see different parts of the country. Access to better areas and distant territory that is mutually agreed upon increases the confidence of travellers to visit that country. The framework of a travel industry bundle, such as street and air terminal frameworks, improves the congeniality of various aims to visitors. An appealing correspondence foundation is suitable, as it allows for quick and practical communication between the tourist and the target country. It also provides the most up-to-date information about traveller destinations, reducing uncertainty, anxiety, and incorrect information. The vitality framework is also thought to be a crucial component in increasing target attraction. In Pakistan, the framework has been substantially impacted by political disturbing forces. Political leaders should prioritize strengthening the foundation and promoting a positive

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image of the country across the world. Another important aspect of the tourism business is travelling to various visitor destinations quickly and safely. The host nation’s structure must be meticulously organized for this purpose. Railway lines, air terminals, roadways, seaports, correspondence offices, shipping offices, and housing administrations should all be included. The earthquake in 2005 caused extensive foundation damage in a number of tourist destinations. Due to a shortage of resources for the restoration of the tremor-damaged areas, the administration had certain difficulties in improving the framework and tourist facilities. Furthermore, the fight against fear-based tyranny is consuming a significant portion of the country’s budget. Power outages, insufficient gaseous gasoline supply to automobiles and houses, and a lack of basic travel industry services are all regarded components of a bad travel industry framework. Pakistan’s air transport foundation is ranked 99th out of 136 countries on the globe. The quality of the air transportation structure is 90/136, which is also not very good. Because of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), most of the present street infrastructure will be upgraded, new roadways will be constructed, and the energy infrastructure will also be enhanced. This will enhance the country’s travel sector operations.

Strategy Preparation and Implementation The importance of strategy development for any division is self-evident. The entire development activity may become clamorous and haphazard if a precise layout and specifically defined locations are not provided. The travel industry’s undertakings were shifted to commonwealth governments in Pakistan Constitution’s eighteenth amendment. This division has been granted a low level of necessity. Directly, all common travel industry groups are crippled due to a lack of assets, incapacity, and a lack of concern on the part of the legislation. Apart from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), most of the districts are unable to establish unified travel industry framework. The current administration in KPK has placed a high priority on the travel business. The government saw it as a key driver of economic growth, and as a result, KPK is now a popular travel destination for both domestic and international travellers. In March 2015, the KPK legislature proposed its first strategy for the tourism sector in order to achieve this goal. This plan was developed after consulting with the most important open and private sector partners. The main goal of this plan was to establish KPK as a popular tourist destination for both national and international visitors and to increase the visitor rate by 10% in the next 5 years. In addition, the legislature wanted to strengthen the private sector’s venture, advance the nature of labor, and provide a framework for ensuring the quality of travel industry services provided by suppliers. The legislature went through with a desire for open private association in order to draw in speculations from the private sector in the accommodation and travel industries (Rana, 2015). Administrations should create expansive travel industry strategies containing financial focuses on travel industry development, advancing the contribution of open and private areas, venture arrangements, and rules and guidelines with respect to sightseers and the travel industry for a fundamental advancement of the travel industry division. The primary objective of

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the travel industry’s development should be to increase its contribution to the economy and society. It necessitates proper management of the travel sector as one of the economy’s major divisions. Unwanted consequences occur from bungled or mismanaged improvements in the travel sector, rather than advantages. In this regard, proper travel industry concepts and their practical implementation are extremely appealing for expanding the travel business. Because of its potential for attracting remote commerce, providing business opportunities, and generating revenue, each legislator recalls the tourism sector as a source of development incentive. The capital need for the travel industry’s development is such that outside investment will be essential as often as feasible. The legislation should provide incentives to attract outside investors to invest in the tourism sector. There is also a need to establish a foundation for promoting local interests in the tourism sector (ESCAP, 1991). Pakistan has a poor ranking on the world in terms of travel industry offices and security; as a result, the government must take steps to rebuild trust. To assist the country’s travel sector, the legislature should develop suitable ways by involving common travel industry divisions. This section provides opportunities to meet new people in the area and will help to raise expectations for everyday conveniences. The growth of tourists will support the other business groups, allowing for a dynamic trade.

Upgradation of Standards As evidenced by the most recent changes throughout the world, the structure of lodgings might be updated with the participation of the International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IH and RA). The national government may also host conferences in collaboration with the IH and RA to inform global hoteliers about new initiatives.

Protection of Beaches Beaches around Karachi, such as Sumiani and Manora, are currently heavily polluted and densely inhabited. The legislature should develop a mechanism to regulate pollution through legislation. If fast action is not taken to save these seashores, newly settled seashores in Gwadar and Pasni may face a similar dire situation in the future.

Public and Private Sector Collaboration The development of the travel industry necessitates enormous funds, which the open market alone cannot provide; hence, open private collaboration is critical for the expansion of a decent travel business in Pakistan. Private partners should be involved in the planning, implementation, and execution of travel industry strategies for goal management. The government should also provide incentives to the private sector, such as interest-free loans.

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Technology Revolutionizing Hospitality and Tourism in Pakistan The travel sector segment has grown to become a pillar of the Pakistani economy in recent years, owing to political collaboration, social transformation, and far-reaching advances in innovation, both in interchanges and foundation. This article examines a few of the major concerns related to innovation and progress, as well as their impact on home travel and the travel industry in general. The traveller’s booking system includes the following steps: (a) online bookings, (b) local travel agents, and (c) road trips. “Advancement” and “innovation change” have begun to occupy a particular place among the repeating sequence of representative phrases that have become some fraction of international travel industry discourse, and they are probably likely digging in for the long haul. It’s hardly surprising, given how important both are for increasing company and goal seriousness, as well as, all things considered, improving traveller comprehension. ICT has recently made significant gains in terms of availability and processing power. It is also self-evident that the development of broadband is perhaps the most important test of the twenty-first century, one that, if passed, would put an end to the “plague of separation” that prevails in many parts of the globe. This will get us closer to the more equal and robust society that we desire, in which Internet connection really becomes a resident’s right and contributes to democratization and the expansion of resident cooperation skylines. Simultaneously, the “brilliant world” in which we live is becoming more amiable, giving clearer arrangements that serve to save time and money, and opening new approaches toward the personalization of products and services in a constant process of development. Despite its many differences, the globe in which we live provides a vast area for building travel, since several barriers that used to prevent or delay global travel are gradually disappearing. Today’s travel industry action is increasingly being shaped by value analysis and mix innovation; new mobile applications that offer a diverse range of opportunities are being developed; interpersonal organizations are solidifying themselves within an increasingly simple market in which residents can offer various types of assistance together; and changes in the value chain concept are being delivered. As a result, change is becoming increasingly apparent and consistent, much like the open doors it is creating. The three challenges for the travel sector are the following: first is to get a better understanding of the underlying patterns that influence supply and demand. Second is to keep track of changes in the external environment while continuing to develop at a similar rate. Third is to improve the ability of travel industry organizations to respond to requests by developing ways that better coordinate various interests while taking into account the full extent of a goal’s latent potential. Finally, we have no choice but to understand and oversee change, as well as to implement the development that occurs as a result of societal shift. We must commit to ensuring that change aids in the development of a superior, increasingly available, increasingly complete, increasingly inventive, increasingly desiring travel sector founded on a solid belief in morality and social union. As a result, the tourism business will continue to be a movement of aspirations and social opportunities for a long time.

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Conclusion The tourism sector is regarded as the bedrock of every country’s economy. On a global scale, it is evolving into a massive money-making enterprise. Pakistan is regarded as a country of extraordinary beauty, with breathtaking scenery, lush green valleys and mountains, unusual blue seas, and vast deserts. Pakistan has a diverse range of attractions with excellent aims to attract tourists, but it has been unsuccessful in growing its tourism sector. The significant economic influence of the tourism sector on the country justifies the need for citizen participation. The travel industry’s development is influenced by the country’s economic development, which is revealed by the foundation of framework, such as travel industry resorts. The legislature should take efforts to open doors to job, income, and pay age for local residents through monetary exercises in order to boost the tourism sector. The legislature should support the travel sector in the development of critical infrastructure, such as roadways, airports, and a strong car system, as well as the implementation of tax incentives for hoteliers and other travel-related companies. The government should also ensure the safety and security of visitors (both foreign and domestic) and develop cost-effective travel industry policies to ensure the country’s tourism sector remains stable (Khalil et al., 2007). Pakistan’s history, diversity of civilizations, geo-key location, and beautiful terrains provide tremendous opportunities for the tourist sector. Pakistan has four types of prospective tourist industries: strict tourism, archaeological tourism, experiential tourism, and ecotourism. Regardless, the country’s mind-boggling travel business potential has yet to be realized. The government should also ensure the safety and security of visitors (both foreign and domestic) and develop cost-effective travel industry policies to ensure the country’s tourism sector remains stable (Khalil et al., 2007). Pakistan’s history, diversity of civilizations, geo-key location, and beautiful terrains provide tremendous opportunities for the tourist sector. Pakistan has four types of prospective tourist industries: strict tourism, archaeological tourism, experiential tourism, and ecotourism. Regardless, the country’s mind-boggling travel business potential has yet to be realized. Right now, given the current atmosphere, it is critical to fully use all of Pakistan’s many tourism attractions. Items and civilities that are excellent, real, and unmistakable should be presented. Our emphasis on the travel sector will only be apparent if we can provide sustained profit for those who are involved and secure the capital required to continue developing our products. To protect the travel industry’s most valuable commodity and ensure the business’s continued success, the travel industry sector must play a key role in modifying and enhancing the situation. Networks and visit administrators must form a fantastic partnership and acknowledge one other’s contributions. Solid collaboration between the administrative, common, and neighborhood governments, private divisions, and other interested groups is required to achieve the essential goals. Pakistan is seen to be losing out on the benefits of the travel sector at the moment. The following are the positive steps that the Pakistani legislature must take to advance the travel industry and increase the confidence of local financial specialists, as well as domestic and international travellers: first, the government must ensure the security of guests/vacationers by eliminating fear-based

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oppression. The altered legal situation will undoubtedly change Pakistan’s image and encourage visitors to visit. Second, the government should enhance the transportation infrastructure, which includes roadways, airports, and trains, as well as tourist attractions. Third, the government should use social media to publicize all meeting locations in order to attract attendees. Finally, a private–public collaboration might be used to catch more speculators. This appears to be the most effective approach to keep this industry from further deteriorating and achieving the most extreme points of interest in terms of budgetary profit and job opportunities. The tourism sector has the potential to become one of the most important drivers of economic recovery and development, and Pakistan’s strategy should take this into consideration.

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Challenges of Using Technology in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biometric Tourist Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5G Internet Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instrument Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relevancy of the Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Collection and Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion, Limitations, and Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Traveling is still revolving around the meaningful human interaction, among people, stakeholders, and the tourists. These tourists visit to sites through the travelers as technological advancement proves to be facilitative than creating impediments. The incident of evocative development of change in the traveling around the globe is because of increase businesses interdependence and the client’s adoption of technologies. It is also meeting the expectations of tourists and improving operational efficiencies. Further the movement of the tourism industry is continuous with the increase use of technology where commentators have categorized this transformative power in various categories. From the availability of the Internet to the digital divide and provisions of online cabs, there are compelling arguments about the presence of such amenities that boost K. B. Center for Policy Studies, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan M. Alam (*) Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_40

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the services of technology for exploring avenues in the tourism sector. As technology and tourism are accelerating in the same stride, their services can develop a shifting impact on many important facades of developing countries. In this regard, the well-thought-out study while using technology in tourism industry in Pakistan employed survey approach to deepening the knowledge about role of tourism in integrating resources and exchange services. The approach used is convenient for searching power tools of completing the tourism destinations. It shows the application of effective scientific knowledge of technology that is influential in maintaining the tourism discord. However, the challenges reflect those disparities are still existing in excess of the technology-based services, operative use of informatics, and the skills pertaining to computing devices. The potential of tourism industry in Pakistan is acknowledged and well supported by reputable organizations/stakeholders connected with this industry. It is recommended that employing the technological tools in the industry would be a positive use in tourism sector would be positive recipient for actors and services belongs to the industry. This will also reshape the digital tools and their valuable services for reducing the challenges of the hospitality and integration of technology into the tourism sector. Keywords

Tourism · Technology · Challenges · Communications

Introduction The technological development and tourism are closely connected for the exponential growth that has taken place in both areas over the last 50 years (Li et al., 2017). This shows the impact of information and communication technologies on the development of global tourism, which has changed business practices and development methods (Ukpabi & Karjaluoto, 2017). The world is incorporated into three new systems that have a major impact on tactical and strategic business levels, computer booking systems, international distribution systems, and the Internet (Xiang, 2018). The change and use of technology in tourism are seen in three directions, including fundamental changes in existing industries, the growth of new industries, and the promotion of new market growth (Huang et al., 2016). Industries that are not directly related to new technologies are in the process of upgrading technology and telecommunications equipment, Internet search engines, and broadcasting capabilities (Dadwal & Hassan, 2015). Thus, the speed of computer communication affects the population of people worldwide using technology to plan their travels (Swart et al., 2019). Customer support or customer communication in the form of conversations or interviews with system information collects a large number of goals (Navío-Marco et al., 2018). This is done to evaluate and change interested customers and present them in a way that allows customers to make better choices of traveling and reaching over the

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destination (Beed & Sarkar, 2017). Tourism and technology are inter-linked subjects with continuous growth from the last five decades. However, there are certain challenges for countries adopting technology in lieu of tourism. Especially the developing world is predominant in the advancement of their tourism industry (Adukaite et al., 2016). Travelers who were reluctant to work with the immigration department wanted to complete an appropriate search and select the best priced customers (Manzoor et al., 2019). Shipping and customer records are the same and can be used without consulting another representative (Drosos et al., 2017). The facility allows visitors to access their site through a website or technology application. This is a technology that has many ways to enhance the experience of flying or texting (Kim & Kim, 2017). And again, these would mean that you have to spend money for these processes and for many other airlines and hotels that offer such a reliable place plan (Khatri, 2019). Outside of these resources, programs, and websites, trust allows program members to monitor their status. In Pakistan there are challenges which include the individual supplier websites, third-party booking sites, and online travel publications that make available information, reviews, and cost comparisons for travel products, including transportation, accommodation, excursions, and car rentals (Pai et al., 2018). These facilities are not being modernized, and in some cases, they are completely absent. For example, travelers typically receive boarding passes when physically visiting, while travelers cannot check in for their flights online and print boarding passes from their computer (Melkić & Čavlek, 2020). However, these days, travelers can simply add the airplane pass to their tech phone wallet and skip the printing process. Likewise, apps like Airbnb connect travelers directly with homeowners and others through temporary rental space, bypassing traditional services like hotels or some customizable, interactive maps (Scarles et al., 2016). Google Maps and similar online map systems now allow user input where you can add your favorite restaurants, museums, and other travel sites to the area map and even see sites added by your circle of friends, but this is very limited for tourism industry in Pakistan (Wang et al., 2016). In view of this, there are three research questions arising from this purpose as the aim of this paper is to point on new technology development on tourism industry challenges in Pakistan (Disztinger et al., 2017). The first research question is what are the technological challenges that can influence tourism industry in Pakistan? The second research question is how the recent development in technology is responded by stakeholders to utilize for maximum output in tourism industry? and the third and final research question is what are the differences between the current and the past travelers and their attitudes and satisfaction over the use of technology for tourism? This research is considering the literature that provides challenges in technology in tourism from existing works, the role of technology in terms of sustainability, and the current state of technology in tourism. He identifies how existing studies have expanded in terms of technology, customers, and sustainability. According to Honarzade et al. (2018), installing an information and management system allows individuals on group or individual guided tours to obtain the necessary information

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to visualize historical sites, architecture, and artifacts. This is useful for personal tours where travelers can download applications on their phone and have expert descriptions in the show, preferences, or museum area. Likewise, for group tours, you have to work hard to be strong and flexible. Pan et al. (2018) showcase the new technology that allows now the leader in microphone and delivery. When visiting green areas, the words of the guide are passed on to the members of the expedition wearing headphones and are regulated by reliable sources. This not only ensures that everyone listens to the guide but also allows tour members to move freely by listening to the guide. For applications Garrido-Moreno and Lockett (2016) show that telephone communication applications sometimes go wrong while traveling and it is essential to be able to communicate with people who can help, such as customer service representatives. Travel agencies use apps to provide or make a missed flight for travelers who need to book a new hotel. Here, the stations also use mobile apps, which can help customers correct problems with management so they can be ordered immediately. Xiang (2018) stressed that technology may move ahead of the downturn, as travel is already evolving in a number of new areas, including customer recognition or camera-based technology. Both can recognize the customer’s face as they enter your hotel, or Bluetooth systems can receive a signal from a familiar mobile phone. This can alert management that there is a visitor again in the house. Even robotic machines could use some of the cleaning and maintenance tasks previously done by the team, such as self-directed vacancies to keep things tidy. Researchers Ardito et al. (2019) found that the traveler welcomes the hug, and the full picture in the room may not be true. It can also be used to introduce visitors to local cuisine, even if you haven’t been there yet. Technology is significant for tourism which local, national, and international locations have a major impact on the environment, economy, and community. According to Shrestha and Jeong (2016), the WTTC’s annual research report and project submission the tourism and tourism industry are one of the main contributors to the world GDP. It has increased for 6 consecutive years from 2015, accounting for a total of 9.8% ($7.2 trillion) of GDP. The 2015 report also shows that the sector employs 284 million people, 1 of the 11 jobs in the world. Here, the company is usually a combination of two-wheeled motorcycles, as well as the largest tour operators in the tourism industry, popular hotel brands, airlines, recreation centers, and food imports. The base consists of two large-scale tourism enterprises as well as a small-scale tourism enterprise. The main differences according to Weaver and Moyle (2019) between the two bases are based on the infrastructural facilities, their management strategies, as well as their management information system. The extent and use of ICT explained in the field of IT and ICT has had a profound impact on the ways in which tourism businesses conduct their activities. Service standards have risen quite high and customers expect to be served 27/7 around the year and service is not confined to office hours (Lai et al., 2016). Since the birth of online portals, the travel business has revolutionized as these portals have successfully organized and distributed painful tourism to their customers. Font and

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Mccabe (2017) explain the insights into various hotel chains, theme parks, luxury trains, and certainly the leading airlines. All of these use information technology in order to reach customers and allow them direct access to their reservation system. The application of information technology or information and communication technology only helps these companies to better understand the needs of their customers and also helps them to offer freedom of choice. Information and communication are essential to the strategic management of tourism organizations. It allows expansion into a new market while empowering employees, reducing costs, and increasing turnover. Many uses of ICT/ICT in the field of travel and tourism have been combined with the idea of e-tourism which is the digitization of all operations. Buhalis and Yen (2020) provides the value chains in the tourism, traveling, hospitality that enable organizations to maximize their efficiency and success. E-tourism includes not only computer reservation systems but also a part of the wider tourism sector as well as the hospitality industry. Technology and travel include all business functions like e-commerce, e-marketing, e-finance, e-accounting, e-HR management, e-procurement, e-strategy, and e-management or planning. The challenges of e-tourism introduced the flight tracking system, as visual technology is used as well as travel management. Rahi et al. (2019) explored the problems and challenges in the technology of approaching tourism. As the global aviation software such as Plane Finder, radarbox24, Flight Stats.com are useful in tracing the activities of flights from across the world, the destinations are no more difficult to find. It includes the flight tickets, accommodation types, activities to get involved in, rental services and instead of choosing a package predefined is considered as packaging based on dynamism. Expandable sign language is based on very important techniques in travel and tourism. They support airlines in booking tickets, selling sales, or implementing additional services during the booking process. Another use of XML is to establish direct contact between airlines and travel agents and effective communication and facilitate tourists. To create a generally accepted XML standard, researchers Arshad et al. (2018) point out that the Open Axis Group was founded where CRM is known for its ease of handling and managing customer management relationships. It is an organization, not only for current tourists but also for future travelers. CRM helps to analyze database records and retrieve the history as needed (Nizam et al., 2020). This helps the company in understanding the needs of the customer and what to cater to. It plays a role in the retention of the customer by maintaining ideal business relationships with customers and ultimately driving sales progress. The audio tours are an interesting development in the world of Information technology’s integration into tourism. It is the pre-recorded message or commentary which includes the details of the places the tourist visits. Generally, this is fed into a handheld device with headsets; the commentary provides the background information and other context related to the place or destination. The devices are used in historical sites and museums, where audio tours are also available for outdoor tours at selected sites.

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Challenges of Using Technology in Tourism There are diverse challenges of using technology in the tourism sector both at domestic as well as national level (Dong et al., 2019). The developing countries like Pakistan are employing various tools but unable to get occupied with facilities of technology for tourists coming from various areas to visit specialized destinations (Haq & Medhekar, 2019). For example, the tour through GPS is pre-recorded audio translation of audio-like tours, including mobile devices for applications such as trains, walking tours, buses, and ATS or rickshaws (Nunkoo et al., 2020). It provides satellite technology for tourists to share relevant call information with them. This journey is available in multiple languages simultaneously and can be downloaded to mobile and allows sharing of my interests using data of multiple users. Various destinations in Pakistan required to be managed in accordance with the technological instruments and tools for facilitating tourists of multiple interests and background.

Biometric Tourist Facilities While using the technology in context of facilitating tourism in the areas, the biometric tools and facilities are the key consideration for online applications and people visiting from other destinations of the world (Rana & Bhatti, 2018). Easy achievement of getting passport through the electronic passport service includes biodiversity information that can be used to identify passengers. However, the disadvantage is the service it provides, the very low cost, and timely delivery. The passport, along with the personal information of the owner, analyzes the personality of the person. This can be fingerprinted, scanned backward, and can be signed using smart card technology, including a microprocessor and a microprocessor chip embedded in the front or back or middle passport. The procedures for online working and the biometric facilities in Pakistan are in progress at arrival of the tourists trying to reach their due destinations. This not only eased the business of tourism but also employed a live strategy to bring people. Challenges that may reduce the progress of biometric services can be curbed for presentation of better picture and advance technology use in Pakistan. Hypothesis 1 The technological tourism facilities are significant for increasing tourist and advancing the industry.

5G Internet Facilities These applications for easing traveling and tourism services are assisted by the availability of Internet with advancement of 5G Internet (Sharif et al., 2017). The travelers’ easy and safe transportation is available as they are involved in much of the exchange of valuable information, including quality assurance and planning. Community forums are part of the development of new travel and tourism travel sites

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and enable travelers to network with other travelers and share their experiences and stories (Asongu & Odhiambo, 2019). However, the challenges of 5G Internet are not all available in regions of southern and northern areas of Pakistan. Various reviews and feedback of the travelers give a realistic picture of the destination, and it is stressed for the immediate application and use of 5G Internet facilities. The need for Wi-Fi can be reduced through wireless connections where a traveler may be able to get the services done during the trip of certain destination. Similarly, for the visitors to move in areas difficult in range or having transport issues, the availability of cabs online is reflection of virtual tour (Assaker et al., 2020). Here the online media presentation represents a real location in the most realistic form as it is comprised of videos as well as still images and may include sound effects, text, music, or narration. In tourism industry the online cabs are famous and can effectively be connected with hotel chains. As the technology is cutting edge and developed through various connected systems like Global Positioning System service, GeoTagging, search based on location, and online mapping facility, it becomes easy and possible to reach the destination. There are other offers to the traveler at their respective travel destinations. Through the online cabs, the personal assistant in travel is yet another advancement which is revolutionizing the industry of travel and tourism in Pakistan. The availability of online transport is significant in facilitating tourists for moving from one destination to other. This can only be possible with the availability of advance Internet on the destinations that are considered key areas for tourists in Pakistan. Hypothesis 2 The availability of 5G Internet facilities at advance level is no more the prerequisite for making tourism an advanced service for visitors.

Digital Divide The traveling and tourism industry is not new to the idea of digital divide as challenges are posed for travelers to access information and easy communication (Chopdar et al., 2018). There is remarkable research that is still going on in this domain where scholars are of the view that access to technology is the main agenda that must be given due priority especially for enhancing tourist arrival. Again, the issue is the availability of infrastructure in IT and reduction in the communication gap. The idea of innovation in process/delivery and an organization that is most relevant with tourism firms has an advantage, while product innovation apparently is not quite as common a phenomenon in the target area (Adeola & Evans, 2019). Digital divide in tourism industry affects the change of internal strategies, rendering them more flexible to changes, helping them to adapt to the new needs of the business. Tourism is taken as part of an innovative strategy that has the potential to change processes of the industry in managing the tourist arrival. The common factor in tourism is the use of ICT enterprises which have changed the internal processes/delivery and innovation in the most important organizations for travel companies that has advantages, while product innovations do not seem to be

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widespread in the target area (Adeola & Evans, 2019). The digital divide in the tourism industry is influencing changes in internal strategies, allowing them to respond more flexibly to change and helping them to adapt to new business needs. As part of the innovation strategy, the tourism industry has the potential to change the industrial process of tourism management. A common factor in the tourism industry is the use of internally changed ICT companies, processes of sector within the broad ranging destinations. In Pakistan there are certain areas or the tourist’s sites that are still deprived of the infrastructure of Internet or the required facilities. These areas if given the due facility can contribute for excessive number of foreign or domestic tourists. The challenges of managing technology on these destinations should be given top priority of Pakistan in order to further the use of technology in tourism. Hypothesis 3 The accessibility of technological services in tourism at destinations is the real service for satisfaction of tourists.

Technology Enterprises The penetration of information and communication technology in the conventional travel and tourism sectors can reduce the market share and market penetration of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) (Hussain et al., 2018). Research by others shows that technology is used by companies to protect their tourism stakes and safeguard their position. There is real evidence of the positive impact of technology on the tourism market to effectively accommodate travel agencies and tourists. Newspapers dealing with the tourism industry have found that different types of sub-sector are important players in technology to reduce the challenges (Um & Chung, 2019). Technological tools and instruments are becoming a key determinant of competitiveness and productivity, which allows the tourism industry to increase its market share and boost its capacity to facilitate new inventions. However, the challenges are the bureaucratic services and official hindrances that create significant problems for developing a technology-based small business to support and facilitate the tourism industry in Pakistan. Without using the advance mechanized tools, such businesses would not be successful. This would also be a greater tool for advancing the common life of people associated with the tourist’s industry. Hypothesis 4 Small-scale tourism business is highly reliable on the use of advance tools and services in the shape of technology. For the analysis of technology use in tourism, there is significant use of online survey from the concerned stakeholders. Their contributions in the areas of analyzing the disparate tourism products, markets, and services are engrained with the effective responses (Rasheed et al., 2019). Tourism is actually an activity that involves many devices such as Internet facilities, 5G technology, and other complex

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elements that make it powerful. This can be considered as a test of tourism technology, as a comprehensive review of articles available on destinations (Dajani, 2016). The components and facilities of the visitor network include the products and services with which visitors buy/communicate. It includes many basic services (hotel, restaurant grocery store) and additional medicines (taxi gift shop). This includes public places (change management cultural inspection), or expansion includes beaches, culture, landscape, climate, hobbies , and other civilizations (Sheikh et al., 2017). Other facilities are part of the research and methodology used to collect data and to analyze those collections in a systematic and scientific way. The technological use of tourism includes direct use of these goods and services, requiring facilitators and tourists or buyers and sellers to come together to coordinate destinations either directly or through external agencies of traveling and tourisms (Benckendorff et al., 2019). Here the process follows the ownership of the object of the communications and accessible connections with hands changing according to the needs. The study considers technology use in tourism because it has three main tourism implications on the use of technology and the challenges that restrict the change process through technology. The first is the need for end users to penetrate different technological tools and techniques. The second factor is early hotel services, flight attendants, and tour operators which are complementary; using technology in a unique step is significantly effective. Reducing the “synergetic effect” of the technology on tourism, there is a framework which could present a general framework that could support tourism-related important decisions (Huang et al., 2020). The last implication of the technological use is the increase demand of tourism services and facilities in the developing countries with stable system and characteristics that are required in this era of digital development.

Instrument Development There is online survey conducted from the form the tourism departments and science and technology sector with key concern of this research. The questionnaire is developed with a Likert scale instrument, and technological categories are divided for each variable. Below is the sample presented for pursuing this research (Table 40.1).

Relevancy of the Participants The technology use in the tourism is an unexceptional idea for the global as well as domestic industries or the department. The wave of technology for tourism is beginning to uproot advancement in the system. The categories of the respondent against the variables and research objectives include the questions grounded on

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Table 40.1 Instrument development Description 1

2 3 4

Constructs Biometric tourist facilities 5G Internet facilities Digital divide Technology enterprises

Technological categories Identification of travelers

Question samples How do the facilities of biometrics identify the tourist’s movement?

Availability of speedy Internet Internet in specific areas Small tech business

Are the facilities of Internet paramount to tourists for effective communication? Are northern destinations and far-reaching areas covered in the Internet facilities? Is the spread of technology significant through the small business enterprises?

Source: authors’ development, 2020

variables followed by the research content and reflection of issues in the tourism. Further the participants incorporated through online resources are based on the qualification and experience relevant to the technology and its use in the tourism. The participant associated with the advancements in tourism interface and understanding their role in tourism-based administrations. The respondent behaves according to the research that reflects opinions on technology and tourism issues. Individuals with profiles that include age, technological education, involvement in science and technology, commitment to tourism, and research reminders should respond regularly and gradually. The participants are relevant to this study, especially answering the survey questions for sue of technology and the tourism development initiatives.

Data Collection and Sample For the response of questions, the data is collected from the tourism departments and science and technology institution with key stakeholders (Jeong & Shin, 2019). There is selection of the respondent in accordance with the formula of the William Gooden which was developed for sample calculations in 2004. The questionnaire is distributed among the 211 with return numbers of questionnaires are 185.The participants have independent view over the subject and key issues of the research. The research incorporated survey from the officials of the tourism department at federal and provincial level. For answering queries related to the technological perspective, there is distribution and development of the questions for Department of Science and Technology. Similarly, the officials of the inter-provincial coordination ministry are incorporated to collect the information regarding the utilization of technology by the federal tourism organization and those operating and managing destinations from their respective provinces. Further, the key stakeholders like the online service providers from immigration department are also considered to look into biometric facilities and answers required for the Internet facilities for the arriving tourist.

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Analysis of Data The challenges of the technology use in the tourism are comparatively higher than other issues of advancing tourism. Various reasons to this are the acceptance resistance, knowledge gap for training, and use of technological tools and the awareness. It is an analytical tool with accurate and compelling results for technical analysis and results of tourism issues (Sharma & Nayak, 2019). Consider tools including response and objectives, demographic variable frequencies, Pearson correlation model, and response analysis. The challenges of using technology in the tourism industry are based on data collected by the primary data collection method (Wang & Johnson, 2019). There is use of software and computational techniques applied for the desire response from concerned stakeholders (Pallant, 2020). Further, the data collection was interpreted by the data collection and analyzed through the standard and quantitative data for SPSS software (Lemenkova, 2019). The information collected is related to correlation, regression, and descriptive and regression analysis by predicting the impact of a variable on others, and the link is to look at the nature of the relationship between technology constructions use in tourism (Huang & Li, 2019) (Fig. 40.1). For analysis based on the technological model, there is use of correlation to see the nature and extent of relation among different variables (Varga, 2019). In SPSS computer software, this correlation is employed to support the understanding of connection between two specific variables for reaching at certain conclusion (Vaske, 2019). Here the amplifying the role of each variable has the reliability of GIF 0.674, DD 0.781, and TE 0.603 with number of items for each variable that are 6, 8, and 4. This study signifies 5G Internet facilities, digital divide, technology enterprises,

Technological Process

Biometric Tourists Facilities

Tourism

5G Internet Facilities

Technological Technology Tourism Analysis

Online Cabs

Technology Enterprises

Digital Divide

Fig. 40.1 of Technology use in tourism. (Source: authors’ development, 2020)

Tou ris m Infl uen cing Fac tors

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online cabs, and biometric tourists’ facilitations served as independent variables, while technology use in tourism acts as a dependent variable for the data analysis (Syazali et al., 2019). The investigation on the subject acknowledges the role of technology for the promotion of tourism against the manual using and considering other elements as important for challenges of tourism in Pakistan. There are impacts of technology use in the tourism development as it reflects the advance measures taken and considered for the industry to flourish. The objectives for which statistical tools are used in the study are focused on the advancement of industry by using technology tools and Internet facilities as available for the tourism industry. For understanding of relationship, the value of coefficient correlation “r” is calculated in the following ways: • If r is equal to
1, then there is perfect negative relationship among the variables. • If r is equal to 1, then there is perfect positive relation with the variables. However, if r possesses 0 value, then there is no relation between the two variables (Table 40.2). The values presented in the table have the mean value of 4.22 and standard deviation of 1.51. If the data is distributed in a normal way, then almost 82% values are between 4.42–1.51 ¼ 2.91 and 4.22 þ 1.51 ¼ 5.73, while almost 94% values fall between 4.22*1.51 ¼ 5.73. It shows that the results reflected in above table provided that the mean inter-item correlation of the factor/scale statements connected to technology use in tourism are higher and significant with such values as (mean 4.22, std. dev 1.51, N-185). It also shows that the mean inter-item correlation score on the all ten (24) factors/statements appear to satisfy the requirements of similarity and likeness. So, the items can be representative of the explicit tools and operations of technology in milieu of tourism. Correspondingly, the data analysis results are deliberated in accordance with the values which provided that results of the every one of the items on each scale were able to pay significantly ( p < 0.001) between the high and low scoring set. The research is answered well aligned with the representation of reliability of the questionnaire which is valid to incarcerate the present sample and data. Further the values are also the indication of the mean inter-item correlations of the all the factors/scales which were higher than the range of 0.15–0.50 mean 4.22, std. dev 1.51, with N-185. The result reflects the contribution

Table 40.2 Correlation study results Description Tech use tourism Biometric tourist facilities 5G Internet facilities Digital divide Technology enterprises Source: authors’ analysis, 2020

Mean 4.22 3.30 4.02 3.72 3.73

S. D 1.51 1.63 1.40 1.82 1.81

BTF

OC

GIF

DD

TE

1
0.063 0.068 0.089

0.320 0.063 0.061

1 0.069 0.231

1 0.078

1

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Table 40.3 Regression results of collected data

Description Model Residual Total

Technology use in tourism Biometric tourist facilities 5G Internet facilities Digital divide Technology enterprises Constant

Residual sum of squared 1772.371 15903.146 17675.521

Degree of freedom 11 16,285 16,287

MS 443.095 0.977 1.084

Coefficient 0.028

Stander error 0.007

t-statistics 3.44

Number of observation 210 F (4, 210) 473.70 Prob. >F 0.000 R-squared 0.61 Adj.R-squared 0.60 Root MSE 0.968 Confidence interval p value [95%] 0.000 0.011 0.045


0.009

0.008

2.08

0.276

0.020

0.007

0.493 0.486

0.013 0.014

6.86
7.86

0.000 0.001

0.372 0.370

0.427 0.428

0.189

0.058

4.24

0.201

0.827

0.317

Source: authors’ analysis, 2020

of each variable in determining the values that correlate with each other and subsequently contribute toward the research (Table 40.3). In the same way, there are mean inter-item correlation scores on all factors/ statements that appear to satisfy the requirements of resemblance in the questionnaire. The initiative coefficient (0.001) is less than 5 percent, and it provides us to reject the null hypothesis of no impact of the technology use in tourism or the challenges that hinder the technological tourism progress. There are the issues that restrict the technology implication. The implication shows that through these values, significant negative impact of 5G Internet facilities can be used and employed on various destinations. Further, the coefficient of online cabs
0.504 and 5G Internet facilities is at
0.009. Here the p value is less than 0.05 which is significant in showing the negative influences on the outcome variable because of zero progress in providing infrastructure and facilities of technology. Similarly, the value provided in the table for unstandardized coefficient biometric tourist facilities is 0.028 that means if the index of BTF value increases by 1, we are going to see the technology use in tourism as a dependent variable decrease with value of 0.028. Similarly, the interpretation for other variables provides that GIF, DD, and TE are increased by 1 unit or the number associated with dependent variable in the table. The standards and increase values for each variable connected with influence on technology use in tourism soft image are GIF 0.320, DD 0.078, and TE0.000. These positive values and the coefficient presented in the table have clearly mentioned the importance of technology for tourism. Further the results also provide much clarity about the challenges of technology in lieu of tourism. The challenges can be reduced or intervene using the effective use of technology for developing countries like

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Pakistan as shown in the tables where variables are contributing positively or negatively to the challenges under consideration. Despite the challenges and the barriers of technological application, certain facilities as provided in the above analysis reflect that for travelers ordering a plane ticket, booking a hotel, taking a taxi, or preparing detailed information about the destination, they can list all the services (Garay et al., 2019). In addition, it is easy to get anywhere with a travel guide, information, plans, and technology that includes all this information (McDonald et al., 2020). It is becoming more and more popular, simplifying content, as technology today has a large memory, and users can store all content related to their devices (Wibowo & Pratomo, 2020). In this case, the 473 document system can be updated. Instead of printing tickets, making hotel reservations, and checking copies of ID cards, you can save your entire phone and unlock it. By challenging people’s movements and using common language, people can usually find free managers to create and visualize landscapes. Various examples of victims of distribution policy, interest-free loans, biometrics, and other projects are given. These apps are designed to assist and assist citizens in disseminating and transmitting information about updates and updates. Various destinations have problems that can be resolved through the immediate communication and dispersion of technology for the tourists visiting to specific localities. Non-facilitating attitude is the challenge that generally disrupts the process of effective use of technology in the tourism sector. The technological applications also work like a wallet, each technology being an Internet payment from one area to another. Passengers should not worry about privacy if they invest or use e-money because all of these payment methods are the most important in all transactions, so with the most trusted software developers experience should be included in the code. During a visit to any place, a tourist cannot put unnecessary money in his pocket. This is because of the risk factors, and for that they will have to rely on an online payment system. The team as well as the reassurance work can be checked before starting its facilities. This is to ensure the facilities to meet the requirements of the tourists that challenge their movement and create problem of communication. Hypothesis 1 The technological tourism facilities are significant for increasing tourist, and advancing the industry is accepted. The Internet challenges can hinder improving the quality of services not only for travel agencies but also for travel companies can be disrupted. They collect information about trips, hobbies, favorites, contacts, and routes known as big data. Travel businesses can use this data to discover and implement policies that will attract more tourists and create leisure activities, such as acquiring a passport through an online evaluation and appraisal. The travel community can share their knowledge up to air ticket, train ticket, hotel reservation, quality of service, cost, when using any service. This is a great way to improve service quality by getting higher levels from end users and collecting messenger data, managing advertising and gaining customer attention. For this

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software, they can target the right travelers to show ads on the Internet, offer them to spend more on travel. Just as a customer reserves a ticket for a trip to destination A, the application software can connect that customer with a potential passenger of destination A. They can show an advertising program about saving photos, festivals, events. Hypothesis 2 The availability of 5G Internet facilities at advance level is no more the prerequisite for making tourism an advanced service for visitors is rejected. Such challenges can be reduced by creating Adamo Digital is a state-of-the-art technology development company or application integration if the application owner has additional resources. The services can be built under a single Traka, where passengers can pick up their convenient options, from flight time, flight provider, and hotel reservations to specific destinations. With a few clicks, travelers can complete their travel plans and be ready to enjoy their trip with many nice changes as well as the appearance of travel applications and technologies. The travel agencies can reduce the challenges by knowing the trends of travel technological application currently. There are various other software developed by the companies in lieu of the use in various departments and industries for minimizing their reliance on human or physical efforts. When visitors examine their demands, one of the benefits of employing such technology is the lowering of barriers. They assist tourists in making decisions from a variety of possibilities, for example. Hypothesis 3 The accessibility of technological services in tourism at destinations is the real service for satisfaction of tourists which is accepted. The all-inclusive program should contain all standard data, such as telephone number, website, hotel address, and proposed tourist map, to facilitate the flow of information. Again, the information needs to be constantly updated so that travelers always receive the latest requests. To confirm the purpose of the trip, the operation of advertising programs and technology may attract more tourists. Location identification and advertising can easily reach the right tourist, especially in the tourist area. In terms of content and even 4.0 technology, some popular places in Pakistan have no Internet connection or have anything to do with the traveler. You can easily view information offline, convince your customers not to use the Internet, and enjoy free time and limit the Internet for a short time during travel hours. Because of multilingualism, tourism events can attract foreign visitors. Still, tourists can choose to use their native languages to learn about the new cultures and countries aiding to help them understand the place. The digital divide, online cabs, biometrics, and 5G Internet facilities are some of the rare challenges faced by developing countries like Pakistan. These barriers should be removed through technological analysis where event calendar only always exists in every technological tool. Regular schedule and event information will help tourists have an idea to travel and enjoy local events, as well as promote tourist activities. There will be a positive impact as well as the conversion process where

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foreign travelers will have to change the local currency to stay abroad more easily through technology. There may be a demand for new destination maps and GPS to find directions by searching maps for destination directions. With this mapping and GPS capabilities, you can quickly reduce your app’s challenge by advising end users to reach their destination in the shortest amount of time. This shows that the ideal tech app needs to satisfy the passengers from the biggest to the biggest problems and increase their travel work. There are significant benefits and positive changes for both small businesses and tourists. New research is underway to analyze all the benefits and new trends in the emergence of travel and tourism applications, in context of technological use of tourism. Hypothesis 4 Small-scale tourism business is highly reliable on the use of advance tools and services in the shape of technology which is subsequently accepted.

Conclusion, Limitations, and Future Research Directions Based on the technological technology tourism challenges and analysis, the research has implied the use of technology in context of tourism, while seeing challenges for countries like Pakistan. IT has impact on competitiveness and on increased productivity, while it generally has a positive effect on increasing corporate tourists and trust (Haq & Medhekar, 2019). Efficient use of technology seems to promote innovation in tourism and believes that innovating is to launch new products/ services and improve or introduce new processes of online working. Similarly, tourism can increase the level of productivity, process innovation, and effective use of 5G Internet technology (Aman et al., 2019). Cabs that are online have influence on easing transport for people traveling from one side to other. The innovation is very different depending on the nature and demand of the tourists. The accommodation and residence have a great impact in the travel agency as they seem to promote an increase of tourists within the domain of technology (Niazi et al., 2019). However, there are certain challenges like the technological innovations, trend tracking, and new MS companies that influence the strongest evidence of tourism change or tourist destinations. In tourism, travel agencies seek to redirect their resources and skills to meet the needs of tourists, which guarantees more guarantees for communication. The development of information or technology has become more efficient, leading to the redevelopment of service methods and communication strategies for vendors and stakeholders through the website. The tourism industry is recognized as an important sector in developing countries and has been hit hard by the global and financial crisis in the wake of healthcare virus, and there is possibility of rapid response. Pakistan has potential in tourism. Thus, Pakistan can recognize tourism as a strategically important sector and facilitate its further developments.

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Among the better steps that this analysis provides to incorporate is the hotel information systems which are widely accepted in the electronic copy by tourists. In the Southern or Northern region of the country and especially in large and medium hotels, it is required. Further, the IT implementation and customization toward tourism with changes and travelers’ preferences will be determined with global and regional technological needs and issues. Such challenges create new opportunities and perspectives while considering the way of organization of travel due to strong influence of IT; there is an evident trend of less use of manual services of travel agencies on tourism. The effects of developing innovative tools are influencing more efficient placement of products of service providers in destinations, and it also affects new tendencies in choosing travel trips. The new motives, which are the precursors for the development of innovative products, are aiding the transformation of tourism and in travel intermediaries remains at the ownership standpoint. The advancement in data analytics is transforming the hospitality industry with the potential to enhance a hotel’s performance and offer detailed insight into preferences of travelers. The use of technological devices, social media, and advanced analytics continues to proliferate, and as online distribution channels become more accessible, technology is creating new opportunities for tourism to drive operating efficiencies and services. The progress and challenges of technology for most of the countries are significant as they are using information technology very effectively to promote tourism services. The online visa, online passport, hotel booking, airline and cabs booking, and other services are now common features of most of the web portals. However, the challenges of tourism remain there for developing countries. The websites provide a one stop solution to interested visitors to get all the information and facilitation they are required before leaving their home with realistic priorities that must be set by the data using free. Touching into the new millennium, the competitive technological environment creates major opportunities, but also represents major risks for those who don't change or adapt to the variation. There is a need for the technical training and education that could enhance utilization of technology in various areas of interest, and it could ensure the smooth running of tourist business. The options are exploring the potential areas of investment, and these are prudent to benchmark the technologies where the travel and tourism industry has to work hard at integrating multiple channels that allow customers to switch effortlessly. Further, the new technique visualizing the challenges of the innovation through mapping to help spot patterns and craft strategies, there is a requirement of the emerging infrastructure of networks, which blurs the boundaries between areas and destinations. The convergence of technologies is apparent because of the advancing tourism industry and as demonstrated by an example from the tourism industry, and this effectively implies that traveling becomes a design, networking, and management. The traveling company, working with suppliers and customers in e-tourism communities, has to design a more effective model. According to the analysis, much attention should be paid to the negative implications of the Internet on the tourism

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industry, and the consideration of the Internet technology, being the major IT aspect, provides a clear view of the dramatic changes occurring in the tourism industry. Such challenges are reduced through the awareness among people participating in activities of moving from one area to another. Other entities in the hotels and motels, car rentals, tour and travel operators, restaurants, special tour operators, and travel agents can effectively be managed through technological tourism.

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Technology Influenced Tourism and Hospitality Services in Bangladesh

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Central Research Argument and Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nature of Domestic and Foreign Tourists in the Concerned Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mostly Visited Places of Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Available Technological Aids in the Concerned Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Accommodation as a Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Restaurants as a Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Health Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Law Enforcement Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beauty Parlor and Shopping Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lack of Sustainable Tourism Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flexible Immigration and Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lack of Law Enforcement and Banking Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lack of International Standard Recreational Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comfortable Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lack of Proper Government Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations/Policy Prescriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technological Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Promotional e-Branding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rational Accommodation Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diverse Cuisine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Restroom Facilities and Safe Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Security Service within off-Peak Hours and Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preparedness Regarding Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Complain Box and Tourist Aid Booths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Availability of Tourist Police Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Better Recreational Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cultural Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sustainable Tourism Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

900 906 906 909 909 912 913 915 916 919 920 920 921 921 922 922 922 922 923 923 923 923 923 924 924 924 924 924 925 925

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Professional Tourist Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application-Based Transportation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

How far do the existing tourism services aid Bangladesh to be a standard tourist destination of this world? This paper attempts to unravel this central query regarding the prevailing tourism services in Bangladesh and their resonance with the criteria of a standardized international tourist destination. The majestic natural bestowments of Bangladesh have been enchanting both national and international tourists since ages. Our economy has also been noticeably rocketed in the last few years owing to these magnificent footslogging locations. The crowning of Paharpur Vihara, Historic Mosque City of Bagerhat, and the splendid Sundarbans as UNESCO’s World Heritage Sites has enriched our tourism sector lucratively. In spite of its hypnotizing elegance and unprecedented appeals, Bangladesh could hardly enlist itself within the top most tourist friendly destinations of this world. Thereby, this paper attempts to weigh the accreditation of “standard tourist destination” in relation to “available tourism services in Bangladesh.” This paper has examined the availability of technology, health, restaurant and catering services, personal security, beauty parlor-saloon, and shopping complex accessibility (for both national and international tourists) as determinants of tourism services. This paper intends to adopt a mixed research methodology using both qualitative and quantitative analytical methods. It endeavors to inspect these determinants in selected tourist spots of Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar, being one of the most legendary excursive places of the country. Finally, this paper urges to bridge the existing technological, sociocultural, and administrative loopholes of our tourism services through some proposed policy prescriptions for their future development. Keywords

Tourism · Services · Standard · Development · Promotion · Bangladesh

Introduction According to the most contemporized report of 2019 published by World Economic Forum, Bangladesh has positioned to be the 120th out of 140 countries weighing their sustainable tourism development and competitiveness (World Economic Forum, 2019). On top of that, the overall score obtained by Bangladesh was almost half of the total score grabbed by the top-scorer European countries. Now on the other side of the coin, the skyrocketing development of our tourism industry can noticeably be vigilant in the last few years. The nascent development of travel and tourism industry has lucratively contributed to the accumulation of 427.5 billion

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Taka which constitutes 2.2% of total GDP of Bangladesh in the year of 2017. On parallel, the mighty industry has bestowed our employment sector through direct facilitation of 1,178,500 jobs constituting 1.8% of our total employment in the year of 2017. More specifically, it is expected to contribute around 7% of our total GDP and 3% of total employment in no more than just the next 1 to 2 years (World Travel and Tourism Council, 2018). But in spite of all these, the most lucrative feature of our tourism sector is nothing but its enchanting natural beauty that magnifies tourists from both home and abroad. An approximate estimation has unveiled the number of domestic tourists to reach the peak of 700,000 in the year of 2017 which was even no more than 200,000–30,000 just a couple of years ago (The Daily Star, 2019a). Now the intrusion of our foreign tourists has also accelerated to be 620,000 in the same year of 2017 in comparison to 125,000 in 2014 (Dhaka Tribune, 2019). But to dive a bit deeper, in comparison to the appeal, potential, man force, and investment of our tourism sector, the extent of international tourism is being extensively a nonstandard one. In spite of having envious potentials, the noticeably lower ranking status of Bangladesh in regard to assessing its tourism sustainability, this paper endeavors to compare the available tourism services of Bangladesh with the determinants of a standard tourist destination country. Thereby, this paper intends to explore the loopholes regarding the available tourism services in order to bridge the gap as well as to complement the tourism potential with expected tourism sustainability in future epoch to prevail. Tourism refers to the conduction of travelers on trips surpassing their usual environment or boundaries with an estimated duration of less than 1 year. Economic activity related to the entire conduction of travel is measured in weighing the status of tourism industry of any particular country (World Travel and Tourism Council, 2019). Bangladesh due to its majestic natural elegance as well as bestowments of attractions has always been considered as a potential tourist zone by tourism experts in South Asian subcontinent. But in spite of its prevailing appeals, the on-ground flourishing status of our tourism industry is not being able to comply with its deserving potentiality. To specify, Bangladesh is not being able to secure even a mediocre position in the ranking list of a “global standard tourist destination country” (World Economic Forum, 2019). In order to unravel the crux, this paper investigates in the tourism features of leading standard tourist destination countries. To simplify, this paper has tried to highlight the services or facilities expected by a tourist before visiting a naïve place or a new country. This paper has advanced toward creating a rational nexus between the existing tourism services and accumulation of popular tourism destination status by domestic and international tourists. This paper has specified available technological support, security service, health service, accommodation, transportation, Internet, immigration facilities, local culture, and flexible shopping and other services available for both domestic and international tourists to be incorporated in the conceptualization of “tourism services.” This paper has tried to weigh the applicability of all these variables in comparison to the existing tourism services of Bangladesh. In order to explore the applicability of the standard services of the abovementioned variables, this paper has focused on 18 specific tourist spots of Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar districts and

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weighs the compliance of all these tourism services with their “expected standard criteria” in order to unravel the loopholes regarding the entitlement of Bangladesh as a “standard tourist destination of South Asia.” The unparallel thrills of trekking at Khoiyachora and Napittachora Waterfalls, the pacifying beach views of Patenga and Parki sea-beach of Chattogram, the unprecedented appeals of Cox’s Bazar sea-beach and St. Martin’s Island: all these compilation of thrills and peace prevailing in the Chattogram division of Bangladesh has secured its legacy to be the legendary and most popular tourist destination of this country. Each year millions of domestic and international tourists comply with their exploring thrust through highest number of tourist footprints in these regions, but in spite of its natural texture and appeal, to what extent we are offering comfort and satisfaction to the tourists through our available services remains to be the central query of this paper. Even though uncomfortable to perceive, it will not be an exaggeration to put the fact that, in comparison to our appeal and beauty, we are not being able to provide access and ease regarding available information, trust, and comfort (The Daily Star, 2019b) which is undoubtedly lagging us behind as a preferred tourist zone. On top of that, in exploring the existing arrangements of the available standard tourism destinations worldwide, it can be assumed that apart from envious natural bestowments, the world-famous ideal tourist destinations do incorporate enriched websites with detailed information for tourists especially for those who are going to debut contemporized device applications with necessary contact details of the available tourist spots and guides, digitalized pre-booking services with facilities like detailed video and still pictures, previous reviews and basic queries, updating e-maps, and ensuring security through effective digitalized support system. Now in order to meet the standards, conduction of a research with an objective to explore the means of bridging the gap is not only rational but also necessary for the flourishing of our tourism legacy. Thereby, in order to aid our economy and also to maintain our historic legacy, it is logical to investigate into the inconsistencies of available and expected tourism services in Bangladesh. The central investigation of this paper is converged around assessing the interlink between our available tourism services and their expected standardization in comparison to the existing preferred tourist zones through one centered research question: How far the existing tourism services aids Bangladesh to be a standard tourist destination of this contemporary world? Thus, this paper will advance eventually to assess the compliance between these availability and proximate status of the tourism services in Bangladesh. The primary objective of this paper is to find out the inconsistencies of the available tourism services of Bangladesh in comparison to the standard tourism services in world-class or top-ranking tourist regions of this world. To be more specific, first, it will highlight about the existing technological support, accommodation, and restaurant services in the tourist regions of Bangladesh particularly focusing on the Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar districts. Second, it will explore about medical facilities in the concerned tourist areas. Third, it will unravel about the available personal and community security services and also will tend to weigh

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the activism of law enforcement agencies in times of troubles in these areas. Fourth, it will weigh about the availability of stationary items, cosmetic products, wearing outfits, and overall shopping complex facilities for tourists in the concerned areas. Fifth, it will also be assessing the nature of local culture in hosting the tourists in these regions. Sixth, it will compare their consistencies with standard tourist facilities. Finally, it will prescribe some recommendation in order to better manage the prevailing services in order to sustain within tourism competitiveness. This paper intends to aid both academia and mostly policy-makers through some substantive policy recommendations regarding the better adjustment and alteration of policy measures on the basis of on-ground practical challenges regarding tourism services in Bangladesh. In exploring the nexus between available tourism services and facilities in Cox’s Bazar and Chattogram districts, it is evident that a number of literatures are available with sort of zigzag dimension and focuses. Diverse literatures have been focused on tourism industry and mostly regarding their economic impact or revenue issues in Bangladesh. However, the intellectual pedagogy dealing entirely with prevailing tourism services and intending to cover up the loopholes on the basis of primary arguments collected directly from concerned tourists is rarely vigilant, and there this paper has assured its rationale to work separately on the aspects of tourism services and their compatibility with international standards. Again, the existing literatures which to some extent have attempted to weigh about the existing gaps of available services can be reviewed with following arguments. Government should be much more conscious regarding promotional advertisement of its resources. For example, Southeast Asian countries mostly use multiple languages for their promotional websites related to tourism. Around 10–12 languages are there to promote their tourism sectors, where the available websites of Bangladesh only use one single English language. Again, central information desk should be constructed in major tourist spots of Bangladesh such as Cox’s Bazar. Government should come forward to enhance security initiatives through the noticeable involvement of law enforcement agencies (Alam, 2018). According to the ex-Civil Aviation and Tourism Minister of Bangladesh, students can bolster the extent of tourism industry through harnessing their facilities using social media (Dhaka Tribune, 2019). A prominent academic from the Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, University of Dhaka, has urged about a need-based approach regarding the creation of Bangladesh as a standard tourist destination country. He has urged about the creation of a vibrant nightlife for international tourists; only natural beauty will not have stuck the tourists 24x7 in one particular place. In addition to these theme parks, musical events and open stage performances should be developed along with massive digital campaigning. He has also mentioned about creation of bars and night clubs if it is needed and then can be placed in exclusive zones or can be accessed showing passports only, but it is prerequisite to attract foreign tourists though developing tourism services all over the country (Dhaka Tribune, 2019). Lack of infrastructures also creates the tourism cobweb to be more complex. The public agency-related tourism planning in Bangladesh is encountering its severe

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limitation. In spite of such proximate potentiality of our tourism sector, we are not being able to compete with adjacent countries, and we are also losing our own tourists because rather than choosing national tourist destinations, our own tourists are leaning toward neighboring tourist spots due to multiple factors. The Chairman of Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation urged about the limited options and budgetary issues. He has repented about the fact that even after renovating our government hotels and motels, they are no way capable of competing with standard of luxurious hotels. The existing nature of services provoke people to travel their own rather than seeking aid from travel agencies because these agencies are rarely being able to comply with recreational or other security-based needs of tourists in the spots. The President of Tour Operators Association of Bangladesh (TOAB) has again urged about the unprofessional attitude of hotel and other service-based men forces during peak seasons. For example, during peak seasons the hotel room prices are mostly kept skyrocketed as numerous tourists will be available, so it is sometimes evident to have signs of unprofessional or noncooperative behavior from the service providers which in the long run is affecting their image as well as business seriously (The Daily Star, 2019a, 2019b). According to World Economic Forum’s Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019, Bangladesh is much steps lagging behind to achieve its status of a sustainable tourism industry-based country as in spite of having beauty mines; international tourists are rarely leaning toward exploring the natural bestowments of Bangladesh. The competitiveness among sustainable tourism and their compatibility is depending on how best we can manage the available services for the tourists within best strategic mechanisms. In order to bridge the gap between sustainability and standard tourism, destination country Bangladesh must work individually on aspects of available services related to tourism within best possible time in order to grab the status of a sustainable standard tourist destination country of the contemporary world eventually (World Economic Forum, 2019). This discussion is based on mixed research analysis techniques largely adopting a qualitative nature. A survey has been conducted over a sample size of 100 potential tourists of both domestic and international tenure using a semi-structured questionnaire though convenience sampling techniques ensuring the inclusion of samples were rational as well as representative. The variables of standard tourism services (health, security, accommodation, restaurants, shopping facilities, local culture) have been weighed through semi-structured responses of the 100 tourists chosen randomly through the statistical equation of: n¼

N 1 þ Ne2

N ¼ Tourists who have visited specific tourist spots of Cox’s Bazar and Chattogram district where exact number of domestic and international tourists of these two districts are unknown but approximated to be in between annual 10,00000 (The Independent, 2019). Level of precision e ¼ 10% where confidence is being considered to be 90%. Sample size n ¼ 99.99 or 100.

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The sample size has been chosen through random sampling where age group has been considered to be diverse (17–40). Both male and female gendered travelers were interviewed. People from different regions of Bangladesh were selected. Both international and domestic tourists have been chosen. Although there is no concrete statistics, regarding the ratio of domestic and international tourists of Bangladesh, according to the number of visitors mentioned in Dhaka Tribune in 2019, the ratio would be around 12 domestic travelers which is equal to 01 international traveler in Cox’s Bazar and Chattogram districts in the year of 2017. Among 100 samples, 10 international tourists have been interviewed. Four of them belong to Sri Lanka, two are from Saudi Arabia, one from Nepal, one from Myanmar, one from Sierra Leon, and one from America. All of them have visited any of the 16 selected tourism spots of Chattogram or Cox’s Bazar District and have contemplated their views about existing tourism services of Bangladesh. To verify the information gathered from the tourist survey, telephone interview of one Assistant Superintendent of Police (ASP) and one Sub-inspector (SI) of Bangladesh Tourist Police Unit, Maheshkhali, Cox’s Bazar, has been conducted regarding the effectiveness of security forces in the selected tourist spots. Confidential telephone interview with two of the hotel managers and some of the hotel staffs of Chattogram has also been conducted regarding their food and accommodation services in these areas. Data were collected through both online and offline survey techniques. Google Forms has been used for online data collection and analysis. Offline hard copy survey data have been manually inserted in Google Forms in order to get the comprehensive result from 100 samples. The survey questionnaire was semistructured including both close-ended and open-ended questions. Data have been analyzed through using both Google Forms and Microsoft Excel tools. Largely qualitative methods of data analysis techniques have been employed in conducting the research where data have been collected both from primary surveys and reliable secondary resources like books, e-books, journals articles, Internet, newspapers, magazines, annual reports etc. However, the huge amount of data, their reliability, accuracy, and sources that are inserted in the paper have been clearly verified. During conceptualization and literature reviewing phases of the topic, some volumes of influential informative reports and papers preserved by UN World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), World Tourism and Travel Council (WTTC), World Economic Forum (WEF), Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC), and central library of Bangladesh Military Academy have been analyzed in detail. Withal, a set of literature reviewing and consulting with fellow colleagues and students based in Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar have been conducted to produce some logical coherence and in-depth understanding of the issue and also to determine the strategies on how the paper ought to be best prepared. Finally, due to time and mobility constrains, sometimes data needed to be collected from convenience and best available sources, but in spite of these constrains, this paper has tried to maintain the diversity of the samples in regard to their age, gender, region, and nationality so that it can portray a rational representation of

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the entire tourist population of Cox’s Bazar and Chattogram districts. In order to ensure the convenience of data collection and analysis, this paper has selected 18 popular but diverse tourist spots of Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar districts in order to weigh the significance of our available tourism services (health, security, accommodation, restaurants, shopping facilities, and local culture) in these regions (Table 41.1).

Central Research Argument and Findings In order to weigh the compatibility of available tourism services such as technological aid, security service, health service, accommodation, transportation, Internet, immigration facilities, local culture, flexible shopping, beautification services, and others in comparison to their standardization in ideal tourist destination countries, a number of 100 domestic as well as international travelers have been interviewed using semistructured questionnaire, and as per their summarized opinion along with key informant interviews of these service-related individuals, this paper intends to highlight its argument that there remains loopholes or rooms for improvement in the existing tourism services of Bangladesh. Thereby, issue-specific development and adjustment of each of the service sector as per individualistic needs are recommended.

Nature of Domestic and Foreign Tourists in the Concerned Areas Among the 100 interviewees, it has been tried to maintain diversity regarding the age, gender, and origin of the tourists so that we can have a probable representation of the entire tourist population of Bangladesh. Among the 100 interviewees, 76 male respondents and 24 female respondents had been interviewed. The age range of the responded varied from 17 to 40 in order to have diversity from different age groups. The respondents varied drastically due to their profession, such as –starting from homemakers diverse range of professionals like students, researchers, corporate officers, engineers, military cadets, military officers, INGO workers, doctors, diplomats and VIP guests too, were interviewed who have visited any of the 18 concerned tourist spots of Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar with similar objectives of traveling but have incorporated diverse expectations in their minds (Fig. 41.1). Both domestic and international tourists have been interviewed to have opinion from both inside and abroad regarding the availability as well as expectations about tourism services of Bangladesh. Among 100 respondents, 10 international tourists have been interviewed. Four of them are from Sri Lanka, two are from Saudi Arabia, one from Nepal, one from Myanmar, one from Sierra Leon, and one from America. All of them have visited any of the 16 selected tourism spots of Chattogram or Cox’s Bazar districts and contemplated their views about existing tourism services of Bangladesh.

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Table 41.1 Selected tourist spots of Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar

Patenga Sea Beach Parki Sea beach

Shrine of Hazrat Bayazid Bostami

Port area

WWII war cemetery

Sitakundu Eco-Park and waterfall

Chandranath and Buddhist temples

Khoiyachora waterfall

Napittachora waterfall

Foy’s Lake

Cox’s bazar

Patenga Sea Beach is considered to be one of the most Olympian sources of natural beauty due to the splendid natural harnessing of beach sight. It is located to be 22 km south to Chattogram District (Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation, 2019) Parki Beach is comparatively less explored, but according to tourism experts of Bangladesh, it is going to be the tourist destination of tomorrow. It is situated around 17 km south to Chattogram under Anwara Upazila. Along with enchanting beauty of beach, people can entertain themselves with bike riding, beach market, multicolored crabs, and most importantly luxurious ships anchored over the seashore Shrine of Hazrat Bayazid Bostami and the legendary large species of tortoises at the adjacent “Digheer par” are not only a major tourist attraction to the pilgrims, but also regular tourists love to pay visit and to evidence the renowned tortoises under Bayazid Upazila of Chattogram Seaport areas of Chattogram and shipwrecking industries adjacent to it are considered one of the ancient destinations for both tourists and business tycoons of Bangladesh The historical tombstones of the great warriors of different nations who have sacrificed their lives during WWII are considered another source of interest for cadets and officers of Bangladesh Military Academy, Bangladesh Naval Academy, and researchers all around the country and abroad (Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation, 2019) Sitakundu Eco-Park along with its 450 down staircase “Sohosrodhara waterfall” is one of the most popular tourist spots within Sitakundu Upazila, these days where people can enjoy natural beauty along with taking a soothing bath in the ice-cold water of Sitakundu waterfall Situated 37 km away from Chattogram, the eminent Chandranath and Buddhist Temples are considered to portray footprints of Lord Buddha. Expertise in trekking skill is prerequisite to enjoy the unparalleled beauty of these two (Alam, 2018) Khoiyachora waterfall is situated in the hilly parts of Mirsharai, Chattogram, highway road which is constituted of nine waterfalls and numbers of separated steps. Hours of trekking are prerequisite to enjoy the harnessing feature of the nature over here Napittachora waterfall is considered to be another source of daintiness of Chattogram where the returns of relentless trekking will fully be refunded with elegance and scenic beauty Foy’s Lake is an anthropogenic construction of a lake in Chattogram city dug in 1924 and has been named after English engineer Mr. Foy. It is situated next to Batali Hill and a private amusement park separated with exclusively harnessed dry and water sections attract numbers of people from home and abroad over here in Chattogram Cox’s bazar is accredited to be the heaven for tourists in Bangladesh. Every year millions of domestic and international tourists do visit Cox’s bazar in order to purify their minds with the unprecedented (continued)

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Table 41.1 (continued)

Patenga Sea Beach

St. Martin’s island

Teknaf

Himchari

Inani Beach

Ramu Buddhist Temple

Dulahazra Safari Park

Patenga Sea Beach is considered to be one of the most Olympian sources of natural beauty due to the splendid natural harnessing of beach sight. It is located to be 22 km south to Chattogram District (Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation, 2019) beauty of Laboni, Kolatoli, and golden sand beaches. Although the beach views are quiet enough to replace the functions of mind antidepressants for noticeable numbers of tourists worldwide, also the beach complement them with chilling equipment like paragliding, beach riding, surfing, etc. St. Martin Island, locally known as Narical Gingira, is situated at the southernmost tip of Cox’s Bazar District and one of the ideal destination for embracing the nature with purity. The beauty of this coral island is not only famous within the country, but it also disseminates its charm through magnifying vigilant numbers of foreign tourists annually The southernmost part of Bangladesh which has ornamented itself with the serenity of Naf River and hilly views of BangladeshMyanmar river (Alam, 2018) The mountainous view on one side and oceanic view on the other side of the road along with the evidences of serene waterfall attract much of the tourists of Cox’s bazar toward Himchari The white sandy beach within Ukhia Upazila of Cox’s bazar is famous among tourists who tend to escape the overcrowded beaches like Laboni and Kolatoli and can relax along with diverse and colorful seashells and tortoises Around 16 km adjacent to Cox’s bazar, Ramu is being inhabited by Buddhist people since ages, and their ravishing architectural beauties of the temples and monuments attract tourists and researchers all over the world over here The extension of animal sanctuary is considered another source of attractiveness and diversity situated in Chakaria, Cox’s bazar

Source: (Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation, 2019)

Fig. 41.1 Age range of the respondents (17–40). (Source: Self-administered survey)

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Mostly Visited Places of Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar It is evident that among the 18 concerned tourist spots, Cox’s Bazar has positioned to be the capital of all the tourist spots of these 2 districts (visited by 90 among 100 respondents). After Cox’s Bazar, Patenga and Inani Sea Beach have been followed to be the second and third largest visited spots with 78 and 74 respondents. Apart from these, Foy’s Lake, Port Area, and WWII War Cemetery can also be considered as favorite tourist spots of this region. According to the concerned tour operators and owners of hotels and motels, 60% of annual tourists visit Cox’s Bazar followed by Chattogram and Sylhet (The Independent, 2019) (Fig. 41.2).

Available Technological Aids in the Concerned Areas Natural bestowments are inherent blessings, but in terms of strategic tourism, sector planning through effective technological branding and equipment can be considered as one of the core prerequisite elements in contemporized ideal tourist destinations worldwide. Thereby, in complying with the existing arrangements of the available standard tourism destinations worldwide, it can be assumed that apart from envious natural bestowments, the world-famous ideal tourist destinations do incorporate enriched websites with detailed information for tourists especially for newcomers, available and accessible Internet facilities, contemporized device applications with

Fig. 41.2 Most visited spots of Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar. (Source: self-administered survey)

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necessary contact details of the available tourist spots and guides, digitalized pre-booking services with facilities like detailed video and still pictures, previous reviews and basic queries, updating e-maps, and ensuring security through effective digitalized support system. Thereby, branding through tourist aiding websites, Android applications, and advertisement with the benevolence of new media can be considered as one of the predominant strategies of flourishing tourism industry of any country. Youngsters of twenty-first century are in general habituated to upload snaps and check-ins before exploring places while traveling diverse places. Thereby, effective communication system is fairly expected by travelers not only to get engaged with social media but also to maintain communication with dear ones at home. In terms of maintaining communication through cell phone networks, in the concerned tourist spots, among the 100 respondents, 19% respondents have opined that networks remain available in need in the concerned spots, where 69% has altered with the fact that the networks might be available, but it is not consistent and frequently fluctuates in tourist areas. Finally, 11% has sharply denied about the availability and existence of required networks in the concerned tourist spots of Bangladesh at all (Fig. 41.3). Then again, many European and Asian countries have harnessed their national tourism websites with colorful and attractive images, videos, facilities, tour packages, and importantly disseminating information in numbers of languages and launching of cell phone applications in order to aid as well as to attract more number of tourists in their regions. Bangladesh Tourist Police had similarly launched an application named “Hello Tourist” in the year of 2017 where the Android application contained multiple features including map of lucrative tourist spots, contact numbers of senior tourist police officials, and most importantly the “SOS” button where when pressing the button during emergency, it is to be ensured that concerned authorities are instantly being notified that in which location a tourist might be needing instant help regarding any incident (Dhaka Tribune, 2017a). Just after the launching of the app, it received huge appreciation from the informant travelers of Bangladesh, but

Fig. 41.3 Opinion regarding cell phone networks and Internet facilities in the concerned tourist spots of Bangladesh. (Source: self-administered survey)

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Fig. 41.4 Information about “Hello Tourist” application. (Source: self-administered survey)

still some issues yet to be fixed. First of all, proper branding about the application has not been conducted yet, and thereby a negligible amount of travelers actually knows about the existence of the application (Fig. 41.4). Noticeably, it was found that, among the number of 100 tourist respondents, only 08% of travelers of Bangladesh actually knew about the application, whereas 92% of them have never even heard about the existence of the application. Secondly, no concrete initiatives had been adopted to inform the foreign tourists regarding the availability and functions of this application. Finally, few months after the launching of that application, the application got down from Google Play Store for some unknown reasons. Most of the people are not even informed about the application, so disappearing of the application from Google Play Store also remained unnoticed by mass people. From the survey results, only 2% of domestic travelers knew about the launching and the unavailability of the application later. In this regard, the researcher has collected information from SI Sanjay Kumar, Maheshkhali Upazila of Cox’s Bazar, and he has commented that the tourist police are working on better patrolling, surveillance, and language comfort for foreign tourists. He has also answered about the tourism aid-based app to be down due to technical reasons these days, and it will be made available again soon (Personal Communication 21 September, 2019). But it is a matter of concern that since more than last 10 months, the application is not being found in Play Store, and also the common people have not made informant about this. Availability, advertisement, and activism of such services can be very helpful to provoke relaxed tourism within the country. Thereby, advertising or aiding equipment for informing domestic and foreign tourists regarding the benevolence of tourism facilities through making the tourismbased websites more informative and multi-vernacular system that means adding more languages than English and Bangla would help foreign tourists from different origins to get informed about the legacy of tourism in Bangladesh.

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Accommodation as a Service Accommodation is considered as one of the prerequisite demand to claim a standard tourism status worldwide. The accommodation experience needs to be smooth in order to encourage diverse tourism within the competitive tourism industries of the world. Among the number of 100 tourist respondents, the current accommodation facilities of Bangladesh have been opined to be satisfactory to 60% including high appreciation from 5%. In contrast, existing accommodation services in tourist zones has been found to be poor by 32% along with being very disappointing around 03% respondents. The main problems have been identified to be expensive, lack of availability, and limited options. On top of that, some has opined that it varies from places to places and seasons to seasons. For example, during peak seasons it is alright, but during off-peak seasons, options are limited. In Chattogram area options are limited in comparison to Cox’s Bazar. Another issue has been frequently repeated regarding poor infrastructure, restroom facilities, and unprofessional and opportunist behavior of hotel staffs sometimes especially during peak seasons create unpleasant situation on and off (Figs. 41.5 and 41.6). Complying with the existing troubles, a senior Dhaka University Professor has contemplated that more options are developing in Cox’s Bazar and Chattogram Hill Tracts areas, but other tourist spots of Chattogram District are still lagging behind with appropriate accommodation services (The Independent, 2019). Most of the times, the prices remain high but sometimes tend to provide low-quality services (The Daily Star, 2017) too. The President of Tour Operators Association of Bangladesh (TOAB) has agreed with the fact that hotels jack up their rates in the peak seasons during seasonal traffics of tourists (The Daily Star, 2017). The Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism has started its venture since 1975, but still it is struggling to establish a standard tourist center, required campaigning, and well-experienced and available official hotel guide and tour operators’ guides (The Daily Star, 2013).

Fig. 41.5 Accommodation service-based opinion in Bangladesh. (Source: self-administered survey)

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Fig. 41.6 The major problems regarding accommodation system of Bangladesh. (Source selfadministered survey)

The researcher has reached up to a number of hotel administrative authority and staff members regarding their availability and services in Cox’s Bazar and Chattogram districts. In response to one of the questions regarding the nonavailability of hotel and motel or sufficient accommodation facility adjacent to tourist spots in Chattogram District like Sitakundu Eco-Park and Khoiyachora, Napittachora, or Boalia Waterfalls, local hotel managers of Chattogram city have opined that basically the local tourist spots are occasional or seasonal tourist spots, and the waterfalls are attractive during rains, but travelers do not step in regularly in these areas. Even if they do, these areas are considered to be secondary options because finally they want to stay near Patenga in Chattogram or directly lean toward Cox’s Bazar. Thereby, it is a bit uncertain to invest in the accommodation sector in these local tourist areas. In Chattogram city area like GEC, railway station, and Cox’s Bazar sea beach areas, numbers of hotel, motel, or other restaurants are fairly available, but service varies from budget plans and availability of tourists. During peak seasons, sometimes hotels get overcrowded, and the service providers usually try to cooperate and accommodate, but it is also natural that sometimes we encounter opportunist business strategies during overcrowded seasons.

Restaurants as a Service Along with trendy and comfortable accommodation, tempting cuisine is considered to be the second most prerequisite tourism service in order to manipulate the choices of the diverse travelers of this world. Regarding restaurant services, 38%

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respondents have opined the existing services to be poor, whereas 2% has highlighted it to be very poor. In comparison, 58% has opined that the available restaurant and food services are satisfactory highlighting 2% that has contemplated to be highly satisfied with it. The major problems were identified to be limited options, unhygienic preparation, expensive items, and lack of diverse cuisine options (Figs. 41.7 and 41.8). One American respondent John Simmons has visited Cox’s Bazar and some places of Chattogram. While conducting an e-mail interview, John has admired about the diverse tastes of sub continental cuisine of Bangladesh, but at the same time he has mentioned about the unprofessional and opportunist behavior of some of

Fig. 41.7 Opinion regarding restaurant services of Bangladesh. (Source: self-administered survey)

Fig. 41.8 Major problems regarding restaurant services of Bangladesh. (Source: self-administered survey)

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the hotel staffs in these places. Another, Nepalese young girl Pratibha has identified about the nonavailability of vegetarian items like cheese-based dishes in different tourist spots of Bangladesh. According to the Managing Director of an ecotourism company, there remains no rule or planning to administer the restaurant services as well as no etiquette training is provided to the staffs over there. There is only one safari park close to Cox’s Bazar where there remain no mentionable restaurants, cafes, and entertainment centers over there and also in Sitakundu, Chattogram (The Daily Star, 2017).

Health Service Although tourism is considered as refreshment phase of life, nonavailability of medical services in needs can overturn an entire tour plan into devastation within seconds. Thereby, adequate medical facility is considered as another prime need to ensure tourist satisfaction in the demanded areas. Regarding health services or medical emergencies in these spots, only 6% has responded that they have received the services in time of need. Another 47% has opined that they have received medical services sometimes and on top of that they were not sufficient enough to be secured. 9% has responded that they did not need it, and the rest 37% has concluded that they did not receive any sort of medical facilities in need specially places like beach side, waterfalls, etc. where the roads are extremely slippery and accidents may occur at any time. Few of the domestic as well as international tourists have mentioned about getting injured or feeling sick at Inani Beach or other tourist spots in Cox’s Bazar and Chattogram districts where let alone proper medical care but first aid services were also not being available in time (Fig. 41.9).

Fig. 41.9 Opinion regarding health services of Bangladesh. (Source: self-administered survey)

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Security Threat Security concern has altered the tourism industrial equation to a significant manner in the contemporary epoch. Transnational Organized Crimes such as human trafficking, drugs trafficking, money laundering, and extremist radicalization-based incidents directly facilitate the nature of international tourism industry in any particular region of this world. Internally issues like road security and personal and community security along with security of belongings provoke travelers to monitor, analyze, and choose the safest option within the competitive matrix of tourism industry. Thereby, in order to be entitled as a safe and standard tourist destination for both domestic and international tourists, Bangladesh needs to oversee and to reconstruct the security imperatives to a drastically manner. In regard to security threat, noticeably 27% travelers have confirmed that they have encountered security threat at least once in the concerned tourist spots, and 12% has concluded that it is more than once highlighting issues like snatching, harassment, theft, and fraudster to be common occurrences. Whereas, rest of the 61% have not encountered any sort of security threats who are mostly government or military officers or persons in groups (Figs. 41.10 and 41.11). Nagging that means forcing for buying things is the most popular irritation. Among the other incidents fraudster, theft, eve-teasing and harassment, and snatching are seemed to be common. Some has also highlighted troubles like stalking and bargaining for shopping. While compiling the survey results, a number of unpleasant but common experiences of both domestic and international tourists can be highlighted. First of all, life-threatening experiencing of hijacking, theft, snatching, and employing terror in less explored places can be considered as one of the most common phenomenon. Targeting hijacks in less explored places like Khoiyachora, Sitakundu Eco-Park, and Napittachora within uneven trailing terrain and midnight

Fig. 41.10 Opinion regarding security services of Bangladesh. (Source: self-administered survey)

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Fig. 41.11 Major challenges regarding security services of Bangladesh. (Source: selfadministered survey)

incidents at St. Martin’s Island and Cox’s Bazar is one of the most common incidents. One Nepalese traveler and one Sri Lankan tourist have mentioned about their hijacking experience in Cox’s Bazar and Sitakundu area, and out of 100, 27 respondents have motioned about either hijacking/threat of hijacking incidents. One student of a public university has opined that “My mother was wearing a gold necklace and it was pulled out so badly in Sitakundu that she needed to be hospitalized immediately.” One Nepalese traveler has mentioned about her awkwardness regarding stalking in a way – “picture and videotaping were going on without permission.” Saudi Arabian and American travelers have got irritated similarly with the stalking practices of local people. John Simmons, an American teacher, has opined that “they keep looking and looking at.” Stalking and passing on comments have remained a common experience for domestic tourists too especially the female travelers. “One of my friend got sexually harassed during visiting Cox’s Bazar,” whereas “My girl-friend got eve-teased by a group of drug addict people” – opined by two government officers and one foreign visitor. “We were teased and insulted by a group of drunk tribal people” – opined by one female student of a public university. Unpleasant teasing and harassment remain some of the highlighting complains over here too. Lack of restroom and washroom services, unregulated sanitation services, urinating in public, and related odors remain another source of complain among the tourists. Fourfold food price was asked from one of our foreign guests at an international program in Cox’s Bazar, and when he hesitated, he got severely insulted by local vendors – opined by one microbiological researcher.

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Trawlers that encounter high tides and overly crowded ships toward St. Martin Island pose serious life threat for the tourists. Due to business advantages, the accommodative capacity is being overturned during peak seasons which can be of a great security threat. 200 Taka worth CNG fair was demanded to be 700 by one driver last month at Cox’s Bazar where the driver even threatened to hit the traveler which only could be solved by the mediation of tourist police, but accordingly to most of the travelers, unfortunately they do not remain present all the time. Nagging for buying tea or capturing photos is the most irritating experience among many of the travelers. Finally, in comparison to the availability of fraudsters, help desks and sufficient tourist police patrolling are not being vigilant in these areas at all (Dhaka Tribune, 2017a). According to one telephone interview with the researcher, one ASP of Bangladesh Police of one of the concerned Upazila covering some of the selected tourist spots in Chattogram District has opined that in order to ensure safe traveling and to listen to the complains of tourists, Tourist Police Unit keep on patrolling around 24  7 (24 hours in a day) in the beach areas of Cox’s Bazar. Most importantly, the tourist police jeeps keep on monitoring the beach areas after the evening up to 10 pm at night because usually this is considered to be “sensitive time” in terms of tourist experiences. Another important fact is that patrolling depends on proximity of the numbers of tourists. During peak seasons like Eid vacations, Puja vacations, and “Pohela Boishak,” first day of the Bengali New Year setting up all-day campaigns or tourist booths in different parts of the beaches along with constant patrolling is being evident. But in times, when there remains less number of tourists, campaigns and patrolling are not that much frequent naturally. Although he has commented that less explored areas like Khoiyachora, Napittachora, or Boalia trails, tourist police also can be found in need, but from the survey findings of the tourist experiences, it is evident that unpleasant occurrences do take place regarding cases like snatching, theft, or harassment in these less explored areas of Chattogram District. Among the most common troubles for foreign tourists would be the language barrier. Also nagging or forcing tendency of local vendors and street hawkers who sell flower, food, or ornaments is one of the leading complains of both domestic and international tourists in these areas. Similar to that, local photographers keep on asking for capturing photos with DSLR cameras. Sometimes these hawkers and service providers demand way more money than their products or services and create unpleasant situation for the tourists. In such cases, if tourists complain to the local tourist police and if the complaint is justified, then the service provider is usually being asked for show causing and gets treated legally (Personal Communication on 20 September, 2019). One of the bounden sub-inspector (SI) of Bangladesh Tourist Police Unit of Maheshkhali Upazila of Cox’s Bazar districts has also opined regarding experiences about bargaining, fraudster and many-fold price hike in tourist spots through a telephone interview with the researcher. He has stated that it is natural that locations which are far away from the center will be having a bit added price for products due

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to the cost of transportation or availability. Regarding the local products, the prices should be controlled by local administration. This regulation part is not directly entrusted upon police unit, but still in case of severe unpleasant experiences, tourist police may try to intervene. In general, local governments try to govern the service and local business tactics in the concerned tourist spots (Personal Communication on 28 September, 2019).

Law Enforcement Efficiency In spite of the claimed and expected availability and efficiency of our security forces, noticeably only 15% tourists have confirmed that they have found the tourist police in need, whereas 62% has opined that they did not find the existence of tourist police in need. Again, 23% has affirmed to get their access but highlighting the fact that the availability is not being sufficient at all (Fig. 41.12). Bangladesh government has launched Tourist Police Unit in order to ensure secure tourism pledges all over the country since 2009 (The Daily Star, 2017). Former Deputy Inspector General of Tourist Police has opined that ensuring security and safe tourism for domestic and international tourists has significantly accelerated the number of tourists and popularity of tourist spots in Bangladesh (The Daily Star, 2016). Again, through a telephone interview with the researcher, SI Sanjay Kumar of Bangladesh Tourist Police Unit of Maheshkhali Upazila has stated that in terms of general foreign and domestic tourists, the Tourist Police Unit tries to aid them in ensuring their safe traveling in all possible manners through regular patrolling, and if there comes an issue of VIP foreign tourists, then the entire Tourist Police Unit remains alert before the arrival of the guests and try to host them with protocol from the airport areas (Personal Communication, 28 September, 2019). But the crux is that, in spite of all such initiatives, the

Fig. 41.12 Opinion regarding the availability of forces during security threats. (Source: selfadministered survey)

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on-ground tourist security experience is still remaining to be unpleasant among the fair share of domestic as well as worldwide travelers.

Beauty Parlor and Shopping Complexes Additional tourism facilities such as beauty parlor, shopping complex, amusement parks, and recreational equipment are basically secondary tactics to flourish the tourism industry of any particular area. In weighing the responses from the travelers, it can be opined that a number of initiatives are yet to be taken in order to attract domestic and foreign tourists in these areas through additional services (Fig. 41.13). Only 19% tourists responded that they have found beauty parlor or saloon support in need and 30% revealed that they have received such supports but as infrequent or insufficient services whereas rest of 51% travelers have shared their bitter experiences of not being able to access such services at all (Fig. 41.14). However, regarding shopping complexes to buy necessary staffs, 29% tourists have opined that they have found shopping complexes in need. Another 37% has opined about their availability too but also highlighted that they were not being sufficient or available always. The rest 34% has repented about not being able to access the shopping complexes at all.

Lack of Sustainable Tourism Planning Many of the respondents have emphasized about their concern regarding sustainable tourism planning, waste management, and environmental regulation about the tourist spots. Dhaka University Professor has highlighted his concern regarding killing of tourism by the tourists through disrupting the environment with food, snack wraps,

Fig. 41.13 Opinion regarding the availability of beauty parlors in tourist spots. (Source: selfadministered survey)

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Fig. 41.14 The availability of shopping complexes in tourist spots. (Source: self-administered survey)

bottles, tissues, garbage, caps, polythene, and others (The Independent, 2019). Sustainable tourism demands initiatives from both tourists and the authorities. Safe sanitation, frequent restroom facilities for weak and aged persons, sufficient dustbin, depending more on bio-energy, and advertising more and more on cleaning the tourist spots by travelers can be some enlightening initiatives. Bangladesh Tourist Police has been entrusted with the duty to not only protect the tourists but also to protect the environment by escaping hill cutting, sand and stone lifting, deforestation, hunting of rare species, providing environmental education to local inhabitants, etc. (The Daily Star, 2019a).

Flexible Immigration and Transportation Extended time duration and visa complexities are needed to be regulated to encourage international tourism. Professional etiquette among the immigration authorities are sometimes subjected to be questioned by international tourists. Flexible immigration and reducing traffic time and construction of smooth railroad and air communication system would be considered as some other prerequisites to promote the legacy of our tourism. Existing culture of unwelcoming, longer derogatory interrogation and chained immigration queues should be regulated with easy and accessible visa facilities in order to attract target audiences from different parts of this world (The Daily Star, 2013).

Lack of Law Enforcement and Banking Facilities Proper planning, management, central regulation, and setting up branches of banks and ATM booths in the tourist spots have been demanded by many of the domestic and international tourists in order to ensure sustainable tourism.

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Lack of International Standard Recreational Facilities Some of the young travelers have mentioned about proper recreational facilities for domestic and especially for international tourists. Travelers cannot stick up to the tourist spots all-day long. They need to reside and they need to get refreshed in the concerned areas. Thereby in order to facilitate standard tourism, some of the travelers have opined that recreational demands like amusement parks, diverse cuisine, open-air concerts, bars, and night clubs or discos need to be established in these areas. The Professor of the Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, University of Dhaka, has complied with the fact that a vibrant nightlife is prerequisite to attract international tourists including theme parks and musical events (Dhaka Tribune, 2017b). In the midst of the illegal casino debate, Civil Aviation and Tourism Ministry Secretary has also suggested about the legalization of casinos along with bars and night clubs in exclusive tourist zones where international tourists will only be having accesses showing passports (The Daily Star, 2019a, 2019b). The Finance Minister has altered the idea of establishing casinos vigorously showing its legal and moral obligations that even establishing illegal casinos for tourists will violate the state law (Somoynews.tv, 2019). Many of tourism experts also have opined about creating better recreational facilities for tourists indeed.

Comfortable Tourism 80% of foreign tourists have contemplated regarding the overcrowded places and unprofessionalism of staffs and subjection of direct gazing due to their foreign identities. Less crowded, trained with professionalism and local cultural etiquette-based, campaigns can ensure comfortable tourism experiences for the travelers home and abroad.

Lack of Proper Government Policies Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation is the oldest tourism-based institution in order to regulate and monitor this industry. In 2009, Tourism Board has been established, but both of the institutions are being accused of lack of experiences and unprofessionalism. Both the institutions need to promotionally brand tourism more vigorously through social media. There remains a National Tourism Council and National Tourism Policy, but nothing is made accessible or public regarding the details of this tourism policy. The Tourist Resort Act had been enacted in 2010 but being accused of subjecting to manipulation (The Daily Star, 2013).

Recommendations/Policy Prescriptions The central argument of this paper converges around the fact that in order to establish a standard tourist destination country, Bangladesh needs to better develop its technological aids, accommodation, food, health, security, and other services. Thereby,

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in order to establish Bangladesh as a better tourist preferred destination, this paper has ventured and eventually has recommended a number of concerned policy prescriptions in this area.

Technological Aid In order to promote tourism technology, new media or social media branding can be of a great help. There is a Tourism Satellite Accounting System for aggregating the figures of tourist arrivals and earnings, which have been introduced by the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) where Bangladesh, being a founding member of the UNWTO, should avail this technical assistance from UNTWO under the “Digital Bangladesh Campaign” for streamlining these compilations (The Daily Star, 2013).

Promotional e-Branding Vigorous online marketing, e-branding and promotions of tourism-based institutions, websites, applications, frequent seminars, and academic courses need to be promoted through both print and electronic media.

Rational Accommodation Service In order to complement tourist appeals, reasonable accommodation packages including standard facilities and professional behavior of staffs is recommended. Inconsistent or opportunist attitude may ensure instant financial advantages for hotel management authorities, but at the end of the day, it will disrupt the legacy and the popularity in the long run.

Diverse Cuisine Natural enchantment will be manifold accelerated if diverse cuisine like Thai, Chinese, European, Continental, Vegetarian dishes can be made accessible within reasonable prices adjacent to the tourist spots. There should be a surveillance authoritative body regarding the pricing and services of accommodations and food facilities in the tourist areas.

Restroom Facilities and Safe Sanitation Restroom facilities for elderly citizens, children, and women along with sufficient sanitation system and cleanliness should be ensured in order to promote comfortable tourism.

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Security Service within off-Peak Hours and Areas This paper reveals that unusual terrains get less monitored by security forces. As a result, these unusual terrains get usually subjected to security threats. For example: frequent snatching or theft in areas like Chandranath Temple, Khoiyachora Waterfall, and hilly terrains. Also there remain frequent examples of security concerns and harassment during off-peak hours that means during nighttimes. Thereby, patrolling of tourist police need to be extended during less explored areas and off-peak hours too.

Preparedness Regarding Fluctuations Preparedness and backup plans during fluctuations like land sliding of Chattogram Hill Tracts, security crises like Rohingya refugee inclusion, natural disaster like Tsunami, and climate change-based issues need to be dealt with pre-preparedness and backup management plans in order to escape sudden tourism collapsing.

Complain Box and Tourist Aid Booths Not only during vacations and peak hours but also in regular hours help desk information booths and complain box will divert the tourism experiences to be manifold comfortable indeed.

Availability of Tourist Police Services Undoubtedly tourist police can be considered as one of the most complementary initiatives adopted by the government, but in order to enhance the efficiency of their activism, patrolling not only in tourist spots but also vigilance during road areas, markets, and other places in tourism-based localities will alter the overall tourism experiences with much more containment among the tourists.

Better Recreational Facilities Better recreational facilities like creation of theme parks, musical concerts, demonstration of local cultures, diverse cuisine, international standard Cineplex, musical events, pubs, and discos can be recommended excluding the illegal parts which counter our religion or cultural sentiments and can be promoted in order to complement the tourism appeal of Bangladesh.

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Cultural Acceptance Through local governmental initiatives, the local people can be enlightened regarding the way to receive domestic and foreign tourists comfortably so that they do not feel alienated. In addition to that, history, archaeology, local culture, heritage, cuisine, and shopping center should be better prepared for diversity through tourist inclusions.

Sustainable Tourism Planning In order to better represent the appeal of standard tourism destination, environmentfriendly, sustainable and energy-efficient projects, and standard garbage disposal system should be approved by authority, while code of conduct should legally be imposed upon tourists in terms of manipulating the environment.

Professional Tourist Guide Professional and logically paid tourist guides need to be imposed in order to employ relief for foreign tourists regarding language barriers or uncertainties.

Application-Based Transportation System Cell phone application-based transport service availability in tourist spots like Pathao, Uber, and OBhai services will make the tourism venture much more comfortable than before.

Conclusion The appeal and extent of tourism are considered as one of the most lucrative industries of Bangladesh. The elegance and bestowment of nature are unparalleled, but even till today Bangladesh is struggling to harness its status being in the infancy stage of a standard tourist destination country. Now, in order to comply with the bar of standard tourist destination country, this paper urges to highlight more concrete vigilance, better technological aids, e-branding and e- advertisement, professionalism, need-based approach, better surveillance, and diverse multicultural options to be implemented for complementing with a better status regarding tourism services in Bangladesh. Cultural assistance from local people in order to welcome tourists more professionally, regulation of street begging, and government initiatives to deal with a sustainable approach are also recommended in order to accomplish a consistent

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position regarding positive competitiveness and diversity among tourism-based destinations of this world. Finally, all-encompassing development program including proper renovation of existing conventional advertising and historical places, acceptance of diverse multicultural cuisine and open-air concerts, construction of more restrooms and sanitation facilities, and public-private joint venture will be able to better negotiate the status of Bangladesh as a sustainable tourism destination country in the future days to come.

References Alam, J. (2018). Problems and prospects of tourism industry in Bangladesh: A case of Cox’s bazar tourist spots. International Journal of Science and Business, 2(4), 568–579. Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation. (2019). Home. Retrieved from: http://www.parjatan.gov.bd/ (Accessed: the 3rd October, 2019). Dhaka Tribune. (2017a). A Poor Outing for the Tourism Industry. Retrieved from: https://bit.ly/ 2NPLN89 (Accessed: the 7th October, 2019). Dhaka Tribune. (2017b). Tourist Police Bangladesh unveils Hello Tourist safety app. Retrieved from: https://bit.ly/2ZzqgpE. (Accessed: the 7th October, 2019). Dhaka Tribune. (2019). Expert: Bangladesh can be Asia’s prime tourist destination. Retrieved from: https://bit.ly/2YQJ98s. (Accessed: the 2nd September, 2019). Somoynews.tv. (2019). Casino niye biporit kotha parjatan sochib-orthomontrir. Retrieved from: http://www.m.somoynews.tv/pages/details/175323/%E0%c (Accessed: the 1st October, 2019). (in Bengali). The Daily Star. (2009). Tourist Police to ensure security of tourists. Retrieved from: https://www. thedailystar.net/news-detail-101877. (Accessed: the 1st October, 2019). The Daily Star. (2013). Tourism Industry in Bangladesh. Retrieved from: https://www.thedailystar. net/news/tourism-industry-in-bangladesh (Accessed: the 11th October, 2019). The Daily Star. (2016). Number of tourists increasing in Bangladesh. Retrieved from: https://bit.ly/ 3eRwurC (Accessed: the 1st October, 2019). The Daily Star. (2017). Tourism Gone Wild. Retrieved from: https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/ other-words/tourism-gone-wild-1360078 (Accessed: the 1st October, 2019). The Daily Star. (2019a). Tourism Booming with Economy. Retrieved from: https://www. thedailystar.net/business/news/tourism-booming-economy-1673479 (Accessed: the 2nd August, 2019). The Daily Star. (2019b). Casino to be available for foreign tourists. Retrieved from: https://bit.ly/ 31AX9VA (Accessed: the 2nd October, 2019). The Independent. (2019). Domestic tourism on the rise. Retrieved from: https://bit.ly/2VGplmh (Accessed: the 2nd October, 2019). World Economic Forum (WEF). (2019). The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019: Travel and Tourism at a Tipping Point. Retrieved from: https://www.weforum.org/ reports/the-travel-tourism-competitiveness-report-2019 (Accessed: the 14th September, 2019). World Travel and Tourism Council. (2019). Country data. Retrieved from: https://www.wttc.org/ economic-impact/country-analysis/country-data/ (Accessed: the 2nd September, 2019). World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC). (2018). Travel and tourism economic impact of Bangladesh 2018 (pp. 1–10). WTTC.

Mobile Applications and Tourism Experiences: Some Netnographic Explanations from Bangladesh

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Applications (Apps) and their Uses in the Tourism Industry of Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . Online Travel Assistant Apps for Tourists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ghurbo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ShareTrip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transport Assistant and Ticketing Apps for Tourists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pathao.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shohoz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OBHAI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BDTICKETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biman Bangladesh Airlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rail Sheba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Accommodation Assistant Apps for Tourists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jovago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airbnb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Booking.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Restaurant and Food Delivery Apps for Tourists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hungrynaki.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uber Eats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foodpanda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Financial Assistant Apps for Tourists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bKash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nagad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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A. Hassan (*) Tourism Consultants Network, The Tourism Society, London, UK M. A. R. Avi Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Pabna University of Science and Technology, Pabna, Bangladesh © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_42

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Safety and Security Assistant Apps for Tourists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BD Police Helpline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BD 999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shopping Assistant Apps for Tourists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chaldal.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sheba.xyz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bikroy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rokomary.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aarong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AjkerDeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evaly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pickaboo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shajgoj . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daraz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Media and Entertainment Assistant App . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bioscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bongo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Toffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bangla Newspapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Daily Star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bangladesh as the Promising Field of Mobile Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Review Comments on Mobile Applications in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Applications and its Contribution for Tourism Development and Promotion . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Mobile applications (apps) in these days support tourists in many ways covering many facets of tourism product and service demands. As a relevant example, Bangladesh has recently witnessed a sharp growth in the Internet-based mobile telephony. Researching the effects of mobile apps in tourist service offer is not common. Thus, a research gap exists in this identified research area in the context of Bangladesh. Mobile apps are affecting tourism product and service in Bangladesh that is on a continuous growth that justifies to conduct this research. This research relies on netnography as a research tool with an aim to explore the trend of mobile app use for tourism services and products in tourism experience creation. Online users generally review comments for both accessing and purchasing a tourism products and services. Results identify very specific experiences generated from using mobile tourism products and services apps. In Bangladesh, these apps are contributing in positive tourism experience formation. Finding explores that tourist satisfaction stays higher from using attractive and useful mobile apps. Also, diversity in mobile apps is useful. On the other side, smartphone-based mobile app use has a sharp rise in Bangladesh. This research thus concludes that mobile apps in the Bangladesh tourism context offer positive service experience to the tourists. Keywords

Mobile · Applications · Bangladesh · Tourism · Service · Experience

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Introduction In the last few decades, tourists have transformed from their choices from conventional phones to smartphones having multimedia capabilities and of course the access to the Internet. One of the very important and useful driving forces for the adoption of smartphone is the mobile apps. Mobile applications have guided toward a newer digital economy allowing changes to millions of people across the world. Even the popularity of mobile apps has changed over the years resulting positive effects on the livelihood of different type service professionals; these apps have also created multibillion-dollar economy around them. These apps both directly and indirectly lead to the development of diverse business enterprises. These mobile apps as the modular unit permit the users for customizing their phone devices having the elements, experience, and the expected characteristics. As the number of smartphone users continues to grow, the number of mobile app users also increases as well as downloading mobile apps. Bangladesh is the case of this research. With a huge population, the country is considered as one of the mostly dense countries in the world. The number of youths in the country also enormously increases each year. In Bangladesh, the population increases as well as the number of mobile phone users. Smartphone users are also on the rise mainly resulted from better affordability. The increased count of smartphone user will result to increased mobile application users. There is rising demand of research in mobile phone applications covering their features as well as their usability. Several such researches are conducted by the global technology giants, research groups, and individuals to outline the success trends of these mobile applications in the particular context of Bangladesh (Hassan, 2017; Hassan & Dadwal, 2016; Shabani et al., 2019). Still, there is a significant gap in this particular research area in context to Bangladesh. In this chapter, online resources are reviewed as the element of netnography. Review comments available on search engines such as Google and Yahoo that are relevant are added to support arguments. Netnography is identified as a useful marketing research technique when it can “identify and understand the needs and decision influences of relevant online consumer groups” (Kozinets, 2002, p. 62). Thus, this chapter aims to outline the application and usage of mobile apps in tourism in context of Bangladesh.

Mobile Applications (Apps) and their Uses in the Tourism Industry of Bangladesh E-commerce is the future of the Bangladeshi economy, and these mobile apps can possibly play a critical role in such technological advancement (The Daily Star, 2016). Like most of the developed countries in the world, the use of smartphones in Bangladesh has brought forward the lives of the Bangladeshi tourists to another level of comfort. Most of the tourism products and services are made easily accessible due to these technological interventions. In these days, tourists may be unable to have adequate time and scopes for going to the market and purchasing items they need.

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Thus, relying on smartphone can be easier and worthy means for placing order on the online marketplace and get them delivered at the doorstep. With the use of either app in smartphone, a tourist can purchase required items or whatever service or product they deserve with ease and comfort. The development of an innovative technology as Augmented Reality (AR) is effective in a sense when living a day without these technologies becomes difficult (Hassan & Shabani, 2017; Hassan & Ramkissoon, 2017; Hassan & Jung, 2016; Hassan & Rahimi, 2016). Mobile apps have not only brought convenience to the tourists but also offer them choices and freedom (Rahimi et al., 2017). These apps perform in a similar manner from any part of the country. These apps present convenience and comfort to the tourists and make their lives more flexible and enjoyable. Mobile apps have actually brought tourists on a platform on which they can get required service offers. With a click, tourists get almost everything they need, and most of these items also get delivered to their addresses. Mobile apps also offer concrete solutions to many type issues that tourists experience. These apps have made tourists’ lives so easy that with a simple click, they can book accommodation in places that are hundreds and thousand miles away, can order food, or can shop and even get them delivered in minutes. These apps also allow them to order a taxi or a ride. The use of mobile apps makes all these possible and makes the life of a tourist easier than ever before. In Bangladesh, mobile apps have managed to get considerable attention from the beneficiaries. A crucial component of mobile application usage relies on the Internet. Thus, tourists attempt to avail the most from the use of the Internet mainly because of its accessibility and usage. The types and ranges of products or services that tourists get from these mobile apps cover travel products, ticketing, transportation, hangout and roaming around the city, food items, groceries, shopping, and gadget servicing. Ullah and Islam (2017) pointed out that tourists expect to use the most beneficial services and products. Mobile app like Jovago.com is said as keen to offer the best for its users. This app stays as the most travel pick and the topmost choice for tourists. This app by comparing different tourism products and service offers (i.e., location and travel expense) brings the best for the tourists. The next relevant service that a tourist can expect is ticketing. This is very important in the event of travelling. In a country like Bangladesh, the transportation system is not good enough to offer tourists a smooth and pleasant travel experience. The season of travelling differs in both peak and off-peak, and thus managing a ticket cannot be easy. Mobile apps allow tourists getting the ticket easily and without hassles. Mobile app like Sohoz.com is arguably an amazing app for easily book the tickets be it for a plane, bus, or a train. This app saves time of the tourists and keeps them away from troubles and hassles of ticketing. The other service is transportation. This is one of the most sought after service that a tourist in Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, can expect. The traffic in Dhaka can be catastrophic and time-consuming (Frieschlad, 2017). Irani (2017) suggested that Pataho.com is such a mobile app that allows them moving away from all of these hustle and bustle. This is actually a riding share service that makes flying past the traffic very easily with the support of a car or a bike. In addition to Pataho.com,

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Uber.com also helps comfortable commuting in Dhaka that is expanding to many different cities of the country. The use of services for tourists in Dhaka is hangout and roaming around the city. This relates to outing as well as food at the same time. A night out or a day out can definitely bring joy in the typical life of a tourist and take boredom and stress away. Harriken.com and sheba.xyz are two mobile apps that have a complete list of good restaurants and cafes available in a specific location. These apps also come with relevant data and information as pricing and opening times at the same manner. Mobile apps like foodpanda.com or Hungrynaki.com can be the choices for the tourists in this regard. These two apps allow them to order foods and get them in the most convenient and efficient way. A single click allows the food to arrive at the consumer’s doorstep. The next useful stuff that mobile app can support is to order the groceries. Literally, tourists in these days hardly get time to go the market for shopping. Thus, mobile apps can help them in ordering the groceries. Chaldal.com is an example in this purpose. This actually helps tourists. This app has a complete list of grocery shopping. Also, this app allows tourists to stay at home and get the groceries they want. Shopping is the other aspect that mobile apps can cover. Buying behavior of the tourists can be different. Going to a supermarket is not easy for a tourist in these days. A mobile app like Bikroy.com can make positive shopping experience. Thousands of items are listed on this mobile app to choose from. Tourists get the chance to know the seller as well as details of each item. They can bargain unless they reach a good price. This app comes with cash on exchange thus wiping out the worries of product verification or quality. Gadget servicing is the other service that mobile apps can offer to tourists. Maintenance and repairing of a camera, a smartphone, a tablet or notebook, or a car or bike can possibly become a trouble for the tourists. Sheba.xyz is a mobile app to support gadget repairing and maintenance, cleaning, home repairing, and any sort of domestic help and support. This chapter identifies a number of mobile apps developed for tourists in the context of Bangladesh. The chapter therefore outlines arguably the most popular Android apps of Bangladesh that aligns the Bangladesh online marketplace as discussed below (Fig. 42.1):

Online Travel Assistant Apps for Tourists Ghurbo Ghurbo is an Online Travel Agency (OTA) created to empower Bangladeshi traveler through a travel technology and app that exponentially saves the time and effort required to plan and book leisure or business travel. Ghurbo plays the role of a virtual travel manager, as it uses the inventory of hotels, tour packages, bus, train and flight information, etc. Furthermore, by using this application’s features, tourists can even

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Online Travel Assistant App

Ghurbo, ShareTrip, Amy

Transport Assistant and Ticketing App

Pathao.com, Uber, Shohoz, OBHAI, BDTICKETS, Biman Bangladesh Airlines, Rail Sheba Jovago, Airbnb, Booking.com, ShareTrip, Ghurbo. Hungrynaki.com, Uber Eats, Foodpanda, Pathao Foods.

Accommodation Assistant App (Hotel/Resort booking) Restaurant & Food Delivery Tourists App Financial Assistant App (Banking Transactions, Bill Payments etc.) Safety and Security Assistant App (Emergency Services) Shopping Assistant App (Grocery, Electronic Appliance, Apparel, Books, Jewellery items etc.) Media and Entertainment Assistant app

bKash, Nagad, Rocket. BD Police Helpline, BD 999.

Chaldal.com, Sheba.xyz, Bikroy.com, Rokomary.com, Aarong, AjkerDeal, Evaly, Pickaboo, Shajgoj, Daraz. Bioscope, Bongo, Toffee, Prothom alo, The Daily Star, Bangladesh Pratidin, Kaler Kantho, Bangla Newspapers.

Fig. 42.1 Most popular mobile applications in Bangladesh for tourist. (Source: developed by the authors)

create their own travel plan as it suggests touristic places based on the users current location with great deals. This OTA app allows tourists an opportunity to chat with the travel agents directly to design the best travel deals using advanced data analytics solution. Travel dealing with this app is unique because it ensures secured travelling by providing travel insurance coverage.

ShareTrip ShareTrip has got its recognition as an online travel subsidiary for tourists that extends its’ assistance to get airline tickets to hotel bookings and domestic and international holiday packages with estimated cost listings. This app networks hundreds of airlines and more than one million accommodations across the world which is a cohesion process. Moreover, travellers can book the “airport to hotel” and “hotel to airport” transport through this app. ShareTrip has an exciting strategy for its tourists who can earn trip coins by booking hotel rooms, airplane flights, transfers, tours, and holiday bundles on the app. Tourist can convert the earned trip coins to avail the discount on the next bookings. Most particularly this app is convenient for the budget tourists as it provides the cheapest hotel and air fare with zero cancellation policy.

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Amy Amy is another popular travel assistant application that has been providing travel services to the tourists since 2015. This application is recognized by US-Bangla Airlines, Novoair, Regent Airways, and Biman Bangladesh Airlines. Any tourist can instantly purchase domestic or international air tickets, book hotels, and buy tour packages by using this app anytime. Its payment facilities include debit card/credit card, bKash, or Amy Credit Limit (ACL).

Transport Assistant and Ticketing Apps for Tourists Pathao.com Pathao.com (2019) is probably the most ever popular mobile app used in Bangladesh. This initiative is relatively new and renders some uniqueness in its features and uses. This app is getting popularity enormously. In the earlier days, Pathao.com was criticized as a copy of mobile apps that offer parcel delivery, bike services, car rent, e-commerce package delivery, and even food delivery and many others. Still, Pathao.com has something very special, and its own features (i.e., deliveries, parcels, food, rides, and cars) are also different from the others allowing it to offer a strong standpoint in the Bangladesh online market place. This mobile app actually reshaped the concept of ride-sharing. Tourists as users can simultaneously avail a bike or car service with the most ease and comfort. The way Pataho.com works is slightly different from the rest others. Pathao.com delivery service offers logistics support to all users including tourists. This mobile app connects online stores with the consumers. Several domestic e-commerce business enterprises like AjkerDeal.com or daraz.com.bd use Pathao.com services for delivering the products or services through their sites directly to the buyer. This service as offered through the vertical of business also comes with cash on delivery (COD), 24-hour customer service, and reverses logistics that is a return to origin support/ sender. By using this software application, tourists get additional benefits of having their products delivered to convenient places and saving huge delivery time and expenses. Thus, mobile apps can add value to specific tourism products and services. This mobile application has a mobile-friendly design that allows the users to access the services on any technological devices such as laptop, web, smartphone, or even a 24-hour service and support for the customer meaning that tourists can have solutions regarding any issues in any hour of the daytime. In addition, as Pathao.com uses bicycles and motorbikes for most of their deliveries, they receive an additional advantage of being more environment friendly than other competitors that somehow reduces their carbon footprint and values their brand image. Moreover, the low level of competition in the motorbikes or taxi cab ride-sharing services and cheaper price than the other similar service providers create huge opportunities for Pathao.com to flourish and capitalize from these pertaining issues.

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Uber Uber is another most popular ride-sharing (private car) mobile application used by citizens and tourists for easy and comfort movements in Bangladesh. Uber’s business expansion in several cities and popular routes in Bangladesh ease the tourists to find their fast and reliable rides in minutes. This application offers several options to its users, for example, UberX for affordable individuals, UberPool (ride-sharing with other riders headed to the same way) for the money savers or budget tourists, UberBlack option for the users who love to travel with high-end vehicle, etc. When a tourist sends a request by entering the place where he/she wants to travel, this app automatically shows user’s location so that the drivers can know where to pick up the passenger. Additionally the tourist can also see the driver’s and vehicle details, i.e., picture, ratings, etc., on screen and track the vehicle’s arrival on the map. Easy payment options (cash, credit cards, and more), after-ride ratings or feedback, receiving receipt by e-mail, and environment friendliness have made this application unique. For instance Uber has taken an exclusive project namely “Unhonk” to bring down the noise level near the hospital areas in Dhaka. To ensure the peaceful environment for both the citizen and hospital patients, this global ride-sharing company used a GPS-based electronic device to cut off power to the horn when the vehicles reach within 75–100 meters vicinity of hospital zones and automatically restore the power to the horn when the vehicles moves out the pre-programmed zones (The New Age, 2019a).

Shohoz Shohoz claims itself a super app, which simplifies and resolves daily needs of the masses of Bangladesh. It launched its journey as an online transport tickets booking software which first arranged entrant in this field in Bangladesh. This laudable service of Shohoz establishes it as the market leader. Since its introduction in the market, this app is downloaded more than five million times; 65+ million transactions held by this app, and thus it has served 15+ million Bangladeshi peoples. Shohoz has become highlighted to its tourist to easily buy tickets for his/her destination from 2000+ travel routes and more than 100 bus companies. Besides countrywide transport ticket booking services, recently ride-sharing service is a new dimension of it within city (Dhaka and Chittagong) and food delivery service in the capital. The conjoined features have made a great contribution for extending its popularity.

OBHAI The daily transportation needs of the tourists are accomplished through OBHAI. The accumulation of ride-sharing service including CNG, taxi, auto-bike, etc. under one roof propagates its convenience to the tourist to pick his/her desired vehicle to reach

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the destination. As OBHAI claims it is the easiest way for the tourists to get a secured ride with fair fare policy. OBHAI confirms maximum security for the tourists by ensuring trained and professionally certified drivers. As well the time-to-time tracking to the vehicles ensures a secured and safe journey without any inconsistent incidents that occur with the passengers/tourists.

BDTICKETS BDTICKETS confirms one-stop ticketing solution for all kinds of travel tickets for the tourists. BDTICKETS is supposed to be the largest ticket inventory in Bangladesh claimed by it. Bus, launch, and air tickets across the country can be easily managed through this premium online booking portal. BDTICKETS provides bus tickets of 64 districts with more than 400 hundred routes. By using this app, any tourists can find domestic travel tickets (bus, launch, and airplane) at the best price with a click. BDTICKETS fulfills the demand of the tourists on various aspects including easy ticket booking process, online seat selection, and guaranteed refund policy to grab the tourists’ preference.

Biman Bangladesh Airlines Biman Bangladesh Airlines has got the prestigious approval to carry the national flag of Bangladesh that helps tourist to book flight tickets within the shortest possible time through its official mobile application. Book now and pay later facility, online reservation and flight status checking, various payment options, two-factor security alert, and SMS and e-mail notifications feature of this app are the acknowledged services which simultaneously possess the attention of the tourists.

Rail Sheba Purchasing rail tickets is a matter of few minutes now as the Ministry of Railway Bangladesh has launched this one-stop ticketing service app for railways to facilitate the travellers/tourists with saving time and cost. According to the railway authority, this Rail Sheba app is downloaded and used by 231,000 Android mobile phone users and 10,517 IOS users approximately, and a total of 166,687 rail tickets were sold through this app during the Eid ul-Fitr holidays, and it saved around half million labor hours (The Independent, 2019). After booking the tickets, tourists can pay in several online ways such as visa card, credit card, bKash, etc. Through this app any tourists can buy domestic train tickets and can have hassle-free journey by using the e-ticket. Besides these most popular transport assistant and ticketing apps, there are some more apps such as Novoair, Regent Airways, US-Bangla Airlines, Emirates, etc. for booking or purchasing domestic or international air tickets and London Express Ltd.

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Bangladesh, ENA Transport, etc. for bus tickets, and Shohoz Launch/steamer tickets assist tourists to meet their travelling and transport needs.

Accommodation Assistant Apps for Tourists Jovago Jovago is an online hotel booking application of Bangladesh which facilitates easygoing service to thousands of tourists to book hotel room. This app-based hotel booking platform offers more than 500 hotels and resorts across the country (The Daily Star, 2017a). Jovago provides real images of the hotel rooms with its app so that the tourists can get to know exactly what they are paying for. Basically the tourists can have the knowledge of the actual environment about the hotel rooms. According to Jovago, this app offers best rates and hotel room deals for the tourists. This app also provides trip advisory and “Hotels near me” notification support to the tourists that helps to book a varieties of hotel from star category to budgetary guest houses even at the last minute.

Airbnb Airbnb completely has revolutionized the tourists’ accommodation services. It cultivates a different type of tourism in Bangladesh where tourists are able to stay with locals at homes to get better understanding of the country and culture (Anik, 2017). This application is very handy especially for the foreign tourists who want to visit Bangladesh as it connects tourists to unique travel experiences at reasonable price. This application displays rented apartments, houses, and rooms with details information such as picture, facilities, offers, prices, etc. Tourists can easily find his/her accommodation by using this app.

Booking.com Booking.com is another handy accommodation assistant application for the tourists. It is extremely efficient in booking hotel, motel, hostels, vacation rentals, and resort rooms as well as transportation (flight, car rental, airport taxis, etc.), and its later paying option is a great relief to many domestic and foreign tourists of Bangladesh. Through this easy accommodation and transportation booking app, any tourist can also compare the hotel room with others and find the best price on hotel rooms. A tourist gets the opportunity to browse and check more than 27 million hotel room options across the world with this app. Unique features like no booking or credit card fees, e-mail confirmation, and 24/7 customer service with 40 different languages,

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availability of numerous first-hand traveller experiences, and reviews make this app favorite to the tourists of Bangladesh. Apart from these most used apps for accommodation booking, trivago (hotel price comparison app) and Agoda (easy deals on hotels and homes) also assist tourists to find the best hotel rooms.

Restaurant and Food Delivery Apps for Tourists Hungrynaki.com Hungrynaki.com (2019) believes that almost every single Bangladeshi is a food lover. As a result, this mobile app of food service stays as one of the favorites in Bangladesh. This specific food service mobile app has expanded its operation in Dhaka, Chattogram, Sylhet, Narayanganj, and Cox’s Bazar. This mobile app offers options to tourists to select a nearby restaurant and make an order promptly. Apart from relevant offers and promotions, this mobile app has some of its own promotional offers for its customers.

Uber Eats The ride-sharing company Uber has introduced another food delivery app, namely, “Uber Eats” in Dhaka, Bangladesh, with a view to connecting people to the food they love. This app helps bring food to customers or tourists in a convenient and reliable manner from different restaurants. Simple ordering, order ahead, pickup, delivery, and real-time order tracking features make this app different from others. According to Uber Eats, more than 1 billion orders have been delivered using this app. This mobile-based software application was recognized by Google Play as “Editor’s Choice” and also included in the “Best of 2018 Awards” in the “User’s Choice” category.

Foodpanda foodpanda claims itself as the best food delivery service in the city. Foodpanda Bangladesh offers food delivery service from more than 2000 restaurants in the major tourists visiting areas Dhaka, Chattogram, and Sylhet. The food-loving tourists can choose and order from over 25 diverse cuisines through this app as foodpanda makes available the detailed food menus of the best restaurants and local favorite dishes. Once the order is completed, the chosen restaurant starts preparing the food. Besides cash on delivery facilities, this food delivery service app reaches the food buyer with quality food, and they guarantee it as well.

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Financial Assistant Apps for Tourists bKash bKash was made known to the 70% rural population of Bangladesh in July, 2011, for providing the quick access to financial services and promoting financial inclusion for the unbanked (BRAC, 2011). It works as a medium of financial transaction swiftly and securely within the country for the tourists. Through this application a tourist can transmit money, add money, and pay bill. By using this application, a tourist can get the facilities of mobile recharge, airtime to up, transportation and movie ticket purchase, and many more services as well. Fortune magazine stated that bKash has upgraded its position among the top 50 companies in their list titled “Change the World” in 2017 (Dhaka Tribune, 2017). For its easy and user-friendly features, it has been acknowledged as the best landmark of novelty at Financial Innovation Category in Bangladesh Innovation Award (Dhaka Tribune, 2018). It became the largest provider of mobile financial services (MFS) in Bangladesh (The Financial Express, 2017). As of May 2019, bKash is connected with 3.1 crore active users (Islam, 2019). Till December 2019, there are 16 (Rocket, bKash, UCash, MyCash, OK, NAGAD, T-cash, mCash, SureCash, iPay, Mobi Cash, Mpay, Ortho, Dmoney, Gpay, Robi Cash) app
/mobile-based financial service providers in Bangladesh (Bangladesh Bank, 2019), but particularly these two (bKash and Rocket), accumulated 99% market share (Islam, 2017). Apart from that, the huge percentage cash back service of bKash uplifts its position progressively to its customers based on various occasions.

Nagad The concept of “Digital Bangladesh” has given Nagad as its important share (Ahmed, 2019). It is a Bangladeshi Digital Financial Service (DFS) that is administered by the Bangladesh Post Office which is an associated division of the Ministry of Post and Telecommunication Bangladesh. Nagad introduced its own mobile-based software application for the clients and stakeholders since the beginning of its operation. This app meets the growing digital financial needs of the tourists. Nagad sets its goal to enhance the lives of tourists as users by empowering them with financial flexibility. Tourists might be readily enticed by this app’s demanding services such as money in, out, and transfer, cell phone recharging, mobile banking, etc. The bill payment service, e-commerce payment gateway, and many more features are going to become the new dimensions of this app within very short period of time.

Rocket Dutch-Bangla Bank Mobile Banking Application can be beneficial to anyone having a mobile number of any telco operator and an Android phone. Both Bangla and English languages are available in this app. DBBL’s Rocket, the second largest

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player in mobile banking, now holds a 17 percent market share in Bangladesh’s mobile financial industry. After online registration any domestic tourist as user can deposit and withdraw cash, withdraw ATM money, have mobile top-up, transfer money from person to person (P2P), pay utility bill, international remittance, disburse salary and government allowance, transfer fund to any rocket account, and inquire about balance and account by using this app (The Independent, 2020). Through Rocket app tourists can also pay their income taxes from anywhere. After the tax payment is made, the tourist taxpayers can get a printed copy of their tax challan from the provided e-mail address, and they can put forward it along with the tax return without difficulty (The New Age, 2019b).

Safety and Security Assistant Apps for Tourists BD Police Helpline In accordance with the vision 2021 (formation of digital country) initiated by the Government of Bangladesh, Bangladesh Police Department has introduced several innovations to deliver better services to the country’s residents. BD Police Helpline application is one of those innovative initiatives. This app is designed in an easy-touse version so that every citizen or tourists can collaborate with the Bangladesh Police by providing any information that they may feel the need to notify the Police Department. The feedback from police will also be available to all users of this application as public information. Through this app any tourist can easily inform and ask for help from the police.

BD 999 This app can be called as digital security assistant for the country’s citizen and tourist. BD 999 is the national emergency service app of Bangladesh that alerts Bangladesh police in case of emergency situation by sending text along with the location data and a short video clip. Additionally, the location data automatically updates so that the police can respond, track, and reach the exact place. For using this app, tourists as users have to press the red button switch until it turns green for activating emergency. For registration, users only need to provide contact details (with emergency contact) to use this app.

Shopping Assistant Apps for Tourists Chaldal.com According to Chaldal.com (2019) , this is a popular app for tourists and mostly used for grocery shopping. The app allows tourists to have good and convenient online grocery shopping experience. Tourists as users can order any grocery item or product

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using this app. The use is so flexible, that is, tourists as users just need to visit the mobile app and get the expected service or product offers. Grocery items are also delivered on time and in excellent condition as claimed by most of the tourists. This mobile app also saves time of the tourists from ordering the item till delivery. The approximate time is less than 1 hour that is relatively acceptable from any point of grocery shopping experiences. As an emergency item, pesticides are also made available on this app. Famous brand like Golden Harvest, Aarong, Cosmos Group, and Lamudi are accessing this app’s service on a regular basis, and this customer list is expanding as well.

Sheba.xyz As stated by Sheba.xyz (2019), this mobile app offers some space to relax for its users. This mobile app allows tourists as users to get the desired service on their fingertip. Almost all services (i.e. appliance repair, shifting, gadgets repair, business support, beauty services, laundry home services, home or office renovation, cleaning, pest control and car rental) as required in the daily lifestyle can be accessed through this mobile app. In reality, this mobile app makes tourist life easier by providing many different service offers like live chat service, renting a car or arranging a going out and presents instant solution to any difficult issue. This app has managed to get attention from big corporate houses like Summit Communication, Grameenphone, Coca-Cola, WeDevs, Uber.com as users of this mobile app.

Bikroy.com According to Bikroy.com (2019), this is presumably the largest online marketplace in Bangladesh that actually benefits tourists. This mobile app as claimed has made the online buying and selling easier and convenient than ever. Tourists as users at the initial stage need to open an account and can post the advertisement in minutes. On this app, tourists can buy or sell electronic items, mobile phones, vehicles, property, household items, beauty products, pet products, sports items, and food products. Services are also sold and bought on this mobile app. Tourists can learn, buy, or sell services as education courses, business and industry services, jobs, and so many stuffs as required for the tourist’s day-to-day lifestyle. This app also offers job placements for the users, and users can get a tourism-related job using this app. This app’s service is expanded to each district in Bangladesh, and the overall performance is also satisfactory.

Rokomary.com Rokomary.com, a top app-based e-bookstore is well-known to its customers especially for selling books and movie series. Currently this app is connecting a huge

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number of bookworms with more than one hundred seventy thousand books and on an average two and a half thousand books every day. Not just in Bangladesh, Rokomari.com has drawn attention of overseas readers and has exceeded the national boundary (Sultana, 2015). Using this app any tourist from all over the world can purchase books, music albums, and movie series in accordance with their interests.

Aarong For a fashion conscious tourist, Aarong, a popular app in Bangladesh, has added a new dimension for its recipients. Aarong extends its production units in the rural and semi-urban environmental settings as a part of its social enterprise strategy model and links customers through its own application software and 14 retail outlets in 6 Bangladeshi metropolitan cities (The Daily Star, 2017b). A tourist can use this app to acquire up-to-date information and shop the newest trends in apparel, jewellery, and interior decorating at any time and location. Besides, tourists can also use similar category apps like Ecstasy, Easy Fashion, etc. for shopping trendy cloth items.

AjkerDeal AjkerDeal starts its journey as the world’s first B2C e-commerce app. AjkerDeal has given 170 million Bengali-speaking customers the opportunity to shop online in their mother language. This app exhibits more than 150,000 products at a time. Plenty of well fashion brands, such as Levi’s, Nike, Elizabeth Arden, Hublot, Edifice, and many others, are introduced through this app. This app accumulates all the needs of the tech lovers by presenting best branded laptops, mobiles, computer accessories, tabs, and other gadgets on the app. A number of searching filters options and very specific and elaborate categorization features of AjkerDeal app help customers/tourists to find out desired products with a single click. Moreover, it is the first e-commerce-based app in Bangladesh which secured online payment option. The fashion and tech lover tourists can avail the opportunity to shop variety of products at an absolutely reasonable price with free delivery facility at the doorstep.

Evaly Evaly, an e-commerce website reaches to every individual in Bangladesh by delivering all kinds of products. It started journey in the e-marketplace on the country’s victory day in 2018. According to Evaly, customers can get an easy access to this app and purchase almost everything from a safety pin to an apartment building, pencil to a book, a dress to a cell phone, and cars to lands, which are available in this app. This app is backed by 15 thousand offline and 10 thousand active registered sellers. The

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vast diversified product range and guaranteed user’s information security differentiate this app-based e-commerce website from the others in the relevant category. This is the noticeable attribute of this app. This user-friendly app successfully surpassed ten million turnovers on its first birthday. In the field of competitive world more, than 50 thousand customers browse Evaly offers during peak hours which is really praise worthy, and thus Evaly sold 1200 plus motorbikes through its offer campaign (Babu, 2019).

Pickaboo Pickaboo fulfills the necessity of the tourists which is one-stop solution for their shopping needs. It amplifies tourists’ desires to shop a wide collection of genuine local and foreign branded fashion accessories, technological gadgets, cosmetic items, household appliances, mobile phones, computer accessories, cameras, and much more through this app. Tourists have grown through best e-commerce transaction experience with easy return options, product replacement, fastest delivery service, and different payment options including payment on delivery, card on delivery, e-payments, swipe-on-delivery, installment payment up to 36 months EMI (equated monthly installment) facilities, and bKash payment. Just by the swipe of a finger, anyone can get the ordered products right at the doorstep. The most important feature of this app is the products’ originality warranty. Pickaboo acquires its consumers’ trust as they can read the reviews and ratings of all products given by the consumers or other buyers with this app.

Shajgoj Shajgoj is the first beauty shopping app of Bangladesh that allows tourists to choose cosmetics, skin, and hair care items from more than 10,000 products ranging over 450 of national and international brands. This app also provides the necessary beauty consultation to its users. Tourists can easily fulfill their cosmetic shopping needs through this app.

Daraz Daraz is an online shopping app that claims itself as number one shopping app. Generally it is one of the leading online marketplaces in Bangladesh which provide instant and easy access to over four million items from more than 200 diverse product segments. According to Daraz, this app is used up to three million users daily. By using this app, a tourist can easily shop his/her desired items and get those delivered at the door as Daraz displays almost every daily necessary product. The advantages of this app include easy refund policy, voucher discount, Daraz wallet, wide collection of global products, etc.

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Media and Entertainment Assistant App Bioscope Bioscope is the first mobile phone application of Bangladesh which gives the opportunity to enjoy live streaming television channels, sports, TV serials, movies, dramas, etc. to the tourists and thus entertains them while on move. One can also access the missed out recent shows and episodes by clicking “Catch-up” option in this app, as it records favorite shows for convenience watching. Movie loving tourist can enjoy variety of movies from this app’s collections.

Bongo Bongo is another entertainment assistant app for the tourist that displays thousands of Bangla funny clips, blockbuster movies, sports clips, and dramas. To enjoy Bongo services, tourists have to register via his/her cell phone number and pay a certain amount of money as fees.

Toffee Toffee does not give a chance to miss a single episode, video, or show to the tourists. Additionally this app offer access to the maximum number of national and international television channels, dramas, movies, music, entertainment shows, etc. Through this app tourists can experience hassle-free television entertainment. Moreover this app gifts the user free access of the first 30 days from the first log in.

Bangla Newspapers This is a very popular app which contains more than 500 Bangla Newspapers. It includes national, international, business, sports, magazine, education, jobs, and blog. Tourists can read, bookmark, and share all of the abovementioned category’s news in the most convenient way through this all in one app.

The Daily Star The Daily Star is one of the leading national newspapers of Bangladesh. Its Android app presents all the news from The Daily Star website to the smartphone for free. This app automatically updates 24/7 to provide the latest news to the users regarding business, education, sports, national and international politics, breaking, entertainment, lifestyle, and many more. During travel, tourists can easily read the news by

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using this app from anywhere, anytime. Tourists can also use similar apps like Prothom Alo, Kaler Kantho, Daily Sun, Bangladesh Pratidin, bdnews24.com, etc. to read news.

Bangladesh as the Promising Field of Mobile Applications The promises of mobile application in tourism in Bangladesh are enormous. At present Bangladesh has 53 national apps found in Google Play Store (Google Play, 2020). Even as a developing country like Bangladesh, the mobile phone penetration remains a hot topic for decades. According to Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission (BTRC), the total number of mobile phone and Internet subscribers in Bangladesh has reached 165.572 million and 99.428 million, respectively, at the end of December, 2019 (BTRC, 2019). The smartphone (Android or IOS) and Internet users in Bangladesh have increased rapidly than the previous years. Most of the tourists originating from every segment of the society have access to the Internet and to smartphone. These tourists use the Internet on gadgets like smartphone or laptop notebook with great confidence. One of the key reasons for a tremendous growth of the Internet penetration in Bangladesh is the growth of an affluent social class. This specific class comes with considerable amount of disposable income and leisure time allowing them to spend relatively more time on the Internet and to bring out the best of it. This class of the society also pushes forward the entire economy to allure companies to invest more in technology application in the tourism industry. Keeping this in mind, many companies have launched mobile apps that help the user both accessing and availing services or products they expect. Moreover most of the companies are now introducing their own software or app to stay ahead of the competition and to reach customer through quick service. For instance, in the financial app category BRAC bank’s BKash, Dutch-Bangla Bank’s app Rocket, United Commercial bank’s UCash, Islami Bank’s mCash, Rupali bank’s app SureCash, etc., in the transportation segment ENA Transport Ltd., London Express, Novoair, Regent Airways, and US-Bangla Airlines, Emirates has their own app for the convenient shopping of the tourists or customers. By using these apps, most of the busy citizens or city dwellers are fulfilling their daily needs rather going to the market or the office. In such case tourists have not exception here in using app to accomplish their travel needs as there are plenty of apps surrounded to them. For tourists, Ghurbo, ShareTrip, Amy, etc. act as online travel agent/agency, Pathao, Uber, Shohoz, OBHAI, BDTICKETS, etc.; apps that are providing quick ticketing or transport solutions, Jovago, Airbnb, Booking.com etc., assist to find best accommodation; apps like Hungrynaki.com, Uber Eats, foodpanda, Pathao Foods are delivering restaurant or food services; and Chaldal.com, Sheba.xyz, Bikroy.com, Rokomary.com, Aarong, AjkerDeal, Evaly, Pickaboo, Shajgoj, Daraz, etc. can be called as one-stop shopping apps, whereas BD Police Helpline and BD 999 are assuring the prompt response in case of safety and security incidents or emergency situations at any tourism destinations. Moreover now tourists can easily get access to over 100 television channels and enjoy live streaming, watch movies, sports, and

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dramas, and they can also read more than 500 newspapers with the help of mobile applications. Mobile applications like Bioscope, Bongo, Toffee, etc. provide the opportunity to the tourists to experience television facilities while on travelling; besides newspaper reading apps the Prothom Alo, the Daily Star, the Daily Sun, Bangladesh Pratidin, bdnews24.com, Kaler Kantho, Bangla Newspapers, etc. keep tourists informed with the updated news. Even some specific area-based mobile applications are getting the attention of the tourists, for example, FoodShahi, a food home delivery service app of Rajshahi City only, that has brought all the restaurants under one place. Jobike is the first app-based station-less bike-sharing service in Bangladesh which is available only Dhaka, Chattogram, and Cox’s Bazar city area. Tourist can paddle the bike and reach the destination by using this app. The government of Bangladesh has also prioritized the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) sector and emphasized on app-based service in order to transform the country to Digital Bangladesh, to serve the root level peoples, and to provide them easy access to information. The government’s access to information (a2i) program already developed 21 mobile applications for its citizen. Development of apps like Biman Bangladesh Airlines, Rail Sheba, Nagad, Bangladesh police helpline, and national security app (BD 999) are the examples of government’s interest on app-based service.

Review Comments on Mobile Applications in Bangladesh Regarding the time spent by tourists on mobile apps, reviews appeared very specific. For the easy understanding of this review, comments appeared as since when tourists started using mobile apps. Review comments were overwhelming where most of the reviewers commented that they have been using mobile apps at least for the last 2 years. On the other side, very few review comments were found where tourists were using mobile app for over 5 years. From the review comments, this is clear and evident that the number of tourists using mobile apps is increasing rapidly. Reviewers clearly expressed their opinion that most of the smartphone users tend to make the best use of their device. In coming years, this number will rise significantly, and almost all tourists as users will use the mobile apps. A reviewer provided a useful prediction that the use of mobile app user in Bangladesh would be the highest in the Asia Pacific region mainly due to the population as well as the Internet penetration in this country. A summary of online reviews is prepared that covered very specific points as gadgets on which the mobile apps are used, language preferences, downloading preferences of mobile apps, expectation form mobile apps, whether mobile apps are able to make the users’ life more productive, and benefits of using mobile apps with Pathao.com as an example. Regarding the gadgets on which the mobile apps are used, a good number of reviewers commented positive. This point of discussion generated some insights and trends of the present situation. Most of the reviews appeared as positive where

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tourists as users identified smartphone device as the most used gadget for the purpose. This review is rather common in the Bangladesh context and explains that smartphones are the best possible way to access mobile apps. One of the reviewers commented that a good number of the domestic tourists in Bangladeshi have the latest smartphones mainly because of their affordability. These tourists also use handheld gadgets as tablets or notebooks to access required mobile apps. However, the price of such gadgets needs to be kept low. Another reviewer commented that most of the tourists as users are keen to purchase smartphone devices allowing them more access and freedom. Smartphones are relatively smaller in size and can be used with better ease from anywhere. The relevant benefits of smartphone devices are also higher having high-end specifications as CPU clock or ram and camera in comparison to the conventional tablet computer that help tourists as users. In terms of preferable language of the mobile apps, most of the reviewers commented that it would be better to have the apps in English. This comment is important as this relates the use of mobile apps. A good number of the reviewers answered that the preferred app interface language should be English. This shows the number of English language competent population is rising in the country along with the foreigner tourists. The other group of reviewers argued that the apps should be both in English and Bengali. This would help both the villagers and low educated users having inadequate knowledge in English and thus can work using the Bengali language in the time of necessity. A significant finding here is that very few and almost no reviewers demanded the mobile apps in Bengali only. These reviewers actually were not less educated; rather they respected the Bengali as the mother tongue. Thus, the generic finding from this is that tourists like to have mobile apps in English and Bengali to get tourism product and services. Review comments regarding the downloading preferences of mobile apps were encouraging. Tourists choose mobile apps in accordance to their necessities, and they consider their capacities to meet specific demands. The reason to download a specific mobile app can have several reasons. Reviewers were clear in their opinion of how they find a specific mobile app to download and use. Review comments show that tourists consider whether the mobile app would be able to meet their specific demands, and they will get the expected service in those mobile apps. These reviewers judge very carefully before considering to download a mobile app and also consider whether this would be able to meet their demand. A small number of the review comments also stressed on considering the ratings or recommendations of that specific mobile app. These reviewers also asserted to bring into consideration the suggestions and popularity of selected mobile apps before downloading. From the general understanding of review comments by the users supported by ratings and choice preferences to download, the quality and usability of the mobile apps stay as the basic criterion to download and use a specific mobile app. Reviewers commented on the quality of mobile apps that they expect. As appeared, most of the tourists as users anticipated good performance of mobile apps. These tourists as users seemed unwilling to see mobile apps are not performing well. From this consideration, their priority was to get the best and the most reliable

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mobile apps. Reviewers also commented on smartphone quality. These reviewers did not want their smartphone devices crashed, smashed, hang, or out of service very frequently. This is thus revealed that these tourists as users liked to have a smartphone device that is handy and has the best features with good performances. On the other side, almost no reviews appeared on unwillingness to get a good mobile app or a smartphone device. These tourists as users tend to remain happy and satisfied as long as their purpose is served. These tourists also want to have useful mobile apps and attractive smartphones. Review comments in this regard suggest that most of the tourists as users of smartphone devices remain happy and satisfied with the smartphone device they have. These tourists as users wanted that both mobile apps and smartphone device performs well. The very generic summary of these review comments are that mobile app and smartphone device developers need to shed enormous attention in both product development and product designing. Useful mobile apps need to be developed, and attractively designed smartphone devices need to perform well. Regarding the review comments of whether mobile apps are able to make the users’ life more productive generated enthusiasm. Almost all of the reviewers commented positively that mobile apps have positive impacts on their daily livelihood. A very few reviewers commented negatively that is rather very few and thus negligible to consider. Reviewers commented positively to express their thoughts on mobile apps that these mobile apps have brought significant changes in their lives making it easier than ever before. These reviewers also ensured that these mobile apps offer them comfort and relaxation. These come in ways like tourists do not have to do physical labor either by going for shopping or going out for purchasing food of ticket. They can do these very easily staying in their home. One of the reviewers pointed out the relative advantages of mobile apps with the example of Pathao.com. At the initial instance, the fare of Pathao.com might appear as expensive. However, the effective use of the app would definitely lower the fare. For this, tourists need to be aware of the effective use of this mobile app. In the consideration of traffic in Dhaka, a normal taxi passenger has to remain stationary at the traffic queue. Thus, charges for such waiting time are added on the actual fare. A conventional taxicab can commute three to four passengers per ride resulting a relatively higher fare per passenger. However, ride share app Pathao.com can commute only one passenger per ride by a bike. By using this app, tourists can reach a destination using narrow side roads and avoid the main or busy highway traffic jam. This actually, keeps the fare lower than a normal taxi cab.

Mobile Applications and its Contribution for Tourism Development and Promotion Tourist transportation is an ancillary service of tourism that has enormous importance. This has huge importance in tourism service experience in countries where the transportation system is lagged far behind than the developed countries. Using this

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platform several mobile apps have appeared in the scene to offer an excellent and hassle-free tourism experience. These mobile app-based services are mostly centered within Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh. In this country, there are several modes of transportation covering air, water, and road. There is a strong belief that these mobile apps have been able to bring a dynamic change in the tourism service experience. However, these mobile apps till to date are unable to cover these transportation modes comprehensively. For example, ship tickets for travelling Saint Martin Island from Cox’s Bazar or Teknaf are not still available. Thus, there are still scopes for development. Relying on the generic outcomes, this research makes five specific suggestions. First, clear understanding of the demands of these mobile applications in Bangladesh is essential. Second, multilingual mobile apps are a demand because of the tourist diversities and origin. Third, affordability of the tourists was the other suggestion. This is useful to learn whether tourists are willing to pay extra for mobile applications; and if yes, for which specific feature they are willing to pay for. This is also good to understand the way to purchase mobile applications and mobile-related contents in Bangladesh by tourists. Fourth, knowing the tourist perception is important. Characteristics of mobile application that tourists expect should be learnt by the mobile apps developers and service providers. Fifth, knowing the most demanding mobile applications from the tourist perspectives is useful to get a wider insight into the mobile application user behavior. The Fig. 42.2 is the summary of the netnographic results against key explanations offered in the previous of this chapter.

Gadgets on which the mobile apps used are gadgets like Smartphone and tablet or notebook computer

Mobile apps are benefitting tourists as users in a great way

Mobile apps are able to make the users more productive

Language preferences is both English and Bengali

Downloading preferences of mobile apps depend on tourist choices

Tourists as users expect that mobile apps have good quality and better usability Fig. 42.2 Summary of major findings. (Source: developed by the authors)

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Conclusion This research on the basis of reviewing online resources aims at outlining the application and usage of mobile apps in tourism in the present context of Bangladesh. Analysis evidenced that mobile apps are having effects on tourists as users in terms of their access and freedom to choice. In a specific circumstance, tourists can easily compare the costs of their expected services and products by using mobile apps. This research covers mobile app use by tourists as users followed by relevant explanations. In this research, very specific areas are selected for analysis related to the mobile app use by tourists in Bangladesh. Mobile apps actually drive technology in the tourism industry, in principle. Mobile apps allow tourists to get involved with the online marketplace and get their expected services and products. Mobile apps in Bangladesh are mostly start-ups that constantly evolve and develop. In general, these mobile apps are expected to grow their infrastructures and connections to cover the entire nation, allowing everyone to receive the benefits from the services they offer. It is part of the Bangladesh government’s digitization initiative which comes at a time when its popularity is significantly expanding. Most of these mobile app service providers arguably believe to bring dynamism in its service. This is true that, e-commerce will play crucial role in the Bangladeshi economy in coming years. A basic outcome of this research is to outline some key aspects using mobile apps in Bangladesh as, first, mobile apps are used on gadgets like smartphone and tablet or notebook computer; second, language preferences are both English and Bengali; third, downloading preferences of mobile apps relies on the demands of tourists as users; fourth, tourists as users expect that mobile apps have good quality and better usability; fifth, mobile apps are able to make the users’ life more productive; and sixth, mobile apps are benefitting tourists as users in a great way. This research is unique in the sense that this study is a contribution to the limited knowledge as identified. Limited literary works in this identified area were a limitation of this research. This research suggests that mobile applications are used by tourists and regardless of their nationality. Thus, future studies should bring out the use of mobile applications by tourists from wider perspectives.

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Health Tourism vs. Medical Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Is Medical in Tourism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical Tourism from the Asian Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Are the Negativities That Medical Tourists Need to Be Aware of? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Is Innovative Technology Application in Medical Tourism? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical Tourism in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical Tourism in India and Technology Diffusion in the Indian Medical Tourism Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of Information Technology in Medical Care and Health Sector in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Datamate Mediware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total Clinic Automation System (TCAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Administrator Plus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prospects of Medical Tourism in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bangladesh’s Advancement in Medical and Healthcare Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Barriers of Medical Tourism Business in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical Tourism in Bangladesh and Technology Diffusion in the Bangladeshi Medical Tourism Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of Information Technology in Medical Care and Health Sector in Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . Medical Helpline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bangladesh Electronic Medical Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meditor Health Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doctor Bhai (Doctor Brother) Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Augmedix Medicare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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M. A. R. Avi Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Pabna University of Science and Technology, Pabna, Bangladesh A. Hassan (*) Tourism Consultants Network, The Tourism Society, London, UK © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_43

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Abstracts

Medical tourism traditionally includes fun, leisure, and the activities for relaxation along with health or wellness services that are designed for the consumer well-being. Tourist-shaped patients often look for ways to reduce expenditures on health-related treatments that may include medical, dental, or surgical operations. The medical tourists tend to visit the areas that can offer better services in exchange of cheaper costs and consume less time frame. The touristic interests of medical tourism are based on the economic, social, or political issues oriented global market places. Medical tourism is achieving wider significance and is motivated with the interventions of numerous factors including financial gains. In addition, the medical tourism through the relevant contributions from other factors as financial and sociopolitical issues has been responsible for giving rise to numerous niche markets. This has offered the diversification and interventions of medical tourism services. The wider range of medical tourism products is comprised of superficial treatments like massages or facials to riskier or invasive surgical procedures like the organ transplantation or heart surgery. This conceptual study outlines both the global and Asian trends of medical tourism. The study then incorporates innovative technologies in relation to the promotion of medical tourism in selected countries as India and Bangladesh. Critical discussions are offered in line with the arguments to establish the application of innovative technologies as the most effective facilitator of medical tourism in Asia. The study concludes by stating that the acceptance of more innovative technologies will obviously have positive effects on this niche. Keywords

Medical · Tourism · Technology · India · Bangladesh

Introduction Tourism can become a significant platform for globalization and where medical tourism alone can play a significant role. This type of tourism is concerned with the touristic practice of the peoples who like to travel for specialized medical services of care be it within their country or abroad (Kim & Lee, 2019). The existence of medical tourism is older than any other tourism sector, and this was majorly practiced by the wealthiest segment of peoples of the society. The movements of medical tourists were also limited within the certain geographical locations without the access of all of the countries in the world. However, the trend has been changed and expanded within the entire global arena where the tourists can easily get access to any countries for medical purposes. Medical tourists from the developed world are more keen to travel to the developing world’s those having lower per capita income and limited resources. This in turn offer the medical tourists to get the desired services for lower cost with less time than in the developed world. The availability

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of modernized technologies along with the expertise of medical practitioners has lucratively attracted medical tourist flows to the developing parts of the world. The relatively more waiting time, increased costs, and more overhead costs have pushed the medical tourists to visit the developing countries of the world. Longer schedule time for treatment along with the immigration-related issues has encouraged the medical tourists to visit the developing countries for medical issues. From the generalized points of view, medical tourism can be referred as the vacation that intends to travel to beyond the country-based geographical location to obtain wider range of medical services. Along with the help of the promotional and financial activities from the private sector, the recent trends of medical tourism have been contributed by easy access of transportation, the impacts of globalization, and mainly the better comparative costing (Cesario, 2018). The product and service range of medical tourism again can include a combination of both the superficial and invasive procedures like the cosmetic tourism that is a form of both the noninvasive and invasive cosmetic-based enhancements with dentistry. The traditional frameworks of products and services of medical tourism are more focused on the conventional offerings. These include the heliotherapy or sun-based treatment, the climatotherapy that includes the curative application of climate-based conditions as temperature, humidity, and light, and the thalassotherapy with the use of healing materials based on marine products as seaweed and seawater. The thermal-based spas are most common and widely popular than any other types of medical tourism products. The medical or health tourism can be regarded as a prehistoric or ancient concept. However, this is as modern as today and for tomorrow (Smith, 2001; Tham, 2018). Several Asian countries have emerged as the major destinations for medical tourism. The application of innovative technologies allows the countries as specified to generate revenues along with creating employment opportunities for the local populations (Suess et al., 2018). All of the factors attached with medical tourism have contributed to the rise of this kind of tourism as a popular concept (Lovelock & Lovelock, 2018). Medical Tourism in Asia is highly impacted by the application of innovative technologies. This conceptual study having cross-country examples of Asia’s leading medical tourism destination as India and Bangladesh as the major outbound medical tourist destination outlines the context and promises where innovative technologies can be specifically applied.

Health Tourism vs. Medical Tourism The wider area of health tourism can significantly be narrowed down into two separate areas as the medical tourism and the wellness tourism (Majeed et al., 2017). This study particularly has been designed to highlight on the medical tourism part. Medical tourism is often defined as the means for offering medical services in a cost-effective manner with the strong backing from the tourism industry (Beladi et al., 2015; Gupta, 2004). The process of medical tourism is partially facilitated by the privatized sector of the tourism industry, even though the

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major success of medical tourism is largely dependent on the involvement of both private and public sector business enterprises. Characteristically, through the purpose of medical treatment or surgery, the tourists also visit the local tourist attraction as a part of their visit that essentially combines medical procedures with tourism. From this perspective, medical tourism has been attempted to be defined as a common mode of mass tourism in which the individuals are tended to travel long-distance areas with a clear aim for getting dental, medical, or even surgical services that is attached with the conventional sensed holidays (Connell, 2006). The ways of attracting the tourists can be either in the form of promoting the existing healthcare facilities or services as an addition to the usual form of tourist facilities (Fetscherin & Stephano, 2016; Goodrich & Goodrich, 1987). On the other perspective and that is the demand side, strong importance has been ensured that attempted to view health tourism as the combination of three major elements as the staying of normal living place, health issues as the basic motive for visitation, and the availability of a tourism setting (Lunt & Carrera, 2010; Lunt et al., 2016). This is why the perceptions of products both from the supply and consumption are essential in a sense that they can offer articulated form of travel experiences in the area of health tourism those that tend to be promoted in the mainstream market (Bennet et al., 2004).

What Is Medical in Tourism? The very basic feature of medical tourism lies in its theoretical linkage of medicinal activities with tourism that persuades the tourists to seek medical services with leisure and relaxation (Connell, 2006). Medical tourism is often considered as parallel to wellness and health tourism, even though medical and wellness tourism belong to the wider study area of health tourism. The travel for the purpose of medical tourism has been predominantly existing from the remote past, and the trend is increasing rapidly as an independent industry with a desire to meet the ongoing demands of the twenty-first century (Balaban & Marano, 2010; Jagayasi, 2008). In a simple understanding, medical tourism denotes the peoples’ traveling to countries that are in a usual meaning outside of their country of residence. There is a clear aspiration of getting services for medical purposes at the most affordable prices and easily accessible. There is another aspect of intentional marketing along with offering the available medical services or products to the outside world travellers (Bies & Zacharia, 2007). The programs of medical tourism are combined with services and products that are consequently aimed for the promotion of tourism for medical purposes (Bookman & Bookman, 2007). These programs are uniquely featured mainly for the international tourists that are expected to bring revenues along with the general development of tourism industry (Lee & Jeong, 2007). Medical tourism is also partially beneficial for the rise of several other niche markets those that directly or indirectly contribute to the local and national economy (Hunter, 2007; Smith & Puczko, 2009).

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Medical Tourism from the Asian Perspective The Asian medical tourism market is of multibillion dollars that is increasing significantly every year (de la Hoz-Correa et al., 2018). As expected, the Asian medical tourism market is rapidly expanding. The number of medical tourists is expected to grow sharply, and a huge flow from the developed to the developing countries will be observed. The rapid expansion of the Asian medical market places is evident that is widely consistent with expertise and high-quality and inexpensive medical care. Few of the health and medical conditions have generated the number of medical tourists to a large volume. The main factors include the increased costs in medical procedures in many developed countries, the increased number of aged population, the economic expansion, and the equal distribution of medical technologies or equipment worldwide. For all of these reasons, medical tourism is receiving increased attention in all over the world for the last few and in coming years. Thus the number of medical tourists to Asia is rapidly increasing. Countries in Asia are largely attracting the medical tourists from all over the world due to its traditional nature of offering lower expenses for the tourists. Asia has predominantly been considered as the destination for medical tourism having the largest potential market place. The calculation of revenue generation from various sources reveals diversion and variance, owing to the parameters taken into account during the calculation. According to Van den Mooter (2017), in 2016 the medical tourism segment produced 150 billion euros worldwide, and it is also anticipated to reach 200 billion euros by 2020. Foreign patients are the substantial revenue producer for the private hospitals in this region accounting for 40–55 percent of private medicals’ earnings in countries such as Singapore, Malaysia, and, particularly, Thailand. In India, the medical tourism sector generates 25 percent of revenue, while in the Philippines, South Korea, and Taiwan, it generates 10–15 percent of total revenue. Asian countries and mainly Singapore are well-equipped with highly technologydriven initiative and the application of ultramodern medical procedures (Ganguli & Ebrahim, 2017). As a result of fierce competition, private hospitals in this region regularly increase capacity and upgrade facilities. In the most recent time, this sector started to attract more international investors and hospital groups seeking for entering this profitable market segment. These countries are partnering with major multinational institutions around the world to develop medical tourism. Also, the increased competition between the care providers leads to differentiate services and investments. This also leads to increased dilution and cost pressure in quality of healthcare. This medical tourism growth in these Asian countries obviously affects the medical technology market segment. India and Southeast Asia jointly cover more than 50 billion euros that is 10% of the global medical technology market and are increasing faster around 7.5 percent than other regions of the world. The dynamics of market in the healthcare tourism segment affects the medical equipment and devices providers in terms of customer services and product offerings. This also creates new opportunities for both global and local medical technology companies. Updated

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technologies in recent times create a shift for more ambulatory procedures and day-care for dealing with cost-effectiveness and staff shortages. The demand for telehealth, medicine, and e-access to treatments to promote the continuity of care has also risen in importance. Recently, medical technology companies have increased central warehousing and group purchasing and are also offering value chain and innovative IT-based solutions for improving or defending their competitive advantage. These companies are replacing their product-centric offers to individualized value-centric solutions.

What Are the Negativities That Medical Tourists Need to Be Aware of? Unlike any other emerging sector, medical tourism tends to support the economy and livelihood. The medical tourism as having positive features also has negative effects. The surgical procedures do not necessarily set to be fully successful and offer the risk factors. The national health services and insurance companies in the developed world are more eager to compensate the medical tourists traveling abroad than to go for medical care in the home country. This is a result that helps to generate the outflow of currencies from the native country. The other negative impact of medical tourism is the lack of follow-up care service that supposedly increases the sufferings of the patients to a great extent. This is because the medical surgical procedures in different countries do not allow the tourists to stay for a long while for the purpose rather for a limited time frame. The postoperative complexities, side effects, or even traumatic situations sometimes worsen the condition. The communication distance really matters even though the technological advancements have narrowed down the differences between the reality and expectation (Gaffney, 2016). In addition, the patients very often have little or scarce of resources to tackle the unexpected situations. The patients commonly cannot claim compensation in the case of medical malpractices due to the weaker law-enforcing systems in the developing countries (Hume & DeMicco, 2007). Evidence has showed that the malpractices of medical procedures are a very common factor of medical tourism (English et al., 2006). The legal bindings for such circumstances have to be obviously strict and stronghold that will ensure the safer ground of medical tourism practices. The potential medical tourists are thus to ensure their rights as a victim on the basic legal grounds. Insurance coverage for medical tourism even though is relatively expensive in nature exists, and the patients should get full-pledged benefits of those (English et al., 2006). Medical tourism is by and large depending on the hospitals or the places where the surgeries are performed and also on the expertise of quality medical providers. The potential tourists have to keep in mind that the places are not always properly accredited by the centralized managerial and governing agencies. These can pose serious threats to the tourists in consideration of health and safety issues (Marlowe & Sullivan, 2007). Although medical tourism is considered as economically beneficial, it can have negative impacts on the general medical care system of a country by making it highly expensive from the perspective of local circumstances

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(Tan, 2007). Rapid growth of medical procedures aimed for the foreign tourists can significantly create a huge gap between them and the local populations (Burkett, 2007). The other impact can be in the form of institutionalized forms and building structures. Those infrastructures built for the foreigners can pose threats to the local infrastructures due to the poor amount of investments (Awadzi & Panda, 2006).

What Is Innovative Technology Application in Medical Tourism? There can be many different factors that act as barriers for the development and promotion of medical tourism in a particular country (Momeni et al., 2018; Skountridaki, 2017). In medical tourism, the procedures not necessarily involve optional surgical processes like the dental operations or cosmetic surgeries. This also involves more complex means of surgeries as hip or knee replacements, heart surgery, and similar (Singh, 2008). In addition to all of these procedures, the preventive modes of medical services like medical checkup or screening of health are also considered within the operation framework and scope of medical tourism. The development of medical tourism in a strong manner within the general tourism industry has influenced several other niche tourism markets along with the popularization of numerous tourism destinations for specialized or particular types of medical treatments as cosmetic, dental, or heart surgery (Gabor & Oltean, 2019). Many countries in the world as India and Bangladesh are widely known in the global tourist community as the major destinations of medical tourism (Esiyok et al., 2017). The reasons are obvious as the availability of expertise and the destinations’ attractiveness (Horowitz & Rosensweig, 2007). Medical tourism has been making significant roles to the general global economies than country-wise contributions (Mathijsen, 2019). Available statistics show that the net economic contribution is worth several billions. However, the distribution of medical equipment and technologies offer close equality and accessibility, because, the medical equipment is a means of business for multinational companies those that tend to invest huge amount of money for the product innovation and development. From the perspectives they offer the products to others regardless of country or regional differences (Hutchinson, 2005), even though South Korea has far more advanced technological interventions in the products or services they offer (Kim & Lee, 2019). Due to the wider availability of natural- or herbal-based healing products in combination with the medical experts, India has progressed than not only any other countries in Asia but, also any other countries of the world.

Medical Tourism in India Nowadays India is preferred by the foreign tourists not only for spending holidays but also for medical treatments and world-class healthcare services (Jindal & Yashika, 2019). This country is full of well-trained, qualified, and experienced

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doctors and medical professionals (Sharma, 2013) and offers a complete package of medical and healthcare services at a very reasonable cost (Sharma, 2019). In 2019, India dominated almost 18% share of international medical market, and in 2020 this percentage rate is expected to grow 2% more (Sharma, 2019). Realizing the economic potentiality, the Indian government formally recognized medical tourism in 2002 and started taking initiatives to improve and promote the country as a world-class “global health destination” with minimal cost and high-quality medical expertise (Medhekar, 2014). This country has been popular both for its conventional and modern medical care. The traditional Medicare covers Ayurveda, allopathy, Unani homeopathy, and naturopathy of medicine. Besides, modern medical treatment incorporates cardiac care, high-quality diagnostic facilities, surgery, knee transplant, cosmetic surgery and dental care, mental trauma, etc. Different destinations of India are familiar as healthcare centers for providing signature segment of healthcare treatment, for instance, “Chennai” for eye care and termed as India’s health capital (indiahealthvisit.com, 2020); Kerala and Karnataka as a center for Ayurveda treatment; Uttarakhand well-known for soothing the medical patient with meditation, yoga, and natural medications; and Delhi famous for cardiac care, orthopedic care, mental trauma, other kinds of allopathic treatment, etc. (Bhargav, 2018). In India, most of the medical tourists from the southeastern countries visit Chennai, Kolkata, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Bengaluru, and National Capital Region for medical or health purposes. In this similar note, Priya (2019) argued that top medical professionals, high-quality medical treatment, services and equipment, patients’ access to information technology, very reasonable cost, availability of alternative medical cure (such as Siddha, Ayurveda, allopathy, yoga, and acupuncture), and charming tourism destinations attract most of the medical tourists to India, whereas poor country perception (unhygienic India), lack of support, policy and regulation from the governmental part, no service coordination (airways, hotels, and hospitals) for the foreigners, etc. are identified as weakness for medical tourism in India. According to Jindal and Yashika (2019), because of natural and Ayurveda treatment compared to western countries’ clinical medication, India has become popular and recognized as best medical tourism destination to the foreign tourists and successfully gained the attention form the different corners of the world. Besides, the promotional initiatives for medical tourism taken at the different levels such as hospital (Penney et al., 2011), state and municipal level (Turner, 2007; Reddy & Qadeer, 2010; and Solomon, 2011), and national tourism authority level (Moghavvemi et al., 2017) create appeal to attract the medical tourism market to India from different parts of the world.

Medical Tourism in India and Technology Diffusion in the Indian Medical Tourism Business Considering the global destinations for medical tourism activities, India has secured as the most popular destination based on its efficient manner of services and products. Along with the existing conventional means and practices of medical

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tourism, India has added few other more elements to its product and services range like the yoga, Ayurveda, replacement of hip, and cosmetic, dental, and heart surgery. India is considered as the center of global medical tourism with a predicted worth of US$ 2.2 billion till the end of 2012, and that is a huge growth from US$ 300 million from 2005 (Smith & Forgione, 2007). In India, tourists are welcomed by the “namaste” – a graceful word that is a comprehensive blend of both respect and welcome on the eve of starting a rewarding experience of life. India is a huge kaleidoscope of vivid landscapes, rich cultures, and historic gardens and cities. The months of October till March are most likely to be the most popular months for tourism activities in India. While in the southern part, the monsoonal patterns of weather turn the months of January to September more pleasant with areas of the northeastern part of India including Sikkim as appears to be reasonable between the months of May and September. The exotic experiences of India as a tourist destination have always been recommendable with the presence of palaces or forts, luxury beautiful coral islands, herbal gardens, and the availability of modernized establishments. As always, India has favored the presence of international tourists to one of the most fascinating sites in the world. The common option of English along with numerous other regional languages has turned India to become one of the globally acceptable destinations (Chung-Ping Loh & Triplett, in press). The technological innovations have narrowed the distances of local and international tourists. Example is the use of “subscriber identity module card (SIM card)” that is currently available in India for the tourists. This ultramodern technology-based SIM card has to be in use in parallel with a GSM-based digital mobile phone that has turned the intercommunication between the tourists more convenient and easier than ever before. Access to the Internet is an easily getting technological component that is becoming increasingly popular because of the proliferation of “Cybercafés”. India is considered as the top destination for global medical tourism as outlined by a market research report. According to the conducted study by the RNCOS (2013) titled “A Study on the Indian Healthcare Sector,” this has necessarily explored that India is going to be the leading destination for global medical tourism. The report has again revealed that the country’s medical tourism sector’s worth is US$ 310 million that increased to US$ 2 billion by the year 2012. The medical tourism in India has enabled to increase the revenues from tourism activities and thus to promote the destination as a mean to establish itself as a medical tourism destination in the world. In the concluding remarks, the RNCOS (2013) has clearly described India as “the healthcare industry overview shows that the medical infrastructure and technology in this country is in par with those in USA, UK and Europe. India can vie with some of its best hospitals and treatment centres in the world and therefore make it a favourable destination.” The Indian government has introduced a visa-on-arrival policy and lifted several visa requirements particularly for the medical tourists from a list of selected nations. This actually has allowed foreign nationals for staying in India for 30 days for medical reasons. These medical tourists can even get a visa of up to 1 year on the basis of treatment requirements. Specialized medical travel and consultancy agencies have sprung up around the world, while the leading hospitals have “international” desks and services for assisting overseas patients with all sorts of service and facility offers.

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Use of Information Technology in Medical Care and Health Sector in India According to the US Food and Drug Administration, medical and healthcare apps are software that acts as an alternative to a regulated medical tool which transforms a smartphone or mobile platform into a regulatory medical device (bajajfinserv.in, 2020). According to the statistics of Global Market Insights (2019), mobile health (mHealth) is well on track to become a sector worth almost US$300 billion by the year 2025, and it is also predicted that the telehealth industry is going to grow around 19% between 2019 and 2025. For the Indian medical and healthcare market, 42.7% compound average growth rate is also forecasted. The mobile- or smartphone-based medical software applications help patients to manage their own health and assist medical or healthcare professionals to promote and improve patient care. Following are the most popular and well-known software applications or web solutions in the medical and healthcare industry in India:

Datamate Mediware It is a cutting-edge medical and healthcare solution which offers extensive resources to keep track of almost everything from front office management, hospital, inpatient, and their medical records to general admin, store, medical insurance, and housekeeping operations (mediwarehms.com). This software application contributes to cost savings, elimination of pilfering and waste, enhanced communications between departments, improved prompt, and high-quality clinical care for the patients, while reducing human error (bajajfinserv.in, 2020).

Total Clinic Automation System (TCAS) TCSA is an impeccable web-based medical and healthcare solution both for the doctors and patients. This platform helps to manage patient administration, electronic billing, and lab and radiology integration and provides e-prescriptions to the patients. Through this web-based solution, it is very easy to monitor and control all functions of the clinic, associated laboratories, and medical pharmacy efficiently to ensure smooth and productive functioning.

Administrator Plus It is a next-generation hospital management system that combines cutting-edge technology with workflow automation to manage working processes and activities inside the hospital (bajajfinserv.in). This software application offers patient management, consultation management, portfolio management, dispensary and radiology

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management, and medical or hospital workforce and human resources department management as a one-stop solution. Apart from the abovementioned, there are so many hospital, medical, and patient management software such as Hospital Management System, Medical Billing Software, Medical Shop Management Software, Pathology Lab Software, Clinic Management Software, Laboratory Information Management System, Eye Clinic Management Software, Picture Archiving and Communication Software, Samples Management Software, Dental Software, Electronic Medical Records Software, Biomedical Management Software, Patient Management System, Online Appointment Management System, MR Reporting Software, etc. which are also available in India (indiamart.com).

Prospects of Medical Tourism in Bangladesh Representing the developing world, Bangladesh’s emerging economy could signify the prosperity of medical tourism, in terms of capabilities and offerings. The lack of updated information and data on tourism and associated industries is common in developing countries. Through the profound and intensive search, the special branch of Bangladesh Bank discloses the unpublished demographic data that the country has observed a surge of international tourists. Besides, the official Facebook page of Bangladesh Tourism Board (BTB) also shared that Bangladesh is receiving more foreign tourists day by day. According to their data so far 3,23,295 foreign tourists visited Bangladesh in the year 2019, whereas in the year 2018, the country received 2,67,209 foreign tourists (Bangladesh Tourism Board, 2020). The medical tourism segment in Bangladesh is a new driver to this growth, and it necessitates considerable attention from all parties concerned as well as their continuous supervision and suggestions. Hossen (2001) argued that a variety of development patterns assist medical tourism in Bangladesh in flourishing and becoming more capable as a contributing industry to the country’s economic development. In the last 10–15 years, Bangladesh has given priority and developed the medical and health sectors significantly. Medical pharmaceutical companies have expanded in Bangladesh in a relatively short period of time. Now Bangladesh’s medicines are being exported to many foreign countries, fulfilling the needs of the country’s people (The Daily Star, 2019). Apart from the modern healthcare treatment and facilities, Unani, homeopathy, Ayurvedic, herbal medicine, and other alternative medical and therapeutic options are also available in several areas of Bangladesh. Those destination covers mainly Sylhet, Mymensingh, Bandarban, Rangamati, Khagrachari, and some rural areas of the country. Alternative medical and healthcare services are gaining popularity among the general public because they are less expensive than conventional or mainstream services. Patients in alternative healthcare systems are not required to visit medical institutions or specially trained physicians. Rather, they visit locally available alternative medical physicians who charge a fraction of what traditional

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health professionals do. Though a number of medical tourists are flocking to alternative medical or healthcare institutions from all over the world, most of them are from advanced nations. According to McCallum and Jacoby (2007), both the public and private parties need to pay more emphasis on the development of medical tourism in any country. It is also important for responsible stakeholders to be ready to offer medical and healthcare services to the tourists. Positively both the private stakeholders and government are highly interested to boost the medical sector in this developing country. In Bangladesh, the participation of private medical and healthcare service offerers has started to expand this industry. On the other hand, with the help of international funding agencies, the government of Bangladesh has been instrumental in constructing medical and healthcare infrastructure throughout the country. The government is inviting and injecting foreign investment for the improvement of the medical sector. At present, as a fastgrowing economy, Bangladesh is offering investment opportunities in the areas of infrastructural development, medical services, and healthcare to many foreign countries (businesstimes.com.sg, 2020).

Bangladesh’s Advancement in Medical and Healthcare Sector According to the research report of the world’s top medical journal LANCET, Bangladesh is ahead of Pakistan and India in the field of healthcare and medical service. The report also ranked Bangladesh in the position of 133, whereas the three Asian countries’ (Bhutan, India, and Afghanistan) positions are in 134, 145, and 191, respectively (New Age, 2018; Daily Sun, 2018; jagonews24.com, 2018a). At present, there are 107 medical colleges, 5182 privately owned hospital-clinics, 10400 diagnostic centers, 46 specialized hospitals, 428 Upazila health complexes, and more than half million healthcare centers in Bangladesh (bdpratidin.com, 2019). Over the last 15 years, a lot of strides in the health and medical service sector have been made by Bangladesh. Medical infrastructures such as colleges, universities, private medical colleges, private clinics, private hospitals, district hospitals, rural health centers, community clinics, etc. have undoubtedly established and developed across the country. Apart from these, many nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are continuously playing a prodigious role and contributing to the medical and healthcare delivery system to the country’s citizens. In the field of medicine, notable progress has been done in terms of providing sufficient medicine, intravenous fluids, anticancer treatments, and so on. The medical education system in this country has seen an abundant expansion in the last 10–15 years. Numbers of specialist doctors, nurses, medical assistants, and technologists have increased multiple folds. To meet the demand of the country’s huge population and to attain the World Health Organization (WHO) standard of doctor-patient ratio, many educational institutes have been established throughout the country. According to the Health Bulletin (2018), at present Bangladesh has

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467 different tiers of medical institutions including medical college, universities, training school, Institute of Health Technology, etc. Following Table 43.1 and Table 43.2 represent the number of the different tier of medical education- and institution-based progress in medical education in the last 10 years in Bangladesh, respectively. Significantly, the country is receiving a number of foreign students in MBBS and BDS courses. According to the Health Bulletin (2018) report, there were 1896 foreign students in MBBS and BDS courses in different institutes of Bangladesh, and the total number of foreign students in MBBS and BDS courses in 2018 across government and private institutes increased by 235% in the period of 2009–2018. In

Table 43.1 Number of the different tiers of medical education in Bangladesh (source: Health Bulletin, 2018)

Institution’s name Public medical colleges Privately owned medical colleges Armed forces medical colleges Army medical colleges Postgraduate medical teaching institutes Medical universities Public medical assistant training school Privately owned medical assistant training school Institute of Health Technology (public) Institute of Health Technology (private) Total

Number 36 69 01 05 35 04 09 200 11 97 467

Table 43.2 Institution-based progress in medical education in the last 10 years in Bangladesh, (source: Health Bulletin, Bangladesh, 2018) Institution’s name Medical University Government Medical College Private Medical College Army And Armed Forces Medical College Government Dental College and Unit Private Dental College and Unit Government Institute of Health Technology (IHT) Private Institute of Health Technology (IHT) Government Medical Assistant Training School Private Medical Assistant Training School Total

2009 01 17 40 01

2018 04 36 69 06

Increase in number 03 19 29 05

Percentage increased 300 112 73 500

03 11 03

09 26 11

06 15 08

200 136 267

38

97

59

155

07

09

02

29

23

200

177

770

144

467

323

224

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this case, foreign students’ enrolment numbers in private medical colleges saw the biggest gain. The number of doctors also increased in Bangladesh, though such a scenario was poor in the previous years. According to the report of Bangladesh Medical and Dental Council (BMDC), there were almost 96 thousands registered doctors in Bangladesh including MBBS doctors and dentists, and it was also predicted that the number of doctors who have passed MBBS and BDS may exceed lakh within the next 2–3 months (jagonews24.com, 2018a,b), and, at present, about 10,000 students are coming out as doctors from hundreds of medical colleges every year in this country (jugantor.com, 2019). According to the World Health Organization, there should be a doctor for every 1000 people in any country. Among the United Nations member states, 44 percent of countries, including Bangladesh, are still in lack of the required number of doctors. In Bangladesh, there is currently a doctor for 2,500 people, which is far less than the original need, though Bangladesh needs to have at least one and a half lakh doctors right now in proportion to the total population of the country. However, as mentioned in the earlier section, Bangladesh is delivering better quality health and medical services than India and Pakistan.

Barriers of Medical Tourism Business in Bangladesh Bangladesh as a growing economic country fails to utilize the potential of the rapidly developing medical tourism sector. In this country, more and more medical and healthcare facilities are being set up, and the capacity of the established facilities has increased than the previous years. Despite this notion, the growth rate of Bangladeshi patients traveling overseas (nearby countries, such as India, Thailand, and Singapore) for healthcare and medical services has resulted in a number of important issues. Because of the higher value and quality of medication, most of the Bangladeshi patients are keen to go to foreign countries for medical assistance, though the same medication and healthcare treatment can be accomplished within the country border with lower medical cost and labor. Unfortunately, the Bangladeshi local hospitals and its medical staffs remain underutilized as patients in Bangladesh seek medical treatment abroad. The reasons for such a disaster might be poor marketing and promotion of the existing highquality medical facilities of Bangladesh (Mamun, 2012), whereas foreign countries are continuously trying to establish themselves as experts in the same sector (entrepreneur.com, 2019; gdassist.com, 2018). Though Bangladesh Tourism Board was established with a view to taking initiatives to promote tourism treasures and opportunities to the foreign tourist (Muneem et al., 2019), still no action is taken by this authoritative body to explore or promote medical tourism packages to the tourists. Furthermore, medical tourism sites in this country are not so well-known, and their marketing is also a matter of intensive attention throughout the country. This is why, in order to encourage and develop medical tourism in Bangladesh, proper and effective marketing initiatives are required. Many researchers also suggested the same. According to Islam and Akhter (2011) and Hassan and Burns

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(2014), tourism, in general and medical tourism in particular, in Bangladesh needs a robust and sustainable set of marketing development plans, and the country must address this critical demand which requires full focus. Another notable concern is the lack of information on the medical services, facilities, and treatments offered by the local high-quality hospitals. Sometimes most of the patients just don’t know about the availability of cost-effective and quality medical packages at home. For example, procedures such as coronary bypass surgery, liver transplants, etc. are available in the country and have been very effective in a number of installations (Mamun, 2012). So it is evident that the local patients’ ignorance because of the information gap has directed to shift the medical tourism business elsewhere, particularly overseas. One more important challenge to consider is that most of the medical or healthcare service planners and providers seem more concerned regarding the healthcare costs than the quality. And it is also found that most of the domestic patients make complaints regarding the attitude, behavior, and treatment of the medical or healthcare staff. As a result, a notable number of local patients from Bangladesh opt for traveling abroad for the purpose of medical diagnosis and healthcare treatment. In so many cases, which medical surgery or treatment could have been successfully accomplished with the country border are being transferred to nearby overseas countries. Thus Bangladesh is losing its business market and promoting the medical tourism of other nations without exploring its own prospects. Improper management of the medical sector particularly in the privately operated segment is another issue for losing the medical tourism business (The Daily Star, 2019). Having no package for medical tourism is another important issue to consider. Maximum foreigners visit Bangladesh with the help of different travel agencies or tour operators, and most of the tour operators and travel agencies promote natural, archeological, religious, and cultural tourism packages to foreign tourists. Unfortunately, no medical or healthcare or wellness tourism package is found by the authors both from the travel agencies/tour operators and national tourism organizations. But these agencies can play a vital role in promoting medical tourism. A strong linkage among the medical service owners, providers, and these agencies is needed here.

Medical Tourism in Bangladesh and Technology Diffusion in the Bangladeshi Medical Tourism Business At present, the world is getting smaller through the development and communication of technological advancement. People traveling from one country to another for medical reasons have become extremely prevalent in recent years. However, as technology has become more involved, the patterns and characteristics have gradually evolved. Tourism in the modern world is not confined within the sightseeing or a luxury tour. The motivation for medical tourism activities generates from the eternal urgency for getting new experiences, education, adventure, and entertainment considering diversification in environments, cultures, and lifestyles. The unexpected

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developments in the transportation and communication facilities of the twenty-first century have accelerated this growing trend. This has also forced the tourism establishments to go through a massive change. Other than aristocratic and wealthy peoples of the society, the mass general peoples have transformed into tourists that have essentially diversified the tourism activities to diversified areas of interest. The tourism industry has offered to give rise to a number of tertiary and secondary activities that provide new career opportunities in leisure, hospitality, and surface transport that employ many thousands of peoples and create the platform for earning billions of currencies as foreign exchange every year. Medical tourism in Bangladesh has given rise to several niche tourism markets, and this has been evidenced by many activities including the rise of significant market areas or research initiatives (Hassan et al., 2015). Bangladesh is the traditional land of diversity that allows its visitors to get every possession essential for a holiday. Bangladesh offers so much diversity in its tourism offerings that tourists can significantly enjoy all of what they deserve. The climatic setup of Bangladesh has offered a wider range of factors that are hard some to determine during the normal visitation of a tourist. Dhaka is the capital of Bangladesh and is the main widely used point of entry to the country. The unique setup of museums, cultural centers, and art galleries are attracting the tourists from the time immemorial. The facilities for performances and exhibitions are immense in Dhaka that allow the tourists to have authentic touristic experiences. The existing facilities for shopping are other aspects that attract international tourists to come and visit the city with great enthusiasm. The accommodation facilities in Dhaka are within the reach of both the affluent and the general tourists who have turned the city into a major destination for medical tourism activities. The historic monument dated back to many centuries with ultramodern glass skyscraper and chrome set in a splendid park has adorned the city’s beauty to the global tourist segments. Along with the public health facilities, the private healthcare establishments turned Dhaka more than a general medical tourism destination. The establishments that offer medical services are in recent years attracting tourists from all over the world. This is mostly because of the reputation and expertise of medical practitioners. According to Mamun and Andaleeb (2013), Bangladesh is yet to profit from medical tourism rather becomes a major medical tourist generating country. The authors find a higher perceived treatment quality abroad. The author suggested that Bangladesh has to concentrate on delivering higher-quality healthcare services for developing medical tourism and attracting patients from abroad in particular healthcare categories. Following bdnews24.com (2018), hundreds of thousands of Bangladeshis are traveling abroad for medical care. These medical tourists mainly travel to India, Thailand, Singapore, and Malaysia, and they even go to Japan, and the USA and China are assumed as the latest addition to this list. According to the Dhaka Tribune (2017), a large number of medical tourists visit India and Thailand. Until October 2017, the Indian High Commission in Dhaka

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approved 130,000 visas those that were applied only for medical purposes. This number of visas is more than double the number issued in the previous year. In the fiscal year of 2015–2016, India had 460,000 inbound patients at its different hospitals, according to the Export of Health Services survey conducted by the Directorate-General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics of India. Among them, 165,000 were from Bangladesh. So, it is evident that Bangladesh has become India’s greatest contributor to medical and health tourism, accounting for more than 35 percent of all foreign patients and more than half of all medical tourism revenue. Medical technology application in Bangladesh is relatively slower than other competing countries. However, this trend is changing gradually with the intervention of private investors and international medical groups.

Use of Information Technology in Medical Care and Health Sector in Bangladesh As part of the Digital Bangladesh formation, the telemedicine system is introduced with the help of medical technology. In this way, people from remote areas can consult specialist doctors of the famous hospitals of Dhaka City through video conference. Besides, specialists also treat these patients through mobile phones and e-mails. The absolute advantage is the patient does not have to pay any additional fees for accessing healthcare through the telemedicine center. Under this service, medicine, surgery, ophthalmology, gynecology, cardiology, eye and nose, and throat patients are treated. Regular physicians at the hospital provide telemedicine counseling and medical care daily according to the roster provided by the authorities. Apart from this, various types of web portals like supply chain web portals have been created, and digitalization of the entire healthcare system and service system has been made to improve the medical service. Though such medical services were started in the year 2009 through the use of information and communication technology, now this service is currently being provided in all the unions and information distribution centers of the country. This medical service is located in the hospitals and health complexes of the district Upazila. Some private organizations are also providing health services using union information centers. Bangladesh has also won the United Nations Award for Reducing Child and Maternal Deaths, an Important Issue of Millennium Development Goals Through Digitalization in the Health Sector.

Medical Helpline In 2016, the Bangladesh government has introduced a health call center. Anyone can get health-related advice anytime by dialing 16263 number (bdnews24.com, 2016), and within the first 8 months of launching, 1.3 million peoples have taken medical and health-related advice from the doctors by calling the helpline (Prothom alo, 2017).

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As a result, patients in the village are also getting the chance of getting the opinion of a specialist physician. An ambulance service is available for critically ill patients by calling 16263 on the phone. The Ministry of Health has taken the initiative to ensure that people can receive ambulance services around the clock.

Bangladesh Electronic Medical Record Bangladesh Electronic Medical Record (BDEMR) software plays the most helpful role in managing the patient. Using this software saves both doctor and patient time and money. Except for a very urgent patient, no one has to come to the doctor to seek medical attention from a distance if they use this application. Only once through registration, the patient will get the notification at home using his mobile phone. Moreover, the doctors who use this software get the latest updates, as well as they can provide the digital prescription to the registered patients, and with the use of this application, medical care has reached the doorstep of people in Bangladesh (ctgsangbad.com, 2018; The Daily Star, 2013).

Meditor Health Application Meditor Health is a preventive healthcare platform. With the help of this application, individuals and their family members can lead to healthy and beautiful lives through improving immunity and health. One of the goals of Meditor Health is to prevent and control the prevalence of obesity and infectious diseases in Bangladesh. This application is also working toward achieving the goal of creating a “healthy Bangladesh” by ensuring primary healthcare for all and increasing health awareness among the peoples of Bangladesh. In the present world, more than 63% of human deaths are the leading cause of noncommunicable diseases including heart disease, diabetes, cancer, etc. According to experts, these problems require regular health checkups, nutritional intake, regular physical exertion, and rapid primary healthcare and health awareness. The Meditor Health application brings world-class healthcare services to solve these problems as its services include smart health checkups, diet and fitness plans, health monitoring, health guidelines, and telemedicine services (meditorbd.com, 2020).

Doctor Bhai (Doctor Brother) Application Healthcare Information Systems Limited has introduced a new service “Doctor Bhai” application. Providing digital healthcare is the main attraction of this application. Patients’ healthcare records can be stored in a completely digital way using this mobile app and website. Customers (patients) can also enjoy the discount by displaying the “Doctor Bhai” healthcare card from more than 500 partner hospitals,

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clinics, diagnostic centers, pharmacies, and lifestyle outlets across the country. General health-related questions can be asked to the experienced doctor through this app. By using the App’s Medicine Reminder, Sleep Reminder, and Step Count Feature, users can lead a healthier lifestyle (daktarbhai.com; ctgsangbad.com, 2018).

Augmedix Medicare Augmedix works for healthcare technology. It has also started working in Bangladesh. Physicians at Augmedix use Google Glass to communicate with patients. With the help of a video and audio system, doctors provide prescriptions and suggestions to the patients. This method of communicating with patients and doctors very easily is now becoming very popular in Bangladesh (augmedix.com.bd, 2020; ctgsangbad.com, 2018). Moreover, there are so many medical services and healthcare application in Bangladesh such as “Jolpai” (ctgsangbad.com, 2018), “Baby Tika”; to raise awareness about vaccinating children, this app has been launched (babytika.org), Aponjon, vaccine schedule for the children (aponjon.com.bd), etc. which are delivering the medical services to thousands of users throughout the country. Some more applications are under development stages which are expected to ease and boost the medical service in the near future. For example, the concept of smartphone-based application “CURE” prepared by the three students of Bangladesh has got the highest appreciation and recognition from Harvard University (dhakatribune.com, 2020). In Bangladesh there are some web solutions too which are developed for the patients for purchasing medicine by staying at home (such as www.lazzpharma.com, www.pharmacy.com.bd, www.banglameds.com.bd, www.khidmatdrug.online, www.epharma.com.bd, www.ousud.com, and www.oshudhwala.com). By using these web platforms, any medical tourists can easily fulfil his/her medicine needs. After confirming an order, the tourists also can enjoy the service to get the medicine products delivered at the doorsteps as well.

Conclusion The aim of this research is to discuss the medical trends of Asia and the world. In order for incorporating innovative technologies in the marketing and promotional activities of medical tourism in selected countries as India and Bangladesh, the study suggests that innovative technologies are diffused. This research establishes that many different innovative technologies are in use in medical tourism in Asia. The study mainly relied on conceptual data. Thus, the secondary data and information could be a good addition, in this regard. This was in fact the limitation of this research. Thus, future research can cover other important medical tourism destinations of Asia.

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Necessity of Knowing About Visa Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Necessity of Knowing About Immigration Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Visa Application Process of Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology and Passport-Visa-Immigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some Visa and Passport System Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Positive Sides of Visa Process and Passport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problems of Visa and Passport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Immigration Process of Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Immigration Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Immigration Area at the Airport and Required Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Problems Regarding Immigration Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Legislations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Requirements of Public Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sample Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Questionnaire Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Method of Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mode of Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cronbach’s Alpha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regression Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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M. Roy (*) Department of Economics and Finance, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong Department of Economics, University of Chittagong, Chattogram, Bangladesh e-mail: [email protected] F. Azad · N. Quaderi Master of Social Sciences, Department of Economics, University of Chittagong, Chattogram, Bangladesh © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_44

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Abstract

Travel for pleasure or business or other purpose is known as “tourism.” Tourism is one of the flourishing industries in Bangladesh. Undoubtedly, Bangladesh has unique tourism products and services and has greater potential to develop tourism industry as an important means for its socio-economic development. On the way to such development, the Government of Bangladesh (GoB), the Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCAT), and Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC) can effectively play roles for formulating policies and enhancing the general development of the tourism industry. Firstly, this paper primarily emphasizes on the institutions’ functions of tourism legislation, visa and immigration policies and performances, and the application of technology in the context of Bangladesh. Secondly, this paper’s specific objectives regarding legislation, visa, and immigration include reviewing tourism management policies, analyzing the main areas of tourism policies, assessing the performance of tourism, and prescribing some recommendations. Thirdly, this paper analyzes statistical techniques from collected survey data from 37 foreigners to measure their satisfaction related to immigration, visa and legislation services, and technology application. Lastly, the chapter focuses on some important variables such as technology application, visa restrictions, visa availability, etc. and has done a regression analysis to link these factors with foreign tourist satisfaction. This paper offers both qualitative and quantitative analysis of legislation, visa, and immigration policies which comes forward with new ideas, insights, and options for further international collaboration. Keywords

Visa on arrivals · Foreigners · Reliability test · Regression · Residual plot

Introduction Every country has its own laws and legislations which depend on several factors like the geographical position, political power, diplomatic relations with other countries, financial status, and most importantly on its own interest, etc. These factors play a vital role in case of tourism laws which includes immigration- and visa-related requirements and procedures. Bangladesh is a culturally and naturally rich country, also well-known for the hospitality of the people living in this country. As Bangladesh is going be a part of developing countries by 2024, there occur several foreign investments. As a result, many foreigners visit Bangladesh for financial purpose also. Whatever the reason of visit, foreigners need to follow the rules and regulations regarding immigration and visa and have to fulfill the requirements before travelling to Bangladesh (Immigration Bangladesh Police, 2019). This chapter will discuss about these upper mentioned points. As far as our knowledge is concerned, most of the writers of research papers have discussed about impacts of tourism in the economy, problems, and prospects related to tourism, different kinds

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of tourist spots, etc. This area which is related to the laws and legislation of tourism remained unnoticeable till now. This lack of consciousness related to the procedures, laws, and legislations may create difficulties not only for the foreigners but also for the country itself. Tourists need to know about the documentation process, visa application process, and immigration requirements before entering Bangladesh because knowledge of these rules can make the travelling easier. They also need to have the knowledge about documentation process, different kinds of visas, for what kind of visa they should apply, what the visa procedure includes, how long they can stay after visa expiration, how much money they can carry, required weight of their baggage, customs rules, what health requirements they need to fulfill, what procedures they will have to follow in the immigration department at the airport, what penalties they will have to face if they do not follow the rules or fulfill the requirements, what problems they may face regarding immigration and visa application process, and what facilities they can expect for a hassle-free visit. Lack of this Knowledge can create so many problems and inconveniences, and sometimes foreigners can be fined or can be sent back to their country. The following paper will explicitly discuss these factors which will help the foreigners to get a hassle-free visit, and on the other hand, they will cherish only good memories regarding the visit which will maintain a nice image of Bangladesh. As the rules and the requirements will be discussed, flaws and loopholes can be found easily, and authority can take necessary steps for the betterment of the country. Articles related to “tourism” mostly describe the problems and prospects regarding tourism, and while coming to the “process of immigration,” most of the articles/ papers discuss about the problems faced by the home people while going abroad. As far as our knowledge, there is no such article which describes the immigration process of Bangladesh when a tourist wants to come here. There are certain laws and legislations regarding immigration for the tourists. And the tourists may face several problems while entering Bangladesh, and also there may have many positive sides which can make them pleased. But we could not find such articles which can be regarded as loopholes of the previous articles. If tourists want to visit Bangladesh, it will be difficult for them to find out the laws and the process, they have to face while entering here. There is a little scope of updating such policies and solving the problems because these topics are not discussed explicitly. Even young researchers may face difficulties as there is lack of information in this field. Though now it is very important to focus on such fields as development on such fields may attract tourists and foreign investments. A complete framework for visa and immigration related to tourism in Bangladesh is missing. Most of the research papers about tourism in Bangladesh focused on the impact of tourism and problems of tourism or tourist spots. In many cases, research paper does not specify visa procedure, requirements, restrictions, and positive sides of visa process in perspective of Bangladesh. A comparison between South Asian countries about visa policy and process-related to tourism has not been found. When tourists want to visit Bangladesh, they want to know about the laws, policies, and penalties regarding the immigration process as a simple mistake in

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this process can make them suffer and can even send them back to their country. Our study focuses on laws and legislation regarding immigration and visa and also on the problems and positive sides of this process. Previous articles lack much information regarding this topic. Our article includes it all. This study includes, first, the laws and legislations formed by the Government of Bangladesh for foreigners when they want to come here; second, what kind of documents foreigners may need to enter Bangladesh; third, the rules and the steps tourists need to follow at Bangladesh airport; fourth, how much currency they can carry with them and how much they can carry while returning back; fifth, things that are prohibited to carry while entering Bangladesh; sixth, health requirements that foreigners need to fulfill before entering; seventh, problems they face regarding the process; and finally, the positive sides of this process. The research’s goals are as follows: first, the study focuses on the institutions’ roles in tourist law, visa and immigration rules and performance, and technology application in Bangladesh. Second, the paper’s particular aims in terms of law, visas, and immigration are to evaluate tourist management policies, analyze the key aspects of tourism regulations, assess tourism performance, and prescribe some recommendations for general industry improvement. Finally, the study applies statistical approaches to survey data gathered from foreigners in order to assess their satisfaction with immigration, visa, and law services, as well as technology implementation. Finally, the article highlights a few critical ideas that may be implemented by both commercial and public tourist organizations to close the gap in the sector. As a result, the study demonstrates the need for the development of a sound and beneficial set of tourist policies. Travel and tourism become an important industry in the global economy in past decades (World Economic Forum, 2013). It includes many enterprises that thrive for success in the dynamic and competitive environment of business (Yilmez, 2008), which we can see in our study. Elena et al. (2012) claims that tourism can be a profitable industry. Thus, we can say that investment on this industry can contribute a lot to the economy of Bangladesh. Siraj, Alam, Hoque, Khalifa, and Ghani (2009) contended that specific policies are adopted by the Government of Bangladesh to promote the tourism industry. The process of obtaining employment visa in Bangladesh is comparatively easy. In Bangladesh this process needs 7 working days (Emerhub, 2020). According to Bhuiyan (2015), though Bangladesh has some limitations in visa, immigration, and legislations, foreigners were satisfied and gave very few negative comments. According to Roy and Roy (2015), in comparison to the global tourist industry, the government should update Bangladesh’s current tourism policies. Several steps have been done to improve the region’s image and attract foreign visitors (Chang, 1998; Ghimire 2001). Countries in the South Asia can generate employment and alleviate poverty by tourism through the utilization of existing cultural and economic and human resources (Rasul 2008; Khan and Khan 2003; Sobhan 1999; Sharma 2006). As Torpey (1998, p.252) argues, “Passport and visa controls are (. . .) the ‘first line of defense’ against the entry of undesirables.” In Neumayer’s paper (2006),

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variations in visa limits in each nation are explained. Instead, the impact of visa requirements on bilateral travel is studied in this paper. Neumayer (2006) hypothesized that visa limitations had a significant negative impact on bilateral travel, but I was unable to test this hypothesis. Immigration is a section of an airport where government authorities examine the legal documentation of visitors. The passenger’s passport, visa, and other supporting papers, such as their hotel and itinerary, are examined during this process.

The Necessity of Knowing About Visa Process Most of the foreign countries require travellers to have a valid and passport before entering that country. If the traveller is from developing country due to immigration purpose in that case, most developed countries demand a strong evidence of reason to return in home country. So visas are necessary in case of travelling to any country that does not have a visa policy with the traveller’s home country. Entering those countries without any visa may bring one under punishment. Visa policies and agreements between countries allow their citizens to travel between the countries without any requirement of visa. That is why we all should have proper knowledge about visa policies, rules, and laws about visa process (Passport Index, 2020). Visa is an important factor in case of both host country and traveller. Without a visa it would have not been possible as most of the nation won’t allow US citizens to cross their borders without a permission to enter (AZCentral, 2017). Visa issuance in the USA has been improved a lot through the “National Travel and Tourism Strategy” by President Obama which has increased the number of tourist by 68.9 million in 2013 from 66.7 million. It indicates the necessity of a visa policy for the growth tourism industry. Because such increase in the number of tourist in the USA will not only bring economic benefit but also diplomatic benefits (Ward, 2016). It can be said that visa is a document that is considered as permission to people’s access in other countries. Visa specifies a certain time period and a reason (business, tourism, study, etc.) why the person will be staying in that country. Most of the time visas are allowed to people who have plans to work or to study at any school in any nation for specified time framework. So in case if tourists are planning to travel, planning to any country other their home country for development purpose, they’ll be required a visa. Visa and passport both are necessary as visa is attached to the passport and show at the time to entry in other nations. Passport verifies the holder’s nationality as well as the identity for international travel. Though many people find the entire visa process as complicated and annoying, it is the visa status that determines ability to travel. So, knowing the requirements and the process is essential as you will not be able to travel without appropriate visa status. Visa restrictions controls the flow of illegal immigrants which maybe a threat to the people of home country. Thus visas protect from terrorists and illegal immigrants who may be involved in major crimes. With the help of visa and passport, we can see

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and travel the world safely. As it is regarded as Universal Identification System, we should have proper knowledge about pros and cons of visa process.

The Necessity of Knowing About Immigration Process In this modern era, activities of people are not confined into limited area. People move around different cities and even countries and explore so many new things. Travelling has become an inseparable part of this era. Science and Technology has made travelling easier than before. But they have to go through/follow some process while travelling to other countries, so knowing about them is necessary. When people want to travel to other countries, they need a proper knowledge about the immigration process. This process varies for immigrants and nonimmigrants and requires different kinds of documents. Due to lack of knowledge, the travellers can face documentation problems. So, proper knowledge about immigration process before travelling is important. This knowledge helps them to go through the process without any confusion and hassles. Sometimes in the airport, officials try to charge extra money and harass the travellers. Proper knowledge about the process makes the travellers aware of the rules and regulations and can avoid such inconveniences. There are a few countries in the world which is now politically unstable, and if a traveller visits that country, he may face difficulties in getting visas of other countries. For example, in recent times, if someone visits Pakistan, he may get difficulties in getting visa of other countries. Proper knowledge of the immigration process helps the travellers to take the best decision. In countries like the USA where people apply for green cards, immigration filing plays a pivotal role. Immigration filing needs much concern even for countries like Bangladesh. If the requirements and the documentations are not properly fulfilled, admission may not be granted. Bangladesh has certain rules and regulations regarding currency and baggage. No traveller can exceed the range or else they have to face penalties. So knowledge about immigration process is a must. A borderless world of no entry restrictions is not realistic. Borderless world will be a very long process. Until that happens, visa has a great importance. Visa is a permit that is provided by a country which allows someone to go to that country or to leave or to stay for a certain period in that country. It’s a document of approval that any embassy stamps on the person’s passport. Necessity for a visa is related with traveller’s motive of travelling, whether the traveller is visiting with a group or alone, by which means the traveller is travelling (air, sea, land).

Visa Application Process of Bangladesh To enter Bangladesh, foreigners require a visa that’s valid. They can take Bangladesh visa from their respective countries. Travellers can also take VOA (visa on arrival) from any international airport of Bangladesh like Hazrat Shahjalal International

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Airport, Osmani International Airport, and Shah Amanat International Airport. VOA provided in such International Airport is only single entry rather than multiple entries. On the other hand, citizens of Bangladesh with regular Bangladeshi passports have VOA access to 39 countries, and Bangladeshi citizens who have Diplomatic passports or official passports can travel to many other countries. Formalities to get in and out of Bangladesh seem to be in a state of uncertainty. Bangladesh has been offering VOA to the USA, Australia, Canada, and other bigger European countries since 2011. Travellers may need to check whether they are on that list or not with the help of their local Bangladesh Embassy before coming to Bangladesh.

Passports and Visas Bangladesh restricts transit and entry to Israeli passport holders as Bangladesh and Israel do not uphold any diplomatic relationship. However, this restriction is not applicable to Palestinians holding Israeli passports. Bangladesh said that it will not recognize Israel until there is an independent Palestine. Though Bangladeshi passport is stronger than Pakistani passport, yet it is considered as weaker passport in the subcontinent. In the Indian subcontinent, visa-free score of Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, and Sri Lanka are, respectively, 41, 33, 58, and 43. Visa accuracy as well as length of stay that has been permitted varies from embassy to embassy. Usually the issued visa has 3 months of validity. If a new passport is obtained, then it is necessary to have Bangladeshi visa or seal transferred to the new passport. Bangladesh customs and immigrations do not provide visas and “No Visa Required” seals in case of expired and canceled passports. US citizens of Bangladeshi origin may be eligible for a “No Visa Required” seal in their passports. This process can be done from any nearest Bangladesh Embassy. Anyone on a “tourist visa” to exit and return within a 2-month period is being impeded by neighboring country “India.” If you cross into Bangladesh once, you need to stay here for 2 months before being permitted back into India (Country Reports, 2020).

Technology and Passport-Visa-Immigration Biometric Passport or e-Passport The passport, visa application, and issuance process and also immigration process are getting a major technology upgrade. Bangladesh’s passport is machine-readable, an ICAO-compliant, and biometric e-passport provided to passport holders for travel to foreign nations. Bangladesh is the first South Asian country to offer e-passports to all citizens who qualify. Bangladesh is the 119th in the world for introducing e-passports. The Department of Immigration and Passports in Dhaka is currently issuing e-passports from three locations: Agargaon, Uttara, and Jatrabari, every day; these facilities have the potential to issue 25,000 passports (Dhaka Tribune, 2020). Veridos GmbH, a German firm, was in charge of equipment installation, data center maintenance, training, and the distribution of 3 million e-passports. All information is contained in an e-passport. The microchips implanted in the

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e-passport page save biometric signals such as the holders’ eyes and fingerprints. As a result, monitoring the travels of individuals has become easier. The e-passport has 38 security measures, including a holographic picture imprinted in thin film lamination, which protects the security of the Bangladesh passport (The Bangladesh Monitor, 2018).

Online Visa The electronic visa (e-visa) enables the online administration of visa application procedure. The visa application and accompanying papers are submitted online. The payment is made online, and the application decision is conveyed via the Internet (World Economic Forum, 2015). The benefits of online visa are, first, it saves time; second, it saves additional costs; third, it saves transport costs; and, fourth, it saves relevant cost. More nations are liberalizing visa policies to make it easier for more individuals to enter. Many nations have realized that maintaining embassies all over the world to process tourist visa applications is a waste of money. More significantly, they are aware that it is costing them money in the form of tourist dollars. E-visas that allow visitors for applying for a visa online without communicating with a consular worker are becoming more popular in a growing number of nations. It is all done from afar (Henderson, 2017). Bangladesh also provides visas through the Internet. General Requirement of Visa Some documents are required to submit when you’re applying to get a visa from embassy of Bangladesh. This process include, first, properly filled visa application form (one copy); second, photographs: size 45 mm
35 mm and recent one (two copies); third, valid passport which is valid at least for 6 months; fourth, payment receipt of required visa fee; and, fifth, a properly addressed envelope with stamp to send passport through a registered post in case you want the passport back by post (Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, 2020; Embassy of Bangladesh in Germany, 2020). Necessary steps for online visa application process are, first, to fill out the online visa application form and submit it; second, to print the duly filled form; and, third, to take the form to visa office with appropriate and legal documents including documents of visa fee payment (Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, 2020). Requirements According to Type of Visa Long-term Bangladesh visas: In case if tourists are willing to stay in Bangladesh over 3 months, a special NGO visa is needed. This is available when the organizations start any new projects. This is a bit complicated. In the meantime, if the visa expires, visa extension process will be required. This process includes work permits and security clearance which is time-consuming and lengthy (Leung and Meggitt, 2012). Short-term Bangladesh visas: Short stay visa is called “Schengen visa.” For tourism and business purposes, a Schengen visa holder can travel to Schengen area for up to 90 days. Bangladesh is facing EU visa obstacles due to the delay process of bringing back those Bangladeshi nationals who are incompetent for Europe shelter (Schengen visa info, 2020).

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1. Employment Visa Conditions: Job purpose. Maximum stay per visit: (3 months, extendable) Requirements: • Invitation letter from Bangladesh • Security clearance certificate by Ministry of Home Affairs • Appointment letter from employer in Bangladesh • Recommendation letter from BEPZA (Embassy of Bangladesh in Sweden, 2020) 2. Business Visa Conditions: Set up a company or conduct to feasibility study. Maximum stay per visit: (6 months, extendable) Requirements: • Bangladeshi invitation letter • Company letter from that is sending the applicant to Bangladesh (Embassy of Bangladesh in Sweden, 2020) • Proof of travel arrangement 3. Investor Visa Conditions: Purpose should be investment/management of founded business formation. Maximum stay per visit: (investor visa maybe issued for maximum 1 year with single, double, multiple entries; extendable) Requirements: Recommendation letter from BOI/BEPZA (Embassy of Bangladesh in Sweden, 2020) 4. Tourist Visa Conditions: Sole intention of touring, sightseeing, and meeting friends and relatives. Sole intention of touring, sightseeing, and meeting friends and relatives. Maximum stay per visit: (30 days) Requirements: • Invitation letter from Dhaka with proof of passport or hotel booking • A planned route or journey that is provisional and air ticket reservation (Embassy of Bangladesh in Sweden, 2020) 5. Transit Visa Conditions: Purpose of awaiting passenger for connecting flights till the time of next flight, seeking layover privileges. Maximum stay per visit: (3 days) • Proof of Travel arrangement (Emerhub, 2020) 6. Visa on Arrival Conditions: Official duty for business or travel. Maximum stay per visit: (30 days) Requirements: • Valid passport with • Return ticket for short time stay • Payment of fees at port of entry (Emerhub, 2020) 7. Journalist Visa Conditions: Purpose of a foreign journalist to collect news or for official duty. Visa maybe issued for maximum 1 month.

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Requirements: Letter of request from news agency clearing the motive to visit Properly filled FF-1 and FF-2 forms Photocopy of five pages of passport Original passport Payment receipt after embassy clearance (Embassy of Bangladesh in Sweden (2020) Student Visa Conditions: Study purpose, internship Requirements: • Letter from respective educational institute • Bank solvency certificate (Embassy of Bangladesh in Germany, 2020) Research Visa Conditions: An individual can apply for research visa in Bangladesh if he\she wants to participate in any research or internship program of any organization that is approved government in Bangladesh. Maximum stay per visit: (90 days, extendable) Requirements: • Letter from respective institution • Letter of consent from ministry of Bangladesh (Embassy of Bangladesh in Germany, 2020) NGO Workers’ Visa Conditions: Any tourist who is appointed to an NGO in Bangladesh can apply for NGO visa. Maximum stay per visit: (90 days, extendable) Requirements: • Permission letter from respective NGO (Embassy of Bangladesh in Germany, 2020) • BOI/ BEPZA recommendation letter • Invitation letter from respective company in Bangladesh (Bangladesh High Commission in London, 2020) Tablighi Jamaat Visa Conditions: If a tourist wants to attend in Tablighi Jamaat in Bangladesh, he\she can apply for it. Such visa maybe issued for maximum 10 days with single entry. Requirements: • Letter from Bangladesh Tablighi Markaz • Letter from central Markaz of the country (Embassy of Bangladesh in Germany, 2020; Bangladesh High Commission in London, 2020) • • • • •

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Some Visa and Passport System Issues a) Due to bad diplomatic connection between Bangladesh and Pakistan, issuing visas to Pakistani citizens has recently stopped by Bangladesh High Commission in Islamabad.

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b) There is a warning from US government stating that there is a terrorist threat for foreigners in Bangladesh though there is no significant terrorist attack in Bangladesh since March of 2017 (Travel.State.Gov. (2020). c) Though Bangladeshi passports is considered as one of the weaker passports in the world for travelling, yet it is not that much bad for the starters. It allows to travel 41 countries without a prior to visa (Passport Index, 2020). d) Jamaica, Indonesia, and Bhutan require no visa for Bangladeshi travellers. Nepal and Sri Lanka provide visa on arrival facilities to Bangladeshi Citizens (Hi fi digital, 2018).

Positive Sides of Visa Process and Passport a) If an applicant qualifies for VOA, it is the easiest visa to obtain in Bangladesh. If the goal is to promote tourism, there is no need for a sponsor. VOA is also less expensive in comparison (Arona International, 2015). b) For foreigners interested in taking advantage of the Bangladesh government’s investment possibilities, a variety of visas are available. It is quite simple to obtain a visa from any foreign nation (OGR Legal Research Portal, 2020). c) The process of obtaining an employment visa in Bangladesh is very simple, but obtaining a work permit in Indonesia might take several months. In Bangladesh, the procedure takes 7 days to complete (Emerhub, 2020). d) The advantage of a Bangladesh business visa is that it permits visitors to remain for up to 6 months (Emerhub, 2020). e) Though Bangladeshi passports is considered as one of the weaker passports in the world for travelling, yet it is not that much bad for the starters. It allows travelling 41 countries without a prior to visa. f) Bangladesh provides UN passport holders visa on arrival facilities without any charge. (Consulate General of Bangladesh in Los Angeles (2020)). g) Various visa scheme policies have been taken to reduce the complications related to visa policies. E-tourist visa (etv) scheme is such a measure taken by the Indian government that will reduce complications faced by the Bangladeshi citizens while travelling to India (The Daily Star, 2020). h) Bangladeshi residents in Dhaka who want to apply for UK visa can use ODMV (On Demand Mobile Visa) service without going to visa application center. This service will reduce the time of travelling to visa centers. j) Despite of some difficulty in visa system, numbers of negative opinions by foreigners are very little, which could be removed with proper initiative.

Problems of Visa and Passport a) Visa application process in Bangladesh is quite aggravating and lengthy too. It is a matter of patience.

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b) Visa application process lacks efficiency because of inadequate information regarding the details of this procedure. Some different and complicated rules and regulations of consular offices often create confusion for tourists coming here. c) If tourists are willing to stay in Bangladesh over 3 months, they will be needed a special NGO visa, which is available when the organization takes any new project. This process is a bit complicated. In the meantime, if the visa expires, visa extension process will be required. The process includes work permits and security clearance which is time-consuming and lengthy. Moreover, tourists may have to pay a fine if their visa expires. While leaving Bangladesh traveller’s will be needed an exit visa. All of these have made the visa application process timeconsuming. d) Host organizations are not well organized. Middleman-based visa processing system is highly corrupted. e) “Bureaucratic chaos in Bangladesh raises the complication in visa application process. Obtaining visa during election is difficult” (Leung and Meggitt, 2012). f) Very few tourists visit Bangladesh. Visa application policy of government is the main reason behind it. If the government takes initiative to reduce restrictions for travellers from Europe, the USA, and other western countries, it will increase the number of foreign tourist in Bangladesh. g) Visa application process for migrants is malformed as the process is controlled by syndicates linked with ministry, visa office, and other visa-related officials. Visa cost is also high (Dhaka Tribune, 2017a). h) Bangladesh is facing visa restriction crisis from EU due to making delay in bringing back its illegal citizens at various asylum in EU, which indicates a weak management of visa system (The Daily Star, 2017; Dhaka Tribune, 2017b). i) Lack of professional management and government planning yields visa problem and tourist dissatisfaction. j) Tourist visa policy in Bangladesh is quite conservative. Visa processing at foreign Bangladesh mission is expensive. k) Ranking of Bangladeshi passport is 94th in the Global Passport Index. It is one of the weaker passports in the world in terms of the facilities of travelling (Hi fi digital, 2018). l) Corruption and long queue at visa consulates. m) Problems also exist in providing e-token for Indian visa from Bangladesh. It is highly corrupted that links with brokers.

Immigration Process of Bangladesh According to Dr. Aziz, “In 1200 AD, this South Asia region was conquered and ruled by the Persian warrior Ikhtiar Uddin Bokhtiar Khilji who denoted Bangladesh as the ‘Divine of South Asia’ which is versatile in culture, natural resources and has topographic advantage.”

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Foreigners visit Bangladesh for different purposes like tourism, business and trade issues, political or social purposes, etc. And the foreigners who want to come here need to follow the laws and legislations regarding immigration. “The immigration process of Bangladesh when a tourist wants to come here” is the main focus of this section. The Government of Bangladesh has made certain rules and regulations with respect to foreigners that must be followed by the tourists who want to visit Bangladesh.

Immigration Requirements When foreigners/tourists want to visit Bangladesh, they need to fulfill the following immigration requirements: All citizens in the world must have valid passports in order to visit Bangladesh. Along with the Bangladeshi visa, it must be valid for 6 months beyond his intended stay in the country and contain at least one blank page. Passports are not required for holders of an identification certificate, a laissezpasser granted by the United Nations and its associated bodies, or a continuing discharge certificate issued by any nation recognized by Bangladesh. While visitors from some countries may be granted visas on arrival, it is strongly advised that they get a visa before to travel. Visas are necessary for all countries except these: Barbados, Bhutan, Bahamas, Canada, Cyprus, Fiji, New Zealand, Singapore, Western Samoa, Sierra Leone, Tonga, Tanzania, Lesotho, Zambia, Malta, Kenya, Nigeria, Somalia, Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Grenada, Trinidad and Tobago, Seychelles, Sri Lanka (for a maximum of one month), Ghana, Ireland, Vatican, Tunisia, Gabon, and Spain. If stay in Bangladesh does not exceed 3 months, no visa is required for Yugoslavia and Japan. For a period of up to 15 days, foreign visitors from the following countries arriving in or transiting through Bangladesh do not require an entrance permit/visa if they have return or onward plane tickets. These countries include the UK, the USA, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, the Netherlands, Portugal, France, and Spain, Austria, the Philippines, Maldives, Switzerland, Greece, Italy, Federal Republic of Germany, Belgium, Australia, Indonesia, Luxembourg, Thailand, Maldives, Nepal, Austria, Switzerland, Greece. Such benefits are not available to those on the blacklist or to those for whom visas are not normally given under the regulations. Any foreigner who works as a missionary/social worker in Bangladesh whether he is paid or not, needs to obtain a visa, prior clearance to visit Bangladesh. If a foreigner is unable to acquire a visa due to unavoidable circumstances, he is typically permitted to enter the country for 72 hours to prevent complications. If the traveller intends to remain longer than 72 hours, he or she must acquire a visa from the Director of Immigration and a passport from one of Bangladesh’s Regional Passport Offices.

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At the entry point, an embarkation/disembarkation-cum-health card is required to be filled out by foreigners in all circumstances. This include, first, the address/ address where the passenger is going to stay and the last address of the passenger before leaving; second, the purpose/reason behind the visit; third, how long the passenger is going to stay in Bangladesh and the places they are going to visit along with approximate dates; fourth, passport number that is need to be included; and, fifth, place and date of issuing passport. In case of changing route during exit from Bangladesh, for example, if any foreigner wants to exit by road, then a road permit is needed from the Director General, Immigration and Passports, Dhaka. A flight crew member can arrive at a Bangladesh airport while on duty and can maintain his license with him upon disembarking, can wait at the airport, and can depart with the same aircraft or his next planned flight out of Bangladesh. In the absence of a passport or visa, his crew member license or crew certificate may be allowed for temporary entrance to Bangladesh. The certificate or license in this situation must be granted by a nation with which Bangladesh has signed a bilateral agreement (Civil Aviation Authority of Bangladesh, 2006).

Immigration Area at the Airport and Required Steps When foreigners enter into Bangladesh, they need to go through the immigration process. Bangladesh has her own officials to administrate the inspection process. This process can be time-consuming if many international flights arrive around the same time. After entering the immigration area, foreigners may find multiple lines of passengers, like a line for Bangladeshi passport holders, a line for citizens of regions like EU, ECOWAS, etc., or sometimes there may be a line for nonimmigrant visitors. Here in Bangladesh foreigners/tourists need to go through the line of nonimmigrant visitors. Cell phones and cameras are completely prohibited in this area. Required steps are, first, passengers/foreigners travel documents (e.g., passport, visa, disembarkation card, immunization documentation, letters of confirmation, etc. will be reviewed by officials). Second, officials may ask the passengers about the nature, purpose, and duration of the visit. Third, officials will take finger prints and photos of every individual entering the country. Fourth, then by stamping the passport, the officials grant permission of admission in the country. Fifth, on the basis of visa rules and policies, the period of authorized stay of the nonimmigrant visitors can be specified by the officials. Finally, for random inspection and documentation-related issues, a second-level inspection is conducted. Not every passenger is selected for second-level inspection. By properly conducting the inspection, regular admission is granted. But if the provided documentation is incorrect or inadequate, the tourists/foreigners cannot enter the country. Even the officials have the power to send them back to the original location on the next available flight (University of Minnesota, 2020).

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Problems Regarding Immigration Process Tourists face some problems regarding immigration process as, first, in Bangladesh, passengers are harassed due to corruption and poor monitoring of authority. Second, money is collected from the passengers illegally by the officials of Civil Aviation Authority, Immigration, Customs, Ansar, etc. Third, compared to the other South Asian countries, Bangladesh does not provide all modern facilities to the passengers. Fourth, the immigration and customs processes are very time-consuming. Passengers have to stand on the line and sometimes corrupted officials exploit them. Fifth, some officials hide the baggage of the passengers to take money from them, and the legal authority is not active enough to help the passengers. Sixth, by taking money from the passengers, some officials allow scissors, iron, and food including dry fish, fruits, cooked food, or even jackfruit to the aircraft. Seventh, though there is no system to fill out the departure card, some officials charge the passengers to provide this service illegally. Eighth, some custom officials charge money illegally to allow restricted products – tobacco, alcohol, TV, gold bar, mobile, and sari of the passengers – by ignoring excise duty. Ninth, the expatriates face a very hostile reception by the officials. They even go through several rounds of interrogation by various agencies. Tenth, there is a lack of transparency everywhere in the process. Eleventh, political power leads to bureaucracy. Twelfth, so many rules and regulations may discourage the foreigners to visit Bangladesh. Finally, lack of government intervention is making these problems worst.

Other Legislations Customs Requirements It is mandatory for all the passengers and the crew members to be present at the customs with their baggage at the time of both arrival and departure. At the declaration counter on arrival, they have to make a currency declaration on the prescribed form provided by the customs officials. The officials must retain the form, as this form must be resubmitted to the customs on departure to show the balance of local and foreign currency remaining in his possession. Before leaving the customs hall, if there is any unaccompanied baggage of the passengers, then that information must be noted on the appropriate form by the officials of customs (Civil Aviation Authority of Bangladesh, 2006).

Requirements of Public Health There are certain aircraft rules, 1950, regarding public health which makes medical examination necessary during the entry and departure. The passengers and the crew are medically examined if the aircraft is coming from the West as they are suspected to be infectious by yellow fever. This medical examination is not required for those coming from India and Ceylon.

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A health report is required to be sent to the airport authorities by the aircraft commander where the aircraft is going to land. The health report states whether any passenger on board is ill or has any infectious disease. A book of journey log or related documents are required to be made by the pilot which will show the movements of last 3 months including the dates and places. The criteria to make an aircraft “clear” are: first, if the log of the aircraft shows that the aircraft is disinfected according to the “Schedule VIII of the Aircraft (Public Health) Rules 1950” even after its last landing in an area where there is an infection of yellow fever; second, if it has not landed in any area where there is a chance of yellow fever infection, in its recent journey; third, if it has been 9 days since an unvaccinated person coming from yellow fever infected area has boarded the aircraft; and, fourth, if a person fulfills the following criteria, he/she is said to be protected against yellow fever, if the previous attack of the disease could not infect the person, or if the person has a satisfactory vaccination against the yellow fever at least 10 days before going to the infectious area or at least 12 days before coming to Bangladesh. The foreigners are suggested to carry the international certificates of vaccination against cholera and small pox if they intend to visit Bangladesh. They are advised to carry it for their own interest. If the vaccination program is held at airport, by health department officials, then it charges nothing from the passengers and the crew members. If the health officer suggests to send them to the hospital, then they will get free accommodation along with treatment and drugs. If the port of embarkation is affected by an epidemic, then the embarking passengers have to bring up effective vaccination’s valid proof against the epidemic disease, if available (Civil Aviation Authority of Bangladesh, 2006).

Data Source This study is on the basis of both primary and secondary data. Qualitative and descriptive section included the rules of visa-passport and immigration process from various websites, newspapers, books, and journal articles. And quantitative part was based on author’s survey.

Sample Size A total 37 foreign tourists were randomly selected from export processing zone, Chittagong, Bangladesh, some tourist spots, and universities. Likert method was used to get satisfaction level related to visa, immigration, and legislation. Reliability was tested by Cronbach’s alpha method, in which we got a good result as the value of alpha was high (Figs. 44.1 and 44.2).

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Fig. 44.1 Sociodemographic profile of the respondents. (Source: authors’ calculation based on survey, 2020)

Nationalities of the respondents Japan

4 3 3

Nepal 2 India

14 2

China

9

Fig. 44.2 Nationalities of the respondents. (Source: authors’ drawing based on survey, 2020)

In Bangladesh, we have people from different countries, holding different occupations. Most of them are service holders and students. Distributions of nationalities of our survey are given in the following bar diagram:

Questionnaire Used On the basis of a literature study, expert advice, and consultation with potential respondents, structured and unstructured questionnaires were created. To determine the suitability of the questionnaire, a pilot survey was conducted on ten respondents using ten questionnaires of each kind. It should be emphasized that this pilot poll

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revealed that the structured questionnaire had several perplexing items. Then at least three of the questionnaire’s perplexing questions were altered.

Method of Data Collection Data was collected using both structured and unstructured questionnaires. In addition, certain respondents were interviewed for in-depth analyses in order to broaden the scope of the study. The interview was conducted using an unstructured questionnaire. Interviews were mostly conducted when visitors were in the area. However, because responders were so open and honest, gathering information was not difficult. With a request letter, a structured questionnaire was delivered to the hotel counter. After that, those were gathered after 5 days.

Mode of Data Analysis Qualitative Analysis Subjective judgment is applied in qualitative analysis on the basis of nonquantifiable information like managerial competence, industry cycles, development strength, research, and labor relations (Investopedia, 2020). Qualitative analysis of visapassport, immigration, and legislation helps to get a clear picture in depth. All components cannot be measured statistically. Thus this is the only way to get actual fact. Reliability of the Scale The total Cronbach’s alpha, which demonstrates the strong or poor consistency of a group of items (variables) that are used as a hypothesis to test the research idea, is used to determine reliability. The reliability test is utilized in this study to assess the consistency of specified items/variables used to estimate creditworthiness of commercial bank borrowers. Cronbach’s alpha, a well-known method of reliability testing, is used (Hair et al., 1998; Malhothra, 2002). The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS, version 23.0) software is used to calculate it. It is critical to note that its value ranges from 0 to 1, although values greater than 0.6 are necessary to be considered trustworthy (Malthothra, 2002; Cronbach, 1951). Cronbach’s alpha is utilized in this study to determine the scale’s reliability. Regression Analysis In statistics, regression analysis is used to discover patterns in data. We can make predictions about your data using regression analysis since it gives us an equation for a graph. It also provides us with a number of statistics (such as a p-value and a correlation coefficient) that indicate the model’s accuracy (Statistics how to, 2020). Residual Plot The residual plot is an essential component of statistical analysis. According to Larsen and McClery (2012), a partial residual plot displays deviations from linearity,

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such as outliers, inhomogeneity of variance, and curved connections, while also exhibiting the amount and direction of linearity.

Results and Analysis Our analysis includes all the rules and regulations related to immigration and visa process as well as the praiseworthy aspects and shortcomings of immigration and visa of Bangladesh. Several customs that tourists/foreigners have to face if they want to visit Bangladesh have also been indicated here. It clarifies the documentation process and what penalties foreigners may get if they do not follow the immigration and visa rules. As per the analysis, if they don’t fulfill the requirements regarding documentations and other rules, officials can send them back, and in the case of visa, tourists who obtain valid visa but violate visa rule by overstaying must pay overstay penalty which is 200 BDTK fine for first 15 days and 500 BDTK for 16–30 days. Foreigners can get a proper overview by going through our findings. Foreigners can smoothly clear the immigration processes if all the documentations are correct and if they properly cooperate with the officials. They are provided with free medical care by the Civil Aviation Authority of Bangladesh, if necessary and also can get the facilities of currency exchange, hotel booking, etc. It apparently eludes diverse visa facilities including hassle-free visa on arrival (VOA) facilities, employment visa facilities, business visa facilities, etc. Visa scheme such as e-Tourist visa (etv) scheme and ODMV (On Demand Mobile Visa) service for the residents of Dhaka has also been included in the analysis. But these processes of immigration and visa are not that simple and so consume time. Bangladesh has all kinds of rules to avoid any kind of inconveniences and criminal activities, but these rules are preserved safely in the rule books. Lack of proper implementation of the prevailing immigration rules has generated so many criminal activities which may discourage the foreigners to visit Bangladesh as well as it is a threat to national security. Though there is a limit regarding currency and baggage and on the other hand some goods are prohibited to carry, such rules are not followed properly due to corrupt activities and lack of transparency which eventually encourage the criminal activities. This situation can be related to the saying of Jehangir Ratanji Dadabhoy Tata, an Indian entrepreneur, aviator, a shareholder of Tata Sons, and the Chairman of Tata Group who quoted, “Most of our troubles are due to poor implementation. . .wrong priorities and unattainable targets” (Lodha, 2011: p.233). Proper implementation and interference of government can solve these problems. Moreover, the simplified VOA process that captivates tourists to make a visit in Bangladesh, conversely, could be a threat to national security. Many foreigners often get involved in criminal activities like smuggling, swindling, illegal businesses, and terrorism after entering into Bangladesh legally or illegally on tourist visas. This analysis explicitly states about different visa types like employment visa, NGO visa, tourist visa, etc. Foreigners coming to Rohingya camps who are working for different NGO’s, without any work permit, are using VOA facility. The situation has been aggravated by the highly corrupted visa consulates and fraud middleman of the visa management system. High cost and syndicates related to migrant visa procedure are also

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considered as a hindrance. Despite of some strategic weakness, foreigner’s feedback toward Bangladesh visa and immigration is quite positive.

Cronbach’s Alpha Cronbach’s alpha is a measure of internal consistency or how closely a group of things are connected to one another. Acceding to our result based on our survey, Cronbach’s alpha value is very high which indicates our components are internally consistent (Tables 44.1 and 44.2).

Regression Analysis According to result, we can see that we get very few negative comments from foreign tourist. The more will be the visa restrictions, the less will be the satisfactions. The result shows that visa availability, visa processing time, staff behavior, simple procedure, legislation, police rules, immigration time, transit visa, etc. variables have positive impacts on tourist satisfaction.

Residual Plot From the figure of residual plot for each variable, we can get an idea of extent and direction of linearity. We can get a proper knowledge of the deviations from linearity (Fig. 44.3).

Conclusion Up to this point, this analysis has explored the explicit assertions of the legislative framework, visa, and immigration related to travel and tourism that is adopted by Bangladesh Government. Any national legal issues of tourism should be discussed to protect the rights of tourists and disadvantaged groups. It is also very important to develop tourism in the domestic and international levels. This study is a humble effort to point out the facts which will facilitate the freedom of travelling in Bangladesh. Visitors should have access to all existing internal as well as external form of communication that is available in Bangladesh. Procedures of border crossing like visas and formalities of immigration and customs should benefit Table 44.1 Reliability test

Reliability test Items/components Sum of the item variances Variance of total scores Cronbach’s alpha Source: authors’ own calculation, 2020

11 27.90065741 101.1234478 0.7965

0.147321343

1.066957587 0.473201931 0.37661678 0.101097402 0.28014759 0.205178208 0.052894254 0.09456851 0.128087529 0.139540161 0.032921383

0.18901889

1.28304

0.21125

0.32149 0.00501 0.03508 0.59648 0.04844 0.09211 0.66567 0.58176 0.34079 0.33035 0.83073

P-value

t Stat 1.01146 3.07771 2.2284 0.53632 2.0749 1.75155 0.43727 0.5581 0.97113 0.99273 0.21601

F 1.32439

MS 1.17239 0.88523 Upper 95% 3.239501 0.7898583 0.028536 0.4893238 0.002072 0.4464346 0.3020258 0.2544298 0.3997322 0.4290326 0.3468131 0.4924329

Lower 95% 1.10558585 0.156545563 0.72469792 0.28712901 0.5582232 0.0360782 0.19623731 0.44356688 0.14355715 0.14995224 0.28097037 0.11439509

Significance F 0.268614343

0.11439509

1.10558585 0.156545563 0.72469792 0.28712901 0.5582232 0.0360782 0.19623731 0.44356688 0.14355715 0.14995224 0.28097037

Lower 95.0%

0.492432875

3.23950102 0.789858299 0.02853564 0.489323816 0.002071991 0.446434611 0.30202582 0.254429847 0.399732213 0.429032564 0.346813133

Upper 95.0%

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Source: authors’ own calculation, 2020

Intercept visa availabilitly visa restriction visa processing time embassy assistance staff behaviour simple procedure Location of visa office Flexible legislation Flexible police rules short immigration procedure Easy transit visa processing

df 11 25 36 Coefficients

Regression Residual Total

SS 12.89631086 22.13071617 35.02702703 Standard Error 1.054869029 0.153751124 0.169009286 0.188501649 0.135018401 0.117140999 0.12096475 0.169454639 0.131895896 0.140561779 0.152408776

0.606779791 0.368181714 0.090181669 0.940865903 37

Regression Statistics Multiple R R Square Adjusted R Square Standard Error Observations ANOVA

Table 44.2 Regression analysis

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Fig. 44.3 Residual plot in regression analysis. (Source: authors’ own plot according to survey, 2020)

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them when they are legally coming to Bangladesh. According to the result of our analysis, the process can be notoriously long and restrictive. Agreements with other countries that can simplify these procedures should be adopted. There might be several difficulties in the administrative procedures, yet various measures and schemes have been taken by the government to reduce such complications. Government and related ministries should extend measures to modernize the formalities of tourism in Bangladesh. Because we should understand that tourist-welcoming environment starts from the visa office and immigration queues. To liberalize entry procedures, Bangladesh may provide visa waiver to potential travellers from top tourist markets including France, Spain, the USA, China, etc. To provide customs and immigration facility at Benapole Border, Bangladesh government has established international customs-immigration building. It indicates a better opportunity for tourists compared to India. As a member of UNWTO (United Nations World Tourism Organization), Bangladesh is trying to develop its several aspects of the tourism industry. If we can coordinate these things along with improved visa policy, hassle-free immigration office, visa consulates, and enforcement of corruption-free legal requirements, soon Bangladesh will turn into a top tourist destination.

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Schengen visa info. (2020). Home. Retrieved from: https://www.schengenvisainfo.com/. Accessed 7 Apr 2020. Sharma, S. (2006). Focusing on regional tourism markets: Prospects and challenge for Nepal. Economic Policy Network, Policy Paper 28. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal/Ministry of Finance. Siraj, S. B., Alam, G. M., Hoque, K. E., Khalifa, M. T. B., & Ghani, M. F. B. A. (2009). The role of agriculture education and training on agriculture economics and national development of Bangladesh. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 4(12), 1334–1350. Sobhan, R. (1999). Transforming eastern South Asia: Building growth zones for economic cooperation. University Press Limited. Statistics how to (2020). Practically cheating statistics handbook. Probability and statistics. Retrieved from: https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/regression-analysis/ . Accessed 17 Apr 2020. The Bangladesh Monitor. (2018). Bangladesh all set to enter biometric passport, border control age. Retrieved from: https://bangladeshmonitor.com.bd/front_page/69/Bangladesh-all-set-toenter-biometric-passport,-border-control-age. Accessed 7 Apr 2020. The Daily Star. (2017). Bangladesh likely to face EU visa curbs: Row over irregular migrants. Retrieved from: https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/bangladesh-likely-face-eu-visa-curbs1440085. Accessed 7 Apr 2020. The Daily Star. (2020). Indian visa set to get real easy for Bangladeshis. Retrieved from: https:// www.thedailystar.net/backpage/indian-visa-set-get-real-easy-86923. Accessed 17 Apr 2020. Torpey, J. (1998). Coming and going: On the state monopolization of the legitimate ‘means of movement’. Sociological Theory, 16, 239–259. Travel.State.Gov. (2020). Bangladesh travel advisory. Retrieved from: https://travel.state.gov/ content/travel/en/traveladvisories/traveladvisories/bangladesh-travel-advisory.html. Accessed 17 Apr 2020. University of Minnesota (2020). Immigration & customs. Retrieved from: https://umabroad.umn. edu/students/travel/customs. Accessed 17 Apr 2020. Ward, A. M. (2016). An examination of quality of life, security, opportunities, and empowerment among tourism industry workers. Retrieved from: https://digitallibrary.tulane.edu/islandora/ object/tulane%3A50722/datastream/PDF/view Accessed 17 Apr 2020. World Economic Forum. (2013). The travel & tourism competitiveness report-2013. Retrieved from: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TT_Competitiveness_Report_2013.pdf. Accessed 17 Apr 2020. World Economic Forum (2015). What are the benefits of electronic visas?. Retrieved from: https:// www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/04/what-are-the-benefits-of-electronic-visas/. Accessed 17 Apr 2020. Yilmez, B. S. (2008). Competitive advantage strategies for SMES in tourism industry: A case study. Retrieved from: https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/27382677/yilmaz-b-s-competitiveadvantage-strategies-for-smes-in-mibes. Accessed 17 Apr 2020.

Big Data in the Hospitality Industry: Context, Opportunities, and Challenges in Sri Lanka

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Big Data: The Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Big Data: Key Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Big Data: Impact and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Big Data: Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Human Resource Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technological Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organizational Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Information Management Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Big Data in the Hospitality Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Big Data Analytics: The Context, Opportunities, and Challenges in Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lessons from Other Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion and Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Data is present and exists in every momentum of our lives and evolves into huge volumes. Big Data is rather a revolution of the twenty-first century aspiring for uplifting the living, working, and thought process through improved capabilities for decision-making. It encompasses huge amount of data collected from variety of technological surfaces and stored in a number of platforms enabling easy accessibility for an organization. It has a collection of novel technologies and S. S. Nawaz (*) Department of MIT, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka e-mail: [email protected] M. Kaldeen Department of Marketing Management, South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Oluvil, Sri Lanka A. Hassan Tourism Consultants Network, The Tourism Society, London, UK © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_45

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architectures that pulls out the real value of such huge data economically. Data captured from various sources in organizations grows hugely, and we need innovative learning techniques to face the challenges of such massive data sets and make maximum use of them. It is obvious that Big Data application spreads in almost all fields including engineering and science. For governments and businesses, this Big Data is a valuable asset. Hence it is a worthy effort to define it with its main features and discuss the opportunities it offers and the challenges an organization might posed in terms of people, technology, organization, process, and management of data. Motivated by this objective, this chapter defines what Big Data is, the impact it has on its implementers, opportunities provided for the adopters, and challenges faced when an organization endeavors to implement or adopt this trending technology. Keywords

Big Data · Hospitality industry · Knowledge-based organizations · Data mining

Introduction In the business world, technology is developing rapidly, forcing companies to embrace intelligent ways of doing business (Buhalis and Amaranggana, 2014). According to Yin and Zhu (2017), the twenty-first century saw the rise of technologically smart companies in most of their operations which rely on technological infrastructure. Furthermore, according to Gretzel, Sigala, Xiang, and Koo (2015), with the support of technological infrastructures, companies that are smart store and create huge customer data every day; and after appropriately harnessed, this can be applied for predicting future customers’ behavior and for building robust customer relationships (Buhalis and Amaranggana, 2014). Likewise, Big Data includes huge data produced by technical interface usage and can be accessed easily to a specific organization on diverse platforms (Vinod, 2016). Also, Big Data appears in the 3Vs (i.e., volume, velocity, and variety) format meaning that Big Data can be collected in great amounts (volume), can be processed at fast speed (velocity), and can appear in numerous forms (variety) such as audio, text, videos, and pictures (Salas-Olmedo et al., 2018). Following Gantz and Reinsel (2011), Big Data add value of an enterprise over and above dimensions of the velocity, size, and variety. As a fragment of Big Data analytics, organizations that are smart and modern participate in data mining (Gretzel et al., 2015) for gaining value from the produced data (Buhalis and Amaranggana, 2014). Today, companies find it increasingly important to preserve their competitiveness by techniques as minimizing costs, improving quality, and reducing advertising time (de Bruin et al., 2005). In the Big Data age, traditional techniques are obsolete. Proper Big Data management is critical to achieve competitive advantage and can ensure subsistence in the modern digital market (Malik, 2013). The emphasis of their data collection and analysis should therefore be transformed from only product or

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service-oriented toward future-oriented (Farah, 2017). Companies should also define critical data sources, processes, capabilities, and architecture, identify system support infrastructure for analyzing Big Data, highlight Big Data approaches, and define technologies that promote Big Data implementation (Macke, 2017). The hospitality industry creates a substantial amount of Big Data, and their technical infrastructure collects this data (Vinod, 2016; Talón-Ballestero et al., 2018). Huge Big Data remains unused in the tourism industry, primarily due to lack of experience and the high costs of Big Data analytics (Talón-Ballestero et al., 2018). As stated by George, Haas, and Pentland (2014), though Big Data has become highly regarded in today’s marketplace, very few research is available on Big Data analytics’ prospects, opportunities, and challenges, particularly in the developing world.

Big Data: The Definition While the word “Big Data” does not have a standardized meaning, it is beneficial for considering a few of the most widely accepted applications. Big Data is well-defined in different ways, but the working concept is “Business Intelligence and Analytics (BI and A)” from the perspective of this project. Thomas (2015) had stated that business and technical standpoints can offer useful insights for strengthening the structure of Big Data. Some researchers see Big Data as the tool of a newer generation of technology and systems designed for extracting value from huge amounts of data economically (e.g., Mikalef et al., 2018). Whereas technological aspects concentrate on the specifics of the technology itself and show how this can be implemented for achieving an anticipated result, business aspects emphasize more on using the latest techniques for helping business leaders build a market advantage (Thomas, 2015). Thus, Big Data involves large data sets and knowledge flows extracted from diverse sources from a technological standpoint. It is a complex process to turn data from numerous sources into a complete data source (Liu, 2013). Some researchers believe that Big Data is fundamentally a technological method or form of business analytics, which backs organizations, especially the timely analysis of huge data amounts (Boubeta-Puig et al., 2014). In addition, Big Data is often seen from a business perspective as a tool that can be used to automate the activities of an organization, offer new insights, direct behavior, and create business values (McAfee and Brynjolfsson, 2012). While considering the social media data impact in decision-making, the business viewpoint is particularly important. Social media is typically a major element of companies’ Big Data sets, because their existence on social media has spread from single site to numerous sites (Michaelidou et al., 2011). Wang and Byrd (2017) stated that throughout the understanding, persuasion, and decision-making phases of Big Data distribution, it is highly significant for executives for trying for understanding the advantages of Big Data and how this can affect the organization’s growth and competencies beforehand routinizing it for the use of employees. Big Data can be seen as a framework for companies toward innovation as a new information technology. In this study, a business solution perspective is

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aimed to be built for better understanding of Big Data’s role within business, describing Big Data as a new technology that is primarily defined for business purposes by its cutting-edge Business Intelligence and Analytics (BI and A) feature. Therefore, the emphasis lies on its ability for creating business value over the unique analytical, predictive, and decision-making capabilities allowing the analysis of data that otherwise remains unprocessed using conventional approaches (Gobble, 2013).

Big Data: Key Features Previous studies described Big Data as advanced architectures and technologies that were developed for economically extracting value from huge volumes of data through rapid data collection, discovery, and analysis (Esteves and Curto, 2013). Since Big Data is a comparatively new concept, it is significant for organizations for understanding its definition and the actual Vs that delineate its key features, especially since prior studies failed to do so (Comuzzi and Patel, 2016). Big Data’s three characteristics are volume, velocity, and variety. Conventional technology makes large sizes of data uncontrollable as they are generated rapidly by online streaming and many other sources as transactional networks, sensors, Internet portals, product or service instrumentation, and social media (Comuzzi and Patel, 2016). Big Data’s 3Vs (i.e., volume, velocity, and variety) are the measurements of its data management. Also, IBM has quickly included to the list “veracity.” Oracle, however, did not use such dimensions for describing Big Data, rather stressed that it requires value source from traditional business decision-making based on databases, built using modern unstructured data sources (Quinter et al., 2015). The studies by Demchenko, Ngo, de Laat, Membrey, and Gordijenko (2013) and Widyaningrum (2016) used the 4“V” model for describing Big Data (i.e., volume, variety, velocity, and value), while many others included veracity to the list. Precisely, volume includes the data amount, velocity involves the pace or frequency of data production or processing, and variety involves data types and sources, while veracity involves data reliability and validity and the outcome of evaluation. In the meantime, Marr (2015) categorized Big Data by volume, velocity, variety, and quality (i.e., insights extracted from a Big Data enterprise requiring both scalability and improved strategies and operating procedures). Equally, Soon, Lee and Boursier (2016) used the 5Vs too (i.e., volume, velocity, variety, veracity, and value). For, Khan, Yaqoob, Hashem, Inayat, Ali, Alam, Shiraz, and Gani (2014), their use of the 4Vs is balanced by “complexity” (i.e., volume, variety, velocity, and value). To the 3Vs of volume, variety, and quality defined by Khan, Yaqoob, Hashem, Inayat, Ali, Alam, Shiraz, and Gani (2014), “management” and “defense” were added, requiring more technical research. Big Data is currently defined as validity, variability, or volatility, virtual, and visualization or visibility (Patgiri and Ahmed, 2016). According to Saxena (2016), velocity, variety, value, veracity, and variance imply data diversity and inconstancy while the seventh aspect, i.e., visualization, infers the descriptions of the information. In summary, volume, velocity, variety, veracity, and

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value are the most common Vs, and their particular characteristics are the difference between customary data and Big Data (Saxena, 2016).

Big Data: Impact and Opportunities Big Data greatly impacts industries (Al-Sai et al., 2019). All of the Internet-based actions, phone calls, and transactions based on cards generate recorded data which can be analyzed and processed for businesses (Malik, 2013). By using Big Data software, large data amounts produced by widespread daily transactions permit marketers for recognizing customer lifestyle trends and requirements (Sun et al., 2018). Staying competitive in a rapidly changing marketplace allows Big Data to be incorporated into corporate decision-making in order to generate business value added. McKinsey and company established that Big Data software contributed tremendous values for the US healthcare industry, as well as for the EU public sector government, the retail sector, global personal location data, and international manufacturing on the basis of increased corporate economic utility, profitability, productivity, and significant customer benefits (Chen et al., 2014). Industries and government organizations now aim to utilize Big Data’s massive potential by speeding up all related studies and applications (Chen et al., 2014). Big Data investments in the public and private sectors support companies as well as the community by enhancing infrastructure, productivity, and effectiveness. This shows that the usage of Big Data is growing rapidly in many industries. Besides, Big Data allows new values to be generated and the avenue to understand such values other than encouraging new ways of managing and organizing these large data sets. Moreover, Big Data technology provides a competitiveness for companies as it lets them make rational decisions by using multisource data. A study in the USA claims that, using Big Data technology, the US medical industry would make a profit of over US$ 250 billion and reduce healthcare costs by 9%, retailers would increase their profits by more than 55%, government transactions and operations can increase their productivity in the evolving economies of Europe by saving over US$ 120 billion, and a substantial added value for businesses and consumers can be created (Chen et al., 2014). Depending on the above, Big Data resources need to be used by organizations. Big Data software helps to identify opportunities for corporate development and to establish values. Big Data analytics and applications are now being used by companies to achieve a competitive edge (Sun et al., 2018) in the fields of IT infrastructure, leadership, processes, organizational strategies, etc. Implementation of Big Data can promote business development and the development of business value, resulting in increased efficiency in the organization (Al-Sai et al., 2019). Organizations that fail to take advantage of Big Data’s advantages face the risk of becoming obsolete (Soon et al., 2016). Big Data meaningfully affects the core organizational components, including policy, staff, structure, incentives, and system, with the rapidly expanding virtual world (Widyaningrum, 2016). In addition to that, Big Data makes it possible to make

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better decisions leading to its useful application in real time (Malik, 2013). Businesses can achieve full benefits through improved process models aiming toward a value to customer (V2C) production. Among the usage of Big Data are market analysis and customer segmentation, such as collecting social media data streams from YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter, and e-commerce websites where consumer feedback data, trends, and online reviews are analyzed. Also, Big Data enables customer behavior recognition leading to application designs that meet customer needs as web browser clickstream analysis of unstructured data which identifies user trends that allow service and product recommendations based on the said analysis (Rehman et al., 2016). In reality, Big Data is used to define customer requirements, reduce costs, optimize procedures, project threats, and detect fraud. Through high levels of development, dedication, and research on software, devices, and services, these potentials can be accomplished. It will be also appropriate for formulating regulations and policies for ensuring data security, reliability, confidentiality, control, and quality.

Big Data: Challenges The silo approach that most hospitality companies automatically embrace is a major challenge (Al-Sai et al., 2019). Ensuring the accuracy and classification of the data collected is challenging and a task in itself (Ekbia et al., 2015). So, the more precise the collected data, the greater the probability of the predictive analytics being. Big Data analytics also faces the difficulty of managing large amounts of data. Also, Xiang, Du, Ma, and Fan (2018) alert that data collected for analytics purposes are huge and growing daily. The data for data mining engineers is so diverse and mostly daunting. Wolfe (2013) stated that the lack of data scientists who are able to handle this knowledge is closely related to the issue of processing large amounts of data. Big Data, whether unstructured, structured, and semi-structured, is increasingly being obtained from a variety of sources worldwide. For the high speed of data flows, it is difficult to integrate Big Data from as huge as petabytes (PB) to as small as megabytes (MB). Big Data’s implementation for its collection, software, organization, and resources is mixed with complex protection, risk, privacy, and ethical issues (Soon et al., 2016). Increasing data size, variety, and speed lead to different opportunities and uncertainties that make preparations easier. Therefore, the application of Big Data needs the required skills, technology, human resources, and organizational components to be prepared (Al-Sai and Abualigah, 2017). Implementation of Big Data performance depends on several factors. Anshari and Lim (2017) highlighted three interrelated factors that could make Big Data initiatives successful or ineffective, i.e., individuals, processes, and technologies relevant to data management. This technology’s innovation includes a thorough emphasis on other key elements that may influence its implementation. A serious effort to incorporate Big Data requires the development of sufficient and effective resources,

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data management systems, governance, software, skills, and processes. Likewise, Davenport and Dyché (2013) emphasized the elements of people, software, organization, process, and data management as highly significant for Big Data projects (Davenport and Dyché, 2013).

Human Resource Challenges This issue involves identifying Big Data engineering experts (Al-Sai et al., 2019). There is no question that the creation and implementation of Big Data would require financial investments to obtain new technology, data specialists, IT professionals, and qualified skills in the topic (Adrian et al., 2016). Big Data provides businesses with competitive advantage, especially in drawing in human expertise (Soon et al., 2016). For Big Data experts, it is difficult for harnessing the full possibilities of the technology. Big Data’s inefficient and slow use is usually due to a lack of expertise (Marr, 2015). For example, data experts have the required skills and industrial knowhow for properly analyzing Big Data to achieve optimum results. Because Big Data is a new arena, it is not possible to find many experts in this particular area. Data scientists are classified as current ones (Davenport and Dyché, 2013). Meanwhile the implementation is exactly focused primarily on extracting business values; importantly, Big Data ventures need to be made up of early-stage business experts (Gao et al., 2015).

Technological Challenges The growing volume of data requires improved storage systems, processes for storage, and new technologies and environment (Chen et al., 2014). At the initial implementation stages, space capacities have already been expected and need to be planned meticulously. Since conventional database systems are obsolete to tackle the issue (Gao et al., 2015), instead, new technologies, expertise, and resources are needed to collect, store, and analyze massive data volumes as “Hadoop” and “Spark.” Effective processes are critical if Big Data implementation is to achieve maximum values (Chen et al., 2014). Big Data management is redundant by current data storage and processing systems (Comuzzi and Patel, 2016). In order for managing the multitude of structured, unstructured, and semi-structured Big Data, proper technical infrastructures and broad processing competencies are needed. Also, the speedy growth in data volume makes the produced data unable to model and analyze at similar speeds (Al-Sai and Abualigah, 2017), showing that the application of Big Data still remains at its early stages (Gao et al., 2015). IT infrastructure is important as this can be well suited to Big Data apps. Scalability is important for analytical systems that need to monitor the changing rate of data capture and analysis (Gao et al., 2015).

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Organizational Challenges In spite of the growing prominence Big Data analytics usage, many companies are still in doubt about adopting it (Davenport and Dyché, 2013). According to Al-Sai et al. (2019), before adopting Big Data, organizational challenges such as creating effective value discovery systems, obtaining top management engagement, stressing on customer-centricity, and setting the business of implementing Big Data must first be addressed for ensuring its successful adoption. In order for gaining a strong competitive advantage, companies need to set up improved data management systems to handle, protect, and broaden Big Data governance. On the other hand, it is necessary to identify and preserve data veracity. Conventional systems are inadequate to monitor data governance policies with the type of data volume and velocity involved (Malik, 2013). Challenges relating to legal frameworks, governance, standards and policies, data protection and management, privacy, and identity management need to be tackled first before incorporating Big Data. Before we can take full advantage of Big Data technologies, readiness for adoption is a vital precondition (Sun et al., 2018). Organizations thus therefore need the correct models and resources to help business operations and decision-making to achieve maximum value from Big Data (Comuzzi and Patel, 2016). Upon recognizing and addressing the stumbling blocks, consumer satisfaction can be increased, new revenue sources can be found, and competitive benefits can be assured (Sivarajah et al., 2017).

Process Challenges For many organizations, processing vast data becomes an issue. Thus, many face the option of either retaining the accumulating data or saving merely those having critical values. Good processes are therefore needed to identify the best business values as derived from Big Data (Gao et al., 2015). The challenges are in volume, speed, variety, technology, governance or policy, convergence, regulation or compliance, and visualization with Big Data (Sagiroglu and Sinanc, 2013). Processing issues start from the data collection stage to the evaluation, interpretation, and presentation of results (Sivarajah et al., 2017) that are relevant either to traditional data, Big Data, or both (Russom, 2013). Accordingly, the difficulties in data processing are identified as acquisition and storage, mining and cleaning, aggregation and integration, evaluation and modelling, and ultimately interpretation (Al-Sai et al., 2019).

Information Management Challenges The issue with Big Data is commonly related to its collection, handling, and control (Russom, 2013). The crucial task in data management is to collect and handle many types of huge volume of data in real time (Jokonya, 2015). Data storage includes confidential information concerning individual accounts, personal

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data, medical records, and others (Russom, 2013). As stated by Sivarajah, Kamal, Irani, and Weerakkody (2017), data protection, confidentiality, information sharing, data ownership, operating costs, and data governance are six issues in data management. In the meantime, Russom (2013) discussed data management issues attached for storage, implementation, performance, leadership, content management, event processing, database management, and others. Proper and efficient management of Big Data is crucial for taking advantage of its actual benefits (Jokonya, 2015). Similarly, Oussous, Benjelloun, Lahcen, and Belfkih (2018) also underlined the significance of proper management of Big Data. Many organizations new to Big Data would lack the required Big Data management skills and infrastructure (Jokonya, 2015). Organizations must therefore provide security infrastructures and regulations for privacy that are sufficiently robust for making confidential data processing easier (Russom, 2013). While a good number of the hospitality organizations apply data lakes and data warehouses to store large amounts of data, the challenge is to obtain and synthesize these data from different data sources within distribution channel of the hospitality industry and other players (Chareyron et al., 2014). The challenge lies in the different data types and formats in which the various institutions hold them across the system of distribution (Schroder, 2018). Information security and privacy are other Big Data analytics problems. Basically, processing, storing, and handling data from diverse sources can lead to an increased risk of customer information leak as this becomes highly vulnerable and prone for hacking (Chang et al., 2016).

Big Data in the Hospitality Industry The growth of Internet data generated by users has led to large-scale data analytics inspired through the need for tackling actual challenges. Thus, Big Data concept diagnoses the present existence of a huge information pool put for using in many ways than before (Al-Sai et al., 2019). Big Data is about scale, about mining, and about making meaningful use of the data. Big Data comes in forms that are organized and unstructured (Kambatla et al., 2014). Structured data refers to data collected through the organization’s numerous conventional applications. Unstructured data are commonly user-generated information and posts on social media. Structured data sources and surveys contain transaction ratings and data when unstructured data sources contain content and web application e-reviews (Fuchs et al., 2014). Through making the process of decision-making simpler from large data amounts, Big Data is radically altering the management of the hotel industry and the customer-to-business relationship. Today, both tourism organizations and hoteliers’ technical bases make it important that managers and marketers develop their access for data intelligence for making the best application of it (Peter, 2014). In recent years, such professionals invested profoundly in assembling robust scientific

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teams, including database specialists and statisticians who are well equipped for building and evaluating their data warehouses content (Ramos et al., 2017). Although human analysis is frequently needed, Big Data currently can improve organizational efficiency and decision-making from five likely approaches (i.e., inquisitive analytics, descriptive analytics, predictive analytics, preemptive analytics, and prescriptive analytics). Many Big Data analytics are exploratory and qualitative in their character, and even simple descriptive statistics make it possible for businesses for discovering clear and simple trends that are highly beneficial for decision-making. The hospitality industry is converted into an information-intensive field, where huge volumes of data are processed with not so widespread practical applications. These data can be handled with the beginning of Big Data for achieving the goals and turn the information into knowledge. Data is stored in formats that are very dissimilar, and, due to their complexity, their analysis develops as a multifarious task, ranging from structured data in traditional databases (from CRM systems and property management systems) to unstructured and semi-structured data. In turn, the information systems available may often comprise meta-search data created, such as Tripadvisor, trivago, and KAYAK, or social networking sites as Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter (Ramos et al., 2017). Zhang, Shu, Ji, and Wang (2015) commented that the hotel industry is beginning to use Big Data technology predominantly in consumer product sales, online actions, social media, and offline data collection and evaluation. Examples include the destination of travellers (Vu et al., 2015), blogs (Tseng et al., 2015), photography (Balomenou and Garrod, 2014), search engines (Pan and Li, 2011), online actions (Rong et al., 2012), and Online Travel Agencies (Ramos et al., 2017), to name a few. The hospitality sector is increasingly interested in leveraging user-generated information and gaining insight to research issues that are yet to be well understood by applying conventional methods (Yang et al., 2014). In this setting, the most commonly applied Big Data method is termed as the text analytics for information retrieval, mainly involving statistical analysis, machine learning, and computational linguistics (Özköse et al., 2015). Revenue management and marketing are the main features of Big Data, as well as CRM systems in managing hotels, and their use comprises of pricing, forecasting, and benchmarking (Ramos et al., 2017; Song and Liu, 2017). Nevertheless, Big Data’s growing interest in dealing with customers’ unstructured and external data have drawn attention to large hotel chains that are also able for accessing large amount of internal and organized data by applying their CRM systems (Al-Sai et al., 2019). Simple statistical analysis in Big Data thus can produce important and effective pattern definitions; these systems often may not be intensely utilized for client information purposes. While a few other studies have focused on Big Data approaches supported by advanced analytics and their helpfulness on internal data produced by hotel customers (Lee et al., 2016), this research aims for gaining insight precisely on customer profiling and to restrict for simple Big Data proportion checking and analytics tools.

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Big Data Analytics: The Context, Opportunities, and Challenges in Sri Lanka Di Bella, Leporatti, and Maggino (2018) note the gaps between developed and developing countries in the application of Big Data, as it is more commonly used in developed countries and is more beneficial as a consistent source of information and as a way of tracking changing social trends. Big Data is mostly used in developing countries to help assess social issues as people’s socio-economic status. Also, Sahay (2016) argues that countries of low and medium income face difficulties in collecting and value-generating Big Data. Sri Lanka is playing a role of a host executing many experiments in the field of Big Data as a revolutionary step forward. Before starting to walk faster with the adoption of such new technologies, it is better to crawl first. Most of the Sri Lankan companies are not aware or do not pay proper attention to the wealth of data they possess as a result of the records generated by them over a long period of time. Although performing analysis of the data they have, if they simply become more precise on the analysis, they would be bombarded with unexpected insights on the operational efficiencies of the businesses, performance of the employees, popularity of their products, as well as preferences of their customers. As in the case of other counties, in Sri Lanka, too, it is expected that financial institutions would take the first lead into Big Data field and some institutions have already taken some steps. After the 30-year-old civil war ended in the country, the tourism sector started prospering making it a substantial source of income to the country and employment creation field. Due to the nature of unstable political atmosphere and inconsistent governmental policies and regulations as well as security situation, this sector is experiencing hiccough now and then. Hence, it is inevitable for the hospitality industry to dive deep into how the sector is performing, how incoming tourists flock, and their behavioral pattern in terms of stay, expenditures, and so on; all these information and intelligence can be brought to light when these businesses break their coffer of data warehouses heaped by many “customer-touch-points.” However, the real potentials of Big Data for this sector largely remain untapped. The idea of Big Data analytics is still new in Sri Lanka’s hospitality sector. AbouShouk and Eraqi (2015) highlight the inadequate positioning and incapacity of developed countries to take full advantage of the opportunities provided by advances in ICT. Sri Lanka has a comparatively low rate of ICT adoption compared to other fast developing countries. It can be pointed out here that Sri Lankan tourism industry’s technical infrastructure is a reason of concern and leads to negotiated service delivery. For highlighting the lack in literature and the type of research that can be done in developing countries on Big Data analytics. As, Liang, Schuckert, Law, and Guo (2017) summarize e-tourism research in China, and their research recognizes new research subjects, leading e-tourism experts, and organizations. These large data analysis studies have not been carried out in Sri Lanka. Protopop and Shanoyan (2016) highlighted that the speedy growths in the developing world’s ICT sector are creating a conducive environment required for

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various industries to implement and apply Big Data analytics. Big Data trend that was historically identical with developed countries is dispersing rapidly toward the developing countries (Micheni, 2015) requiring work on Big Data analytics in both the hospitality sector and the business world as a whole. Searching on Google Scholar for Big Data analytics in the hospitality and relevant other industries reveals that most studies are linked to the developed world and emerging economies such as China.

Lessons from Other Industries According to Li, Xu, Tang, Wang, and Li (2018), Big Data analytics has made tremendous contributions among other sectors in the fields of management, technology, health care, tourism, and industry. In the military, drone and radio information may be used to track and forecast the enemy’s actions. Chung and Pennebaker (2013) stated that data derived from financial news can be used by applying text analytics to forecast stock market activity. Entertainment apps such as Netflix can give registered users movie rentals based on past history information (Gantz and Reinsel, 2011). In politics, Big Data analytics can be applied for understanding people’s need and for tailoring political messages to a particular audience (Schroder, 2018). Big Data analytics were also applied in the management of smart cities through tapping data that generate in the urban environment by technological devices like camera and telecommunications networks (Kitchin, 2014). Sporting activities as formula one car racing are designed with sensors installed in vehicles, producing data to help evaluate car performance, driver responses, interaction between crew and drivers, and pit stops delays for improving performance in future races (Munford, 2014).

Conclusion and Implications The presence of data in these days is growing, and numerous companies place themselves for achieving strategic advantages by making sense and analyzing Big Data (Al-Sai et al., 2019). Big Data is used by those in industry who are expected to have a considerable advantage over their rivals (Cukier and MayerSchoenberger, 2013). Digital footprints and information trails are evident in the tourism industry as a whole from car rentals, hotel stays, airline, and customerled reservations of trains (Akerkar, 2007). Shafiee and Ghatari (2016) highlighted that Big Data analytics provides insight into the needs of consumers and their behavior allowing ads to be tailored, guest experience to be optimized, and potential behaviors to be predicted. To make it even better, hotels need for investing in Big Data systems that provide real-time insight in the processing of information (Gandomi and Haider, 2015). Available data mining techniques comprise A/B testing methods such as signal processing, Google Analytics, time series analysis, genetic algorithms, data fusion, cluster analysis, integration,

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processing of natural languages, spatial analysis, machine learning, data mining, network analysis, visualization, and simulation (Manyika et al., 2011). Literature shows that work on Big Data analytics is not very well established in the hospitality industry in Sri Lanka and very few studies are available in the industry related to ICT applications and e-commerce. Therefore, this research aimed to add to this discussion through drawing lessons from literatures on the application of Big Data in the hospitality industry.

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Part XIV Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: The Purposes of Social Media

Use of Social Media for Employment Opportunities in Kazakhstan: Case Study of a Czech Restaurant in Almaty, Kazakhstan

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Christian Kahl, Akhmediyar Zhabaidilda, Diana Mussabek, Elmira Medinova, and Symbat Myrzatay

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Understanding of the Importance of Using Social Media as a Recruitment Tool . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Foreign Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Advantages of Using Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definition of Recruitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The “Kolkovna” Restaurant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Theoretical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Creating Guidelines of Using Social Media as a New Recruitment Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Write a Marketed Job Advertisement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Write a Portrait of an Ideal Candidate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Promote It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Find a Way to Filter Candidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Screening Social Media Profile and Collecting Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Standard research for a new employee is looking through thousands of resumes and following interviews and work-related tests, and then potentially the right candidate is found and they take the job offer. But is this still efficient? In today’s fast-paced world, coupled with generation Y and Z taking over the labor market, recruitment methods deserve reconsideration and modernization. Through research done in one of the well-known restaurants in Almaty, Kazakhstan, junior researchers tested if social media can replace the classic C. Kahl (*) School of Economics and Management, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China A. Zhabaidilda · D. Mussabek · E. Medinova · S. Myrzatay Almaty Management University, Almaty, Kazakhstan © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_46

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recruitment process or if it’s impractical to modernize the recruitment system as it currently stands. The research question is answered by conducting a recruiting experiment with the use of social media and instruction on using social media in the recruitment process. Thus, the process of recruiting was analyzed, opening was closed, and guidelines for usage of new tools were made. The experiment was to design, develop, and test the social media recruitment by the researcher and the restaurant employees with self-reflection on the outcome. The final result is to develop a recruitment system where social media is a significant part of the recruitment process itself. On this basis, it is currently recommended to use social media in recruiting as an additional tool to increase the efficiency of the hiring process and reduce the turnover rate by selecting the appropriate candidate for the opening. Keywords

Social media · Recruiting · Screening · Talent acquisition · Hiring · Human recourses · Hospitality · Future recruiting trends · Employer branding · Facebook · Instagram · Soft skills

Introduction One main trait of the hospitality industry is inconsistency and being people-oriented, which means the quality of the product is entirely based on interactions between people in the hotel/restaurant and can be perceived differently due to the different moods of the employees during the work (Gibbs et al., 2015; Jaume, 2020). As a result, it is important to hire people with developed soft skills and that are good communicators and stress-resistant and have better analytic mindset that can objectively process the situation. The hospitality industry has a high turnover rate that can be up to 70% (Grindy, 2020). Therefore, recruiters in human resources should be able to promote openings correctly, increase the number of engaged candidates, analyze all candidates’ resumes, and choose the right one to the right job in a short period of time (Maha, 2015). The twenty-first century has changed the way people connect and engage with each other. People started to spend hours on social media networks each day having conversations, posting photos and videos, and sharing useful and interesting information with each other. Thus, social media have become the perfect place to sell and promote products, services, and other offerings, because that is where you find your targeted audience (Duarte Alonso et al., 2013; Fan & Gordon, 2014; Seth, 2012). Consequently, the hospitality industry can increase the number of applicants by promoting an opening throughout social platforms. With the majority of adults in the workforce using social media, human resources can find the right audience of candidates for the job and examine their soft skills by surveying the content of their account. Moreover, there is an opportunity to increase the number of applicants

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by effectively promoting the opening through social media (Arjomandy, 2016; Gibbs et al., 2015; Goldstein, 2015). The aim of this research project is to determine how the use of social media can affect the length of recruiting and quality of the candidates. The research project answers to the question: is the use of social media as additional recruitment tool beneficial? In this context, social media are a social platform where people share their personal life to the public. In addition, things like job experience, length of job experience, education, trainings, and other background information might be shared too and give the human resource department an alternative way to the classical resume scanning. The objectives of our research are, first, to examine secondary information related to the social media recruitment; second, to analyze current recruitment situation in one restaurant in Almaty, Kazakhstan; third, to develop, implement, and run the first round of social media recruitment via Facebook and Instagram; and finally, to give a road plan about improving recruitment in the restaurant industry.

Understanding of the Importance of Using Social Media as a Recruitment Tool Recruiting with social media is vastly less time-intensive compared to traditional methods of recruitment (Ramasamy & Raman, 2014). As we know, information in any amount just flies away in a matter of seconds in social networks, and it can reach billions of larger audience (Lagrosen & Grundén, 2014). Social media save time and it gives human resources a wider platform. HR is able to get a different perspective of the candidate they are searching for through their friend circle, their interests, and much more. Secondly, it is operational 24/7 (El Ouirdi et al., 2016); social media can be a helpful research tool to build a connection with job applicants. Another good cause is that all social media platforms offer targeting on the basis of specific demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender, race, geographical locations), through keywords (Ramos & Kaur, 2020; Seth, 2012). HR managers in many cases can have an opportunity to attain their candidates faster. Technology helps manage vacancies effectively and coordinate processes (Sigala & Chalkiti, 2015). Recruiting through social media is faster: when all participants of the HR team make a repost on their profiles on Facebook or Instagram, that post automatically will be seen in various pages, where the audience will have an access to provided information (Gentle, 2020; Ramasamy & Raman, 2014), which could mean the coverage of posts will increase exponentially. Recruiting through social media, employers can contact candidates faster and free of charge, compared to classical HR practices or third-party offerings. Press advertising has high upfront costs and no guarantees of success or return on investment and is limited to those who read that particular newspaper or journal. It also gives you the opportunity to look through all your potential candidates and the characteristics, lifestyle, advantages, and other parameters (Gibbs et al., 2015;

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Ladkin & Buhalis, 2016) on social media with only a few clicks on your phone. Social media recruiting helps an employer get to know a potential job candidate. Social recruiting has made it possible to interact directly with job candidates. These days, the best candidates are easily found online – and recruiters can clear out job seekers who are not a match for the position in a simpler way (Gibbs et al., 2015). Using social media outlets to find recommendations from previous employers can save you time you might have spent contacting references and former employers (Huhman, 2012). In the traditional hiring process, it could be several rounds of resume reviews and phone screens before applicants and employers got to really connect on a personal level (Dessler, 2016). However, through social media and video interviews, this connection is happening instantaneously and with less time wasted (Poba-Nzaou et al., 2016). Now employers can quickly see if a candidate will be a good match for the company, helping both job seekers and hiring managers save valuable time and resources in the search for the perfect fit. Another prime cause is that social recruiting allows job openings to have viral qualities. Viral qualities can include the language of your job description, the visuals you use like engaging or funny videos, and social connectability features (Kultalahti & Viitala, 2015). Profile check (Nordström, 2014) is necessary to fill an opening with the right candidates. According to our research checking, a candidate’s online activity is not illegitimate, but employers have to be cautious they are not basing recruitment decisions on individual discriminatory factors – such as age, race, sex, religion, sexual orientation, and political beliefs (Arjomandy, 2016; Landau, 2013). The law on discrimination applies equally to online as well as offline vetting. The focus on online recruiting is to find the right candidates and connect with them. Social media are where people act online to express ideas and interact with each other. The most embarrassing situation is when those shortlisted candidates show up in the interview and they seem to be quite different from what they have showcased on their resumes. One of the biggest issues that every HR would have faced from such traditional methods is the possibility of getting false resumes (Sreejesh, 2014). Social media recruiting helps the company to learn about the candidate (Kang, 2011; Maha, 2015) in contrast to a classical CV. The impact of those photos and posts on social media should not be underestimated. Companies are progressively using social recruiting to find the right candidates for the right job, as well as to examine potential employees. It is crucial to use social media in the right way to recruit or to find candidates (Nurlita, 2017). Employers more often are looking to other social media platforms such as Instagram and Twitter, so it is becoming common practice (Skates, 2014). It is a glance at who the candidate is and if that glance is coming before they have had a chance to meet you, take references, and hear from others as to who they are. Research carried out by IBM in 2013 demonstrated that it is now possible to discover if a candidate is “work-shy” or “lazy” by analyzing their tweets. IBM research showed that there is a direct correlation between web-based content across social networks such as Twitter and their offline behavioral styles (SP INDEX, 2020).

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Analysis of Foreign Survey Our framing of the research problem was motivated according to “LinkedIn global recruiting trends” report 2017 over 80% respondents that work in corporate human resources department as a manager or in other higher position recognizes that employer branding has a significant impact on their ability to hire talent (Fisher et al., 2014). Companies can elevate candidates’ interest by talking about company culture, challenges, and career growth. Besides this, 70% of respondents chose primarily to allocate more budgets on employer branding, but mainly budgets are being spent on job boards, staffing agencies, and recruiting tools. In addition, recruiters primarily measure their performance by how much time they spend on hiring and how long newcomers stay in the company. As a result, respondents choose the top 3 ways they measure success. They are, first, the length of time new hires stay at the company; second, time to hire that is the time it takes to fill a job requisition; and finally, the satisfaction of the hiring managers (Gagen, 2017). Taking into consideration these three metrics, employers can increase the performance of the recruiting process by using social media in the recruitment process. The more a candidate knows about the company itself, the more he understands where he is going to work. Candidate who was following the company page in social media knows their mission, vision, corporate culture, and benefits of the company, which means they make decisions according to their needs (Kang, 2011). Unfortunately, when a candidate lacks information on the company and only familiarizes with it while working, the consequences are some candidates feel uncomfortable with the values and culture and leave, thus increasing the turnover rate. In addition, social media are a platform where a company’s advert can be seen more due to its feature, because the company’s advert will appear not only in the feed of its subscribers but also in the subscribers as their share or repost. Consequently, companies are going to expand their reach and increase the number of applicants in a short time (Jones, 2017). Moreover, as Fig. 46.1 shows, recruiters mostly agreed that social media profiles gave more information about the candidate and that satisfaction of the hiring managers would elevate. By using social media, they would collect other useful information about the candidate. According to the Society for Human Resources Management (2017), 44% of human resources managers consented that social profiles of candidates can give information about work-related performance. As a result, we can assess if this candidate is appropriate to companies’ culture, which is going to improve managers’ satisfaction. Additionally, recruiters told that some abilities are going to become trendy in 2020: first, recruiting more diverse candidates 37%; second, soft skills assessments 35%; third, innovative interviewing tools 34%; fourth, company mission as a differentiator 33%; and finally, using big data 29%. Recruiters mentioned that hiring diverse candidates is going to be a primary trend, because employee diversity boosts efficiency and innovation in the company. Soft skills assessment is going to be trendy, because the ability to communicate and interpret big scours of information and being creative are becoming more valuable

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Fig. 46.1 Reasons for screening job candidates. (Source: Society for Human Resources Management, 2017)

Fig. 46.2 Effectiveness of recruiting via social media. (Source: Society for Human Resources Management, 2017)

than hard skills. In addition, innovative interviewing tools are going to help to understand candidates better, company mission is going to become more meaningful, and as a result, candidates are going to consider differentiation of mission, and companies are going to focus on big data more than ever (Gagen, 2017). Figure 46.2 shows satisfaction of recruiters that used social media in hiring process from nonmanagement positions to executive management. One of the problems that the use of social media can solve is that resumes have some sort of bias that affects the recruiters (Withiam, 2011). The bias is that when you look at the resume you can see the job experience of the candidate, which is

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going to drag more attention if you hire a manager or someone to the higher position (Fields, 2016). However, the experience that candidates get from their past cannot be credible, because it does not necessarily mean that they were good at their job. Of course, they gathered some experience and do not need training, but usually experience in the resume shows what kind of hard skills a person may have. As we all know, it is easier to learn hard skills than soft skills, because usually it is technical knowledge, qualification, and competence that need only some practice. Due to the inconsistency and being people-oriented, the hospitality industry needs people with developed soft skills. The difference of selling service and selling products is that the quality of the product is usually permanent, because composition of the product does not change. Wine and meat are products, but how wine is presented and meat delivered is a service. In hospitality, service is more important than a product (Hayes & Miller, 2011). Usually service even affects guests’ perception of the product (Seth, 2012). The quality of the service is not permanent, because it depends on the server. Servers can be affected by weather, personal problems, or conflicts that occurred within the team or guests that they served. Consequently, it is crucial to the service industry to hire those who have the ability to be stress-resistant and better communicators and those who have teamwork skills, which is a trait of soft skilled people (Kahl, 2020). Consequently, when you are going to hire a manager, it is crucial to assess their soft skills simultaneously with hard skills (Otchakova, 2018). In addition, in the future, artificial intelligence is going to substitute employees in types of work that require hard skills. Thus, soft skills are going to be the main differentiator in the labor market (Oliver, 2017). Importance here is that companies should start to learn techniques of assessing soft skills. Implementing social media in recruitment can teach basic skills of assessment and prepare companies for the future trend (Poba-Nzaou et al., 2016). Therefore, one out of two recruiting teams has a flat budget; consequently, HR needs to manage its team’s time appropriately and reduce time-consuming tasks in the future. Hence, HR is going to improve the efficiency of the company and make it more competitive. According to Fig. 46.3, companies spend most of their budgets on the job boards, recruitment agencies, and recruiting tool. Only 8% of the budgets was allocated to the employer branding even though it was rated with high importance in this research. Moreover, 53% told that they would invest in employer branding if they had unlimited budget. Recruiters spend only little part of their budgets although 80% of them appreciate the impact of the employer branding. The reason for this paradox is that recruiters cannot measure effectiveness and show direct correlation between a stronger candidate and their branding efforts. Mainly, it is because 82% of organizations use social media to recruit passive candidates, which follows by the increase in employer brand and recognition (Gagen, 2017). Targeting to passive candidates is important, because 60% of the workforce is not looking for new job but willing to discuss new opportunities according to LinkedIn (Picard, 2013). This means that more than half of the workforce are passive candidates who you can attract by employer branding. HRs are going to succeed in employer branding if they collaborate with marketing department, because employer branding means promoting your

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Fig. 46.3 What is the current breakdown of your recruiting budget? (Source: Gagen, 2017)

company in the market. However, only 30% of recruiters are responsible for employer branding; the other 36% collaborates with marketing, 20% recruiting has little or no involvement and 10% said that they do not do employer branding. Five channels for building the employer brand those recruiters voted for and 35% of them voted for Facebook. However, the researchers think that with the new generation is going to dominate in the labour industry these figures will change. In addition, measurement for your employer brand efficiency in social media engagement has 32% of votes (Gagen, 2017). Figure 46.4 shows the dynamics of using social media. This demonstrates the dynamics of using social media such as Facebook and Instagram (Table 46.1). The twenty-first century is a century of social media. Generation Y and Z has skills in online research, technological savants, entrepreneurship, and innovation. They are “always on” generation (Gibbs et al., 2015; Humfry, 2015). All they do is through social media, so HR needs to consider SM as a good recruiting tool. People do not usually seek for job in the social media but they spend most of time there, so why not? Some special advances of social media compared to traditional recruitment practices are client-specific information posting and individual employment searches (Krahl, 2013).

Advantages of Using Social Media The classical work of human resource department of employing and releasing workers is replaced with a more work strategy on the concern of the human capital in the company. HR focuses on the wealth and skill development of each employee. In addition, new roles of leadership are developing and implemented to support a “together” at the workplace. HR managers are people who take care of future development and people who know that hiring the right person to the right job is

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Fig. 46.4 Social media sites used for recruitment 2011, 2013, and 2015. (Source: Society for Human Resources Management, 2017)

Table 46.1 Facebook and Instagram statistics 2017 Facebook statistics 1.4 billion monthly active users 655 million monthly active users that are mobile only 65% of Facebook videos occur on mobile devices 40 million small businesses have Facebook pages

Instagram statistics 500 million monthly active users 300 million daily active users 4.2 billion likes daily Over 95 million photos/videos per day

Source: Lee (2015)

the key to progress, especially in the hospitality industry, because in this industry we sell service, and people who implement the service are personnel. Hospitality industry’s most critical problem is related to employment (Maha, 2015). At this point, we need to understand the importance of suitability for the job. Hotel employees have a major impact on a guest’s satisfaction. To ensure that the customers are delighted to return for another visit, the hospitality industry has to focus on hiring the very best that the industry has to offer. That is why in the hospitality industry as a recruiter it is important to search for talented employees whom they can always trust with their guests (Webster, 2012).

Definition of Recruitment At first, recruitment and talent acquisition is the most common understanding. However, recruitment is about finding talents, specialists, leaders, or future executives. Recruitment is reactive: a position is created and a new person must be found

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to fill it (Russell HR Consulting, 2011). The main function of recruiting is to find candidates for existing jobs that are currently available. Talent possession focuses on long-term human resource planning and finding the right candidates for positions that require a very specific skill set. By this method, the HR team can also grow their company’s brand, because of the recruitment of the best fit for that exact job. While recruitment remains an important activity to fill immediate openings, talent acquisition is a strategy to transform recruitment to a future-oriented process. New employees will be recruited to a company as a great place to work. Using social media as a recruitment tool solves not only HR’s turnover problem but can be used as a marketing tool too. Talent acquisition will take more effort than just recruitment because it includes a lot of work like checking background of employees (Ladkin and Buhalis, 2015) while searching for candidates that will fit. As mentioned, the hospitality industry’s positions are not for all (Miron, 2015). Some people despite their work experience could not be suitable for such a position. In the hospitality industry, soft skills, like communication abilities, leadership traits, teamwork, and hospitable approach, are more acceptable. Social media are a great platform for all this as it gives us data to analyze. The world is competitive nowadays. According to Suzy Style, recruitment director of Accenture, UK: The professional services company turned to social media including Facebook, LinkedIn and Twitter to adopt a more aggressive recruitment strategy to find talent. There is a global war for talent and we believe that to gain an advantage companies need to develop long-term relationships with candidates. Social networking sites are one of the key enablers in achieving this (Prabkhar, 2013)

The “Kolkovna” Restaurant The “Kolkovna Almaty” restaurant is located in the very center of events in the largest city in Kazakhstan, near the business district, the Botanical Gardens, and the famous Atakent exhibition grounds. Guests have the unique opportunity to taste excellent, modern-style Czech cuisine, which is self-made by Czech Head Chef Robert Kovach (Kolkovna Restaurants, 2020). The philosophy of the restaurant Kolkovna is to convey to its visitors its high quality and cozy atmosphere of traditional Czech cuisine and beer (Kolkovna Restaurants Praque, 2020). The organizational structure of management is linear. Line contacts in the restaurant include a line manager, that is, management decisions and information flow from a person who is fully responsible for restaurant service. This is one of the simplest organizational management structures. Each superior has clearly assigned subordinates and each subordinate has clearly assigned superior. In a linear management structure, manager has to be able to solve the problems, issues, conflicts, etc. (Pugh, 1990) (Fig. 46.5).

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Executive director

HR Department

Chef de cuisine

Manager

Server

Chef

Bartender

Dishwasher

Fig. 46.5 Organizational structure of Kolkovna 2017. (Source: The authors, 2019)

Theoretical Framework During the research project, the plan was developed to introduce the process of recruitment. According to this plan, the researchers covered recruiting process and methods of personnel search. The main method of recruiting is recruiting platforms (Fig. 46.6). In general, the restaurant creates it for hiring based on the candidates’ profiles and will be firstly being placed in the Head Hunter. Head Hunter or hh.kz is a Russian leading Internet recruitment company which operates in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan (HeadHunters, 2020). In addition, they have web-recruiting in Kolkovna’s official website (Kolkovna Restaurants, 2020). Web-recruitment is being held through additional “career” page. For the research project, the researcher decided to take a qualitative method approach. Recruiting process in hospitality industry needs to be deeply explored, because new tools have not been examined in Kazakhstan officially yet. By exploring the typical recruitment strategies following phenomenal questions and sub-questions, the following were created (Creswell & Poth, 2007): • How do you usually hire employees? • Which tools do you use to hire? Which of them in your opinion is the most effective? • With which tool did you find your best employees?

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• after the interviews and hiring the process of using social media as a recruitment tool will be critical analysded by the researcher • develop a further strategy, how social media can be implemented in the recruitment process

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• choose the social media platforms • design the restaurant acounts and profiles • develop the recruitment strategy • design the job posting

Analyse

Design

Testrun

Implement

• collect information of interested canidates • collect aditional data of each canidate over social media, for the poruse of matching to the right person to the right job principle

• post the job offer at the social media platforms • control the process and the quality insurance at the social media

Fig. 46.6 Theoretical framework. (Source: The authors, 2019)

• Do you agree that nowadays social networks are the key instruments of modern recruiters? • How do you think which kind of drawbacks can exist while hiring through social media? • Is it enough to use only social networks to find a right candidate? • Would you like to use method of searching candidates through social media? Why? • What are the criteria for evaluating a candidate in social networks? • Are you going to use SM for servers and line staff or only for managers and other highest positions? • Do you think that employer branding will help you with recruiting? • Will EB going to improve the quality of the candidates? • Do you think that Kazakhstan’s labor market is ready for implementing new tool? These questions were asked to all employees of “Kolkovna” restaurant to gain a deeper understanding of the possibilities to implement a social media recruitment structure and which support instruments they need additionally (Saldaña, 2016). Coding and theming are done based on the objective coding practice, which is described in Saldana “coding manual” (Saldaña, 2016).

Findings Enhancing the recruiting process in “Kolkovna” restaurant, the research outcome came up with the following strategies:

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Creating Guidelines of Using Social Media as a New Recruitment Tool To insure a better developed recruitment outcome, the restaurant needs to expand their corporate social media guidelines. With this step, the HR department has a strict and precise guideline, in which future employee information can be collected and analyzed to find the right person for the right job. Furthermore, the guidelines need to be transferred to a company policy and kept transparent to all employees in the restaurant. In this way, a positive company culture can be implemented. Also, with the social media policy, all employees have a guideline, what, when, how, and how often business content can be uploaded to their social media platforms. The HR may also use verified existing job posting groups in advance. That group has certain quantity of people who are interested in job. The following steps had been analyzed throughout the interviews: • Write a marketed job advertisement. • Write a portrait of an ideal candidate. • Publish an advert. • Promote it. • Find a way to filter candidates. • Screening social media profiles. • Collecting data. • Interview. • Job invitation. An additional finding was that short videos of the restaurant and the job requirements seem to be supportive to give a more clearer statement to potential candidates over social media (Gotter, 2019).

Write a Marketed Job Advertisement On practice the research looked for an administrator for “Kolkovna” restaurant. The entire process of using social media as a recruitment tool would take 3 weeks, from inventing text and searching for pictures to use to job invitation. To make a recruiting process easier, the following strategies following guidelines needed to be added. The results of the interviews defined to use Facebook and Instagram. The first thing HR needs to do is to draw the attention of the audience, the people who subscribe to the social media link to the restaurant. The interviewees thought that the usual post about hiring is not suitable, because social media users just flip through and will not be interested. For Instagram, photography is very important. This is the first thing that catches people’s eye.

Write a Portrait of an Ideal Candidate After the interviews, the restaurant defined a person who is/has:

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• Active, energetic, and friendly – we ourselves are such and want to maintain a comfortable atmosphere for us in the team. • Brilliant knowledge of the standards of work in the restaurant industry, the highest service in relation to guests. • The skill and tremendous desire to work and contribute to the development of the restaurant. • The one who can “light up” the team of accountable employees for proactive work. • Work experience in a similar position with similar functionality for at least 4 years (critical). • Knowledge of computer-aided accounting programs in the restaurant industry. • The ability to clearly and reasonably express their thoughts either verbally or in writing. We do not like mistakes and misprints, as well as long, intricate texts. • Applicants who have extensive experience in a large restaurant chain will have an undeniable advantage. • We are looking for a new colleague, not just a set of professional skills, acquired by the applicant earlier and whom who will like this job for the rest of his life.

Publish an Advert After the interviewees investigated the specificity of the two networks, they came to the following conclusions: • It is possible to grab the attention of Instagram users with interesting images. The content out there differentiates by well-chosen high-quality photo. • It is convenient for them to receive information only as short or low-text images, so they need to select artistic pictures in the social network. • When writing a text, it is necessary to use “emojis” and stimulating words that motivate people to take actions. • Instagram users are more likely to “mark” another Instagram user than share with a given message by making a repost as Facebook users do. • The Facebook network is better suited to business than Instagram. It is no surprise that the picture is not much interesting than the text. • The most important issue is to draw attention from the first words of the text. • Facebook platform has the same tools as the Instagram platform. However, the owners of Facebook pages pay much attention to the text that is being written along with the image, so the content of “long read” has become popular in this social network. Additionally, people on Facebook make it easy for a repost and to write a lot of analyses.

Promote It The simplest thing is to publish a vacancy in the communities of your company in all social networks. In this case, to identify the best bay is to ask subscribers to share job opening information or directly contact with friends that this vacancy might be

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interested in. The more subscribers in the community, the higher the likelihood that there will be some feedback. After making a post in Instagram and Facebook, we connected with different job advertisement accounts and asked them to make a repost from our social media accounts.

Find a Way to Filter Candidates After posting the job offers on social media, more than 5000 interests came back to the research project, and based on the analysis of the interviews, basic information needs to be collected, and after the first screen, and the most unsustainable candidates must be rejected. The following 12 criteria were chosen, which were connected with a survey page link, in which interested candidates needed to fill out. • Full name • Age • Phone number • Do you think s/he is self-resistant? • Do you think s/he is a leader or executive? • She/he is a newcomer, how is s/he going to increase her/his authority? • How would s/he discuss issues with the chef? • What’s the most challenging aspect of being a manager? • Recall a time you resolved a conflict with a guest, employee, or supervisor at work. How did you handle it? • Describe a time s/he went above and beyond guest expectations. • Describe a time s/he anticipated a guest’s needs. • How many years has s/he worked in the restaurant field? • Leave your Instagram page and make sure you have your account open for a feedback. The outcomes of the 13 criteria are mixed. Researcher could find them in Facebook by searching by name and surname and age, but in Instagram it was not that convenient. People might have different types of nicknames; that is why the HR needs a link to their Instagram profiles. With the link for a test and added that to the end of the job post, all information and answers were on Google forms page.

Screening Social Media Profile and Collecting Data Through the research outcome, the social media sites of the candidates should be checked too, to get a deeper understanding of their behavior, character, and interests, which can have a positive effect on the future working place. When considering candidacy, the attention was on the presence of negative information about the current or former employer, ambiguous statements, photos, and videos. In addition, a psychological portrait of a person can be compiled already according to her/his records in the blogosphere and comments on thematic forums.

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In fact, the profile from the social network presents an extended sample of the candidate’s resume, however with more advanced capabilities. A person can put in it not only textual information but also a video that will show his skills of selfpresentation, and perhaps even professional skills; we surely appreciated not only creativity but also the aspiration of the applicant. A list of social media pages that can be collected from the check: • Outward appearance • Age • Floor • Knowledge of languages • Temperament • Education, literacy • Hobbies, interests • Ability to cope with problems • Bad habits • Past work, thoughts about colleagues

Interview The last step was the interview, where the HR and the owner of the restaurant interviewed based on the developed criteria and the information which are collected with it. Five candidates were invited for an interview, bringing their hard copy of resumes. The former problem was that the candidates all sound great when the HR manager interviewed them. But most of them never perform at a high level after getting the job. However, with the additional information which were collected through the social media sites and the Internet survey, all candidates had to fill out a more detail picture of the hard and especially of the soft skills of the potential jab candidates.

Conclusion The research question was: how does social media work as a recruiting tool and how to use it? The results of the research are based on the experiment the researcher did in facilitation with the “Kolkovna” restaurant. The restaurant made good use of social media to recruit their future employees. In order to achieve the results, researchers have analyzed foreign experience, studied specificity of the topic, and implemented general institutions of using social media as a new recruiting tool and applied in practice. The method of the investigation was quality type of the research especially interviews taken from HR managers and restaurant employees whose points of view were taken as the base of the research (Creswell & Poth, 2007). A person who does not interact on social media and only read shared updates is called passive user (Gibbs et al., 2015). However, when the person starts to interact,

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such as share content, communicate with others, and develop commercial relationships, he or she switches to an active user profile (Gibbs et al., 2015). Many users of social networks do not want to post any information about themselves, which makes data collection more difficult as a research in Finland showed (Nordström, 2014). For many users, Instagram and Facebook may seem like a frivolous place to place vacancies, or they cannot even believe that this is possible to find job in such platforms. Especially it should be mentioned that Kazakhstan is a developing country and it will be uneasy to change their views about social media as additional recruiting tool. Nowadays, there is a tendency of placing vacancies in such websites as Headhunter, LinkedIn, and so on (Fisher et al., 2014). Consequently, people will search for jobs on these websites primarily, whereby Facebook and Instagram and passive users in social networks, it will be more difficult to get in contact with them or to search for information. For the same reason, we offer a recruiting process through social media not as the main tool but as an additional one. In this research case, a person comes with his own resume and then recruiters collect information via social media. Also, during the research, the researchers were able to identify two types of people who come for an interview. First, who can easily pass the interview, sociable and communicative person. However, maybe in real life they could be different. Second, people who do not easily pass an interview, but in real life, they could have skills we need for the exact position. That is why the recruiting process must be taken with various methods, because this will determine the duration of the company’s work (El Ouirdi et al., 2016). The last point to mention is that doing a background check has to be done professionally and based on specific criteria. Human resource departments have to check on false statements (Withiam, 2011). While social media give the HR department power and opportunities, it is of crucial importance to refrain from abusing those. Otherwise, it will risk destroying the trust before a person has even come to the company. Checking social media profile directly depends on HR manager’s competence and objectiveness. In conclusion, there can be no doubt that social media are recommended as a recruiting tool in Kazakhstan.

References Arjomandy, D. (2016). Social media integration in electronic human resource management: Development of a social eHRM framework. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences / Revue Canadienne Des Sciences de l’Administration, 33(2), 108–123. Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches. SagePublications. Dessler, G. (2016). Human resource management. Pearson. Duarte Alonso, A., Bressan, A., O’Shea, M., & Krajsic, V. (2013). Website and social media usage: Implications for the further development of wine tourism, hospitality, and the wine sector. Tourism Planning & Development, 10(3), 229–248. El Ouirdi, M., El Ouirdi, A., Segers, J., & Pais, I. (2016). Technology adoption in employee recruitment: The case of social media in Central and Eastern Europe. Computers in Human Behavior, 57, 240–249.

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Noraihan Mohamad

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Background of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Media Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tourism Industry in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Budget Accommodation Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Use of Social Media in Tourism Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SMEs’ Tourism Marketing Strategies via Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Start with Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Identify Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Have Basic Knowledge to Employ Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Decide the Right Platforms for Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use the Right Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Build Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Update Social Site Regularly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Share Visual Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quality Versus Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Online Community Through Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Diversifying Marketing Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Increasing Communication Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monitor and Respond to All Conversation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Accepting Customer’s Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thanking Customers Who Share Your Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Showing Gratitude for a Purchase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Handling Angry Customer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graciously Receiving Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Media Marketing During COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Up-to-Date Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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N. Mohamad (*) School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_47

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Share Benefit Content Related to Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using Organic Channels to Keep the Brand “Lights on” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Keep Customers Informed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Future Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

This chapter sets out to discuss how social media could be welcomed as a new marketing medium to ensure business survival, notably that of the tourism industry in Malaysia. Current business organizations tend to focus on online medium to market their products and services. There are various features of social media that make this medium vital in today’s tourism marketing. These features include usability, relative advantages, low cost, quick access, and wide coverage. For small and medium enterprises (SMEs), these features offer more space and opportunities to those who would like to remain competitive in the global market. Furthermore, present information and communications technology (ICT) makes accessibility to social media easier anywhere and everywhere through the use of devices such as smartphones and tablets. Despite that, this study also discusses on how SMEs can utilize social media marketing to ensure their continuity during the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak. It is, therefore, imperative for the SMEs in tourism to adapt themselves to current technology shifts and utilize these shifts in the context of their business marketing. Keywords

Tourism · Social media · Small and medium enterprises · Malaysia · Development

Introduction Today’s information and communications technology (ICT) industry has witnessed the emergence of various online new media that attract interest from people from all walks of life. Similarly, business organizations are not exempted from utilizing the outcomes of present global technological changes in their business operations, specifically in the context of marketing. In the past, the Internet’s main preoccupation was to serve as a medium for information exchange. However, these days, the new Internet generation has gone beyond that. It has gradually become an important platform that leaves a great impact on most people’s lives. In general, the new Internet generation which is better known as the social media is made of Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, blogs, Flickr, and many others. Each social media networking service offers distinctive features and individual interactive applications that enable its users to find and share information through the use of texts, images, videos, and audios (Gunelius, 2011; Sin et al., 2012; Ainin

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et al., 2015; AlSharji et al., 2018). Initially, as an online platform for social purposes, social media focused on individual, personal social activities. For example, blog site is always referred to as online journals/diaries or individual blogs. Due to its special characteristics, people tend to use blogs as a platform to document their day-to-day activities or experiences. They also use blogs to keep in touch with friends and family, as well as to share their thoughts and feelings on certain issues. However, the interactive features that these media possess have been galvanized by most businesses to conduct their business transactions. In the context of business, social media allow business activities such as information delivery, promotions, sales, and communication with users to be carried out effortlessly and expeditiously. In view of the user-friendly nature of social media, the Malaysian Tourism Ministry often encourages and urges tour operators in Malaysia, particularly, the small and medium enterprises (SMEs), to employ social media applications in their promotional activities, particularly through their product or service marketing efforts. Through social media, tourism businesses are able to approach various potential tourists, both local and international. Walden et al.’s (2011) as well as Harrigan et al.’s (2017) research demonstrate that websites such as trivago.com, tripadvisor.com, travelpod.com, virtualtourist.com, and mytravelguide.com are popular among individuals in organizing their travel activities. Therefore, the importance and impact of social media in marketing tourism products and services should not be dismissed, especially for budget traveling products, such as budget hotels, homestays, guest houses, chalets, and motels (Noraihan, 2014). Although the contributions made by these budget accommodations are often seen as insignificant, they play an important role in attracting tourists to Malaysia, particularly in the context of budget tourism. The SMEs in the tourism industry should take advantage of the ICT facility as an opportunity for them to continue operating in the current market since most of them often face financial, communication, technological, and human capital constraints. Social media are viewed as a medium that could propel the SMEs into global market with limited costs and investments.

Background of the Study Social media have progressively become an integral part in our lives today, especially as a source of information as well as communication and business media (Constantinides & Fountain, 2007; Qi & Chau, 2018). Individuals’ dependency on social media in planning their travel activities has indirectly affected the changes of the types of marketing for most tourism business today (Alrashid, 2012). Most of today’s tourists depend on online search to plan their travels, identify traveling destination, make relevant bookings, and evaluate tourism products or services. A study conducted by the Universal McCann Malaysia, a research company, showed that Malaysians, as a community, have the biggest online networking friends in the world (Essays, UK, 2018). Malaysia has the Internet line penetration rates of

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up to 20 percent, and the country is among the world’s fastest countries that adopt tablet computer technology. This situation has, to some degree, bolstered confidence to business organizations, particularly the SMEs, to accept social media as an important marketing medium as this form of media offers extensive access with higher number of users. Based on this scenario, business marketing activities in Malaysia begin to lean toward employing social media such as Facebook. Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube boast more casual and sociable marketing features, including business organizations in the tourism industry. This method is seen to be more effective in approaching tourist group compared to conventional marketing methods that are commonly used by most tourism businesses in the past. Among the conventional methods often employed is the use of brochures, signages, and tourist guide booklets. In addition, most businesses that offer budget accommodation services also depend largely on tourists’ word-of-mouth (WOM) promotion. Facebook is a social web that is widely used by the business owners to promote activities and travel products, such as budget hotels, homestays, and tourist destinations. Business organizations in the tourism industry also need to understand clearly the user groups’ behaviors, especially those who are active online, before the organizations could target products and services to the right individuals or groups. In order to approach the user groups, the business organizations must become engaged in multiple social networking sites to ensure that the organization could communicate, take part in discussions, and provide good feedbacks to customers. Business organizations must also realize that WOM is a normal activity among social media users. If what is discussed involved positive matters, it will become indirect marketing to the business. Conversely, WOM is able to leave a negative impact on the business. Hence, the business organizations’ involvement in this community could cushion the negative impacts. At the same time, the users’ interest and trust of a product or brand could be sustained and stimulated. The SMEs’ failure to seize available opportunities provided by the ICT means they are turning down business and competitive opportunities in bigger market (Musalmah, 2009; Mastura et al., 2012; Matura & Mapira, 2018). Therefore, to expand their business further, tour operators need to be skillful in managing their businesses as well as have adequate skill and knowledge of ICT such as social media. In general, this chapter discusses the use of social media for the purpose of marketing tourism business, specifically among the SMEs. The main thrust of the discussion is on budget accommodation sector, particularly budget hotels, homestays, motels, chalets, and guest houses in Malaysia. In addition, on December 2019, one of the novel coronaviruses known as SARSCoV-2 originating in Wuhan, China, has taken the public health community by surprise. Currently, it is known as COVID-19 pandemic. A similar scenario with another coronavirus such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome (MERS), COVID-19 virus easily transmits between people (Jamal & Budke, 2020). Furthermore, those infected with COVID-19 also have a high risk of dying.

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Because of the high risk, Chinese travellers especially from Wuhan are restricted to enter many countries around the world, while international tourists were warned not to visit Wuhan. Currently, COVID-19 pandemic already spread to many countries around the world including Malaysia. Thus, for the sake of public community health, the Malaysian government decides to announce Movement Control Order (MCO). During this outbreak, all the outside activities either for individual or business purposes are completely barred, including tourism activities. SMEs in tourism industry are among the business sectors affected by this issue. Hence, this study also discusses on the role of social media marketing to SMEs in Malaysian tourism industry during the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak. Discussion will be focusing on how SMEs can retain their continuity during this tough phase through marketing activity in digital marketing and social media platforms. This is including some additional ideas on social media marketing as an inspiration to SMEs.

Social Media The development of the ICT industry has not only impacted individuals’ daily activities, but it has also affected the business world. Business organizations are also greatly affected, particularly in terms of marketing. Viewed as the Internet’s extraordinary innovation, the social media that we know today have emerged in the form of social websites such as blogs, YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, Flickr, and many others (O’Reilly, 2005). Even though this media first came out in 2004, it began to attract global attention in 2006. These days, social media have become a new marketing platform and space that are central for most businesses (Davidson, 2011; Walden et al., 2011; Baka, 2016; De Pelsmacker et al., 2018). There are multiple definitions that explain the nature of social media. In this context, social media refer to a group of Internet-based applications that are developed based on the ideology and technology that allow users to interact, communicate, and share ideas, content, experiences, perspectives, and information as well as connect with other Internet users (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Xiang & Gretzel, 2010; Jonscher, 2011; Dedeoglu et al., 2020). Generally, social media are an Internet-based service that offers interactive applications such as content sharing, podcasting, multimedia, tags, wikis, and blogs. These applications have encouraged Internet users to share information or ideas either in the form of texts, images, videos, or audios. Various terms have been used interchangeably to refer to social media even though they refer to the same concept. Some of the terms used include web 2.0, social websites, user-generated media, online social networking, and social networking sites. From tourism point of view, social media also refer to as the Travel 2.0 (Conrady, 2007; Alrashid, 2012; Leung et al., 2012; Munoz-Leiva et al., 2019).

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As ICT function has formulated strategically, social media tools have been utilizing not only for private users but for business strategies. Social media have modified its approach of relationship development in today’s society. It is including the relationships among companies and their customers. With interactive facilities, users or companies are free to create, cocreate, discuss, modify and/or share contents with known or unknown individuals and communities, without any special technical expertise. In this regard, most business companies have started to utilize social media or web 2.0 tools in their websites to help their engagement with customers, hence fostering customers’ purchase intention behavior (Dalvi-Esfahani et al., 2018). Based on a study by Carter (2014), Twitter was widely used by business organizations. In business, Twitter was used for a variety of purposes including developing customer awareness, providing knowledge to customers, encouraging marketing activities, and expanding business networking. Compared to other platforms, Twitter was valued for its nature which is highly interactive. However, the utilization of Facebook for business purposes depends on the business sector. Facebook was not widely used for business-to-business (B2B) compared to business-to-consumer (B2C) sector. This is because Facebook’s functions and characteristics are social purposes and more appropriate to develop relationship with consumer. Accordingly, social media become an important platform for SMEs including in hospitality and tourism industry, to promote their products and services (Gunelius, 2011). Previous studies classified social media according to their level of social presence, richness, and the level of self-presentation (Živković et al., 2014), for example, social networking websites (i.e., Facebook, LinkedIn), blogs, content communities (i.e., YouTube, Flickr, Scribd, Slideshare), collaborative projects (i.e., Wikipedia, Wikitravel), microblogs (i.e., Twitter), consumer review and rating websites (i.e., Tripadvisor), and so on. In hospitality and tourism industry, social media are as one of the important tools to analyze tourists’ attitudes thru their visit, purchase, recommendation to other tourists, and revisit. Apparently, the figure of social media is irregular; the most important thing is to increase the number of posting and sharing experience by users and travellers. It is including their opinions and comments about products or services they have been experiencing before in the form of either text, images, or videos (Chan and Guillet, 2011; Carter, 2014). In addition, tourists nowadays have relied more to social media platform for searching information and getting to know about tourist destination. Referring to that, in their decision-making, they have more trust on other travellers’ opinions in social media rather than official marketing advices (Živković et al., 2014). A study by Au (2010) and Jonscher (2011) suggested that SMEs in tourism industry should not turn a blind eye to the significance of social media on business development. Instead, they need to adapt with digital platform changes in order to create marketing opportunities. Since social media significance is as bank of information, it can be said that it has special effect to influence individual decisionmaking.

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Social Media Marketing Social media marketing is a powerful technique for all business of all sizes to reach prospect customers and maintain the current customers. It is significant for any type of business to survive in the long run. Social media marketing is a form of Internet marketing that involves creating and sharing content on social media networks in order to achieve businesses’ marketing and branding goals. Because of that, social media marketing is used in business for many reasons. Basically, it is used to connect with business’ audience, enlarge a company, and win more customers in order to increase sales and increase website traffic. To achieve these purposes, SMEs need to publish great content in social media profiles, listening to and engaging to customers and followers, analyzing results, and running social media advertisement. Generally, social media marketing can help SMEs to increase website traffic, creating conversations with audience, enhancing brand awareness, generating a brand identity and positive brand association, and encouraging communication and interaction with audience. Social media marketing includes activities like posting text, images, videos, and other content that drives audience engagement. The more engagement between SMEs and the audience, the easier for SMEs to achieve the marketing goals. Research conducted by eMarketer found that customers spend 20% to 40% more on products or services provided by companies who engage with them on social media (Smith, 2019). Therefore, it can be said that social media marketing is competent to help SMEs to gain more prominence. At the moment, the major social media platforms are Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, LinkedIn, Pinterest, YouTube, and Snapchat. Besides that, there are also a range of social media tools that are significant for the success of business marketing. Ideally, because of the development of ICT, customers nowadays love to interact with company through various social media platforms. Therefore, it is essential for each of SMEs to interact with customers through social media too. SMEs need to understand that if they’re able to perform great marketing thru social media, it will bring a great impact to the business. For example, remarkable success to the business creates devoted brand advocates as well as driving leads and sales. Due to various characteristics of social media, businesses will be able to manage social media in a myriad of different ways. For example, if a business is concerned about people’s conversation regarding product and service, they would monitor the conversations and response. If a business aims to reach a specific group of audience, they will run highly targeted social media advertising. Basically, there are several techniques on how to choose the best social media tool for marketing purposes. SMEs need to remember that different sites of social media marketing require different approaches. Thus, all the marketing strategies must be tailored with the platform chosen. Until now, Facebook is stated as the best platform for small business to conduct social media marketing. It becomes a center for most of business and brands to connect with their target audience. Facebook is identified as an attractive tool since it has more than two billion monthly active users which offer huge market to SMEs to

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go to the next level. Furthermore, the characteristics are more casual, interactive, and user-friendly. Similar to Facebook is Google+. Google+ allows business to segment their audience into smaller groups based on their niche. Thus, by using Google+, SMEs can upload and also share photos, videos, and links differently based on their segmentations. Instagram is a photo-sharing application that is widely used in social media marketing. Instagram is about sharing and spreading attractive visual contents in the form of images, videos, and stories. Because of that, it helps SMEs to increase the level of engagement. Currently, most of brands and small business have started to use Instagram to create awareness among audience, generate sales, and also increase website traffic. Twitter is one of the famous tools among business organizations for social media marketing. It allows business to broadcast any update across the web. One of the tips for SMEs planning to use Twitter as social media marketing tool is to keep interacting as much as possible because Twitter’s nature is the more we communicate or interact, the more it will attract people attention. So, it will contribute to build followers. Also be sure to always retweet if customers say something nice about a company, product, or service. Besides expressing gratitude, it will attract prospect customer’s attention. When it comes to creating and sharing video, the most powerful tool is YouTube. Some of businesses think that creating a video and posting it in YouTube will attract people’s attention to their brand. This technique is right if only the content provided is useful to the viewer or audience. Instead of creating video that just presents about company’s product or service, it is better for company to create “how-to” video. It will add value to company and benefit in terms of ranking on the video search results of Google.

Tourism Industry in Malaysia In Malaysia, tourism industry is under the monitoring of the Malaysian Ministry of Tourism and Tourism Corporation Malaysia. The tourism industry is Malaysia’s fifth largest industry that contributes to the nation’s economy after the oil, gas and energy, financial services, retail and wholesale, and palm industry. Despite that, Malaysian tourism is the third largest foreign income earner after manufacturing and palm oil industry (The Star, 2019). In 2018, tourism industry recorded an attendance of 25.8 million of tourists. Revenue contributed by tourism industry also increases from RM82.1 billion in 2017 to RM84.1 billion in 2018 (Tourism Malaysia, 2019). For the first half of 2019, Malaysia welcomed 13.35 million international tourists and recorded a 6.8% growth in tourist receipts that contribute RM41.69 billion of revenue compared to RM39 billion during the first half of 2018 (The Star, 2019). In addition, this industry is also expected to contribute to at least RM 103.6 billion in 2020 to Malaysia’s gross national income. This involves an increase in terms of the number of incoming tourists that is from 23 million visitors in 2009 to 36 million in 2020.

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In the implementation of the Eleventh Malaysia Plan (TMP-11) that covers a 5-year implementation plan (2016 to 2020), tourism industry has been identified as the sector that drives the nation’s economic activities by contributing to the nation’s economic development and sustainability (Prime Minister Office, 2015). The Malaysian government, through its Performance Management and Delivery Unit (PEMANDU), has listed tourism as one of the country’s 12 National Key Results Areas (NKRA). In view of the Visit Malaysia Year 2020, the government has allocated RM1 billion from the nation’s development expenditure for tourism industry development. The allocation will be covering all the infrastructures related to the development of tourism industry, such as hotel, convention center, education-tourism, medical-tourism, agro-tourism, and so on. This is including an allocation of RM960 million to drive awareness, promotions, and programs of the VMY2020 (Tawie, 2019). However, following the global coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic outbreak, tourism industry all over the world including Malaysia have been affecting as a total. Most of local tourism operators are struggling to survive their business. At first, tourism operators are suggested to focus on the domestic tourism as part of VMY2020 campaign to retain its target of 30 million tourist arrivals and RM100bil tourist receipts. Nevertheless, since COVID-19 pandemic is getting worse, on March 16, 2020, the Malaysian Prime Minister announced MCO to deal with the rise in COVID-19 cases. The order is as a measure to curb the outbreak and for the safety of public community. During this outbreak, Malaysians are completely barred from leaving the country, and all tourists and foreign visitors are restricted from entering the country. Since the COVID-19 pandemic is an infectious disease and very dangerous to people, the Minister of Tourism, Arts, and Culture (MOTAC) also announced VMY2020 to be cancelled immediately. For this reason, tourists or anyone who already planned their holidays during the outbreak are advised to postpone and not to proceed with the plan. The accommodation sector is one of the sectors in the tourism industry that has been hit hard by the COVID-19 pandemic. Even though they have been permitted to operate their business at minimum level following all procedures set by the government, they are facing a high revenue loss. Since the sector buckles from the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, they have no choice but to set up new strategies to ensure their continuity. Among the strategies are laying off some employees, offering unpaid leave, and cutting salary (Mahalingam, 2020).

Budget Accommodation Services The budget accommodation sector is one of SMEs’ sectors in the tourism industry that consistently contributes to the development of national economy. Despite providing low-cost accommodation to tourist and promoting Malaysia as a tourist

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destination, budget accommodation has been increasing residents’ socioeconomic status by offering various job opportunities. Due to the fact that budget accommodation is a frontline sector, it has a responsibility to attract more tourists to visit Malaysia frequently. Hence, there are requirements to improve the service provided by this sector continuously. Like the other sectors, the budget accommodation sector is predicted to face some challenges because of the uncertainties of the global economy. Thus, it is important to continuously improve the services provided including the promotion and marketing through technology medium especially online technology. Budget accommodation refers to low-cost budget accommodation such as hotels, motels, homestays, and other forms of accommodation that are rated as three-star or less (Nash et al., 2006; Mastura et al., 2012). It is also defined as a type of accommodation that provides simple and comfortable rooms at a fair price (Zhang et al., 2013; Che Musa & Arif, 2017), with limited room, normally fewer than 150 rooms (Peng et al., 2015). Similar to that, the Malaysia Budget Hotel Association (MBHA, 2019) defined budget hotels as accommodation with star rating ranging from three star or equivalent and below. Meanwhile, Abdullah et al. (2012) stated that budget hotel refers to any type of accommodation that provides standard basic facilities with low rate as RM80 per night, for example, resort, rest house, lodging house, hostel, motel, guest house, and inn. Study conducted by Nora Azureen and Norhafiza (2018) refers to budget accommodation as a kind of tourist accommodation with small number of staff, located near the city, providing lodging at a cheaper price normally from RM50 to RM100 per room or night with some offering breakfast at this price. Usually, budget accommodation is operated by the owner and supported by fewer staff. Their target markets are middle and small enterprise business and leisure tourists, as well as selfhelp tourists. Despite that, the Ministry of Tourism Malaysia classified and rated small- and medium-sized accommodation under the Orchid rating category. The Orchid rating category is formulated to rate hotels which do not qualify for any star rating. It is applied to accommodation premises with good, safe, and clean facilities as well as friendly hospitable atmosphere. Thus, the Orchid rating scheme is applicable to small- and medium-sized accommodation. Budget accommodation sector is viewed as having high potentials to expand due to higher demand from todays’ travellers who have begun to reduce their accommodation needs to much cheaper accommodation. This is one of the strategies used by tourists to reduce their traveling expenses. However, to fulfill tourists’ need, there are challenges that budget accommodation needs to face. One of the challenges is limited resources. The budget accommodation sector is one of the sectors that have limited resources to dominate the market and attract new customers. Despite the financial and management constraint, most of SME accommodation also lacks experienced and skilled employees including technology skills to utilizing social media as marketing tool (Abdullah et al., 2012; Nora Azureen & Norhafiza, 2018). This is because of poor understanding and confusing information regarding the technology. These constraints may lead to business failure. Study by Nora Azureen and Norhafiza (2018) also found that the owner of budget accommodation has

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prepared themselves by attending courses to learn about social media channels and its function as promotion and marketing tools for their business. However, lack of technology skills among employee makes them face difficulty to continue the promotion and marketing tasks via online platform. Besides, this sector also hardly employs effective marketing strategies (Mastura et al., 2012). Because of this, most of their marketing strategies focus mainly on local market and small businesses. Although there is a tendency for some budget accommodation owners to apply technology in managing their businesses, majority of them concentrate on conventional promotional methods, such as the WOM, brochures, signages, and tourist booklets. This is evident, particularly, with accommodation owners who offer only 10 to 20 rooms. Apart from this, they also depend heavily on local tourist agencies to introduce their services to tourist groups.

The Use of Social Media in Tourism Marketing From the perspective of tourism industry, tour operators are often urged by the Malaysian Ministry of Tourism, Arts, and Culture to deploy social media as a platform to promote their products and services in the global marketplace. The call was made based on the social media usage statistics, namely, the Facebook website that often records a high number of visitors among the Internet users. In Malaysia alone, a number of Internet users are increased from 24.5 million in 2016 to 28.7 million in 2018. From this number, 97.3% are Facebook users, followed by Instagram (57.0%) and YouTube (48.3%) (MCMC, 2019). A number of Facebook users also recorded consistent increase from 22 million on 2017 to 22.4 million on 2018 and 22.7 million on 2019. It is expected to continuously increase to 23.1 million on 2020 and 24.2 million on 2023 (Statista, 2019). Apart from 28.7 million Internet users in 2018, 93.1% use devices such as smartphones, laptop (44.2%), desktop (28.1%), and tablet (20.4%) to access Internet and log in to social media website. This indicates that the social media are able to offer wide and borderless access to SMEs’ business. Such accessibility provides huge opportunities to tourism SMEs to introduce business brands, attract tourists’ interests, market their products and services, and remain competitive in the global market. The technological advancement shows that the social media have begun to be accepted to ensure business survival. The emergence of social sites such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and LinkedIn and blogs that promote tourism products and services proves that social media are appropriate and can be the right channel to market intangible products such as tourism products. Irrespective of this development, the acceptance of social media for the sake of business survival among the SMEs is still slow-moving. In the context of tourism SMEs, limited sources and technology have led to the unsatisfactory acceptance of the tour operators with regard to innovation and technology. Although they are aware of the importance and the capability of social media in promoting their businesses, they are still doubtful in accepting the use of technological element in

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their businesses. The technological element is often viewed as a complex matter. Organizational sources, such as limited human capital, as well as financial and technical sources are viewed as a stumbling block that hampers their acceptance of social media in their business affairs (Noraihan, 2014). Currently, various social sites have been developed by the tourism SMEs such as homestays and budget hotels through the Facebook website. However, most of them have yet to fully utilize this social site to market their businesses. This is because they have limited knowledge and skill to integrate the ICT elements in the tourism businesses. According to Rogers (1983) in innovation and diffusion theory (IDT), the acceptance of technological innovation can only be materialized when individuals or business organizations decide to accept the innovation and view their decision as the best action that they have taken for their business. The tourism industry is among the fastest industries that accept technological innovation. These days, social media have changed the form of communication and organizational marketing strategies in marketing tourism products and services (Fotis et al., 2011). Most of the tourism SMEs are more confident that access through social media will give them added value that benefits their businesses. The key features of social media, which are ease of connectivity and relatively cheap and quick access, have also affected the decision made by most of the tourism businesses to ensure that they include the use of social media in their business marketing strategies. Furthermore, surfing the Internet as an activity, specifically surfing the social media, have begun to become a trend and phenomenon among tourists, either to obtain information or share their traveling experiences. Therefore, it is not surprising that today’s tourism businesses are taking advantage of this online trend to increase the users’ access to their businesses (Anjum et al., 2012; Jermsittiparsert et al., 2019). According to Au (2010), Lee (2011), as well as Fritsch and Sigmund (2019), the tourism SMEs offer many accommodation services that make use of social sites such as Trivago, Tripadvisor, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube as their online marketing media. Information sharing as well as the reviews or opinions given by the tourists based on their individual experiences in these social sites has indirectly impacted the businesses’ promotional activities. This situation is referred to as electronic word-ofmouth (eWOM). eWOM is an indirect communication that is formed based on the sharing of views and experiences among the Internet users about business products or services. In the tourism industry, indirect promotions such as these play a significant role since tourism offers intangible products and services (Litvin et al., 2018). Therefore, information sharing among the tourists has inevitably spurred other visitors’ interests. Apart from this, the interactive features that the social media possess have enabled information sharing to be presented in more attractive forms such as photo and video clip techniques. Based on the features and the capability that the social media have in the context of tourism business, more efforts to encourage tour operators in Malaysia,

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particularly SMEs, to accept and use the social media as the main marketing media, need to be put in. The most basic problem encountered by the tourism SMEs is limited business resources, such as human capital, as well as financial and technical sources. The use of social media as a marketing medium has reduced some of the problems encountered by the tourism SMEs, such as the resources and costs.

SMEs’ Tourism Marketing Strategies via Social Media Managing social media for marketing purpose is essential for all business organization. It can help company to save time, stay organized, and optimize efficiency. Generally, there are several basic strategies that can be adopted by the Malaysian tourism SME groups in conducting social media marketing. Some of them include:

Start with Plan Using social media for SMEs’ success needs to start with a good plan. A good plan is important as basic guidance for business to achieve their objectives. Without a plan, they have no clear goal for what they are trying to achieve. The most important thing is SMEs need to set social media goals and objectives. Social media should be specific, measurable, attainable, and timely. SMEs also need to conduct a social media audit, meaning that they have to evaluate their existing effort in using social media as marketing tool. Other than that, SMEs may need to take inspiration from successful business not just from hospitality and tourism industry but from all industries. There are several important factors that SMEs need to highlight in defining their social media marketing goals: first, targeting achievement by performing social media marketing; next, identifying the target audience; then, formulating ways to access the target audience; after that, building audience style in social media usage; and finally, constructing messages that SMEs intend to send to the audience with social media marketing.

Identify Audience To make sure social media can be effective tool for business, SMEs need to understand their audience. SMEs may need to compile data on their current customers and their interest as well as who is buying their service and interacting with them online. SMEs can profile target audiences based on their demographic, interest, behaviors, and more. Once SMEs have clear picture of their audience, they will be discovering the different interests of their audience and find ways to reach more people just like the audience. Hence, SMEs can expand their groups of audience.

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Have Basic Knowledge to Employ Social Media Any manager or individual who is responsible to conduct promotional activities through the social media must have basic knowledge on how to employ social media as a business marketing media. They need to know how to take advantage of each application in the social media for promotional purposes. This person needs to be aware of the types of postings or contents that can attract people’s attention toward the products and services offered by the business. In the context of tourism, content-sharing techniques in the forms of photos and video clips are considered to be more effective compared to the text-based contents. The video clips and pictures shared must be attractive and can spark people’s desire to find out more about a product or service offered by the business.

Decide the Right Platforms for Business SMEs should be conducting some research to understand their audiences’ demographics. This is important to make sure SMEs are using the right platform of social media for marketing purposes. By doing some research, it will help SMEs to understand how their target audience spends their time online. It is not necessarily to focus on just one type of social media. SMEs can use different kinds of social media channel to reach different groups of audience or to achieve different business goals. Study found that Facebook page is the most relevant social media for business purposes rather than Instagram. Twitter was also found as the right tool for creating customer’s awareness toward brand and business organization.

Use the Right Tools When it comes to picking tool for business, there are so many great options of online tools that can help SMEs to boost their business and productivity. There is a need to understand that there is no single perfect tool for business. Each tool has its own strengths and weakness. Hence, it is essential for manager or any individual who is responsible to conduct SMEs’ social media to have basic knowledge regarding the characteristics for each tool to ensure that tool that had been chosen will be the best fit for the company. They have to know that social media are a platform to engage with customers and followers but not a broadcasting system. Thus, the marketing activities must be appropriate with the function. One of the strategies to choose the right tool is clarifying the company’s priorities and goals for using social media, for example, to create brand awareness, drive traffic to company’s site, and drive sales from content. By doing that, it would help company’s decision-making to choose the right tool for social media marketing activities.

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Build Relationship The uniqueness of social media marketing for SMEs is it allow service provider to communicate directly to customers and followers. It is essential for SMEs to create two-way communication with customers in social media. Nowadays, modern customers have much higher expectations, such as proactive service, personalized interactions, and immediate feedback. Typically, nature for being customer is they expect to be treated like a king. They expect company to understand their need and expectations and customize everything for them. Thus, through two-way communication, it would help SMEs to understand customer’s need and their expectation toward company. Despite that, it would create positive perception among customers toward the company. Due to high competitors, it is important for business to build relationship over time with customers and followers rather than focus on sale and profit solely. Social media can help SMEs to build trust and commitment and form loyalty among customers. Once they are loyal to business, they’re willing to like and share content by SMEs to their friends and family thru their social media platforms. That is the unique benefit of social media.

Update Social Site Regularly Every social site that is used by the tourism SMEs for marketing must be updated regularly. This is to ensure that the products or business brands promoted will be remembered and recognized by the public. Moreover, active social sites can attract interest and boost public confidence toward the products or services offered. In making regular posts on social media, it is important to ensure that content of post suits the social media platform and the target audience. It is because different social media platforms have different characteristics and target audience.

Share Visual Component When it comes to social media, people will expect posts that include a visual component instead of text solely. By using visual component such as images and videos to promote tourism products, it will be driving to real-world action. For example, great images and videos about tourist destination will influence tourist interest to visit the destination. Due to this benefit, SMEs should utilize these interactive features of visual component provided in social media to attract tourist to discover their products and services. What SMEs need to know is every successful business was telling its story to their audience through images and videos.

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Quality Versus Quantity It is important for SMEs to make sure every single content they create and post in social media has quality and offers value to audience. Every content should be great, honest, and trustworthy and has benefit of value. From audience point of view, they were expecting that information from service provider are usefulness and able to create their awareness on certain issue or phenomenon. Despite that, it is always good if SMEs can manage the sharing content as something that is good enough to be re-shared or retweeted by the audiences. In addition, contents that can create terrible post from others needs to be avoided. This strategy will increase the credibility and integrity of the brand and company. Nevertheless, quantity of engagement is important if SMEs use Twitter as their social media marketing platform. The number of tweets will help to push more traffic to the company’s website. In this situation, one of the tricks that can be applied is reposting a content for multiple times. For example, keep sharing content that is posted in blog or other platform on Twitter. Another trick is to stay aware of market demand. SMEs should keep their eye on trending topics that related to their industry. This will increase company’s engagement rate and high potential to gain more followers.

Building Online Community Through Social Media One of the effective strategies used by the tourism SMEs in approaching the public or tourist groups is by building their own community through social media. This is important as a basis to effective marketing. This strategy enables businesses to closely interact with the public, including existing customers and potential customers. The businesses are also able to obtain feedbacks about their products and services from the public. Negative feedback can help businesses to take immediate action to ensure that negative eWOM is controlled. Apart from building good relationships with the customers, discussion within the community members will allow the businesses to improve their products and services in the future. Businesses will also be able to address their customers’ specific needs and target their customer groups. SMEs also suggested to always welcome a new follower. This new group of followers is a great opportunity for company to start a conversation and build a relationship with audience. However, it is not necessarily to reach out and welcome every new follower. The best approach is to focus on new followers who particularly show their interest to company and products or services offered by company.

Diversifying Marketing Medium The tourism SMEs should not focus solely on one medium in carrying out their marketing activities. It is possible that there are individuals who do not have access

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to the social sites that the SMEs used to promote their products or services. This setback prevents the delivery of promotional activities to such potential customers. There are multiple social media that can be utilized by the tourism SMEs to approach their customer groups, such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, blogs, and Foursquare. Promotional activities can be diversified to suit the social sites’ needs.

Increasing Communication Skills The tourism SMEs also need to improve their communication skills. Improving communication skills entails not only the use of good language but also the mastery of foreign languages. Being competent in foreign languages will provide more opportunities to the businesses to tap into international market and capture foreign visitors’ interest of the businesses’ products and services. It is easier for the tourism SMEs to approach international visitors through the social media.

Monitor and Respond to All Conversation When it comes to conversation on social media, whether we are a business, a brand, or an individual, we will come across plenty of different conversations where each of the conversation has unique challenge. Since social media function is to build relationship and develop social engagement, it allows people to post comment, share content, and like the content uploaded. Therefore, SMEs need to be aware of all the conversations that related to their business and respond appropriately. This is also known as social listening. However, some of the conversation will affect our feeling and emotion. There are few ways on how SMEs can respond to conversations with customers on social media. The most important is to acknowledge the question from customer and reply. Psychologically, even though we are unable to answer the question right away, by replying the question, it will let the customer know that they have been heard. It is great for business if the relationship with customers develop by engaging with their questions. By answering customer’s question as soon as we possibly can, it would create positive image and perception in customer’s mind.

Accepting Customer’s Thanks Always accept thank you wishes from customer. This is the basic way for SMEs to build relationship with customers and create a positive image to the company. Basically, thank you wishes is a polite way to express gratitude. When customers put some effort to reach out the company to say thank you, it’s a must for the company to stay humble and show gratitude or acknowledgement on reply.

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Thanking Customers Who Share Your Content In social media marketing, it is an amazing feeling when people share our content to others without any pressure. This is also a polite way from customer to express their gratitude to the company. Sharing company’s content on social media means that customers are thankful, appreciative, happy, and satisfied with products and services provided by the SMEs. Therefore, it is necessary for SMEs to express the gratitude too. Spend some time to reply or respond to everyone who shares the content.

Showing Gratitude for a Purchase When customers make a purchase and share it on social media, this provides an amazing chance for SMEs to make their experience remarkable on online platform. Typically, when customers share their purchase on social media, it means that they are excited on the product or service. As an appreciation, let customer know that the company has grateful feeling to have them on board. Truly, sharing purchase by customer on social media is a great opportunity for SMEs to get a publicity and attract new interest among potential customers.

Handling Angry Customer Typically, not all customers will agree with company’s word or action on social media. It is normal and always happens in business because different customers have different expectation. Thus, it is hard for the company to fulfill all the expectations in one time. When the company fails to fulfill customers’ expectation, they will become furious and dissatisfied. Things will be getting worse if the customer spread negative news or will have bad perception about the brand and company. Thus, it is essential for SMEs to understand on how to handle this group of customers. At first, reply their question, comment, or complaint as soon as possible. Research found that 42% of customers expect that company will reply their complaint in less than 60 minutes on social media. Even though we are unable to solve the problem right away, it is enough to let them know that they have been heard.

Graciously Receiving Feedback Predictably, some customers love to give their feedback about product or service received from company. This is an amazing chance for SMEs to learn about their product or service from customer’s view and how customers perceive it. For this reason, it is important for SMEs to respond to all the feedback even though it is negative feedback in order to ensure customers know that the company is listening to them.

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Social Media Marketing During COVID-19 Even though the Malaysian government has announced MCO to break the COVID-19 chain and that no tourism activities are allowed, it doesn’t mean that SMEs in tourism industry have to stop their social media marketing activities. During this critical period, it is hard to have potential tourist. Therefore, it is important for SMEs in tourism industry to address the COVID-19 pandemic issue with tact, empathy, and mindful marketing. Of course, marketing teams have to face unique challenges to plan marketing campaigns that suit the pandemic crisis. The communication and marketing approaches will be different during this challenging time, but the essential is positioning the business brand in customer’s mind. Hence, there are some additional ideas on social media marketing that can be employed by the SMEs.

Up-to-Date Information The COVID-19 issue shouldn’t change SMEs as trusted source of information for tourists. During the outbreak, there is no business operation from SMEs. Therefore, this is a great opportunity for SMEs to develop new strategies on how to improve their current product or service. This is essential if SMEs aim to improve their quality based on the feedback from previous customers or to introduce new product or service. At the meantime, SMEs need to ensure that all the new offers are updated in their website and social media platform. It would create awareness and excitement among customers.

Share Benefit Content Related to Health During the COVID-19 outbreak, people around the world are being asked to observe social distancing to flatten the curve of the virus. There are various guidelines to make sure people are safe and maintain healthy lifestyle. As a service provider, SMEs can show their support to the government by encouraging people to follow all the procedures and guidelines. For example, SMEs can create awareness messages about the virus and share some tips on how to prevent it in their social media. SMEs also can show their support by using hashtag (#) as promotion by the government. As a result, company’s brand will keep on appearing in customer’s or even potential customer’s mind.

Using Organic Channels to Keep the Brand “Lights on” Due to the pandemic crisis, most of businesses in tourism industry are reducing and pausing their ad spending while needing to stay on top of the mind of tourists who may be planning future trips. The best way to do this is by creating content that can

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be for organic channels in social media. SMEs can regularly post attractive images of products and magnificent services that will be captured by local community and visitors.

Keep Customers Informed SMEs need to keep customers informed about their response to the COVID-19 pandemic crisis but do not share any information that can create panic to them. For example, SMEs can communicate about the proactive measures taken, premise closure, policy updates related to the pandemic issue, or new coming offer. By keeping customers informed, it would add value in the relationship between SMEs and customers. Even though SME’s services don’t directly help to deal with the pandemic issue, company’s brand can still provide value thing to public, for example, educating, entertaining, or inspiring people who are stuck at home all day.

Conclusion In conclusion, as one of the sources of employment in Malaysia, SMEs in tourism industry are considered as major drivers of national economy. This study is conducted to highlight the effectiveness of social media as marketing tool for budget accommodation particularly budget hotels, homestays, motels, chalets, and guest houses. Budget accommodation is one of the tourism-related SMEs that significantly increase the utilization of social media capabilities to disseminate their service in the marketplace. Thus, performing business activities thru social media should be an inherent part for every budget accommodation’s marketing strategy and their growth plan. It can be said that the role played by the social media for the sake of today’s business survival cannot be dismissed. Social media’s capability and credibility as a marketing medium is acceptable by most business organizations, including the SMEs in the Malaysian tourism industry. Due to social media’s interactive functions, this study also suggests several strategies that can be applied by SMEs to interact with their audiences and target customers as well as develop their marketing strategies. Compared to traditional marketing, social media marketing offers SMEs a big opportunity to get a positive return on investment. If SMEs can greatly develop their social media marketing, it can bring remarkable success to their business, creating devoted brand advocates and driving sales and profits. SMEs’ owner should be able to see social media as a robust tool that can help the business to build strong brand awareness, increase the number of sales, and build a real customer base. If only SMEs really understand the role and potential provided by social media marketing, they will see that the achievement of business is much better than before. The acceptance of the social media as a medium for online business transactions shows that this medium has its own compatibility that could

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be integrated in various contexts for different purposes. The features of social media such as usefulness, easy usage, compatibility, relative advantage, cost-savings, as well as wide and quick access have enabled the SME’s tourism industry to conduct online marketing activities aggressively. This will inevitably lead to greater growth of Malaysian tourism industry and economy in general. In the case of the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak, SMEs in tourism industry have to face unique challenges to ensure their continuity in the industry. Because of the effects of COVID-19, some of the SMEs might be having problem to continue their operation in the future. It is a struggle for them to maintain the business without any operation and potential customer. Because of that, they have to plan new strategies drastically including laying off some employees, offering unpaid leave, and cutting salary. However, when COVID-19 pandemic got worse and the Malaysian government announced the MCO that restricts foreign tourist to enter Malaysia and barred any outside activities including tourism activities, some of the SMEs decided to close their business for good. Furthermore, VMY2020 was also cancelled by the MOTAC. Therefore, it is essential for each SME in tourism industry to have effective alternative marketing plan. Despite the plan to generate income, they need to ensure that their position is always top in customer’s mind. During this critical outbreak, the best way for SMEs is to plan social media marketing campaigns that suit the pandemic crisis. Apart from introducing new product or service after the outbreak, SMEs also can share any content that can create awareness among people about the COVID-19, educate people on how to prevent themselves from the virus, and inspire them during the quarantine order.

Future Studies Considerable discussion on the acceptability and usability of ICT elements, for instance, the social media, among the tourism SMEs needs to be initiated. This is because the tourism SMEs have contributed significantly to the nation’s development, particularly in terms of budget tourism products such as travel agencies, accommodations, transportations, tourist destinations, and many others. Scores of research could be carried out to identify the patterns of acceptability and usability of social media among tourism SMEs, including the factors that influence acceptability, the implication of the use of social media, and so on. Hence, numerous efforts and initiatives could be planned to ensure that this group of customers are not marginalized in today’s global technological advancement. Finally, this study provides implications both for literature on social media adoption and practices in SMEs in tourism industry context. Accordingly, it is highly suggested that the future studies further investigate the role of social media on SMEs in different contexts including during the outbreak crisis. It is important to highlight on how SMEs can continue their operation during outbreak crisis by using social media marketing strategies.

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The Influence of Social Media in Youth Destination Selection for Visiting Pulau Langkawi, Kedah, in Malaysia

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reliability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Respondents’ Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common Information of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Usefulness of Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Usage Habits of Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Youth Destination Selections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Descriptive Statistic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion and Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

In today’s highly competitive economic environment, the use of social media by tourism organisations adds little value to the travel and leisure sector. Generally, most tourism organizations should take an interest in online media in order to flourish. The purpose of this study is to see how social media influence young people’s decision to visit Pulau Langkawi in Kedah. The growth of social media in the tourism industry has increased the desire to learn more about a place and

N. A. B. Mazme School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia A. Albattat (*) Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_48

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improve its image. The major goal of this study is to see if social media have influenced young people’s decisions to visit Pulau Langkawi in Kedah. Based on the United Nations Educational and Scientific Organization (UNECSO), Pulau Langkawi has been gazetted as an area with tourism potentials. Results in this research show the usefulness of social media in enhancing the attractive destination. The extensive sources through various platforms on social media will assist the users with their decision-making. Respondents come to the conclusion that social media have influenced them to go to destinations they never expected to visit. As a result, social media have impact on youths, and the study’s objectives have been attained. Keywords

Social media · Technology · Usefulness · Youth · Usage habits · Pulau Langkawi

Introduction The persuasion from social media is a digital advertising phrase that refers to a person’s capacity to control other people’s thoughts in an online social group. The more clout one has, the greater demand that person has from other businesses or individuals that want to publicize the location as their part of business. As a means of future communication, web-based media have evolved into a platform that encourages and facilitates information sharing among users. This new form of media allows the Internet users to easily share messages, photographs, audio, videos, and expertise. According to Madondo (2016), exchanging information with others over the Internet has resulted in a large extent of data that is easily accessible, explorable, promoted, questioned, and generated. The usage of the social media platform throughout the catastrophe has been considered, with an emphasis on the major role of crisis communication in social media. Due to the enormous number of people who use this technology platform to rapidly interact and become aware of developments, social media require less effort from individuals to make an influential attempt in distributing information (Leonardi, 2014). The study also indicated that in the tourism business, social media are not an afterthought. Tourism businesses, like other businesses, must participate in these platforms in order to succeed in today’s fast-paced and competitive business environment. Pulau Langkawi has been a popular tourist destination due to the variety of attractions available to families of all ages, with a focus on adolescents. The presence of legends that have captivated tourists, a duty-free island, magnificent beaches with a diverse range of biosphere ecosystem, and world beating infrastructure have all become intentions for visitors to visit Pulau Langkawi. Tourists can get all of these fantastic local tours via social media or the tourism page’s “Related Articles” section. Surprisingly, Pulau Langkawi is a moderately populated island, with few people visible on the main roadways.

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Background The importance of “social media influence” cannot be overstated. Claude et al. (2018) defined an individual with influence as someone who has control over the decision to buy followers. Persons who have the ability to persuade others are often not useful for the promotional tools; merely, they are also critical for business to fulfill marketing objectives for that particular product or services. To comprehend the many forms of influencers, four categories have been established. First and foremost, an influencer is closely associated with a celebrity, and they both perform the same job in terms of influencing clients’ purchasing decisions. Industry specialists are the second group that has been categorized. Journalists, academics, industry specialists, and professional advisors are examples of experts. Bloggers or content developers fall under the third category. Bloggers have a lot of power since they know how to build trust with their viewers as one of methods (Aroslaw Koźlak et al., 2018). The last group is known as micro-influencers, the up-andcoming generation of influencers. Each day, this generation will utilize social media to share their knowledge about the label’s products and services goals (Luttrell, 2018). The knowledge of social media can be classified in four categories, such as suggestions, events, friends, and media elements, and an array of “social media types” is utilized. Consumers chose to look at recommendations based on their location and environment, events based on their location and time-based setting, connections based on their locality and background personality, and finally the list of mediums of media based on their ecosystem and background distinctiveness, according to the study. Although Facebook, as the most popular social media site, offers a wide range of communication choices, less than half of the programs reviewed reported on content created expressly for social media communication. Information-based content and videos were the most often shared content types, followed by photos. Online games, consumer recruiting, social posts, widgets, and sponsored marketing are all used by some of the programs (Shawky et al. 2019). On the other site, Twitter is more confused; however, it is also more significantly focused on providing easy access to seemingly concrete measures with its regular updates and mix of social and professional debate on the self-promotion and attention seeking. Additionally, Twitter appears to be both a communication tool and a revolving information stream, in which all of the users’ pieces of information may appear irrelevant, despite the legitimacy of the information. While it may appear that all of the users’ information is irrelevant, the legitimacy/authenticity and significance of the communication as a whole are derived by the users (Bruns & Burgess, 2012). Youths’ social obligations to their society or other persons in the same society and social surroundings have an impact on their social behavior. On October 6, 2010, Instagram was launched (Boer, 2016). This software allows users to upload material, apply filters to make their photos look better, and share the content with other Instagram users right away. As a new media medium, Instagram is unique. Users to upload material, apply filters to make their photos look better,

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and share the content with other Instagram users right away. In terms of attitude, Instagram differs from Facebook as a new media platform. Instagram, for instance, allows users to upload new media material, has a range of styles, and is popular for makers to create their Instagram profiles public, allowing other users to follow, view, like, and comment on snapshots of individuals they recognize and don’t know personally (Lup et al., 2015). The importance of the “social media usage habit” is enormous. User habits, according to Rauyruen, Miller, and Groth (2009), can predict consumer loyalty and repurchase intent, resulting in certainty in the continued use of current technology. In addition, several researches (Ray & Seo, 2013) used habit as a preamble to the aims and as a support to explore the relationship between purpose and social media usage (Moody & Siponen, 2013). According to the survey, stopping using social media will be difficult for 40% of young people. In the previous years, 28% of respondents indicated impossible to handle using social media. Sixty-eight percent of teenagers said they’ve joined Facebook, and three-quarters of them said it’s their primary social network. However, nearly 75% of young people say they use Facebook, while Instagram is the third most popular app among young people, with 35% of them saying they use it (Dagona et al. 2013). The term “usefulness of social media” refers to the point that if customers are far away from the service provider, they may lack objective information about service quality. For businesses such as tourism, social media serve as a predictor of prospective impact on consumers’ behavior on these social networking sites while also determining the best method to interact with them. Consumers in the tourist business were particularly interested in hearing from other tourists’ opinions since such feedback and reviews would assist consumers in choosing whether or not to obtain or decline a service (Popa et al., 2016). Social media aid in the development of product awareness within the industry, resulting in a competitive advantage. As a result, for marketers to be effective, they must have a thorough understanding of how to use social media to increase tourist desire for their product and improve their ability to comprehend passengers. On-hand sources of travel information are restricted official tourist sites due to a lack of exchanging and visiting experiences or experimenting. As a result, preceding toward the use of social media in the tourism industry, it is vital to underline the importance of the sources (He et al., 2014). A “youth generation” is defined as a group of people born during the same time period and who share the same social science norms and shared ideals. Conferring to this theory, individuals in the similar cluster can grow and nurture the same attribute and behavior, such as views, values, and traits (Bilgihan, 2016). Women between the ages of 18 and 30 constitute the majority of Instagram users (Sheldon & Bryant, 2016). According to this research, eight out of ten 2-year-old children use technology and the Internet on a regular basis, with a third tablet. Based on the research, 98% of a group of 11-year-olds had their own smartphone (iis.se, 2018). This group significantly relies on outside input and feedback. They strive to find

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any content through social media and control their decisions depending on the inputs from the obtained material (Krishen et al., 2016). The notion of “electronic word-of-mouth” and the effect of social media phenomena play critical roles in the lives of most social media youths (Sherman et al., 2018). According to Defy Media’s 2016 Constant Content research, teenagers are more inclined to introduce and link themselves to the impact of social media than celebrities or icons. Marketers have discovered more in-depth detail on customers’ behavioral ideologies about choosing process and appealing by stressing the difference between generation Y and Z. “Pulau Langkawi in Kedah” is one of Malaysia’s many islands, also known as the Isles of Legends, and is located in the state of Kedah. There are a total of 99 islands that make up the archipelago. Both local and international visitors, they all came to have the time of their lives on the island. Considerable changes in the physical elements of the landscapes, on the other hand, can have a substantial impact on the island’s natural setting. As a result, ecotourism is considered as beneficial to be good for the environment as well as the quality of life. Further ecotourism development on Pulau Langkawi would aid in the preservation of the island’s natural heritage for human, cultural, social, and economic reasons. The hypnotic beaches of Pulau Langkawi, such as Pantai Cenang, Pantai Buray Bay, and Pantai Kok, provide visitors an amazing gorgeous vista. The island is ideal for maritime sports like snorkeling and scuba diving, and its marine life is abundant. Apart from the numerous different destinations that tourists can visit on Pulau Langkawi, these islands have become an extremely essential source of revenue for Malaysia’s tourism industry. To benefit and develop the economy as a whole, improvements and effective methods to attract visitors must be implemented (Bhuiyan et al., 2013). Research design is a set of procedures, such as data gathering and data analysis, that aid in the investigation and resolution of various marketing research challenges. These procedures are critical in order to generate the most information with the least amount of effort, time, and money. The descriptive analysis and quantitative research methods will be used in this investigation. This study also involved the use of computational, statistical, and mathematical methods by the researchers in order to obtain the results. Answers to specific questions are based on numerical data, which allows researchers to quickly receive the most popular responses. The independent variables (types of social media, usefulness of social media, and social media use habits) and the dependent variable (youth destination choice to visit Pulau Langkawi) are investigated using quantitative research. Due to the focus of this study being on Pulau Langkawi and its youths, the population and units of analysis were limited to the local university students in the Shah Alam district of Selangor in Malaysia. This study was focused on youth aged 15 to 32 years old. Researchers must have a well-defined target group to ensure a reliable and appropriate source of data collection. The convenience sample approach is used in this study to select a certain number of respondents using the

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Table 48.1 Sections and description of questionnaires. (Source: the authors) Section A B C1 C2

Description Common information on Pulau Langkawi Demographic profile Usefulness of social media Usage habits of social media

C3 D

Types of social media Youth destination choice

Adapt from (reference) Tee Yee Teng, 2018

Shyle, 2015 Souza and Machado, 2017 Magill, 2017 Dillon, 2016

Total no. of questions 6 5 5 5 5 5

Krejcie and Morgan sampling procedure. As a result, using Krejcie and Morgan sampling techniques, the sample size of this study might be reduced to 384 individuals, based on the 172,000-statistic number of students from universities. Furthermore, basic random sampling, also known as random sampling, was used in this research. This is the most real and genuine approach of probability sampling method; it is also the most commonly used approach for selecting a sample from a population. The date for this study was gathered via questionnaire. A questionnaire is a sort of research instrument that were used to collect data for this study. A questionnaire is a type of research instrument that contains a series of questions designed to collect information from respondent. Questionnaires have numerous advantages over other forms of surveys, including the fact that they are less costly, require less work form the questioner, and always contain expected replies, making data gathering easier. Questionnaires can be considered primary data for this study because they collect firsthand information largely from respondents. In order to measure the variables, the questionnaires utilized in this study had four components. The findings of questionnaires are usually presented in report style with graphs and charts (Table 48.1).

Findings Reliability Analysis During the data collection period, a total of 400 respondents were approached. Most researchers use Lee Cronbach’s (1951) Cronbach’s alpha method to determine internal consistency reliability by finding the positive correlation between the items. According to Nunnally (1978), alpha coefficients larger than 0.70 are considered dependable and satisfactory. The significance of the dependability statistic table is that it provides the true Cronbach’s alpha value (Table 48.2).

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Table 48.2 Cronbach’s alpha analysis results for each study variable. (Source: study data) Variable Usefulness of social media Usage habits of social media Types of social media Youth destination selection to visit Pulau Langkawi, Kedah

Table 48.3 Demographics of respondents. (Source: study data)

Item Gender Age

Marital status Educational level

Occupation

Frequency Male Female Below 18 18–22 23–27 28–32 Single Married Diploma Degree Master PhD Student

Cronbach’s alpha 0.895 0.648 0.704 0.857

(%) 147 253 3 220 167 10 382 18 95 295 8 2 400

36.8 63.2 0.8 55.0 41.8 2.5 95.5 4.5 23.8 73.8 2.0 0.5 100

Respondents’ Background The demographic aspects of the study are categorized by gender, age, marital status, educational level, and occupation to provide common information about the respondents (Table 48.3). Females account for 63.2% of the population, while males account for 36.8% of the population. The bulk of respondents are between the ages of 18 and 22, accounting for 55%, with respondents between the ages of 23 and 27 accounting for 41.8%, 28 and 32 accounting for 2.5%, and those under the age of 18 accounting for 0.8%. The bulk of respondents are single (95.5%), with married people coming in second (4.5%). The majority of respondents (73.8%) had a bachelor’s degree, followed by a diploma (23.8%), a master’s (2.0%), and a PhD (2.0%). Because this survey exclusively focuses on university students, the occupation resulted in a 100% for them.

Common Information of Respondents According to Table 48.4, the common information stated that 297 out of 400 respondents (74.3%) had traveled to Pulau Langkawi, Kedah, and the majority of 223 (55.8%) plan to make that trip in the coming years. Meanwhile, respondents favored individual travel to vacation packages, with 72.5% preferring the latter. The majority of respondents (49.0%) learned about Pulau Langkawi from social media,

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Table 48.4 Common information of respondents. (Source: study data) Item Have you ever visited Pulau Langkawi, Kedah? Do you have any plans to visit Pulau Langkawi in Kedah anytime soon? Which would you choose if you were going on a trip?

Where did you learn about the Kedah Island of Pulau Langkawi?

What kind of social media do you always use?

How often do you spend on social media each day?

Frequency Yes No Yes No Maybe Travel package Independent travel Social media Website Word-of-mouth Others Facebook Instagram Twitter Others Less than 3 h 4–6 h 7–10 h More than 10 h

(%) 297 103 223 62 115 110 290

74.3 25.8 55.8 15.5 28.7 27.5 72.5

195 16 175 13 155 197 41 7 85 167 106 42

49.0 4.0 43.8 3.3 38.8 49.3 10.3 1.8 21.3 41.8 26.5 10.5

and 49.3% learned about it from Instagram. The majority of respondents (41.8%) spend 4–6 h average on this online media.

Usefulness of Social Media For the usefulness of social media, the number of respondents said “Agree” to each of the questions, as indicated in the figure below. The greatest percentages of respondents who said yes to each question range from 38.3% to 46.8% (Table 48.5).

Usage Habits of Social Media The majority of questions concern their overall reactions to social media. As indicated in Table 48.6, the majority of the populations answered “Agree” to each of the questions pertaining to the variable. The greatest proportions of people who replied yes to each question range from 26.3% to 49.5%.

Types of Social Media Majority of respondent answered “Agree’ to each question. In these questions as per listed below, they were questioned about the forms of social media that impact them and how they react to the other user’s post. The greatest percentages of people who respond yes to each question range from 34.5% to 42.3% (Table 48.7).

4 5

3

2

No 1

Questions The content or information on social media can help you make a trip decision The online information on the website facilitates decision-making processes For the managerial process, social media is simple and practical Social media can enhance an attraction place Social media is useful and less time consuming

Table 48.5 Usefulness of social media. (Source: study data)

0.3% (1) 0.5% (2)

0.3% (1)

0.5% (2)

Strongly disagree 1.3% (5)

0.5% (2) 1.8% (7)

1.8% (7)

1.8% (7)

Disagree 1.8% (7)

2.8% (11) 4.3% (17)

6.0% (24)

4.8% (19)

Slightly disagree 3.5% (14)

13.8% (55) 19.3% (77)

25.3% (101)

23.3% (93)

Slightly agree 18.5% (74)

41.4% (166) 38.3% (153)

41.8% (167)

46.3% (185)

Agree 46.8% (187)

41.3% (165) 36.0% (144)

25.0% (100)

23.5 (94)

Strongly agree 28.2% (113)

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5

4

3

2

No 1

Questions Have good or bad comments on social media influenced your trip destination selection? Have you ever taken a trip solely based on the tourism packages advertised on social media? Would you be worried or paranoid if you didn’t have access to social media? Did you immediately share images to your social media accounts if you were to do so? When travelling, do you feel the need to post about it?

Table 48.6 Usage habits of social media. (Source: study data)

5.0% (20)

6.3% (25)

5.3% (21)

2.0% (8)

Strongly disagree 0.8% (3)

6.3% (25)

13.0% (52)

15.0% (60)

12.8% (51)

Disagree 1.5% (6)

14.2% (75)

21.3% (85)

17.5% (70)

14.2% (57)

Slightly disagree 5.3% (21)

28.7% (115)

24.8% (99)

26.0% (104)

29.5% (118)

Slightly agree 24.0% (96)

33.3% (133)

26.3% (105)

25.0% (100)

33.5% (134)

Agree 49.5% (198)

12.5% (50)

8.5% (34)

11.3% (45)

8.0% (30)

Strongly agree 19.0% (76)

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5

4

3

No. 1 2

Questions Do you think social media portrays reality? You get jealous seeing traveling photographs posted by other users You place a high value on trusting various forms of triprelated information on social media Following the bloggers on social media platform due to keeping track of a trip To make a vacation decision, there are many social media sites to pick from

Table 48.7 Types of social media. (Source: study data)

0% (0)

3.3% (13)

0.5% (2)

Strongly disagree 8.5% (34) 7.0% (28)

4.3% (17)

10.3% (41)

2.3% (9)

Disagree 14.8% (59) 11.8% (47)

4.0% (16)

14.5% (58)

11.0% (44)

Slightly disagree 17.3% (69) 11.0% (44)

25.5% (102)

25.8% (103)

34.3% (137)

Slightly agree 26.3% (105) 24.3% (97)

42.3% (169)

35.0% (140)

41.3% (165)

Agree 27.0% (108) 34.5% (138)

24.0% (96)

11.3% (45)

10.8% (43)

Strongly agree 6.3% (25) 11.5% (46)

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Youth Destination Selections The respondents’ responses to dependent variable-related questions, such as how social media influences adolescents’ decision to visit Pulau Langkawi, Kedah, are shown in Table 48.8. To each question, the majority of respondents said “Agree.” The largest percentage of people who agreed ranges from 33.3% to 43.0%.

Descriptive Statistic The highest mean suggests “enhance attraction place” beneath the area on social media usefulness independent variables according to Table 48.9. This demonstrated that social media can be beneficial in promoting a tourist destination. Meanwhile, the lowest mean, 3.6725, shows that “social media depicts reality” falls under independent variables: of types of social media. The standard deviation in the item statistic is also shown in the table, which measures the dispersion of respondents’ results on the item constructed on the questions.

Conclusion and Recommendation The components that characterize the influence of social media on a destination selection in a classified as young adults planning to explore Pulau Langkawi, Kedah, were discovered in this research. According to the findings of this study, the influence of social media on destination selection resulted in the production of 400 responders. The importance of dependence as a fundamental element in assessing social media influence on kids has been highlighted in the key of outcomes. Social media have played an essential part in boosting the tourism industry and are no longer just a nice-to-have feature. Organizations that don’t use this online media and therefore do not utilize these social media components to operational efficiencies may not be able to stay in business for long. In comparison with other traditional communication methods, social media are now more efficient and reliable. As a result, online communication is one of the most significant and successful instruments in influencing young people’s decision to visit Pulau Langkawi, situated in Kedah. In the future, additional studies can concentrate on specific areas in Pulau Langkawi such as heritage sites or attractions on the island. Furthermore, the researchers advise that researchers concentrate their efforts on a single group to make it easier for other researchers to locate their desired respondents. Additional research can be directed at web content based on tourism, such as Trivago, Kayak, and other interactive web-based content as future studies.

5

3 4

2

No. 1

Questions Had you ever decided to travel overseas based on social media? Have social media prompted you to explore visiting places you’d never considered before? You often use social media to make a destination choice You change your plan by the content observed on social media Comparison of modifications to vacation plans as a result of social media content’s influence

Table 48.8 Youth destination choice. (Source: study data)

0.5% (2)

0% (0) 0% (0) 1.0% (4)

Strongly disagree 3.0% (12)

2.0% (8)

3.3% (13) 2.3% (9)

1.8% (7)

Disagree 8.8% (35)

8.3% (33)

11.5% (46) 13.0% (52)

5.5% (22)

Slightly disagree 9.8% (39)

23.5% (94)

24.8% (99) 29.0% (118)

25.0% (100)

Slightly agree 21.0% (84)

41.0% (164)

36.0% (144) 33.3% (133)

43.0% (165)

Agree 38.3% (153)

24.8% (99)

24.5% (98) 21.0% (48)

26.5% (106)

Strongly agree 19.3% (77)

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Table 48.9 Descriptive statistics analysis. (Source: study data) Factor/statement Information is beneficial The decision-making process is aided by online information For the decision-making process, it is simple and practical Improve the attractiveness of the location It’s useful and doesn’t take up a lot of time Positive or negative feedback influences travel destination selection Taking a trip solely to be enticed by a tourism package marketed Fearful or worried about going on a trip without access to social media Did you immediately post photos? When you’re travelling, you feel compelled to blog about it Social media portray reality Do you get envy when you view other people’s travel photos? You place a premium on social media information that you can trust You maintain track of your vacation by following travel bloggers on social media There are numerous social media sources to choose from You planned an international trip based on social media You’re thinking about going to locations you’ve never been before You frequently utilize social media to plan your vacation You alter your plans based on what you see on social media Comparison of modifications to vacation plans as a result of social media content’s influence

Mean 4.9250 4.8350 4.8150 5.1950 5.0100 4.7700 4.0375 3.8425 3.7725 4.1650 3.6725 4.0200 4.4575 4.1275

Std. deviation 0.98070 0.93271 0.95291 0.84187 0.98097 0.91881 1.22058 1.38835 1.36028 1.28526 1.39467 1.42114 0.93829 1.27880

4.7775 4.4050 4.8525 4.6700 4.5475 4.7675

0.99522 1.30777 0.93431 1.06721 1.08890 1.01044

References Aroslaw Koźlak, J., Zygmunt, A., Gliwa, B., & Rudek, K. (2018). Dynamics of social roles in the context of group evolution in the blogosphere. In 2018 5th international conference on behavioral, economic, and socio-cultural computing (besc) (pp. 179–184). IEEE. Bhuiyan, M. A. H., Siwar, C., & Ismail, S. M. (2013). Tourism development in Malaysia from the perspective of development plans. Asian Social Science, 9(9), 11–18. Bilgihan, A. (2016). Gen Y customer loyalty in online shopping: An integrated model of trust, user experience and branding. Computers in Human Behavior, 61, 103–113. Boer, D. (2016). The construction of an online identity a case study of fashion blog ‘The Blonde Salad’ and founder Chiara Ferragni’s activities on Instagram. Retrieved from: https://bit.ly/ 2lsrpLs. Accessed 1 Oct 2019. Bruns, A., & Burgess, J. (2012). Researching news discussion on Twitter: New methodologies. Journalism Studies, 13(5–6), 801–814. Claude, L., Malek, P., & Runnvall, L. (2018). Influencers impact on the decision-making among generation Y and Z Swedish females when purchasing fast fashion. Retrieved from: https://bit. ly/2Sjmpaw. Accessed 1 Oct 2019. Dagona, Z. K., Karick, H., & Abubakar, F. M. (2013). Youth participation in social media and political attitudes in Nigeria. Journal of Sociology, Psychology and Anthropology in Practice, 5(1), 1–7.

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Evaluation of Social Media Related to the Promotion and Marketing of Public Recreation Areas

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship Between Recreation and Tourism in Public Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Leisure and Recreational Activities in Public Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resource-Centered Leisure and Recreation Activity Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . National Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . User-Centered Leisure and Recreation Activity Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Archaeology and Historical Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trip and Promenade Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Promoting and Marketing of Public Leisure and Recreation Activity Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evaluation of the Role of Social Media in the Promotion and Marketing of Public Recreation Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

People are a large part of public recreation areas planned by the ministries and local governments in Turkey, with visitors who are on social networks such as Facebook and Instagram sharing their photos of these areas. Given that millions of photos are shared every day on Facebook alone, social networks have great power in terms of promotion and marketing. However, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry General Directorate of Protection and National Parks does not scan the addresses of websites, but instead follow people who share these park areas on social networking sites. In this case, knowledge of public recreation areas in Turkey increases the recognition and importance of Facebook marketing. İ. Başarangil (*) Department of Tourism Guidance, Tourism Faculty, Kırklareli University, Kırklareli, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_49

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In this study, a literature search of recreation and tourism relations attempted to reveal public spaces and public recreation activity areas. Secondary data sources were used in the study. The national parks, nature parks, and public recreation areas in Turkey were examined in terms of Facebook pages from an advertising and marketing perspective. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry/Nature Conservation and National Parks General Directorate lists for the year 2018 of national and natural parks were used. Each park’s Facebook pages were evaluated in terms of recreational opportunities for park photos, location maps, and parks. Within this scope, deficiencies in the pages of the parks were identified and various suggestions were attempted to be developed with the tourism marketers and managers in this context. This research results in eliminating the shortcomings identified national parks will be effective promotion and marketing important to be argued in Turkey. Keywords

Social media · Public recreation areas · National parks · Marketing · Facebook

Introduction Recreation is a voluntary activity for people to take part in during their leisure time (Hazar, 2014). People participate in recreational activities for a variety of reasons, such as providing physical health development, protecting their mental health, socializing, acquiring personal skills, improving their creative power, increasing work efficiency, being happy, and acquiring economic motivation (Karaküçük, 2008). Recreation activities are run not only by private or commercial recreation businesses, but also by public enterprises. It is the responsibility of public institutions and organizations to provide recreation in the form of infrastructure projects, regional planning, making recreational stations to meet the needs of the community, creating specialist staff, encouraging people to recreate, developing educational sectors related to recreation, supporting recreational activities of the tourism enterprises in the region, and supporting institutions organizing events (Hazar, 2014). According to Mobley (2006), public institutions have to realize the recreational needs and demands of individuals who are in the area of responsibility. This mentality takes responsibility both for the state and for local governments in the context of allowing individuals to share in the distribution of welfare (Erol, 2014). In addition to the function of entertaining and resting, recreation that promotes social change and development has also gained considerable importance today. Recreation, which cannot be ignored, especially in the training of young people in terms of socialization and personality development, is a social issue that governments and public institutions deal with through organizational initiatives (Kılbaş, 2010). As a result of changes on a global scale, states are obliged to secure and manage the general well-being and health of citizens at national, regional, and local levels, to plan and manage public recreation areas for visitors, tourists, or travelers. They are

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also making efforts to promote and market public recreational areas (e.g., national parks, nature parks, squares, etc.). Yosemite (USA), Grand Canyon (USA), Yellowstone (USA), Plitvice Lakes (Croatia), Komodo (Indonesia), Galapagos (Ecuador), etc., are among the most important national parks in the world today. Many parks benefit from social networks for promotion and marketing. In this study, a literature search on recreation and tourism relations was attempted to reveal in public spaces and public recreation activity areas was carried out. Secondary data sources were used in the study. In this study, the national parks, nature parks, and public recreation areas in Turkey were examined in terms of Facebook pages from an advertising and marketing perspective. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry/Nature Conservation and National Parks General Directorate lists of national parks and natural parks from 2018 were used. Each park’s Facebook pages were evaluated in terms of recreational opportunities for park photos, location maps, and parks. Within this scope, deficiencies in the pages of the parks were identified and various suggestions were made to be developed by the tourism marketers and managers in this context. This research results in eliminating the shortcomings identified national parks will be effective promotion and marketing important to be argued in Turkey.

Relationship Between Recreation and Tourism in Public Areas Tourism fills up part of your free time. Most of the leisure time is outside the scope of tourism, for example, at home, close to your residential address. Nevertheless, some tourism is associated with working time (business, conference, meeting). Recreational tourism is the most lavish part of tourism. The so-called tourism in Europe is often referred to as “recreation” in North America with “outdoor activities” or more simple. This point is clearly stated by the Canadian government in an official report stating that some types of tourism (eg highland tourism, mountaineering, camping tourism) are similar to outdoor activities (Özdemir et al., 2016, pp. 370–372). According to McClean, Hurd, and Rogers (2017, p. 3) recreation means: “Cities, towns and counties; leisure activities, parks, playgrounds, water centers and sports facilities.” The management of leisure time is not a job where the individual alone can realize the possibilities and alternatives to appreciate leisure time while the individual is in charge. Today’s leisure professionals have important duties. This emerging need is being met in the public recreation areas by the state, civil society institutions, and even commercial businesses in an organized way (Çakır, 2017). The concept of recreation relates to many fields, such as sports, entertainment, and tourism. Recreational activities within tourism are more often seen as activities in natural, historical, and man-made places to visit. In addition to customs, special parks, national parks, theme parks, and climbing and walking in open and closed areas, are also considered as recreation (Argan, 2007). Areas such as national parks, forests, conservation areas, nature parks, and nature monuments are public recreation areas. Contributing to the definition of the public sphere, Geuss (2007) states that the origin of the word “public” came from the Ancient Roman period. The word

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“public” was derived from the Latin word populus (people); everyone means open, public, publicly owned (Dinçer ve Akpınar, 2016). Public areas are places where people living in the city communicate with each other, where various activities take place, where the city and society live. These places, such as parks, gardens, roads, squares, and courtyards, which are open for use by all the individuals in society. This dynamic public space becomes an important part of social life by providing roads and key points for communication, entertainment, and recreation (Carr et al., 1992). A public area is the area of sharing and action where people can meet with other people around them, access is restricted to no one, and social and economic groups mix together. Such places are areas where social relations can be established between individuals (Dinçer and Akpınar, 2016). In general terms, public areas are shaped as urban green spaces, open spaces and public spaces (Dunnett et al., 2002). With these spaces and areas, the establishment of social contacts in relation to various purposes and activities in the development of people living in the city in terms of health of the body and soul can be considered as an effective and important way to raise the level of urban life (Leeuwen et al., 2006). It is aimed at protecting the city’s environment, possibilities, and cultural diversity through its recreational activities in the public sphere of sustainable urban quality (Giddens and Sutton, 2016). According to Kelly (2012), the emergence of needs for people’s leisure activities leads to the recognition of the need for public recreation. Leisure activities, which are actuated by concentrating on freedom and personal experiences, and where people feel the need, are often provided by the state (Erol, 2014). Local governments and other state-owned organizations are obliged to promote public recreational activities that are of interest to the wider public (Şimşek, 2016). With the increasing concentration of urbanization, Etli (2002) stated that public institutions play an important role in the protection and planning of sports, recreation and leisure areas in urban areas for the relaxation of individuals due to adverse conditions such as urban life, overcrowding and psychological disturbances.

Classification of Leisure and Recreational Activities in Public Areas With the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, which is the beginning of a new era in the entertainment life style of Turkish society, a different process has been entered. Particularly, in the summer period, the activities of going to the traditional plateau, joining in, and going to the garden became important after the 1960s but lost its significance and the seaside became a place to spend time instead. (Karaküçük, 2008). Among the reasons why Turkish people cannot sufficiently participate in tourism and recreational activities include economic factors as well as social habits and lifestyles. According to the data of the DPT (1993), 2.5% of the Turkish community participate in leisure and recreational activities in rural areas and 4.3% in urban areas (Avcıkurt, 2009). It can be said that this rate has increased more for urban people who escaped from complex and stressful urban life. Protected areas in Turkey in 1940 have been called into question. The Forestry Law no. 6831 dated 1956 became the first law to form a legal

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basis for the establishment of national parks. In the 25th article of the Law, it is stated that the places that offer rare features and beauty are taken into the national park system. In 1958 “Yozgat Çamlığı National Park” was declared the first protected area in line with this law. The 1983 National Parks Law no. 2873, which constitutes the legal subdivision of protected areas in our country, is still in force today. With this law, protection statutes have been increased and more detailed definitions have been introduced (Karaküçük and Akgül, 2016). In addition, in the Eighth Five-Year Development Plan of Turkey (2000–2005), it was decided to open national parks within the framework of sustainable tourism (Dinçer and Çetin, 2015). Below the national parks in Turkey, as public leisure and recreation areas, forests, conservation areas, archaeological, and historical sites, parks, squares, sightseeing, and recreation areas, museums are located.

Resource-Centered Leisure and Recreation Activity Area National Parks The National Park is defined as “natural and cultural resource values, national and international in terms of scientific and aesthetic value, and natural parts with protection, rest and tourism” (Karaküçük and Akgül, 2016, p. 292). The services and programs offered by the public, voluntary organizations, and commercial sectors are provided to meet different and diverse needs and demands of individuals, families, clubs, and the community. When organized by public or voluntary organizations, they constitute socially acceptable moral values (Kılbaş, 2010). Within the framework of the National Parks Law no. 2873, protected areas are declared with the status of National Park, Nature Protection Area, Nature Park, and Nature Monument (Karaküçük and Akgül, 2016). Nature Preservation Areas are defined as fragments of nature that contain exquisite examples of rare, endangered, or disappearing ecosystems, species, and natural phenomena that are of importance in science and education, which are absolutely necessary for conservation and reserved for scientific and educational purposes only. A Nature Park is defined an area of nature with plant cover and wild life features that can be used for recreational purposes for all people to enjoy the landscape. A nature monument are original structures that emerged with the effect of nature and natural events (rain, wind, landforms, etc.) (Karaküçük and Akgül, 2016). According to Turkey on Nature Protection and National Parks General Directorate of Statistics there are 42 (as of 12 March 2018) National Parks and 229 (as of 7 May 2018) nature parks (Tables 49.2 and 49.3). In Turkey, 111 (as of 3 December 2018) areas are under the protection of Natural Monuments (T.C. Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı/Doğa ve Koruma ve Milli Parklar Genel Müdürlüğü, 2018a). The recreational activities carried out in the national parks in Turkey are as follows: climbing, photo safari, rafting, canoeing, camping, fishing, scientific studies, nature research, bird watching, botanical tours, diving, parachuting, historical and archaeological visits, skiing, snowboarding, ice-skating, riding, traditional highland activities, picnics, etc. (Erol, 2014).

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Protected Areas Protected areas are of different characters created by human and nature interaction that have aesthetic, ecological, and cultural values, mainly biodiversity, and have had for a long time (Karaküçük and Akgül, 2016). They are geographical areas defined and governed by legislation with a view to ensuring long-term conservation and sustainability of ecosystem services and cultural values, together with nature (T.C. Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı/Doğa ve Koruma ve Milli Parklar Genel Müdürlüğü, 2018b). According to Sakıcı (2005), activities that people participate in in these areas are recreational activities where photographs can be taken, pictures created, wildlife can be closely watched, hunting and angling can be done, with camping, walking, and jogging in organized parks, and plants, trees, fungi, insects, and fishes can be observed. In addition, in the spring, what is under snow during winter provides suitable and convenient facilities for winter sports (Erol, 2014). Forests The same changes in social, economic, cultural, and technological developments as daily life can lead individuals to move away from urban areas to rural areas. Especially because of their nature and visual value, forests are the most preferred areas (Atken, 2003 cited in Erol, 2014). Forests are a natural wealth that is important for countries. Over time, forests are no longer people’s habitat, but have turned into areas where they spend their free time. People are looking for fun, peaceful, and time-consuming activities in their free time. These activities are referred to as recreational activities. Forest recreation areas are suitable areas for recreational activities (Karaçar and Göker, 2017). According to Kiper and Öztürk (2012), various recreational activities besides traditional ones can be organized in the forests. For example, İzzet Arseven Forest in Edirne region is suitable for picnics, camping, hiking and photo safari, landscape viewing, bird watching, and others (Erol, 2014). The General Directorate of Nature Protection and National Parks (2017) maintain forests under protection in Turkey according to the statistics: Belgrad, Elmalı Bendi, Terkos Lake, Azizpaşa – Fatih in İstanbul, Ömeroba Forest in Edirne, Çaygören in Balıkesir, Atikhisar in Çanakkale, Çatalkaya, Karagöl, Gümüldür (Yamanlar), Meryemana Ormanı, Gümüldür Ormanı (Menemen) in İzmir, Aksaz–Karaağaç in Muğla, Kocamurtluk in Manisa, Doğancı Barajı, Uludağ in Bursa, Kocaeli’de Keltepe, Kartepe, Uludere, Sapanca Lake in Sakarya, Yalova kaplıcaları, Gökçe barajı in Yalova, Beynam, Yaylakent in Ankara, Apa barajı, Eşrefoğlu, İslibucak, Kuğulugöl, Sultandağları, Yeşildağ in Konya, Alacadağ, Çakallı-Belek in Antalya, Kızıldağ, Akdağ, Sücüllü, Kepez in Isparta, Kırıklı-Dörtler in Adana, Kadıncık in Mersin, Günye-Hasan Kadı, İnkum in Bartın, Tosya Dağı, Yaralıgöz in Kastamonu, Eldivan, Erikli in Çankırı, Çamgöl, Karacakışla in Samsun, Üzümören in Tokat, Saracuk Dere, Kirazlıdere in Amasya, Tortum Lake in Erzurum, Gündüzbey, Tunceli Karagöl, Mameki in Malatya, Tatvan in Bitlis, Elmalı Boğazı in Adana+Mersin (T.C. Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı/Doğa ve Koruma ve Milli Parklar Genel Müdürlüğü, 2018a).

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User-Centered Leisure and Recreation Activity Areas Archaeology and Historical Areas Archaeological sites are a key to a city’s urban identity. Another important aspect of archaeological sites is that they provide a source of scientific study of the city’s past (Tankut, 1991). These works, which were gathering places of the people in the past, have conducted interviews and operated as recreation areas for the purposes of construction, are being used today for recreational activities such as concerts, theater, festivals, and cultural activities (Erol, 2014).

Parks In modern society, the first definition of planned urban green spaces was made by the American landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted in the nineteenth century, with the creation of the Boston Park System. This plan led to pioneering steps in terms of recreational urban planning, equivalent to the reflective approach of nature that began with Central Park in New York City (Özdemir, 2009 cited in Erol, 2014). Parks have very different dynamics for ecological and land organization for recreation in urban areas. Being a recreation area, they provide various active and passive recreational activities within the boundaries they are in (Zengin and Esedov, 2011, p. 164). For example, Altınpark located in Ankara horse riding, go-cart and sports activities (swimming, running, football, basketball, volleyball, and ice-skating) take place, and in Mogan Park tennis, golf, skateboarding, bike riding and picnicking, and many other recreational activities occur. There are more than 50 entertainment units in the Game World, World of Legends, and Adventure World in Tema Park in İstanbul (Erol, 2014).

Squares Squares can be expressed as the public spaces where urban life passes through, used by society on special occasions for social, cultural, religious, political, and commercial reasons. Having an important place in city life with different tasks undertaken during various historical periods, the squares constitute a common recreation area for various activities, as well as for communicating with the city community and visitors with each other and with the city (Semerci, 2008). Hürriyet (2005) selected Turkey’s 10 most beautiful squares: Konak Square – İzmir, Sultanahmet Square – İstanbul, Saburhane Square – Muğla, Hükümet Konağı Square – Kastamonu, Orhangazi Square – Bursa, Prominand Field – Amasya, Mevlana Square – Konya, Balıklıgöl and Dergah Platform Square – Urfa, Alaçatı Square – İzmir, Birgi Square – İzmir, and Republic Square – Kars. (http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/turkiye-nin-en-guzel-10meydani-346416).

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Trip and Promenade Areas Promenade areas are recreation areas that cannot show urban forest character because they have an area less than 10 ha(Uslu and Ayaşlıgil, 2007, p. 226). According to Cerasi (2001), these areas consist of urban meadows and walks; the natural resources of a place located in nature (meadows, water resources, etc., which are natural components of the open area) have been made into a natural resource by using their unique values. The areas are to be used for sightseeing and recreation, emphasizing specific characteristics, incorporating the arrangements into recreational life, and being adopted by the urban community (Erol, 2014).

Museums Through a new or existing structure, the museum is aimed at carrying out the activities of collecting, working on, and exhibiting evidence of man and his environment (Kandemir and Uçar, 2015). According to Mirza and Denizci (2012), museums are recreation areas that are educational and entertaining places with libraries, exhibitions, meetings, multipurpose halls and workshops, open spaces and amusing time, as well as arts and educational institutions where historical values are preserved (Erol, 2014). Hürriyet Gazetesi (2017) selected the top 10 museums in Turkey. These are: Zeugma Mosaic Museum – Gaziantep, İstanbul Archaeological Museums – İstanbul, Anatolian Civilizations Museum – Ankara, Topkapi Palace – İstanbul, Baksi Museum – Bayburt, Antalya Archaeology Museum, Çorum Museum, Hagia Sophia Museum – İstanbul, İstanbul Modern, Bursa Kent Museum (Hürriyet Gazetesi, 2017).

Promoting and Marketing of Public Leisure and Recreation Activity Areas The creation of social platforms on the Internet has made the areas of use personal and allows for greater use (Küçükaltan and Kılıçarslan, 2013). Internet sites such as Tripadvisor.com, Hotels.com, and Expedia.com all promote tourist attractions, accommodation, and transport, as well as giving access to these services on a single page. This makes it easier for today’s consumers to access this information by obtaining the introductory information about the destination at a time that it identifies itself (Taş, 2014). People with similar interests on social media platforms have started communicating with each other by creating new public areas through various social sites. Today, with the development of social media, people spend a great deal of their time at the computer (Küçükaltan and Kılıçarslan, 2013). Advertisement and promotion are considered to be elements affecting the demand of an international market. Promotional events are directed toward the individual, targeting the potential consumer group. The most important effect of advertising and promotional activities on tourism requests is to give consumer information about a

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Evaluation of Social Media Related to the Promotion and Marketing of. . .

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Table 49.1 Internet Usage in Turkey (31 December 2017). (Source: InternetWorldStats, 2018)

Turkey

Population, 2018 (Est.) 81,916,871

Internet Users 31 December 2017 56,000,000

Internet Users 31 December 2017 2,000,000

Internet Growth 2700%

region or country (Kozak et al., 2014). It is aimed at increasing the amount of recreation marketing, the number of recreation programs and services, the number of participants, and on the other hand reducing expenditure. In other words, programs and services are quantitatively linked (Karaküçük, 2008). Nowadays, the internet in particular is the most common and most functional use of electronic marketing. The internet has many uses such as promotion, sales, promotion, customer service, marketing research, pricing, market targeting, and market segmentation through web pages (Kozak, 2008). The internet has affected many areas from health care to promotion of tourism and recreation areas. The internet is used not only for selling but also for marketing mix management (Argan, 2007). Social media have become some of the most important actors in the market, closely influencing all the developments in the travel industry, tourism, and recreation areas. Moreover, the data that have emerged so far show that the role of these actors in the market is growing day by day. The task of the travel industry at this point is to find the best way to benefit from this newly developed vehicle (Hacıoğlu et al., 2015). Almost all definitions meet in social media in other ways. Social media do not go through the way they live as communication media. Almost all people meet on social media for different purposes. Social media is one of the fastest and most intense means of communication (Küçükaltan and Kılıçarslan, 2013). Internet usage in Turkey has shown very rapid growth. Table 49.1 shows the internet usage figures in Turkey. Tools that support the marketing of tourism and recreational activity areas from the internet are social media tools such as blogs, messaging, search engines, online advertisements, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, as well as web pages.

Evaluation of the Role of Social Media in the Promotion and Marketing of Public Recreation Areas Considering that the number of photos shared daily on Facebook is 350 million, the total number of photos uploaded is 250 billion, the number of photos uploaded per minute is 243,055, and there are 17 billion posts shared with a place tag, the power of social networks is seen (Çift, 2016). According to STATISTA (April 2018), Facebook is the most famous social network in the world with 2,234,00 users (STATİSTA, 2018). Public recreation facilities in Turkey are provided in cooperation with the central government, local government, nonprofit and profit organizations (Erol, 2014). In order to examine the nature parks in Turkey, an up-to-date list of parks belonging to

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the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry/General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks has been reached. The research was conducted on this list. In this study, Turkey was examined in terms of public recreation areas and national parks as offering services for the promotion and marketing of natural parks through the Facebook social media network. The research was conducted between 8 July 2018 and 11 July 2018. In this respect, it was checked whether national parks and nature parks have pages on Facebook, photos of parks on their pages, location information, and recreational facilities and the information is shown in Tables 49.2 and 49.3. According to the research findings, 64% (42) of the 42 national parks have a Facebook page, 59.5% (25) have national park photos, and 47.6% (20) have a location map on their Facebook page. However, only 4.7% (2) of the national parks have information on recreational facilities. According to research findings, 27% (62) of the 229 nature parks have Facebook pages, 24% (56) Facebook pages contain photos of nature parks, and 21% (49) show a map. However, only 2.6% of the national parks (6) have information on recreational facilities on their Facebook page. Grand Canyon, Yosemite, and Yellowstone national parks are the largest national parks in the USA (TRT Haber, 2018). These parks have Facebook pages with general information about the park, public transportation information, hundreds of park photos, various notes about the park, location information, recreational events organized on various dates, hundreds of park videos, and park opening hours (Yosemite National Park, 2018; Grand Canyon, 2018; Yellowstone National Park, 2018). Compared with these, national parks and nature parks in Turkey are lacking a Facebook page. Deficiencies in this regard have emerged and need to be addressed urgently.

Conclusion and Recommendations Cities negatively affect people with their social, economic, and cultural values, and negative factors such as stress, bad weather conditions, traffic, noise, and crowds with the constantly changing, dynamic structure. For this reason, urban people need recreation in the public arena in order to escape from the stress, noise, and crowds, to find comfort and peace, and to evaluate positively the leisure time outside of work. Picnics, camping, hiking, climbing, bird watching are recreational activities are enjoyed in national parks, conservation areas, forests, archaeological and historical sites, squares, on excursions, and in museums. A large number of the public spaces for recreational services planned by ministries and local governments in Turkey are being implemented. Today, users of social networks such as Facebook and Instagram share photos of the destinations they visit. Given that millions of photos are shared daily on Facebook, the power of social networks cannot be denied for promotion and marketing. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry General Directorate of Protection and National Parks did not scan the addresses of the internet sites, but rather these park areas are shared by followers

Name Yozgat Çamlığı Karatepe – Aslantaş Soğuksu Kuşcenneti Uludağ Yedigöller Dilek Y. – B. Menderes D. Spil Dağı Kızıldağ Güllük Dağı - Termessos Kovada Gölü Munzur Vadisi Beydağları Sahil Köprülü Kanyon Ilgaz Dağı

Başkomutan TMP

Göreme TMP Altındere Vadisi

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

16

17 18

Province Yozgat Osmaniye Ankara Balıkesir Bursa Bolu Aydın Manisa Isparta Antalya Isparta Tunceli Antalya Antalya Kastamonu, Çankırı Afyonkarahisar, Kütahya Nevşehir Trabzon http://goreme.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://altinderevadisi.tabiat.gov.tr/

http://baskomutan.tabiat.gov.tr/

Web Access http://yozgatcamligi.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://karatepeaslantas.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://soguksu.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://kuscenneti.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://uludag.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://yedigoller.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://dilekyarimadasi.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://spildagi.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://kizildag.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://gullukdagi.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://kovadagolu.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://munzurvadisi.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://beydaglari.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://koprulukanyon.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://ilgaz.tabiat.gov.tr/ +
+


+

Photos of the Park +
+ + + + + + +

+ +

+

Facebook Page +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +




(continued)






+

Knowledge of Recreational Facilities







+







Park Location Map +
+
+ + + + +

+ +



Table 49.2 Turkey’s National Parks (revision date: 12 March 2018). (Source: T.C. Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı/Doğa ve Koruma ve Milli Parklar Genel Müdürlüğü, 2018b)

49 Evaluation of Social Media Related to the Promotion and Marketing of. . . 1091

Name Boğazköy – Alacahöyük Nemrut Dağı

Beyşehir Gölü Kazdağları Altınbeşik Mağarası Hatila Vadisi Karagöl – Sahara Kaçkar Dağları Aladağlar Marmaris Saklıkent Troya TMP Honaz Dağı Küre Dağları

No. 19 20

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

Table 49.2 (continued)

Province Çorum Adıyaman, Malatya Konya Balıkesir Antalya Artvin Artvin Rize, Artvin Niğde, Adana Muğla Muğla, Antalya Çanakkale Denizli Kastamonu, Bartın http://beysehirgolu.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://kazdagi.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://altinbesik.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://hatilavadisi.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://karagolsahara.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://kackardaglari.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://aladaglar.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://marmaris.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://saklikent.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://troya.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://honazdagi.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://kuredaglari.tabiat.gov.tr/

Web Access http://bogazkoy.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://nemrutdagi.tabiat.gov.tr/

Photos of the Park
+
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Facebook Page
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+


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42

39 40 41

34 35 36 37 38

33

Sarıkamış-Allahuekber Dağları Ağrı Dağı Gala Gölü Sultan Sazlığı Tek Tek Dağları İğneada Longoz Ormanları Yumurtalık Lagünü Nene Hatun TMP Sakarya Meydan Muharebesi TMP Kop Dağı Müdafaası TMP

Bayburt, Erzurum

Adana Erzurum Ankara

Ağrı, Iğdır Edirne Kayseri Şanlıurfa Kırklareli

Kars, Erzurum

http://kopdagi.tabiat.gov.tr/

http://yumurtaliklagunu.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://nenehatun.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://sakarya.tabiat.gov.tr/

http://agridagi.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://galagolu.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://sultansazligi.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://tektekdaglari.tabiat.gov.tr/ http://igneada.tabiat.gov.tr/

http://sarikamis.tabiat.gov.tr/



+ +
+







+ +
+















+
+






















49 Evaluation of Social Media Related to the Promotion and Marketing of. . . 1093

Polonezköy Ayvalık Adaları Ballıkayalar Beşkayalar Türkmenbaşı Kocakoru Ormanı Artabel Gölleri Akdağ

Borçka Karagöl İncekum

9 10 11 12 13 14

17 18

15 16

7 8

Name Ölüdeniz Kıdrak Çatak Abant Gölü Yazılı Kanyon Uzungöl Kurşunlu Şelalesi Isparta Gölcük Bafa Gölü

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Gümüşhane Denizli, Afyonkarahisar Artvin Antalya

İstanbul Balıkesir Kocaeli Kocaeli İstanbul Konya

Isparta Aydın, Muğla

Province Muğla Çorum Bolu Isparta Trabzon Antalya

Borçka Alanya

Torul Çivril, Sandıklı

Merkez Söke, Didim, Milas Beykoz Ayvalık Gebze Merkez, Gölcük Sarıyer Seydişehir

County Fethiye Merkez Mudurnu Sütçüler Çaykara Aksu

http://borckakaragol.tabiat.gov.tr http://incekum.tabiat.gov.tr

http://artabelgolleri.tabiat.gov.tr http://akdag.tabiat.gov.tr

http://polonezkoy.tabiat.gov.tr http://ayvalikadalari.tabiat.gov.tr http://ballikayalar.tabiat.gov.tr http://beskayalar.tabiat.gov.tr http://turkmenbasi.tabiat.gov.tr http://kocakoru.tabiat.gov.tr

http://ispartagolcuk.tabiat.gov.tr http://bafagolu.tabiat.gov.tr

Web Access http://oludeniz.tabiat.gov.tr http://catak.tabiat.gov.tr http://abantgolu.tabiat.gov.tr http://yazilikanyon.tabiat.gov.tr http://uzungol.tabiat.gov.tr http://kursunluselalesi.tabiat.gov.tr

+
+



+




+



+


Photos of the Park
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+

+
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Facebook Page
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+

+
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Park Location Map

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Knowledge of Recreational Facilities







Table 49.3 Turkey’s Nature Parks (revision date: 07 May 2018). (Source: T.C. Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı/Doğa ve Koruma ve Milli Parklar Genel Müdürlüğü, 2018b)

1094 İ. Başarangil

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

19

Ballıca Mağarası Hamsilos 26 Agustos Çamkoru Meryemana Mesir Gölbaşı Gölleri Park Ormanı Kapıçam Karaahmetli Mavikent Sıklık Şahinler Hazım Dağlı Ulugöl Turgut Özal Davulbaztepe Yavşan Yaylası Aşıkpaşa Ağaçbaşı Sera Gölü Dağılcak Karataş Aluçdağı Eğriova

Sinop Afyon Ankara İzmir Manisa Adıyaman İstanbul K.Maraş Kırıkkale Antalya Çorum Ankara Çankırı Ordu Malatya Yozgat Kahramanmaraş Kırşehir Giresun Trabzon Adana Adana Ankara Ankara

Tokat Merkez Sinanpaşa Çamlıdere Selçuk Merkez Gölbaşı Şişli Merkez Bahşılı Kumluca Merkez Kızılcahamam Yapraklı Gölköy Merkez Merkez Merkez Merkez Dereli Akçaabat Kozan Karataş Çamlıdere Beypazarı

Pazar http://hamsilos.tabiat.gov.tr http://yirmialtiagustos.tabiat.gov.tr http://camkoru.tabiat.gov.tr http://meryemana.tabiat.gov.tr http://mesir.tabiat.gov.tr http://golbasigolleri.tabiat.gov.tr http://parkorman.tabiat.gov.tr http://kapicam.tabiat.gov.tr http://karaahmetli.tabiat.gov.tr http://mavikent.tabiat.gov.tr http://siklik.tabiat.gov.tr http://sahinler.tabiat.gov.tr http://hazimdagli.tabiat.gov.tr http://ulugol.tabiat.gov.tr http://turgutozal.tabiat.gov.tr http://davulbaztepe.tabiat.gov.tr http://yavsavyaylasi.tabiat.gov.tr http://asikpasa.tabiat.gov.tr http://agacbasi.tabiat.gov.tr http://seragolu.tabiat.gov.tr http://dagilcak.tabiat.gov.tr http://karatas.tabiat.gov.tr http://alucdagi.tabiat.gov.tr http://egriova.tabiat.gov.tr

http://ballicamagarasi.tabiat.gov.tr + + +
+

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(continued)

49 Evaluation of Social Media Related to the Promotion and Marketing of. . . 1095

No. 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

Name Kartaltepe Tekkedağı Çubuk Karagöl Sorgun Göleti Cemal Tural Tavşanburnu Darıdere Değirmenboğazı Sarımsaklı Ahatlar Balamba Malabadi Küçükelmalı Bolu Gölcük Beşpınarlar Bolu Karagöl Göksu Sünnet Gölü Salda Gölü Serenler Tepesi Suuçtu

Table 49.3 (continued)

Province Ankara Ankara Ankara Ankara Ardahan Aydın Balıkesir Balıkesir Balıkesir Bartın Bartın Batman Bilecik Bolu Bolu Bolu Bolu Bolu Burdur Burdur Bursa

County Kızılcahamam Beypazarı Çubuk Güdül Merkez Didim Ayvalık Merkez Edremit Amasra Merkez Kozluk Pazaryeri Merkez Merkez Kıbrıscık Merkez Göynük Yeşilova Merkez Mustafa kemalpaşa

Web Access http://kartaltepe.tabiat.gov.tr http://tekkedagi.tabiat.gov.tr http://cubukkaragol.tabiat.gov.tr http://sorgungoleti.tabiat.gov.tr http://cemaltural.tabiat.gov.tr http://tavsavburnu.tabiat.gov.tr http://daridere.tabiat.gov.tr http://degirmenbogazi.tabiat.gov.tr http://sarimsakli.tabiat.gov.tr http://ahatlar.tabiat.gov.tr http://balamba.tabiat.gov.tr http://malabadi.tabiat.gov.tr http://kucukelmali.tabiat.gov.tr http://bolugolcuk.tabiat.gov.tr http://bespinarlar.tabiat.gov.tr http://bolukaragol.tabiat.gov.tr http://goksu.tabiat.gov.tr http://sunnetgolu.tabiat.gov.tr http://saldagolu.tabiat.gov.tr http://serenlertepesi.tabiat.gov.tr http://suuctu.tabiat.gov.tr

Facebook Page +
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68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88

65 66 67

Ayazmapınarı Kenbağ Güzeldere Şelalesi Kurugöl Danişment Gökçetepe Hazar Gölü Musaözü Dülükbaba Koçkayası Limni Gölü Tomara Şelalesi Başpınar Avcıkoru Ayvatbendi Bentler Büyükada Çilingoz Değirmenburnu Dilburnu Elmasburnu F. Rıfkı Atay Fatih Çeşmesi Fatih sultan Mehmet

Düzce Edirne Edirne Elazığ Eskişehir Gaziantep Giresun Gümüşhane Gümüşhane Isparta İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul

Çanakkale Çankırı Düzce Merkez Keşan Keşan Sivrice Merkez Şehitkamil Dereli Torul Şiran Aksu Şile Eyüp Sarıyer Adalar Çatalca Adalar Adalar Beykoz Sarıyer Eyüp Şişli

Bayramiç Merkez Gölyaka http://kurugol.tabiat.gov.tr http://danisment.tabiat.gov.tr http://gokcetepe.tabiat.gov.tr http://hazargolu.tabiat.gov.tr http://musaozu.tabiat.gov.tr http://dulukbaba.tabiat.gov.tr http://kockayasi.tabiat.gov.tr http://limnigolu.tabiat.gov.tr http://tomaraselalesi.tabiat.gov.tr http://baspinar.tabiat.gov.tr http://avcikoru.tabiat.gov.tr http://ayvatbendi.tabiat.gov.tr http://bentler.tabiat.gov.tr http://buyukada.tabiat.gov.tr http://cilingoz.tabiat.gov.tr http://degirmenburnu.tabiat.gov.tr http://dilburnu.tabiat.gov.tr http://elmasburnu.tabiat.gov.tr http://rifkiatay.tabiat.gov.tr http://fatihcesmesi.tabiat.gov.tr http://fsm.tabiat.gov.tr

http://ayazmapinari.tabiat.gov.tr http://kenbag.tabiat.gov.tr http://guzeldereselalesi.tabiat.gov.tr





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(continued)

49 Evaluation of Social Media Related to the Promotion and Marketing of. . . 1097

95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108

94

No. 89 90 91 92 93

Name Göktürk Göleti Irmak Kirazlıbent Kömürcübent Marmaracık Koyu Mehmet Akif Ersoy Mihrabat Neşetsuyu Şamlar Ekmeksiz Plajı Çiçekli Efeoğlu Gümüldür İzmir Karagöl Tanay Yamanlardağı Çamlık Soğuksu Dipsizgöl Şehit Şerifebacı

Table 49.3 (continued)

County Eyüp Sarıyer Sarıyer Sarıyer Sarıyer Sarıyer Beykoz Sarıyer Gaziosmanpaşa Seferihisar Bornova Buca Menderes Karşıyaka Çeşme Karşıyaka Merkez Sarıkamış Tosya Merkez

Province İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul

İstanbul

İstanbul İstanbul İstanbul İzmir İzmir İzmir İzmir İzmir İzmir İzmir Karabük Kars Kastamonu Kastamonu http://mihrabat.tabiat.gov.tr http://nesetsuyu.tabiat.gov.tr http://samlar.tabiat.gov.tr http://ekmeksizplajı.tabiat.gov.tr http://cicekli.tabiat.gov.tr http://efeoglu.tabiat.gov.tr http://gumuldur.tabiat.gov.tr http://izmirkaragol.tabiat.gov.tr http://tanay.tabiat.gov.tr http://yamanlardagi.tabiat.gov.tr http://camlik.tabiat.gov.tr http://soguksu.tabiat.gov.tr http://dipsizgol.tabiat.gov.tr http://sehitserifebaci.tabiat.gov.tr

http://mehmetakifersoy.tabiat.gov.tr

Web Access http://gokturlgoleti.tabiat.gov.tr http://irmak.tabiat.gov.tr http://kirazbent.tabiat.gov.tr http://komurcubent.tabiat.gov.tr http://marmaracikkoyu.tabiat.gov.tr



+

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Facebook Page +
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1098 İ. Başarangil

112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132

111

109 110

Yeşilyuva Derebağ Şelalesi Kavaklımeşe Korusu Hisar Çamlığı Eriklitepe Uzuntarla Kuzuyayla Suadiye Akyokuş Yakamanastır Çamlıca Enne Barajı Süreyya Aydıncık Dikilitaş Gümüşkum Karaekşi Kuyuluk Pullu Şehitlik Talat Göktepe Çubucak Güvercinlik Katrancu Koyu

Kilis Kocaeli Kocaeli Kocaeli Kocaeli Konya Konya Kütahya Kütahya Manisa Mersin Mersin Mersin Mersin Mersin Mersin Mersin Mersin Muğla Muğla Muğla

Kırklareli

Kastamonu Kayseri

Merkez Gölcük İzmit İzmit İzmit Selçuk Beyşehir Merkez Merkez Merkez Aydıncık Anamur İçel Mut İçel Anamur Silifke Erdemli Marmaris Milas Fethiye

Merkez

Abana Yahyalı http://kavaklimesekorusu.tabiat. gov.tr http://hisarcamligi.tabiat.gov.tr http://eriklitepe.tabiat.gov.tr http://uzuntarla.tabiat.gov.tr http://kuzuyayla.tabiat.gov.tr http://suadiye.tabiat.gov.tr http://akyokus.tabiat.gov.tr http://yakamanastir.tabiat.gov.tr http://camlica.tabiat.gov.tr http://enenbaraji.tabiat.gov.tr http://sureyya.tabiat.gov.tr http://aydincik.tabiat.gov.tr http://dikilitas.tabiat.gov.tr http://gumuskum.tabiat.gov.tr http://karaeksi.tabiat.gov.tr http://kuyuluk.tabiat.gov.tr http://pullu.tabiat.gov.tr http://sehitlik.tabiat.gov.tr http://talatgoktepe.tabiat.gov.tr http://cubucak.tabiat.gov.tr http://guvercinlik.tabiat.gov.tr http://katrancu.tabiat.gov.tr

http://yesilyuva.tabiat.gov.tr http://derebagselalesi.tabiat.gov.tr





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(continued)

49 Evaluation of Social Media Related to the Promotion and Marketing of. . . 1099

No. 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153

Name Kovanlık Küçük Kargı Ömer Eşen Usuluk Koyu İnbükü Çınarsuyu Çiftmazı Poyrazlar Gölü İl Ormanı Kuzuluk Sarıgazel Vezirsuyu Tatlıca Topalçam Karşıyaka Gölpınar Çamlıkoy Zinav Gölü Kayabaşı Çalcamili Görnek

Table 49.3 (continued)

Province Muğla Muğla Muğla Muğla Muğla Ordu Osmaniye Sakarya Sakarya Sakarya Samsun Samsun Sinop Sinop Sivas Şanlıurfa Tekirdağ Tokat Trabzon Trabzon Trabzon

County Datça Fethiye Fethiye Bodrum Marmaris Ünye Merkez Merkez Merkez Akyazı Ondokuzmayıs Vezirköprü Ayancık Boyabat Suşehri Merkez Saray Reşadiye Maçka Düzköy Köprübaşı

Web Access http://kovanlik.tabiat.gov.tr http://kucukkargi.tabiat.gov.tr http://omeresen.tabiat.gov.tr http://usulukkoyu.tabiat.gov.tr http://inbuku.tabiat.gov.tr http://cinarsuyu.tabiat.gov.tr http://ciftmazi.tabiat.gov.tr http://poyrazlargolu.tabiat.gov.tr http://ilormani.tabiat.gov.tr http://kuzuluk.tabiat.gov.tr http://sarigazel.tabiat.gov.tr http://vezirsuyu.tabiat.gov.tr http://tatlica.tabiat.gov.tr http://topalcam.tabiat.gov.tr http://karsiyaka.tabiat.gov.tr http://golpinar.tabiat.gov.tr http://camlikoy.tabiat.gov.tr http://zinavgolu.tabiat.gov.tr http://kayabasi.tabiat.gov.tr http://calcamili.tabiat.gov.tr http://gornek.tabiat.gov.tr

Facebook Page





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1100 İ. Başarangil

174

172 173

169 170 171

158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168

155 156 157

154

Sürmene Çamburnu Örenönü Harmankaya Delmece Yaylası Kadıpınarı Oluközü Üçtepeler Göldağı İncüvez Çamlığı Milli Egemenlik Sülüklügöl Burç Hacet Deresi Kadınçayırı Harmankaya Kanyonu Yedideğirmenler Kuzalan Ulubey Kanyonu Altıparmak Gürcüoluk Mağarası Tunca Vadisi

Rize

Artvin Bartın

Giresun Giresun Uşak

Yozgat Yozgat Yozgat Zonguldak Zonguldak Zonguldak Bolu Gaziantep İstanbul Çankırı Bilecik

Tunceli Yalova Yalova

Trabzon

Ardeşen, Fındıklı

Yusufeli Amasra

Merkez Termal Armutlu, Çınarcık Akdağmadeni Akdağmadeni Sorgun Çaycuma Alaplı Merkez Mudurnu Merkez Tuzla Ilgaz Yenipazar, İnhisar Espiye Dereli Ulubey

Sürmene

http://tuncavadisi.tabiat.gov.tr

http://altiparmak.tabiat.gov.tr http://gorcuoluk.tabiat.gov.tr

http://kadipinari.tabiat.gov.tr http://olukozu.tabiat.gov.tr http://uctepeler.tabiat.gov.tr http://goldagi.tabiat.gov.tr http://incuvez.tabiat.gov.tr http://milliegemenlik.tabiat.gov.tr http://suluklugol.tabiat.gov.tr http://burc.tabiat.gov.tr http://hacetderesi.tabiat.gov.tr http://kadincayiri.tabiat.gov.tr http://harmankayakanyonu.tabiat. gov.tr http://yedidegirmenler.tabiat.gov.tr http://kuzalan.tabiat.gov.tr http://ulubeykanyonu.tabiat.gov.tr

http://orenonu.tabiat.gov.tr http://harmankaya.tabiat.gov.tr http://delmeceyaylasi.tabiat.gov.tr

http://surmenecamburnu.tabiat.gov.tr


















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(continued)

49 Evaluation of Social Media Related to the Promotion and Marketing of. . . 1101

188 189 190 191 192 193

187

No. 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186

Name Gazilerdağı Boraboy Göztepe Yozgat Fatih Kartaltepe Sadağı Kanyonu Çağlayan Şarlan Belen Geçidi Danaağzı Kargalı Gölcük Aydınpınar Şelaleleri Akyamaç Şelalesi Ayıkayası Beydağı Tillo Belemedik Yakupabdal Çağlayandibi Şelalesi

Table 49.3 (continued)

Bolu Malatya Siirt Adana Bayburt Gümüşhane

Rize

Province Kocaeli Amasya İstanbul Yozgat Tekirdağ Bursa Aydın Aydın Hatay Zonguldak Bolu Düzce

Merkez Merkez Tillo Pozantı-Karaisalı Demirözü Kürtün

Hemşin

County Gebze Taşova Beykoz Merkez Merkez, Şarköy Orhaneli Karacasu Çine Belen Ereğli Merkez Merkez

http://ayikayasi.tabiat.gov.tr http://beydagi.tabiat.gov.tr http://tillo.tabiat.gov.tr http://belemedik.tabiat.gov.tr http://yakupabdal.tabiat.gov.tr http://caglayandibiselalesi.tabiat. gov.tr

Web Access http://gazilerdagi.tabiat.gov.tr http://borabay.tabiat.gov.tr http://goztepe.tabiat.gov.tr http://yozgatfatih.tabiat.gov.tr http://kartaltepe.tabiat.gov.tr http://sadagikanyonu.tabiat.gov.tr http://caglayan.tabiat.gov.tr http://sarlan.tabiat.gov.tr http://belengecidi.tabiat.gov.tr http://danaagzi.tabiat.gov.tr http://kargaligolcuk.tabiat.gov.tr http://aydinpinarselaleleri.tabiat. gov.tr http://akyamacselalesi.tabiat.gov.tr

Photos of the Park

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1102 İ. Başarangil

213

204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212

203

200 201 202

197 198 199

194 195 196

Uzunkum Handüzü Gümüşhane Karşıyaka Isırlık Amazon Şahinkayası Kanyonu Bayraktepe Danamandıra Geyiklibel Kanyonu (Yılançatı) Kelebekler Vadisi Köse Tekirova Alleben Huzurlu Beşikdağı Taşyaran Vadisi Topuk Yaylası Frig Vadisi Balıklı Güneşli Şelaleleri Eğil Peygamberler

Diyarbakır

Gümüşhane Antalya Gaziantep Gaziantep Trabzon Uşak Kütahya Afyonkarahisar Artvin

Ankara

Samsun İstanbul Düzce

Rize Samsun Samsun

Kocaeli Rize Gümüşhane

Eğil

Köse Kemer Şahinbey İslahiye Beşikdüzü Merkez-Eşme Domaniç İhsaniye Hopa

Beypazarı

Tekkeköy Silivri Yığılca

Merkez Terme Vezirköprü

Kandıra Güneysu Merkez

http://kose.tabiat.gov.tr http://tekirova.tabiat.gov.tr http://alleben.tabiat.gov.tr http://huzurlu.tabiat.gov.tr http://besikdagi.tabiat.gov.tr http://tasyaranvadisi.tabiat.gov.tr http://topukyaylasi.tabiat.gov.tr http://frigvadisi.tabiat.gov.tr http://balikligunesliselaleleri.tabiat. gov.tr http://egilpeygamber.tabiat.gov.tr

http://kelebeklervadisi.tabiat.gov.tr

http://uzunkum.tabiat.gov.tr http://handuzu.tabiat.gov.tr http://gumushanekarsiyaka.tabiat. gov.tr http://isirlik.tabiat.gov.tr http://amazon.tabiat.gov.tr http://sahinkayasikanyonu.tabiat. gov.tr http://bayraktepe.tabiat.gov.tr http://danamandira.tabiat.gov.tr http://yilancati.tabiat.gov.tr



































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(continued)

49 Evaluation of Social Media Related to the Promotion and Marketing of. . . 1103

229

No. 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228

Name Yunus Emre Köroğlu Sarıkayalar Tavşan Tepesi Dumanlı Çatak Kanyonu Baklabostan Aymaç Kadıralak Gap Şelalesi Doğanlı Esentepe Durasan Şah Keklik Kayası Cehennem Deresi Karanlıkdere Kanyonu

Table 49.3 (continued)

Burdur

Province Eskişehir Giresun Mersin Artvin Erzincan Sinop Karabük Giresun Trabzon Mardin Adıyaman Erzincan Ankara Erzincan Artvin Altınyayla

County Mihalıççık Çamoluk Çamlıyayla Şavşat Refahiye Türkeli Merkez Dereli Tonya Derik Merkez Merkez Kahramankazan Merkez Ardanuç

Web Access http://yunusemre.tabiat.gov.tr http://koroglu.tabiat.gov.tr http://sarikayalar.tabiat.gov.tr http://tavsantepesi.tabiat.gov.tr http://dumanli.tabiat.gov.tr http://catakkanyonu.tabiat.gov.tr http://baklabostan.tabiat.gov.tr http://aymac.tabiat.gov.tr http://kadiralak.tabiat.gov.tr http://gapselalesi.tabiat.gov.tr http://doganli.tabiat.gov.tr

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1104 İ. Başarangil

49

Evaluation of Social Media Related to the Promotion and Marketing of. . .

1105

on Facebook. In this case, awareness of public recreational areas in Turkey, in terms of recognition, has increased the importance of Facebook marketing. In this study, for these reasons the Facebook pages of national parks and nature parks in Turkey show photos of the park, and a scanned map of the location of the park. The Facebook pages of the Grand Canyon, Yosemite, and Yellowstone national parks, the largest national parks in the USA provide general information, public transportation information, hundreds of park photos, various notes about the park, location information, recreational events organized on various dates, videos of the park videos, opening and closing times, and links to more information. From the research results on the national parks and nature parks in Turkey a lack of promotion and marketing within the context of social networks such as Facebook has emerged. This includes the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks can open pages for national parks and nature parks that are not Facebook pages. These Facebook pages can be combined with their own official internet sites. General information about these parks can be uploaded, public transportation information, park photos, location information, recreational events to be organized in the park, videos of the park, opening hours, and other information. Individuals who have graduated from recreation department programs and who have experience in recreation leadership can take part in the management of these parks. Preservation of parks and sustainability can be achieved by installing educational videos by specialists. These pages can be translated into different languages such as English, French, and German. Owing to crowds in recreation areas with more awareness of promotion and marketing methods, pollution and deterioration can be intense. The plans, laws, and policies to be created by the Ministry, local administrations, private institutions and organizations, and civil society organizations should be supported in cooperation to prevent these. Local people, visitors, tourists, or travelers should also contribute to the protection of parks with these laws and regulations. This research is limited only to examining the Facebook pages of national parks and nature parks in Turkey. Future research will include public recreation areas such as sightseeing areas and squares. Researchers can also browse other social networks such as Instagram and Foursquare.

References Argan, M. (2007). Eğlence Pazarlaması. Detay. [In Turkish]. Avcıkurt, C. (2009). Turizm Sosyolojisi (3. Baskı). Detay. [In Turkish]. Çakır, O. (2017). Boş Zaman ve Boş Zaman Teorileri. In M. A. Kozak (Ed.), Rekreasyonel Liderlik ve Turist Rehberliği. Detay. [In Turkish]. Carr, S., Francis, M., Rivling, L. G., & Stone, A. M. (1992). Public spaces. Cambridge University Press. Çift, Z. A. (2016). Sosyal Medyayı Anlamak ve Yönetmek. Samsun. [In Turkish]. Dinçer, E. E., & Akpınar, Ö. A. (2016). Kamusal Alan ve Toplum-Beylikdüzü Örneği. Esenler Belediyesi Şehir Düşünce Merkezi Şehir Yayınları. [In Turkish]. Dinçer, M. Z., & Çetin, G. (2015). Kalınma Planlarında Turizm. In D. Küçükaltan, H. Çeken, & Ş. O. Mercan (Eds.), Turizm Politikası ve Planlaması. Detay. [In Turkish].

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Dunnett, N., Swanwick, C., & Wooley, H. (2002). Improving urban parks, play areas and green spaces (Urban research report). Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions. Erol, E. (2014). Kamusal Alanda Rekreasyon. In A. Yaylı (Ed.), Rekreasyona Giriş. Detay. [In Turkish]. Etli, B. (2002). Edirne İli Merkez İlçe Yeşil Alan Sisteminin Peyzaj Mimarlığı İlkeleri Yönünden İrdelenmesi. Trakya Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırmalar Dergisi B Serisi, 3(1), 47–49. [In Turkish]. Giddens, A., & Sutton, P. W. (2016). Sosyoloji (7.baskı). Kırmızı Yayınları. [In Turkish]. Grand Canyon. (2018). Grand Canyon. Retrieved from: https://www.facebook.com/GrandCanyon NationalPark/. Accessed 13 August 2018. Hacıoğlu, N., Gökdeniz, A., & Dinç, Y. (2015). Boş Zaman ve Rekreasyon Yönetimi (3. Baskı). Detay. [In Turkish]. Hazar, A. (2014). Rekreasyon ve Animasyon. Detay. [In Turkish]. Hürriyet Gazetesi. (2005). Türkiye’de En İyi 10 Meydanı. Retrieved from: http://www.hurriyet.com. tr/turkiye-nin-en-guzel-10-meydani-346416. Accessed 12 August 2018. [In Turkish]. Hürriyet Gazetesi. (2017). Türkiye’de En İyi 10 Müze. Retrieved from: http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ seyahat/turkiyenin-en-iyi-10-muzesi-30017530. Accessed 12 August 2018. [In Turkish]. InternetWorldStats. (2018). Internet usage in Turkey. Retrieved from: https://www. internetworldstats.com/top20.htm. Accessed 13 August 2018. Kandemir, Ö., & Uçar, Ö. (2015). Değişen Müze Kavramı ve Çağdaş Müze Mekânlarının Oluşturulmasına Yönelik Tasarım Girdileri. Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, sayı, 9, 18–46. [In Turkish]. Karaçar, E., & Göker, G. (2017). Orman İçi Rekreasyon Alanlarının Ekolojik Açıdan İncelenmesi. Journal of Recreation and Tourism Research, 4(4), 35–42. [In Turkish]. Karaküçük, S. (2008). Rekreasyon: Boş Zamanları Değerlendirme (6.baskı). Gazi. [In Turkish]. Karaküçük, S., & Akgül, B. M. (2016). Ekorekreasyon Rekreasyon ve Çevre. Gazi. [In Turkish]. Kılbaş, Ş. (2010). Rekreasyon Boş Zamanı Değerlendirme (4. Baskı). Gazi. [In Turkish]. Kozak, N. (2008). Turizm Pazarlaması. Detay. [In Turkish]. Kozak, N., Kozak, M. A., & Kozak, M. (2014). Genel Turizm (16.baskı). Detay. [In Turkish]. Küçükaltan, D., & Kılıçarslan, E. (2013). Turizmde Sosyal Medyanın Rolü. In Ş. A. Tükeltürk & M. Boz (Eds.), Turizmde Güncel Konu ve Eğilimler. Detay. [In Turkish]. Leeuwen, V. E., Vreeker, R., & Rodenburg, C. (2006). A framework for quality of life assessment of urban green areas in Europe: an application to District Park Reudnitz Leipzig. International Journal of Environmental Technology and Management, 6(1/20), 111–112. McClean, D. D., Hurd, A. R., & Rogers, N. B. (2017). Kraus’s recreation and leisure in modern society. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Özdemir, A. S., Güçer, E., & Karaküçük, S. (2016). Rekreasyon ve Turizm. In S. Karaküçük (Ed.), Rekreasyon Bilim. Detay. [In Turkish]. Semerci, F. (2008). Kentsel Tasarım Gereklilikleri Açısından Beyazıt Meydanı Örneği (Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi). İstanbul: Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü. [In Turkish]. Şimşek, Y. (2016). Boş Zaman ve Rekreasyon Endüstrisi (içinde Rekreasyon Yönetimi). Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları. [In Turkish]. STATİSTA. (2018). Home. Retrieved from: https://www.statista.com/statistics/272014/globalsocial-networks-ranked-by-number-of-users/. Accessed 13 August 2018. T.C. Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı/Doğa ve Koruma ve Milli Parklar Genel Müdürlüğü. (2018a). Muhafaza Ormanları İstatistikleri. Retrieved from: http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr/ resmiistatistikler. Accessed 11 August 2018. T.C. Tarım ve Orman Bakanlığı/Doğa ve Koruma ve Milli Parklar Genel Müdürlüğü. (2018b). Home. Retrieved from: http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr/korunan-alanlar. Accessed 3 August 2018. [In Turkish]. Tankut, G. (1991). Kentsel Arkeolojik Alanlarda Arkeolojik Değerlerin Kent Hayatına Katılımı, Korumanın Fiziksel Planlama Boyutu. Arkeolojik Sit Alanlarının Korunması Ve Değerlendirilmesi. Antalya: I. Ulusal Sempozyumu, 14-1 6 Ekim 1991. [In Turkish].

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Taş, İ. (2014). Turistik Ürün Satış Geliştirme ve Reklam Politikası. In A. Timur (Ed.), Turistik Ürün Politikası. Detay. [In Turkish]. TRT Haber. (2018). Dünyanın Koruma Altındaki Ekosistemleri Milli Parklar. Retrieved from: http://www.trthaber.com/haber/dunya/dunyanin-koruma-altindaki-ekosistemleri-milli-parklar353381.html. Accessed 13 August 2018. [In Turkish]. Uslu, Ş., & Ayaşlıgil, T. (2007). Kent Ormanlarının Rekreasyonel Amaçlı Kullanımı ve İstanbul İli Örneğinde İrdelenmesi. Megaron YTÜ Mim. Fakültesi E-Dergisi, 2(4), 213–236. [In Turkish]. Yellowstone National Park. (2018). Yellowstone National Park. Retrieved from: https://www. facebook.com/YellowstoneNPS/?ref¼br_rs. Accessed 13 August 2018. Yosemite National Park. (2018). Yosemite National Park. Retrieved from: https://www.facebook. com/YosemiteNPS/. Accessed 13 August 2018. Zengin, E., & Esedov, A. (2011). Çevre Sorunlarının Yerel Özellikleri ve Üsküdar Örneği. Sosyal Siyaset Konferansları Dergisi, 59, 149–178.

Generation Y’s Intention for Sharing Travel Interactive Media and Instagram Communication Attributes

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Zakmalisa Erna Md Zaki and Ahmad Albattat

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Travel Media Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency Analysis (Table 50.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Descriptive Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reliability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correlation Analysis (Table 50.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Social networking is a way to provide that travellers visited and enjoyed a destination. Instagram quickly becomes a popular and useful social networking app among Malaysia’s Generation Y. The goal of this study is to see which communication features of Instagram, such as engagement, dialog, and persuasion, can have the strongest influence on the desire for sharing travel interactive media. A paper-based survey is utilized to implement the quantitative method (questionnaire). Persuasion has the strongest influence on the intention of sharing travel interactive media, according to the findings. Instagram is useful for a variety of reasons. Instagram is beneficial not only for data distribution but also for having a better understanding of the intentions of Generation Y, in particular to post travel interactive media tourist enterprises that might assist the tourism

Z. E. M. Zaki School of Hospitality and Creative Arts, Management & Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia A. Albattat (*) Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_50

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sector to develop. As a result, the research can be valuable in evaluating current trends of technology and for luring tourists, especially Generation Y, to specific attractions. Keywords

Instagram · Social media · Generation Y · Communication attributes · Intention

Introduction Wat et al. (2018) discovered that among all age groups, Generation Y had the greatest Internet adoption rates. The tourism industry will be able to leverage this one-of-a-kind feature of technology to promote their services. According to Hiram et al. (2016), very few research studies are conducted so far on a generational standpoint’s Instagram usage. Also, the cohorts of generation are hardly acknowledged for having distinct lifestyles and attitudes as the outcomes of their life experiences. Different cohorts are thought to respond to Instagram in different ways. Generation Y consumes, shares, searches, and contributes content, according to Ihsanuddin and Anuar (2016). In terms of statistics, according to a prior survey conducted by Bilgihan (2016), 78 percent of Generation Y prefer the experience of travelling than having the possession of physical items. In reality, this has resulted in differences in their cohorts as compared to previous generations. The above figure will allow us to better understand why people want sharing travel interactive media, as it will assist the present technological trend, and encourage tourists, particularly Generation Y, to visit a specific attraction. Generation Y has cemented their position as leaders in travel and tourism, according to Magill (2017). Marketers must account for the growth of a large segment with strong purchasing power. This is crucial for marketing success since it allows you to understand their intentions and actions (Garcez, 2019). Furthermore, learning communication skills from mobile social media, particularly Instagram, is still in its infancy due to a number of problems, one of which may be related to users’ simultaneous participation in many social media platforms for various reasons (Nie et al., 2017). According to Wat et al. (2018), Malaysia is rated fourth in Asia with 65 percent active mobile social media penetration. Because of the popularity of Instagram, issues about the relationship between the qualities of Instagram communications and Generation Y’s desire to share interactive media have yet to be solved. Furthermore, because it is believed that different generations would respond differently to Instagram, assessing responses is crucial in complementing market segmentation and marketing techniques (Hiram et al., 2016). As a result, the researchers seek to see if communication features like participation, dialog, and persuasion play a role in the desire for sharing travel interactive media. According to Leonard (2018), Instagram aids in the creation and publication of online material, which includes text, photographs, audio, and videography. For closing this gap, the study employs

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the case of Management and Science University, Shah Alam, to conduct an empirical investigation to determine the relationship between Instagram communication features and Generation Y’s propensity for sharing travel interactive media.

Travel Media Sharing Background “Social media,” according to Fietkiewicz et al. (2016), is an Internet-based application that allows users to share and create content. These also provide the possibility to create micro content that focuses on community connection, demonstrating a significant difference between conventional mass media and the present media, with conventional media focusing on two things: one-to-many content division and experts toward the passive audience. Also, Xu and Pratt (2018) stated that social media platforms are developing at an alarming rate, attracting millions of new users to all sorts of social media platforms. To begin with, corporations need social media because it allows them to communicate with their customers. According to Fahy and Jobber (2015), when compared to conventional media as conventional newspapers, television, and movies, social media are far more active to modify in many ways. Social media are also more dynamic and favorable to changes than traditional media such as newspapers, television, and movies. Because social media are free and accessible to anybody with an Internet connection, it has transformed its users into creator of contents rather than just viewers, as evidenced by computer and mobile devices. Fahy and Jobber (2015) said that social media may assist businesses in their marketing contacts with customers since it allows for real-time conversations and worldwide interaction. “Instagram” is known as a platform for photograph sharing and long-distance interpersonal contact. In essence, Instagram is considered as a mobile-based program that enables users for shooting photographs, utilizing various control devices for altering the appearance of photographs, and rapidly sharing them with friends on a variety of traditional communication platforms (Ihsanuddin & Anuar, 2016). Furthermore, spatial-temporal data is generated with tourist trip routes in large geo-tagged image volumes, where such trip routes of photos include travel paths, mobility patterns, and preferences (Yu et al., 2017). According to Gretzel (2018), Instagram is the fastest-growing mobile-based social media program since it allows users to instantly publish photographs and videos. Other users can view, click, and remark on the “like” button, which gives users the ability to apply specific filters to the photographs or videos that they want to submit, according to Casaló et al. (2017). Furthermore, despite the ability to publish an image quickly, users are significantly more likely to share images that are retouched with numerous editing tools such as cropping, filtering, and blurring (Zappavigna, 2016). “Instagram communication attributes” have importance. Participation, dialog, and persuasion are just a few of the qualities and attributes that Instagram possesses.

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Instagram serves as a channel of communication for people who utilize a variety of other social media platforms (Ihsanuddin & Anuar, 2016). Participation. Opposing to monologs, uninvolved perception, or lurking, Salehzadeh et al. (2017) explains participation as the degree that allows a minimum of two effectively occupied gatherings in interaction. Conversation. On the other hand, conversation is anchored in an interactive communicational aspect. This is critical to be highlighted in social media (Ihsanuddin & Anuar, 2016). Persuasion. Researchers have characterized persuasion in a variety of ways. However, Mera and Patricia (2015) summarized these definitions and featured its persuasion as communicators attempting to persuade others to change their attitudes, behaviors, or beliefs using a message rather than force in a symbolic process. According to DeVaney (2015), elder “Generation Y” members enter the labor market during or end of a recession. This recession began in December 2007 and made to an end in June 2009. These elder “Generation Y” are more likely to born from 1986 to 1992. On the other side, Generation Y are those born between 1992 and now are pursuing education and striving for entering the labor market. In addition to being a team builder, Generation Y is described by Brown et al. (2015) as confident, self-sufficient, tolerant, and socially sensitive. Generation Y also prefers social media to marketer-provided content. Without a question, social media keep them informed and provide information that helps them better meet their demands. Surprisingly, Generation Y places a high value on personal life, career advancement and pay, flexibility, and the obstacles they face in their professions and lives, all of which are well-represented in social media. “Intention for sharing travel interactive media” is also important. There are other methods of sharing an experience, such as vocally recounting. In contrast to this, uploading photographs and videos necessitates actions with still occurring experiences. This demonstrates that the importance of photo or videography capture throughout the experience needs to be ensured by the aim that motivates the act of sharing (Barasch et al., 2017). This will lead to a desire to share images or films, as well as a determination of the event’s relevance throughout the experience’s duration, as this can increase the enjoyment of consumers of capturing photos and videography for saving memories for themselves. According to Diehl et al. (2016), research has shown that the usage of videography and photo can alter recollections and perceptions of experiences in comparison with not shooting any photos at all. Furthermore, the scholars and researchers trust that the desire for sharing photo and videography offers people with detailed information about an experience that may be difficult to convey verbally, reducing the risk of reinterpretation due to simple changes. Furthermore, according to Mehmood et al. (2018), the six information source types, which include word-of-mouth, marketing, books, movies, news, and advice of experts, can have influenced a location’s image, travel intentions, and attitudes of individuals.

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A theoretical framework could be constructed from the previous paragraphs’ literature evaluation and the research objective. The Generation Y intention for sharing travel interactive media on Instagram is said to be linked to the Instagram communication traits of involvement, dialog, and persuasion. As a result, the relationship between concept and dimension is depicted in Fig. 50.1 in this study’s research framework. H1: Instagram communication attributes have a positive effect on the intention to share travel interactive media. H1a: Participation has a positive effect on intention to share travel interactive media. H1b: Conversation has a positive effect on intention to share travel interactive media. H1c: Persuasion has a positive effect on intention to share travel interactive media. Population samples for this research include Generation Y. These samples were those of the Management and Science Universities (MSU), Shah Alam, personnel who own an Instagram account and the students born between 1981 and 2000, with an age range of 19–38 years old in 2019. MSU, Shah Alam, has a population of 15,600 people. As a result, according to Krejcie and Morgan table (1970), the researchers chose 377 samples as the suitable size for their investigation. They were also the unit of analysis from such sample size. In this study, the researchers employed non-probability sampling, which is different from probability sampling in that it occurs when people from a population have an unequal chance of being selected for a study. Furthermore, the researchers hand-delivered the questionnaires and indicated the method to contact the respondents. It was based on paper and selfadministered survey aimed at Generation Y, with respondents limited to those who have an Instagram account and fall within a set age range. Two primary questions were asked ahead of time to ensure the respondents’ qualification for completing the questionnaire. Thus, the first primary questions were the confirmation as the

Fig. 50.1 Framework of research. (Source: Modified from Ihsanuddin & Anuar, 2016)

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Instagram user, as well as the respondents’ birth year, in order to determine if they were members of the Generation Y.

Frequency Analysis (Table 50.1) Majority of this this study’s respondents were female, accounting for 227 (60.2%) of the total, with 150 (39.8%) as male respondents. These age data were divided into four age groups as: 19–23 years old, 24–28 years old, 29–33 years old, and 34–38 years old. Most of these respondents (83.8 percent) were between the ages of 19 and 23, which accounts for 316 respondents, followed by 24–28 years old, which accounts for 12.5 percent of 47 respondents. Eleven respondents aged 29–33 years old account for 2.9 percent of the total, while three respondents aged 34–38 years old account for the remaining 0.8 percent. Furthermore, in terms of time spent on the Internet per week, 172 respondents (45.6 percent) spent 6–20 hours, 83 respondents (22.0 percent) spent less than 5 hours, and the remaining 64 (17.0 percent) and 58 (15.4 percent) respondents spent 21–40 hours and over 40 hours, respectively. 69.8% of the respondents (263 times) said they use Instagram to share personal images and their lifestyle, while 69.0% of the respondents (260 times) said they use it for information and knowledge. For travel information, 49.9% of respondents (188 times) used Instagram, followed by 48.3% (182 times) for fashion and trends. Online shopping is the fourth most popular reason for people to use Instagram, with 44.3 percent (167 times) saying they do it for that reason, while 17.5 percent said they do it for business (66 times). Finally, 15.1 percent of Table 50.1 Respondents’ demographic data Demographics Gender Age

Weekly spending time on the Internet

Purpose of using Instagram

Source: Results of the survey

Categories Male Female 19–23 24–28 29–33 34–38 < 5 hours 6–20 21–40 > 40 Sharing personal photos and lifestyle Information and knowledge Travel information seeking Online shopping Fashion and trends Business purposes Others

Frequency 150 227 316 47 11 3 83 172 64 58 263 260 188 167 182 66 57

Percentage (%) 39.8 60.2 83.8 12.5 2.9 0.8 22.0 45.6 17.0 15.4 69.8 69.0 49.9 44.3 48.3 17.5 15.1

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respondents (57 times) said they chose others since the options provided did not correspond to their Instagram goal.

Descriptive Analysis The mean range for the link between Instagram communication qualities and Generation Y intention in sharing travel interactive media is 3.1432 to 3.8780, as shown in Table 50.2. The highest mean was 3.8780, which suggests that respondents believe it is necessary to share their vacation photos and videos on Instagram, and the lowest mean was 3.1432, which shows that respondents believe it is not necessary to share travel photos and videographs on Instagram. On a five-point scale in the Table, the item of Instagram communication attributes and intention for sharing travel interactive media scores above 3 to 4. This indicates that respondents approve that the Instagram communication attributes of participation, conversation, and persuasion have a relationship with Generation Y intention for sharing travel interactive media.

Reliability Analysis During the data collecting period, a total of 377 respondents were manageable for gathering. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 was used to code and key the questionnaires. The reliability test (Cronbach’s alpha) was conducted separately on Sections B and C, and the results in Table 50.3 reveal that the instrument and items employed were reliable, having the Cronbach’s alpha values more than 0.70.

Correlation Analysis (Table 50.4) The relationship strength is given in the table above on the basis of coefficient ranges that come from the correlation study. According to Ismail et al. (2018), a moderate relationship is 0.41 to 0.70, whereas a high relationship is 0.71 to 0.90. As indicated in the correlation analysis, the coefficient range for this study is only between moderate associations. Table 50.5 shows that the correlation between Instagram communication features and the intention for sharing travel interactive media is greater than 0.50 for all items. Because the construct has no negative sign, it is possible to conclude that positive correlations exist. Persuasion had the strongest positive association in the study, with r ¼ .627 and significance at the 00.1 level. Also, it was followed by conversation at r ¼ .593 and the lowest correlation is participation, which is at r ¼ .568. The findings revealed a link between Instagram communication characteristics and Generation Y’s inclination for sharing travel interactive media. Aside from that, it’s clear from

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Table 50.2 General descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics N Instagram is where I spend a lot of my time In Instagram, I believe I can provide important information and content By uploading my travel images and films on Instagram, I believe I can assist and support other people’s travel decisions My engagement in Instagram, I believe, benefits anyone in some manner In Instagram, I talk/share/post about topics that a lot of other peoples do Instagram allows me for participating the things and people that I care about I believe I am capable of having a meaningful conversation on Instagram, particularly concerning travel In Instagram, I believe I have two-way communication with other users I believe that other Instagram users want to hear from me and learn more about me I generally participate in Instagram conversations about travel Instagram, I believe, is an excellent platform for me to talk about travel with other individuals who share my passion I am readily affected by trip photographs and videos posted on Instagram by my family and friends I use Instagram to share my vacation images and videos because my family and friends do as well The ratings and opinions of others on Instagram influence my decision to upload trip photographs and videos I believe that my decision to share vacation images and videos with the public is important to everyone I think it is essential to share my vacation images and films on Instagram Whenever I travel to new areas and encounter new environments, I will be willing to share my trip images and films on Instagram During my travels, I normally plan to share my images and videos on Instagram After I have travelled, I normally plan to publish my images and videos on Instagram

377 377

Min 1.00 1.00

Max 5.00 5.00

Mean 3.8780 3.6844

Std. deviation .88484 .77432

377

1.00

5.00

3.5968

.90318

377

1.00

5.00

3.3899

.87774

377

1.00

5.00

3.3369

.98421

377

1.00

5.00

3.6446

.81602

377

1.00

5.00

3.5491

.86501

377

1.00

5.00

3.6684

.84355

377

1.00

5.00

3.3183

.92225

377

1.00

5.00

3.1618

1.04313

377

1.00

5.00

3.5915

.89189

377

1.00

5.00

3.5809

1.01293

377

1.00

5.00

3.4775

1.01852

377

1.00

5.00

3.2944

1.03183

377

1.00

5.00

3.1751

1.05745

377

1.00

5.00

3.1432

1.11597

377

1.00

5.00

3.7347

.96132

377

1.00

5.00

3.6844

.98044

377

1.00

5.00

3.6101

.96437 (continued)

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Table 50.2 (continued) Descriptive statistics N After I have travelled, I have a certain amount of time to upload my travel images and films on Instagram

377

Min 1.00

Max 5.00

Mean 3.5942

Std. deviation .97701

Source: results of the survey Table 50.3 Instagram communication attributes’ descriptive analysis

Variables Participation Conversation Persuasion Intention to share

Alpha .799 .798 .859 .829

Source: results of the survey Table 50.4 Overall correlation test

Intention Attributes Intention

1 .687**

1

Table 50.5 Variable’s correlation test Correlations Participation Conversation Persuasion Intention

Participation 1 .641** .586** .568**

Conversation

Persuasion

Intention

1 .670** .593**

1 .627**

1

the results that persuasion is the most important factor in Generation Y’s willingness for sharing travel interactive media. As a result, the goals and hypotheses of the research are supported (Table 50.6). Pearson’s correlation test is a method of determining the relationship between two variables. Hypothesis 1 indicated a substantial association between Instagram communication qualities and Generation Y intention for sharing travel interactive media. Correlation was used to test this hypothesis. The correlation between these variables was .687** as a result of the findings. It has demonstrated that the time when Instagram communication attributes’ three dimensions are combined, people are more likely to want to share. According to Hiram et al. (2016), intention is defined as a decision made by a person to act in a specific way, and it is widely used to better understand how attitudes and opinions toward significant persons might influence specific actions. According to a study conducted by Barasch et al. (2017), taking photographs having the intention of sharing with others through social media posts

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Table 50.6 Hypotheses testing (source: results of the survey) H1 H1a H1b H1c

Hypothesis Instagram communication attributes have a positive effect on the intention to share travel interactive media Participation has a positive effect on intention to share travel interactive media Conversation has a positive effect on intention to share travel interactive media Persuasion has a positive effect on intention to share travel interactive media

Correlations .687**

Result Accepted

.568**

Accepted

.593**

Accepted

.627**

Accepted

can reduce experience enjoyment as the intention to share increases the concern of self-presentation throughout the experience that can lead toward a decreased enjoyment and engagement with the experience. Nonetheless, this study found that the Instagram communication features can cause users to have the desire to share since they are willing to upload travel photographs and videos on Instagram if they visit a new location and thus experience a novel environment. The research for Hypothesis 1(a) confirmed that there is a link between Instagram communication attributes for participation and Generation Y’s desire for sharing travel interactive media. Furthermore, the range of coefficient for Instagram communication attributes’ participation was 0.568. As a result, the strength of the link between involvement and intention for sharing was moderate. Nonetheless, Hypothesis 1(a) was accepted because it showed a 0.01 level significant connection (two-tailed). Users must participate in order to be recognized as an opinion leader, who will lead and create the desire to contribute (Casaló et al., 2017). Participation’s correlation analysis revealed that the time when a respondent stays as an active Instagram user, they plan to offer helpful information and believe that by publishing their trip photographs and videos on Instagram, they may contribute for helping and supporting other people’s decisions for travelling. The drives of personal participation, group attraction, projected advantages, and the ability to engage with people on a site, according to Ben-Shaul and Reichel (2018), are all factors of active participation. Furthermore, using social media sites like Instagram can help people maintain existing relationships while also connecting with new “cyber friends” (Bayor et al., 2018). Conversation was included in Hypothesis 1 since it is one of the Instagram communication features (b). There is a link between Generation Y’s intention for sharing travel interactive media and Instagram communication qualities for dialog. According to the coefficient range of.593**, the hypothesis is accepted, and the correlation analysis for hypothesis 1(c) is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed). It is due to the fact that the majority of respondents believe they have two-way communication with other Instagram users. According to Fatanti and Suyadnya (2015), Instagram provides two-way engagement directly on the basis of the premise of user generated content (UGC) that prioritized communication between users. Kent and Taylor (2021) elaborates on this assertion, stating that social media communication deals with peoples’ staying, eating, and visiting and that these are the types of

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content that earn the most “likes” and permit users for sharing their experiences and tales with family and friends. Even though Instagram is primarily a photo-sharing software, it has proven to be an efficient communication channel for displaying products with visual narratives (Fatanti & Suyadnya, 2015). Persuasion has the greatest coefficient range among the three communication attributes, with a value of 0.627, indicating that Hypothesis 1(c) has a substantial association between Instagram communication features for persuasion and Generation Y desire for sharing travel interactive media. The hypothesis was accepted, and the correlation was significant at the 0.01 level, because of the moderate relationship strength that resulted from the coefficient range (two-tailed). The researchers discovered that throughout their travels, respondents frequently want to publish their trip images and videos on Instagram, based on the correlation analysis. As a result, among the other two communication qualities in Instagram, persuasion received the biggest coefficient range. To back up this claim, Terttunen (2017) released the outcomes of her research, which found that 52 percent of respondents would use Instagram during their travels to find out about specific destinations and activities. Aside from that, the findings of this study revealed that respondents are willing to share travel photos and videographs on Instagram during the time they visit novel places and encounter novel environments. According to Terttunen (2017)’s findings, watching travel experiences on Instagram can influence other users’ ideas and impressions of travel businesses and places when willingness exists.

Conclusion To summarize, the majority of respondents preferred to use Instagram as one of the strategies for obtaining tourism information because the app provides a platform for users to begin sharing their vacation interactive media owing to material made by other users. Thus, the tourist benefits of using Instagram must be used. It supports in spreading related information and in creating chances for businesses for improving by utilizing their resources for earning cash with minimal efforts and activities. Thus, Instagram can assist the tourist industry’s thrive and can generate money by knowing further about Generation Y’s aspirations, especially on the ground of publishing travel interactive media tourism firms. People will want to share after obtaining influencing impact, but they will need to be included in the attributes of communication before making any intents. Also, people can share interactive media with other Instagram users in order to keep a favorable image, as they are encouraged for sharing their positive experiences. As a result, platform communications can increase with time, and the influence for sharing trip interactive media will emerge. Future researchers interested in the topics or context of this study may find the findings of this study to be instructive. However, because innovation is constantly changing and evolving in response to patterns, the findings of this study may be useful in the future. To summarize, there is no doubt that Instagram communication attributes can have a major association with Generation Y’s desire for sharing travel interactive media. As Generation Y is known to use Instagram for transmitting

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tourism-related information and data, it is critical to utilize this research as a recommendation and for taking advantage of this opportunity for interacting with such generation in order for Malaysia’s tourist business to flourish. Future academics should utilize this study as a roadmap for helping them paving a bright path to the tourist industry’s revitalization.

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Kent, M. L., & Taylor, M. (2021). Fostering dialogic engagement: Toward an architecture of social media for social change. Social Media+ Society, 7(1), 2056305120984462. Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and psychological measurement, 30(3), 607–610. Leonard, J. M. (2018). Visual communication design in media. Salem Press. Magill, D. (2017). The influence of social media on the overseas travel choices of Generation Y. Doctoral dissertation. Cardiff Metropolitan University. Mehmood, S., Liang, C., & Gu, D. (2018). Heritage image and attitudes toward a heritage site: Do they really mediate the relationship between user-generated content and travel intentions toward a heritage site? Sustainability, 10(12), 4403. Mera, G. & Patricia, M. (2015). Effects of persuasive communication on intention to save energy: Punishing and rewarding messages. Retrieved from: https://scholarworks.rit.edu/theses/8918. Accessed 1 Aug 2019. Nie, L., Zhang, L., Wang, M., Hong, R., Farseev, A., & Chua, T. S. (2017). Learning user attributes via mobile social multimedia analytics. ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology (TIST), 8(3), 36. Salehzadeh Niksirat, K., Silpasuwanchai, C., Mohamed Hussien Ahmed, M., Cheng, P., & Ren, X. (2017). A framework for interactive mindfulness meditation using attention-regulation process. In Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 2672–2684). Tarofder, A. K., Nikhashemi, S. R., Azam, S. F., Selvantharan, P., & Haque, A. (2016). The mediating influence of service failure explanation on customer repurchase intention through customers’ satisfaction. International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences, 8(4), 516–535. Terttunen, A. (2017). The influence of Instagram on consumers’ travel planning and destination choice. Wat, C. A., Yee, F. K., Rong, R. L., Yun, Y. L., & Tung, H. Z. (2018). Trust in mobile social commerce: A perspective from Gen X and Gen Y. Doctoral dissertation. UTAR. Xu, X., & Pratt, S. (2018). Social media influencers as endorsers to promote travel destinations: An application of self-congruence theory to the Chinese Generation Y. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 35(7), 958–972. Yu, Y., Zhao, Y., Yu, G., & Wang, G. (2017). Mining coterie patterns from Instagram photo trajectories for recommending popular travel routes. Frontiers of Computer Science, 11(6), 1007–1022. Zappavigna, M. (2016). Social media photography: Construing subjectivity in Instagram images. Visual Communication, 15(3), 271–292.

Part XV Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Issues and Challenges

Issues and Challenges in Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry

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Chathura Jayawardena, Ahmad Albattat, and Adam Amril Jaharadak

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovation Adoption Theories and Asian Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nature of Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovation Acceptance Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Behavioral Intention (BI) and Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TAM and the Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UTAUT and the Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Increasing interaction of global travelers, diminishing skilled labor, growing popularity of online marketplaces, ubiquitous connectivity, and digital transformation of business bring unique challenges to the tourism industry. Recent literature on IT/IS and social science denotes the use of theoretical frameworks of innovation adoption to explore the behavioral relationship in varied subject areas. In recent years, technology acceptance model (TAM) and unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) were identified as the most used innovation adoption theories over other predecessor frameworks. Both models’ theoretical outlook outlines behavioral elements that enable respective innovation to get diffused to respective settings, which is vital to orchestrate C. Jayawardena · A. A. Jaharadak Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia A. Albattat (*) Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_51

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technology-based customer experience or create a business process in a modern business environment. Hence, this chapter signifies the theoretical and empirical outlook of both TAM and UTUAT in the Asian tourism industry, accompanied by the impact of innovation in addressing the modern challenges in the tourism industry. Keywords

Innovation · Adoption · Asian tourism industry · Technology acceptance model (TAM) · Unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT)

Introduction Modern information and communications technology (ICT) and digital technologies have influenced modern businesses to create and capture value toward determining how business interacts and communicates in the present-day world (Cascio & Montealegre, 2016). These digital innovations are perceived as one of the dominant factors that enable ubiquitous connectedness and sharing data with tourism ecosystems, creating a much closer and personalized connection between customer and stakeholder while creating value to the whole tourism industry. Despite the different macro-dynamics, the Asia-Pacific region consists of the most flourished economies in travel and tourism (T&T) comprised most of ICT-ready economies in the world in recent years (Crotti & Misrahi, 2017). According to Kansakar et al. (2019), the tourism industry comprises geo-distributed information systems that contain a high density of data. These big data infrastructures function as intelligence sources, enabling a unique and personalized experience for the guests. In addition, these technologies support enhancing security provision, tracing details, optimal resource utilization, and greater one-to-one communication, thus elevating value provision across Asian and global T&T industries. The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) identified the Asia-Pacific region as the most competitive global T&T region in 2019. Technology integration and expansion of diaspora have been identified as the key to this overwhelming growth in the industry (Burdett, 2018). Greater innovation and exponential diffusion levels have been the core of this phenomenal growth. With the synergistic synchronization of technologies, the Asian region was able to create and sustain competitive advantages. However, T&T sectors enhance efficiencies in resource utilization, reduce cost, manage data and resource capacity, and most importantly, increase customer satisfaction (Martinez-Ros & Orfila-Sintes, 2012; Law et al., 2018; Newman, 2018). Further, the importance of maintaining technological sustainability is viable as it predicted that evolvement of 5G technologies and artificial intelligence (AI) forces to add more complex collaboration between machines and humans (Sezgin, 2016). Modern T&T is challenged by digitally demanded international travelers and complex integration between multiple platforms, creating abundant information that requires management. Thus, innovation has become a significant challenge to

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sustain adaptiveness as technologies evolve (Wikhamn et al., 2018). As technology requirements of the industry are constantly changing, the importance of innovation adoption is perceived as critical. Scholars in T&T outline that the propensity to adopt and manifest innovation to analyze and accept new technologies is paramount to reduce “tourism leakage” and enhance value creation (Morosan & Bowen, 2018; Nwakanma et al., 2018). Further, innovation adoption enables an organization to improve accuracy in the contemporary view of decision-making by understanding cognitive capacities and stages of different adoption. Hence, effective acceptance strategies support synchronizing multifaceted digital technologies into the supportive innovation culture, promoting agile working and futuristic business practices (Thaler, 2000; Ikeda et al., 2014; Lanzolla et al., 2018). Hence, this chapter discusses the theoretical implication of innovation adoption in the T&T industry and modern concepts supporting empirical validations. The study emphasizes two of the most prominent technology acceptance theories, the technology acceptance model (TAM) and the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT), and its theoretical extension with empirical endorsements.

Innovation Adoption Theories and Asian Tourism “An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adaption” (Rogers, 2003: p.12). However, these innovations are not new to the tourism industry; as a high-growth industry, it has undergone radical changes which intensified over the last few decades elevating the industry over new business dynamics (Buhalis & Law, 2008; Hall & Williams, 2008). These modern innovations originated as ICT or digital technologies but influence the behavioral process or discuss the renewal of the thought and action (Thong, 1999). Technology acceptance is perceived as a conscious process in modern times where digital capabilities are reached and use innovation adoption dynamics to get it defused into the industry’s ecosystem, thus enriching profound digital-based industry experience. Innovation acceptance antecedents, attitude, and confidence toward technology become critical to greater adoption on both individual and organizational contexts (Venkatesh et al., 2003; Taherdoost, 2018).

Nature of Innovation Based on theoretical validation by Rogers (2010), Thong (1999), and Hoti (2015), key characteristics are observed with innovation. Based on the author, the nature of innovation could be driven by the product or the process in the complexity of whether the innovation has an incremental impact or a radical implication. Further, Hoti (2015) depicted that innovation could be determined by the advent of new technology, which is a push from the technology determinant, or innovation could be

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originated with demand or from a pull from the market, which could be either planned incidents or incidental. These categorizations of dimensions and characterizes are critically important for any industry to identify the propensity of the innovation impact in each element. In tourism, hotel rooms, travel itineraries, travel tickets, inbound activities, and many more can be products that align with its business process, which could be innovated based on new digital technological advancements. Robotics enable product and service enhancement, IoT (Internet of things) based info, and entertainment, enabling multidimensional information that could create value between customers and the business entity in the tourism industry. Another characteristic innovation can be planned or incidental, based on business objective, financial capability, and resource provision, which again relates to the motivation of the innovation. Further innovation characteristics could be derived from a market pull or organic push by the organization associated with the timing of the innovation (Hoti, 2015; Venkatesh et al., 2003).

Innovation Acceptance Theories Over the last two decades, technology acceptance theories have become prominent in social science, IS, IT, and digital technology disciplines. Hence the impact was acceptable on studies which focus on the T&T industry. Most modern innovation adoption-based studies are grounded in TAM and UTUAT theories in assessing multidimensional implications based on each study setting. Evaluating the intention or use of the technologies such as cloud computing, mobile integration, online travel platforms, IoT, robotics, artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and social media adoption has been a few of the domain studies in the T&T industry (Hess et al., 2016; Damanpour & Wischnevsky, 2006; Fatima et al., 2017; Ayeh, 2015; Gu et al., 2019; Ali et al., 2016; Fong et al., 2017). It could be observed that most theoretical augmentation of technology acceptance studies was taken few notched up in the last three decades. Based on empirical usage, theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975), diffusion of innovations (Rogers, 1983), technology acceptance model (Davis, 1986), technologyorganization-environment framework (Tornatzky & Fleischer, 1990), theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), task-technology fit (Goodhue & Thompson, 1995), and unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (Venkatesh et al., 2003) are perceived as most cited and validated technology acceptance models which based predominantly to predict the behavioral intention or use of an innovation (Fig. 51.1). However, many studies attempted to extend theoretical denominations by introducing exogenous, endogenous, moderating, and mediating mechanisms, where few studies were based on direct adaptation. Both TAM and UTUAT are two dominant models with more contemporary usage and representation of the studies based on the Asian travel and tourism industry.

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Theory of Interpersonal behaviour (TIB) Theory of reasoned action (TRA)

Theory of planned behaviour (TPB)

Igbaria;s model (IM) Social Cognitive theory (SCT)

Technology acceptance model (TAM) Extension of TAM (TAM2/ TAM 3)

Diffusion of innovation theory (DOI)

Innovation adoption Framworks

Perceived characterises of innovation theory

Motivational model (MM)

Uses and Gratification theory (UandG)

The Model of PC utilization ( MPCU)

Unified Theory of acceptance and use id technology(UTAUT)

UTAUT 2/UTAUT3

Fig. 51.1 Adaptation model overview. (Source: The authors)

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) TAM is the most prominent and could be identified as the most grounded technology acceptance theory in ICT and social science academia. With the inspiration and theoretical enhancement of TRA and TPB, Davis (1986) introduces TAM’s theoretical concept, which predominantly assesses the influence of attitude and behavior in predicting or adapting to a particular technology (Wu et al., 2011; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975). The popularity of TAM as a robust and parsimonious model has made it one of the influential acceptance theories to be deployed by academics (Lucas Jr & Spitler, 1999). This contextual positivity of the model had been made into several extensions and collaboration by Davis et al. (1989, 1993) along with the most famous theoretical formulation of TAM2 (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000) and TAM3 (Venkatesh & Bala, 2008). The origin of the TAM is measured by two direct latent indicators, which are operationalized as perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU). According to theoretical interpretation, both these exogenous variables (PU & PEOU) directly correlate to the intention of using technology. This level of intention, known as behavioral intention (BI), has the intervening role in predicting the use of

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the technology. This predictability could be assessed in an individual’s capacity or considering the technology predictability of an organization.

Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) PU interprets the ideology to measure that individuals believe using a particular system or technology would enhance performance (Davis, 1989). Within the theoretical interpretation, PU functions as an exogenous construct that variates the technology’s intention. TAM authors related PEOU as the individual believes that particular technology or system can be used without difficulty or free from effort. Hence, the relationship implies a positive correlation when more users believe that the technologies add value and enhance performance that the possibility of using technology increases. In a similar notion, PEOU is also operationalized as an independent variable that positively correlated with the intention of the technology (Chiu & Wang, 2008). Many empirical TAM adaptations could be found in the T&T context (Nunkoo & Ramkissoon, 2013; Ayeh, 2015; Nadra et al., 2018; Su et al., 2016; Israel et al., 2019; Gu et al., 2019), where details and implications are to be discussed at the later part of the paper. The introduction of TAM2 (Venkatesh & Davis, 2000) has extended the exogenous operationalization of the PU to validate higher predictability over the previous model. As outlined in Fig. 51.2, the expanded PU is a composite of measurable impact on job relevance, ability to demonstrate results, and subjective norm toward the acceptance intention. Further, TAM2 exhibits a moderating effect on experience and voluntariness in predicting subjective norm toward using the technology. Moreover, the extension of TAM3 (Venkatesh & Bala, 2008) extended the measurable capability of PEOU with the attributed of adjustment and anchor, which further expands the theoretical predictability of technology being adopted.

Behavioral Intention (BI) and Behavior Behavioral intention (BI) is one of the dominant predictor variables commonly used across many adoption theories to predict the use. According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1975), BI is identified as the individual’s subjective predictability of user behavior or use of technology. Therefore, it is familiar to identify that many exogenous integrations in many theoretical models mainly assess intention before validating the user behavior. For example, the TRA model interprets that the BI is predicted by the individual’s subjective norm and respectful attitude toward the technology. Hence, the TPB similarly uses the above antecedents and the perceived behavioral control to indicate the intention and determine the technology use. Similarly, Fig. 51.3 outlines that the theoretical interpretation of UTAUT model’s origin and respective extensions is commonly variated to assess the intention level. As indicated, previous theoretical enhancements of TAM/2/3 further validate BI’s underlying role, which was formulated predominantly from PU, PEOU, and

Fig. 51.2 Technology acceptance model (TAM) and extensions. (Source: Author compiled- based on Davis, 1989, 1993; Davis et al., 1989)

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Fig. 51.3 UTAUT framework with extensions. (Source: Authors’ compilation on the basis of UTAUT1/2/3 Venkatesh et al., 2003, 2012; Maruping et al., 2017; Farooq et al., 2017)

extended subjective norm. Furthermore, many scholars in technology acceptance theories depicted that BI tends to diminish over time as the level of experience increases toward the underline technology.

TAM and the Tourism Industry The empirical utilization of TAM has been quite significant in Asian tourism industry. Scholars and practitioners used directional guidance to find solutions for the challenges and opportunities created by the new technical implications. Ayeh (2015) assesses psychological factors underlying consumer-generated media acceptance for travel in UAE, which revealed that the model consists of R2 ¼ 623 where necessary measures of PU and PEOU indicated a positive relationship toward the adoption intention of the innovation. A study on travelers’ e-purchase intention for using the product in tourism in Mauritius by Nunkoo and Ramkissoon (2013) depicted that both PU and PEOU and extended construct of attitude and trust have a significant positive impact on the decision to purchase tourism products. Another study in Hong Kong by Kucukusta et al. (2015) found that PE and PEOU comprise of significant relationship toward BI among 212 online users on their booking for travel needs. A study based on the adoption of hotel front office management by Kim, Lee, and Law (2008) in Korea found that antecedents of PE and PEOU and system quality and information quality bring R2 ¼ 0.46 toward the actual use of hotel front office systems. More studies based on TAM (Fig. 51.2) include lessons on online booking and trustworthiness of the GenY population in Korea (Bae & Han, 2020), decision-making on online booking (Chen & Li, 2020) in China, hotel distribution systems in Indonesia (Nadra et al., 2018), tourist acceptance in online reviews in China (Chong et al., 2018), mobile usage in seniors of travel booking (Kim et al., 2016) in Korea, behavioral intention to use consumer-generated contents (CGC) in Iran (Balouchi et al., 2017), users accepting or rejecting e-travel sites in Taiwan (Lin, 2010), adoption impact and

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e-marketing in Egyptian SME tourist sector (El-Gohary, 2012), mobile learning (m-learning) to tourism in Bangladesh (Fatima et al., 2017), and studying to investigate mobile tourism shopping (MTS) in Pakistan (Gu et al., 2019) which are the current studies among many other where theoretical determinant of innovation adoption is being used in tourism in the Asian region. These studies attempted to understand how each antecedent and their relationship behave in individual and organizational perspectives supporting the course. Contribution from these studies was able to ascertain practical remedies for each realistic issue faced in the tourism industry and set directives to similar issues in different contexts.

The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) The composition of the UTAUT was derived from critical evaluation and empirical and theoretical validation of several predecessor technology acceptance models (Venkatesh et al., 2003). As indicated in Fig. 51.2, the UTAUT framework is operationalized with theoretical representation with several adaption models. Synchronization of these acceptance models has enhanced the predictability of the model. UTUAT was perceived to represent key predictor antecedents from the respective models and had been able to explain between R2 of 0.17 and 0.53, which predicts intention and use of information systems (Venkatesh et al., 2003). The construct determination of UTAUT models to their predecessor theories and concepts. One of the critical determinants of UTAUT was establishing an intervening relationship of several moderator impacts. UTAUT authors depict moderators such as gender, age, experience, and voluntariness to use the system to assess the relationship between acceptance antecedents and BI (Venkatesh et al., 2003). The initial UTAUT model consists of four exogenous variables as performance expectancy (PE), effort expectancy (EE), social influence (SI), and facilitating condition (FC). As Venkatesh et al. (2003) depicted, these exogenous antecedents consist of positive and significant correlation of predicting intention to use the technology. According to UTAUT authors, PE formulates with the similar traits of PU in the TAM model, which assesses the cognitive belief that system usage will enhance job performance. A similar implication is attached to the EE construct where authors depict that it is represented by using the technology, which consists of similar characteristics of PEOU from the TAM model (Venkatesh et al., 2003). SI is recognized as individuals’ perception of how others believe (external) to use the entire system or the technology. Hence, the SI antecedent comprises both extrinsic and intrinsic traits, impacting how an individual adapts to new technology (Maruping et al., 2017). The fourth exogenous construct, FC, is measured by the individuals believing that respective resources are available for individual and organization as a unit to use that particular system or technology (Venkatesh et al., 2003). In similar formation to most of the other theoretical representation, UTAT model has indicated that the behavior intention is directly variated to establish the use of the technology (Fig. 51.3).

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Increases popularity and empirical use of the initial UTAUT framework worldwide have motivated Venkatesh et al. (2012) to introduce an extension work from the original model. Hence the UTUAT2 model was introduced with dominant determination to measure the behavioral relationship of individuals toward the use of new systems or technologies (Venkatesh et al., 2012). UTAUT2 model continues to extend exogenous relationships of the initial model by adding three more antecedents of price value (PV), hedonic (HM) motivation, and habit (H). UTAUT2 authors indicate that extension of these novel exogenous construct will increase the depth of understanding of technology acceptance behavior and understand the implication based on a broader scope. According to Dodds et al. (1991), PV has been perceived as the trade-off that individual evaluates with the benefits and monetary value spent on acquiring or using it. According to Limayem et al. (2007), habit represents individual or organizational self-willingness to explore new technologies. HM was identified as individuals’ acquired pleasure of using the system (Venkatesh et al., 2012). Beyond the original relationships, the new model predicts both motivation and price value consisting of an indirect connection toward use expected via and where habit indicated to have a direct relationship with both BI and use of the technology. The significant characteristic of both UTAUT1 and UTAUT2 frameworks is to bring up the relationship behavior of moderating constructs (Venkatesh et al., 2003, 2012). However, practical use of the model has been diversified by introducing several exogenous and endogenous extensions and meditating relationships. For example, the study by Farooq et al. (2017) incorporates personal innovativeness (PI) as an exogenous construct that has directive predictive implication to BI and the use of the technology (Fig. 51.3). Furthermore, this study based on assessing acceptance of lecture capturing in the system further establishes the UTAUT3 model. I, which facilitates the individual’s willingness to use the system/technology (Agarwal & Prasad, 1998; Agarwal & Karahanna, 2000), has operationalized intrinsic determinants. Based on the UTAUT3 interpretation, exogenous PI predicts both intention and use of the technology (Farooq et al., 2017). Further, the work of Venkatesh et al. (2006), Venkatesh & Bala, 2008) and Maruping et al. (2017) made an effort to introduce behavioral expectation (BE) as a predictor indication to address several limitations that pertain to using only intention to predict the system. Originating from the work of Warshaw and Davis (1984, 1985a, 1985b), the BE captures both volitional (intention) and non-volitional influences (external attributes) toward the predictor behavior of the technology. This integration of predictive behavior enhanced the overall persimmons fit of the model and gave different aspects to assess technologies with their extrinsic and intrinsic predictability (Maruping et al., 2017; Mahardika et al., 2019).

UTAUT and the Tourism Industry During the past few years, UTAUT was utilized as the grounded theory of many innovation acceptance studies. Similar usage was observed in the travel and tourism industry studies, where many empirical studies scrutinized theoretical representation

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Table 51.1 Empirical studies of TAM and UTAUT in the tourism industry (source: compiled by the authors) Country and industry Mauritius (travel purchase)

Grounded theory TAM

Ayeh (2015)

UAE (tourism)

TAM

661 respondents via survey

Ashcroft et al. (2019)

China and the United Kingdom (independent restaurants) Spain (consumer aviation)

UTAUT

Interviews – 10

UTAUT2

1096, end user (users of this website)

Examines determinants of purchasing flights from low-cost carrier

Sri Lanka (point of sales devices in hotels) China (locus of control in tourism/ restaurant)

UTAUT2

72 employees from star class hotels

UTAUT

Online questionnaire

Gupta and Dogra (2017)

India (travel industry)

UTAUT2

San Martín and Herrero (2012)

Spain (hotels in rural area)

UTAUT

Structured questionnaire among 284 Indian travelers 395 users from online platform survey

To understand POS usage in Sri Lankan hotels based on UTAUT and TOE Assessing the locus control factors and their correlations toward the intention of using apps in restaurants Intention to use mobile apps with mapping for the modern traveling

Okumus et al. (2018)

United States (restaurants)

UTAUT

395 individuals via questionnaire

(Kim et al., 2008)

Korea (hotel information systems)

TAM

320 employees of hotels – questionnaire

Study Nunkoo and Ramkissoon (2013)

EscobarRodríguez and CarvajalTrujillo (2014) Devanarayana and Thelijjagoda (2016) Fong et al. (2017)

Methodology 451 tourists – questionnaire

Objectives (industry importance) Assessing the level of intention in purchasing product and services on online platforms Measuring the psychological antecedents which impact the adoption of consumer-generated media Exploration of factors that block technology adoption in restaurants

To identify the adoption process of new information technologies in tourism. Online purchase intention of rural hotel booking Investigation of adoption of diet apps and what is the dimension which influences adoption decision Investigating the relationship between antecedent toward (continued)

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Table 51.1 (continued) Study

Country and industry

Grounded theory

Methodology

Kucukusta et al. (2015)

Hong Kong

TAM

320 employees of hotels – questionnaire

Ali et al. (2016)

Malaysia (edu tourism)

UTUAT2

222 students – online questionnaire

Nadra et al. (2018)

Indonesia

TAM

Chong et al. (2018)

China (tourism)

TAM

Questionnaires to 200 respondents 193 Chinese travellers – survey method

Kim et al. (2016)

Korea (tourism)

TAM

Lin (2010)

Taiwan (online tourism)

TAM

Chiao et al. (2018)

Taiwan (tourism and education)

UTAUT

391 students – online questionnaire

Balouchi et al. (2017)

Iran (tourism)

TAM

211 online questionnaire survey

Su et al. (2016)

Hong Kong

UTAUT

A questionnaire among 120 travelers

El-Gohary (2012)

Egypt (hotel industry)

TAM and IDT

368 SME hotels – questionnaire

Tan et al. (2017)

Malaysia

UTAUT

474 respondents, collected via questionnaire

Fatima et al. (2017)

Bangladesh

TAM

488 respondent from 1007 questionnaires 42 users – travel sites

Objectives (industry importance) acceptance of hotel front office systems Exploring the factors which influence to crate intention to use online tourism products Use of collaborative (computer-supported) classrooms in hospitalitybased studies To identify predictors which influence global distribution systems Implications of online reviews in technology acceptance based on travel planning decisions The use of mobile phone by senior citizens and traveling citizen Assessing the acceptance and rejection by customers in e-traveling by the features of the website Developing a model for technology acceptance for virtual reality tourguiding platform Evaluating the influence of Iran tourism by the consumer developed content To verify Mainland China tourist guiding system (MTGS) for Hong Kong Assessing the antecedents which have an impact on e-marketing efforts Examining the consumer intention to use mobile apps with extended UTUAT constructs Understanding how mobile learning supports (continued)

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Table 51.1 (continued) Study

Country and industry

Grounded theory

Methodology 176 university students – questionnaire Questionnaire among 335 respondents

Paulo et al. (2018)

Portugal

UTAUT2/ TTF

Gu et al. (2019)

Pakistan (tourism)

TAM/IDT

396 respondents

Israel et al. (2019)

Germany

TAM

Survey – 560 respondents

Kim and Hall (2020)

South Korea

TAM

Korean mobile Internet users – 485

Ismail et al. (2020)

Malaysia

UTAUT

Survey on 422 Malaysian hotel customers

Bae and Han (2020)

South Korea

TAM

Chen and Li (2020)

China

TAM

A selfadministered questionnaire among 273 samples Empirical use of 161 academic sources – analysis in SPSS22.0

Objectives (industry importance) tourism education in Bangladesh Assessment of the knowledge on how mobile-based AR technology impacted tourism To propose a multidimensional model to explore gaps of mobile app-based shopping app in tourism To understand the user acceptance of VR presentation on hotels to in selecting accommodation To evaluate consumer perception on digital storytelling with hotel selection Assessment of the antecedents which support to use of mobilebased hotel reservation systems To assess the online hotel reviews among the Y generation, Korean customers to build trustworthiness Assessment of factors that influence online travel purchase decision among students

to explore a solution to diversified issues, summarized in Fig. 51.3. For example, Kim and Hall (2020) used UTAUT antecedents to observe how Korean customers’ intention levels correlate with digital storytelling. A study by Ismail et al. (2020) adapted UTAUT2 to measure customers’ acceptance and use of mobile apps in hotel reservation systems in Malaysia. Further, Fong et al. (2017) explore psychological factors and locus controls that influence intention to use restaurant app among Chinese customers, which supported predicting the app usage based on the sample by predicative significance at R2 ¼ 0.53. Likewise, the assessment of using

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app-based travel map technologies by Gupta and Dogra (2017), among 284 travels in India supported to identify that habit, and FC comprises significant predicated behavior over PE, EE, SI, and PV, with the predictive significance of R2 ¼ 0.599 toward BI and R2 ¼ 0.431 toward the predictive usage. Moreover, the empirical attempt by Ali et al. (2016) used UTUAT to measure the impact on collaborative classrooms in hospitality tourism in Malaysia. Results of the study stated that PE and HM have stronger credibility over other exogenous constructs while establishing the UTAUT moderation implication with R2 ¼ 0.707 at both intention and use levels of the technology. Similarly, several other studies have been used in both adopted and extended UTUAT determinants to investigate multiple users and conceptual concerns of using technology in the T&T industry. Assessment of virtual tourism and its implication among Taiwan tourist (Chiao et al., 2018), usage of tour guide system in China mainland for Hong Kong visitors (Su et al., 2016), mobile-based application in trending tourism direction in Malaysia (Tan et al., 2017), adaption of AR (augmented reality) in consumer research (Paulo et al., 2018), technology implication in cross restaurant management in China and the United Kingdom (Ashcroft et al., 2019), assessment of online ticket purchasing in for budget carriers (Escobar-Rodríguez & Carvajal-Trujillo, 2014), use of point of sales system in Sri Lankan star rated hotels (Devanarayana & Thelijjagoda, 2016), and assessment of leadership and digital transformation in Sri Lankan hotels (Jayawardena et al., 2020) are few of the other studies which empirically supported researcher to identify how technology acceptance is supporting in each context before engaging in management or policy decisions. TAM and UTAUT are two prominent and cited innovation theories used for innovation adoption studies globally across many industries. Table 51.1 summarizes the empirical support that is grounded on these theories. Hence, validate that circumstance of using these models to explore answers for many issues and concerns among various stakeholders in T&T in the Asian region.

Conclusion Innovations act as a pivotal determinant on the success of the modern travel and tourism industry. Businesses that adapt to these innovations are building capabilities to be ahead of the competition. And such adaption culture creates a unique value stream within the core of the business. The theoretical perspective of innovation adoption brings a critical aspect where a business decision could be determined to align with scientific validation on top of the risk taken by the business leaders. This chapter extensively discusses technology application with issues, challenges, and opportunities within the scope of the Asian tourism industry. Further, this chapter discusses how technology acceptance theories, mainly TAM and UTAUT, were utilized to determine concussion issues in the tourism industries across Asia. Various elements such as customer perception, employee acceptance, role of technology behavior with different antecedents, and implication of

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exogenous and endogenous substances have been issues with using these models. In addition, this chapter put forward various examples of technology adoption studies from several countries in the Asian region. Asian representation of Hong Kong, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Egypt, UAE, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, South Korea, and few non-Asian counties such as the United States, Germany, Mauritius, Portugal, and Spain have been scrutinized by this chapter.

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The Evolution of Technology Application Intervention and Future Development in the Asian Tourism Industry

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Khoo Wei Wen, Ahmad Albattat, and Ali Khatibi

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovation, Evolution, and Trends of Technology in Asian Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Application in Asian Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Travellers’ Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Locals’ Perception toward Technology Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consumer Acceptance of Technology in Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Issues and Challenges in Technology Application in Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Tourism as a business with the most information has been heavily affected by swift technological enhancement over the past decades, particularly the Internet. One of the main effects is the change in the attitude of travellers. As a result, understanding consumer views is becoming increasingly important, as is the difficulty of recognizing, attracting, and keeping customers in the online market. This chapter defines the determinants that affect the use of the Internet to plan travel journey and to show their interrelationships. This chapter provides a comprehensive review on technology intervention and its impact on the tourism industry. Besides, it also explains the use of technology in Asian tourism industry. The evolution of technology has become the culture of the traveller to search the destinations and attractions via the Internet as the information may be gained online. The evolution of technology has become the culture of the traveller to K. W. Wen · A. Khatibi Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia A. Albattat (*) Post Graduate Centre, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_52

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search the destinations and attractions via the Internet as the information may be gained online that aligns with the perception of the people towards the existence of modern technology. Technologies are intervened and accepted by the consumers. This chapter also shows the future development and modification of tourism industry structure and the challenges faced by the employee after the technology has immersed into the industry. Even the existence of technology has caused worries among the employers, employees, and consumers in dealing with the services. Still, the consumers are dealing with non-people-oriented services. Keywords

Technology trends · Artificial technology · Hotel industry · Tourism · Tourist perception

Introduction Technology progression has been improving in the upcoming year. In the late 1990s and 2000, people have been witnessing the introduction of technology innovation and changes to their daily lifestyle. Youngsters this day are uncomfortable with the absence of their mobile gadget or smartphone (Khan et al., 2019). Serenko and Turel (2015) state that this group of people is too liable on technology which leads them to an inseparable relationship. The ways of promoting destination and attraction also have changed. Previously, before the recognition of technology, the world has always being used to every human-to-human contact where services are provided and recorded in an old-fashioned way (Brown & Duguid, 2017). As compared to the era where technology has been introduced, the information, data, and services can be done through the help of technology. The latest technology invention which is called artificial intelligence (AI) where the services provided can be done through robotic setup and assistance (Russell & Norvig, 2016). With the availability of Internet, the users are able to search the information and review online. Ganguli and Ebrahim (2017) stated that business tourism sector is considered as subsector under the tourism industry, for instance, education tourism, where people travel to another country in search of education services. Tourism is the biggest sector in the country to assist in the economy growth. These sectors also are the biggest job provider comparing to other sectors. With the assistance of the technology, this industry has decreased the number of labor force which leads to high unemployment rate where human being has been replaced by robots. However, not all the country in Asia has improvising the technology advancement since the technology spreading pace was controlled by the government. Malaysia is considered slow in receiving the new technology introduction, and the locals are not familiarizing with the technology. Due to familiarization, the negative perception toward the technology innovation has grown from the spread of rumors through social media. Tourism is a service industry and it is inextricably linked to technological advancements and revitalized by organizational and structural changes. Despite the

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push from tour operators who continue to promote mass tourism packages, the trend toward flexibility of the tourist product through personalization is also growing. Trends toward “advanced” features of service in a “postindustrial” (information) society, such as customization and ease, make knowledge a new and crucial competitiveness factor. This unavoidably leads to thinking of learning as a dynamic capability. In today’s competitive tourist market, every area or business that wants to beat the competition should either become a learning region or become a learning destination (Dwyer et al., 2020). In a competitive tourism landscape, any destination or business that aims to outperform others should establish either a learning region or a learning industry. Furthermore, the emergence of alternative tourism must be part of a culture that is growing in importance and must be transformed on a continuous basis. Thus, along the path of cultural knowledge, a key dimension of innovation in “new tourism” emerges (Brandão et al., 2020). The locals are afraid of their jobs being replaced after the introduction of robotics machinery in Japan since the hotels were operating by using only robots. For example, Henn-na Hotel in Japan is the first hotel that created servicing robot in order to assist guest and reduce workloads (Ivanov et al., 2019). Bhimasta and Kuo (2019) state that the service robots were a failure, and there are complaints from the guests and the workers’ dissatisfaction toward the service provided. Brougham and Haar (2017) state that employees need to understand that AI is not total replacement of labor but only impacts some low-skilled job. Many organizations have been characterized by technology where it affects the way of the working environment (Tidd & Bessant, 2018).

Innovation, Evolution, and Trends of Technology in Asian Tourism Industry Technology necessity is significant in tourism industry as our modern world increases in dependency toward technology (Benckendorff et al., 2019). Currently, there is no chance to separate from each other from the creation of technology until its evolution that provides a big impact toward the industry especially the companies and organization related to tourism. After decades, technology rapidly developed in accordance to the current situation and has ease in reducing the load of works (Li & Du, 2017). Without the participation of technology, business will be severely impacted as most operation will be operating in much slower pace and connectivity will be limited; hence, tourism industry will be severely damaged if the usage of technology is neglected. As compared to the other continent of Western country, the introduction of technology in Asian travel is rather behind. Generally, Asian countries are addressed as third world countries because most countries were established within the region after the Second World War and most of the countries are colonized by the Western power. Ohlan (2018) states that online reviews, virtual reality, chatbots, robots, mobile technology, and cloud computing are the latest trends of technologies.

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Information and communications technology (ICT) plays a greater role in affecting the tourism industry as it helps the work progress in faster, more convenient, and efficient pace (Mahajan et al., 2015). According to Spencer (2019) and Chevers (2015), American and European hotels have used ICT and form an integrated system. The word ICT means all the components that allow computing works for human interaction to occur in this digital world. It all started with a computer from the first generation with size as big as a room up till current devices that information is accessible anywhere and anytime as the devices are getting smaller and more convenient for the human to carry around. Surcouf, Townsley, Ruty, and Desmouceaux (2019) state that the Internet is a system whereby it is connected globally. It uses TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol) for data transmission through different types of devices. In the early days, online websites were recognized by the user after the World Wide Web was introduced. Thus, in present days, websites such as TripAdvisor.com, Booking.com, Expedia.com, and Agoda.com were founded which leads people for easier access for accommodation and also satisfies the customer according to the prices offered. In terms of Internet, currently we are moving toward the implementation of IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) to be segregated to the user that roughly provides around 4 billion addresses, and the addresses are expected to be limited as most of the electronic devices such as mobile phones and computer individually require an IP address to access the Internet (Surcouf et al., 2019). Therefore, the introduction of IPv6 indirectly was able to supply tremendous amount of IP addresses as it allows a total of (2^128) address that is indirectly able to sustain the demands within the coming years and maybe even for the ultimate of time (Pickard & Bessant, 2018). Hence, the usage of IPv6 was able to act as a catalyst to enhance the current modern technological world and ultimately cultivate the tourism industry into a greater height. Internet of Things (IOT) is a system of object that has built-in sensor or hardware whereby machines can communicate with human through interface (Al-Fuqaha et al., 2015). Interface provides a system that is to be decoded by the human and later will be accessed by the machine in terms of coding whereby the interface acts as a medium of interaction between living and nonliving things. Currently, human is affected with the introduction of IOT in their daily life as most of their daily routine consists of the usage of technology; hence, it has played a significant importance in ensuring the longevity of human life. For example, human life will experience convenience with the accessibility of technology to assist in daily life usage of technology such as smart devices like smartphone, smart television, and smart home. In terms of home application, the IOT devices are able to be customized with the human preference such as turning on/off the home appliances remotely without the troublesome of turning on/off manually using the socket plug. Thus, using the same concept, it is applicable of making the hotel room like the home application where the customer requirements are fulfilled as their stay was customized. Artificial intelligence (AI) performs when a software is programmed to respond on humans’ command. Currently, these AI technologies are still in the beginning

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phase and still have a lot of streams in technology to venture through, hence creating a positive impact in developing the human life. Robot with AI will assist the industry by easing the allocation of guests. Robotics are programmed to do a specific task repeatedly from what they are programmed to do. Besides, in hotel located at Japan, this robot has been widely used in services like storing luggage, check-in and checkout, and room housekeeping.

Technology Application in Asian Tourism Industry Technology has conquered the world. Tourism industry is one of the industries that have been affected by the evolution of technology. If there are no changes in the industry, the attraction of the tourist will be reduced, since youngsters this day seek for something new and exciting. The technology in the hotel industry has started with a simple data locating platform where customers can check-in once at the hotel, and the next time of visit, the data is already being recorded. Then, the technology emerges into online booking websites and applications that can be accessed through mobile gadgets in one click. The mobility of each electronic device created has enhanced the ease of information seeking process. The review of the stay also is easily accessible. For this stage of traveling called pre-trip, normally the customer will gather and review the information so that the idea of the trip is illustrated in their mind. Next, there is a self-check-in electronic kiosk where customer does not need to wait for the front office employees to get to them. Different types of guests have different needs ad expectation regarding the role of technology in the hotel industry. For example, business traveller seeks efficiency and speeds and likely to use technology that has automated checkout. On the contrary, leisure travellers prefer accommodation free from electronic devices since this group of travellers is to travel for relaxation and to have short escape from daily life. The latest technology in hotel industry is AI robots where the robots do the task based on what it is programmed and commanded. This AI robot is to help ease the task of the employee by assisting them on cleaning the room and sending guest baggage. The first hotel that has this technology is Henn-na Hotel in Japan. However, in this decade, the hotels that have this robotic service have increased. E-tourism plays an important role in the purchase of travel needs, particularly in mobility services and package holidays. Local travellers prefer to book the travel journey needs online with the convenience of consumers using their computers and smartphones at home. Traditional travel agencies in some countries, however, do not offer online transactions but only provide services through the website and social media. Online transactions versus traditional brick and mortar agencies in the country are still emerging, despite the acceptance of travel agencies to use the company’s technology (Connon, 2020). Recent developments indicate that some of the services currently provided by travel agencies, lodging, and leisure companies will increasingly be provided by IT users themselves. ICT has made significant progress (Kumar, 2020). The need for

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information is very high, and technology is also a link to the rapid and widespread transmission of information. Communication technology is hardware in an organizational framework including social values that enable each individual to acquire, process, and exchange information with other individuals. Media communication is essentially a form of thinking that seeks to meet the needs of information quickly, clearly and beyond the limits of space and time.

Travellers’ Behaviour The existence of Internet has done a major influence on the travellers’ behavior. Luo, Feng, and Cai (2004) state that tourists will spend more time on the destination searched online compared to other sources. The Internet enables and eases the tourist in directly engaging with the destination in order to get what desires for rather than catalogs and brochures where it only shows the specialty of one destination and sometimes the source is not updated and fast as Internet accessibility. The time of the users of Internet in communicating with the destination or suppliers is reduced. Ukpabi and Karjaluoto, (2017) state that consumers can directly search and book their desired hotel through search engines and websites such as trivago.com, agoda.com, and booking.com. This platform is emerging and extending larger in the recent year where new website could be found to search for a place to lodge like Airbnb and homestays. The hotel business is also being affected by this new type of lodge area. As technology is widely used in the current era, people seek lesser help from the travel agencies. Moreover, users are increasingly doing hotel reservation, choosing the destination and activities desired for and reviewing the attraction available (Ukpabi & Karjaluoto, 2017). Theory of reasoned action (TRA) is the existing behavior and attitude to determine one’s action. The determination of the traveller choice will be correlated with personal hobbies. Digitalization era is where the customer can easily access the Internet in order to search for the information desired (Gretzel et al., 2015). In this context, lodging or hotel can be reviewed by the rating and also the comment given by other customers in order to get the actual experience either good or bad. If the customer is dissatisfied, there are also platforms where the customer can complaint or review the comments of other users. This way is more useful and time-saving compared to previous generation where the customer needs to go to the front desk to get a complaint form and write it and submit it again in the front desk. Theory of planned behavior (TPB) is the relationship of behavior and beliefs of the travellers. For example, the traveller believes it is not safe for a group of women to travel alone without the companion of a single man. Okazaki and Hirose (2009) state that gender differences also are a determinant of traveller’s patent. For Malaysian to travel to Middle East country like Saudi Arabia for religion purposes, a woman must be accompanied by their spouse or related blood male in order to visit. In this case, the range of a woman traveling has become smaller from the constraint of rule made by the embassy.

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Setiawan et al. (2018) state that it is important to understand the traveller preferences. As millennial market is emerging, the Chinese among the millennials are the biggest spenders in traveling (Su et al., 2019). Asian millennial travellers’ characteristics are that this group of traveller seeks for flexibility instead of a tight schedule. They are open to try new things and seek for new destination through online sources like blogs, social media, and travel reviews, as well as more traditional publications (Bäck, 2018). This group of travellers focuses more on price due to the low source of income and their young age. To capture this group of travellers, the tourism sector should identify their preference by reviewing the comments and posts online; attract them by customizing an individual trip; and earn their trust by providing platform to communicate with this group (Bäck, 2018). Consumers are attracted toward the destination through web search; the more review through blogs and websites may seem attractive to the traveller. The destination marketing organization (DMO) realizes that the Internet was a platform that offered opportunity to the industry in marketing and getting people know about the destination. Moreover, photos, comments, and reviews are used to share the tourist experiences with tourism products and services. This information can be easily accessed by people or other consumer through social media, review sites, blogs, interactive websites, and photo and video sharing platforms using smart gadget. Besides, today’s generations preferred reading comment and content of tourism product and services as their pre-trip preparation. In addition, the marketer is expanding their platform in promoting the products compared to previous generation where newspaper, billboard news, and magazine are the only ways in presenting the products. Nowadays, the new generation communicating platforms are too wide and can be easily accessed. To promote and advertise their products, marketers also share and upload content. Consumergenerated media, on the other hand, are thought to be more trustworthy and real, as it represents the creator’s true experience(s) (Barnaghi et al., 2012).

Locals’ Perception toward Technology Innovation The rapid advancements of the Internet and mobile information and communication technologies continue to offer unprecedented approaches to information transmission (Lee, 2020). Due to limited advertising budgets, marketers have been forced to research alternative marketing strategies. For this reason, online marketing has become one of the most attractive information distribution channels due to its sufficient content offering, good interactivity, precise targeting, and low operating costs. There are many negative perceptions toward the technology advancement such as the replacement of labor forces. However, Henn-na Hotel in Japan strikes to ease the workloads instead of replacing labor with their service robots. In order to make the employee understand that the existence of this robot is to assist and reduce the workload, the employer should elaborate and explain regarding the robot function. One of the research states that this robot is a failure due to the command and program

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set in this robot are not widely tested. For instance, the robot has mistaken the guest snoring sound as an order or command. Besides, this technology is not widely introduced. Many locals do not recognize the robot’s existence so this will lead on providing the wrong command to the robots. Using the uncanny valley hypothesis, Strait, Aguillon, Contreras, and Garcia (2017) hypothesized that uncannily humanlike characteristics contribute to unfavorable views of robots (Mori, 1970). AI technology is still relatively new in the market, and its applications in tourism are unique and limited. It is not widely used since the test on making the hotel fully operated by robot is impossible (Papathanassis, 2017). In contrary, the previous studies show that people are dependable on searching, reviewing, and booking through websites but are not ready to accept the robotic function because it is still new and there is still room for improvement (Tung and Au, 2018). The robots can’t be like human exactly 100%, but with some modification, the robot will be as similar to as possible (Touré-Tillery & McGill, 2015). Tung and Au (2018) state that human-robot interaction is not successful due to a few factors like embodiment, emotion, person-oriented perception, sense of security, and co-experience.

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) Technology acceptance model (TAM) is a theory of information systems in which consumers will accept, acknowledge, and use technology. Previous researchers such as Davis (1989) implemented this model to improve consumer dissatisfaction with the acceptance process by providing new theoretical insights into the success of the design and application of information systems. TAM is also the theoretical basis used by researchers to test consumer acceptance of methodologies that make it easier for system designers and builders to evaluate a proposed system. The technology acceptance model (TAM) has been proposed to explain the behavioral intentions of potential users using a technological revolution (Davis, 1989). TAM is based on the theory of reasoned action (TRA), a psychological theory that seeks to explain behavior. TAM contained two main predictors, perceived ease (EU) and perceived usefulness (U), and behavioral intention (BI) of the dependent variable, assuming that TRA was closely related to actual behavior. TAM is one of the most widely used models in information systems (IS) for its ease of understanding and simplicity (Fig. 52.1). Perceived usefulness is defined as “the extent to which people believe that their ability to perform a job is improved using a particular system.” It is based on the definition of usefulness as something that can be used to advantage. “Raises, promotions, bonuses, and other rewards are commonly used to reinforce good performance in the context of an organization” (Njanja et al., 2013). Systems that are perceived as highly useful are those in which users believe there is a positive use-performance relationship. Perceived ease of use, on the other hand, relates to a person’s belief that utilizing a certain technology would be simple. This stems from the definition of ease, which is

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Attitude

Intention

Behaviour

Subjective Norm

Fig. 52.1 Theory of reasoned action (TRA)

Perceived Usefulness External Variables

Attitude

Intention

Behaviour

Perceived Ease of Use

Fig. 52.2 Technology acceptance model (TAM)

freedom from hardship or significant effort. Effort is a limited resource that a person may devote to the many things for which they are accountable. We contend, everything else being equal, the perception of application. A linear relationship between development, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors in TAMs has been used. The technology acceptance model proposes some relationships between external variables and perceived ease (PEU), perceived usefulness (PU), attitude (A), and behavioral intention (BI) toward adoption of the skill by the user (Fig. 52.2). Based on the skill acceptability model, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are the two main components predicting skill acceptance behaviour. The degree to which people believe that a person’s ability to perform a job is improved using a particular system is defined as perceived usefulness (Davis, 1989). In the context of this study, the adoption of online hotel reservation technology results in better choices, better prices, and better offers compared to offline reservation channels (Özbek et al., 2015). On the other hand, perceived ease is defined as “the degree to which a person believes that no effort is made by using a particular system” (Davis, 1989). In the context of online booking, PEU means less effort compared to other methods. According to the technology acceptance model, an individual’s intentions can be used to predict the adoption of a technology. In this study, perceived usefulness is used as a mediating variable between perceived website interaction and online hotel reservation intention. According to the technology acceptance model, the deliberate behavior of users who use technology is influenced by users’ perceptions of the convenience and

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usefulness of technology (Özbek et al., 2015). The degree to which people believe that a person’s ability to perform a job is improved using a particular system is defined as perceived usefulness (Davis, 1989). The skill acceptance model states that perceived usefulness influences behavioral intentions. This theory is supported by many recent studies. For example, consumers of online health services emphasized the importance of perceived usefulness in both early and late stages of technology use (Mou et al., 2016).

Consumer Acceptance of Technology in Tourism Industry In the hospitality and tourism sector, self-service technology (SST) applications have increased considerably in recent years. These technologies have played a crucial role not only in terms of the competitiveness of tourism organizations. Technology acceptance theory is widely used in tourism studies in the field of hotel technology adoption, low-cost carrier technology adoption, tourist use of travel applications, tourist use of mobile technologies during travel planning, online buying behavior, and adoption of self-service technologies for dining facilities. Recently, restaurants in the United States have introduced customer-oriented self-service technology (SST) as a means of increasing customer satisfaction. In-store iPads with digital restaurant menus were first introduced to consumers at the end of 2013. Chile and Applebee have announced that they will install more than 100,000 tableside electronic monitors in all chain restaurants across the country. Also, as smartphones become ubiquitous, some companies are combining kiosks and mobile technologies to improve the customer experience. The research on technological adoption in the cooking process is considered as a key gap in the literature. The majority of research rely solely on order-centric technology solutions, such as self-service kiosks and smartphone applications (Ahn & Seo, 2018). Consumer acceptability of e-tourism was demonstrated primarily by browsing, reservation, and booking on tourist and hospitality business websites, as well as security concerns. Social media, often known as Web 2.0, is another venue for consumer adoption of e-tourism. Social networking, which is often referred to as Web 2.0, is another way that customers can get on board with etourism. E-tourism studies including mobile technology, such as a smartphone, are also included in the critical analysis. Customers for CAWST, the first category, come from tourist and hospitality business websites. This area includes studies on how website functionality, navigability, interaction, security, and privacy issues impact client purchasing choices. It covers, in particular, looking for tourism information, making reservations and bookings, and shopping for travel services online. It also contains analyses of the impact of tourist websites on the destination image (Chung et al., 2015). CAWST relies on website elements as well as client personal attributes. While conducting online tourist purchases, consumers place a premium on website security, navigation, and information quality (Kim et al., 2013; Chung et al., 2015). Wen (2012) discovered that the quality of website design affects consumer attitudes about online

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travel transactions and tourism items. In general, the data accessible on the website, safety, and content-motivating graphics influenced client adoption of a certain website for hotel bookings (Wong & Law, 2005; Kim et al., 2006; Ryan & Rao, 2008). In reality, emotional involvement, attitude, creativity, and flow are critical personal characteristics for online trip purchases (Kim et al., 2012). The second category, CASMT, contains research on the impact of social media on customer uptake of tourism and hospitality services. Virtual communities, mediasharing tools, blogs, microblogs, review sites, and social networking sites are all examples of social media platforms. Examples include Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, Twitter, Booking.com, and TripAdvisor. Pre-trip, during-trip, and posttrip behaviors all have an impact on CASMT. Furthermore, user personal traits, source characteristics, and user components influence the usage of social media material to search for trip information. As a result, experienced, dedicated, and creative travellers are more likely to utilize social media to seek for travel information (Ku, 2011). Because online community council is more successful than marketer-generated content, negative feedback has a greater influence on customers, especially when it is unfavorable (Sparks & Browning, 2011). The third category, CAMIST, includes study on the influence of mobile information technologies on consumer demand for tourism and hospitality services. Mobile tourist shopping (Kim et al., 2015), mobile travel applications (Lai, 2015), mobile Internet (Okazaki & Hirose, 2009), smartphones and tablets (No & Kim, 2014), and recommendation systems (Chung et al., 2014) are all examples. Mobile technologies will continue to rise in popularity among tourist customers due to perceived value, simplicity of use, and informativity (Chang et al., 2016); however, these characteristics are not regarded as posing an imminent threat to traditional personal computers (PCs) (Okazaki & Hirose, 2009). Personal variables such as trip and technology experiences are important determinants; as a result, frequent travellers have a higher likelihood of CAMIST adoption (Kim et al., 2008). Consumers are more satisfied with mobile applications that offer more travel-related information (No & Kim, 2014), making them more pleasurable than PC Internet access (Okazaki & Hirose, 2009).

Issues and Challenges in Technology Application in Tourism Industry Travel and tourism may have a huge influence on a nation’s economic and social growth; it can open up the country to commerce, trade, and capital investment; it can generate employment and entrepreneurship for the workforce; and it can safeguard heritage and cultural values. In 2018, the travel and tourism business grew at a higher rate, accounting for 10.4 percent of global GDP and 319 million jobs or 10% of total employment. Today, the tourist business is a highly sensitive hybrid industry that includes various consumer and service provider needs, as well as distinguishing elements of the information society. Although physical services produced and consumed in the physical world are the core product of the industry, they are accessed, planned, and achieved through the

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use of information services. Many hospitality and tourism businesses incorporate information technology into their businesses, thus providing an honest opportunity to reap huge returns of equivalent value. Computerized reservation systems are one type of information technology system that is utilized in this industry to reach out to potential consumers. Emerging industries are concerned with tourism and hospitality, and this suggests that efforts should be directed toward consumer satisfaction. People are concerned with the loss of job from the implementation of AI and robots (Smith & Anderson, 2014). There are many researches on human capital focusing on the replacement of labor with the usage of robotics and the AI revolution. In a similar research in the United States, employment rate will drop half being replaced by robots (Frey & Osborne, 2013). Meanwhile, it is predicted as 54% of Europe employment would be mastered by technologies (Bowles et al., 2019). Besides, in an Asian country’s like Singapore, approximately 25% employment rates are at risk (Lee & DeVore, 2017). Smith and Anderson (2014) state that by 2025, a significant number of jobs will be at risk and replaced with a technology evolution called AI. The world becomes more dependable on technology, and around 45% of employment in the United States work and task will be replaced by robots and AI (Chui et al., 2015). The ratio of 1 to 1000 US employees would reduce the employment to population ratio by 0.18–0.34 percentage points. Information and communications technologies (ICTs) allow the service providers to result in the customers getting valuable experiences (Binkhorst & Den Dekker, 2009), thus effecting the difference of the tourist possible experiences as they have been introduced to use new technologies. ICTs bring impacts to conservative constitution as the technologies have raised a number of chances for destinations for the betterment of performance and processes (Buhalis, 2003). The challenges for destinations in keeping up with the rapid advances and tools required to compete globally (Buck & While, 2017). A large number of developed services procedures need data for the tourist to gain a better information. Fundamental data such as age, sex, nationality, and so on will entrap to more individualistic data such as profiles and expenses in data sharing (Buhalis & Amaranggana, 2015) which leads to the concern of privacy and security between tourists. The research topics on tourism ecosystem are wide, but there is less research that focuses in only privacy and security (Saravanan & Ramakrishnan, 2016). Kim et al. (2008) state that privacy and security can be combined with other industry to construct trust and perceived risk element. Tourism is becoming one among the foremost profitable growth engines for the worldwide economy, so leadership within the sector is being disputed among the main countries, which struggle every year to draw in more and more tourists to their territories.

Conclusion Generally, this chapter outlines the impacts of technology toward tourism industry in the aspects of society, economy, and the environment. This chapter emphasizes on the impact and challenges faced by the employees after the evolution and existence of technology. Besides, organization based tourism capability to survive relies on

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whether the company is able to adapt with the current trends of technology applications. Nevertheless, to overcome the most difficult challenges is the conservative thought that new technology is only applicable to big organizations whereby their aims are toward application and solutions to target to a more potential market. ICT is vital when it comes to tourism internal management and also setting up relation externally with the potential customer which improves the coordination of the tourism industry. Besides, the rapid development in information and communication has caused the e-tourism websites to be developed to rich in information sites. The actual use of the Internet for travel planning is largely determined by your attitude toward the Internet as an information gathering medium, your familiarity with the Internet, and your self-efficacy when booking online travel services. However, when it comes to potential travellers’ attitudes, it’s critical to distinguish between sentiments toward utilizing the Internet for information gathering and attitudes about using it as a booking platform. These qualities must be evaluated individually since these constructs have obviously different perspectives on how their influence affects each other. While judging the usefulness of a website has the greatest impact on people’s attitudes regarding utilizing the Internet as a source of information, the traveller’s attitude toward utilizing the Internet as a booking application or website is heavily influenced by his or her own self-efficacy, particularly in terms of online booking but also in terms of looking for information. The traveller’s attitude toward online booking is influenced by previous experiences with travel websites and e-commerce, as well as confidence in travel websites in general. Trust, on the other hand, is significantly impacted by consumers’ past Internet experiences. This chapter is supported by various researches that have been published in various forms like thesis, journals, and books. Furthermore, the evaluated research discovered an unequal geographical distribution of investigations. Meanwhile, a lot of research is being done in Asia (Taiwan and China) and the United States and Europe, while other growing countries such as India and Africa are largely ignored, despite the increase in Internet subscribers in these emerging countries. Tourism is a vast sector, and changes will have an impact on the industry as a whole especially country’s economy. In decades, this topic has been a very hot issue where many researchers write and update the current issue of the industry. The most common issue that has attracted the current researchers are the inventions of technology that have influence the flow and static of the industry. Not only traveling has changed, but even education and medical field have been advancing. For example, the study material has been changed to e-digital format without printing or buying an actual book. Tourism and hospitality may be thought of as a specific technological activity that, in addition to basic food and beverage services, provides a wide range of social, cultural, and health services to fulfill the needs and desires of consumers. New customer demands, expectations, and ambitions have led in the emergence of new trends in the design of hospitality offerings. The business and development policies of hotel chain, restaurant, and bar owners must focus entirely on tourists, guests, and consumers and provide a variety of unique and attractive hospitality services. Employees and managers in the hospitality sector must get new information in order to provide a new service, a pleased client, and a competitive advantage in

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the tourism market sector. Information and communications technology is indeed an essential platform for small and medium tourism enterprises (SMTE). It enables SMTEs to promote business products and services using online travel agencies, mobile App, and social media such as Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube. The study concluded that travel agencies find the technology easy to use and useful in business operations. However, the consumers may not use the technology because of non-technological reasons such as online fraud and security and privacy concerns, they do not trust faceless transactions, and they are already used to the traditional way of transacting tourism products.

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Traveling and Its Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Culinary Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Culinary Tourism in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Individual’s Health Profile and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Human Body as a Living Entity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Immune Response and Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Type of Illnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Travelling Food Advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Determining Tourist Destinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Newly Evolving Scientific Understanding in Context of Natural Health and Individual’s Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Environment, Food, and Cultural Practices: Key Modulators Driving the Health Profile . . . Desi Food Types with Cooking Scheme Preserving Their Novel Nutritional, Therapeutic and Prophylactic Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Main Components of Desi Cuisine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tea (Chai) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Snacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Main Dish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Desi Cooking Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Daal” (Pulses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Saabzi” (Vegetables); “Salaan” (Desi Curry) with Meat and Vegetable or Without Vegetables, Rice with Pulses, Vegetable, or Meat (e.g., “Kechrey” [Hotchpotch Where Rice and Pulses Are Cooked Together], “Biryani,” and “Vegetable pelao,” “Fresh peas pelao,” “Chickpeas pelao,” “Meat yakhni pelao,” and “Biryani” [aromatic steamed rice with or without meat and with spices], etc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Qeema,” “Koftey,” “Kebab,” and Other Minced Meat Dishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Prolonged Cooking Food Items (e.g. “Nihari,” “Paye,” “Shabdeeq” “Shooley,” “Hareesa,” “Haleem,” etc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Saag” (Fried Cooked Green Leafy Vegetables) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Poor Person’s Meal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sauces and Yogurt Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pickles and Their Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Roti” (Bread) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dried Food Commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mouth Fresheners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sweets and Desserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Novelty Associated with Desi Food Items prepared by Indigenously Evolved Cooking Recipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Historical Places: Cultural Traits (e.g., Costumes and Handicrafts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COVID-19 Pandemic and Safety Concerns: A Long-Standing Challenge for the Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proposal for Technological Modulation Driving Tourists’ Safety Effective Against COVID-19 Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Merits and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Tourism has attracted so many customers from all over the globe that it has emerged as one of the key revenue generating industries in many countries. The key features which govern the customer influx in tourism industry prevailing in a given region include historical places; natural landscapes for natural sightseeing, hiking, mountaineering, sailing, or experiencing unusual geographical or geological phenomena; etc. which are publicized through effective marketing campaigns. Many people travel to developed countries to experience the taste of modern living, whereas others travel to enjoy the ancient cultural civilization, customs or cultural diversity, food folks, for attending festivals, exhibitions and for shopping clothing, handicrafts, jewelry etc. particularly the locally originated ones. The key factors that are kept under consideration while chalking out the tourism plans include cost, duration of trip, mode of traveling, and above all health and safety concerns. In recent years, the use of technology has magnified the tourism experience while making it hassle-free. Many countries which are rich in natural and historical heritage fail to attract tourists merely because they are not considered as safe to stay or have health concerns due to any prevailing illness outbreak. Travelling puts human body under stress that in turns makes it more prone to catch contagious diseases while being in journey or reaching on destination. Water, air, and food are the key vectors for transmission of germs (microorganisms) causing diseases. People are vaccinated and are given health advices before starting a trip for tourism. Spread of COVID-19, across the globe has halted economical activities which are the prime source to generate money for tourism that people use while sparing their time from their heavy professional life schedule. During Covid 19 Pandemic it has become a challenge to sustain economic activities and traveling while protecting people from illnesses.

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This piece of work covers basic information on a few cultural features and health-related issues including those which can occur during traveling while suggesting diets, many of them on having regular use prevent consumers from many diseases due to their prophylactic and therapeutic potentials, besides presenting a general scheme for cooking methods evolved in Indian subcontinent. Use of the suggested diets for journey can decrease the risk of acquiring illness during journey, making it safer and more enjoyable, whereas certain food preparations (desi food or their derivatives) are particularly proven supportive in conferring protection against COVID-19 virus illness and facilitate its cure besides offering their general prophylactic role. The hypothetical model, also based on use of diets and food preparations with integrated use of technology, is presented at the end of this chapter for providing safer and cost-effective option for tourism in relatively unexplored global regions present in Asia. Keywords

Tourism · Food · Diet preparations (desi food or their derivatives) · Technology · Illness manifestations · Genes network operations · Evolutionary genetics e.g. Epigenetics · Science underlying the desi cooking procedures · Desi pickling · Cultural features · Health safety · Natural health · COVID-19 · Business ventures

Introduction Traveling and Its Impact People travel from one place to another for different purposes. Tourism refers to casual traveling which is done for the sake of leisure, research, learning, exploring business ventures, and political and diplomatic purposes. Recently recognized reason for going on a trip is to improve mental and general well-being. For tourists, food expenditure is 40% of the total budget (Boyne et al., 2002), while almost 33% is for the travel accommodation (Hipwell, 2007). As a result, food appears as one of the most essential factors for destination marketing strategies (du Rand & Heath, 2006). Food as the cultural attraction is mentioned in many country’s national tourism websites. Wine tourism in France is an example. France does not only attract tourists to merely sip or purchase wine but also to enjoy wine activities and vineyards as well as to visit and move around the whole country (The France Tourism Development Agency, 2017). It is obvious that food can promote a destination as it is related to the daily lives, the unique culture, and the local mass production (Everett & Aitchison, 2008). This is a reason for which culinary tourism can be connected to food, destination, and culture at the same time. Culinary tourism is viewed as an industry that is emerging (Horng & Tsai, 2012; Tsai & Wang, 2017) as cuisine and food present the key themes of a destination’s intangible heritage that gradually appears as the international leading brand to attract more tourists from all over the world (Horng & Tsai, 2012).

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A good number of research studies are conducted to enrich the knowledge in culinary tourism area such as brand equity (Jiang et al., 2017), food brandings (Tsai & Wang, 2017), satisfaction and post-purchase behavior determinants in restaurant (Kincaid et al., 2010; Soriano, 2002), and culinary tourism strategy (Horng & Tsai, 2012). It is important to learn that the integration of food and tourism strategy can promote local economic development (Hall et al., 2004).

Culinary Tourism The notion “culinary tourism” was initiated in 1998 that has relevance for traveling for discovering and enjoying local cuisines and acquiring culinary experiences (Horng & Tsai, 2012; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Wolf, 2002). Ignatov and Smith (2006) feature culinary tourists as tourists that are either studying, consuming, observing, or purchasing the local foods or investigating and validating the process of food production and management (quality and safety) across the food supply chain (Rab, 2002) as well as perceiving that it is rather a critical travel motivation. Other terms and concepts are attached to food tourism, wine tourism, tasting tourism, and gastronomy tourism (Boniface, 2003; Brown & Getz, 2005; Hall et al., 2004; Kivela & Crotts, 2005). The term “culinary” can represent the preparation and production of foods, ingredients, beverages, organizing events (food festivals, food exhibitions etc.) and organoleptic specific inspirations driven food tourism which play important role in creating food temptation among social structures (Ignatov & Smith, 2006). Food is one of the main motivations to direct tourists to visit a specific destination (Henderson, 2009). Food can create a link between a destination and tourism and bring them together. Good-quality food is a tourist destination’s crucial dimension (target) because it can play a vital role to promote a certain destination and differentiate the experience obtained from other tourist destinations’ experiences (Horng & Tsai, 2010, 2012). This is one of the reasons for which culinary tourists stay as a key factor modulating cultural tourism (Horng & Tsai, 2010). The resources in culinary tourism include food, activities to prepare food, events (food festivals, food exhibitions etc.), facilities (manufacturing, dinning and catering units), and organizations dealing with food (Ignatov & Smith, 2006; Smith & Xiao, 2008). Tourists’ experiences and sensations during their visit can be provoked by the destinations’ restaurants’ food eateries (dhaba), food taste, by offering diversity in atmosphere, and other relevant aspects (Kivelä & Chu, 2001). Unique food and cuisine can turn a particular destination well renowned when food stays as one of the crucial dimensions (aspects) of dining experience (Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Tsai & Lu, 2012). A national or local destination can get support from food tourism to emerge as the main element for destination branding (Henderson, 2009). Even though food occupies a major role in the tourism industry, there are diversified demands and expectations of the tourists about the consumption of food. On the basis of food information search, tourists are classified into four main types by Boyne, Hall, and Williams (Boyne et al., 2003) as first, active food

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information searching tourists; second, non-active food information searching tourists; third, tourists that do not consider food as an important element even after taking part in food activities; and fourth, tourists that do not have interest even in excellent food and cuisine. Culinary tourism and tourism destinations are closely interrelated because of the local traditions, cultures, and geographical orientation. Asia has been staying as center of attraction for tourists for ages. This part of the world has natural resources as well as historical heritages worth visiting for tourists. The great richness of Asia lies in its culinary tradition and food resources (Park et al., 2019). Asia has been center of several civilizations that have influenced the culinary customs and cultures prevailing in this region (Cochrane, 2008). Modern living and eating practices are being embedded in traditional ancient culinary norms; though this process is gradual, transformation in culinary practices is very obvious.

Culinary Tourism in Asia Countries in Asia have many tourist attractions for visiting and enjoying the local’s customary lifestyles. Asian countries are attracting considerable number of international tourists, and many of their cities are well famous for street and traditional foods and cuisine (Tsai & Wang, 2017), whereas many countries particularly offer their foods as major tourist attractions (Horng & Tsai, 2010). Local foods are not only the representation of the local culture but also represent practical application of knowledge related to locally available ingredients. A tourist destination’s competitive advantage can be created by the local food and biologically significant ingredients used in food products. For this reason strategies based on products that are grounded in destination resources can support sustainable tourism development (Stokes, 2008; Weaver, 2001). A tourist in general tastes the local dishes that represent the particular destination through diverse outlets as food courts, street food shops, food hawkers, eateries (dhaba) and restaurants. For understanding the knowledge evolution stages in the food tourism industry, this is important to make the products manufacturing units and services providers business ventures mutually integrated driven by authentic research based independently validated feedback and this would reveal new horizons of in-depth knowledge understanding helpful to meet challenges of future world (American Association of University Professors, 2015). For this purpose, the researchers and industry practitioners in the food, hospitality, tourism, and offered services’ areas need to independently validate research findings before applying within organizational system at operational level for both improving and expanding their services and products. For researchers knowledge in this very specific area of tourism and hospitality industry prevailing in Asia is in developing stage. Food tourism is related to gastronomy that is the service part of the economy and the culture. Kowalczyk (2020) informed that gastronomy has importance in the city’s economy and sociodemographic demarcation. Also, research studies in tourism and gastronomy aim for discovering the present and future potentials of local

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food for the marketing of a destination. In this regard, Mohamed, Hewedi, Lehto, and Maayouf (2019) researched the Egyptian Destination Marketing Organisation (DMO) websites for marketing both local food tourism and gastronomic practices and explored that the application of food culture on the Egyptian DMO’s websites was still at the infancy stage. Then the research of Lau and Li (2019) about urban food festival found that urban food festival can create outstanding connotations to select a particular place. Also, urban food festival can generate placelessness experience with placeness tourism. So, local food can appear as a destination drive for food and can create the food image of a destination. Apart from all these, destination and food can also influence food consumption and other preferences prevailing among tourists (Promsivapallop & Kannaovakun, 2019). Local food is very often marketed in parallel to local culture (Gyimóthy & Mykletun, 2009; Sims, 2009) as foods can motivate tourists for both visiting and revisiting destinations (Ignatov & Smith, 2006; Kivela & Crotts, 2006). Asia as a tourist destination is dependent on food as an essential item which would very likely be modulating revenue flux in coming days (Henderson, 2016; Henkel et al., 2006; Tsai & Wang, 2017). As a result, cities and countries in Asia are eager to promote culinary tourism (Horng & Tsai, 2012). An example is Thailand that partially branded the country with the “Global Kitchen Project” and developed the uniqueness of national gastronomy (Sunanta, 2005). Also, Singapore has promoted food cultures and varieties as useful and crucial destination attractions (Henderson, 2016; Horng & Tsai, 2010). In the Indian subcontinent, India has very strong presence in the world for its food and cuisine, whereas Pakistan with local ingredients and local cooking style attracts thousands of tourists every year. Most of the Asian countries have their own food tradition, cuisine, and food culture where tourists can feel and enjoy the regional culture while having local food. Culinary tourism thus supports the local communities for creating job opportunities as well as for preserving the local food culture (Horng & Tsai, 2012). This chapter is written to highlight the significance of tourism in context of alternative aim suggesting travelling as a mean to acquire natural health and to sustain well being using change in environment and food as key modulators driving the body to attain healthy natural well-being. The latest understanding on health sciences reveals that there exists a connection among mind, mouth, and gut which through some mechanism involving microorganisms which play a crucial role in sustaining good mental and physical health confirming that change in environment, moving toward healthier one for time being, as it happens in most of the tourism trips that in longer run travelling improve an individual’s physical and mental health profile generally make them more open to get adapted with the change in environmental conditions, whose effect is transmitted at genomic level while triggering the genome differently conferring upon them modified behavioral traits which help them to spend quality life and to excel in their professions (Wilpiszeski et al., 2019; Harvey et al., 2020; Rab, 2007, 2014; Bishop et al., 2007; Lin et al., 2019; Tremlett et al., 2017; Alhasson et al., 2017; Li, 2017).

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However, there is always some health concerns related to traveling even for the purpose of tourism, depending on means of transportation, geographical locations of destinations, localities of boarding and lodging accommodation, food, general public health profile, etc. (Matos & Barcellos, 2010).

Individual’s Health Profile and Tourism Human Body as a Living Entity The human body is made of huge number of living units/entities of cells having different life spans working together to form tissues which are integral parts of organs. These organs work together to build systems (e.g., respiratory system, circulation system, immune system, etc.) which in turn co-coordinately operate to enable the human body to function normally by keeping a set balance between ongoing synthesizing biochemical reactions (anabolism) and ongoing degradative biochemical reactions (catabolism) within the cells and in their outer environment (Mo & Palsson, 2009). Body temperature, heart beats (pulse) breathing rate, blood pressure, and body weight, oedema (body swelling index due to fluid retention) include the key indicators of the body health profile which reflect the health status of any individual. Biochemical diagnostic tests for evaluating the body functions include assays for blood sugar level, cholesterol level, etc. (Bartsch et al., 2015; Bishop et al., 2007; Cinti, 2019; Ducker & Rabinowitz, 2017; Goldstein, 2019; Matos & Barcellos, 2010; Mo & Palsson, 2009; Mulukutla et al., 2016; Rab, 2007, 2014, 2021, 2018a, b; Reid et al., 2017; Xiao et al., 2018). In upcoming years, many new diagnostic tests which can estimate the O2 levels of fluid and cellular concentration of oxidative stress combating enzymes particularly Cu, Zn-superoxide dismutase (Cu, Zn-Sod), and sod1p both in active and inactive form seem to be included as essential diagnostic tests to define the status of health individuals. There is a range assigned for each diagnostic indicator assay indicating the normal, but there exists exceptions for a number of known and unknown reasons for each health index indicator (Bishop et al., 2007; Owen et al., 2018; Rab, 2007, 2014, 2021, 2018a, b). This has introduced the concept of normal abnormality in health sciences which differentiates it from a disease state which represents impairment in body operations in response to either intrinsic stimuli (body’s inner factor or any biological event) or external stimuli (any factor such as germs (microorganisms), prions, pollutants, allergens, etc. present in the environment interacting with the body or entering in it through specific route causing illness) (Ramos & Olden, 2008; Rab, 2007, 2014; 2021, 2018a, b; Bishop et al., 2007; Owen et al., 2018; Nestler et al., 2016; Webster et al., 2019; Morse, 1995; Church, 2004; Weiss & McMichael, 2004; Nii-Trebi, 2017; Jones et al., 2008; Casanova & Abel, 2013; Wang & Anderson, 2019; Mourya et al., 2019; Chabas et al., 2018; Olsen et al., 2012; Bains, 2014; Gardy & Loman, 2018; Branković et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2015; Netea et al., 2017; Anand & Mande, 2018; Domínguez-Amorocho et al., 2019; Olivera et al., 2018; Galli & Tsai, 2012;

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Ho et al., 2014; Anvari et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2019; Cassat & Skaar, 2013; Wang & Dai, 2013; Begg, 2019; Swart et al., 2020; Kipnis, 2016; Genoud et al., 2020; Eby & Eby, 2006; Cusick & Sayler, 2013; Niethammer, 2016; Xiao et al., 2011; Singer, 2017; Gryglewski et al., 2006; Lipper et al., 2019; Mahnam & Raisi, 2017; Loder et al., 2013; Pu et al., 2017; Kovacic & Somanathan, 2009; Smith et al., 2014; Sussulini & Hauser-Davis, 2018). The body has healing mechanisms which are encoded in the genetic material comprised of repeated units of deoxyribonucleic acid molecule (DNA), each molecule of DNA polymer carries one of four nitrogenous bases, and the sequence of nitrogenous bases present within a stretch of DNA encoding for a peptide (polymer of amino acids and integral part of protein which can or cannot act as an enzyme) is called gene (coding DNA fragment) (Dahm, 2008; Minchin & Lodge, 2019; Zinovkina, 2018). In simple words, gene is a functional unit of genetic material encoding for a particular characteristics or for carrying out a particular biological event when it operates independently or in coordination with other genes lying within a given gene network (Bishop et al., 2007; Carrillo-Perdomo et al., 2016; Cui et al., 2017; Rab, 2007, 2014, 2018a, b, 2020a, b; Wiraswati et al., 2016; Zinovkina, 2018). Whether the illness is due to the manifestation of impairment of cellular operating cascade in response of external stimuli or independent of it, it’s the preprogrammed healing mechanisms regulated at different genomic levels which become operational to resolve illness manifestations until complete cure. Most of the drugs available so far mainly ease the symptoms and facilitate the body to use its preprogrammed healing mechanisms to operate more effectively (Rab, 2007, 2014, 2018a, b, 2020a, b; Bishop et al., 2007; Nestler et al., 2016; Webster et al., 2019; Morse, 1995; Church, 2004; Weiss & McMichael, 2004; Nii-Trebi, 2017; Jones et al., 2008; Casanova & Abel, 2013; Wang & Anderson, 2019; Mourya et al., 2019; Chabas et al., 2018; Olsen et al., 2012; Bains, 2014; Gardy & Loman, 2018; Branković et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2015; Netea et al., 2017; Anand & Mande, 2018; DomínguezAmorocho et al., 2019; Olivera et al., 2018; Galli & Tsai, 2012; Ho et al., 2014; Anvari et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2019; Cassat & Skaar, 2013; Wang & Dai, 2013; Begg, 2019; Swart et al., 2020; Kipnis, 2016; Genoud et al., 2020; Eby & Eby, 2006; Cusick & Sayler, 2013; Niethammer, 2016; Xiao et al., 2011; Singer, 2017; Gryglewski et al., 2006; Lipper et al., 2019; Mahnam & Raisi, 2017; Loder et al., 2013; Pu et al., 2017; Kovacic & Somanathan, 2009; Smith et al., 2014; Sussulini & Hauser-Davis, 2018; Zinovkina, 2018; Cui et al., 2017; Wiraswati et al., 2016; Carrillo-Perdomo et al., 2016; Holford, 2015; Shi et al., 2019; Mohr, 2016; Hutchings et al., 2019; Kaufman, 2016; Musa et al., 2018; Baig et al., 2016). For instance, most of the antibiotics are designed to decrease the number of metabolically viable disease causing target microorganisms (pathogen) by killing them and/or making their virulence potential (capability to cause infection) compromised; hence, by doing so, antibiotics make it easier for immune system (defense mechanism) operating against target microorganisms (pathogen) in the human body to irradiate the infection and resolve the infection-driven-health-manifestations to cure the disease in a preprogrammed manner encoded in human

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genome (Alam & Rahman, 2016; Baig et al., 2016; Belkaid & Hand, 2014; Furman & Davis, 2015; Haak & Wiersinga, 2017; Hagan et al., 2019; Libertucci & Young, 2019; Mohr, 2016; Moloney et al., 2014; Smith, 2019; Spencer et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2019). The use of antibiotics particularly unnecessarily and in inappropriate manner makes them ineffective against target microorganisms (pathogen) as these microorganisms (pathogen) acquire resistance by altering its operational domain against which the antibiotic was designed to target. This in turn strengthens the potential of microorganisms (pathogen) to cause illness besides increasing the risk to stay untreated with emergence of complications while increasing the fatality rate. If the human body immune system is not appropriately functional, antibiotics alone cannot completely cure and irradiate the target microorganisms (pathogen) from the human body (Barriere, 2015; Blair et al., 2015; Cox & Wright, 2013; Frieri et al., 2017; Plantinga et al., 2015; Watkins & Bonomo, 2016). Every drug is associated with generation of undesirable temporary or permanent effects on administration known as side effects that can be harmful as well which initiate when the drug comes in contact with the body or enters in it with varying severity depending on the environment, lifestyle, and the diet being consumed by an individual (Kundu et al., 2019; Li et al., 2016; McLaughlin & Jacobs, 2017; Muller & Milton, 2012; Peck, 2018).

Immune Response and Health Concerns Since human beings are in stage of fetus, cells comprising the fetus have potential to register a huge range of molecules against which they are programmed to launch neither cellular immune response (defense mechanism mediated by specialized cells) nor protective response mediated by humoral immune response [defense mechanism mediated by macromolecules, e.g., antibodies (immunoglobulins which are glycoprotein in nature), complement proteins, and certain antimicrobial peptides] and are recognized as self; for the rest of all entities ‘foreign’, the human body has the potential to provoke defense mechanism on exposure with their specific surface sites on entering the body through specific route of entry which is boasted on repeated exposure and confer protection for time being or for lifetime depending on the type of the entity provoking the immune response. People who travel from the home destination having unhygienic conditions are more resistant (acquired immunity) to a wide range of microorganisms (pathogens) normally found in their regional/home environment and in local food where because of having repeated exposure, also consuming microorganisms including disease causing ones (pathogens) in their food which may be present in numbers below the upper limit that is required to cause infection (below infectious dose) besides this many pathogenic microorganisms present in their local food are in damaged and stressed form where their ability to cause infection has diminished, hence they can act as oral vaccine (Rab, 1995, 2007, 2014, 2018a, b, c, 2019a, b, 2020a, b, 2021; Bishop et al., 2007; Daily Pakistan, 2020; DAWN, 2020a, b; Aziz et al., 2018; Barabas et al., 2018; Castelo-Branco &

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Soveral, 2014; Childs et al., 2019; Criscuolo et al., 2019; Tomar & De, 2014; Criscuolo et al., 2019). Innate immunity is by birth conferred resistance against a given pathogen, a characteristic feature which is also regulated at genomic level. The normal flora and potential pathogens (disease-causing microorganisms) vary from localities to localities and can differ from one geographical region to another geographical region depending on climate environment and many other factors cumulatively governing the selection of given flora and in driving any infectious illness outbreak. For all travellers, whether they are travelling from east to west, from hygienic environment to comparatively unhygienic one, there are a huge range of environmental factors and entities including all types of germs (microorganisms) which are different from their geological location of origin that put the human body in stress; hence, the human body is supposed to tune to acquire characteristics well adapted to new environments variables by initiating the operations mediating the adjustment with altered environment driven by programs lying within human genes network’s encoding data bank embedded in human genome, triggered by external stimuli flux and/or by any change in it (Bhutta et al., 2014; Bishop et al., 2007; Bookman et al., 2011; Carrillo-Perdomo et al., 2016; Chen & Blair, 2015; Cui et al., 2017; Davis, 1996; Fontana et al., 2019; Halu et al., 2019; Hanson & Gluckman, 2014; Harvey et al., 2020; Istúriz et al., 2006; Kulkarni et al., 2006; Mangili et al., 2015; Menche et al., 2015; Murray et al., 2015; Rab, 2007, 2014, 2018a, b, 2020a, b; Ramos & Olden, 2008; Sanders et al., 2008; Sankar et al., 2015; Scheen & Junien, 2012; Spencer et al., 2019; Wilpiszeski et al., 2019; Wiraswati et al., 2016; Zinovkina, 2018). This whole process requires some time. Same is true for acquiring immunity against new microbial flora prevailing at transient and final destination of the journey.

Type of Illnesses There are basically two types of illnesses. These include the illnesses caused by any causative agent, e.g., bacteria, virus, fungi, etc., and are contagious in nature. The other type of illness occurs in consequence of some impairment happening in the human body’s normal cellular or systematic operations, e.g., diabetes, arthritis, high/ low blood pressure, etc., including mental illness which can also occur for a number of reasons including nutritional imbalance or deficiency. The impairment in defense mechanism of the human body results in occurrence of autoimmune diseases (a disease state when the body launches defense mechanism to destroy its own body components) (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis and allergy) when the body launches self-destructive immune response also directed against allergens (molecular entity/ entities) which are commonly recognized as self (type of chemical entities against which the human body normally does not launch immune response) or makes an individual more prone to acquire infections with having poor recovery. Some people are allergic to specific food components that is a matter of concern when people travel from one region to another. The allergies are exhibited with appearance of symptoms such as diarrhea, asthma, rash on the skin, etc. usually after taking second

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or third meal having allergens. Allergies are more common in the West than in East as generally excessive microbial load (microorganisms prevailing in huge number e.g. number of colony forming units present per unit mass or volume) on their persistent exposure in comparatively unhygienic environment prevents the initiation of immunological pathways leading to development of allergies. Many food-borne microorganisms produce toxins which produce harmful effects in the body including food poisoning. They include Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium perfringens both of them produce food poisoning-causing toxins, but the food toxin produced by Clostridium perfringens is destroyed by heating. For the same reason, it is advised to heat the canned food until boiling before consumption. The simple way to prevent food-borne illnesses is to eat freshly cooked food particularly fish which besides carrying high risk for causing microorganisms driven food poisoning can also cause food allergy like manifestations, known as Scombroid poisoning (biochemically driven food allergy like syndrome) on consuming fish which was stored inappropriately for long time. Commercially bulk processed food items are not healthy to consume because they are overprocessed and contain chemical entities which can be harmful to the human body on regular consumption (Bookman et al., 2011; Childs et al., 2019; Scheen & Junien, 2012; Kulkarni et al., 2006; Jobst et al., 1999; Smart, 2014; Carmona, 2014; Consiglio, 2008; Scheen & Bours, 2012; Mara & Alabaster, 1995; Scheen & Giet, 2012; Simon, 2018; Eigenmann et al., 2019; von Mutius & Vercelli, 2019; Boye, 2012; Maître et al., 2014; Dhama et al., 2013; Rab, 1995, 2002, 2017b, 2018a, b, 2019a; Manning, 2017; Håstein et al., 2006; Mossel, 1995; Clemens, 2019; Hejna et al., 2018).

Travelling Food Advice At least 3 days before traveling anywhere, it is advisable to be cautious about the food intake and social contact. Avoid interacting with people having any contagious disease. Take freshly cooked food that is easily digestible. Tourists cannot do much about the food being served during air traveling or in airports. But on arrival at destination, they can opt for a hotel which is in compliance with the international food safety standards having regular third-party audits (independent external audits). There are several hotels particularly in Asia which falsely claim that their food quality and safety is fully in compliance with international standards. It is advisable to avoid eating food served in such hotels. There are four main sources involved in transferring food-borne microorganisms having potential to cause diseases. They include water, food, people involved in handling the food, and food utensils (Rab, 2002, 2017b, 2018b, 2019a, b; Mangili et al., 2015; Chen & Blair, 2015; Manning, 2017; Håstein et al., 2006; Mossel, 1995; Korzeniewski, 2017). On arrival at the destination, use boiled water at least for 2–3 weeks. Water needs to be boiled for 20 minutes and stored in glass or steel container having airtight lid to keep it covered until use (potable water). Salads having chopped vegetables washed with potable water and immersed in sauce comprising of salt pepper and natural vinegar constitute a safe diet to store up to 12 hours. Within a facility to store the

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food in cold box carrying ice, the salad can be safely stored for 24 hours. Avoid adding sauces and salad dressings as they can increase the risk of acquiring foodborne diseases by providing a suitable environment for food illness-causing germs/ microorganisims (pathogens) to grow besides adding on unhealthy form of fat and other synthetic chemical ingredients in the diet. Avoid junk food as they are merely calories without having nutritionally valuable components in considerable concentration which are required by the body to cope with the daily routine work or with the stress of travelling and to get adjusted in a new environment existing at the destination. Add on full-boiled eggs with naturally fermented cheese in the form of prepared sandwiches without having added any sauce that can be safely stored in ice box for 18–20 hours’ travelling and healthy enough to consume while staying at travelling destination. Full-boiled eggs and cheese can be carried in ice box separately to prepare sandwiches whenever needed. Packed sealed naturally fermented yogurt can make the journey safer and healthier as it is full of calcium, beneficial microorganisms (probiotics), and nutritional ingredients which nourish the body and at the same time protect it from acquiring food-borne diseases by boasting the immunity. Avoid using beef, chicken, or fish pate for making sandwiches to store for longer duration as the risk for causing illness is increased many folds; fish being the most sensitive commodity to handle can further make such food products unfit for prolonged storage or for consumption while traveling (Aslam et al., 2018; Bell et al., 2018; Cavallo, 1986; DAWN, 2015; Hale et al., 2015; Kok & Hutkins, 2018; Korzeniewski, 2017; Mossel, 1995; Rab, 2018c, 2019b). It is advisable to avoid going to crowded places including enclosed centrally air-conditioned shopping malls and do other necessary preparations and try to keep relax schedule for at least a week to 10 days on reaching the destination especially if you are travelling across the continents reaching in entirely different sets of living setup (Mohr, 1976; Woś & Korzeniewski, 2018). During this time, consume freshly prepared prolonged cooked meals (e.g., Pakistani curry having meat or chicken cooked on low flame for longer time along with different spices) (Rab, 2017b).

Factors Determining Tourist Destinations Newly Evolving Scientific Understanding in Context of Natural Health and Individual’s Safety People plan trips in different parts of the world. The reason for going on a trip in turn is also influenced by cost, availability of flights and other means of transportation, hotels and resorts, weather, and many other factors (Woś & Korzeniewski, 2018). In recent years, realizing the fact that the mind mouth and gut, effect the muscles and govern mental illness, metabolic syndromes, allergies, etc., people have started opting to travel not only for leisure and other reasons mentioned earlier but for their health and well-being as most of Asian countries have sunny days in most of time during year apart of other additional features. Exposure to sunlight initiates the

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production of vitamin D, a key modular of health features, in the human body, that ensures physical and mental well-being of individuals as well as contributes to confer immunity and to control inflammation and allergenic reactions (Ramos & Olden, 2008; Li, 2017; Matos & Barcellos, 2010; Nestler et al., 2016; Anand & Mande, 2018; Cui et al., 2017; Spencer et al., 2019; Moloney et al., 2014; Fontana et al., 2019; Bookman et al., 2011; Scheen & Junien, 2012; Scheen & Bours, 2012; Mara & Alabaster, 1995; Scheen & Giet, 2012; Cavallo, 1986; Hale et al., 2015; Bell et al., 2018; Kok & Hutkins, 2018; Aslam et al., 2018; Rab, 2018a, b, c, 2021; Galland, 2014; Levy et al., 2017; Yoo & Mazmanian, 2017; Pedersen, 2019; McEwen & Bulloch, 2019). In recent days, tourism industry has also been adversely affected by COVID-19 pandemic and experienced around 60–80% decline in international tourism economy while making the world to shift focus of tourism from Europe and America to other regions of the world; Asia seems to emerge as a safer alternate tourism destination (OECD, 2020). Asia has been the center of attraction for tourists since ages as this region has natural as well as historical heritages worth visiting for people also partly due to availability of option to purchase comparatively low cost trips. Asia has been the center of several civilizations which have influenced the customs and cultures prevailing in this region (Cochrane, 2008). Traditional ancient cultural norms are being influenced by modern practices; though this process is gradual, transformation in social practices is very obvious. The details of tourist attraction sites can be obtained by contacting the concerned departments in respective countries. However, there is huge collection of unexplored sites having natural resource’s reservoir in Asia which have potential to attract more visitors than previously recorded.

Environment, Food, and Cultural Practices: Key Modulators Driving the Health Profile Food provides nutrients and energy to our body. As also mentioned in the relevant literature cited earlier, the information regarding the development functions and repair mechanisms on cellular level as well as on organizational level of a living entity including human beings is encoded in genetic material. Nutrients present in food have potential to govern the operation of certain genes and their regulation at mutually regulated gene network level also governing the repair mechanisms for functional imbalances. The nutrient imbalance is one of the reasons for causing noncontagious diseases. Do diet and environment have any role in determining the allocation of sex of fetus is a scientific query which is being under investigation for ages (Green et al., 2008)? In a village in Alzahra in Libya, an African Arab country, health experts of a royal tribe give a herb to consume in a special manner to the woman planning a child for having a baby boy which in 99% of cases as they claim works successfully since ancient times.

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The geography and geology of certain region in Asia, particularly Indian subcontinent, has distinct characteristics which are complemented with the climate prevailing in this region giving the vegetation some distinct features; many of them have prophylactic and therapeutic significance as well, which is augmented while cooking with different spices in special manner (a distinct feature of South Asian cuisine, Indian subcontinet s desi food), especially the ones which are rooted from Mediterranean region. A very famous folk narrates that invaders of many great civilizations brought along with them different herbs and spices to plant when they came to settle in Asia which they also used in herbal medicines as well as added in daily routine food to prevent different illnesses. For instance, “Nihari,” a very popular dish of the subcontinent was in fact a therapeutic food which was publically introduced to be taken as breakfast in order to protect people from a commonly prevailing disease in ancient time (Achaya, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2009; Sen, 2015; Kammath et al., 2020; Surh, 1999; Zhang et al., 2020; Thoennissen et al., 2010; Rab, 2018c; DAWN, 2016). The trend of marriages within close family contributes in mutation of both copies of given gene/s and can also cause (knockout/s) in offsprings making an individual deficient in certain gene functions, hence increasing the risk of diseases associated with underlying gene functional deficiency. In Pakistani families, it was found that knockout gene/s functions under study were not completely lost unlike very much expected, indicating food as a key factor for boosting the functions of weaker genes complementing to substitute the deprived activity of knockout genes (Saleheen et al., 2017; Rab, 2007, 2014, 2018b, c, 2020a, b; Bishop et al., 2007). Asia particularly subcontinent has fewer cases reported for neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson disease, dementia, and other mental illnesses such as depression and metabolic syndrome including different types of noncontagious illnesses than those reported in America and Europe (Kankeu et al., 2013; Rizzi et al., 2014). Apart from other factors, food may be one of the main reasons for reducing the of prevalence of noncommunicable diseases in Asia particularly in subcontinent (Christ et al., 2018; Yagi, 1987). General health and mental well-being are proven to be interdependent through mouth, gut, and mind connection regulated through microbes acting as intermediate connection factor to external environment, also effecting the muscle activity of the body (Wilpiszeski et al., 2019; Harvey et al., 2020; Ramos & Olden, 2008; Lin et al., 2009; Tremlett et al. 2017; Alhasson et al., 2017; Li, 2017; Cinti, 2019; Rab, 2007, 2014, 2018b, c; 2021; Bishop et al., 2007; Nestler et al., 2016; Anand & Mande, 2018; Cui et al., 2017; Spencer et al., 2019; Moloney et al., 2014; Libertucci & Young, 2019; Belkaid & Hand, 2014; Haak & Wiersinga, 2017; Fontana et al., 2019; Sankar et al., 2015; Bookman et al., 2011; Scheen & Junien, 2012; Scheen & Bours, 2012; Hale et al., 2015; Bell et al., 2018; Kok & Hutkins, 2018; Aslam et al., 2018; Galland, 2014; Levy et al., 2017; Yoo & Mazmanian, 2017; Pedersen, 2019; McEwen & Bulloch, 2019). In Asia, food and eating habits that have originated from ancient cultures, particularly of those foods having special ingredients present in the given yields

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obtained from various specific soils under given cultivation conditions prevailing only in Asia which are missing in the rest of the world, seem to be the key factor for suppression of a huge number of illnesses as it has already been proven that appearance of any phenotype depends on environmental factors that act as stimuli governing the genes’ operations within their network (Ramos & Olden, 2008; Wilpiszeski et al., 2019; Harvey et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2019; Tremlett et al., 2017; Alhasson et al., 2017; Li, 2017; Cinti, 2019; Rab, 2007, 2014, 2018b, c, 2020a, b, 2021; Bishop et al., 2007; Nestler et al., 2016; Anand & Mande, 2018; Cui et al., 2017; Spencer et al., 2019; Moloney et al., 2014; Libertucci & Young, 2019; Belkaid & Hand, 2014; Haak & Wiersinga, 2017; Fontana et al., 2019; Sankar et al., 2015; Bookman et al., 2011; Scheen & Junien, 2012; Scheen & Bours, 2012; Hale et al., 2015; Bell et al., 2018; Kok & Hutkins, 2018; Aslam et al., 2018; Galland, 2014; Levy et al., 2017; Yoo & Mazmanian, 2017; Pedersen, 2019; McEwen & Bulloch, 2019; Sodhi et al., 2004; Hughes, 2017; Sarker & Oba, 2018). This is further evidenced by the distinct characteristics prevailing mangoes, cotton, jute, flowers particularly roses, etc. produced in Asia particularly in Indian subcontinent demonstrating that the region carries certain distinct geographical and geological features which seem to be complemented with weather and other environmental factors to trigger the genomic operations in the manner which is different and distinct whereas non living things like marble and salt also acquire distinct characteristics because of certain distinct geographical and geological features only prevailing in certain regions of Asia. The region of Asia by providing the distinct environment and weather conditions supported the cultivation of huge range of vegetation planted by different invaders while giving agricultural produces distinct characteristics, as mentioned earlier as well, besides making this region a reservoir for microbial flora and fauna carrying unique features which collectively compose isolated patches of hyper-productive dynamic eco-system spread over a huge region (Harvey et al., 2020; Hughes, 2017; Sarker & Oba, 2018; Sodhi et al., 2004; Wilpiszeski et al., 2019). For instance, “Multani Mitti” (mud from Multan also known as fuller’s earth) having distinct features and is also rich in minerals including magnesium which is originated from Multan a city situated near the bank of river Chenab in Pakistan has been in use for skin problems including heat rash as well as for cosmetic purposes for ages. In olden days, fullers used to knead “Multani Mitti” and water in woolen clothes as a part of finishing process to absorb grease. The hot springs located at Manghopir in Karachi the largest city of Pakistan is believed to have remedy for many skin illnesses (Bhola, 1946; Chagtai & Siddiqui, 1980; FAO & ITPS, 2015; Harvey et al., 2020; Javed et al., 2009; Khan et al., 2006; Wilpiszeski et al., 2019). There are many more to add, but the authors will prefer to focus on more distinct cultural features influencing health and well-being through mouth, gut, and mind connection mediated by microorganisms (microbial flora). The livestock vegetation spices and microbial flora along with environmental conditions altogether contribute to give Asian cuisine particularly food from Indian subcontinental region distinct organoleptic properties including the therapeutic features and prophylactic mode of

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action (Achaya, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2009; Sen, 2015; Kammath et al., 2020; Surh, 1999; Zhang et al., 2020; Thoennissen et al., 2010; Rab, 2018c). The foods served in most of elite hotels are processed in a manner that most of beneficial characteristics are lost which are sustained in the food cooked by following eastern recipes which are mostly comprised of traditional manner of cooking while conserving nutrition, energy, probiotics (beneficial microorganisms) beneficial biopolymers, metabolites, etc. Achaya and Sen have discussed transfer of seeds producing food ingredients from other regions of the world to Asia, and their cultivation and their use in cuisine originated from different regional and cultural backgrounds, and cooking methods which confer upon food their therapeutic features and prophylactic mode of action while conserving nutrition, energy, probiotics (beneficial microorganisms), beneficial biopolymers, metabolites, etc. in ancient time as well as a few of those evolved during rebuilding of civilizations prevailing in Asia (Achaya, 1998, 2003, 2002, 2009; Sen, 2015; Kammath et al., 2020; Surh, 1999; Zhang et al., 2020; Thoennissen et al., 2010; Rab, 2018c).

Desi Food Types with Cooking Scheme Preserving Their Novel Nutritional, Therapeutic and Prophylactic Potentials Regular intake of desi food (food eaten in Indian subcontinent) for extended period while staying at natural heritage away from huge cosmopolitan cities with lifestyle closer to natural for extended period ranging at least for more than 6 months is beneficial in treatment of a wide range of illnesses including mental illnesses which in turn added on a new aspect of merits of tourism in Asia particularly subcontinent which are more profound in region of Pakistan for offering a wide range of diversity in environmental components and drivers in combination with climate variation modulating distinct geographical, geological, and cultural features and historical heritages all present within a region of 881,913 km2 comprising the country. Following are short details of present forms of food, e.g., desi food (food eaten in Indian subcontinent), including drinks also categorized on the basis of their cooking method and ingredients having therapeutic features and prophylactic mode of action while conserving nutrition, energy, and other beneficial features which have never been reported earlier and are worth having when tourists visit Asia particularly Indian subcontinent.

Main Components of Desi Cuisine Tea (Chai) There are different types of tea consumed in Asia including “Kashmiri chai,” the peoples’ favorite green tea, as well as “Doodh patti” (milk tea), “Gahwa,” (tea or coffee prepared by prolonged boiling with added sugar), ginger tea, etc. Usually after

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heavy meal, people drink “Kashmiri chai,” green tea, ginger tea, and “Gahwa,” while “Doodh patti” and black tea are usually drunk after doing extensive physical or mental work (Rab, 2017b). Best of all these are served on “Dhaba” (open air restaurants e.g. eateries). There are traditional drinks which are consumed during summer to combat heat and to compensate the electrolyte losses. They include “Lassi,” “Chaaj,” “Sattu,” etc. “Lassi” is made by mixing yogurt, water and sugar or salt until the cream is separated. Sometimes milk is also added. “Chaaj” is a modified form of “Lassi” having more water added followed by removal of cream by using whipper for rigorous mixing. “Sattu” is made of dry roasted grains or grams (cereals and pulses), e.g., mostly cereals e.g. barley and pulses e.g. Bengal gram, either or both are roasted and grinded into flour and drunk after mixing with water. “Apshora” is another local drink which is made of fresh lemon juice, water, salt (lemonade), and sugar preferably brown sugar. Maple sap is a sap (liquid) which is collected by tapping trunk of trees by drilling holes and is a popular drink in many villages and towns where people drink freshly drawn maple sap. Exposing sap to sunlight initiates alcoholic fermentation making it unsuitable for consumption for people who believe alcohol is prohibited for consumption. Freshly extracted sugarcane juice added with fresh lemon juice and water is a popular drink in summer. Another popular summer drink is prepared from Grewia asiatica (falsa) and water after adding some salt and sugar blended together. Seeds are settled at the bottom of the jar on holding; clear juice is collected from the top by pouring it in another vessel and is served with crushed ice. Eating fresh watermelon not only helps the body to combat the adverse effects of heat but also fulfills the body’s requirement for fluid micronutrients and electrolytes uptake (Rab, 2021).

Snacks There are a large number of snacks which are consumed in routine. They include “Dahi bareey” and “Dahi phoolkeyaah” (both are made of yogurt having added spices and fried batter of pulses or chickpea flour after mixing with onion and other spices). “Samosa,” “Pakora,” “Namak parey,” “Shaker parey,” “Daal moot,” “Seeyoh,” “Kachuree,” “Choley,” “Chaat,” “Gool Ghapey,” “Jaleebey,” “Gajaak,” etc. All these snacks are prepared in traditional manner and are good source of nutrients, metabolites, energy, probiotics, etc. Most of these snacks are prepared by without adding any preservative and can be stored at room temperature for weeks.

Main Dish The main dishes can be characterized in eight major groups: (i) “Daal” (pulses); (ii) “Saabzi” (vegetables); (iii) “Salaan” (curry) with meat and vegetable or without vegetables; (iv) rice with pulses, vegetables, or meat (e.g., “Kechrey” [hotchpotch where rice and pulses are cooked together], “Vegetable pelao,” “Fresh peas pelao,”

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“Chickpeas pelao,” “Meat yakhni pelao,” and “Biryani” [aromatic steamed rice with or without meat and with spices], etc.; (v) “Qeema,” “Koftey,” and “Kebab” which are minced meat dishes; (vi) “Nihari,” “Paye,” “Shabdeeq,” “Shooley,” “Hareesa,” and “Haleem” which are prolonged cooked meat dishes; (vii) “Saag” (fried cooked green leafy vegetables); and (viii) Poor person’s meal.

General Desi Cooking Scheme “Daal” (Pulses) One way of preparing pulses is to cook a given specie belonging to a specific type of pulses or their mixture with spices and with crushed garlic, crushed onion, crushed ginger, or without all or any of them on low flame until the pulse seeds are broken down to form a finely granulated mixture followed by adding fried onion slices and fried red chili with oil or ghee (butter) or fried chopped garlic and fried red chili with oil or “ghee”. Pulses are also cooked by frying in oil or ghee with fried onion slices, spices, with or without vegetables with crushed garlic, crushed onion, crushed ginger, or without all or any of them followed by adding little water and cooking on low flame until the grains of pulses easily break to turn into paste by pressing them. Tamarind pulp water extract is also added during cooking in some type of pulses.

“Saabzi” (Vegetables); “Salaan” (Desi Curry) with Meat and Vegetable or Without Vegetables, Rice with Pulses, Vegetable, or Meat (e.g., “Kechrey” [Hotchpotch Where Rice and Pulses Are Cooked Together], “Biryani,” and “Vegetable pelao,” “Fresh peas pelao,” “Chickpeas pelao,” “Meat yakhni pelao,” and “Biryani” [aromatic steamed rice with or without meat and with spices], etc Most of the vegetables including beans are prepared by frying in oil or “ghee” with fried onion slices, with or without tomatoes, with or without tamarind pulp water extract, with or without garlic paste, and ginger paste. The “desi curry” is prepared by frying ingredients such as fried onion slices, garlic paste, and ginger paste in oil or ghee with chopped tomatoes or without them and spices followed by adding meat pieces or minced meat with little amount of water and cooking at low flame is continued until meat tenders. Tamarind pulp water extract is added in certain types of curries on tendering the meat Cooking is continued until most of the water in curry evaporates and leftover oil or ghee starts refrying spices followed by arising the characteristic aroma of curry. Cooking is continued for a while and vegetables can be added but are optional. Water is added and cooking is further continued for sometimes if vegetables were added, and then cooking needs to be continued until the vegetables tender. “Karahi” is recently evolved version of cooking meat. Different varieties of “Karahi” can be prepared by initially frying the meat (beef, mutton or

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chicken) with ginger paste, garlic paste, yogurt and spices in ghee or oil while occasionally adding some water until the meat tenders forming “Karahi Mix”. Fried tomatoes, fried onion slices, fried onion paste with different spices and other ingredients (fried or unfried) depending on type of “Karahi” are added in “Karahi Mix” and are mixed well. The content is allowed to cook on low flame until the oil/ ghee separates from rest of the content and aroma starts arising. Special utensil called “Karahi” (wok pan) is used to prepare different varieties of “Karahi”. “Qorma” is a specialized type of curry which is prepared by adding some special spices with yogurt and is cooked in a modified manner. The rice can be prepared simply by boiling them with water and salt. For “Vegetable pelao,” “Fresh peas pelao,” “Chickpeas pelao (e.g., boiled chickpea, fresh pea or fresh mixed vegetables) are fried with fried onion slices, garlic paste, onion paste, ginger paste, and spices in oil or ghee followed by adding water and cooking at low flame until rice is tender. For “Biryani,” meat is fried in oil or ghee ginger paste, garlic paste, and onion paste. Spices are added while frying until the aroma arises followed by adding water and continuing cooking at low flame to tender the meat. Yogurt is added in the meat curry and cooking is continued for sometime, and then rice is added in layers containing biryani mixture prepared by mixing fried onion slices, spices, yogurt, and food color paste followed by further cooking for some time. The preparation procedure of “Meat yakhni pelao” is similar to “Biryani,” but the difference is fewer spices are added in “Meat yakhni pelao” without any food color. In “Kechrey,” fried onion slices and spices along with small quantity of oil or ghee are cooked with mixture of rice and a given specie of specific type of pulses, in the quantity of water enough to cook until rice and pulses soften without sticking at the bottom of the pan.

“Qeema,” “Koftey,” “Kebab,” and Other Minced Meat Dishes Minced meat can be cooked in different ways. One way of cooking minced meat is same as “Salaan” (e.g., frying minced meat with fried onion slices, ginger paste, and garlic paste in oil or ghee with adding chopped tomatoes or without them and other spices on low flame until aroma arises followed by adding some water and continuing cooking for some time). If vegetables like peas, potatoes, and beans are supposed to be added, cooking of minced meat is extended until most of the water evaporates and minced meat restarts frying, then vegetables are added while continuing the frying for some time without letting the spices stick at the bottom of pan; to avoid it, water in small quantity is added occasionally until the oil separates from the rest of minced meat portion. Water in small quantity is added and cooking on low flame is further continued for some time. For preparing Koftey, fried onion slices, ginger paste, and garlic paste along with other spices are cooked in oil or ghee by occasionally adding water in small quantity on low flame until aroma arises followed by adding some water and meatballs, made up of minced meat mixed with spices having crushed coriander leaves, crushed onion, and crushed green chili mix filled in, to allow further cooking until oil separates from fried spice mix. Minced meat can also be cooked in other ways to prepare varies types of “Kebab” which includes

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“Kachrey key kabab”, “Shami kabab”, “Sheek key kabab”, “Behari kabab”, “Khachey gosht key kabab”, “Chapley kebab” etc. The general scheme of “Kabab” preparation involves mixing of minced meat or small pieces of meat with spices, yogurt, and with one or more natural tenderizing agents such as dried “Kachri” or wild melon (Cucumis pubescens), unripe papaya, ginger paste, garlic paste, pineapple extract, brown fried onion slices, bread pieces, and yeast to form minced meat mix which is held at room temperature for a few hours or under refrigeration condition for several days depending on the type Kabab for marinating the minced meat mix. The marinated meat can be fried in oil or ghee or can be cooked in pan with oil or ghee and fried onion slices, baked in oven, or grilled on a raised wooden grate barbeque depending on the type of “Kebab.” “Shami kebab” is prepared by boiling potatoes “Channey key daal” (chickpea lentils), onion, garlic, red chili, and different spices with meat pieces in small quantity of water until the meat tenders and water evaporates leaving the dry and tendered ingredients. The boiled ingredients are ground with the meat, and “Kebab” are prepared by filling in crushed onion, crushed green chili, and crushed coriander leaves. The prepared “Kebab” can be stored for months under frozen conditions and can be served after frying in oil or ghee when needed. “Aloo key kabab” are prepared by grinding the boiled potatoes with spices and rest of preparation procedure is same as “Shami kebab”.

Prolonged Cooking Food Items (e.g. “Nihari,” “Paye,” “Shabdeeq” “Shooley,” “Hareesa,” “Haleem,” etc.) In this category of food, items like “Nihari,” “Paye,” “Shabdeeq” “Shooley,” “Hareesa,” “Haleem,” etc. (different meat dishes prepared by prolonged cooking) are included. These dishes are comprised of meat, bones, animal’s limbs with tendons, animals’ tongues, etc. which are cooked for prolonged time which can be extended up to overnight with spices, garlic paste and ginger paste, etc. with or without adding oil or ghee until the meat tenders. In some of these dishes, cereals and pulses with rice or without them are cooked separately and are mixed in the curry. In “Nihari,” flour is added in the curry after suspending it in water once the meat is tendered. Most of these foods are served with chopped chili, chopped coriander leaves, chopped ginger, and freshly extracted lemon juice (DAWN, 2016).

“Saag” (Fried Cooked Green Leafy Vegetables) Spinach, mustard leaves, purslane, etc. are boiled separately in small amount of water with onion pieces, with or without spices; they are finely mashed and are fried in butter, ghee, or oil then fried red chili and fried chopped garlic are added in boiled vegetable leaves mix along with butter ghee or oil. “Saag” (green leafy vegetables) other than spinach and a few other types which are available round the year is seasonable and is a favorite cuisine of people originating from rural area in Pakistan.

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Poor Person’s Meal Poor people if they cannot afford buying meal ingredients eat onion and/or other vegetables with bread or “Chatney” (the locally prepared sauce) with bread. They usually eat “Kechrey,” rice cooked with pulses, cooked vegetables or “Karhi.” “Karhi” is prepared by cooking yogurt chickpea flour and water with added spices and dumplings made of fried batter comprising of chickpeas flour followed by adding fried onion slices and oil or ghee. “Baryah” is another popular dish which is comprised of curry containing balls made up of dried- salted pulses paste mixed with spices which were dried in sun light. “Baryah” is made of “Mong key daal” or “Mash key daal” (lentils) or their mixture that is soaked overnight and is ground in the morning. Salt, ginger paste, garlic paste, onion paste, and spices are added in it to prepare a mix which is poured on a metal tray in small volume to form small pyramid shaped structures which are kept in sunlight until are completely dried. They can be stored at room temperature for a long time and can be cooked in curry by using standard method of curry preparation which gives taste that mimics to meat curry. “Mangochiyeh” is prepared by adding dumpling prepared of “Mong ki dal” (pulses) in curry. Red meat (e.g. mutton, beef etc.) is more nutritious than white meat e.g. chicken, fish etc.) however people dwelling in Indian subcontinent generally avoid eating beef which is cheaper than mutton. “Paya” (animal legs), veal, lungs, and head portion or meat portion having bones and fat attached are generally cheaper. Meat cooked with vegetables when is eaten after adding freshly extracted lemon juice becomes more nourishing. Unripe almond and unripe dates, corn, and garbanzo beans are cheap and are very popular among poor people and school going children. Sunflower seeds, flax, green melon or white melon seeds, pumpkin seeds, etc. are good source of some essential nutrients (DAWN, 2016; Rab, 2019b). There can be several options of food items which are cheaper and can be affordable for most of the people, but they generally do not eat it merely because people in Indian subcontinental region particularly are less flexible to acquire adoptability to any change even if it is in the taste of food. However, most of the people eat raw vegetables particularly green chili along with their meal. The custom to use earthenware utensils including for cooking purpose and for making yogurt and pickles still prevails in many regions of Indian subcontinent particularly in Pakistan which makes food more tasty, nourishing and safe.

Sauces and Yogurt Mix There is a huge range of sauces that are being used along with everyday’s meal. They include “Podinay key chatney” (mint sauce) which is made of finely crushed mint leaves mixed with crushed green chili, cumin powder, and tamarind pulp water extract suspended in small quantity of water and is kept refrigerated until use. Coriander or unripe mango sauce is prepared by using the same recipe, and the only difference is instead of mint or coriander unripe mango is used. “Aam key chutney (sweet)” or “Mango chutney (sweet)” (mango sauce) can be prepared by

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cooking small pieces of unripe mango pieces in sugar and spices until the content turns golden brown. Small quantity of vinegar is added at the end of cooking. It can be stored at room temperature for a long time. Red chili sauce is prepared by grinding garlic with red chili. There is a huge range of sauces having prophylactic potential and therapeutic role which are used routinely along with main meal (Rab, 2018c). There is a large variety of yogurt mix that can be prepared in very simple manner. For instance, in yogurt, freshly ground mix containing green chili, cumin, and garlic is added along with salt and stirred until the content mixes well. Another type of delicious yogurt mix can be prepared by mixing finely chopped tomatoes, onion, and cucumber with yogurt and adding salt with or without spices in it. To prepare “Talagi,” a distinct aubergine yogurt mix, small slices of golden fried aubergine, salt and paste of garlic, paste of green chili, and cumin powder are added in yogurt and the content is mixed with wooden spoon. Fried chopped garlic, fried red chili, and fried cumin along with some oil are added in aubergine yogurt mix. “Calabash or bottle gourd yogurt mix” is prepared by first mixing finely ground garlic paste, green chili paste, and cumin powder with yogurt containing salt as per taste to form yogurt spice mix. “Crushed calabash or bottle gourd” is steamed for 5–7 minutes or is blanched and is then added to yogurt containing finely ground garlic paste, green chili paste, and cumin paste (forming yogurt spice mix) which is mixed with small quantity of water to form “calabash” or bottle gourd yogurt mix.

Pickles and Their Types Pickles are equally popular among poor and rich. There are several types of pickles which are consumed in different parts of the Indian subcontinent. They are generally divided in four groups: pickles in oil, pickles in lemon juice, pickles in vinegar, and pickles in water.

Pickles in Oil Pickle in oil is prepared by cutting vegetables, like chili, carrots, aubergine, unripe mango, etc. depending on the type of pickle, into small pieces, which are put into clean dried glass bottles while mixing with spices (e.g., salt, ground turmeric (powder), ground cumin (powder), ground coriander (powder), ground red (chili powder), “Rai” [black mustard seeds–in large quantity], ground black seeds, ground yellow mustard seeds (powder) etc.). After closing the lids, the glass bottles are kept in sunlight for a day, and then oil (usually) mustard oil is added and bottles are left in sunlight for 4–8 weeks. Pickles in Lemon Juice Pickles in lemon juice contain either chili only or lemon only or both of them dipped in freshly extracted lemon juice. Vegetables like chili, lemon, any of it, or both of them together are dipped in freshly extracted lemon juice, whereas the juice free lemon fruits including the peel (but without seeds) are also added into pickle mix (only in case if the pickle contains lemon fruits as well) with salt and are mixed well.

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As already mentioned earlier, glass bottles containing the pickle mix, after closing their lids, are kept in sunlight for a day, and then oil mostly mustard oil is added until it covers the content and bottles are kept in sunlight for 4–8 weeks. The top layer should remain covered with oil (e.g., mustard oil or olive oil).

Pickles in Vinegar with Vegetables Pickles in vinegar with vegetables (e.g., onion, cucumber, cabbage, cauliflower, chili, carrot, and red beets) are very popular in Indian subcontinent especially in cities. Each vegetable is cut into small pieces and and these vegetable pieces are added to pickle mixture, made up of 70–90% vinegar solution, salt as per taste, and two to three pinches sugar, separately or in different combinations depending on the type of pickle, to fill in airtight glass bottles in such a manner that vegetable pieces remain completely dipped in pickle mixture which are kept closed for 1–2 weeks in sunlight or in dark. Pickles in Water with Vegetables Pickles in water with vegetables like chili, carrot, red beet, turnip, etc. The given vegetable is cut into small pieces, which are boiled in small quantity of water or preferably are steamed for 5–10 minutes depending on the type of vegetable pickle. Steamed vegetable are filled in air tight glass bottles while mixing with pickle spices prepared by mixing salt, chili powder, ground black mustard seeds (powder), ground yellow mustard seeds (powder), garlic paste, ginger paste with or without turmeric powder, etc. Glass bottles filled up to the top with steamed vegetable pieces mixed with pickle spices are covered with airtight lids and are kept in sunlight for 24–48 hours. Cold boiled water is added until the pickle’s content is completely dipped into the liquid (fermentation mix) and the air tight glass bottles are kept in sunlight for 2–3 weeks. This type of pickle unlike all other types of pickles cannot be preserved for a very long time.

“Roti” (Bread) “Roti” is a very typical type of bread that is eaten in region of the Indian subcontinent made up of flours of different cereal grains including rice, or pulses, each kneaded separately or in different combinations with or without spices cooked on disc-shaped “Tawa” (fry pan) with oil, butter or “ghee” or without it. There is a large variety of “Roti” (bread). They include “Parhata,” “Sheermal,” “Taftan,” “Puri,” “Baisney roti,” “stuffed bread (roti),” e.g. “Aalo bhara parhata,” “Gobhi bhara parhata,” “Mulee bhara parhata,” etc. “Roti” can be eaten with different types of curries, “Sabzi” (vegetable) fry, raw vegetable, sauces, yogurt mix, pickles, etc.

Dried Food Commodities Depending upon the region, a large variety of food items are consumed dried. They include meat, fish, fruits, vegetables, etc. Asia particularly Indian subcontinent

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receives ample amount of sunlight during the year. Since ancient times, meat and fish soaked in salt are dried in sunlight to store at room temperature, whereas dried fruits (e.g., raisin prepared by drying grapes, dried dates, dried apricot, etc.) and dried vegetables (e.g., dried chili, dried ginger, dried mint, dried unripe mango, dried chickpeas, etc.) are prepared by drying food commodities directly in sunlight which can be stored at room temperature for long time. Finely chopped ginger mixed with salt after soaking in fresh lemon juice is dried in sunlight. This dried sour salted ginger carries digestive properties. Dried unripe mangoes are soaked in different spices prior to drying to give the product different organoleptic properties as well as to confer different therapeutic potentials. People dwelling in certain regions of Indian subcontinent consume meat cooked with oil ghee or animal fat and salt only without adding any type of spices indicating its unaltered linkage to ancient method of cooking prevailing in this region that invaders brought along with them on arriving in Asia (Achaya, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2009; Sen, 2015).

Mouth Fresheners In Asia, there are different types of food preparations which can be domestically prepared and are used as mouth fresheners or as their substitutes besides serving other purposes as well. Seed shell-free coriander and fennel seeds are warmed on “Tawa,” (a disc-shaped pan), while stirring continuously. Upon cooling, seed shellfree coriander and fennel seeds are mixed with coconut shred to prepare domestic mouth freshener which is kept in airtight glass bottles at room temperature. “Pan” (betel leaf) having “Kattha” (Catechu) and “Chuna” (slaked lime) spread on, with added betel nut with or without tobacco leaf is a mouth freshener which also acts as stimulant and psychoactive preparation. Pan is being used as a formulation for inducing euphoria. It is widely consumed in different regions of Indian subcontinent. The use of betel nut has been proven to increase the risk of mouth cancer incidences. However, the use of betel leaf alone has several health benefits such as rich in micronutrients besides having therapeutic role. “Naswār” (Nas or Nasvay) is moist tobacco snuff made by pouring water into a cement-lined cavity, to which slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and air-cured, sun-dried, powdered tobacco are added followed by mixing indigo with the ingredients that imparts color and juniper ash is added which gives distinct flavor to the preparation. The use of “Naswar” can cause mouth and throat cancer besides causing addiction. “Beeri” is prepared by using tobacco flakes which are commonly wrapped in a “Tendu” (Diospyros melanoxylon or Piliostigma racemosum leaf) tied with a string or adhesive at one end. “Beeri” is widely used by people living in rural areas belonging to low income sector particularly to labor class.

Sweets and Desserts In Asia, a wide variety of sweet and desserts are consumed. In the Indian subcontinent, sweets and dessert are prepared by using cereal grains, flours, pulses or

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lentil’s, flours, chickpea flour etc. mixed with sugar, oil, ghee or butter, milk, and other ingredients. Most of the sweets and desserts can be stored at room temperature for a long time. For instance, granulated wheat or semolina is roasted on a low flame for a very short time followed by adding oil or ghee and frying is continued until the content turns reddish brown. Concentrated sugar syrup that is prepared separately is added into it (granulated wheat or semolina), and whole mixture is cooked until the wheat grains soften while making a uniform heterogeneous mixture in sugar syrup. The hot preparation is poured on metal (steel) tray in form of a layer which is cut with knife in parallel lines perpendicular to each other, generating rectangular or diamond-shaped slices attached together building a layer, the content in metal (steel) tray is kept at room temperature until the layer solidifies, and then the layer is sliced on cooling to seperate and to remove solidified demarked rectangular or diamondshaped slices by knife which can be store in airtight glass bottles at room temperature for several months. There are a large variety of sweets and desserts which are prepared at home by using milk sugar with or without rice and other ingredients. They include “Kheer,” “Sheer,” “Rabree,” “Zarda, etc. (different desserts prepared by using rice, oil, butter, ghee, milk, sugar and other ingredients). These sweets and desserts can be stored under refrigeration conditions for 2–3 days.

Novelty Associated with Desi Food Items prepared by Indigenously Evolved Cooking Recipes In the region of Asia particularly in South Asia, invaders from different regions having diversity in civilization driven norms and practices brought along with them food ingredient spices to cultivate and food preparation recipes which became modified over a period of time adding on new varieties as per advice of local health and food experts and taste demand prevailing in the region (Achaya, 1998, 2003, 2002, 2009; Sen, 2015) in those days. Food has been used as prophylactic and therapeutic preparation for ages particularly in the region of Indian subcontinent. As cited earlier as well, “Nihari” was introduced on advice of food and health experts to protect people from a widespread disease prevailing in those days (Achaya, 1998, 2003, 2002, 2009; Sen, 2015; Kammath et al., 2020; Surh, 1999; Zhang et al., 2020; Thoennissen et al., 2010; Rab, 2018c, 2021). As it is also evident from above discussion, Asia has a huge variety of food items, whereas their preparation methods and ingredients make them very special in terms of chemicals’ compositional architect which confer prophylactics role (beneficial in preventing the occurrence of a large number of diseases) apart from their therapeutic role in curing the diseases. Cooking food ingredients in a mixture of water and fat (oil, ghee, butter etc) as a standard preparation procedure of most of the food items prevailing in Indian subcontinent, facilitates the extraction of food’s chemical components soluble in oil (nonpolar), in water (polar) and in both of these solvent systems prevailing within the same food preparation, whereas the structural diversity of the food preparation in terms of physical consistency helps to buffer the decomposing and denaturing

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reactions leading to exhaustion of bioactive chemical ingredients of biological origin especially those which cannot be isolated or have a short life span outside the biological system (unstable in vitro) as well provide microorganisms originated from different natural sources with having potential to exhibit a huge range of variable metabolic batteries, to alter the micro-environment also in term of chemical composition and structural architect, themselves also act as biochemical entities to contribute as microbial flora as well hence preserve the biodiversity having the therapeutic potentials both at individual ingredients level as well as their cumulative impact depending on the given conditions. The cooking procedures involved in preparation of Indian subcontinent food (desi food) facilitate chemical changes in food, also the rare and novel ones, while conferring distinct novel biological characteristics which augment desi diet s prophylactic and therapeutic potentials besides increasing the shelf life of the food products and making them safe and tasty. A large variety of food recipes provide a wider range of food items to consume, and hence there is always something different to eat every day making eating activity delightful and healthier specially in terms of mental well-being. Prolonged cooking, that is a common feature of Indian subcontinent cuisine, makes food safer by making it difficult for most of disease-causing microorganisms (pathogens) to survive in large number, sufficient enough to cause disease if freshly prepared food is consumed which can also behave as an oral vaccine in certain cases (Rab, 1995, 2018c, 2021; Criscuolo 2019). Prolonged cooking with spices, water, and oil, ghee or butter in fact improves the digestibility and absorption potential of different food ingredients while preserving their structural and chemical architect making them suitable to sustain the process of digestion which augments their biological potentials and making them more nourishing and later on facilitates improved absorption through body surface on contact and in the blood after digestion. As also mentioned earlier as well, Asian particularly Indian sub continental food cuisine provides a resource of microbial flora, originated from different sources having a wide range of diversified potentials helpful in fortifying the food items containing them besides adding on the microbiota prevailing on human beings while contributing to microbiome poll on genetic level linked with them, resulting in appearance of phenotypes acquiring unusual traits leading to prevention of occurrence of certain diseases and cure of other diseases in regular consumers of Asian food particularly Indian sub continental diet (desi diet).

Historical Places: Cultural Traits (e.g., Costumes and Handicrafts) Asia has been the center of a few early civilizations as well as invaded by different foreigners belonging to civilizations prevailing in other parts of world who brought along with them their cultural traits, practices, and norms. The diversity of civilization flairs prevailing in Asia is reflected in food, costumes, and handicrafts. Many tourists find it interesting to visit the historical places and participate in cultural

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activities – costumes and handicrafts are the key demonstrating features; most of them are linked to historical traits reflected in their craftsmanship. Like food, there are specified costumes for every festival and occasion depending on the religious, regional and cultural background of individuals. Silk is being produced by insect for ages in China, India, and Bangladesh, whereas Pakistan is popular for production of cotton fiber. Cottage industries for production of silk and cotton fabric also by weaving the cotton fiber threads and silk fiber threads in different proportion have been an ancient cottage industry particularly prevailing in India and Bangladesh. In Pakistan, cotton fabric is being produced by weaving cotton fiber threads at cottage level for ages. However, in recent decades, the industrialization has suppressed the market of fabric products of these cottage industries, but individuals who can afford the cost and are fan of blend of art and thread opt to purchase the fabric produced by these cottage industries. Artifacts produced by these cottage industries are in demand after processing them in different manner to generate wide variety of product categories based on different types of dying and printing (e.g., tie and dye, block print including “Ijrak” print popular in Sindh in Pakistan, “Chundari” style, “Khadi,” etc.) as well as by method of weaving silk, woollen fibre thread or cotton fiber thread or their blends. Patch work that is also known as “Raly” is very popular. Fabrics produced at cottage industry level or by mega textile manufacturing units are also available in the market after having embroidery on them both in stitched and unstitched forms e.g. hand woven embroidered shawls (Kashmiri Shawls/Chadders). Different varieties of cottage industries altogether contribute to a considerable portion of handicraft industry prevailing in this region. Embroidered laces “Gotta” (laces made of silver or golden metallic thread/fiber, etc.) are popular for their use on formal and informal dresses particularly for renewing old dresses to re-use them on formal occasions by investing minimal cost. The costumes of people and their food not only vary depending on the regional background but also vary among various socioeconomic classes and even in families within the same class. There is a wide range of varieties of costumes, different outfits are for different occasions, even the color of costumes does vary from occasion to occasion. They include “Garara,” “Sharara,” “Lenga,” “Laacha,” “Choli,” “Pajama,” “Sari,” “Shalwar kameez,” etc. For wedding, brides usually wear red-colored dress, whereas in “Mayooh,” a ceremony before wedding day when people put henna on bride and groom’s hands, yellow- or green-colored dresses are worn. Groom wears wedding dress e.g. “Shalwar kameez”, “Sheerwani”, “Waistcoat”, “Kurta pajama” “Dhooti” with cap or headcovering (“Pagri”, “Kulla”, “Safa” etc.) and shawl or without it depending on regional culture. Traditional shoes which are worn on formal occasions in Indian subcontinent include “Peshawari chappal”, “Khusey”, “Kolhapuri”, Saleem shahi juttey etc. Cap, head coverings, shawls, etc are considered as symbol of Honour particularly among Muslim families. Beside costumes, the handicrafts are the integral part of cultural activities including the domestic life, each representing a blend of art and skills crafted within the shadow of cultural traits, whereas many demonstrate the historical evolution underwent over a period of time in the region well reflected in almost all types of handicrafts.

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Wooden, marble, metallic, and clay items are very popular categories of handicrafts. Other handmade items include leather goods, chess, traditional tea sets, dinner sets, wall hangings, jewelry with or without gems, paintings, salt handicraft (handmade items from rock salt) hand woven carpets, hand woven rugs etc. (Caust & Vecco, 2017; Debin, 2005; Kumar, 2017; Yang et al., 2018).

COVID-19 Pandemic and Safety Concerns: A Long-Standing Challenge for the Tourism Industry COVID-19 is a virus having unusual characteristics; a detailed overview on COVID19 virus will be covered in our future publications; hence, we would prefer to cover aspects of COVID-19-driven illness manifestations related to tourism industry particularly those that have not been discussed elsewhere while exploring new venture opportunities for the future. As already mentioned earlier, like other industries, tourism industry has also been adversely affected by COVID-19 pandemic and experienced around 60–80% decline in international tourism driven economy while making the world shift focus of tourism from Europe and America to other regions of world, with Asia revealing her potentials to emerge as a safer alternative tourism destination (OECD, 2020). Among Asian countries, Pakistan having profound geographical diversity and geological variability while being the center of several ancient civilizations offers cultural diversity originating from different regional backgrounds and becomes one of the few countries in the world which successfully controlled the COVID-19 virusdriven illness manifestation while keeping the fatalities percentage per given population among the lowest prevailing across the globe. COVID-19 diet has played a significant role in controlling COVID-19 virus infection, in minimizing the complications driven by COVID-19 virus infection and in decreasing overall fatalities (Daily Pakistan, 2020; DAWN, 2020a, b; Rab, 2018c; 2020a, b, 2021). Other factors involved in controlling COVID-19 virus-driven illness manifestations in Pakistan include population distribution, family lifestyle, residential and commercial outlet locations, building designs, clothing, sanitation standards, drinking water quality standard, etc. Above all, majority of people generally consume halal meat and freshly cooked food; details of mechanisms involved in the COVID19 virus-driven illness manifestations and general strategy to control COVID-19 spread would be discussed in our future publications (Mara & Alabaster, 1995; Rab, 2018a, b, c, 2020b, 2021; Daily Pakistan, 2020). It is evident from the media reports that the public in Pakistan does not strictly abide by the safety measures, e.g., wearing mask and gloves, washing hands, avoiding physical contacts (social distancing), confirming the role of food, and other factors involved in modulating COVID-19 virus-driven illness manifestations and their complications which very likely carry more weightage in limiting the spread of the disease and in buffering the evolution of various variants of COVID_19 than the safety measures (e.g., wearing mask and gloves, washing hands, and social distancing) alone. It further indicates that high incidence of

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fatalities all over the globe partly accounts for gap and inappropriate understanding on different domains of knowledge also in health sciences including genetics, food sciences, and their allied fields and their integrated implication, suggesting research scholars to reassess the role of stress proteins and heat shock proteins in conferring immunity leading to cure of diseases. As it is also evident from the published data that unlike it is being publicized and marketed (probably to secure involved business ventures) vaccination against COVID 19 illness by all available vaccines has been proven to confer minimal protection against COVID 19 and it’s variants’ infections resulting to huge number of deaths with emergence of new COVID 19 variants (a few consequences of compromised immunization) all over the Globe, even also in countries which had vaccinated most of their population (Rab, 1995, 2007, 2010, 2014, 2016, 2017a, 2018a, b, c, 2019b, 2020a, b, 2021; Bishop et al., 2007; Zinovkina, 2018; American Association of University Professors, 2015; Daily Pakistan, 2020; DAWN, 2020a, b; Pockley & Henderson, 2018; Gralinski & Baric, 2015).

Proposal for Technological Modulation Driving Tourists’ Safety Effective Against COVID-19 Illness The following is a technologically modulated proposal to drive health safety effective against COVID-19 virus-driven illness manifestations particularly designed for tourists: First, each country across the globe including Asian countries has command and control department which have information about prevalence of COVID-19 pandemic illnesses and their complications along with the severity of illness and fatalities, including the distribution of prevalence of cases across the country, also indicating the areas which are least affected or have no active cases. The need is to integrate the command and control department with tourism departments through technologically driven devices across the globe, publicly disseminating the information regarding the thickly COVID-19 active localities to share across the globe while indicating the isolated regions where the occurrence of COVID-19 virus infection active incidences are from nil to occasional. Secondly, tourists’ planning to travel can contact tourist department which on having integrated with regional command and control department can have access to information indicating the safe spots for tourism in the region which they can share with tourists who are intending to plan the trip and assist them accordingly. Thirdly, on arrival, the tourists are needed to be advised to isolate in open air resorts (rooms can be air-conditioned with having frequent opening provision for windows to have repeated occasional fresh air ventilation during the whole day) located away from main cities, towns, or villages in regions where incidences of COVID-19 virus-driven illness manifestations (active COVID 19 infection cases) are negligible for at least a week time while consuming the freshly prepared diet as mentioned earlier in section of travelling food advise. In Asia, Pakistan is one the few countries where there are plenty of regions surrounded by natural heritage while

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being at a few hours’ distance from historical sites where located resorts can serve the above mentioned purpose. Fourthly, on arrival at the destination, tourists can be provided electronic devices measuring their blood pressure, heart beats (pulse), temperature, etc. monitoring their health status so that needed measures can be taken on observing any change in index of health status parameters. Fifthly, tourists are advised to have a break for a day in an isolated area after every 2 days’ activity in thickly populated localities or even if they have been visiting enclosed air-conditioned frequently visited buildings while their mask and gloves on. Sixthly, in case of appearance of flulike symptoms associated with fever or without it, intake of diets (e.g. chicken nutrifortified broth [prepared by using grass fed halal chicken], and ginger fortified honey mixture [prepared by using unpasteurized natural honey]) with Paracetamol is advised. Both of them can be easily prepared domestically by using procedures reported by Rab in 2018 (Rab, 2018c). These diets are suggested to be given up to two to three times a day with paracetamol only while keeping the tourists in isolation until the symptoms vanish and they completely recover from illness (Rab, 2018c, 2020a, b, 2021; Daily Pakistan, 2020; DAWN, 2020a, b; Baghchechi et al., 2020). Finally, devices like pulse oximeter can be attached to the patient to indicate the need to hospitalize when complications like breathlessness start. Navigation software usually installed in mobile phones can help to track down the possible dissemination pathway of COVID-19 virus across the venues and personals in contact through patients since they arrived at the destination for tourism. This will help to control the spread of COVID-19 virus by taking preventive measure in time.

Conclusion Tourism involves casual traveling which is done for the sake of several reasons including leisure, research, learning, exploring business ventures, and for political and diplomatic reasons as also mentioned in earlier sections. Recently recognized reason for going on a trip is to improve mental and general health well-being. COVID-19 pandemic has adversely affected tourism industry as well while shifting the focus of tourism from Europe and America to Asia partly for being a safer region to go apart of its previously recognized historical-, cultural-, and natural heritagebased significance for attracting tourism and also for offering cost-effective traveling ventures. Asia is also recognized since ancient times for diet that has therapeutic as well as prophylactic role making the region a favorable place to stay for duration ranging at least for 6 months and even longer for treatment of different illnesses including mental illnesses up to complete cure by natural means. COVID-19 has immensely increased the mental illness burden across the globe making Asia a feasible option comparatively safer as well to travel and also as remedy to cope with additional

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psychological distress which occurred as the consequence of COVID-19-driven adversities at reasonable cost (Talevi et al., 2020). Implication of technologically modulated proposal given in the end of the chapter to drive health safety effective against COVID-19 illness would help to improve the tourism experience beside offering access to unexplored and safer tourist destinations at low cost and making the whole venture illness-free and health promoting while having exposure to diverse cultures, customs, and cuisine experiences in which some of them are rooted back to ancient times in Asia.

Merits and Limitations This piece of work covers the latest understanding on natural health sciences demonstrating food as a key modulator for physical and mental well-being besides suggesting occasional change in environment attained through travelling as an alternative means to prevent many diseases as well as to cure other illnesses including mental illnesses, by going on trip for extended duration at least for more than 6 months. In the chapter, factors determining the destination have also been discussed while suggesting Asia a safer place for tourism in the midst of COVID-19 pandemic and also because of having linked with ancient times through food, civilizations, and historical heritages besides offering visits to plenty of sightseeing places at reasonable cost. In the end, a proposal for technological modulation driving tourist’s safety effective against COVID-19 virus illness-driven manifestations has been presented while suggesting use of certain specialized food preparations as therapeutic agents in acquired cases of active COVID-19 infection and use of integrated technology with certain safety advices which can ensure the well-being of tourists in Asia. Since this chapter is built upon findings derived by analyzing authentic relevant literature with presentation of proposal for a hypothetical model ensuring the tourist’s safety and well-being, it fails to present any data obtained so far, but at the same time, it reveals a novel area of understanding based on different well-integrated domains of knowledge inviting future investigation involving tourists and other stake holders of tourism industry particularly in context of emerging business ventures and safety challenges.

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Part XVI Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Sustainability Concerns

Innovative Technology Uses in Sustainable Destination Management in Asia

54

Sachin Soonthodu and Ishrat N. Wahab

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sustainable Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sustainable Tourism Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sustainable Destination Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovative Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology Innovation in the Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovative Technology in Sustainable Destination Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovative Technology Uses in Sustainable Destination Management in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . Innovative Technologies for Sustainable Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovative Technology in Sustainable Travel Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovative Technology in Sustainable Hospitality Management (Hotels and Restaurants) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovative Technology in Sustainable MICE Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Innovative Technology in Sustainable Promotion of Destination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sustainable Destination Management in Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Rapid change of information and communication technology influenced innovative ideas in the tourism industry. Innovative technologies play a major role in achieving sustainability, and it most certainly plays a very important part in the sustainable development of a tourist destination. Tourism stakeholders utilize various innovative techniques to promote destinations as unique and sustainable travel products, which have greater influence on the sociocultural, economic, and environmental sustainability of a destination. Tourism has a greater impact on nature. Both domestic and international tourism activities generate considerable S. Soonthodu · I. N. Wahab (*) Department of Tourism Studies, School of Professional Studies, Garden City University, Bangalore, India © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_54

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carbon footprint in the form of greenhouse gas emissions. It is a global concern to reduce the carbon emission due to excessive tourism activities. In order to control the overtourism and destination degradation, tourism promoters shift their focus on sustainable destination management. Smart destinations, Internet of Things (IoT), virtual tours, and mobile applications are a few examples which make destinations tourist friendly. Asia is an emerging hub for international tourism. Exotic tourist sites, cultural diversity, landscapes and landforms, and rich natural resources are the unique features of tourism in Asia. However, overtourism is a major threat for the promotion of tourism activities in this region. Hence, the travel agencies and tour operators have a larger scope to implement innovative technology for successful sustainable destination management in Asia. In this context this chapter focuses on innovative technology implications for sustainable destination management in Asia. Further, various innovative technologies listed here can support the local government, administrative authorities and other stakeholders to understand and explore how innovative technology promotes sustainable destination development in Asia. Keywords

Innovation · Technology · Sustainability · Destination management · Tourism

Introduction The tourism industry, with all its dynamism, has witnessed continuous and rapid growth over the years. Playing the role of the instrument of development and conservation, tourism contributes widely, not just towards its key stakeholders, but also to the community, economy, and the environment at large. With the massive movement of tourists from across the world, tourism is, without a doubt, turning into one of the most influential phenomena in the present date. It is one of the largest providers of employment, contributing towards the GDP of various countries, as well as helping in the upliftment of various sections of the society while supporting in creating a superior image of a destination. According to the reports published by the World Travel and Tourism Council, tourism has been growing at a rate of 3.9%, contributing to a revenue of US$ 8.8 trillion towards the world economy, and creating an employment of 319 million jobs in various sectors related to travel and tourism (UNWTO, 2019). Besides being a major contributor to the economy, tourism is a major social phenomenon. Tourism encompasses all sections of the society, both as travelers as well as service providers. Some of the positive social impacts of tourism include preservation of the local culture, heritage, and art forms, which are also a part of the various tourism products offered to tourists. Tourism acts as a catalyst to strengthening local communities by involving them in various decisions related to the destination and also provides them with the opportunity for employment, as well as the chance to start their own business. In fact, tourism plays a major role in

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improving the standard of living of the local communities. Tourism imbibes a sense of pride in those who travel, as well as the host community. Tourism is greatly dependent on the environment. Many of the tourism products are nature based which include landscapes, physical features, flora and fauna, pleasing weather, etc. Tourism plays a vital role in promoting the conservation and preservation of natural resources. In many parts of the world such as in countries like Costa Rica and Nordic countries like Iceland, tourism promotes renewable energy initiatives. Tourism also encourages environmental protection laws. In fact, many of the countries with strict environmental and wildlife protection laws are also wellknown tourist destinations. It also helps in the establishment of nature reserves globally. Nature reserves in countries like Botswana, Namibia, etc., were initiated as a result of growing tourism demand. In order to avoid any negative impacts on the wildlife, the governments of those countries took the initiative of establishing wildlife preserves, encouraging captive breeding, as a result of which many of the endangered species have started to thrive in their natural habitats. Tourism also plays a vital role in creating environmental awareness among the tourists as well as the local community. Tourism has many positive impacts which not only boost the economy but also play a vital role in enhancing the environment as well as benefiting the society. However, tourism has its own cons, and if not undertaken responsibly keeping in mind the sustainability factor, it may cause negative impacts such as environmental degradation, inflation, leakage, displacement of residents, etc. Over the years, it has been proven that no matter what the type of tourism that is undertaken, whether mass or alternative, sooner or later it will involve a series of impacts at various levels. It is indisputable that mass tourism causes more impact, especially at the destination level, whereas alternative tourism, mostly based on the principles of sustainable development, tries to avoid the traditional practices and focuses more on ethical behavior as well as implements a responsible attitude in the tourists. The need for sustainable development in tourism is being identified by business sectors, local authorities, governments, as well as nonprofit organizations. Sustainability implies stability and permanency; sustainable development stands for the optimum utilization of resources while minimizing the negative impacts on the environment, culture and society, and economy. The three most important pillars (i.e., environment, economy, and community) should, therefore, be protected in order to relish further growth of tourism. Commodification is a common attribute of every tourist attraction. Overtourism, inefficient utilization of resources, and improper planning limit the life span of a tourist attraction. A prospective destination needs balanced networking of technology, human resources, and the natural resources available for the benefit of both tourists and the local community. Strategic implementation of innovative technology should focus on the sustainable development of tourist attractions. This can be achieved through setting destination developmental goals such as maximum utilization of natural resources with minimum impact and involvement of local community in socioeconomic empowerment along with the unique experiences to the tourists.

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Asia, being a major promoter of sustainable tourism, successfully adopted innovative technology for sustainable destination management. Smart tourist applications, such as Internet of Things (IoT), GPS, destination information system, pooling system, and other software and mobile applications, may induce sustainable destination development. From this perspective, the theoretical chapter focuses on innovative technology applications and uses in sustainable destination management in Asia. The major objective of this study is to identify how the innovative technology can be effectively implemented to make the destinations sustainable. The study may guide the destinations and the other stakeholders to adopt appropriate technology to support and market Asia as a major sustainable tourist attraction.

Sustainability Sustainability aims at meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. In other words, the core concept of sustainability is to preserve both natural and cultural resources for present and future generations. The concept of sustainability dates back to the eighteenth century when the Germans had the concern of preserving the resources for future generations. Depleting natural resources was a major concern in the latter half of the twentieth century, raising greater concern for natural and living resources worldwide. As a result, the UN World Commission on Environment and Development, popularly known as Brundtland Report, was commissioned in 1987 in order to initiate and achieve sustainable development across the world. The Brundtland Commission defines sustainability as “development which meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987). The Brundtland Commission focuses on two major factors (i.e., development and resources or needs and resources) (WCED, 1987). These two factors are interconnected and influence each other. The Brundtland Commission became the platform for further discussions on environmental sustainable development (Langhelle, 1999). However, further discussions brought in other two areas of development, society and economy, which enlightened the United Nations to adopt a new dimension of sustainable development (Kuhlman & Farrington, 2010). The Agenda 1997 mentions that the development is a multidimensional undertaking to achieve the higher quality of life for every individual. Economic viability, social welfare and environmental protection are all interlinked, and they form the key principles of sustainable development (ADUN, 1997). Social sustainability aims at the well-being of society which includes quality education, healthy society, safety and security, human rights, access to facilities, and so on (Eizenberg & Jabareen, 2017). Economic sustainability ensures eradication of poverty, enhancing employment opportunities, financial inclusion and community development, etc. (Spangenberg, 2005). Environmental sustainability focuses on preservation and conservation of natural resources, reducing carbon footprint and pollution, and so on (Morelli, 2011). Under the concept of

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sustainability, the social, economic, and environmental sustainable factors are interlinked for a progressive development. But sustainable development reengineers the traditional view of social, economic, and environmental management as an outcome of interaction between short- and long-term needs of resources to meet present and future requirements (Rosen & Kishawy, 2012). Sustainability principles have been applied to a wide range of areas in recent years (Bell & Cheung, 2009). Production, consumption, building and engineering, natural and economic environment, and business entrepreneurship are some areas of sustainability application (Filser et al., 2009). Tourism is one such area which has successfully adopted sustainable practices (Muhanna, 2006). Tourism is an activity for recreation, entertainment, education, and business. The World Tourism Organization defines tourism as “a social, cultural and economic phenomenon which entails the movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal or business/professional purposes. These people are called visitors (which may be either tourists or excursionists; residents or non-residents) and tourism has to do with their activities, some of which involve tourism expenditure” (WTO, 2008). It is the world’s second largest service industry which supports the livelihood of millions of people. At the same time, aggressive growth of tourism resulted in positive and negative impacts on society and the environment (Lemma, 2014).

Sustainable Tourism Sustainable tourism aims at energizing positive social, economic, and environmental impact at a destination (Lemma, 2014). This includes community development, health and hygiene, infrastructure development, employment opportunities for the local community, local community involvement in the decision-making process, etc. (Pillai, 2011). The role and functions of every stakeholder are important in sustainable management of a destination (Turker et al., 2016); however, the local community is involved in production and consumption of socioeconomic and environmental services; hence, they are the primary beneficiaries of tourism activity at a destination. While enjoying these benefits, the local community also faces severe threats and challenges from the tourism activities (Chang et al., 2018). The development of tourism induces sociocultural problems in a destination. Traditional values, lifestyle, and community integrity may deteriorate due to increased tourism activity at that destination. Cultural clash, crime, violence, racial discrimination and prostitution, etc., are common in tourist destination (Zhuang et al., 2019). The negative economic impacts include commodification, seasonal employment, price hike, increase in cost of living, regional economic imbalance, and so on, which influence sustainability (Mbaiwa & Darkoh, 2008). Depletion of natural resources, environmental pollution, climate change, and impact on natural ecosystems are serious environmental issues caused due to the overtourism in a destination (Sunlu, 2003). Sustainable development aims at reducing the social, economic, and environmental impacts of tourism at a destination.

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Sustainable Tourism Management It is the responsibility of every stakeholder to address the sustainable problems (Jiya, 2019). A tourist must be responsible in reducing the ecological footprints. Tourists have the greater responsibility of respecting the local culture, purchasing the local commodities, and opting sustainable accommodation and transportation (Marzouki et al., 2012). This is possible when a tourist adopts responsible behavior while being on holidays. A travel agent has the responsibility of promoting sustainable tourism by inculcating the technology and local resources to offer sustainable packages to tourists (Kiper, 2013). A business entrepreneur must focus on sustainable practices by investing in sustainable business activities and offering employment opportunities to the local community (Bochniarz, 2018). Local government and lawmakers must entertain, support, and encourage sustainable policy for regional tourism development.

Sustainable Destination Management This process of inclusive growth is necessary for sustainable destination development (Conaghan et al., 2015). In other words, sustainable destination development has a significant role in controlling many impacts of tourism (Chang et al., 2018). A destination is a package of various components such as natural and cultural attractions, local community, culture, art and handicraft, and so on. In order to achieve this sustainable destination development requires an integrated involvement of planning, approaches, and concepts that governs various activities in a destination (Conaghan et al., 2015). Poor management of tourist attractions can have a serious impact on ecosystem, natural, and cultural resources in a destination (Mihalic, 2013). Sustainable destination management encourages productive involvement of stakeholders who commit for effective management of resources. Technology is one of the factors that play a crucial role in sustainable destination development (Ali & Frew, 2014).

Innovative Technology A technology is introduced or implemented in an area or an organization mostly because a performance gap has been identified or it is anticipated that the new process will contribute to an increase in the effectiveness of the adopting organization (Cooper, 1997). Technology plays a critical role for both nations and any organization. Each day, these organizations have to undergo and face the tremendous changes happening in the global market. Therefore, technological innovations are crucial for nations and organizations to survive in the dynamic global market (Beyrouti, 2006). Innovative technology can be defined as the successful implementation of a new technical idea in various fields. Innovation might arise from the change in or rather advancement in technology, invention, and research (Yildiz et al., 2013).

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Technological innovation is driven by various factors. The most important factor that drives innovation is the constant need for the human race to appease their curiosity. Another factor which motivates technology is the constant competition between organizations to capture the market and satisfying customer demands (Dyson, 1999). Innovative technology provides organizations the opportunity to connect with their target customers as well as have smooth transactions with their associates and allies (Cosison, 1998).

Technology Innovation in the Tourism Industry Technology innovation is the adoption of modern technology in tourism sector. Tourism is one of the fastest-growing sectors which have been open to innovative technology. Innovative technology in the tourism industry ranges from accommodation to destination management. The industry stakeholders have successfully adopted innovative technology in the tourism industry. Global positioning system, online tracking, and virtual reality and augmentation are some of the innovative technologies used by the tourists. Travel agencies and the tour operators utilize innovative technology to attract the tourists. Virtual reality, quick payments, global distribution system, blockchain, etc. are the technology adopted by the travel agents to boost the travel trade. The hotel industry is open for highly innovative technology. Energy management system, digi-locks, keyless entry, sensing rooms, and automatic room temperature controller are becoming famous in the hotel industry. Aviation industry and destination management companies are open for innovation all the time. Thus, innovation has greater opportunity in the tourism industry. Today, countries across the world are competing to become pioneers in the tourism market. This is because the tourism industry is one of the largest contributors to the GDP of a country by creating socioeconomic and environmental opportunities. Adopting innovative technology in the tourism industry enhances economic opportunities to a country. This is one of the reasons countries across the world have been adopting the innovation. On the other hand, tourism is a glamorous industry which requires continuous innovation. If not, the industry gets outdated; hence, the stakeholders follow innovative techniques.

Innovative Technology in Sustainable Destination Management Human and technology interaction supports a destination to achieve sustainability. Modern technologies such as GPS, Internet of Things (IoT), mobile apps, social media apps, virtual assistant, big data, and so on enable the tourists and the service providers to maximize the benefits of sustainability in a destination. A sustainable destination management encourages maximum participation of tourists resulting in higher income generation that further leads to socioeconomic development of the local community. Asia, being one of the largest promoters of sustainable tourism, adopts various innovative technological practices to attract the international tourist

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traffic. India, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia are the hotspots of innovative technology in sustainable tourism. This theoretical chapter focuses on various innovative technologies adopted by the tourism stakeholder to promote sustainable destination management in Asia.

Innovative Technology Uses in Sustainable Destination Management in Asia Asia is the most populous continent in the world. The continent is well known for geographic and demographic diversity, culture, and heritage. Asia has thousands of natural and built tourist attractions, which have a major role in building the tourism economy. Preservation of these natural resources is the major concern of the sustainable tourism practices. Tourism stakeholders need to adopt innovative practices to promote sustainable tourism practices in the tourist attractions of Asia. This chapter is an insight on the innovative practices that are adopted in various tourist attractions of Asia.

Innovative Technologies for Sustainable Aviation E-Fan X Demonstrator The E-Fan X was launched by Airbus in 2017 which marks a major milestone in the airliners journey towards decarbonization. The demonstrator is a hybrid electric aircraft which is being developed jointly by Airbus, Siemens, and Rolls-Royce. The Airbus E-Fan X is scheduled to fly in 2021 in the form of an efficient, costeffective, hybrid, single-aisle airliner. This airliner could revolutionize the future of flying making aviation cleaner and leaner in its carbon emissions. The aim of launching this aircraft is to reduce carbon footprints by 75%. In August 2019, the generator powering one of the engines was powered for the first time in Norway. This was later integrated into an AE 2100 Turboprop along with a Siemens SP 2000 electric motor. This was to replace the aircraft’s old engines. As of February 2020, the E-Fan X was undergoing the wind tunnel testing to evaluate its aerodynamic efficiency. The design of the E-Fan X is based on the BAe146 aircraft. The aircraft has 2 megawatt Siemens electric motor on a Rolls-Royce fan module. It also has serial hybrid propulsion system architecture, a high power battery pack, and flight test instrumentation with telemetry. The new 2 megawatt motor represents a 60 times jump over the previous electric motors of the aircraft. The E-Fan X will be able to run with half the number of engines in flight as the model is powerful enough to provide 50% of thrust needed. Layer Ingesting Propulsor Modern-day aircraft designs are aimed at attempting to increase the overall efficiency of the transportation system. It results at reduced fuel consumption and burn which leads to lower emission and fuel cost. Aircraft manufacturers have given

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importance to the reduction of carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide over the years, and rules for their reductions have become stricter. The boundary layer ingesting propulsor technology has the potential to reduce consumption and fuel burn of an aircraft by up to 8.5%. The propulsor design is implanted at the back of the fuselage. This technology ingests slower boundary layer airflow while using it to generate the thrust in order to propel the aircraft. This simply means that an aircraft engine does not have to work hard as earlier and finally the consumption of fuel goes down. This technology increases the overall fuel efficiency of the aircraft and reduces the environmental impacts.

Trent XWB Engine – Rolls-Royce The Trent XWB Engine is manufactured by Rolls-Royce which goes into the Airbus A350 extra wide body aircraft. This engine is considered to be the world’s most efficient large aero engine. This is the sixth member of the highly successful Trent family. The engine is known for its precision crafted with efficiency and being environment friendly. It has a unique three-shaft design with next generation materials and coating and an advanced adaptive cooling system. The engine is designed to optimize fuel efficiency while producing low emission. Flexible Navigation System, Winglets, CCO, and CDO A flexible navigation system plays an important role in helping an aircraft in avoiding extreme weather conditions by tracking the real-time updates. The system tracks extreme turbulence, storms, etc. Flexible navigation system has played a critical role in helping airliners to save 1.4 tons of CO2 per flight. The aerodynamic drag of an aircraft depends upon the shape, size, and inclination of its body. In modern-day aircrafts, the wingtip is often bent up to form winglets. The idea behind the winglets is to improve aerodynamic efficiency by creating additional thrust. This can help increase the performance of an aircraft by 10–15% and reduce emissions by 6% (Fig. 54.1).

Fig. 54.1 Winglets. (Source: Gatto et al., 2012)

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Fig. 54.2 Continuous descent and climb operations. (Source: Toratani, 2016)

CCO and CDO stand for Continuous Climb and Descent Operations, is an operating technique of aircraft during takeoff and landing which optimizes the performance of the aircraft as a result of which fuel consumption is reduced and leads to environmental benefits such as reduction in emission and noise pollution. CCO and CDO allow the aircraft to reach its initial cruising using optimum engine thrust settings at an optimal speed. The advantage of CCO and CDO is that it requires lesser intervention of the air traffic controller by reducing requirement of radio transmission as well as reduces workload of the flight crew (Fig. 54.2).

Optimized Runway Delivery Tool (ORD) Optimized runway delivery tool (ORD) is a system which improves efficient time management on the runway. The enhanced time-based separation (eTBS) allows an airliner to land in case of adverse headwinds. TBS brings capacity gains by reducing separations and helps in adverse conditions. It provides the air traffic controllers (ATC) an interface to estimate different time separations for each aircraft pair. Separation targets are visualized on the radar screen. They are represented on the localizer axis by moving chevrons. The separations are determined by pairs of aircrafts and their wake vortex categories. The chevrons are then captured by vectoring the followers. This interface is clear and easy to use. It simplifies work and is very helpful in managing time and reduces pollution in the skies. CFM International LEAP-1B Engine Leap is a new generation engine for airlines designed and supported by CFM, the joint venture between General Electric and Safran Aircraft Engines. This engine is the successor of the CFM 56 family. The LEAP engine has been chosen by the world’s largest aircraft manufacturers to equip their newest single-aisle aircrafts. The LEAP-1A is for the Airbus A320neo and the LEAP-1B for the Boeing 737 Max and the LEAP-1C for the Comac C919. The LEAP engine presents the most perfect combination of advanced technologies, matched with the renowned reliability and low maintenance cost. LEAP engines are known for reducing nitric oxide production by 50%, they reduce noise pollution as well as carbon dioxide emission along with a reduced consumption of fuel by 15%.

Innovative Technology in Sustainable Travel Management Traffic Management System A traffic management system comprises a set of applications which operate together to improve the condition of traffic at a destination and manage it efficiently. Improper

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traffic management can lead to causing negative impacts on infrastructure, and create congestion on the roads. There is also a high possibility for an increase in the number of accidents which can result in loss of life and property. Furthermore, the traffic management system helps in overcoming issues related to management of hazards, delays caused by working zones, bad weather, etc. The traffic management system is critical in increasing the efficiency as well since a lot of time is spent on the roads due to which a lot of time is lost. It is beneficial for society as well as the environment.

Personal Intelligent Travel Assistant Personal intelligent travel assistant (PITA) uses artificial intelligence systems which include human-machine interfaces, machine learning, as well as voice recognition and chatbots. Some of the personal intelligent travel assistants offer services to leisure as well as business travelers; some offer services to niche tourism groups too. The role of a PITA begins with providing information to the tourists about the various options to choose from, helps in planning their travel, booking the right transportation, accommodation facilities as well as activities, offering smooth experience to the tourists, etc. The benefits of PITA include the establishment of a direct customer-supplier relationship, creating a travel ecosystem. Some of the best known travel assistants include Claire, OkRoger, and Fineway, which help their customers or prospective travelers in planning, buying, as well as managing travel (Fig. 54.3).

Fig. 54.3 Role of PITA travel management. (Source: Berger, 2020)

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Geo-localization Geo-localization plays an important role in technological growth in tourism. For any tourist, location is an important factor. It is critical that the tourist has the right information about the various sites, cultural and heritage spots, etc. Geo-localization provides information such as which site has the maximum number of tourists or which part of the city is most visited by the tourists. It collates various information on which hotels and restaurants are preferred by the tourists, etc. All of this information is presented in a map which the tourists can use. Geo-localization also helps in segmenting the types of visitors at a destination. It also helps the local community, the service providers, as well as the government in understanding what kind of tourism is preferred by the tourists, whether it is beach tourism, rural tourism, culinary tourism, etc. Internet of Things (IoT) The Internet of Things is a network of various devices connected through a central server which communicate with each other. The technology allows devices to be monitored and controlled remotely by users as well as performs actions automatically. The Internet of Things (IoT) plays a critical role in the tourism and hospitality industry. Although the scope of IoT is not limited to this industry, among many other industries, tourism is leading in investments related to IoT. IoT plays a critical role in the tourist to enjoy a great deal of personalization in terms of flights, hotels, etc. IoT can be used for completing tasks as simple as controlling the heating system in the room, turning the television and lights on or off, etc. IoT can be used in sending information to travelers, help them in locating their bags, alert staff about the arrival of guests, etc. IoT also plays a role in energy saving. City Guide Technology The city guide is an innovative mobile application technology that enables the guests or the travelers to create their own route. This technology works offline, in the areas where no Internet is connected. There are many remote locations in Asia which do not have Internet and mobile connections. This is an ideal technology for such attractions in Asia. Ukraine has successfully adopted this technology in many tourist sites. Google Trekker/Street Google Trekker is a very new technology that has been launched in South Africa recently. This is a partnership program with Google Street View. According to this technology, tourists around the world can experience more than 170 trials, 15 national parks, game reserves, and many more tourist attractions. It is easy for the tourists to make a choice of the tourist attractions to visit. This also generated employment opportunities in the country. Asia has larger scope for adopting Google Trekker in various attractions, South and Southeast Asia in particular. Tourists can make wise choices while visiting the destination. Walk and City Connect Walk and City Connect is an innovative technology and is a flexible pass that does not require pre-bookings on any activities in a destination. Walk in technology

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basically functions on QR code technology, where a tourist must download an application in the smart device. Various internal and external partners are associated in integrating this technology. This technology gives flexible and seamless travel experience to the tourists.

Global Pocket Wi-Fi Offering seamless Internet service for tourists is a big challenge for travel service providers. Particularly in Asian countries, Internet connection is a big challenge. To get rid of this, GlocalMe, a Hongkong-based technology consultant, has come up with innovative “Pocket Wi-Fi” technology. This technology offers 24/7 Internet connection for travelers. This reduces the potential risks and threats during the travel. International travelers can access the Internet without SIM card and international roaming data packs. This application is a big success in the travel market that more than three million tourists have downloaded the application. Near Field Communication Technology Near field communication technology is a high-speed, easy, and human-centric data transfer technology that makes the users transfer the data in a range of 10 cm. The tourism industry may successfully use this technology to enhance information systems, workforce management, and location-based services. NFC has a greater role in integrating payment systems, scheduling the transport timetable, local restaurant access system, social networking, location-based mapping technology, etc. The tourism industry in Asia is open for innovative technology; hence, there is a larger scope for near field communication technology. Globetouch Globetouch application is an alternative solution for having an international SIM card. This application allows the tourists to convert the international SIM card into local connection, so that the user can easily communicate when they make holidays. This technology is comparatively cheaper than regular SIM cards, and the traveler can access anywhere in the world.

Innovative Technology in Sustainable Hospitality Management (Hotels and Restaurants) Cloud/SaaS (Software as a Service) SaaS is a cloud-based technology application software in which third parties host the application to make them available to their customers. Here, the customers are allowed to install and run the software applications in their own devices. The hotel industry adopted SaaS-cloud-based hotel management software to achieve greater flexibility, efficiency, and agility in services. SaaS is a handy software which has multiple operations through a single device or network. Customers get the opportunity to tune into, operate, and perform many tasks while they are opting a package. SaaS reduces cost, helps in easy accessibility, and ensures an easy booking and

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reservation process. Thus, by saving time and the resources, SaaS ensures sustainability. The small- and medium-sized hotels in Tirana have successfully implemented SaaS technology as a step towards sustainable development.

Be Your Own Concierge A concierge is an individual or a company which is specialized in offering personalized services. Many tourists opt concierge while they take vacation at unknown destinations. Hotels which promote sustainable tourism products have greater scope in offering specialized service to their clients. This may include itinerary planning, ethnic shows, cultural exhibitions and guided services, and so on may promote sustainable tourism at a destination. Smart Rooms Another advancement in the hospitality industry is smart hotel rooms. This might have seemed like a distant goal to achieve, but smart rooms are very much reality in many parts of the world. This technology makes it possible to centrally manage hotel rooms from the reception. The technology allows all the aspects of the hotel room being controlled by the guest through their personal device, usually a mobile phone. During check-in, a unique QR code is created and shared with the guest. The guest then has to download a user-friendly app to have full control of the room during their stay. In 2020, many major hotel brands have adopted this technology and have allowed their customers to enjoy the ability to personalize the control of temperature which allows guests to easily adjust the temperature of the room; lighting mode which allows the guest to brighten or dim the lights and set them in different modes such as reading, night, etc.; television remote control which includes full control of channels, sound, position, etc.; music systems volume, selection of songs, etc.; easy phone calls, etc.; accessing the restaurant food menu, placing the order, etc.; availing other services such as spa, massages, special tours, etc.; all through one app. This technology is important because it helps in the reduction of unwanted energy consumption, thereby reducing carbon footprints. Predictive Maintenance Calculating and keeping a track of maintenance services is a difficult task in the tourism industry. This task requires special skills and knowledge. Maintenance includes energy consumption, employee management, room and floor repairs, cleaning, etc. The smart energy management system allows the users to track all maintenance activities through a single application. The application helps the users to identify wasteful and hazardous trends and advise the users to replace the faulty appliances. There are a few automated predictive maintenance technologies that allow the appliances to operate on remote sensing systems. For example, modern smart room devices control the room temperature and automatically switch the air conditioner in off mode while guests are off the room.

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Social Listening When the guests have a lot to say about the services, to share the experiences, the social listening applications stand frontline. This is a social networking application through which the customers can share their hotel experiences. On the other hand, this application helps the hoteliers to understand guests’ wants, needs, desires, and complaints and take immediate action on the complaints. This helps the potential customers to take a call on deciding the destination while making the holidays. The Sharing Economy Sharing the economy is based on collaborative consumption. Under this concept, a few people who own the products or the services give the privilege of paid sharing services. Airbnb, carpooling, homestays, etc., are a few examples for sharing economy. Sharing economy at a destination supports the local community, enhances employment opportunities, and encourages economic development, thereby resulting in sustainable development at a destination. Chatbots and Artificial Intelligence Chatbots are the 24/7 online chat service which answers the frequently asked questions of customers. Chatbots help the customers to get accurate information about the destination on their fingertips. Chatbots are highly customer-centric applications through which a service provider can easily understand the needs and expectations of tourists and design the facilities according to it. In other words, chatbot offers personalized service to customers. A travel agent or a hotelier can offer and promote sustainable tourism packages through chatbot application. Chefdesk, SlickPOS, and Logic F&B are a few applications used in the hotel industry. Artificial intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence in machines that is encoded to think and act like humans. The hotel industry is adopting artificial intelligence in order to offer to its guests personalized services, chatbot, messaging, and also for data analysis, etc. Artificial intelligence allows customers to communicate in their preferred languages, develop emotional attachment with products and services, and enjoy smart services in the hotel rooms. Eventually, artificial intelligence has a crucial role in studying the socioeconomic and environmental impact of tourism activities in a destination, understanding customers’ needs and preferences, and acting accordingly. Artificial intelligence has a relevant role in environmental planning and decision-making that helps in environmental sustainability. Menu Order Application Menu applications ensure sustainable practices in hotels and restaurants. These applications allow the customers to order the food online, sitting in the corner of a restaurant or hotel room. Hotels with advanced technology have digital tables from which a customer can choose the menu. These innovative technologies used by hotels and restaurants ensure zero wastage of food, saves time and minimizes human intervention.

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Wastage and Footprint Tracking According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, one-third of the food produced is wasted each year. This is equal to 3.6 million tons of food being thrown every day. The hotel and restaurant industry has a larger contribution to food wastage. In order to achieve food sustainability, the hotel industry is adopting innovative programs and practices. There are a few community-based mobile applications such as 11th Hour, NOFoodWasted, FoodCloud, etc., that assist the hoteliers to distribute the food for the needy. 11th Hour is a Singapore-based food tracking app that helps the hoteliers to distribute the excess food for the needy. Service providers in a tourist destination also use a carbon footprint tracker in order to track the carbon footprint in a destination. This helps to frame effective policy programs to reduce the carbon footprint in a destination. China and Singapore have successfully tested carbon footprint reduction software for sustainable development. Eco-friendly Technologies Many hotels and accommodation centers have successfully adopted eco-friendly technologies. This includes wind power, rainwater harvesting, solar power, electric vehicles, organic farming, etc. These technologies are environment friendly and play a crucial role in sustainable economic and environmental development. The ITC group of hotels, a popular hotel chain in India, has successfully adopted wind farms, solar panels, and water-efficient air conditioners. Rainwater harvesting and graywater recycling is very common in many five star hotels in South and Southeast Asia. OYO, in order to promote sustainability programs, has undertaken rainwater harvesting as the CSR of the company. Electric vehicles (EVs) are the common facility offered in hotels and resorts of Asia. Hertz and Starwood Hotels & Resorts have initiated usage of electric vehicles in their hotel chains across the world. Many resorts and hotels in India, Thailand, China, and Vietnam have successfully adopted organic farming to support organic food habits. All the above technologies aim at supporting local community, socioeconomic, and environmental sustainability in this region.

Innovative Technology in Sustainable MICE Tourism Hotel Footprinting Tool Hotel Footprinting Tool allows searching the level of carbon emission and energy usage among the hotels around the world. This hotel carbon measurement initiative functions in two ways: the hotelier can easily identify the carbon emission of a particular geographic area or compare and get accurate data on the carbon emission with other hotels. This technology initiates responsible sustainable development in a specific region. MICE is a popular travel segment that brings fair income to the hotel industry. Eventually, MICE contributes to a high carbon footprint. Hotel Footprinting Tool can be a better solution to reduce the carbon footprint from MICE. Hilton, Hyatt, and Accor group of hotels have successfully adopted carbon measurement initiatives to reduce the carbon footprint.

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EventCheck There are some about 17 online applications to reduce the carbon footprint, and EventCheck is one among them. EventCheck application renders tips to reduce the carbon footprint, measures the post-event impact, and thus suggests eco-friendly events. The app gives personalized suggestions like use of dustbins, waste bags, waste management, installation of solar panels, crowd control, etc. The application is supported with online check-in and registration, digital communication, QR codes, app hosted transportation maps and parks, live streaming of sessions and virtual session, digital floor plan, etc. Jublia and Micepad are a few EventCheck softwares used in Asia region. Recycling Technologies MICE is adopting green technology in recent years. Singapore, one of the MICE hotspots, has adopted recycling and reuse technology to reduce MICE wastes. This application supports online tracking of events, mobile application for online communication, E-flyers and social media marketing, reuse of wastes, bar code and QR code technology through mobile apps, eco-friendly materials, etc. Singapore also introduced a back-of-house recycling program, Green Angels program, and threestream cardboard bin to reduce the waste. Singapore, Thailand, and China have leading roles in technology application for green events inside the country. Facial Recognition Face recognition technology is a revolutionary development in event management. The auto screening technology by HD cameras installed in the event premises compares the information with the database to identify the person. MICE is a gathering of thousands of delegates, where the face recognition technology can easily detect every person entering an event venue. Face recognition technology is a seamless check-in option reducing the burden of reception, documentation, and profiling of delegates, keeping the personal data secured. The check-in process becomes faster, accurate, error-free, and easy. Asia is the largest potential market for face recognition technology in the event industry. Thus, the technology contributes to the sustainable development of a destination. Augmented Reality (AR) Augmented reality is a technology in which the images of the real world are enhanced through computer technology to give personalized touch to a product or service. Events and conferences are the best platform to experiment augmented reality. Augmented reality allows attendees to interact and connect, gamify the experiences, organize the virtual tours, and visualize 360 view of events. Augmented reality also offers virtual venues and virtual space for audience and event organizers. Participants can experience simulated events sitting at their workplace or home. In other words, through augmented reality, one can experience large gathering and minute-to-minute updates of an event. Tourists can also experience mobile tours through this technology. Thus, augmented reality ensures minimum utilization of resources, saves travel and accommodation expenditure, and demands no physical

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presence of the audience, resulting in zero environmental pollution to support sustainable destination management. AWE Asia and Tech in Asia area few event management giants that successfully adopted augmented reality in destination management.

Zero Waste Technology Zero waste has the principle of waste prevention that encourages the fact of product recycling and redesign. Zero waste encourages responsible production, consumption, reuse, and recovery of all products. Food and beverage based on EventCheck technology, segregating recyclables, paperless documentation, eco-products, virtual assistance, public transport assistance, opting green energy, etc., are the potential ways of reducing the waste in a destination. The concept of zero wastage encourages sustainable development in a destination.

Innovative Technology in Sustainable Promotion of Destination Artificial Intelligence Artificial intelligence is the simulation of human and technology interaction for better outcomes. Travel agencies and tour operators are effectively involving artificial intelligence in the business integration. Travel website chatbots, personalized meta search operations, virtual assistants for customer engagement, personalized guest experience, etc. are operated through artificial intelligence. Travelers can gather pre-tour information, virtual itinerary, and packages and presume the experiences of the entire trip sitting home. Artificial intelligence allows travelers to take quick guidance on the tour and choose the best while they are on tour which has a positive impact on the destination development. Google Maps and Real-Time Tracking Google Maps is a “must need” technology in the travel industry. A tourist can access every kind of services and facilities available in the surroundings. A tourist can access any part of the world through Google Assistant, create his own itinerary, and travel independently. A traveler can access the hotels, accommodation, transportation service, etc., through Google Maps. Google Maps assists a tourist in search for the best attractions nearby, and helps to make a comparison amongst services and amenities for proper travel decisions. Google Maps functions as a push factor for tourism. Google Maps is also a source for many pooling applications, business aggregators, etc. Innovative features like electric vehicle charging, parking and night shelters, tourist attractions, art galleries, and food shelters offered by Google are a step towards sustainability. Mixed Reality Technology Mixed reality is the use of both augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) to create an atmosphere where the physical and virtual elements can interact with each other. This is based on computer images, GPS, and display technology. Mixed reality

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helps tour operators to create virtual products in a digital environment. Tourists can enhance physical locations, tourist attractions, hotel rooms, and amenities, so that the tourists can make a wise choice of selecting the desired products and services in a destination. This technology has a larger scope in promoting accessible tourism; mixed reality has a major role in preserving the cultural heritage of a destination and understanding the sustainable value of a destination, so that a tourist can make good preparation while reaching a destination. Virtual technology is also referred to as “holidaying at home” and saves travel expenditure and time. Travel agencies and tour operators are effectively adopting this technology to promote the destination.

Blockchain Blockchain technology in tourism ensures secured transactions and payments in the travel industry. Blockchain-powered loyalty ecosystem with an emphasis on creating interesting guest experiences and ensuring the entire process from checking-in to checking-out is seamless. DeskBell chain is a blockchain solution that assists the small- and medium-scale travel and accommodation services to promote sustainable products and services. This solution also encourages the local community to participate in sustainability drives, creating awareness about cleanliness and hygiene in a destination. The DeskBell chain connects the tourists to local business establishments, hotels, and other amenities, which results in local community development. Studies found that small and medium entrepreneurs in Taiwan have successfully adopted blockchain technology to promote business activities in their region. Ease of Planning Applications Ease of planning or trip planning applications have a significant role in promoting sustainable destination development. Tripadvisor, visit a city, CityMaps2Go, Culture Trip, TripScout, and so on are a few ease of planning applications that help while planning a trip. Besides these, there are a number of applications and meta search engines that assist in planning and promoting the trips. A tourist can easily plan a trip, decide a tourist attraction to be visited, opt a hotel, and purchase souvenirs and handicrafts referring to these trip planning applications. Grab, GlobeConvert, Maps. me, Google Translate, and TunnelBear are a few ease of planning applications that promote sustainable tourism in Asia. Social Media Marketing Social media marketing is a widely accepted promotional strategy. Social media is a simple, easy, and paperless unpaid marketing tool that grabs the attention of millions of people in a short span of time. Social media is everybody’s marketing tool. It is because anybody can create a page or advertisement on a page and promote their products. Social media can be a best tool for promoting small business ventures, community tourism, art and handicrafts and family business, etc. Social media also gives a realistic image about the products and services, promotes personal experiences, etc., and the youth are highly opting this media tool while making the holidays. Asia is famous for exotic tourist attractions; some are at remote locations with local community involvement. Social media brings business opportunities to

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such business entrepreneurs. Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, etc., are a few such social network platforms which promote sustainable tourism in a destination. Travel agencies also promote their products and services through social networking sites.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles Electric vehicles are a pro-environment technology that ensures zero carbon emission. Hotels, resorts, and amenities in a destination have effectively utilized this technology to offer best experience to their customers. Today, the automobile sector is booming in the electric vehicle segment and promotes zero carbon emission in order to achieve environmental sustainability. Asia is emerging as the largest market for sustainable tourism products, and electric vehicles may definitely be able to serve the purpose. Blogs and Vlogs Blogs and vlogs are the effective ways of attracting sustainable tourists. Adventure seeking youth is a major market segment of sustainable tourism, refer blogs and vlogs while making their holiday decisions. It is because blogs and vlogs are written based on the travel experiences; hence, they give in-depth information about the tourism products and services or a destination. Tourists, mainly the backpackers, prefer to get live experience about the plan of holiday making, accommodation, choice of transportation, activities, etc. through the blogs and vlogs. Such tourists prefer to be with the local community, experience their culture and lifestyle, and contribute to the well-being of the society. This generates sociocultural and environmental sustainability.

Sustainable Destination Management in Asia Tourism is one of the major sources of livelihood in Asia. Exotic natural and cultural heritage are the major attractions of this continent. South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) emphasizes on promoting tourism for peace, development, and regional cooperation. Similarly, Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) promotes Asia as an exotic destination to be visited. Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Bhutan, India, and Sri Lanka are the prime destinations which have shown rapid growth in tourism in recent years. Overemphasis on tourism contributed to climate change and carbon footprint, the major challenges of international tourism. The negative impacts of the tourism industry induced the world to adopt sustainable tourism practices. Thailand, a well-known travel destination, has successfully implemented sustainable tourism practices with environment-friendly and eco-friendly itineraries. Thailand and Singapore have implemented smart technology, predictive analysis technology, and application-based technologies to promote sustainable destination management. The APEX has, while referring to tourism sustainability, considered Singapore, Malaysia, Japan, and Thailand as the top economies contributing to sustainable development. The APEX appreciates the efforts of Japan, the topmost country to reach social, economic, and environmental

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sustainability in Asia. It also refers to the efforts of Indonesia to become topper in environmental sustainability. Many countries in Asia have successfully adopted innovative technology for sustainable management of destinations. International airports like Shanghai, Beijing, Singapore, Bangkok, Delhi, and Bangalore have adopted innovative technology in flight management and energy and resource management to reduce the carbon footprint. Hotels are adopting sustainable practices such as solar energy, wind power, water harvesting, etc. to reduce the environmental impact. At the same time, many hotels and resorts employ local people, purchase local commodities, and involve local people in conduct of activities. This brings in socioeconomic and environmental sustainability. Travel agencies and local businessmen adopt innovative technology to reach out to the tourists and connect the business to local communities for sustainable development. DeskChain, social media marketing, blockchain, artificial intelligence, and virtual reality are a few examples. Besides these, blogs, vlogs, Internet marketing, online applications, Economy Share applications, Couch Surfing, online meta search engines, etc., boost sustainable development in a destination. Asia is the biggest market for diversity. Elephant safari in Bangkok, Chinese street food, forest walk in Burma, local markets of Bangladesh, camel safari in India, Buddhist monasteries of Nepal, mountain tourism in Indo-Nepal border, and fishing in Maldives and Indonesia are the products of local authenticity. Asia, the continent of human and cultural diversity, is a perfect destination for sustainable tourism. Cochin International Airport in India is the world’s first solar-powered airport and received the United Nations 2018 Champions of the Earth Award, is a giant step in achieving sustainability in airport management. Guwahati Railway Station is the first solar-powered railway station that handles around 20,000 passengers every day. Thailand is the largest producer of solar power in Southeast Asia; Vietnam will be the first country to establish South Asia’s largest solar power plant. It is believed that Asia will be the solar power capital by 2050. There are experiments in various countries to reduce the ecological impact of tourism activities. “Qi Palawan” in the Philippines is now the first, fully air-conditioned five star resort operated by solar power. Malaysia and India have successfully experimented with electric scooters at tourist attractions. Singapore, the world’s premium tourist hotspot, introduced vertical farming to rethink farming practices. SensorFlow, a Singapore-based energy consultant, has incorporated a big data solution to deliver up to 30% energy saving. Air conditioners can easily sense the temperature and the room occupancy and automatically turns off when the room is unoccupied. Koh Kong, Cambodia, is a pristine sustainable tourist attraction famous for virgin rainforest, untouched sandy beaches, and clean water. Ladakh is another beautiful attraction in India that promotes sustainable tourism. Luang Namtha, Laos, is famous for eco-hotels, riverside bungalows, trekking and camping, etc. Bhutan attracts eco-tourists and promotes ecotourism. Taman Negara National Park, Malaysia, has tropical rainforest, Malaysian tigers, and the world’s longest canopy walks. Sagarmatha National Park – The Himalayas, Nepal, attracts the tourists through its own sustainable attributes. Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, India; Way Kambas National Park, Indonesia; and Donsol and Peleliu, Philippines, are the major ecotourism attractions in Asia. The local

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authorities, local community, and business entrepreneurs in these attractions commit to offer a complete sustainable package that benefits the tourists, local community, society, and the environment.

Conclusion Asia is a hotspot for adventure tourists, culture and heritage visitors, innovative business, and nature lovers. Tens of thousands of attractions spread across the continent are unique in their own attributes. Tourism as an industry holds the possibility of negatively impacting various aspects, thereby creating irreversible destructions on some occasions; it is quite evident that sustainable practices are the major concern for all stakeholders. Asia is one of the fastest-growing regions in the world when it comes to tourism and travel, and it is of absolute importance that the region practices sustainable tourism at all costs. The advent of various technologies has most certainly made travel and tourism safe, faster, and reliable, but at the same time, it is critical that technology does not impact the valuable tourist resources in this region. Tourism stakeholders have adopted and are practicing innovative technologies which support social, economic, and environmental sustainability in this region. Sustainable innovative technologies aim at benefiting the local community and the government by supporting the host population and various sections of the society and the local economy as well as play an important role in conservation of natural as well as man-made resources for the better future. It is the tourists and the investors who must make wise choices while adopting the innovative technology that suits the needs and physical attributes of a destination and maintains and creates a balance among the three pillars of sustainability.

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sustainable Tourism: Concepts and Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digitalization and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Smart Technology and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Asia and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

In a destination that cares about information technologies and can keep up with new technological developments, it may be possible to provide that tourism resources are used correctly, not destroyed, and transferred to future generations. From this point of view, it can be said that technology has strategic importance in the production, development, marketing, and future existence of a destination or a tourism product in sustainable tourism. In addition, technological innovations developed in the service sector such as tourism can also provide the renewal of the products. Creating added value of the product is the core of the innovation process and is very important. Therefore, it is important to use information technologies to create alternative tourism types such as soft tourism developed as alternative to the environmental destruction of mass tourism, and rural tourism and farm tourism within the scope of ecotourism based on the creation of economic opportunities. Thus, the positive economic impacts of tourism by A. Ercan İştin (*) School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, University of Şırnak, Şırnak, Turkey Y. E. Karakaş Department of Tourism Management, University of Malatya Turgut Özal, Malatya, Turkey © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_55

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developing a new product and also using of ithe resources without being destroyed by eliminating environmental adverse effects can be sustained. In this context, the purpose of the research is to examine sustainable tourism practices in tourism destinations in Asia, and to reveal the importance of technological applications in terms of sustainable tourism, and to make recommendations to destinations for developing technology-based sustainable tourism applications. Keywords

Sustainability · Sustainable tourism · Technology applications · Asia

Introduction At the beginning of the twentieth century, countries have set certain policies in the field of production and industrialization and implemented them with the effect of the acceleration of industrialization in the world, thus enabling entrepreneurs in their countries to make progress in this direction in order to take care of their own interests, to become politically and economically larger, and to have a voice in the world. The beginning of the 1900s was a period in which a production-centered understanding was dominated all over the world and the industrialization process was still in its infancy, and more manpower than technology in production came to the fore. Investments in science and technology have gained momentum with the rebalancing of the balances in the world, especially after the World War II, and the countries investing in science and technology have become a major power in the world in the future. After the 1960s, it has been understood that science and technology are more important than industrialization. South Korea which is a bit late compared to other developed countries in the industrialization process has taken its place among the countries that have a voice in the field of high tech by investing in technology, innovation, and R&D-based policies instead of industry in the 1980s. Even the Samsung Company which belongs to South Korea spends more budget for R&D and innovation activities than many countries in the world. When considering the competencies and values of other Asian countries in the field of technology and informatics and also Japan’s world-leading high-tech companies, after 1976 taking part of China among the world giants in the field of production with its investments making in technology and informatics, and Malaysia’s, Taiwan’s, and even India’s recent investments in the field of information and technology has come to the foreward. Changes in the world with the start of industrialization, innovations, the increasing environmental problems and social needs have been effective in the emergence of new problems such as depletion of resources in nature. The desire of humanity to develop new solutions to these problems has led to the need for new methods. In this context, it is seen that “sustainable development” comes to the forefront among the new concepts that started to be discussed for the first time in the 1970s. This concept focuses on three issues: economic, social, and environmental.

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Today, it seems that there is almost no place where technology is not included. It is seen that businesses use informatics and technology in order to gain advantage over competitors in their sectors. Looking at the tourism industry, it is one of the largest service sectors that provides the most important source of income among the service sectors of the world. It is very important to benefit from the opportunities provided by technology in the tourism industry in terms of improving service quality, differentiating products/services according to competitors, and meeting customer satisfaction at the highest level. Tourism is considered a resource-intensive industry; therefore, it should be accountable both locally and globally in terms of sustainability. The concept of sustainability is generally expressed as “balance” or “smart” use of resources (Lu & Nepal, 2009). In addition, sustainability is seen as a tool and remarkable approach for improving problems related to negative tourism effects and maintaining longterm tourism applicability (Liu, 2003: p. 460). When the improvement of the tourism industry from the past to the present is examined, it is seen that all the new technological developments that have emerged in each period are somehow integrated into the businesses operating in the field of tourism. The most important success criteria of the world’s most respected companies in the field of tourism are that they are open to all innovative approaches by constantly following the changes. The most important thing for sustainable success and sustainable tourism is to apply whatever the conditions of the day require by having an innovative idea. In order to use the resources limited in terms of sustainable tourism in an optimum way, it is seen that many countries use high technology and are a power against their competitors by carrying out high-technology works.

Sustainable Tourism: Concepts and Features Industrialization has caused problems such as economic development and growth, excessive use of resources, and environmental destruction. The understanding of sustainability has gained importance as a search for solutions to the problems experienced. 1972 United Nations Environment Conference in Stockholm on the understanding of sustainability, 1984 Tokyo Conference, 1987 United Nations World Environment and Development Commission Brundtland Report, 1992 United Nations Environment and Development Conference in Rio de Janeiro, 1997 Japan Kyoto Protocol and immediately after 2001 Johannesburg Earth Summit can be considered among the important initiatives (Akdu, 2019: p. 133). The concept of sustainability, besides being based on intergenerational equality, creates opportunities for the sustainability of natural life and to reach a better life level. Social capital and social sustainability are as important as ecological and economic capital. In general, social capital is the society’s ability to solve social, economic, and environmental problems. In parallel with the concept of sustainable development, the development of the sustainable tourism approach started with the increase in environmental movements all over the world in parallel with the progress of mass tourism in the second half of the twentieth century and the destruction

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caused by mass tourists in the places they visit. In particular, as a result of its spread to the public and tourism of the criticisms coming from the branches of science that examine the richness of history and the pioneering movements of environmentalists and social science, both economic growth, technological and industrial progress, as well as the pioneering movements of sensitive individuals and groups, especially environmentalists were a pioneer the search for new “alternative tourism” instead of “offensive tourism” in the mid-1960s. The “Sustainable Development Commission” established within the United Nations has tried to determine the priorities of sustainable tourism by emphasizing the concept of sustainable tourism. Before 1997, the commission evaluated sustainable tourism only in the context of the development of small islands, and in 1999 it included sustainable tourism in an international work program (Özkök & Gümüş, 2009: p. 53). When the concept of sustainability is examined as its origin, it is understood that sustainability derives from its root. Sustain, which is the origin of sustainability, means to ensure the continuation of a situation. In economic terms, sustainability can be expressed as ensuring the continuation of any resource included in the economy without decreasing the amount (Solmaz, 2019: pp. 1179–1180). The concept of sustainability has become globally known through the report of the Common Environment of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED, 1987), an organization of the United Nations known as the Brundtland Commission (Linnenluecke & Griffiths, 2010: p. 358). Another key concept that has a significant impact on the development of the concept of sustainable tourism is sustainable development. In 1987, the Brundtland Commission Report defined sustainable development as development that meets today’s needs without sacrificing the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Liu, 2003: p. 460). Sustainable development has four integrated dimensions (Mangır, 2016: p. 146): first, to provide justice in economic development and distribution of wealth; second, to provide social development, equality, and social mobility; third, to protect the environment and natural resources; finally, technological transformation to reduce environmental pollution. The concept of sustainable development is supported by basic principles and objectives (see Table 55.1) that stem from both their developmental and environmental contexts and where sustainable tourism development can be compared (Sharpley, 2000: p. 8). Sustainable development has become a trend in development studies in general and tourism research in particular since the late 1980s (Liu, 2003: p. 459). Sustainable development is related to the development of the global tourism industry (Song & Li, 2019: p. 45). Sustainable tourism is a sub-branch of sustainable development put on the global agenda with the publication of the Brundtland Report. Report focusing on environmental issues and natural environment remains the central theme of sustainable development and sustainable tourism (Cole, 2006: p. 629). Sustainable tourism is to protect the environmental resource base of a target region (including nature, structures, cultural features) for future developments by representing a set of principles and drawing a road map for the development of tourism and determining policies and management methods accordingly (Hunter, 1997: p. 850). In other

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Table 55.1 A sustainable development model: principles and objectives Fundamental principles

Development objectives

Sustainability objectives

Requirements for sustainable development

Holistic approach that includes integrated development and environmental issues in a global social system Future, which refers to a focus on long-term capacity for the continuation of the global ecosystem Equality encompassing development that is equitable and fair, as well as providing access to and opportunities for the use of resources for all members of all societies today and in the future Improving the quality of life for all people, such as opportunities to realize potential, education, and life expectancy Meeting basic needs; focus on nature of provision rather than income Self-reliance, such as local decision-making for local needs and political freedom Development of endogenous Sustainable population levels Minimal depletion of natural resources (nonrenewable) Sustainable use of renewable resources Pollution emissions within the absorptive capacity of the environment Adoption of a new social paradigm relating living which is sustainable National and international economic and political systems dedicated to resource use and equitable development Technological systems that can search continuously for new resolutions to problems of the environment Global alliance facilitating integrated development policies which are at local, national, and international levels

Source: Sharpley (2000: p. 8)

words, without venturing the future generations’ abilities to meet their own needs, it is a form of tourism that meets the needs of host communities and the tourism industry (Swarbrooke, 1999: p. 13). Sustainable tourism is a form of development in which ecological processes, integrity of cultural, biodiversity. According to sustainable tourism approach, lifesustaining systems are sustained in a broad sense, and at the same time. All resources are managed in a way to satisfy the economic, social, and aesthetic needs of the people and tourists in the visited region and to meet the same needs of future generations by preserving the environment in which people interact or not, from deterioration or change (Dinçer, 1996: p. 342). Due to the fact that sustainable or green concepts have gained importance in commercial development, the tourism industry has been trying to define the term sustainable tourism development since the early 1990s. It has not been a fully universal agreement, but today everyone argues that the tourism development should be sustainable (Fortuny et al., 2008: p. 860). Sustainable tourism can be expressed as a philosophy that includes all policies and practices that are comprehensive for all kinds of tourism, including mass

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tourism, and are sensitive to all resources used by tourism rather than a type of tourism. However, when tourism gains mass scale, its effects are aggravated and negative. At this point, kinds of alternative tourism stand out, and various definitions such as soft tourism, ecological tourism, nature tourism, and rural tourism are more relevant to the concept of sustainable tourism. Sustainable tourism includes economic efficiency, social responsibility, and ecological sensitivity at every stage by revealing the need to transform the economic development and environmental conflict into harmony due to its close relationship with the environment and natural resources. Sustainable tourism development, which is among the qualitative factors affecting competitiveness, aims to ensure that the destination sources provide the desired income in the long term and to protect the market share of the destination in tourism (Biçici, 2013: p. 22). Meanwhile, sustainability is a response to the negative social and environmental effects of mass tourism (Clarke, 1997: p. 225). The goals of sustainable tourism are stated as “Economic Continuity, Employment Quality, Local Development, Visitor Satisfaction, Social Welfare, Local Control, Cultural Wealth, Biological Diversity, Physical Integrity, Environmental Cleaning, Efficient Use of Resources” in the report prepared by United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Tourism Organization (Alagöz et al., 2015: p. 86). According to Alfred Ralifo, WWF-Pacific Great Sea Reef Program Manager, “Digital technology is an important component of collecting media data. Sustainable tourism does not only require social and economic knowledge, it also includes environmental data. Such data is vital for improving tourism planning and strategies” (World Wide Fund, 2018). Although tourism has become one of the most important sectors in the world with the fastest-growing gross domestic product of the world for the last 30 years, the rapid development in the tourism sector is expressed as its negative effects on the environmental and social aspects of the communities where tourism develops (Fortuny et al., 2008: p. 860). Actually, sustainable development in tourism is related to the development of the global tourism industry. The damage caused by tourism to the environment is irreversible, and the outdated environmental awareness of tourists is causing a significant decrease in the self-healing ability of the ecosystem (Song & Li, 2019: p. 45). Technology-based innovation in the tourism sector has become the main source of sustainable competitive advantage and a strategic key by depending on the important role that information plays in the identification, distribution, gathering, organization, and presentation of touristic products to the consumer (Karataş & Babür, 2013: p. 19). Tourism is a knowledge business; tourism product is “a matter of trust.” Tourists have to leave their place of residence and go to the destination where that product is located in order to consume a tourism product. Therefore, it is not possible to pre-check and test the tourism product. At the time of decision, the touristic product has only the abstract model and the explanation of the example (Gratzer et al., 2004: p. 452). Although sustainable tourism generally focuses on environmental sustainability, it is understood that there are other factors that affect the sustainability of the tourism

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product such as tourist safety, effective marketing, and public acceptance (Yaw, 2005). In addition to a holistic approach to all stakeholders in the field of tourism, sustainable tourism takes into account not only current participants but also future generations. It is accepted that conscious participation of all relevant stakeholders is essential for sustainable tourism development (Adedoyin & An, 2017: p. 26). With the opportunities brought by today’s technology, it is possible to have prior experience with 3D and similar sub-structured images in a virtual environment before purchasing the touristic product, and in fact, it can provide a significant competitive advantage in the marketing of that destination. During epidemic periods such as Covid-19, when travel is restricted, countries with digital technology infrastructure offer tourists the opportunity to visit their museums, historical places, and touristic places in virtual environments with augmented and virtual reality technology, and thus these countries have the opportunity to somehow continue their sustainability in tourism even in these extraordinary situations. The products used and the energy they consume and the waste they leave to the environment by accommodation businesses having an important position especially in the tourism sector cause serious problems in the protection of nature and the environment in today’s world. Any tourism enterprises reduce the damage to the nature and the environment to the lowest level by using the technological facilities required by our age. Since many of the newly built hotels are environmentally friendly and smart buildings, they provide economic savings by using the power of today’s technology and make significant contributions to the sustainability of tourism with their nature and environmental friendliness. Greening not only reduces the damage to the environment in recent years but also helps hotels reduce operational costs and have a more positive image while contributing to the reduction of the large amount of energy consumed by hotels and the use of nonrecyclable products (Jiang & Kim, 2015: p. 309). Accommodation businesses operating in a highly competitive market should pay attention to financial savings. Accommodation businesses that spend large amounts of money for energy, water, and waste disposal can reduce their resource use by 20–40% without reducing their operating performance by adopting sustainable practices (Sert, 2017: p. 9). InterContinental Hotels Group announced a partnership with the technology company Winnow to help its hotels automatically monitor, reduce, and measure food waste for bar operations and efficient restaurant in order to be more sustainable. Thanks to the smart camera, smart scale, and artificial intelligence-based smart meter technology, Winnow Vision examined the ingredients during food preparation and the plates returned to the kitchen to analyze which foodstuffs were wasted the most and how much. Thus, the sustainability of these businesses is ensured by creating a database that informs purchasing decisions, shapes food, and shapes menus preparation techniques (Rajagopal, 2019). Information and communication technology has substantially changed the efficacy and performance of tourism organizations and the way they act consumer and business interactions with stakeholders. It has become a crucial factor in the modern tourism industry (Ali & Frew, 2014). Table 55.2 shows that innovations with

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Table 55.2 Information and communication technology (ICT) use in the tourism industry ICT-based tools Carbon calculator

Community informatics

Computer simulation Destination management system Economic impact analysis software Environment management information systems

Geographic information systems

Global positioning system

Intelligent transport system

Location-based services

Tourism information system

Virtual tourism

Weather, climate, and ocean change forecasting software Source: Ali and Frew (2014)

Definition It determines carbon emissions according to the amount and type of energy consumed. This is known as the carbon footprint and is measured in tons of CO2 It focuses on the delivery and design of technological applications to increase community engagement and development through the use of e-mail, networks, and bulletin boards, all based on the Internet It is a simulation of real-world settings where models are designed to show how a system works over time It distributes and consolidates a comprehensive range of tourism products through a variety of platforms and channels It is used to monitor the economic effects of tourism by supplying information on the amount and type of spending They are a combination of computer software, hardware, and professional services. It integrates different information about environmental issues to manage the environmental function within an organization. It collects business information related to environmental management, such as emissions and waste monitoring, for systematic analysis and reporting. It provides a company to monitor and improve its environmental management practice They are systems that can capture, manage, analyze, manipulate, integrate, display, and store large amounts of geographic data It is a satellite-based system that allows navigation, positioning, and timing services to users in all weather conditions all around the world, 24 hours a day It is a telematics system that allows traffic guidance, information from independent locations, dynamic routing, and information about traffic In location-based services that collect and transmit information from a mobile device based on the user’s automatic location, the purpose is to provide the user with targeted information based on his or her geographic location. Such information includes places to eat, stay, and visit. It also includes, but is not limited to, emergency health and other services It is a data warehouse that serves destination managers as a decision support system and manages business-critical information to provide quality information available to assist them in their decision-making Virtual tourism, based on the Internet, means that everyone can experience a destination visually and interactively without actually visiting its culture, its history, and its touristic interests It is a software that is used to monitor changes in weather, ocean, and climate

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technological infrastructure that can be applied in the tourism sector have significant contributions to tourism in the context of sustainability.

Technology and Tourism Technology is a concept with an innovative and inventive notation, the production of new goods and services, management methods, and applied technical information that provide the use of these methods for the solution of problems (Çiftçi, 2004: p. 60). Technology is also defined as a source of information applied to improve the production and marketing efficiency of existing goods and services and to create new goods and services (Tiryakioğlu, 2011: p. 171). Science and technology policies, on the other hand, are defined as policies that direct social and political developments that directly affect the welfare level of countries, and set out the conditions of development and change. Because of this effectiveness of technology, all societies make every effort to produce, obtain, use, and spread technology (Bayraç, 2003: p. 48). The dynamics of the digital age society are supportive of information and communication technologies of many organizations, and these dynamics have been adopted as critical tools for developing business activities and reaching new customers that are very difficult to reach (Martins et al., 2017: p. 104). The use of digital technologies such as the Internet, global positioning systems, and mobile devices which have an important role in maintaining competitive advantage in the new digital world of target marketing has become a central issue for tourism destinations, suppliers, intermediaries, and tourists (Lagiewski & Kesgin, 2017: p. 118). According to UNWTO (2015), tourism is a cultural, social, and economic phenomenon that requests people to act to places or countries outside their normal environment for commercial/professional or personal goals (Gretzel et al., 2015: p. 180). The use of technology in the tourism industry has been increasingly used since the beginning of the 1970s. Workers and researchers in the tourism industry have always wondered about the value of technology and its possible effects on consumer satisfaction (Mil & Özdoğan, 2015: p. 49). The name of the current period is expressed as Industry 4.0. Although this industrial revolution seems to be closer to the field of engineering or science with high technology, it will have enormous impacts on the tourism industry and hence the tourism economy and tourism businesses (Mil & Dirican, 2018: p. 2). When the technological developments in the tourism industry are analyzed, it is seen that all the new technological developments in every period are somehow integrated into the enterprises operating in the field of tourism.

Digitalization and Tourism Humanity which has left the revolutions made with weapons in the past spreads to many areas with digital revolutions and tries to add value to its assets. In the

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digital age we live in, the industry sector, which has been affected by these revolutions, has become a different sector in itself with digitalization (Bağçı & İçöz, 2019: p. 233). Xiang (2018) states that the relationship, change, and development in the last 20 years between information technology and tourism consisted of two separate periods. 1996–2006 is the period when digitalization has started and the internet has been used as commercial tool used as a commercial tool. In this period, new terms such as the World Wide Web, e-mail, ecommerce, desktop, and laptop have entered human life. It is the period when digitization gained momentum between 2007 and 2016. New terms such as Wi-Fi, search engine, Web 2.0, Internet of Things drone, smartphone, and artificial intelligence have become a part of human life. Technological innovations have facilitated the development of tourism. According to tourism researchers, technology has played a key role in tourism since the 1970s, and technology has also revolutionized the channels of communication and information distribution in the tourism industry since the late 1990s (Li et al., 2017). Digitalization and similar changes in the world have been influenced in the establishment and integration of new systems by taking people out of their routines in many areas with the emergence and use of the Internet. The widespread use of the Internet has played an important role in the introduction of digital (virtual) platforms that have never existed before in human life, the emergence of new concepts and new business models, the change of people’s lifestyles, and the existence of many new things. Especially the use of the internet has caused social media and similar new platforms to enter people’s lives; thus, innovations and changes have been seen in many areas. Social media provides communication opportunities with a very common application infrastructure and different tools. In other words, social media contains many tools. Social media tools are generally classified as wikis, blogs, microblogs, content sharing sites, professional networks, podcasts, forums, and social bookmarking sites by various authors (Aktan & Koçyiğit, 2016: p. 65). It is seen that one out of every six people in the world is registered to Facebook, an average of three million people open a Twitter account per day, and YouTube hosts around 1 billion visitors every month. It is known that there are over 2 billion social media users in the world. In parallel, tourism companies are developing sites compatible with social media. Social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter provide users with excellent environments to describe places to see, to share things that are satisfied and dissatisfied with others, and to provide advice. One of the most popular sites in this area is TripAdvisor (Erdoğan, 2015). Besides Facebook and Twitter, Flickr and YouTube are between other social media sites that are popular in the industry. YouTube is the second largest search engine worldwide, leading the distribution of video content after Google. Flickr is the most popular photo sharing social media site, but new players (e.g., Instagram) take this position. Finally, TripAdvisor is the world’s largest community travel site (Almeida-Santana & Moreno-Gil, 2017: p. 151). The low cost of social media, the fact that it takes place in an environment where sincerity is essential, the opportunity to get to know the target audience and the intimacy between people providing direct communication without intermediaries are the

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factors that make it strong. In addition, the rapid dissemination of information in social media, up-to-dateness of information, capability to make measurement and evaluation, and the reliability of the information obtained through reference are also the factors that make it strong (Sü Eröz & Doğdubay, 2012: p. 136). The emergence of information technologies and electronic commerce applications with the Internet and the widespread use of the Internet have led to significant changes in the structure, marketing, reservation, and sales processes of travel businesses in the tourism industry (Atay, 2009: p. 123). Increasing information sharing with the development of the Internet affects people’s decision-making process. People benefit from the powerful and comprehensive power of the Internet when preparing travel plans, drawing travel routes, and seeking information about the destination (Durmaz et al., 2018: p. 33). According to Martins et al. (2017), the continuous development of the Internet with information and communication technology and increasing applications to tourism activities (e-tourism) have caused tourism organizations to change their minds; and it focuses on the fact that tourism should focus on consumer preferences and also be supported by consumer-centered technologies, thus providing sophisticated and memorable experiences in the twenty-first century. The terms e-tourism and digital destination can be used interchangeably to change the production and marketing process of tourism experiences using information, telecommunications, entertainment, and media technologies in tourism destinations. E-tourism is also defined as the digitalization of the tourism experience and industry (Lagiewski and Kesgin, p. 2017). The Internet allows people to share information as part of their daily lives and to search for information for anything. In addition, the Internet changes the way of communication between destinations and tourists and provides them with more than the power they have. Nowadays, tourists inform other people by sharing photos, videos, and comments. These shared emotions and thoughts have a significant impact on the image of the destinations directly and in terms of people’s destination preferences. E-tourism is actually the digitalization and infrastructure of the entire tourism industry. The use of the Internet has forever changed the principles and structure of the tourism industry. Tourists or consumers can directly access the correct information, communicate with suppliers, and get the best price via the Internet (Pitoska, 2013). This new digital system also allows tourists to better understand the destinations they are looking for. Therefore, using the Internet as a tool for planning trips also increases the importance of wordof-mouth marketing (Almeida-Santana et al., 2020).

Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality Augmented reality is a layer of digital information about the immediate environment of users who use devices such as mobile phones or head-mounted displays (HMD) and especially smart glasses (Jung & Dieck, 2017: p. 110). It is seen that virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) technologies are among the most popular technological innovations utilized in the tourism industry and wearable devices are used especially in the scope of AR. Tourism businesses use AR and VR technologies

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to improve the experiences of their customers. In addition, the use of AR and VR technologies contributes to accelerating processes, increasing quality and performance, and reducing costs. At the same time, customers can get a more personalized and unified service with wearable device technology (Ergen, 2020: p. 63). Despite the similarities shared between AR and VR, they differ from each other. One of the most important differences is that VR is completely immersed users in a virtual environment so that they cannot see the real world around them. AR allows its users to see the real world. AR elements cannot be seen with naked eyes, and imaging devices are needed to help AR users view AR elements (Ab Aziz & Siang, 2014). As the speed of AR adoption increased, cultural heritage areas began to focus on the opportunities offered by this new and innovative technology. AR is considered as a way of preserving history, increasing visitor satisfaction, reaching ear by ear, attracting new target markets, and contributing to a positive learning experience (Jung & Dieck, 2017). A common purpose of VR applications is to bring users into a virtual environment and enable users to experience this environment as if it were real (Martins et al., 2017: p. 104). In essence, VR is a computer-mediated and multidimensional experience that facilitates access to different dimensions. Information cannot be displayed in two dimensions through a computer monitor with virtual reality. Instead, the user finds himself the same size and is immersed in the data. Experience in VR is enriched with various sensory stimuli and feedback, such as vision, sound, and even touch (Cheong, 1995: p. 418). VR applications, by their very nature, can be valuable for promoting tourism because tourism is based on exploring new places and gaining new experiences. Previous studies have already touched on virtual tourism and have shown it to be effective for marketing/promotional purposes (Martins et al., 2017: p. 104).

Smart Technology and Tourism The use of developments in information and communication technologies (ICTs) in tourism has led to the emergence of various concepts. It is seen that the term “smart tourism,” which is one of these concepts, has gained importance in recent years (Atay et al., 201:668). Some businesses and researchers with technical backgrounds tend to interpret smart tourism as service, marketing, and management changes created by the most up-to-date and latest applications of information and communication technologies (Li et al., 2016). Information and communication technologies have also significantly affected the tourism industry and continue to be the main driver of tourism innovation. There is evidence that ICTs have greatly changed the way tourism products are developed and presented (Atembe, 2015: p. 224). Recalling that technological innovations are not the only success factor, it is emphasized that smart businesses gain market advantages, thanks to the application of new ICT (Jaremen et al., 2016). Smart systems are next-generation information systems that promise to

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offer more relevant information, mobility, decision support, and finally more entertaining tourism experiences to tourism consumers and service providers (Gretzel, 2011: p. 758). Technology is one of the most important competitive weapons for any business in the hospitality industry in today’s rapidly changing environment. Tourism businesses use technology to launch customized promotional campaigns, to provide customized services to these markets, to increase customer retention rates, and so on (Kang et al., 2007). In addition, smart destination technologies can be integrated into tourism resources, and these technologies can be used as a marketing platform. In general, smart tourism technologies refer to general and specific applications that can increase tourist experiences and create added value (Jeong & Shin, 2019). The concept of smartness advocates technological developments and the application of automation in order to increase efficiency, reduce costs, and provide more sustainable and enjoyable solutions (Femenia-Serra & Neuhofer, 2018). It can be given the examples for smart tourism technologies such as computing everywhere, Internet of Things (IoT), anywhere connection, cloud computing via Wi-Fi, radio frequency identification (RFID), near field communication (NFC) and smartphones, sensors, mobile connected devices, pointers, augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), mobile applications, integrated payment methods, social networking sites, and smart cards (Jeong & Shin, 2019). In tourism, the application of smart principles aims to improve the tourist experience through the latest technologies and big data usage in order to facilitate the co-creation of stakeholders in the smart service ecosystem (Femenia-Serra & Neuhofer, 2018). It is seen that smart technologies and smart management provide many new services for service innovation in the tourism and hotel industry. Some of these applications are given in Table 55.3 (Gökalp & Eren, 2016). Today, technology has been used at a high level in food and beverage businesses, and the consumer has been able to view menus and place orders with the use of the QR code. It has also been observed that the use of technology imposes extra costs on restaurant businesses, but as a result, the use of technology gives them superiority over sustainable competitors (Şimşek & İbiş, 2019). Technological applications such as kiosks, recommendation robots, chatbots, robots, and smart tables, which have emerged in line with the purposes of artificial intelligence technology, provide many benefits in the food and beverage industry. Many benefits can be listed such as saving, efficiency, reducing human errors, and less repetitive tasks, by reducing the costs and stress associated with recruiting and managing personnel with the use of technology (Çerkez & Kızıldemir, 2020: p. 1272). Today, there are accommodation businesses and food and beverage businesses working with completely artificial intelligence and robots. It is predicted that the number of hotels and food and beverage businesses that are managed with completely unmanned artificial intelligence and robots in the future will increase more and more. The problem here is that people are worried about losing their jobs in the future with increased robotization.

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1240 Table 55.3 Services provided with a smart hotel framework Smart hotel part Smartphone hotel application

Personalized services

Smart card Kiosks

Smart waiter

Smart room

Services It is presented with its advanced interface and is a convenient hotel search with a rich selection of criteria In smartphone hotel applications, you can check in the hotel without waiting for the receptionist In smartphone hotel applications, the smartphone is identified with the NFC feature and the phone is used as a room key In smartphone hotel applications, the resources of the hotel room such as light, heat, and minibar can be managed It is possible to access to the hotel guide service, including access to descriptions of different parts of the hotel, such as the fitness center, spa, pool, tourist explanations as concierge service Multimedia content can be used to supply more comprehensive visualization It is possible to display the hotel environment in the form of sound and graphics using augmented reality technology with a virtual computer, and it is also possible to get information about the surrounding places by holding the phone’s screen by using augmented reality technology It is possible to pay the bill, which includes the drinks consumed in the mini fridge and extra payments, by checking out at the hotel via the application With this application, it can be made contactless payments within the hotel The smart hotel system keeps the previous preferences of the customers regarding TV, minibar usage, air conditioning, and services in the customer profile database. Thus, on the next arrival of the customers, the services are personalized according to this data and the most preferred drinks are placed in the mini cabinet in the hotel room in advance In the smart card application, you can shop within the hotel with a preloaded card Kiosks give you access to all services provided by the mobile application Uploading money to the smart card Hotel staff at the restaurant can recommend menu items to customers based on their past preferences, using customer demographics and software installed on the handset When the customers say that they want to get information about the activities in the hotel with the voice command in the room, the daily activities, menus, and breakfast or lunch times in the hotel are reflected on the smart big screens that look like changeable wallpaper In smart room applications, the pressure and temperature of the water in the bathroom can be adjusted with voice commands, and also the desired video can be opened with voice commands from the smart big screens in the bathroom (continued)

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Table 55.3 (continued) Smart hotel part

Child tracking bracelets

Staff performance management system

Smart hotel resources management

Services Room conditions are constantly monitored by sensors in the room. In addition, the system automatically adjusts the humidity and temperature of the air conditioner, if necessary, while the guests are sleeping The system informs the doctor when an emergency occurs in relation to the health of the guests. In addition, the sensors in the toilet measure blood and sugar in the urine. Measurement results can be obtained regularly through these sensors In large and crowded playground, customers can follow their children wearing RFID wristbands both from the images on the camera and from the position on the wrist via mobile phones and the position via the wristband on the arm Waiting times and receiving real-time service via sensors and handset used by the waiter The efficiency of the personnel whose performance is managed and charged is increased and the problematic places are detected in the system in a short time, thanks to this data, and the necessary solutions are developed immediately. The information received from the RFID readers in the mini fridge is transformed into task information in the form of putting a new drink on the handset of the relevant hotel staff Keeping of real-time data on stock so that any customer does not face any problem due to the finish of something

Source: Gökalp and Eren (2016)

Asia and Tourism It can be said that the destinations in the Asian continent, especially in the AsiaPacific part, attract great attention from tourists. Therefore, tourism revenues are of great importance for their economies, especially for the countries in this region. According to the WTO, the Asia-Pacific region is divided into four basic subregions: Oceania, Northeast Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Among these subregions, the Northeast Asia subregion includes Hong Kong, China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Macau, Mongolia, and Taiwan, while the Southeast Asia subregion includes Cambodia, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Laos, Myanmar, Singapore, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, and Timor-Leste. With Southeast Asia becoming a popular tourist destination, the countries located here invest heavily in the tourism industry. Thailand is the leader of the region in terms of tourism income. The remaining countries are Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines (Moore, 2020). The South Asian subregion includes Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Bhutan, Iran, India, Maldives, Pakistan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, while the Oceania subregion includes American Samoa, Australia, Fiji, Cook Islands, Guam, French Polynesia, Republic of Kiribati, Micronesia, and Marshall Islands.

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The federated states consist of the Northern Mariana Islands, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Palau, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Samoa, Tonga, Vanuatu, and Tuvalu (Dedeoğlu & Aydın, 2018: 2014). Table 55.4 shows that the United States is at the top in the distribution of income among the top ten countries in 2019 international tourism revenues, five countries from European countries are located on the continent basis, and the Asian continent follows Europe with three countries in income distribution. It is seen that especially Thailand is in the top four and tourism revenues have increased by 11.5% for the last 5 years. Of course, except Thailand, Japan and China are in the top ten in Asia. It is seen that Asian countries such as India, Malaysia, and the United Arab Emirates are among the top 20 in income distribution. It can be said that countries in the Asian continent earn these revenues with the importance they attach to tourism and the investments they make. Terms such as smart destinations, information and communication technology applications, Internet marketing, mobile marketing, and social media marketing describe various components of digital technologies (Lagiewski & Kesgin, 2017). Information technologies have also become a strategic weapon for tourism businesses to gain a sustainable competitive advantage in defining, promoting, distributing and bringing together, organizing and presenting to consumers (Yüksek, 2013: 56). Thus, changes and developments in the tourism sector have affected all segments of the industry directly or indirectly (Demir & Demir, 2015: p. 88). Governments in South Korea and China largely fund initiatives that focus heavily on building technological infrastructure that supports smart tourism (Gretzel et al., 2015). In 2011, China’s National Tourism Administration, Qiwei Shao, reported that they undertook an official mission to facilitate and advocate smart tourism over the next decade, and in this direction declared 2013 as the year of smart tourism in China. This has been an important initiative in China’s tourism policy for applications such as technology and smart tourism (Li et al., 2016). Recently, “Jeju Island” in South Korea shows interesting features related to the development of smart tourism. The island is famous for its natural beauty and ecological importance, as it has been designated by UNESCO as many internationally protected areas. As the Table 55.4 International Tourism Receipts, 2019

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Country United States Spain France Thailand Germany Italy United Kingdom Australia Japan China

Sources: NationMaster (2020)

US dollar 264.564.771.524 81.368.231.322 72.889.635.550 66.156.342.273 60.254.410.077 50.895.251.402 49.580.039.927 48.085.290.224 45.523.475.079 40.737.129.211

5-year CAGR +2.3% +2.6% +1.6% +11.5% +0,5% +2.2% 0.8% +6.1% +17% 1.6%

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region suffers from the negative effects of mass tourism, it will take advantage of new platforms (open innovation, smart business ecosystems, and smart technologies) in order to plan the region as a smart tourism center for sustainable tourism and to make tourism services smart enough to compete globally by implementing policies in this direction. This situation also shows the importance of the positive effects of today’s technology on sustainable tourism (Adedoyin & An, 2017). Henn Na Hotel is one of the most interesting hotels in the world, where technology is applied at the highest level in Japan and where robots work instead of personnel. There are no buttons in the hotel rooms to turn the lights on and off. The guests command Tuly, the tulip-shaped robot for this. Tuly also tells the time and weather. Sensors detect the body temperature and adjust the temperature of the room. In the hotel’s cloakroom, a robot similar to a car factory works. Guests pack their luggage in a slot. The suitcase is placed in a box and then placed on the shelf by the robot. The hotel in Nagasaki Sasebo has robot receptionists and an Englishspeaking dinosaur robot, as well as a Japanese-speaking android. The hotel is part of the Huis Ten Bosch amusement park, and the accommodation prices are very affordable. Hideo Sawada, the founder of the park, stated that the staff consisting of robots reduced the costs (Serdar, 2018). Countries such as Japan, South Korea, China, Malaysia, Singapore, India, and Taiwan which are located in Asia and have many digital technological opportunities have the opportunity to use their technological powers as a competitive tool in order to achieve the same success in the tourism industry and to maintain this success. Asian and Pacific countries generate significant economic income from the tourism industry. These countries can make sustainable tourism possible by preserving the limited resources they have for the continuity of their income and making technological investments in that direction. In fact, it can be said that there is an important point in technological investments made for tourism. It would not be entirely correct to use any blind technological application or everything related to technology for the tourism industry. What are the applicability, advantages and disadvantages of technology, its importance in terms of benefit and cost, and, lastly, its harms and benefits to the environment and nature? In other words, it should be decided by considering whether it will have a negative or positive effect on sustainable tourism. In innovation applications, it is recommended that every innovation may not be suitable for your sector or business, and if that innovation will add value to you, it is recommended to be preferred. Otherwise, if it is tried to be used without evaluating every technology, the tourism sector will also be harmed more than beneficial by turning into a technological dump.

Discussion and Conclusion Sustainability, technology, and innovation are among the most talked about and interesting topics of recent times. Even countries determine their policies in line with these concepts and make their strategies such as development and progress within this framework. Considering the economic and political powers of today’s developed

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and developing countries, it is seen that technology, sustainability, and innovation play an important role. In today’s technology, it is seen that smart technologies, Internet of Things, augmented and virtual realities, artificial intelligence, robots, and drones are used in our daily lives. It is observed that digital technology is also rapidly integrated in the tourism industry. It can be said that the use of robots, artificial intelligence, and smart technologies in the tourism industry will increase day by day. It is of great importance for businesses to choose technology as a competitive tool in order to survive and ensure their sustainability in today’s tough competition conditions. The tourism sector is one of the most popular and important sectors in the world. The tourism sector is called a chimneyless factory in terms of income. In parallel with the advancement and development of technology, the opportunity to travel from one end of the world to the other by plane in very short periods of time has led to a change in the understanding of tourism in the world and tourism revenues to reach a very important level. In this direction, countries have entered the race to attract tourists to their countries by investing millions of dollars in the tourism industry. Tourism is an important source of development especially for countries that have not achieved their development in the field of production industry. Considering the tourism industry as a sector that only provides economic returns for countries may cause a great mistake. Apart from the economy, tourism should be seen as a sector where countries introduce their own cultures; meet new cultures; contain concepts such as nature, environment, and artistic, cultural, and historical values. Tourism protect them by caring for these values; and make an important contribution to the development of societies. Sustainable tourism understanding has been at the forefront recently in terms of ensuring the continuity of tourism. In this direction, countries and businesses in the tourism sector should work together to protect the limited resources in nature from harm. Apart from this, considering the point where today’s world has come as technology, many researchers should conduct studies and offer suggestions for destinations to use sustainable tourism practices as opportunities, and accordingly these recommendations should be implemented in the tourism sector. It is seen that the tourism revenues of the countries in this region have increased significantly, as the destinations in the Asian continent have attracted more attention and preferred by tourists recently. When we look at the tourism revenues of the countries in 2019, there are three Asian countries among the top ten countries with the highest income in the world. These countries seriously invest in tourism in order to maintain this income continuity in tourism. Other Asian countries, seeing this market, have started to invest in tourism in significant amounts in order to get a share from the cake. According to researches, it is estimated that the income rates of the countries in the Asian continent from tourism will increase even more in 2030. Considering the possibility of tourism in Asian countries with technology applications of sustainability, it can be said that countries such as Japan, South Korea, China, Taiwan, and India that use and produce high technology have the opportunity to integrate this power into tourism industries very easily. Of course, apart from this,

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countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, and Vietnam whose economies are mostly based on tourism are working on sustainable tourism by keeping up with this digital environment in order to get a share from tourism revenues. Renewable energy, less energy consumption, products that are less harmful to nature and the environment, and their recycling can be sustainable with technological uses such as measuring the carrying capacity of destinations; instant software that monitors changes in air, sea, and climate; and obtaining pre-experience without going to those destinations with virtual reality infrastructure. They contribute to tourism. The most effective way to gain an advantage over its rivals is to use technology correctly with an innovative vision, to know the importance of tourism values, and to carry out studies that will ensure their continuity in the tourism industry where competition is fierce. In this context, considering the compatibility of the technology with the content of sustainable tourism, it is recommended that the destinations continue their activities and make their investments within this framework. The basic understanding of sustainable tourism is to act in a more planned way than to save the day and to act considering both its present and the future. In addition, the depletion of the resources of our world, their destruction and destruction by people, and the gradual change of today’s tourism understanding and tourist profile have led to the formation of businesses and destinations that respect the environment and nature. In this way, it is seen that businesses and destinations that continue their environmentally friendly activities are preferred by conscious consumers. Finally, if Asian countries want to earn more income from this tourism income cake and their continuity is more permanent, they can be among the countries that have a say in tourism, by turning to alternative tourism types far from mass tourism understanding and adopting a sustainable tourism-centered approach by taking advantage of innovation and hightechnology applications in the creation or differentiation of this product and service.

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Part XVII Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: Economic Development

Socio-economic Benefits from Applying Innovative Technologies in the Tourism and Hospitality Industry in Asia

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tourism in South Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Benefits of Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Economic Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Health Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technological Advancements in the Tourism Industry and Its Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technological Innovations for the Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Role of Virtual Communities in Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Challenges to the Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abstract

Technology has reshaped the nature of competition in the tourism industry. Hence, the whole system of technology management rapidly dispersed throughout the tourism industry and no player can escape its impact. Although the widespread adoption of technology has deeply influenced the tourism and M. S. Meo (*) Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School of Business, Universiti Utara, Changlun, Malaysia Department of Management Sciences, The Superior College, Lahore, Pakistan S. Chughtai International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan V. J. Khan University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia M. Z. A. Karim Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School of Business, Universiti Utara, Changlun, Malaysia S. M. Cheema Department of Management Sciences, The Superior College, Lahore, Pakistan © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_56

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technology industry, still we lack a clear understanding of the process by which partners in the technology and tourism industry can co-create and share technology-enabled value. On the other hand, technology adoption has provided both challenges and opportunities for the tourism industry. This book chapter seeks to provide a framework for the utilization of innovative management methods in tourism by adopting a strategic perspective and socio-economic benefits from applying innovative technologies in the tourism industry. Keywords

Tourism industry · Hospitality industry · Innovative technologies · Asia

Introduction From the last five decades, the tourism industry has developed rapidly across the globe. It also seems to be a fascistic economic driver because of its impact on global gross domestic product (GDP), job creation, poverty alleviation and inflation reductions, etc. In recent decades, amid the anonymity of extremism, world tourism has emerged as an increasingly growing industry that has driven countries to develop tourist facilities to satisfy the need of tourism in their respective regions. Tourism is thought to be important if the economy is to continue to expand because it raises per capita revenue and produces tax profits, increases employment opportunity, enhances the country’s economy, raises private sector company, incentivizes international investment, and raises foreign reserves and thus raises the country’s quality of living (Habibi, 2017; Jalil et al., 2013; Tang & Abosedra, 2014). According to World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC, 2020), in the last 5 years, the industry has been generating one in four new workers, rendering travel and tourism the strongest choice for authorities to create jobs.

Tourism in South Asia Over the last two decades, South Asian countries (Pakistan, Nepal, India, Bhutan, Maldives, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and Sri Lanka) have attracted a heap of tourists towards its cultural and natural beauty. These countries are enriched with their eye-catching tourist destinations (Ali & Nazar, 2017; Rasul & Manandhar, 2009). For instance, Pakistan has Deosai Plains, Skardu, Shangrila Resort, Neelam Valley, Azad Kashmir, and Naltar Valley. Likewise, India has Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, Amer Fort, and the Golden City. Similarly, best places to visit Maldives are Alimatha Island, Hulhumale Mosque, and Veligandu Beach Island. In the same way, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and Sri Lanka are also blessed with picturesque beauty and many historical places for their tourists. Despite the stunning tourist destinations in the South Asian countries, the tourism statistics are not significant. According to United Nations data, international tourist’s arrival was 1401 million worldwide in 2018; however, only 32.8 million tourists visited South Asian countries. Likewise, according to United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (2019), in

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2018, worldwide tourism receipts were almost US$1.5 trillion, but South Asian countries earned approximately US$40 billion (see Table 56.1). Table 56.1 presents that UNWTO (2019) the international tourism share of South Asia in 2018 was very low and European economies have majorly held in global international tourism arrival (see Fig. 56.1). Figure 56.2 shows that, in comparison to the other regions of the world, the contribution of South Asia in terms of international tourist’s arrival is very poor. Table 56.1 International tourism statistics – South Asia vs world (source: UNWTO, 2019)

Worldwide South Asia

International no. of arrivals (in million) 2010 2018 952 1401 14.7 32.8

International tourism receipts (in USD billion) 2010 2018 975 1451 20.1 43.6

Fig. 56.1 Travel and tourism regional performance, 2019. (Source: WTTC, 2020)

Fig. 56.2 International tourist arrival, 2018. (Source: UNWTO, 2018)

Africa Middle East 5% 5%

South Asia 2%

Americas 16%

South East Asia 9%

North East Asia 12%

Europe 51%

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Benefits of Tourism Studies have reported that population of the destination country enjoy the social and economic gains from the tourism. Despite the economic crises and political and social instability, the tourism industry has observed rapid growth around the world (Paramati et al., 2017).

Social Benefits Tourism instigates the renewal of local culture and promotion of local arts, crafts, and heritage. To attract more visitors, relevant authorities actively work on the restoration of historical places and architectural beauty of the destination countries (Dhakal et al., 2017). As the international tourists love to interact with the local people to enhance their tourism experience and learn about the others’ culture, so this encourages the intercultural interaction (Sharma et al., 2008). When a person enjoys his tour to a particular country, the word-of-mouth publicity can enhance the image of that country in the eyes of nonresidents (Fredline et al., 2002). Social aspects of traveling and tourism may create some disruption in the local community lives. For example, growth in the tourist numbers can result in traffic congestion particularly in the seasonal destinations (Andereck et al., 2005; Jago et al., 2006). Also, the tourists and locals may fight for the limited available parking during the peak times which may result in conflicts and frustration (Andereck et al., 2005; Jurowski & Gursoy, 2004). In addition, there are many tourist destinations that are visited late in the evening, and their gathering for different tourist activities at night creates noise for the locals (Deery et al., 2005; Yen & Kerstetter, 2008). An increase in the litter is another cost that the local community has to face due to the growth in tourism (Andereck et al., 2005). Moreover, the development of tourist places may harm the natural habitat of animals and undermine the environment (Frauman & Banks, 2011). Lastly, it is important to note that the social influence of tourism through crosscultural contact is directly linked with the size of the group visiting any destination.

Economic Benefits The traveling and tourism industry has enormously impacted the economies of host countries. Economic impacts of tourism are regarded as the most significant, and these include the creation of employment and business opportunities, income generation, tax revenue, and improved standard of living for the people (Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004; Tosun, 2002; Tsundoda & Mendlinger, 2009). Researchers have documented that tourism plays a vital role in economic growth (Eyuboglu & Eyuboglu, 2020; Roudi et al., 2019; Jurdana & Frleta, 2017). This economic growth is earned by the foreign exchange, opportunities of new businesses especially for the residents, international investment, and improved tax revenue. Furthermore, these foreign exchange reserves are used to finance the imports of capital goods for the

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country (Alam & Paramati, 2016). Another key economic impact of tourism is employment generation in tourism-related industries through the multiplier effect (Li et al., 2016). These related sectors are hospitality, entertainment, and transportation that appreciate the employment creation capacity of the tourism industry (MacNeill & Wozniak, 2018; Walpole & Goodwin, 2000; Zurub et al., 2015). Airlines, taxis, hotels, shopping centers, resorts, and entertainment sites have significant potential to create employment for the countries (Sharif et al., 2017). Apart from the job creation and economic growth, the tourism industry also contributes towards the environment quality through CO2 emissions (Alam & Paramati, 2016; Paramati et al., 2017; Raza et al., 2017; Shi et al., 2020). It has been reported that traveling and tourism (either by road, railway, sea, or airline transportation) consume 90% of the total energy (Higham et al., 2016; Işik et al., 2017). This high energy consumption ultimately generates significant CO2 emissions which can be reduced by introducing the environment-friendly technology and alternative method of green energy. In this way, countries can reap the benefits from sustainable tourism (Roxas et al., 2020).

Health Outcomes Tourism is an experience and the positive experience is considered the crucial outcome of traveling (Filep, 2016; Hanna et al., 2018; Kim, 2014; Tung & Ritchie, 2011). Positive emotions are generated through positive experiences which represent the pleasant feelings and prove beneficial for human health and well-being (Fredrickson, 2000). Many studies have documented that repeated experience of positive emotions produces low chances of cardiovascular diseases, fewer colds, and decreased inflammation (Boehm & Kubzansky, 2012; Cohen et al., 2006; Steptoe et al., 2008). Other health benefits of tourism include good sleep, reduced stress level, healthy eating, and exercise (Pressman & Cohen, 2005). Moreover, the positive experiences through traveling may reduce or eliminate the negative life incidents. Additionally, tourism and traveling influence the health through its income effect. As arrival of tourists results into an increase in the income of residents, which ultimately improves their physical and psychological health (Godovykh & Ridderstaat, 2020). Tourism also brings some negative impacts on health and economies. For instance, the recent COVID-19 pandemic exemplified the damaging consequences of traveling on public health and further resulted in cancellation of international flights, border closures, and restraints on free mobility (Godovykh & Ridderstaat, 2020).

Technological Advancements in the Tourism Industry and Its Roles For the past three decades, the tourism industry has been reshaped globally due to technological advancements embraced by the industry. Adoption of technologybased business models has revolutionized the hospitality and tourism industry.

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Tourism though specified as a service-intensive industry not only faced drastic changes in business strategies and practices but the overall structure and perception of the industry have been fundamentally changed due to growing technological needs (Buhalis & Law, 2008). The broadband speed, growing search engines, and websites facilitating travelers for online reservations for hotels and virtual tours of destinations across the globe had reengineered the industry and brought a paradigm shift to the existing business practices. The customers are enabled to access tourism product over a click. Another revolution faced by the industry is a novel payment system through cryptocurrencies. The systems enable customers to buy cryptocurrency in one part of the world and transfer it anywhere in the world instantly without any loss due to exchange rate fluctuations. Moreover, information asymmetry between the buyers and suppliers of the industry has not only significantly reduced but also technology-empowered customers to make reservations in little time with minimal transaction costs. The technology-driven approach has also assisted the suppliers in the industry; hence, they can manage and distribute their services across the globe which resulted in better service quality (Buhalis, 1998). Currently, the vast majority of businesses in the tourism industry have full access to the databases providing information regarding their customers, hence enabling them to track and monitor preferences and behavioral shift of existing and potential customers. Nowadays, the use of technology has become an integral part of the communication and marketing strategies of airlines, hotels, and travel agencies. Customer needs are now better served with improved service quality and reduced perceived risk (Fodness & Murray, 1997). The book chapter aims to give an insightful understanding of dynamic nature of tourism business due to everyday changing technology. There is sheer need to study the widespread role of technology throughout all the stages of the travel process, right from pre to post. It is noteworthy to mention here that customers of the industry are increasingly empowered nowadays and have transformed to co-creators of their own experiences. Technology plays as a key driver and enabler in enhancing the experience of co-creation between the customer and the industry throughout the travel process (Neuhofer & Buhalis, 2012).

Technological Innovations for the Tourism Industry Many significant technological developments have affected the tourism and traveling industry. One of these is multimedia. People, who are planning to travel, want to have a tangible experience of traveling through graphics, video clips, or animation. This sort of representation of tourist place enhances the richness of information and interaction. Three-dimensional (3D) virtual tours also allow the people to virtually visit the desired destination (Cho & Fesenmaier, 2001). This virtual experience gives the feel of real visits to the travel planners (Cho et al., 2002). Many online marketers have developed 3D websites with the purpose to attract the customers and incite to purchase online (Fiore et al., 2005). Digital map is another important innovation that facilitates the tourists to get the tourism

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information through satellite images (Raggam & Almer, 2005). Mobile and mobile phone applications in specific are also of great assistance to the traveling lovers. These enable the travelers to extract tourism-related information in minimum possible time and without any geographical restrictions. Travelers can now easily book tickets, hotels, and car rentals and seek any information related to traveling guides, transport schedules, and good food (Berger et al., 2002).

Role of Virtual Communities in Tourism Virtual communities are defined as a group of people who do not necessarily interact face to face but exchange their ideas, thoughts, and words via social media networking or any computer bulletin board (Buhalis & Law, 2008). The virtual communities of traveling and tourism are extremely influential for the tourism and hospitality industries. People interested in traveling make connections, build relationships, obtain information from these virtual travel communities, and then decide to visit any particular tourist place accordingly (Stepchenkova et al., 2007). It is important to mention that participation, attitude, and behavior of people in virtual travel community (VTC) have a very influential role (Vogt & Fesenmaier, 1998). Also, travelers love to share their traveling experiences and suggestions with the public; these virtual travel communities are a popular way for posting their travel diaries. People interested in visiting different places enjoy interacting with others having similar interests, attitudes, and lifestyles. According to Niininen et al. (2006), there is a special need to understand the motivation and behaviors of virtual community’s users so that policymakers and regulators can create, run, and maintain these communities efficiently. In consequence, consumer-centered marketing can be facilitated. Furthermore, there may be a risk that the members of VTC may leave the community if they are not contented with design, content, and security policies (Allison et al., 2005). The advent of Travel 2.0 or Web 2.0 has amalgamated the virtual communities or social networking with the tourism and traveling industry. One of the most successful virtual communities related to traveling and tourism is TripAdvisor (www.tripadvisor.com) which presents the reviews of all the hotels around the globe and bring together the individuals of same interests in the discussion forums. Members of TripAdvisor or travel experts independently write reviews and comments on these platforms which highlight the level of consumer satisfaction to various travel organizations (Wang & Fesenmaier, 2004). The potential of these virtual communities is also reflected in promoting or strengthening any brand.

Challenges to the Industry The new trends in the industry have coined a new term, “new tourism,” describing not only opportunities for the industry but also opened up global challenges like the emergence of new technology and marketing strategies. Likewise, climate change

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caused by transport tourism, social safety concerns by travelers, urbanization, etc. are also major concerns that may be taken into consideration while formulating strategies for the tourism industry in a new era. The industry has recently experienced a drastic decline in income due to the global economic downturn caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the report by World Economic Forum (2020), the impact of coronavirus on world’s tourism industry is devastating. Around 120 million jobs in the industry are at risk and economic loss is predicted to be around US$1 trillion in the year 2020. Due to restriction imposed on international traveling in March 2020, travelers reaching different destinations around the globe have reduced 60% in the first 5 months of 2020 as compared to the statistics of the last year (UNWTO, 2020). Another important determinant affecting the performance of the tourism industry is rapid climate change due to global warming. However, global climate change has also opened up new avenues and created new opportunities for the industry. A further policy analysis based on the research is required to eliminate uncertainties and adapt to changes in climate. Furthermore, the optimal level of human and technology interaction is the biggest challenge faced by the hi-tech industry. In the industry, human interaction is key, and there is fear of replacement of humans by the technology. There is a need to reassure that technology must be there to facilitate humans and not to replace them. Although digitalization has made information accessibility easy for the travelers but on the flip side, technology goes outdated and obsolete easily and a huge cost is involved for the businesses in the industry to stay updated. Moreover, macroeconomic factors like fluctuations in interest and exchange rates have also increased the vulnerability of the industry over the period. Hence, socioeconomic stability at the destination country in terms of exchange rate stability is another important determinant of a volatile number of tourist arrivals at the destination country. The literature signifies that an exchange rate devaluation results in more tourist inflow to destination countries while revaluation does vice versa. Hence, economic policies have greatly reflected on the overall size of the tourism industry of a country (Saayman & Saayman, 2013). The technological advancements are ever changing and cannot be stopped; however, tourism businesses can meet the challenges with adequate candidness and flexibility. Such challenges have urged policymakers at both government and industry levels to device new ways to restore the status of the industry as a major contributor towards economic growth.

Conclusion The world economy has witnessed a rapid growth in the tourism and hospitality industry over the past few decades. The fastest growth in the industry and deepening diversification and growing number of new destinations have made the tourism and hospitality industry as a key driver of socio-economic progress. The benefits of the

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tourism and hospitality industry are far reaching, right from agriculture to telecommunications. These dynamics have linked development in the tourism industry with innovation and technological advancement. To better understand the scale and importance of the role of innovation and technology in the tourism industry, this chapter aims to conduct an analysis of its economic impact through technological advancement relative to the overall economy. The tourism industry has a positive impact on economic growth in terms of job creation, tax revenues, etc.; the use of technology in the tourism industry improved this industry a lot; and adoption of technology-based business models has revolutionized the hospitality and tourism industry.

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Part XVIII Technology Application in the Asian Tourism Industry: The Future

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Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Driving Tourism 4.0: An Exploration Himanshi Dhoundiyal and Priyakrushna Mohanty

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Information and Communications Technology, Smart Tourism, and the Emerging Role of Social Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Intelligence for Destination Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Intelligence for Business Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Intelligence for Tourism Experience Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Intelligence for Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Robotics and Service Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Changing the Asian Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Challenges Ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recent Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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With massive technological revolutions in place, Tourism 4.0 is gearing up to a new world of possibilities driven by the colossal amount of data generated from the tourist mobility across the world. In this context, AI and robotics are emerging out to be the game changers in the era of Tourism 4.0. This chapter aims to bring forth the various facets of AI and robotics driving the tourism industry towards a sustainable future. Some of the challenges that lie ahead have also been discussed in this work. It is concluded that with many new integrations to the field of AI and robotics, the tourism industry is expected to reach new heights of customization, service delivery, and experience management amplified by the accurate forecasting techniques in the days to come. H. Dhoundiyal Research Scholar, Institute of Hotel & Tourism Management, M.D. University, Rohtak, India P. Mohanty (*) Department of Tourism Studies, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry, India © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_57

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Keywords

Artificial intelligence · Robotics · Tourism 4.0 · Big data · Tourism experience management

Introduction The Internet has shifted the power from suppliers to consumers, and tourism organizations are needed to improve the market intelligence and research and facilitate consumers in the decision-making process. Technology, big data, social and online communication, and the sharing economy are the four biggest trends that impact the hospitality and tourism industry right now. It is believed that consumers consider website reviews for trustful instead of professional guides and travel agencies. Social media facilitate the communication platform to individuals and companies, and it is considered as a source of user-generated big data that helps in the process of customer analysis. The growth of consumer’s approach for accessing information, attachment, loyalty, identity, and feedback is directly proportional to the growth of the online community that is considered as a good source of information but gets very little attention. Also, the online community acts as an advocate for the brand and as a good source of real-time information related to customer’s perspective. Blogs are believed to be more reliable than traditional marketing communication. The content is available on blogs, but it needs to be located, retrieved, and interpreted, making it a time-consuming and costly process that nullifies the value of collected data. However, user-generated content (UGC) helps in facilitating informed tourism, marketing, and smooth transactions. Keeping this in mind, many researchers have carried out studies for an automatic tracking system to facilitate decision-making (Akehurst, 2009). The boom in the use of artificial intelligence (AI) has also gained the attention of users and tourism organizations in no way can afford to lose sight of these developments. Similarly, the technological application is one of the growing trends in the hospitality sector, and eliminating human contact is considered as one of the major aspects of it. Although the hospitality industry is known for customer contact, the technological revolution is replacing humans such as guest check-in with the use of smartphones and digital room keys. AI and robotics are expected to register a boom in the coming years and impact the trend of the hospitality sector. The tourist data collected from various sources can be analyzed with the use of big data analytics to retrieve useful information and knowledge (Bowen & Morosan, 2018). Further, service robots interacting with tourist’s experiences influenced by cultural perceptions are lacking. The interaction between hotel guest and robot acts as one of the factors that influence the experiences of guest in the robot-staffed hotels. Considering the above, this chapter aims to bring forth the various facets of AI and robotics driving the tourism industry towards a sustainable future. Some of the challenges that lie ahead have also been discussed in this work. In the first section of the chapter, technology and the concept of smart tourism have been briefly

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discussed. Second, various facets of AI and robotics in Tourism 4.0 have been deliberated upon. Last but not least, some of the challenges in achieving this synergy have been talked upon, and concluding remarks have been noted. The work is descriptive in nature and is based on the data gathered from the various sources of secondary literature. Thematic content analysis has been employed to bring out the core points from the surveyed literature.

Information and Communications Technology, Smart Tourism, and the Emerging Role of Social Media Information and communications technology (ICT) plays a pivotal role in the globalization of the tourism industry, travel service providers, hotels, and restaurants. The local market can be turned into global with the use of ICT, and especially when competitors are rising in the tourism sector, it becomes more important for a company to improve the perspective and market position during the time of crises. Smartphones can be used while visiting unfamiliar destinations learning the interesting points or select the best among available to satisfy the needs. Also, the smartphone is used to communicate with non-travelers and share real-time experiences, comfort, and increase tourist satisfaction. ICT and innovation improve the market share of an organization and allow the innovation processes as well as impact on the competitiveness of an organization (Moreno-Izquierdo, Egorova, et al., 2019). ICT also contributes to the increase in the market share of subsectors, but travel agency subsectors have registered the adverse impact of ICT on competitiveness and productivity. Earlier literature found that tourists’ experience and satisfaction can be improved with the use of mobile devices. The concept of being “smart” is attracting and seeking the attention of various tourist destinations by making use of innovative technology like ICT work in the direction of tourism sustainability. Mohanty (2020) proposes that ICT tools help in achieving sustainable development goals in the tourism industry because both technology and sustainable development share the common characteristics of being futuristic, holistic, and integrated. Many companies are working on the “smart destination” concept, for each customer by evaluating the integral and external functions. The “smart destination” not only brings advance innovation but also contributes to the sustainable development of tourist areas. Smart tourism makes the perfect use of a large amount of gathered data by employing AI to process them which results in devising and facilitating better experiences to tourists. Smart tourism is associated with four core technologies which are cloud capacity, Internet of Things (IoT), mobile terminal communication, and AI (Zhang & Sun, 2019). Smart technology is an effective application and combination of IoT, AI, and cloud computing technologies. The government is required to provide guidance support in the formulation of policies and provide financial and technical assistance for the smart tourism development. Also, Tourism enterprises need to work on smart tourism development by fully operating online, learning OTA operation mode,

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e-commerce platforms, introduce-commerce products, along with building the sale system of smart-travel agencies and smart scenic spots (Guo, 2020). Over the past few years, innovation in technology and communication has brought changes to international level tourism and provided a tremendous opportunity for competition and growth. It’s necessary to keep record of customer’s satisfaction for maintaining the competitiveness and ensure it with the continuous innovation. The prior knowledge and experience of a destination develop the image of a destination and influence the level of customer/tourist satisfaction. The experiences can influence the level of tourist satisfaction and develop destination image in case of traveler is having more experience than the information provided in the source. Social networks like Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter also have a greater influence on the level of traveler’s satisfaction. Mobile technology helps in the improvement of tourist learning and experiences with the development of content. Technology development and web tool development play a key role in the tourism experience and competitiveness of the tourism industry. In the same context, mobile technology provides various tourism services, and this practice is known as digital travel helps to arrange travel plans and improve travel experiences among travelers of the same profiles.

Artificial Intelligence The hospitality and tourism sectors are inclined towards new technologies, and demand for technology is growing nowadays. In the tourism sector, the industry has to adapt to AI in different ways especially when the user demands for personalized products and emotionally can be needed. The introduction of AI and automation help in the reduction of tourism product cost and facilitates the product at a nominal cost. The growth of AI influencing the expectation of society and complicating the evolution of intelligence and innovation which allows the company to cope with the higher cost, higher difficulty and higher computation in tourism sector. The major improvement of OTAs is possible with the implementation of AI, which is considered as the most required field to adopt AI technology. The use of Chatbots, mobile applications, individual, social networking and individual offers can improve the traveler’s experiences along with the growth in revenue (Helgemeir & Cenzano, 2019). Further, it has been observed that potential tourists who have tendencies to humanize objects are believed to have a positive attitude towards the reviews synchronized by AI (Martin et al., 2020).

Artificial Intelligence for Destination Sustainability The use of AI and cutting-edge digital technology plays a crucial role in the development of the tourism sector by facilitating services that can be customized by tourists leading to the improvement of tourist satisfaction. Various technologies are used to innovate and improve experiences of tourists (e.g., IoT (Internet of

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Things) and cloud computing) which provide platforms and tools to communicate knowledge and information to stakeholders existing in the tourism ecosystem (Guo, 2020). AI has registered a hike over the last few years due to its features like computation machine learning, deep learning, artificial vision (image process), and ability to recognize voice and speech (Zhang et al., 2019). The use of AI in the analysis of customer data and voice interaction with customers brought a lot of changes in the operation of businesses. Tourist experiences can be improved with the increase in cloud computing capabilities and by connecting the various sensors available in the physical surrounding to generate and process the data. Digitalization provided a new direction to the tourism services strategies, policies, company plans, and destinations. With the evolution of technology, digital services and applications replaced the tour guide. The real-time tourist applications are facilitated by mobile telephones and used as guides. The applications are designed to answer queries of each user based on their profile and focus to make their experiences overwhelming. Similarly, Mofokeng and Matima (2018) depict the usage of AI and other ICT tools in protecting wildlife. Lanzarote Island in Spain introduced the use of the IBM Watson computing system in synergy with AI and intelligent tourism. The tourism industry uses IBM Watson’s application in customer care (i.e., to manage the personal characteristics data of tourists and verify it from other sources like tourist’s social networks also from the group of similar tourists). The application serves as a “Virtual Smart Guide” and offers an option that boosts customer satisfaction and image of the destination. Tourism image perception has a greater influence on sustainable development and image formulation of a destination (Sun, 2020). Dissemination of sustainable development strategies is required to opt for the improvement in the image perception of the hotel industry (Menegaki & Agiomirgianakis, 2019). Lanzarote’s Centers of Art, Culture and Tourist (CACT) contributed in various capitals like social capital, innovation in tourism organisation with the adoption of IBM Watson. Later, “CACT Lanzarote” was declared as the most innovative project of the year 2016. The potential expectations of a tourist can be revealed with the use of automated virtual guides by processing data collected from tourists’ profile and satisfy the experiences of a particular tourist. While downloading, CACT’s application asks basic questions related to users’ demographic and interest to design the short profile and communicate based on submission such as if the visitor is an architect, then the suggestions will be related to the intervention of the center, but if the visitor belongs to biologist profession, then the result will be as per their interest like species of crab. IBM Watson has human-like cognitive ability such as voice recognition and that lets the users interact with the assistant. The application provides accurate information as per the preferences of users and also permits the users to plan their stay and respond to their queries. The change in the approach provides the opportunity to serve personalized tourism experience in collaboration with people and technology and create job opportunities. In case CACT’s app fails to answer the query, then the same forwarded to the Tourism Department Staff of Lanzarote to respond and then feed the answer in the database to avoid the repetition of issues in the future. The application identifies the user and suggests accordingly such as if the visitor is

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accompanied by children, then the recommendations will include attractions as per children’s interest. Hence, the technological revolution “smart tourism” is changing the pattern of travel and demands a response, economics, and competition with the use of ICT, social networks, and next-generation data process. The information collected from the tourists had to be structured by the tourism sector to fit the leisure offerings with the tourist profile. A similar application, “Visit Orlando,” was developed by WayBlazer in collaboration with IBM. The application suggests options to tourists based on their needs, interest, and search history in a particular application. The Visit Orlando also collaborated with the gaming apps to make it more engaging by providing offers and used a combination of AI and beacon technology to deal with the interrupted communication. This collaboration of AI and beacon technology allows users to retrieve information in volcanic caves and museums with the use of Red Skios software, IBM Watson, and named as Eliza Tourism. Likewise, with the use of the mobile apps, the user can plan their travel as per their taste and preferences and these details are used to formulate the profile of a particular visitor. This application collects information from GPS, beacons, notifications, and travel planning options and then recommends accordingly (Ferràs et al., 2020). AI involves various functions such as cognitive engagement with the use of voice/pattern recognition, cognitive process automation or robotic process automation and cognitive insights like future recommendations (Tsaih & Hsu, 2018). The tourism industry is making use of technology in collaboration to develop applications for identifying the species of flora in the National Park of Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. The collaboration between augmented reality, image recognition and AI made it interesting to identify the species by just clicking the picture in real time. The technology is used to develop the database of pictures of plants to identify the species. The study conducted by Feierherd et al. (2019) compared the performance of IBM Watson, Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud and found Google more successful in identifying two of three species in comparison to other services. The innovative use of technology serves a gratifying experience to visitors by providing real-time information. The developers are also working on the application which can run without connectivity so that the connectivity hindrances can be avoided and serve a smooth experience to visitors (Feierherd et al., 2019). AI is not limited to identification; also, forest layout plan can be designed with the new geographic information system (Qiu et al., 2020). In the last 40 years, China has relied on extensive passive acceptance of travel. The scenic areas have registered a hike in the number of tourists while facing the challenge of overcrowding at scenic centers and tourism routes and affecting the control coordination and damaging the scenic environment. When it is about the visual platform development of core big data of scenic beauty, data can be displayed effectively, clearly, and concisely with the help of a visualization application. Hence, big data visualization technology can be used in the development of large scenic spots. Based on the developmental feature of data mining, the said technology is found as an effective graphic representation of the result of large amount of data analysis. Smart scenic attractions can be proactively and intelligently managed. In this regard, Mazanec (2007) showcases the use

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of inferred causation (IC) theory (integration of AI, graph theory, statistics, and logic) to bring out causal relations existing in tourist behavior studies. The infrastructure facilities and the tourist behavior of scenic attractions can be identified with the assistance of the cloud computing, Internet, and other advanced IT tools to meet the customized needs of tourists in general and achieve timely, comprehensive, and sustainable management scenic spots and data generated by tourist’s mobility. Smart scenic spots helps in attaining the systematic, comprehensive and timely perception as well as helps in the visualization of resources, environment, infrastructure, tourist activities and disaster risk at the scenic spots. It also integrates the sensor network, the Internet of Things, the Internet, and spatial information technology for the core construction of a smart scenic spot. The scenic spot automation carries out the function of information collection, process, transmission, and analysis. The intelligent scenic spot refers to a scenic spot that adopts the intelligent management and operation is based on the use of digitalization that includes scenic spot’s infrastructure information and facilitates in decision making. Smart scenic spots use the technology to capture the panoramic view, global eye, RFID sensors, and system to transmit real-time landscape and weather. A smart scenic spot stimulates tourists to take part in tourism activities by displaying the scenery of natural and cultural features. Virtual reality technology provides a virtual experience without causing the scenic spot by constructing the virtual threedimension tourism environment (Chen, 2020). Similarly, AI technology contributed to the economic, social, and environmental aspects and ensured the development of China’s low altitude tourism forms. The major changes noticed were the reduction in traffic, increased employment opportunities, and improved disaster relief capabilities (Jin, 2020; Zheng et al., 2020).

Artificial Intelligence for Business Sustainability The use of big data artificial intelligence (BDAI) in the tourism industry creates a competitive advantage and increases profit, productivity, and efficiency of tourism. The technological revolution will reshape the supply side of the chain with the changes in business models and deliver long-run efficiency and benefits from productivity. It is expected to record a decline in the cost of transportation and communication. Also, economic growth will be driven by new markets like niche markets and new destinations and enhance tourism activities in a more sustainable environment (Samara et al., 2020). Also, many companies like Airbnb are achieving optimum price maximization by the usage of machine learning (Moreno-Izquierdo, Ramón-Rodríguez, & Such-Devesa, 2019). There is an increasing need to use technology for ensuring the integration of smart concepts in tourism businesses. The competition in tourism businesses increases in parallel with the growth in innovative technology while taking care of sustainable development as well. AI is structured with the combination of four different areas (i.e., problem solving, knowledge representation, knowledge-based system, and distributed AI). Big data is heterogeneous and required advanced technologies and

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algorithms to formulate. The AI and machine learning collect a large amount of data to process and utilize it in the analysis. Subsequently, AI collects majority of the data from various sources like search engines, internet distributors, websites, online travel agencies, social platforms like facebook and review sites. The digital footprint of users on these sources helps to identify the needs, budget, and preferences of users. The use of application reduces the time taken to perform the task, improves accuracy, and facilitates real-time information (Gajdošík & Marciš, 2019). Also, the agent based model can be used as tourism spot manager agents for alerting the tourist about over crowded sites and promoting the tourist attractions (Qiu et al., 2016).

Artificial Intelligence for Tourism Experience Management Technology is acting as a game changer and transformer of tourist experiences, satisfaction, and tourism business as a whole. Technology and innovation have attracted tourism strategies and fascinated those who aspire to augment the utility of technology towards sustainable tourism development. Many industries found digital technologies as tools for improving customer satisfaction and tourism experience management. Tourism experiences were more satisfied with the use of digital tools. Moreover, European commission proposed the “European Capital of Smart Tourism” award category to appreciate the cities for contributing in innovation, accessibility and sustainability. The technology revolution had adopted for dealing with the international tourist market to fulfill industry needs, improve competitiveness, and provide value-added services. The visitors’ experiences can be improved by providing personalized services based on their profile and smart use of big data and AI (Samala et al., 2020). The technology brought the trend of immersive reality or mixed reality and introduced advancement in computer vision, graphical processing, power, display technology, and input systems. The experiences of guests can be created before or during trio with the use of technology as well as provide a preview of destination attraction that one can enjoy. Also, the browser will use the voice recognition feature to search for tourist destinations. Knowledge of the reactions of tourists to information inputs or experimentation is key in the knowledge for nonverbal communication. The use of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) can benefit the tourism sector in a way that allows potential travelers to experience without leaving homes. Also, VR can be used as a tool for marketing and promotion of tourism, whereas AR facilitates the hologram or mobile application which allows adding virtual elements to real-life situations while traveling. Nowadays, consumers are interested to have personalized and authentic experiences and adapted to their needs. The AI can be used in collaboration with algorithms for the development and profitability of tourists and recommending experiences accordingly. There is an improvement in language and communication technology, and voice interaction will be preferred while interacting with machines (Dexeus, 2018). Advanced technology like the use of social media and connectivity for consumer engagement helps brands to provide customized services. Brands in tourism and hospitality implement co-creation to boost the experiences of consumers. Ecosystem

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mobilization can transform co-creation services in collaboration with real-time consumer intelligence, dynamic big data mining, AI, and contextualization. The tourism and hospitality industry has faced the revolution due to the interconnected characteristics of Nowness service such as real time, co-creation, data-driven, consumer-centric, and experience are the characteristics that brought a revolution in the tourism and hospitality industry. The analyses of real-time incidents emanate that social media is used to express the feelings and search information related to products and services as well as used for brand experiences and value engagement. Satisfied consumers like to express real-time experiences on social media. Brand’s new potential customers can be attracted to these UGC and online word of mouth. It is also predicted that algorithmic word of mouth (aWOM) can become a vital source of information to tourists in the days to come (Williams et al., 2019). However, the consumer having frequent positive engagement can be turned into advocates and brand ambassadors. The innovative approaches are provided by real-time co-creation and newness service with consumers across multiple platforms. Consumer’s real-time big data is adding value to competitiveness among brands. The service ecosystem is recognized and disrupted by the constant changes recorded in customized services and consumer’s usual access to information. “Nowness services” take the advantages as real-time consumer intelligence and contextual data are engaged and timely actions are performed to improve the performance of brands. Methodologies are required to be adopted for co-creating real-time value. Real-time services also benefit brands to engage consumers and provide holistic experience by collaborating with the service providers that expands service scope and virtual size (Buhalis & Sinarta, 2019). The sentiment analysis method can be used with the help of AI for analyzing the tourist’s review about the destination that enables the analysis of the tourist’s experiences and perceptions. The use of sentiment analysis is easy, economical, and less timeconsuming in comparison with survey, observation, and interview. The feelings and emotions of unsatisfied travelers can be analyzed with the use of a well-suited sentiment analysis approach. However, managers and marketers of the service industry can use the BI system to collect information and improve performance. Also, it allows the manager to monitor real-time performance with the use of the customized analytic framework and customer relation management (CRM). UGC could be easily monitored by destination marketers and prepare the organization to tackle the traveler’s issues on their services. The analysis using a hybrid methodology uses customer-generated data to deduct the chance of bias. It is easy to monitor the real-time customer’s review with the application of a customized algorithm and setting the automated procedure. UGC can be used by hospitality service providers, policymakers, and educational institutes. It is identified that there is a need to develop employee training, promotion policies, and curriculum as per the revolution of “smart” tourism in tourism and hospitality services (Kim et al., 2017).

Artificial Intelligence for Forecasting AI can use different models to forecast tourism like feed-forward neural network (NN) model and backward propagation neural network (BPNN) and ANN used

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for tourism demand forecasting (Han et al., 2017). Neural network technologies can be used for analysis and forecasting. Neural agents can be used as an integrated methods for forecasting and decision-making as Neural Network Analysis allows to draw the accurate conclusion even in the case of hidden relationship and finds the optimal responses related to emerging threats and upcoming possible problems. Hence, AI acts as a key in management (Kazak et al., 2020). Since the late 1990s, tourism forecasting research is using AI-based methods and widely came into use since 2009. These methods include neural networks, genetic algorithms, and support vector regression. The tourism demand forecast plays a significant role in the planning process of tourism utilities. Web searching is an appropriate and common way to forecast demand, but due to a large amount of database, it is insufficient to use traditional econometric approaches. In the view of the same, two-step model DBEDBN forecasting was proposed to improve the accuracy of the tourism demand forecast that uses double boosting and ensemble deep learning technique. The double boosting algorithm extracts the keywords and lags from the relevant search queries, while ensemble SVR-based DBN improves the forecasting process. DBEDBN use the double boosting and ensemble deep learning techniques for forecasting and outperforms as the best. The DBEDBN method improves the tourism demand forecasting models while the comparison of the single structure model identified that ensemble methods is a time consuming method and the efficiency can be increased by designing optimization technique (Huang & Hao, 2020). Forecasting is a key component of the planning process, and similarly, in the case of tourism planning, forecasting plays a crucial role as the promotion of products is dependent on tourism demand and penetration of the market. Travel demands are predicted with the application of time-series forecasting techniques such as exponential smoothing, univariate ARIMA, and Elman’s model of artificial neural network (ANN). And among these three techniques, neural networks derived from AI are claimed as the best techniques (Cho, 2003; Moro & Rita, 2016). However, Volchek et al. (2019) propose the use of Google Trends index (GTI) on pure timeseries models to enhance the tourist inflow forecasts with Zhang, Li, Shi, and Law (2020) proposing to use deep learning for achieving the same objective. Further, Wu et al. (2020) propose a hybrid approach, SARIMA (seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average) þ LSTM (long short-term memory), to estimate the daily tourist arrivals to a place. Many studies have examined the techniques used for assessing tourism flow and the environmental, cultural, social and economic impact of tourism. The tourism domain must provide insights and outcomes in a critical situation. AI is used to analyze the flaws in the adopted technique and overcome and nullify the obstacles. Tradition approaches are found to be outdated and lack in meeting the needs of validity, usefulness, and reliability. Hence, there is a need to acquire new skills and completeness to replace the traditional approaches (Baggio, 2018). AI introduced the rough set theory as a technique of classification and pattern recognition. Rough set theory can be useful to retrieve the hybrid data to derive

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from the information and knowledge in a way of decision rules. The theory could be considered as complementary for the orthodox demand framework due to its ability to accommodate hybrid data and the use of algorithms without rigorous theoretical and statistical assumptions. Unlike, many conventional models are developed based on statistical assumptions while the new methodology approach assumes that the attribute value could be categorized. The set of theories is capable of helping the practitioners and policymakers. The theory portrays the knowledge in the form of rules which states more intuitive with clarifying implementation details. The loss of information could be possible in case rough set theory accommodate attributes with normal values without prior transformation to numeric form (Goh & Law, 2003). An analysis of the published articles on demand forecasting categorized based on methods and techniques highlighted the prevalence of an econometric-based approach, time-series technique, and AI (Song et al., 2019) and deep learning (Zeng et al., 2020). The accurate forecast can be attained with the adoption of advance methods such as co-integration, error correction model, timevarying parameter models, and combination with the education system (Goh & Law, 2011). The genetic fuzzy system (GFS) was introduced to improve forecasting accuracy. Genetic algorithms (GAs) acts as a proactive tool for the automation of a fuzzy rulebased systems definition. The proposed GFS is also used as genetic algorithms to extract the fuzzy expert system’s rule base. Also, it uses a unique genetic algorithm to tune the collected data of the expert system for attaining improved accurate results. However, policymakers are capable of dealing with nonlinear and complex and uncertain actual data in the aspect of the arrival of tourists because of measure flaws and abnormal responses. The GFS approach facilitates the policy makers in the estimation and eliminates the chances of errors in a dynamic and unprecedented environment. The GFS forecasting accuracy is better than other approaches in the context of MAPE evaluation and identified as a best tool for the tourism demand forecasting problems (Hadavandi et al., 2011). The use of hybrid AI models has become the most common trend with the development of AI. In the trail of the same, few new trends are categorized into three categories such as mixed frequency, spatial regression, and a combination of hybrid models. The model that dominates the tourism demand forecasting is the hybrid models that outperform individual standard models as per forecasting performance. The collaboration forecast attainted attention as well as provided an accurate forecast in various studies. The single component is considered superior with the use of combination of techniques and non-linear combinations as compare to traditional linear combination models. Another most popular trend is the use of big data and AI models. There are still some methods that are rarely used like forecasting based on spatial regression. While considering the geographical information, the spatial regression model can be deemed as the novel method to forecast tourism demand while considering the geographical information. However, the forecasting hybrid models with the combination of the forecasting model improve the forecasting accuracy (Jiao & Chen, 2019).

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Robotics and Service Robots The introduction of AI and robotics in hospitality has reduced the employee’s burden as well as the industry found it convenient and consistent. Also, the previous studies highlighted tourists’ experiences and service robots has lack of interaction while Human-Robot Interaction creates unique images of robot staff and facilitates in managerial implication. As suggested, tourists’ experiences vary and robots developed should be designed with positive emotions such as working on the appearance of robots like popular cartoon character and communication skills. While some guests prefer the robots having usefulness functions to eradicate semantic barriers and destination-related information, others prefer the human touch. The manager should ensure the use of traditional functionality along with the use of services. Also, consumers must be aware while comparing robot service hotels with other hotels because robots may be used as a gimmick for promotion and seeking the attention of a large number of consumers. Service robots should be designed in a way that it must satisfy the needs and meet the expectation of consumers such as the preference for immediate services in the case of millennial users. In case the robots fails to satisfy the needs of customers then it should be reconsidered as the case of HIS Hotel Holidays replaced half of the robot staff with the human staff due to non-efficient robot staff and outdated technology failure (Choi et al., 2020). The visitor’s intentions for the use of the social robot in the hospitality services were also studied in the existing literature. It becomes necessary to analyze the visitor’s intention to use service robots for sustainable deployment. The technological acceptance variable service quality dimension leading to perceived value and human-robot interaction (HRI) has stemmed from the visitor’s intension for the use of social robots. The social robot delivered system can be used in strategies by managers of the hospitality and tourism industry. The new opportunities and responsibilities for human employees are stemmed with the visitor’s acceptance of social robots and shifting the role of employees from standards assignments to higher-value assignments (de Kervenoael et al., 2020). To measure the unique services perception and satisfaction of visitors, the paradigm shifts from current service practices to new standards having human skills like humor, creativity, and interpersonal. The robot can be developed for the supply chain management like booking, checking, waiting time, and room services and also providing the information related to real-time marketing competences such as social media sharing as well as facilitation of the human resources and evaluating IT skill capabilities. A study conducted by Park (2020) attributed service robots with the highest performance value and multifaceted trust values. The deployment of social robots in tourism sectors allows the development of sustainable strategies (de Kervenoael et al., 2020). Consumer acceptance for advanced AI robots in the hospitality industry is analyzed and emphasized in various studies. The AI, TAM (technology acceptance model), and iTAM (interactive technology acceptance model) are used to identify the stimulators of consumer’s perception of the acceptance of advanced robots. TAM studies tested the technologies that are improving by highly interactive systems, user-friendly interface with increased capability and the advanced robot acceptance

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models are required to identify the perceived interactivity of technology. The use of advanced robots indicates the robot’s performance and consumer interaction changes with the implementation of each machine learning application. The empirical experiments research for the formulation of long-term strategies and guides for the efficient management and implementation of advanced robots can be achieved with the consumer’s acceptance for AI robot and iTAM. The evolution of iTAM, TAT and extended TAM are more extensively used to predict the consumer’s technology acceptance behavior. The use of extended TAMs or UTAUT fails to analyse the direct effect of various machine learning application and AI robot effect on interaction and consumer’s perceptions (Go et al., 2020). The use of multi-agent systems serves to one mission or application of varied features of machine learning abilities undertested. The machine learning application group is considered as an important external factor among various other determinants that affect consumer perception and better service delivery (Parvez, 2020). The collaboration of multiple advanced robots are required to be adopted to perform the simple task instead of depending on the single advanced robots to provide quality and efficient services and products to consumers (Go et al., 2020). The growing usage of robotics in the hotel industry is meeting the customers’ expectations as a result of replacing human labor. The general attitude towards robot usage in comparison to humans is that humans have the advantage of social skills, whereas robots are the stimulators for the consumer attitude in terms of performance and economy of scale (Ivanov et al., 2018; Webster & Ivanov, 2019). The Covid-19 also has a significant influence on travel, tourism, and hospitality (TTH). The current unprecedented pandemic stimulated the adoption of automatic technology (Zeng et al., 2020). The biosecurity threat can be mitigated with the use of automation technology in TTH organizations. It is found that automation technologies help companies to use technologies as a shield as per the norms of social distancing and increase the competition for the nonautomated organization. TTH needed to invest in technologies such as creating service kiosks, room service robots, chatbots, face recognition, and so on. There is no need to adopt all the technology available in the market as some of them may be costly to be installed such as delivery robots for a small restaurant or face recognition devices for online travel agencies (Ivanov et al., 2020). Besides, the change in the demography of tourists is driving the automation process in the industry (Webster & Ivanov, 2020). The AI elevates the service quality with the use of new, attractive, and interactive methods to communicate and engage with consumers. AI benefits in cost reduction and accuracy booster and consistency. However, the employee’s turnover is also associated with the awareness of AI and robots. The perceived organization support and competitive psychological climate moderates this association. The hotel employees have the perception of high turnover intention due to the use of AI. The Competitive Psychological Climate (CPC) moderates the relation between AI and robotics awareness and employee’s turnover intention such as highly competitive environment among employees working in hotel leads to strengthen the positive impact of AI and robotic awareness on employee’s turnover intentions. It is required for HR to mitigate the negative impacts of AI. The implementation of AI increased

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the risk of lower-skilled positions to be replaced with AI. Hence, there is a need for training and skill development programs to be organized by the HR department. HR is also required to maintain a positive and motivational relationship with employees and provide a friendly comfortable platform to portray inner thoughts (Li et al., 2019).

Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Changing the Asian Tourism Industry In the context of Asian tourism, AI and robotics are shaping the future of the tourism industry by providing multidimensional value additions and ease of access to the existing and potential tourists. In the Asian context, China is spearheading the revolutions in tourism and hospitality service delivery driven by AI and robotics. With massive breakthroughs in the field of deep learning and intelligent chips, China has been at the forefront when it comes to the use of AI for visual recognition, speech recognition, information processing, and machine translation in its travel and tourism industry (Zhang & Sun, 2019). Other than China, many Southeast Asian countries are also beginning to integrate AI with their travel and tourism industry. A report by McKinsey Global Institute highlighted that tourism and travel are among the top priority sectors of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) that are exhibiting a lot of potentials for AI integration in the future led by countries like Singapore and Malaysia. However, the current penetration of AI in the tourism sector of Southeast Asian countries remains from low to moderate (McKinsey & Company, 2017). A year back, the Expedia Group joined hands with AI Singapore groups (AISG) to enhance the search engine experiences of the Asian travelers through AI integration (TTG Asia, 2019, Sept 9). Another report of International Institute of communications (2020, feb) claimed that tourism sector of Asia-Pacific region is one the emerging sector that is adopting and practicing AI tools for operations. Another article by TTGmice (2019) stresses how AI is changing the face of the MICE industry in Asia by the introduction of chatbots managing customer service, AI-driven digital security for banks, and virtual assistance through the voice and visual recognition. The application of robotics for automation in the field of tourism and hospitality industry saw a huge surge in the Asian continent to maintain the social distancing norms (Nikkei Asian Review, 2020). Earlier in 2019, Asia’s biggest e-commerce conglomerate Alibaba Group started its high-tech hotel of the future in the Hangzhou province of China which is primarily run by robots (Biron, 2020). Other Asian hotel properties like Aloft Bangkok Sukhumvit 11 in Bangkok, Grand Park City Hall in Singapore, Henn-na in Toyo, and Alibaba FlyZoo Hotel in China are also marching towards automation through the use of service robots. While there is a lot of hue and cry about robots substituting or displacing humans, a report by Deloitte (2019) highlights that by 2028, around 2.9 million workers in the Southeast Asian tourism industry will lose their jobs due to AI and technological upgradation. However, the report also postulates that an additional 3.9 million new jobs will be created in the

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ASEAN tourism industry, thanks to the “income effect,” i.e., the growth in productivity by integrating smarter machines. Thus, it would be safe to state that AI and robotics are going to change the entire landscape of the Asian tourism industry while creating additional jobs for people with the required and upgraded skills (Deloitte, 2019).

Challenges Ahead Research endeavors should identify the effective use of automation in the tourism sector. After analyzing the impact of automation and intelligent implementation, there is a need to identify the ways to eradicate its negative impacts on tourism. The computation system can be used for the guide, information, and advice. The sustainable transition plays a crucial role in recognizing the way to leverage the AI system to shape the path of transition to sustainable development through tourism. The interventions of government policies is required through education and training to manage the adverse impact of intelligent automation and bridge the existing gap between acquired knowledge and required skills for employment in AI related jobs. Also, the policies needed to be formulated to eradicate the issue of job loss due to evolution of automation and providing incentives to uplift the labour-incentive hospitality industry and universal basic income to unemployed potential labours due to automation technology. Also, responsible behavior strategies need to be formulated by tourism organizations and stakeholders among tourists and employees. Some studies reveal that tourism will be ruled by intelligent automation due to the continuous rise in the use of advanced technology and eliminate the practice of personal and face-to-face interaction even happening nowadays as well. The decline of socialization may affect the welfare of the society and environment conservation approaches as well as impact the essential value of organized social life. There is a challenge to identify to which extent automation and robots are responsible for the issue. The perception of society changed regarding intelligent tools with the increasing use of virtual assistants and robots (Tussyadiah, 2020). AI is facing major challenges like job loss issues, social acceptance, adaptability of tourists, and privacy concerns. AI contributes to the development of smart tourism and experiences of tourists, recommends the best options, and attains the sustainable competitive advantages (Gajdošík & Marciš, 2019). Another study by Lu, Cai, and Gursoy (Liu et al., 2019) suggests that anthropomorphism (providing human appearance) to intelligent products such as service robots can backfire because it may be perceived as a threat to the human identity.

Recent Developments In this section of the chapter, various recent initiatives happening in the area of AI and robotics have been discussed. The use of big data analysis, machine learning, and search engine data research methods has achieved a special status in the last

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5 years (Liu et al., 2019). A similar study by Loureiro (2018) suggests hybrid cloud, big data, the IoT, AI, and mobiles will drive the tourism industry 4.0. The brute force computing was juxtaposed against the ant colony system as random checking for the solution in contrast to the ACS approach (i.e., Ant Colony System search for the solution and marks the solution and then follows the path for the solution). A combination of AI and animal simulation can be used to identify and solve the traveling problems such as ant colony system and the brute force algorithm can be used to solve the tourist problem. However, brute force and ant colony system approaches remain contrary to each other as well as brute force path is more time-consuming instead of the ant colony system (Chawaratthanarungsri & Tongngam, 2020). AI can be used in collaboration with eHRM to recruit employees in the hospitality and tourism industry. The AI-driven eHRM could be used in attracting and motivating and retaining the skilled employees and eliminate the employees turnover. The automated HR practices allow the organization to hire skilled and motivated employees who will remain with the organization. The hospitality industry witnessed the increase in the use of big data analysis while there are still few organizations that prevent the use of analysis due to the scanty knowledge and technical barriers (Johnson et al., 2020). Also, the usages of ICT and AI are strengthening the decision-making process of consumers (Korstanje & Seraphin, 2018) and providing clarity in the decision support systems (Târnǎveanu, 2010). To ensure sustainability decision support system tools required necessary information that can be used during design phase and for the execution of water quality modeling. For the same, EPA (European Protection Agency) supported the water quality simulation model (WSPS7.5) and used to check the current and future trophic state of lakes (Küçük & Bakan, 2013). Tuomi, Tussyadiah, and Stienmetz (2020) explore the use of Serious Play ® LEGO ® that can efficiently gather stakeholders together and enable forward-looking deliberation instrumental for pushing both tourism practice and theory forward. Similarly, the use of cyber-physical systems and digital technologies is emerging as an important tool in the tourist-decision making process (Stylos, 2019). As per the previous studies the evolution of service delivery is categorized into 3 stages- service, e-service and m-service while the fourth stage ‘a-service’ is predicted to have three additional features like AI, HRI and service automation. The constant evolution of ICT has introduced new tools for the tourism industry as well. The continuous evolution of ICT has not only identified the four stages of tourist service delivery i.e (service, e-service, m-service and a-service). Also notices the paradigm shift from “company-centric” to “consumer-centric” and from “standardscentric” to “data –driven”. The future tourism services will be a blend of automation of services with the use of AI, bivariate data, and traveler’s co-creation (Leung, 2019). Further, the aspect of “Decent Work through Automation” (DW–A) in the context of automation is another important area needing attention (Tuomi et al., Tuomi, Tussyadiah, Ling, et al., 2020, Tuomi, Tussyadiah, & Stienmetz, 2020). It is also postulated that future communications will be driven by the integration of both text and visuals with the help of AI (Xiang et al., 2019).

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Conclusion With massive technological revolutions in place, Tourism 4.0 is gearing up to a new world of possibilities driven by the colossal amount of data generated from the tourist mobility across the world. In this context, AI and robotics are emerging out to be the game changers in the era of Tourism 4.0. Though various empirical inputs about AI and robotics have been pondered upon many times in the literature, an overview of these tools has been hardly dealt with in any paper. This work fills that gap by discussing the numerous facets of AI and robotics driving tourism towards a sustainable future. It is concluded that with many new integrations to the field of AI and robotics, the tourism industry is expected to reach new heights of customization, service delivery, and experience management amplified by the accurate forecasting techniques in the days to come.

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Muhammad Saeed Meo, Shamsa Kanwal, Shahzad Ali, Mohd Zaini Abd Karim, and Aamir Zamir Kamboh

Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology and Current Challenges for Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Benefits of Technology in the Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Role of Technology in Safety and Security for Tourist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Challenges of Tourism in the South Asian Region after the Application of Innovative Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impact of Innovative Technology on the Tourism Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impact of One-Touch Digital Innovation on the Asian Tourism Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vitality, Reality, and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mobile Technology and Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Technological innovation is a major actor in the tourism and hospitality industry over the past few decades. Technology can reduce costs by replacing expensive human labor with innovative labor of technology itself. Innovative technology use boosts operational efficiency and improves customer services and experiences. This chapter aims to underpin the future challenges of using new technological innovations in Asia’s tourism and hospitality industry by answering the following M. S. Meo (*) Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School of Business, Universiti Utara, Changlun, Malaysia Department of Management Sciences, The Superior College, Lahore, Pakistan S. Kanwal School of economics, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan S. Ali · A. Z. Kamboh Department of Management Sciences, The Superior College, Lahore, Pakistan M. Z. A. Karim Othman Yeop Abdullah Graduate School of Business, Universiti Utara, Changlun, Malaysia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_58

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questions: Will growing technological innovation flourish tourism and hospitality business in Asia? Can technology knit the Asian region with the rest of the world into a one-touch digital electronic marketplace? Would the use of new technology in the Asian tourism industry transmit world culture and infiltrate the conservative Asian ideas and tradition by eroding previous generations’ values? Can reduced travel costs harm Asian travel business by shifting the customers into Europe? What would be the impact of using increased technological innovation in tourism on the environment? These questions’ answers will show whether applying innovation in tourism changes the game rules and saturate the market. Keywords

Technology · Application · Future · Challenges · Asia

Introduction The tourism industry is the fastest-growing sector in the world that generates income and employment. This sector is currently using the latest creative technology to expand the reach of this sector. Following is the detailed discussion on the future and challenges faced by the tourism industry regarding innovative technologies.

Technology and Current Challenges for Tourism In the 1960s, the era of technological began through the Internet. In the 1990s, smartphones, smart roads, and cars provided the facilities to tourists, and now in the 2000s, bitcoins become under consideration or importance. The diverse and different cultures, natural surroundings, and service quality continue to draw foreign visitors to Asia and the Pacific region. The tourism industry in many countries in the region has reacted remarkably to recent market patterns. The area should be well positioned to benefit from promising opportunities for global tourism growth. However, the potential of tourism growth is influenced by many factors, including globalization, the resulting changes in transport and tourism infrastructure, and the rise of intra-regional travel. In addition, there are varieties of considerations, for instance, visa and cross-border formalities and multiple unpredictable effects on visitor arrivals, for example, natural hazards, health emergencies, and security challenges. This segment discusses these causes and ends with an evaluation of the economic development effects of tourism.

The Benefits of Technology in the Tourism Industry The modern market environment created by the technology revolution gradually affects tourism and information technology and is instrumental in increasing the productivity and competitiveness of the tourism industry. According to Sheldon

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Fig. 58.1 eTourism trends. (Source: Buhalis & O’Connor, 2005)

(1994), information considered the blood for this industry; operative use of computer technology is fundamental to the tourism industry as we approach the twenty-first century. So, technology demand and supply make the imperative partner of tourism industries due to the rapid increase in the tourism industry. Technology transforms the fundamental framework of industry and society (Buhalis, 1998). One of the importance of information technology is to provide the information. Furthermore, Law et al. (2009) also pointed out the importance of technology in the tourism industry to reduce the cost and enhance operational efficiency and, most important, improve service quality and customer experience. Therefore, information technology used to handle complex problems and filled the gap of communication between people, organizations, and industries (Buhalis & O’Connor, 2005) (Fig. 58.1).

The Role of Technology in Safety and Security for Tourist Security and safety is still a requirement for travel and tourism. Yet, it is an unquestionable fact that safety and security issues have taken on even greater significance in tourism over the past two decades. World developments in the past two decades have been immense, due to terrorism, local conflicts, natural disasters, epidemics, and pandemics we experienced have considerably diminished defense (Kovari & Zimányi, 2011).

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The evolution of mass tourism from the early 1950s took the security and safety problems of travel and tourism to the fore. The critical reasons for this evolution process are as follows: First, travel and tourism is no longer the occupation of a limited social class or region, but the entire growing middle class increasingly gets involved. This is the direct consequence of the increase in personal income and free time in developed countries. Second, tourism reaches more and more countries and regions worldwide, and not only technologically industrialized countries able to create outgoing tourism flows are engaging in tourism but also so-called third world nations. Tourism for them is part of their policy of economic growth. Finally, the fast and impressive growth of transport (aviation, automobile industry) has helped improve (geographical) mobility.

Challenges of Tourism in the South Asian Region after the Application of Innovative Technology South Asian region has unique and huge landmasses with diverse physical characteristics, from deserts, forests, mountains to swamplands, coastal areas, and grasslands with substantial natural resources and changing climatic conditions. One-fifth of the world’s population lives in South Asia and a vast number of poor, less employment facilities in some countries and above all a low economic growth. South Asian countries are geographically adjacent and share the same cultural, traditional, and religious values that interest tourists. The countries of this region have similar economic and social infrastructures that help generate employment via tourism by providing human capital and all resources they have. Hence, tourism is an essential sector for creating employment opportunities and plummeting poverty in this region. Tourism is amid the most significant economic, social, and political phenomena in the modern world. It plays a crucial role in gathering countries and individuals on one platform by facilitating their mutual interests and understandings to generate revenues and create employment opportunities. The tourism industry caters to essential elements like providing accommodation, recreation facilities, catering, and providing transportation services to its customers (Nawaz, 2018). So, it is globally the fastest-growing industry (Comerio & Strozzi, 2019). It is a significant source of revenue, earning foreign exchange, economic growth, generating employment opportunities for all nations specifically developing ones (Arain et al., 2020). Tourism is seen to be one of the promising areas of development for the world economy. Estimates of the World Travel and Tourism Council (2019) show that the tourism industry contributed 10.3% in global GDP in 2019 and accounted for 330 billion new jobs in the same year. The tourism industry is rising since the last decade by increasing disposable income, low-cost carriers, affluence of travel via Internet-based services, and other relaxations like visa regulations and easy access to each destination to be visited. WTTC (2019) estimates show that in South Asia, the tourism industry accounted for a rise of US$234 billion in revenues and a 6.6% rise in GDP of the region.

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South Asian (SA) region is in dire need of using information technology and to adopt new strategies to put in the forefront of advanced technological changes. SA has also adopted new technologies in this sector. Technology has changed the whole system with new rules of the game for consumers and competitors, along with the creation of wealth that contributes to the region’s economic recovery. Innovative technologies need investment to install new infrastructure to use them, yet South Asian countries are developing nations, unable to invest more in the development of this sector. Some of them, such as Pakistan, cannot invest in one go when a new technology replaces other. This lags them behind from the rest of the world in the tourism sector. SA needs to find a means to bounce back and build resilience infrastructure and sources to avail of the opportunities. According to United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (2019), Fig. 58.2a and b is presented as below. Figure 58.2a and b shows the share of travel and tourism in Asia, depicting international arrivals/overnight visitors. Asia accounts for an increase in tourism

Fig. 58.2 (a) International Tourism Highlights, 2019. (b) International Tourism Highlights, 2019. (Source: UNWTO, 2019)

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than before, which was 22% in 2015, now increased by 7%, approximately 22.8 million in 2018. International arrivals in Asia have increased by 5%, which was only 4.3% in 2013, wherein only South Asia received 17.1 million international tourists. India, Iran, Sri Lanka, and Nepal are experiencing double-digit growth and dominating tourism in South Asia, constituting 76% of the total arrivals count in the subregion. In comparison, Maldives records more than one million arrivals (+17%). Sri Lanka has witnessed more than double international arrivals since 2010, while India is the region’s largest tourism destination, albeit on a great base. Southeast Asia has recently witnessed a rapid rise in citizens’ income that enables them for enjoying traveling and leisure activities ranging from going to micro-trips or long-haul destinations. This region’s travel market is well budgeted with low-cost flights and increasing affluent middle class. With all of these supporting factors in this region, tourism has been able to change the landscape and people’s living style immensely. A daunting challenge for South Asia is to provide employment opportunities to the rapidly growing population in the region, which comprise 24.89% of the world population. Being a labor-intensive sector can accommodate more labor to handle different areas in this sector, such as food, catering, recreation and excursion, accommodation, travel, and many others. World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC, 2019) states that with an improvement in tourism and the creation of one job follow nine job affiliations in that particular area. Although technology made things easy to handle, there is still a need to manage things. Due to inadequate planning and policies, the employment level in this sector is not growing; it has stagnant or slow growth. Several institutions such as South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation (SASEC), with the collaboration of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) developed plans for the promotion of ecotourism in South Asia. Despite all of the efforts made at the government and international level, still South Asia is lagging in the tourism industry and attracts a small number of tourists as compared to the rest of the world. The most critical industry may be the border restrictions, even in this modern and advanced technologies are. Cross-border travel, visa issues, permits, currencies used, and travel and tour operators including complicated traveling procedures are still not letting this industry to flourish here. If places are open for all and documentation procedure is easy, the tourism will increase dramatically. Significant economic gain can also be achieved by doing so. There is also poor connectivity between South Asian countries in terms of connections through roads and rails. Air transportation has improved significantly with time. Air connections are expensive; poor land connectivity is a significant hurdle in South Asia. Although there are some rail connections between India and Pakistan, they are ruined due to political and regional conflicts. If South Asian countries improve their land connections, it would drastically improve tourists’ arrivals within the region.

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Accommodation facilities such as hotels and restaurants are also poor here. According to WTTC (2019), indicated South Asia as low, competitive regions of the world for tourists’ destination. Hotel charges are very high in South Asian countries such as India, Pakistan, and Bhutan. Many countries of South Asia are not able to compete with the South East region in terms of facilities they provide and the charges. In addition, public sector investment is below average to facilitate tourists. There is an absence of a conducive environment for foreign investment, even due to frequent changes in policies. Therefore, tourism management and facilities affect badly. Another issue is related to changing currency, which technology has made easy. Travelers had to face an excellent hassle for currency exchange in banks that was a time-consuming task a decade back. According to the World Economic Forum (2008), safety and security is a determining factor in the development of tourism in any region of the world. Security problems such as civil conflicts, terrorist attacks, blasts, India-Pakistan border issues, and other insurgencies are significant issues in SA posing risks for travelers. Consequently, South Asian countries are in low ranking on the safety index. So, governments of developing nations forbade their citizens from visiting South Asia due to high risks and safety concerns. Therefore, safety is a strong constraint in tourism here. SA has many tourists’ attention, seeker places and valuable resources that can drive this region out of poverty in a concise period. Apart from the growth in the tourism industry in this region, the perspective of tourism is still unrealized here for several reasons. Despite the use of modern technologies like e-visa, online bookings, and easy search and access of destinations, still this region lacks infrastructure facilities, have complicated travel procedures, management side services are still very poor along with severe security issues in certain countries of the region. Together with these constraints, South Asia has a negative image for tourism in the world, which refrains international tourists to have frequent visits here. Other major hurdles in this modern technological era are the poor political systems and bureaucratic meandering, which hinder the growth of the tourism industry in the region. Institutional barriers put a question mark on innovative technological use in this area.

Impact of Innovative Technology on the Tourism Industry Technological use is exponentially growing in the global economy, opening new ways for people to work in a more advanced and automated way. No sector of an economy can work without the use of technology in the current era. Technology is growing and expanding across all industries. Technological use is critical to be used in the areas of marketing and distribution. Similarly, tourism is also evolving around technological innovations such as information technology (Khatri, 2019) that contribute a lot in the tourism sector. Technology is penetrating and converging in the tourism industry.

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Artificial intelligence (AI) is renovating tourism, from improvement in business through virtual assistants to hyper-personalized consumer support by companies. Technology accompanies new tourism, but it carries new opportunities along with challenges. Innovative technologies give an edge to tourism from the supply side. In this way, technology is knitting the world into a sole electric marketplace for business and tourism. Tourism is one of the world’s most important economic sectors. For the conservation of natural resources and cultural heritage, tourism acts like a key pillar. Therefore, it is vital to rebuilding this sector. Digital advancements and innovations improve tourism through inclusiveness, empowerment of local communities, and resource management efficiently. Digital transformation is changing job patterns and customer relations and providing online and offline services. People used to have online reservations of hotels and planes and have a lot more dealings on telephones by using cost-saving devices. These advanced technologies are saving manpower and empowering consumers and users of these facilities by saving their time and cost independently. Tourists make online bookings. Google stats show that online travel booking is the most established fragment of the Internet economy. Tourists also can check perks and benefits with different online deals with hotels. Almost all international travel agencies depend on digital booking as it provides adequate information, manages data efficiently, and provides timely and quick services. Booking platforms, also known as online travel agents (OTA), not only provide details for hotels, but it also shares information about car rentals, eatery services, and many more services. They provide real-time price comparisons of different deals to choose the best possible option according to their need and affordability. Estimates depict that SA online travel expenditure will touch US$76 billion till 2025. Hotels are also managing the inflow of customers through technology; it has transformed the hotel industry. Additionally, many hotels provide paid Internet services, paid fax and printing services, and some additional charged personalized services, making the technology a one-way street. It is also a source of generating revenue for the industries providing these services. Technology use has also reduced workloads and different streamlined processes and allows managers and peers to look into real issues to deliver quality services. Implementing technology solutions provides growth in hotel business and enables tourism to flourish in the region. The flip side of the coin shows that tourists are used to of these innovative technologies; hence, the tourism industry is taking benefit of their needs and stays in touch with clients all the time. The world has entered e-marketing systems (spam) this way, where we are having online telephone calls and surveys that is a source of harassment for some. The tourism industry nowadays cannot work without technology as it has made their work easier. On the contrary, technology has some terrifying results. It has paved the way for terrorism to attack the travel and tourism sector. The use of a cell phone is a blessing and also a curse as it can explode bombs.

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Similarly, air conditioning provides relief in hot climates, yet it pollutes outer air badly. For the tourism industry, technology now has converted into a mixed bag. Following plenty of conveniences, increasing revenues, merging of cultures and traditions, lessening of customer services, making air travel safe, and transferring the powers on serving clients more efficiently. The ethical use of technology gives great advantages in terms of security as well as better communication. If used unethically, it would be a source of big destruction for the tourism industry, ruining the image of the region. Tourism businesses have to decide how much they need to be exposed in front of technology to be safe and also taking advantage of the uses of it.

Impact of One-Touch Digital Innovation on the Asian Tourism Markets In the era of digitalization, the tourism industry is a fantastic sandbox for innovators because the emotional component has a significant part to play in the mind of consumers. The traveler is our primary business; therefore, spends a great deal of time in marketing research and technical analysis for the benefit of our clients. You will find a handpicked range of what we consider to be the most important developments for stakeholders in the field of tourism, sorted accordingly: before the flight, during transport, and at your destination.

Vitality, Reality, and Tourism According to Kayumovich (2020), digitalization is the stronger bound with the tourism industries, especially hotel industries, which got the major benefit of digitalization. In the travel industry, the 3D and virtual reality split into a bright sky ahead. Just imagine visiting a travel agent that helps you to visit the resort and the destination you are interested in! There is no question that sales rates will rise significantly. The importance of virtual reality tourism raised in developed as well as in developing countries (Kim, Lee, Preis, & Informatics., 2020), and virtual reality considered the major contribution of technology which had tremendous contribution in the development of the tourism field. Hobson and Williams (1995) described virtual reality as the “interactive computer-generated medium that enables participants to simulate real and imaginary scenarios,” “can see, hear and feel images of everyday life that make them think they truly feel the real thing” (Williams & Hobson, 1995). Tourists around the world benefit from VR application; VR travelers have seen such a wide range of destinations as Danish destinations, for instance (Dueholm & Smed, 2014), and attractions in Korea (Chung et al., 2018). Consumers often value the use of VR technology for video entertainment, including in games (Jang et al., 2019). Although research has already shown that digital tourism can cope with multicultural interactions and meetings rather than being technologically regulated (Li et al., 2018),

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travelers’ experience is increased by the inclusion of VR in exhibits and tourism activities. In this research, the term VR tourist destinations refers to use VR devices to play, enjoy, encounter, ride, explore knowledge, search for pictures, games, watch 3D 360 grade videos, watch drone videos, see holographic photographs, and participate in other activities related to tourism (Kim et al., 2020, 2020).

Mobile Technology and Tourism The tourism industry improved its efficiency as technological advancement occurred (Kim & Kim, 2017). Mobile technology also contributes to the development of tourism. Gretel, Koo, Sarala, and Xiang (2015) expected tourism to learn sustainability skills and contribute to economic growth through mobile technology. It has claimed that cognitive tourism is a tourism that gathers and consolidates data on destinations, offers users rich on-site experiences with mobile technology support, and generates market value. Data sources include physical infrastructure, social ties, governments, and individual brains, and these coordinated activities are expected to be based on productivity and sustainability (Gretel, Sigala, et al., 2015; Werthner et al., 2015). Furthermore, Kim, Park, and Morrison (Kim et al., 2008) The role of mobile technologies in supporting tourism was emphasized, and the study argued that mobile tourism organization was a significant platform. There are some advantages that m-apps prefer when shopping, following the mainstream mobile browser (m-browser). Next, m frameworks conquer barrier connected with non-optimized websites for smartphone use as m-apps can be tailored for use (Wang & Wang, 2010). A wide variety of technologies, including AI, automation, cashless transfers, AR, and VR, are used to accelerate various transformative improvements in diverse sectors and regions worldwide. Big data to be interpreted by virtual agents are formatted to support Web 3.0 or semantic web (2015-) interoperability of computers. Linking and convergence of big data from various data sets facilitates data processing, enables interoperability, fosters imagination and innovation, and encourages social media collaboration (Werthner & Ricci, 2004). Smartness benefits from advanced device interconnectivity and interoperability. It operates to reengineer systems and data to deliver creative programs, goods, and procedures for optimizing value for stakeholders. The decentralized networking of all vendors and intermediaries, both public and customer, creates benefits for all interconnected people in the ecosystem. Smartness increases travelers’ inclusiveness and usability by helping visitors cope with physical and service challenges by leveraging mobility, visual, auditory, and cognitive impairments (Michopoulou & Buhalis, 2013). Gamification also leads to satisfying experiences and increases guest loyalty and dedication. Interoperability and allround computation mean that everybody is synchronized and processes incorporated to produce value by complex co-creation, individualization, and context adaptation (Xu et al., 2017).

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Conclusion This study discusses the future and challenges of applying innovative technologies in the tourism and hospitality sector of the Asian region. The tourism industry is one of the fastest-growing sectors in the world. The tourism industry is the central pillar of the economic growth of any country. Asian regions, mainly South Asian countries, are adopting new technologies in the tourism sector; however, these economies face investment issues; that is the main problem of these countries. Despite lots of questions about applying innovative technologies in tourism, technology has improved this sector a lot. Technological use is exponentially growing in the global economy, opening new ways for people to work in a more advanced and automated way. Digitalization is the stronger bound with the tourism industries; especially hotel industries got the major benefit of digitalization. Now people can book accommodation, hotels, and transportation online before travel.

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Contents Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Characteristics of 5G and Changes in Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ultrahigh Speed: Maximum Transmission Speed Is 10 Gbps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ultralow Delay: Delay of about 1 Millisecond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiple Simultaneous Connections: One Million Units/km2 Number of Connected Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emergency Medical Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Construction Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Natural Disaster Countermeasures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Living in Rural Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Everyday Shopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Changes in Tourism by 5G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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The year 2019 is the first year of starting 5G. 5G is the fifth generation mobile communication system. 5G is up to 100 Gbps and is “100 times faster” than 4G. For example, data communication that takes 10 seconds for 4G is less than 0.1 seconds for 5G and ends in an instant. In 2018, the introduction of 5G began in the United States and South Korea, and in 2019, another 16 countries introduced it. The communication speed has increased remarkably; the website that had been still images mainly will change to the video mainly at once. Firstly, hotel reservation sites will mainly change to video. As a result, hotels will be able to convey its attractiveness more S. Hashimoto (*) Faculty of Global and Regional Studies, University of the Ryukyus, Ryukyus, Japan e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6_59

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realistically. Still, it must also need to reveal inconvenient parts. There will be a large gap between hotels. The faster the communication speed, the faster the image will be produced. There are many ruins in Asia. It will be easy to recreate the ancient appearance at ruins more realistically for tourists. For example, Mohenjo-Daro in India. It will then be possible for tourists to see the ancient appearance at the ruin. Of course, many other technologies will be required for this kind of project. However, increased communication speed must be the key factor. Keywords

5G · Social change · Changes in tourism · Hotel industry · COVID-19

Introduction What will change when 5G (fifth generation mobile communication system) is put into practical use? It is generally said that smartphones will become more convenient. However, the value of 5G is not only limited to this convenience. It also extends the convenience of mobile communication by allowing information to be exchanged anytime, anywhere, with anything other than smartphones. The mobile communication system has been renewed every 10 years. 1G, which was put into practical use in 1979, was an analog system that could only make calls, but in the 1990s, 2G shifted to the coming system, making it possible to send and receive messages and browse simple Internet information (GSM Association, 2020). When 3G was put into practical use in the 2000s, data communication became faster, and it became possible to send and receive photos and browse homepages at high speed. At this point, Urry (2018) points out that mobile communications via mobile phones are already creating new affordances: • To produce a new set of fashionable objects that are “ready-to-hand” even while people are on the move. • To make corporeal movement almost always needing to be augmented by mobile communication devices. • To shift relationships further to a person-to-person connectivity. • To produce major new components of “network capital”. • To engender new sociabilities on the move. • To develop “interspaces” between home, work, and leisure sites. • To shift time systems from that of “punctuality” to a more informal “fluid” system of coordination. And with 4G in the 2010s, data communication with even larger capacities became possible. This has made it possible to use video distribution services anytime, anywhere on smartphones. Now, 5G is about to be put into practical use. It is verified how society and tourism will change by 5G.

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Characteristics of 5G and Changes in Society It is expected that some performances of mobile communication will improve dramatically with 5G.

Ultrahigh Speed: Maximum Transmission Speed Is 10 Gbps Broadband services that are 100 times faster than 4G will be possible. For example, a 2-hour movie download can be done in 3 seconds. In addition, at this level, not only moving images but also three-dimensional data of things and people can be transmitted in their entirety and used in VR (virtual reality) mobile communication.

Ultralow Delay: Delay of about 1 Millisecond The delay in data transmission can be suppressed to about 1 m/s. This is ten times that of 4G. As a result, applications for frequently exchanging data with the cloud can run smoothly, and machines in the distance can be operated smoothly without feeling a time lag. For example, remote control of industrial robots and autonomous driving becomes possible in real time.

Multiple Simultaneous Connections: One Million Units/km2 Number of Connected Devices The number of terminals that can be connected simultaneously at one base station is one million, which is ten times that of 4G, and all devices including smartphones and personal computers can be connected via the Internet from sensors installed in various places. You will be able to collect various information. For example, in a room at home, 4G will allow 100 terminals to connect to the net, compared to 5G. So, how will our daily lives change when these things happen? Let us take Japan as an example.

Emergency Medical Care According to MIC (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications), the number of emergency dispatches in 2019 reached a record high of about 6.64 million (MIC, 2020a, 2020b). The number has increased by about 70% in the last 20 years from about 3.93 million in 1999, and is steadily increasing. This may not be unrelated to Japan’s rapid transition to an aging society. In the future, it is clear that the aging of the population will continue and there will be a shortage of ambulances, helicopters, and other emergency transport personnel. If 5G is put into practical use, autonomous driving will be possible and it will be possible to make up for the shortage of

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personnel. In addition, ultralow latency communication makes it possible to reduce the number of fatalities during transportation by receiving instructions from a remote specialist during transportation and performing surgery by a doctor in a transportation vehicle or helicopter. Especially in remote islands and other areas where the medical system is not sufficient, great effects can be expected.

Agriculture According to MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries) (MAFF, 2020), in 2019, the agricultural working population will be about 1.68 million, of which 1.18 million are 65 years old or older, accounting for about 70%, and it can be said that the population is aging considerably. With the practical application of 5G, the way of farming will change drastically. In a nutshell, the need to go to work is greatly reduced. Even elderly people who are physically weak will be able to continue farming. First, the agricultural sensor makes it possible to obtain information on the growing condition of crops, the condition in the soil, etc. from home. Watering and chemical spraying will be done by drone. In addition, robots feed cattle, pigs, birds, etc. In other words, you will be able to manage farm work and livestock from home. Furthermore, it can be expected to lead to an increase in the number of workers engaged in agriculture, which has been avoided due to heavy labor.

Construction Industry According to MLIT (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) (MLIT, 2016), the number of construction workers was 4.92 million in 2016, down from 6.85 million in 1997 to 1.93 million, a decrease of about 28%. In addition, 34% of people aged 55 and over and 11% of people aged 29 and under are aging, and passing on technology to the next generation has become a major issue. With the commercialization of 5G, the way we work will change dramatically. As with agriculture, it will be possible to work remotely from a location away from the site. High-precision surveying using drones and remote/automatic operation of construction machinery will be possible, freeing you from engaging in harsh on-site work. As with agriculture, it can be expected to increase the number of workers in the construction industry, which has been shunned because of heavy labor.

Natural Disaster Countermeasures Natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods caused by heavy rains, and volcanic eruptions are causing great damage not only in Japan but all over the world. In Japan, regarding natural disasters, each municipality is currently informing residents of evacuation advisories, etc., but the notifications did not arrive, and the

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notifications from the speakers could not be heard, leading to major damage. If 5G is put into practical use, it will be possible to reduce serious damage. By collecting data with high-definition video sensors installed in many areas and utilizing them, we can comprehensively grasp disaster information and promptly convey information on optimal evacuation methods and routes to residents. In addition, it will be possible to quickly detect information on people who have been buried in the soil due to a landslide, and it will be possible to save more lives.

Living in Rural Areas Currently, transportation in depopulated areas is rapidly being abolished in Japan due to unprofitability. This means that securing transportation is an issue in areas where the population is declining. If ultra-low latency communication by 5G becomes possible, an automatic driving system will be realized. Even in areas where there is no public transportation, it will be possible to use an automatic driving taxi. Tourists can go to their favorite place at any time by the use of a highly mobile society. This will also lead to a reduction in population concentration in metropolitan areas.

Everyday Shopping According to MIC (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications) (MIAC, 2018; MIC, 2019), the number of IOT devices in the world is estimated to be about 48 billion by 2021. With the practical application of 5G, daily shopping will change significantly. For example, when shopping at a supermarket, the cart is automatically driven and automatically tracked by radio waves transmitted from a chip worn by the shopper. Also, the refrigerator sensor will tell you what is in your fridge at home, so you will be able to prevent wasted shopping and get advice on your dinner menu. In addition, checkouts will be fully automated, eliminating the need to line up at the cashier.

Sports If 5G is put into practical use, a large amount of game video data can be sent at high speed, and people can enjoy high-definition video as it is. Also, the video delay is eliminated. For example, when watching soccer and scoring a goal, the current distribution of sports video via the Internet is inevitably delayed by 10 seconds or 20 seconds from the actual site. When 5G starts, the delay will be as short as possible. Since many people attach great importance to the feeling of live performance in sports games, the feeling of realism will increase and the feeling of satisfaction will increase. In addition, by combining technologies such as AR (augmented reality) and VR (virtual reality) with 5G, the way to enjoy watching

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sports will become more diverse. Until now, soccer matches seen on TV and monitors were two-dimensional, but with AR, they are now three-dimensional, and you can experience them as if they were playing a match in front of you. Messi (FC Barcelona, Argentina national team) will be able to dribble and score goals as if he were standing on the same pitch. In normal television broadcasting, there was only one scene projected in the game, but each viewer will be able to choose. You will be able to select a bird’s-eye view of the video taken from above, a video from behind the goals of your teammates and opponents, and a video you want to see. Alternatively, for example, you will be able to see a video that follows only your favorite players. In addition to the video, you can see the course you ran, and the video will be more subdivided and you will have more choices. In addition, viewers can instantly acquire player and match data. In a nutshell, the boundary between real and virtual will disappear endlessly.

Changes in Tourism by 5G How will tourism change when “ultrahigh speed,” “ultralow latency,” and “multiple simultaneous connections” communication is realized? First of all, you will be able to experience the power of events and live performances from a remote location even if you are not at the venue. You can experience multiple events in one place, such as the “Gion Festival” in Kyoto, the “Nebuta Festival” in Aomori, and the “Awa Odori” in Tokushima, which you could never experience unless you were in the field. It will also be possible to experience as if you were. In 2018, KDDI and JR East held an event utilizing 5G and VR (virtual reality). Wearing VR goggles at Ueno station in Tokyo. Then, the economy of the shopping district in Minami Sanriku, Miyagi Prefecture, around 450 km away from Tokyo, spreads to the fullest, and it makes you feel as if you were there. And I was able to enjoy shopping while actually talking with the people in the shopping district (Time & Space, 2018). In a communication environment premised on 4G, it is difficult to perform large-capacity data communication required by VR, and the image may become unclear or freeze depending on the communication conditions. However, with 5G, which has a communication speed 10 to 20 times faster than 4G, these issues can be solved. Even tourists stay far away, they can see the scenery as if they were there, they will be able to talk with the people there. The spread of 5G will not only affect the use of cutting-edge technologies such as VR. The use of technology, which is already common but has not been sufficiently widespread so far, will make remarkable progress. One of them is the use of video in web promotion. The amount of information that a 1-minute video has is equivalent to 3600 web pages. With the spread of 5G, it is thought that more users will watch videos on a daily basis. Along with this, not only the combination of sentences and photos, but also videos with video, audio, and stories will be added and will be viewed more often. In particular, in the case of a business format such as the

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accommodation business, where it is necessary to convey the attractiveness of the space or service to the maximum extent, the significance of video content is significant. By visually and audibly appealing the attractiveness of facilities and services, if we can convey the value correctly, we will be able to avoid excessive price competition. In addition to introducing facilities such as guest rooms and baths, the appeal of video content is effective because of the “sizzle” of cooking. There is no doubt that if you can introduce food with images, and even 3D images, the sense of reality will increase. In addition, it will be possible to effectively promote amenities and hospitality (services provided) that are difficult to convey with letters alone. Currently, a demonstration experiment called “Resort Tech (Resort + Technology)” is being conducted at “DOCOMO 5G Open Lab OKINAWA” in Nago City and Naha City, Okinawa Prefecture. One of them is the kayaking experience from a remote location in February 2020 (DOCOMO, 2020a, 2020b). By attaching a camera to a model of the upper body of a human being called a torso and attaching a thruster that is a device that pushes things forward to transmit the propulsive force of the kayak, you can operate the kayak by moving the paddle while you are in a remote place. At the same time, you can feel the resistance of water. Here, when a delay occurs, the sense of presence and immersiveness is impaired, but this problem can be solved by the ultralow delay that is a feature of 5G. Even if you are not there, you will be able to get a sense of reality. In other words, even people who have difficulty going out or have physical disabilities can enjoy the “realism” as if they were in a tourist spot while staying at home. Another possibility is that you will be able to experience dangerous experiences such as mountain climbing, scuba diving, and skydiving without risk and with a sense of realism. In the future, spacewalks will also enter this genre. Traveling to the moon and traveling to Mars is no longer a dream. What you could not experience because it was dangerous until now can be enjoyed at home without going to the site while keeping the thrills. It is said that with changes in sports, technologies such as AR (augmented reality) and VR (virtual reality) will be combined with 5G to make the way to enjoy watching sports more diverse, but if this is replaced with tourism, what will happen? For example, why not recreate the lost city ruins in front of you? Based on the latest survey results, for example, the appearance of Mohenjo-Daro and Angkor Wat at their peak can be reproduced. It will be more attractive if you not only see them from a distance but also reproduce them locally. There is already a service in the field that shows the appearance of the past on individual terminals *1, but viewing the video on your own terminal lacks a sense of realism. If you can project it in 3D on the spot, you should be able to experience the feeling of being in an ancient city. In addition, the evolution of AI technology will make it possible to reproduce the people who once lived there. AI-equipped robots that can talk with people have already been realized. By making a hologram without installing a robot, mechanical maintenance is not required, and it is possible to freely change the appearance such as clothes. It is like a time slip. There are many World Heritage Sites in Asia. If they can be revived in their former form, it will be a theme park that can attract many tourists without damaging

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the ruins. In many cases, valuable historic buildings are lost due to fires, earthquakes, and battles. In the near future, last year, the Notre Dame Temple in Paris and Shuri Castle in Okinawa, Japan, were destroyed by fire. In both cases, reconstruction plans have already begun, but reconstruction requires costs and a long period of time. In addition, the impact on tourism revenue is not small. So, what if the period until reconstruction is virtually reproduced as it was before it disappeared? I know it is not real, but the scenery and atmosphere should be enough to taste. In this way, the evolution of mobile communication systems will bring great benefits to tourism. However, with such great expectations, COVID-19 has arrived. The signs appeared at the end of last year, and the infection caused by the new coronavirus, which spread all over the world in 2020, had a great impact on tourism. And the situation is that convergence cannot be seen. In general, tourism is to enjoy leisure time and is regarded as unnecessary and urgent action in an emergency. Therefore, it is natural that tourism restrictions were enforced in each country. However, even if it is unnecessary and urgent for tourists, it will lose a source of income for those who are engaged in business with tourists as customers. In many Asian countries, tourism revenue accounts for a large proportion of national finance. The governments of each country are providing support to businesses, but the current situation is that they have not caught up. Currently, research institutes in each country are working on vaccine development, but the time of completion is unclear. Therefore, once the vaccine is complete, we cannot be optimistic that the infection will subside at once. There is much debate about how tourism will change in after corona, but with corona has become more realistic. Needless to say, the basis of tourism is travel, interaction, and stay. Corona has restricted all of these factors. Tourists’ natural movement, contact, exchange and stay are restricted because of preventing the spread of this infectious virus. The way of working in companies has changed to remote work, and the lesson system of universities and schools has also changed to remote lessons. Both are based on movement and contact restrictions. “Exchange” remained in remote work and remote lessons. The development of communication technology has greatly contributed to this. In the past, remote conferences were so-called conference calls with only audio, without video, even if they were real, and remote lessons were in the form of sending assignments to students and answering them. It was neither real nor bidirectional. However, with the development of communication technology, there is video, and a realistic and two-way format has become possible. In addition, many conferences and seminars are now held online. There are also merits. There is no need to prepare a venue and no staff. It also eliminates the cost and time of travel for participants. With the increase in web conferences, seminars, and lessons, companies that provide web conference systems are increasing their profits. For example, ZOOM was the highest profit ever (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 2020). The number of cases similar to the events using 5G and VR (virtual reality) by KDDI and JR East mentioned above will increase at a stretch in the future. In fact, the virtual tour has already begun*2. In this time, it is still at the level of experiencing by looking at the screen of a personal computer, but in the near future, it will change to 3D video distribution, and as mentioned in the case of archaeological site reproduction, it will be possible to experience as if you were there.

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It should be noted that even in the corona wreck, although not real, “exchange” not only survived, but rather progressed. Tourism operators that provide tours can find a way out for tourism during the with corona era. It will be difficult for airlines aiming to “move” to find a way out. However, converting the subject from passengers to goods may open the way. In fact, the corona sickness has increased physical distribution and soared prices. For example, DHL Japan has tripled the volume of B to C cargo handled (Nikkei Business Daily, 2020). Currently, airlines often operate passenger and freight targets as separate companies, but in with corona, these may be integrated and freight targets may increase in some cases. The problem is the hotel industry. Because what the hotel offers is a “stay,” which is actually established by going there, as long as the “movement” is restricted, it is not possible to create a “stay.” In some cases, virtual stays are offered*3, but compared to tours, the demand is unlikely to be high, and small businesses with weak physical strength are required to close their businesses or convert their businesses. In with corona, the hotel industry is most required to change its mindset. In other words, the paradigm of providing hotels, that is, accommodations, needs to be significantly changed. What survives and develops will be a hotel of value to the hotel itself. It is a hotel where staying at the hotel itself is the purpose of the trip. Usually, the purpose of the trip is sightseeing at the destination, and the accommodation place at that time is a hotel. In other words, the leading role is the destination, and the hotel is the supporting role, but the idea is to regard the hotel as the leading role. Examples of this are still seen today, such as Aman Resorts, which revolves around resorts in Southeast Asia, and hotels designed by Geoffrey Bawa in Sri Lanka. In addition, Club Med, for example, which can be enjoyed just by spending time in the facility, may be mentioned as an example. Based on this concept, let us consider Okinawa, Japan. Okinawa is an island region located in the southernmost part of Japan and is known as a beach resort. Today, it is a region of Japan, but until about 150 years ago it was an independent country called the Ryukyu Kingdom. It has its own unique history and culture. Currently, Okinawa is experiencing a boom in hotel construction*4. This was before the spread of COVID-19, but for now, no plans have been cancelled. The best location for a hotel in Okinawa is still the beachfront, and it is concentrated on the West Coast. This is due to the beautiful and clear waters and the beautiful sunsets. In other words, the main purpose of tourists is the beautiful sea and its sunsets, and hotels are the perfect complement to them. Luxury resorts such as Halekulani and Hyatt Regency are also located on the West Coast. Tourists have a lot of choices when it comes to choosing a hotel, and not just for the sake of staying at the Halekulani or Hyatt Regency. Of course, both hotels advertise how comfortable the stay is and how it makes guests’ stay in Okinawa more enjoyable, but the star of the show is the destination – the beach and the sunset – and not the hotel you want to stay at. So what kind of hotel in Okinawa would be valuable in its own right, rather than a beachfront hotel? The first is that the hotel itself embodies the history and culture passed down from the Ryukyu Kingdom. In the past, before the unification of Okinawa as the Ryukyu Kingdom in 1429, influential persons were scattered throughout the country and built castles*5. These castles were at the same time the

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mansions of those influential people, or in other words, the royal palaces. Now only the ruins of the castles remain, but many of them are designated as World Heritage Sites. The exterior of the hotel was inspired by these castles, as was the interior. The same is true for the interior. The uniforms of the service staff were those of the civil servants of the time. The service staff will be dressed in the manner of those days, and the main meals will be based on the cuisine of the royal court. The guests will be welcomed as kings and queens and will be able to experience life in the royal palace of the time. Each night, the theater will host Ryukyuan dance and karate performances. Nowadays, Okinawa is the birthplace of karate, which has many enthusiasts around the world. In other words, the hotel will be a theme park where guests can experience the Ryukyu Kingdom. And guests come to the hotel to experience the Ryukyu Dynasty. The idea of using the characteristics of the area, that is, its history and culture, as a theme is nothing new. However, if the recreation is half-hearted, it will have the opposite effect and the hotel as a destination will not be realized. The keyword is “authenticity” (Ohashi et al., 2014), that is, how authentic it is. Of course, it goes without saying that a reproduction of a hotel is not the real thing, but the value is created by being as close to the real thing as possible. This “authenticity” will be enhanced by utilizing the technology to recreate the town of the time made possible by 5G. The virtual is a virtual space and not the real thing, but if it is a recreation of the past based on the latest research findings, it can be said to be the real thing to those who see it. How far we can go in the pursuit of authenticity is the key to the development of hotels in the after corona and with corona era, and the key to achieving this is to use the most advanced technology to revive history and culture.

Conclusion The features of 5G are “ultrahigh speed,” “ultralow latency,” and “many simultaneous connections.” We discussed how our lives will change and how tourism will change as a result of its realization. Common to natural disaster countermeasures, rural living, daily shopping, and sports was the reduction of personnel and mobility. It has been found that machines can now perform tasks that have been performed by humans and that a small number of people can operate machines from a remote location. There is concern that employment will be lost, but it will free people from working in dangerous places and long-distance travel. It will also bring great benefits to people with physical disabilities. It was also found that there are great benefits in tourism. You will be able to experience the world’s sights realistically, without congestion or admission restrictions, without having to travel long distances. If the image is only in the terminal in 2D, it cannot beat the experience in the field, but if the image spreads in front of you in 3D, it will be as close as possible to the experience in the field. Therefore, it will be possible for the tour providers to develop more than ever. This is because it will be possible to welcome many guests with a small number of people. However, the problem is the industry that provides transportation and stay, that is, the transportation industry such as the aviation industry,

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and the hotel that is the accommodation industry. This problem was revealed by the COVID-19 pandemic that began in early 2020. Many airlines and hotels are in trouble and more companies are going bankrupt. Government support is also provided, but not enough. Still, airlines can still find a way out. It is to switch the people who have been the target of transportation to things. In fact, DHL Japan’s consumer transport volume has tripled compared to last year. Due to the COVID-19 epidemic, going out was restricted and people began to use Internet sales to purchase daily necessities. However, it is difficult to find light in the hotel. There are some examples of starting a virtual stay, but it is not very effective. When we think about the role of the hotel again, we can see that it depends on the destination. In other words, a hotel stays for some purpose such as tourism or business, not for the hotel itself. Of course, the facilities and services provided by the hotel make the stay more comfortable, but the hotel is still a supporting role, and the leading role is the destination. Therefore, virtual stays are not effective. However, if the hotel plays a leading role, that is, if the purpose is to stay at the hotel itself, this view will change. People will come for some reason, in terms of tourism, not to visit and enjoy the tourist destination, but to enjoy staying at the hotel. I took an example of how to acquire that value in Okinawa, Japan, and presented it. Although Okinawa is in Japan, it has its own history and culture because it was once an independent country. If you can take advantage of it and come to the hotel to experience the history and culture of Okinawa, tourists will find value in staying at the hotel and will visit it. Virtual stays will also be effective. The concept of adding value by embodying the history and culture of the area is not new and has already been realized by Aman Resorts. Moreover, incorporating the characteristics of destination is not a complete departure from destination. The key will be how close it is to the real thing, that is, how to enhance its “authenticity.” The society realized by 5G is a society where “movement” and “stay” are reduced. And the COVID-19 epidemic has created a society where “movement” and “stay” are restricted. In other words, it can be said that we have presented to us what kind of society the mobile communication system will become if it evolves further. In the future society, the concepts of “movement,” “exchange,” and “stay” which are the basis of tourism will change drastically. “Movement” and “stay” will be much lessened, while “exchange” will be more active. Tourism, especially hotels, must find value in this “exchange.” Notes *1. For example, Virtual Asuka-kyo (the first capital city in Japanese history https://asukamura.jp/topics/virtual-asukakyo/index.html *2. For example, Bali Club and Club Traveler. Bali Club. https://oji-baliclub.com/blog/blog-28715/ Club Traveler. https://clubtravelerjapan.com/article/spot/8725/

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*3. Tourism operators that provide tours, for example, virtual stay in Tao island. PassMarket https://passmarket.yahoo.co.jp/event/show/detail/01fa3i115vrf7.html *4. The RYOKO SHINBUN (2019.11.23). http://www.ryoko-net.co.jp/?p¼67713 Star Resort. https://starresort.co.jp/tips/ *5. The official site of Okinawa Prefecture. https://www.pref.okinawa.jp/site/kodomo/land/koryu/gaiyo.html

References DOCOMO. (2020a). New possibilities with 5G and Body Sharing ® technology. Retrieved from: https://www.nttdocomo.co.jp/biz/special/okinawa/special_contents/20200227/index.html (Accessed: the 1st of August, 2020). DOCOMO. (2020b). Tourism that changes with 5G. Retrieved from: https://www.nttdocomo.co.jp/ special_contents/5g/realization/articles/article_17/ (Accessed: the 1st of August, 2020) 2020). GSM Association. (2020). The Mobile Economy 2020. Retrieved from: https://www.gsma.com/ mobileeconomy/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/GSMA_MobileEconomy2020_Global.pdf (Accessed of the 20th of August 2020). MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries). (2020). Statistics on the agricultural workforce. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. MIC (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications). (2018). Entertainment / Tourism, 5G comprehensive demonstration test video 2018. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v¼htHSUsQTyFU&list¼PL7PI1l61-EVLG2pSuUkpXm06IqMFYWbp6&index¼21 (Accessed: the 16th of August, 2020). MIC (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications). (2019). 5G Mobile communication system (5G) now and future prospects. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. MIC (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications). (2020a). Publication of the number of emergency dispatches (preliminary figures). Retrieved from: https://www.soumu.go.jp/menu_ news/s-news/01shoubo01_02000284.html (Accessed: the 16th of August, 2020). MIC (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications). (2020b). The world connected by 5G. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v¼ArRWXopUHAQ&list¼PL7PI1l61EVLG2pSuUkpXm06IqMFYWbp6&index¼4 (Accessed: the 16th of August, 2020). MLIT (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism). (2016). Current status of the construction industry. Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. Nihon Keizai Shimbun. (2020). ZOOM US. sales increased 4.6 times. The 2nd September, 2020. [In Japanese]. Nikkei Business Daily. (2020). DHL Japan has tripled the volume of B to C international cargo handling. The 7th October, 2020. [In Japanese]. Ohashi, S., Hashimoto, K., Endo, H., & Kanda, K. (2014). Guidebook for tourism studies. Nakanishiya Shuppan. Time & Space. (2018). “Teleportation” demonstration experiment with au5G x VR! Shopping at Minami Sanriku Shopping Street while in Tokyo. Retrieved from: https://time-space.kddi.com/ kddi-now/kddi-news/20180216/2244 (Accessed: the 20th of August, 2020). Urry, J. (2018). Mobilities (15th ed.). Polity Press.

Index

A Aarong, 941 Abacus PowerSuite, 22 Abdi Dalem, 708 Absolute (strong) loyalty model, 284 Adamo Digital, 891 Address verification system (AVS), 479 Adiluhung performing arts, 706 Adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI), 306, 309 Advanced aircraft interior technology advanced noise control technology, 335 airport operators, 332 anti-theft baggage technology, 331, 332 curvaceous aircraft design, 337 Deloitte and McLaren digital technology, 332 drones, 336 emission control, 331 fly by wire, 330 one for all concept, 335 pilot operation, 332 prescriptive maintenance looms, 337 remote ATC-budapest airport, 332 self-driving wheelchairs, 335, 336 solar/electric powered aircrafts, 336 solar powered airports, 336 visibility measuring system, 331 voice check-in, 331 Advanced checkpoint screening technology, 328 Adventure tourism, 854, 855 Advocacy phase, 264 Affiliate marketing, 98 AIDA model, 261 Air Asia, 344, 349 Airbnb, 936 Airbus, 337

Air catering analysis, 358, 361, 364 automated equipment, 371 automation and integrated systems, 357, 358 characteristics, 358 characteristics of activities, 357 civil aviation, 354 comparison, 360, 366 comparison participants, 361 computerization and integrated systems, 368–370 development, 355 enterprise, 366 equipment, 368 history, 356 in-flight catering, 355, 356 in-flight catering requirements, 357 in-flight catering services, 354 interview, 359, 362, 363 manual labour, 368 manual order delivery, 368 observation, 360, 364, 365 observation participants, 360 old building, 368 participants, 359 production process, 358 research methods, 366 special software system, 372 transport catering, 355 Aircraft advanced checkpoint screening technology, 328 control centers, 328 gate system, 329 integrated airport command, 328 self-cleaning seats, 329 smart gate system, 329

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 A. Hassan (ed.), Handbook of Technology Application in Tourism in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2210-6

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1312 Airline reservation system (ARS), 22 Airlines, 22, 23 Airlines in Malaysia Air Asia, 344, 347, 349, 351 air transportation, 347 Asian Development Bank, 346 business profitability, 347 case analysis tools, 345 case study, 345 customer loyalty, 347 Environmental Analysis and Diagnosis, 344 industry, 344 information, 344 public areas, 348 strategy evaluation and control, 346 strategy implementation, 345 technology, 346, 351 tourism, 346, 347 TOWS Matrix, 345 travel industry, 347 Tune Air, 346 Air traffic control, 332 Air traffic controllers (ATC), 1212 Air transportation, 338 Air Travel Enterprises India Ltd (ATE), 418 AI Singapore groups (AISG), 1278 Ajkerdeal, 941 Algorithmic word of mouth (aWOM), 1273 All-inclusive program, 891 Almaty Catering Services, 355, 359, 361, 362, 367, 369–371 Almaty International Airport, 354 Amazing India, 863 Amy, 933 Ancient tourism, 853 Android application, 134 Animation fiction, 592 Antalyakart, 596 Apollo reservation system, 21 App-based mobile tour guides (AMTG), 731 Apple iTunes, 117 Archaeological sites, 1087 Archaeological tourism, 853 Artificial intelligence (AI), 6, 27, 50, 85–87, 219, 246, 412, 440–442, 456, 472, 501, 529, 769, 777, 1144, 1146, 1266 applications, 1269 Asian tourism industry, 1278 business sustainability, 1271, 1272 challenges, 1279 cognitive engagement, 1270 cutting-edge digital technology, 1268 developments, 1279, 1280

Index digitalization, 1269 forecasting, 1273–1275 geographic information system, 1270 hospitality, 1268 infrastructure facilities, 1271 innovative use, 1270 intelligent tourism, 1269 robotics, 1276–1278 service robots, 1276–1278 smart scenic spots, 1271 tourism experience management, 1272, 1273 tourism industry, 1270 tourism sector, 1268 tourist behavior, 1271 tourist experience, 1269 virtual reality technology, 1271 Artificial neural network (ANN), 1274 Arts and culture platform, 412 Asia Miles, 269 Asian Development Bank (ADB), 1292 Asian market Indonesia, 61 Malaysia, 60, 61 Philippines, 62, 63 South Korea, 61, 62 Asian tourism advancements, 390 agents, 385, 386 approaches, 382, 383 attitude, 388 backdrop, 381, 382 the blue city, 387 business promotion, 378 challenges, 395–397 communication/publicity technologies, 398 communication, 378, 398 consumerism/consumer economy, 378 destination, 380, 381 destination-image, 380 destination-side agents, 385 early perspective, 390, 391 economic value, 388 geography, 379 industry, 495 innovations, 390 and innovation adoption theories, 1127 local community, 388 market-side/demand-side agents, 389 modern perspective, 391–393 multinational/national entrepreneurs, 388 non-commercial travel, 397 non-resident status, 388

Index perception, 384, 385 phrases, 387 plant and animal domestication culture, 380 political/religious causes, 379 post-industrial society, 388 print media, 379, 397 promotional activities, 390 promotional messages, 378 promotion-initiatives, 389 quality interaction, 389 quality of services, 388, 389 sale-mobility paradigm, 388 semantics, 380 stakeholders, 398 state and tourism entrepreneurs, 385 supply-side destination promoters, 390 supply-side entrepreneurs, 387, 388 technological innovations, 390 traditional geopolitical/geo-commercial image, 398 21st century perspective, 393–395 Assistant Superintendent of Police (ASP), 905 Association of Private Hospitals in Malaysia (APHM), 673 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), 395, 1278 Association of Tourism Trade Organisations, India (ATTOI), 416 Athletic tourism, 859 Attitude, 304, 1151 approach, 282 Attitudinal loyalty, 259 Augmedix medicare, 971 Augmented reality (AR), 6, 10, 26, 27, 50, 82, 83, 220, 222–224, 321, 411, 437–440, 583, 586, 589, 595, 599, 768, 776, 777, 1219, 1303 technology, 472 Augmented reality marketing (ARM), 456 Augmented tourist destinations, 412 Authenticity, 715 Automated passport kiosk, 326 Automated traffic management systems, 23 Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast (ADS-B), 333 Automatic electrical management, 749 Automation, 266 Aviation Industry in Asia air traffic, 316 augmented reality, 316 chatbot engines, 316 innovation, 316 innovative technology, 316

1313 robotic assistance, 338 stakeholders, 316 technological innovation, 317 technology, 315 technology usage, 338, 339 types of technology, 317 use of technology, 318 B Back-office systems, 727 Backscatter X-ray scanner, 327 Backward propagation neural network (BPNN), 1273 BAGTAG device, 321 Bandaranaike International Airport (BIA), 36 Bangaldesh Parjantan Corporation (BPC), 778 Bangalore, 546 Bangladesh biometric passport/e-Passport, 983 BPC, 778 GDP, 778 hospitality industry, 778 ICT, 778 immigration process at airport, 990 customs requirements, 991 problems, 991 requirements, 989, 990 innovation, 779 online visa, 984 service quality, 780, 781 social media, 779 technological challenges, 781, 782 visa application process, 982, 983 visa issues, 986 positive sides, 987 problems, 987, 988 requirements, 984 types, 984–986 Bangladesh Electronic Medical Record (BDEMR) software, 970 Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC), 905 Bangladesh Tourism Board (BTB), 963 Bangla newspapers, 943 Bank Negara Malaysia (BNM), 690 Bawm, 799 Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), 395, 1292 BD 999, 939 BDTICKETS, 935

1314 Beaches, 870 Beacon technology, 326 B4 You Board, 322 Behavioral approach, 282 Behavioral intention (BI), 1130, 1151 Behaviorally progressive loyalty, 281 Big data, 80, 246, 247, 733, 1004, 1209, 1266, 1270, 1275 analytics competitive differentiation, 39 marketing strategy, 39 personalisation, 38 pricing strategy, 39 real time assistance, 39 sectors, 1014 in Sri Lanka, 1013 tourism organizations, 40 challenges, 1008 human resource, 1009 information management, 1010, 1011 organisational, 1010 process, 1010 technological, 1009 definition, 1005, 1006 features, 1006 in hospitality industry, 1011, 1012 impacts, 1007, 1008 implications, 1014, 1015 management, 1004 opportunities, 1007, 1008 Big data artificial intelligence (BDAI), 1271 Big data technology, 481 Bikroy.com, 940 Biman Bangladesh airline, 935 Biometric facial recognition technology (BFRT), 482 Biometrics, 319, 320 Biometric tools, 882 Bioscope, 943 Bitcoin, 457, 480 bKash, 938 BlipTrack, 322 Blockchain, 83–85, 457, 473, 479, 480, 501, 768, 772, 777 technology, 40, 412 Blogs, 1042 Bluetooth low energy (BLE), 89, 326 Bongo, 943 BONX Grip, 36 Booking.com, 936 BOOST, 691 Boost smart tourism, 500 Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix, 345

Index Brake to vacate technology (BTV), 323 Brands, 258, 259, 261–264, 266, 270, 271 improvement, 462 Branding approaches, 395 Branding assessments, 809 Brundtland Commission, 1206 Report, 1230 Budget tourists, 694 Bunk beds, 330 Business environments, 540 Business visa, 985 Buzz marketing, 94 C Cabin systems, 334 Camera-based technology, 880 Capturing mobility behavior, 134 Cathay Pacific Airways, 269 CAWST, 1152 Cell-phone application, 925 Cellular communication technology, 452, 453 Centers of Art, Culture, and Tourist (CACT), 1269 Chakma, 798 Chaldal.com, 931, 939, 940 Changi Airport, 348 Changi International Airport, 316 Characteristics demand theory (CDT), 185 Chatbot, 28, 29, 89, 459, 473 Chief Finance Officer (CFO), 265 China National Tourism Administration, 12 China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), 869 Chinese market, 545 Chi-square, 306 Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), 796 Chongqing, 547 Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore (CAAS), 348 Classical tourism-medical tourism integration, 617 CLEAR, 328 ClickFox, 267 Clinical information system (CIS), 675 Clostridium perfringens, 1169 Cloud computation, 472, 543 Cloud computing, 81 Cloud computing services (CCS), 458, 473 business solutions, 458 conventional media, 458 data connection, 459 expensive costs, 458 tourist destination, 458

Index Cloud solutions, 320 Cloud system, 671 Cognitive loyalty, 280 Cohen’s approach, 511 Commercialization, 481 Common method bias (CMB), 827 Communication devices, 580 Communication infrastructure, 541 Communication technologies, 766 Community cloud, 459 Community empowerment, 720 Community income, 485 Comparative fit index (CFI), 306, 309 Competitiveness, 452 Competitive psychological climate (CPC), 1277 Complain box, 924 Composite loyalty, 260 Computer-aided design (CAD), 24 Computer-based and online electronic commerce, 75 Computer-based technology, 437 Computer booking systems, 878 Computer communication, 878 Computerization, 771 Computer(ized) reservation systems (CRS), 21, 276, 541, 766 Conceptual framework, 639, 640 Confine intertwine, 716, 718 Construction specialties, 651 Consumer adoption, 683 Consumer response, 694 Consumption experience, 217, 218 Content analysis, 748 Content marketing, 120, 121 Content Marketing Institute, 99, 120 Context-aware information systems, 729 Contextual interaction, 267 Continuous climb and descent operations, 319 Corporate strategies, 752 Corruptions, 796 Cost per click (CPC), 100 COVID-19, 1306, 1307, 1309 crisis, 413 pandemic, 395, 1044, 1045, 1049 virus, 1044 Creative business models, 83–85 Crime detection system, 520 Cronbach’s alpha (CA), 829, 996 test, 662 Cryptocurrencies, 83–85 Culinary tourism, 1162–1164 Cultural acceptance, 925

1315 Cultural barrier, 648 Cultural contact, 789 Cultural tourism, 707, 715, 717, 718, 722, 807 Culture dispossessed, 790 Culture tourism, 56 Customary activities, 705 Customer booking decision, 728 Customer experience brand/business suppliers, 216 children, 215 communication technology, 215 consumer’s social environment, 215 consumption experience, 217, 218 direct contact, 216 five-step process, 216 indirect contact, 216 learning process, 215 product experience, 218 service experience, 218 service sector, 216 stages, 216, 217 Customerization, 441 Customer loyalty, 259, 260 Customer recognition, 880 Customer relation management (CRM), 408, 1273 Customer relations artificial intelligence, 248 benefits, 242 big data analysis, 249 blockchain based loyalty programs, 249 business activities, 235 communication tools, 234 conceptual model, 243 corporate performance, 243 creating customer value, 241 customer behaviors, 235 customer-oriented managership approach, 235, 243 definition, 235 efficiency factor, 240 electronic CRM dimensions, 243 employees, 245 enterprises, 234, 236 Greek tourism industry, 242 hospitality enterprises, Japan, 248 hotel enterprises, 240 human element, 237 implementation, 242, 244 information, 235 internet and communication technologies, 234 Internet of Things, 249

1316 Customer relations (cont.) managers, 245 marketing operations, 242 organizational factors, 240 planning and implementation stages, 241 practices, 242 process concept, 237 retain existing customers, 242 robots, 248 sales management, 242 service businesses, 244 small and medium-sized tourism businesses, 244 small-scale accommodation enterprises, 244, 245 social media, 243 technological applications, 235 technology, 235, 237, 245, 246 tourism, 246, 247 tourism businesses, 240 tourism industry, 235, 239 tourism product, 239 tourism sector, 243 travel agencies, 242 Customer relationship management (CRM), 24, 728 analytical, 238 collaborative, 239 operational, 238 strategic, 238 Customer Relations Training programme, 866 Cybercrime, 774 D Daraz, 942 Dassault Falcon 8X, 333 Data analysis, 1069 Data-based marketing, 284 Data gathering, 1069 Data Information Center, 707 Data loss prevention (DLP), 458 Data management, 750 Data mining, 671 Data transmission, 1301 Decentralized management systems, 502 Decent work through automation (DW–A), 1280 Decision-making processes, 513 Decision support systems (DSS), 22 De-contextualization concept, 656 Deductive reasoning technique, 650 Deep belief network (DBN), 1274

Index Delta automated travel account system (DATAS), 21 Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, 903 Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), 62 Departure Control Systems, 22 Destination, 472 Destination management/marketing organisations (DMOs), 25, 405, 424, 426, 497, 766, 1149, 1164 Destination promotion activities, 425, 426 advertisements, 426 advertising, 426 applications, 424, 425, 428 Asian destinations, 435 chatbots, 425 communication channels, 426 community, 427 consumer, 426 digital content marketing, 425 digitalization, 425 driving forces, 426 e-mail marketing, 424 Facebook pages, 436 impact of technology, 429 influencer marketing, 425 information-intensive promotional activities, 427 information technologies, 424 internet, 424 internet technologies, 432 marketing channels, 424 mobile marketing, 424 omni-channel marketing, 425 Pay Per Click method, 430 product, 426 promotional activities, 427 reputation management, 426 segments, 431 social content platform, 437 social media, 432–434 social media tool, 434 social networks, 433, 434, 437 technology, 427–429 tourist-generated contents, 432 virtual travel assistants, 425 web 2.0, 432 web-based marketing techniques, 426 websites, 430–432 Destination promotion videos (DPVs), 409 Development policy making, 721 Diffusion of innovation (DOI) theory, 638

Index Digital adoption index (DAI), 682 Digital age automation, 266 contextual interaction, 267 journey innovation, 267, 268 proactive personalization, 267 Digital applications, 592 Digital channels, 117 Digital consumers, 753 Digital data, 478 Digital divide, 41, 42, 883, 891 Digital economy, 117 Digital exam Pad (e-Pad), 303–305, 308, 309 Digital information technology (DIT), 484 Digital innovation barriers (DIB), 647, 648, 656 Digital innovation hurdles, 634 Digitalized museums, 589 Digital key mobile application, 598 Digital marketing, Asia development, 126 4Cs, 127 4Ps, 117, 118 implementation, 116 internet infrastructure, 127 market tourist activities, 116 technology, 116 tourism enterprises, 116 Digital marketing, 99, 407, 750, 758 Digital marketing applications AIDA model, 259, 270 applications, 271 Asian tourism industry, 124–126, 268–270 Chinese, 270 content marketing, 120, 121 customer loyalty, 259, 260 customers, 258 digital channels, 258 digital era, 258 digital sub-cultures, 265, 266 environments, 258 Google services, 258 influencer marketing, 121, 122 new customer path, 261–265 omni-channel marketing, 122–124 practices, 271 search engine marketing, 119 Digital technologies, 72, 429, 580, 583 historical/natural areas, 583, 584, 586 innovation, 535 Digital touch-screen tablets, 734 Digital transformation, 73, 74, 429, 442 Digital twin system, 335 Disaster management, 417, 419

1317 Diverse cuisine, 923 Diversification, 809 Diversified indigenous stage, 790 DNA polymer, 1166 Doctor Bhai application, 970 Documentation process, 979 Driverless airport shuttle, 323 Drones, 6, 1014 Dubai, 250 E E-books, 810 Eco-innovations, 656 E-commerce, 766, 810, 929 Economic basis, 210, 211 Economic sustainability, 1206 Ecotourism, 853 Effort expectancy (EE), 151 e-hailing passengers, 685 services, 684–686 E-learning, 749 Electric vehicles (EVs), 1218 Electronic commerce-able intermediary (EC), 757 Electronic flight instrument system, 325 Electronic health record (EHR), 615, 671 Electronic medical record (EMR), 671, 675, 677 Electronic visa (e-visa), 984 application, 621 Electronic wallet (e-wallet), 690 Electronic word of mouth (e-WoM), 409 channel, 702 marketing, 95 E-mail, 428 marketing, 97 E-marketing tools, 570 Emerging technology (ET), 474, 481 automatic payments, 461, 462 hologram, 460 HPCs, 461 light rays, 460 Emirates flight catering, 366 Emotional loyalty, 281 Employer branding, 1025, 1027, 1028 Employment visa, 985 Empowerment, 720 English-Arabic translation, 660, 661 Enhanced time-based separation (eTBS), 1212 Enjoy Bursa, 596 Enterprise resource planning (ERP), 22, 358, 368

1318 Enterprises, 116, 118, 121, 122, 127 Entrepreneurs, 452, 486 Environmental sustainability, 1206 Environment and services, 538 Environment management, 453 E-relationship marketing (e-RM), 728 Ethernet module, 479 ® Etkivizyon system, 591 E-tourism, 721, 773, 881 E-travel, 863, 864 ETS Tour, 270 European Capital of Smart Tourism, 1272 European Union Parliament, 511 Evaly, 941 Examination, 302, 303, 305, 308, 309 Ex-Civil Aviation, 903 Exhibition’s opening reception, 706 Exhibition, 706 Experience-oriented products, 210 Experiential value models assessments, 211 consumer’s product, 212 consumer achieves experience, 212 customers, 211, 212 developing talents, 214 emotional impact, 214 Gilmore, 212, 213 information, 214 Pine, 212, 213 realization of change, 214, 215 Schmitt, 213 Explosives trace detection machine (ETD), 327 EXPO 2016 museum, 591 External barrier, 648 F Facebook, 408, 708, 709, 1028–1030, 1042, 1044, 1047 Facial recognition, 29 technology, 327 Facilitating condition (FC), 152, 157 FalconEye combined vision system, 333 Family seats, 334 Fear-based oppression, 861 Feed-forward neural network (NN) model, 1273 Fertility treatments, 610 Fields of management, 1014 File transfer protocol (FTP), 428 Film festival, 707 Financial information system (FIS), 675 Financial resources, 752, 755

Index 5A model, 259, 261–265 5G Internet, 882, 883 Flexible navigation system, 318, 1211 Flickr, 1042 Flight director, 325 Flight management system, 318 Flight tracking system, 881 FlySmart, 322 Food delivery services, 691 Foodpanda.com, 931 Foodpanda, 937 Food production, 355, 361, 1162 Foreign tourists, 480 Forests, 1086 FOREX card, 774 Forrester, 536 Fossil fuels, 72 Frequency programs, 286 Frequently ask questions (FAQ), 689 Fuel efficient technologies, 318, 319 Future recruiting trends, 1027 G Gadget servicing, 931 Game advertising, 101 Gamification, 224, 225, 1296 Garo, 801 Gastronomies, 463 General economic development, 495 General packet radio service (GPRS), 441 Generation Y (Gen Y), 701, 702 correlation analysis, 1115, 1117–1119 descriptive analysis, 1115, 1116 Instagram, 1111, 1119 internet adoption rates, 1110 labor market, 1112 learning communication skills, 1110 population samples, 1113 questionnaire, 1113 reliability analysis, 1115 social media, 1111 travel interactive media, 1112, 1113 Generation Y’s perception applications, 159 behaviour, 158–160 climatic circumstances, 150 communication, 150 destination, 149 effort expectancy, 155, 159 facilitating condition, 152, 157, 160 family structures, 148 Google Maps, 161

Index hotel industry’s technology, 149 humans, 148 industrial and commercial sectors, 148 Malaysia, 150 mix-and-match culture, 149 mobile application, 152 mobile technology, 149 performance expectancy, 151, 152, 159 respondent demographic profile, 153 smartphone users, 149 social influence, 152, 154, 160 students, 150 technology, 148, 150 telephone technology, 150 thematic analysis, 160 travel agencies, 149 travel mobile application, 155 Waze, 161 Genetic algorithms (GAs), 1275 Genetic fuzzy system (GFS), 1275 Geo-localization, 1214 Ghurbo, 931 Giyanti Agreement, 703 Global distribution systems (GDS), 39, 276, 541, 683, 747, 766, 770 Globalization, 954 effect, 550 Globalized tourism, 779 Global Kitchen Project, 1164 Global positioning system (GPS), 132, 133, 441, 582, 731, 1209 tracking systems, 692 Global tourism, 864 Goodness of fit index (GFI), 306, 309 Google Cloud, 458 Google Maps, 132, 879 Google trends index (GTI), 1274 Government of Bangladesh (GOB), 775 Grab, 124 GrabCar operators, 686 Grab car ride-sharing application services accessibility, 170 cheaper fare, 167, 174 convenient booking, 167, 173 Cronbach’s coefficient alpha test, 171 customers, 168 descriptive statistic, 176 e-hailing businesses, 168 e-hailing companies, 170 feedback, 170 framework, 167 GPS, 168 intention to ride, 175

1319 internet, 166 Malaysian government, 170 operators, 166 passenger pricing, 169 perceived reliability on application, 173 profile of the respondents, 172 Putrajaya Corporation, 170 quality, 167, 174 quality reliability test, 172 quantitative research approach, 171 reliability, 166, 167 ride-sharing drivers, 170 service quality, 170 taxi systems, 169 tourist-targeted marketing strategy, 166 transportation, 166, 169 vehicles, 166 Grab delivery services, 688 Great India Aviation Services (P) Ltd., 418 Great India Tour Company (P) Ltd, 418 Green cabin, 334 Green innovation activities, 655 Grievance redness system (GDS), 779 Gross domestic product (GDP), 729, 851, 1252 Gross national happiness (GNH), 387 H Hair transplantation industry, 621 Hammam Museum, 593 Head-mounted displays (HMD), 1237 Health care, 1014 Health-care systems, 866 Health service, 616 Health tourism, 609, 621, 955 Health tourism agents (HTAs), 674 Hellofood, 693 Heterotrait-Monotrait proportion (HTMT) strategy, 829 High performance computing (HPC) system, 461, 474, 477 Hiring, 1024–1026, 1031 HIS Hotel Holidays, 1276 Historical culture, 700 Holography technology, 460 Homogeneity, 793 Hong Kong, 550, 729 Hong Kong and Shanghai Hotels (HSH), 733 Hong Kong Central Policy Unit, 511 Hong Kong International Airport (HKIA), 30 Hong Kong Tourism Board (HKTB), 732 Horizontal Integration Strategy, 350

1320 Hospital information management systems (HIMS), 677 Hospital information system (HIS), 670, 675 Hospitality, 569, 767, 772, 773, 1152 automation, 58, 770 industry, 222, 1011, 1015, 1022, 1027, 1029, 1257, 1258 sector, 1266 Hospitality service providers (HSP), 8 Hospitalization, 616 Hotel automation system, 598 enterprises, 247 industry, 769, 1147, 1307 Human asset development, 865 Human behavior, 551 capital, 808 interaction, 482 resource challenges, 1009 resources, 1023, 1025 resources quality, 472 Human resources management (HRM), 727 Human-robot interaction (HRI), 1276 “HUNAR-SE-ROZGAR scheme”, 774 Hungrynaki.com, 931, 937 Hunter gatherers, 590 Hybrid AI models, 1275 Hybrid electric propulsion, 323, 324 Hypothetical models, 817 I iBeacons, 89 ICD-10 coding, 615 ICF Airport Mobile, 596 Iconic destinations, 485 ICT infrastructure, 536 IGA Sleepod service, 600 Immigration, 978 Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC), India, 29, 289, 290 Indian traditional tourism, 771 Indigenous tourism, 789 academics, 794 alleviate poverty, 802, 807 Bangladesh, 796, 798 Bawn, 799 Chak, 800 Changma, 798 communities, 791 cultural resources, 792

Index cultures and ritual, 792 demands, 806, 808 Garo, 801 issues, 793 Jaintia, 801 Keot, 801 Khasi, 800 Kheyang, 799 Khumis, 799 livelihood resources, 806 local development, 791 Lushai, 800 Manipuri, 801 market niche, 805 Marma, 798 Mro, 799 national and international development, 802, 803 Pangal, 802 Pangkhua, 800 popularization, 792 poverty alleviation, 795 resources, 794 Santals, 800 spiritual perspective, 793 stage, 789 Tanchangya, 799 technology, 794, 795 Tipra, 798 tour operators, 791 tribal communities, 791 Indigenous Tourism Capitals in Bangladesh, 802 Indonesia, 477 Indonesia in your hands (IYH), 480 Indonesian Fintech Association, 479 Indoors, 323 Inductive reasoning, 650 Industrial revolution 4.0 (IR 4.0), 187, 189 Industrial revolution, 71–73, 427, 540 Industry 4.0, 72, 73, 85, 88, 91 Inertial management system (IRS), 325 Influencer marketing, 121, 122, 410 Information and communications technologies (ICTs), 1, 5, 74–76, 220, 221, 302, 393, 407, 454, 472, 496, 518, 597, 670, 674, 682, 742, 765, 881, 1042, 1146, 1154, 1234, 1238, 1267 adoption, 742, 743 adoption factors, 747, 748 affecting factors, 754 airlines, 22, 23 augmented reality, 222–224

Index block chain technology, 40 business process, 745 computer reservation systems, 20, 21 corporate, 759 cost advantage, 744 customer focus, 744 destination management, 25 difficulties, 751 digital divide, 41, 42 EC, 757 financial resources, 746 5G technology, 41 functions, 749 gamification, 224, 225 global distribution systems, 20, 21 growth, 753 hospitality, 23, 24 human touch, 758 infrastructures, 749 investment, 752 management procedures, 746 market(ing), 745, 758 mobile apps, 37, 38, 221, 222 operational efficiencies, 20 opportunities, 752 organization, 757 product leadership, 744 recommender systems, 225 research method, 748 risk, 758 roles, 756 social media, 219, 220 surface transport, 23 sustainable tourism, 25, 26 SWOT, 750 TATO, 743, 751 tools, 745 tourism enterprises, 743, 745 tourist experience, 24 travel intermediaries, 21 virtual reality, 222 voice technology, 34 wearable technology, 35–37 whole sale products, 759 Wi-Fi connectivity, 35 Information business, 746 Information communication, 453 Information-intensive industry, 682 Information management challenges, 1010 Information technology infrastructure (ITI) big data, 456, 457 hospitality, 455 tourism destination, 455

1321 Information technology (IT), 284, 671, 727, 765, 881 architecture, 475 cellphones connect, 463 cellular technology, 454 decision makers, 464 E-commerce, 485 hospitality, 463 ICT, 463 LTE, 453 machine learning, 484 management systems, 484 NFC, 454 rapid development, 484 respondents, 476 social media, 486 transportation, 463 travel planning, 484 uniqueness, 485 WNS, 453 Infrastructure developments, 544 Infrastructure service, 247 Innovation, 816, 1127 acceptance theories, 1128 barriers, 639, 641 climate-smart agricultural, 655 creation, 648 cultural, 659 digital innovation, 655 environmental, 660 financial, 659 formal, 655 human capital, 655 inventive culture, 655 management, 658 measurements, 654 nature of, 1127–1128 psychological, 658 technical, 657 Innovation diffusion theory (IDT), 820, 1052 Innovation orientation, 630, 632, 638 construction business, 651 creation vs. adoption, 648 measurements, 656, 660, 661 newness, 649, 650 Innovative technology, 560 artificial intelligence, 1217, 1220 augmented reality, 1219 blockchain technology, 1221 blogs, 1222 branding, 560, 561 CFM International Leap 1B Engine, 1212 chatbots, 1217

1322 Innovative technology (cont.) city guide technology, 1214 competitiveness, 572 continuous climb and descent operations, 1212 ease of planning applications, 1221 eco-friendly technologies, 1218 E-Fan X demonstrator, 1210 environmental and wildlife protection laws, 1205 EventCheck, 1219 face recognition technology, 1219 factors, 1209 flexible navigation system, 1211 geo-localization, 1214 global pocket Wi-fi, 1215 Globetouch, 1215 Google Map, 1220 google trekker/street, 1214 host community, 1205 hotel foot-printing tool, 1218 hybrid electric vehicles, 1222 instrument, 1204 Internet of Things, 1214 layer ingesting propulsor, 1210, 1211 local community, 1204, 1205 marketing applications, 560 menu order application, 1217 mixed reality technology, 1220 natural habitats, 1205 organization, 1208 predictive maintenance, 1216 real time tracking, 1220 recycling technologies, 1219 service providers, 1204 sharing economy, 1217 smart rooms, 1216 smart tourist applications, 1206 social listening, 1217 social media marketing, 1221, 1222 social media tool, 566 stakeholders, 1204 sustainability, 1206 sustainability factor, 1205 sustainable destination management, 1209 sustainable development, 1205 tourism industry, 1204, 1209 tourism products, 1205 tourists, 1205 traffic management system, 1212 Trent XWB Engine, 1211 vlogs, 1222 walk and city connect, 1214 wastage and footprint tracking, 1218 websites, 562, 563

Index winglets, 1211 zero waste technology, 1220 Innovative tools, 893 In-room audio-visual facilities, 734 Instagram, 708, 711, 713, 1024, 1029, 1033, 1042, 1044, 1048, 1111 Integrated management framework, 536 Integrated websites, 765 Integrative models, 818 Intelligent digital technology, 540 Intelligent transport systems (ITS), 23 Interactive museum, 590 Interactive technology model (iTAM), 1276 Interactive voice response (IVR), 246 InterContinental Hotels Group (IHG), 38, 1233 Internal vs. external barriers, 630 International accreditation certificate, 620 International Airport of Almaty, 357 International Air Transport Association (IATA), 320 International Business Machines (IBM), 20 International Conference on Tourism Technology (ICTT), 416 International Institute of Communications, 1278 International Labour Organization (ILO), 790 International Medical Travel Journal (IMTJ), 672 International symposium, 706, 716 International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 535 Internet, 4, 7, 119, 260, 580, 730, 878, 929, 1266 banking, 776 consumers, 730 marketing, 767 Internet influences applications, 57 climate, 51 competitiveness ranking, 54 cultural differences, 53 digitalization, 52, 55 digital transformation, 50 e-commerce mode, 55 e-commerce platform, 50 emerging technologies, 54 factors, 51 hospitality industries, 51 hotel business, 51 information technology, 56 interventions, 56 investments, 53 management of innovative culture, 57–60 mobile devices, 55 mobile internet technologies, 50

Index mobile technology, 55 smart applications, 50 smart tourism business models, 51 social media, 55 strategies, 54 tourism data, 51 tourism market, 55 tourism segment, 51 users, 477 Internet of Things (IoT), 6, 73, 80, 187, 246, 321, 440–442, 472, 542, 1146, 1209, 1214, 1267 in-flight experience, 33 maintenance, 34 personalisation, 32 real time information, 33 safety, 34 security, 34 streamlined operations, 33 technology, 461 tourist experience, 34 Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6), 1146 Intertwine, 718 confine, 715 Inverse square root technique, 652 Investor visa, 985 J Jaintia, 801 Japan, 248 Japan National Tourism Organization, 27 Jatisari Agreement, 703 Jet Airways, 36 Jhum cultivation, 799 Joint industry computer reservation systems, 21 Joint tourism, 497 Journalist visa, 985 Journey innovation, 267, 268 Jovago.com, 930 Jovago, 936 Jumenengan, 704, 705 K Kazakhstan, 369, 371 Keot, 801 Kerala blog express (KBE), 416, 418 Kerala Tales Video, 416 Kerala tourism advertisement, 406 destination image, 406 destination marketing, 404 destination promotion, 404 digital destination promotion, 418

1323 geographical location, 404 internet, 406 KBE, 416 marketing communications, 404 mobile app, 414, 415 official website, 414, 415 organisations, 405 private and public sectors, 405 smart crisis management, 417, 418 smart promotion, 406–414 social media, 406, 413, 415, 416 stake holders, 405 Keraton Yogyakarta, 702, 703, 705 Khasi, 800 Kheyang, 799 Khumis, 799 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), 869 KL International Airport (KLIA), 348 Klook, 688, 689 Kraton Jogja, 710 Kyoto Protocol, 316 L Laboratory information system (LIS), 675 Labor market, 1112 Language barrier, 321 Latent loyalty model, 283 Legal Support and Personnel Management, 361 Light rapid transport (LRT), 687 Likert style rating scale, 653 Local Government Authorities (LGA), 405 Local tourism business, 719 Location-based applications, 582 Location-based information, 733 Location-based services (LBS), 134 Long short-term memory (LSTM), 1274 Long-term evolution (LTE), 453 Long-term health problems, 621 Lower and middle income countries (LMIC), 613 Loyal tourist, 260 Loyalty programs, 285 Lushai, 800 M Machine learning engineers, 503 Machine learning (ML), 28, 441, 777 Macroeconomic factors, 1258 Malaysia, 249, 670, 1043 medical tourism, 672 cases, 498 Malaysian Communication and Multimedia Commission (MCMC), 188

1324 Malaysian Digital Association (MDA) statistics, 188 Malaysian Healthcare Travel Council (MHTC), 672 Malaysian medical tourism, 673 Managerial skills, 729 Manipuri, 801 Market development strategy, 350 Marketing activities, 75 Marketization, 501 Market-oriented approach, 91 Market penetration strategy, 350 Marma, 798 Mass rapid transport (MRT), 687 Mass tourism computer systems, 766 Measurement model, 307 Medical tourism, 608, 670 Asia, 622, 623 Asian countries, 955 Asian medical tourism market, 957, 958 in Bangladesh, 963, 964 advancement, 964–966 Augmedix medicare, 971 BDEMR software, 970 business, 966, 967 Doctor Bhai application, 970 information technology, 969 medical helpline, 969 meditor health application, 970 technology diffusion, 967–969 common borders, 611 communication problems, 620 confidentiality, 676 cross-border, 612 customer feedback, 674 destination image, 610 EMR, 677 financial resources, 676 financial sources, 676 globalization effects, 613 HIS, 675 in India, 959, 960 administrator plus, 963 datamate mediware, 962 information technology, 962 TCSA, 962 technology diffusion, 960, 961 infrastructure issues, 676 innovative technology application, 959 international marketing, 619 long-term, 611 low acceptance level, 676 Malaysia, 672

Index medicinal activities, 956 mobility across, 611 negative impact, 619 negativities, 958, 959 online infrastructure, 674 outsourced patients, 611, 612 physical factors, 616 prehistoric/ancient concept, 955 privacy, 678 purchase time, 618 regulations, 678 role, 954 security challenge, 678 short temporary, 611 social networking, 674 supporting services, 675 technology, 678 technology application, 614, 615, 673 telehealth, 677 telemedicine, 678 3rd party websites, 675 Turkey, 623, 624 types, 672 vacation, 955 vs. health tourism, 609, 955, 956 wage tariffs, 620 wealthiest segment, 954 websites, 677 Meditor Health application, 970 Meitei-Pangals, 802 Meta-analysis/meta-ethnography techniques, 660 M-gadgets, 819 Microorganism, 1166 Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome (MERS), 1044 Millennial generation, 707, 713, 717 Millennials, 701, 707, 708, 710, 712, 715, 717, 718, 721, 722 Millimetrer wave scanner, 327 Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC), 1301, 1303 Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT), 1302 Ministry of Tourism of India, 431 Mix reality (MR), 82, 83 Mobile applications, 37, 38, 149, 151, 152, 155, 221, 222, 412, 581, 731, 1209 accommodation assistant Airbnb, 936 Booking.com, 936 Jovago, 936 beneficiaries, 930

Index digital economy, 929 E-commerce, 929 financial assistant bKash, 938 Nagad, 938 Rocket, 938 media and entertainment Bangla newspapers, 943 Bioscope, 943 Bongo, 943 The Daily Star, 943, 944 Toffee, 943 promises, 944, 945 restaurant and food delivery Foodpanda, 937 Hungrynaki.com, 937 Uber Eats, 937 review comments, 945–947 safety and security BD 999, 939 BD Police Helpline, 939 shopping, 931 shopping assistant Aarong, 941 Ajkerdeal, 941 Bikroy.com, 940 Chaldal.com, 939, 940 Daraz, 942 Evaly, 941 Pickaboo, 942 Rokomary.com, 940 Shajgoj, 942 ticketing, 930, 931 for tourism development, 947–949 transport and ticket BDTICKETS, 935 Biman Bangladesh airline, 935 Obhai, 934 Pathao.com, 933 Rail Sheba, 935 Shohoz, 934 Uber, 934 transportation, 930 travel assistant Amy, 933 Ghurbo, 931 ShareTrip, 932 Mobile app security and analytics, 149 Mobile-based devices, 188 Mobile commerce, 816 Mobile communication, 683, 684 Mobile electronic tourist guides (METG), 731 Mobile information system, 587

1325 Mobile internet, 1153 Mobile messaging applications, 268 Mobile passport control (MPC), 322 Mobile phones, 1237 Mobile positioning data (MPD), 457, 482 Mobile technologies, 731, 768, 776 Mobile tourism shopping, 817, 1133 compatibility, 822 IDT, 820 integrative model, 819 limitations, 838 mediating role, 825 Pakistan, 818 PEJ, 823, 824 perceived ease of use, 824 perceived usefulness, 824 RS, 821 SP, 822, 823 technology acceptance, 820, 821 theoretical implications, 836–838 Mobile tourist shopping, 1153 Mobile travel applications, 1153 Mode C transponder, 325 Modernization process, 791 Modern technologies, 726, 755, 774 MORGAN Stanley Capital International (MSCI), 348 Movement Control Order (MCO), 688, 1045 Mro, 799 M-tourism, 721 Multichannel marketing, 122 Multinational corporation (MNC), 768 Museums, 588 Muziris Virtual Tour Guide, 415 N Nagad, 938 Nano-marketing applications, 267 National and international development, 802 National Ecotourism Plan, 498 National Health Service (NHS), 613 National level policy, 544 National Tourism Organisation (NTO), 405 National Tourism Policy Study (NTPS), 60 National tourism sector, 472 Natural health context biryani, 1177 COVID-19 pandemic, 1186 COVID-19 pandemic illnesses, 1187–1189 culinary tourism, 1162–1164 Daal (pulses), 1176 desi curry, 1176

1326 Natural health context (cont.) desi food items, 1174, 1183, 1184 desserts, 1182, 1183 dried food commodities, 1181 environment food and cultural practices, 1171–1174 ghee, 1177 historical places-cultural traits, 1184, 1185 human body, 1165, 1166 immune response, 1167, 1168 impact, 1161, 1162 individual’s safety, 1170, 1171 Kabab, 1178 kechrey, 1177 Koftey, 1177 main dishes, 1175 manifestation, 1166, 1186, 1187, 1189 mouth freshener, 1182 pelao, 1177 pickles, 1180, 1181 poor person’s meal, 1179 qorma, 1177 roti, 1181 Saag, 1178 safety concerns, 1186 sauces and yogurt mix, 1179, 1180 snacks, 1175 sweet, 1182, 1183 tea (Chai), 1174, 1175 traveling, 1161, 1162 travelling food advice, 1169, 1170 type of illnesses, 1168, 1169 Natural language process(ing) (NLP), 337, 441, 478 Navigation applications, 481 Navigation database(NDB), 318 Near-field communication (NFC) technology, 81, 82, 454, 582, 731, 1215 Netflix, 1014 Netnography, 929 New industrial economy (NIE), 150 NGO workers visa, 986 Nippon Airways of Japan, 36 No loyalty, 283 Non-indigenous tourism, 790 Normalization, 618 North Korea, 249 Nursing information system (NIS), 675 O Obhai, 934 Oceanic, 72

Index Official website, 712 Omni-channel digital marketing, 101 Omni-channel marketing, 122–124 On board translation technology, 321 OneTouc, 598 Online advertising, 100 Online display advertising (ODA), 100 Online food delivery services, 692 Online reputation management (ORM), 410 Online travel agencies (OTAs), 683, 747, 775, 1294 Online travel bookings, 75 Online travel publications, 879 Open Axis Group, 881 Operational loyalty, 281 Optimized runway delivery tool (ORD), 1212 Organisational challenges, 1010 Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), 198 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 613 P Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA), 347, 434, 1222 Pakistan, 852 adventure tourism, 854, 855 adverse image, 863 ancient tourism, 853 archaeological tourism, 853 athletic tourism, 859 beaches, 870 capacity building, 866 cell phone app, 864 certifications, 862 code of conduct, 866 constructive factors, 859 deprived coordination, 861 ecotourism, 853 education/skill, 868 employment, 858 e-travel, 863, 864 extranet, 864 GDP, 856 global tourism, 864 health services, 866 hospitality, 871 human resource, 865 infrastructure, 868, 869 IT, 864 law and order, 865 marketing/promotions, 862 media, 867

Index negative factors, 860 non availability, 860 online site, 864 pilgrimage tourism, 859 private sector, 862 public/private sector, 870 social tourism, 859 spiritual tourism, 853 standards, 870 strategy development, 869, 870 tourism institutions, 862 tourism structure, 865 tourists protection, 861 traditional tourism, 859 travel sector, 860 TTCI, 855 visas, 861 wildlife tourism, 859 worldwide tourist, 856, 857 Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation, 431 Pangal, 802 Pangkhua, 800 Pan Pacific Hotels Group, 269 Paperless, 303, 309 Parks, 1087 Partial least square-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), 652, 829 Passenger name records (PNRs), 21 Passenger processing solutions, 326 Passport kiosk, 326 Pathao.com, 930 Payment gateway (PG), 461, 474, 479 Pay per click advertising (PPC), 100 Pega, 267 Perceived ease of use (PEU), 304, 308, 1130, 1151 Perceived enjoyment (PEJ), 823, 824 Perceived usefulness (PU), 304, 308, 1130, 1151 Performance expectancy (PE), 151, 152, 159 Personal computers (PCs), 1153 Personal digital assistant (PDA), 154 Personal intelligent travel assistant (PITA), 1213 Personal tours, 880 Pharmacy information system (PIS), 675 Philippine Tourist and Travel Association (PTTA), 62 Physical and mental changes, 214 Physical-infrastructure, 473 Pickaboo, 942 Picture archiving and communication system (PACS), 675

1327 Pilgrimage tourism, 859 Pilot study, 662 Pilot test, 662 Place analysis, 810 Pocketalk, 35 Point of sales (POS) systems, 24 Polish destinations, 720 Political-legal-regulatory factors, 349 Popularization, 792 Portable innovation, 817 Post-COVID-19 process, 621 Poverty alleviation, 795, 808 Practicing construction career, 651 Pre-recorded audio translation, 882 Price analysis, 809 Primary trades, 809 Process barriers, 648 Process challenges, 1010 Processing identification documents, 528 Product experience, 218 Product lifecycle management (PLM) phase, 358 Product-price-place-promotion (Ps), 117 Professional tourist guide, 925 Programmed airline reservations system (PARS), 21 Promenade areas, 1088 Prominent smart city, 546 Promotional e-branding, 923 Promotion analysis, 810 Promotion and marketing, 560, 561, 564, 565, 574 hospitality, social media, 569–571 hospitality, web sites, 567–569 hospitality, 574 internet environment, 572 social media tools, 564–567 Promotion tool, 439 Property management systems (PMS), 23 Protocol TCP/IP, 454 Psychological syndrome, 397 PT AWAIR International, 348 Public private partnership (PPP) model, 414 Public relations (PR), 413 Puffer machine, 327 Pulau Langkawi, 1069 Purposive sampling, 748 Q Qsuite, 330 Quality of residents, 496

1328 R Radio frequency identification (RFID), 81, 322, 597 Radio information, 1014 Rail Sheba, 935 Ratio analysis, 349 Rational accommodation service, 923 Real estate investment trust (REIT), 339 Really simple syndication (RSS), 25 Recognition technology (RT), 462, 475 Recommendation systems, 1153 Recommender systems (RSs), 194, 225 Recreation, 1082 Recreation activity area archaeological sites, 1087 classification of leisure, 1084, 1085 forests, 1086 museums, 1088 National Park, 1085 parks, 1087 promotion and marketing methods, 1089, 1090, 1105 protected areas, 1086 public leisure, 1088, 1089 squares, 1087 trip and promenade area, 1088 Recreational areas, 1083 Recreation vs. tourism, 1083, 1084 Recruitment, 1029–1030 Regional Tourism Organisation (RTO), 405 Regional Tourist Office (RTO), 405 Relational marketing, 284 Relative strengths (RS), 821 Remote electronic device, 479 Research design, 650 Research visa, 986 Reservations system, 465 Rest-room facilities, 923, 924 Return on investment (ROI), 101 Revenue optimizing system, 39 Ride-hailing services, 686 Robot, 30, 31 Robotic personal, 773 Robotic process technologies, 219 Robotics, 6, 328 Robot technology, 85–87 Robot use, 246 Rocket, 938 Rokomary.com, 940 Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), 306, 309 Rough set theory, 1274 Runway visual range (RVR), 331

Index S SABRE Red Suite, 22 Safe sanitation, 923 Sample size, 652 San Diego International Airport, 36 Şanlıurfa Archeology Museum, 595 Santals, 800 Saudi Airlines catering company (SACC), 370 Scientific debates, 706 Scrapping, 441 Search engine advertising (SEA), 98 Search engine marketing (SEM), 98, 119 Search engine optimization (SEO), 98 Search engine results pages (SERP), 98 Seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average (SARIMA), 1274 Secondary surveillance radar (SSR), 324 Secondary trades, 809 Second industrial revolution, 72 Security service, 924 Self-service technologies (SST), 317, 1152 Semantic-based technology adoption, 183 advantages, 189 applications, 182, 190 artificial intelligence components, 189 categories, 198 contextual-based information, 189 development, 198 digital era, 182 e-commerce, 195 Google.com, 199 information technology applications, 182 Muslim Tourists Preference, 198 organizations, 197 planning, 197 STAAR model, 195 statistics, 195 transportation industry, 182 web application, 189, 191 web-based platform, 195 web components, 191, 192 web expansion timeline, 190 websites, 195 Semantic Tourism information Access and Recommending (STAAR), 15, 182, 194 Semi-Automatic Business Research Environment (SABRE), 21 Semi-government institutions, 647 Seminar programs, 619 Semi-public institutions, 651 Senai International Airport, 348

Index Sensors, 6, 529 Seoul, 547 Service automation, 540 experience, 218 quality standards, 688 standards, 880 SERVQUAL Model, 616 Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 1044 Shajgoj, 942 ShareTrip, 932 Shohoz, 934 Shopping, 931 Short message, 714 Short message services (SMS), 97, 134 Simplified message, 714 Sind Tourism Development Corporation (STDC), 862 Singapore, 248, 548, 549 Singapore Airlines, 269 Singapore Tourism Board (STB), 27, 431 Sis computation, 543 Skyrocketing development, 900 Smart tourism promotion, 412 Small and medium-sized enterprises/firms (SME), 637, 769, 884 Small and medium tourism enterprises (SMTE), 1156 Small-scale tourism enterprise, 880 Small tourism entrepreneurs, 397 Smart buildings, 517 Smart business ecosystem, 407 Smart citizen, 512 Smart city, 595 airports, 599, 600 hotels, 597, 598 IGA, 600 index, 521 website, 599 YOTEL, 600 Smart city applications, 269 agriculture, 508 air pollution, 524 artificial intelligence, 520 automatic auxiliary systems, 510 automation application, 519 carbon emission, 521 cultural activities, 524 definition, 510 digital revolution, 508 digital systems, 510 economic and environmental sustainability, 529

1329 energy, 520 energy consumption, 511 evaluation of Asian Capitals, 521, 522 fields, 508 framework, 510 fuel consumption, 520 information and communication infrastructure, 511 information and communication technologies, 510, 519 infrastructures, 510 IT skills, 528 medical services, 524 online public access, 528 online reporting, 525 performance, 510 public transport, 524 quality of life, 509 recycling services, 521 requirements, 508 resources, 510 secondary factors, 526 smart cities, 509 stakeholder engagement, 529 structure dimension, 525 sustainable cities, 509 technologies dimension, 528 telephone, 520 traffic congestion, 511 transformations, 508, 511 urbanizations, 508 vehicles, 511 video and image recognition technologies, 520 website/ App, 525 Smart city involvement administrations, 535 Asian Wave, 495 competitiveness, 537 destinations, 494 economy, 539 growth rates, 534 labor costs, 495 management and planning, 535 physical infrastructure, 536 poverty, 545 technology users, 537 tourism industry, 535 tourism sector, 551 transformations, 496 urbanization, 546 Smart crisis management, 417, 418 Smart destinations, 542, 552, 1267

1330 Smart devices, 6 Smart economy, 511, 518 Smart ecosystem, 407 Smart education, 518 Smart energy, 516 Smart environment, 514 Smart experience, 407 Smart governance, 513, 538 Smart health, 517 Smart hotel, 598 Smart infrastructure, 538 Smart living, 514, 515 Smart marketing, 407 Smart mobility, 513, 514 Smart Nation program, 520 Smart Parking project, 521 Smartphones, 4, 149, 438, 929, 1153, 1266, 1267 technology, 683 Smart promotion, 406–414 Smart rooms, 734 Smart screens, 600 Smart security, 516 Smart service ecosystem, 1239 Smart technology, 317 Smart tourism, 519, 596, 730, 1270 big data, 465 convenience, 452 destination, 453 development, 1267 hospitality, 465 sustainability, 452 Smart tourism and hospitality (STH) baggage handling system, 483 big data, 473 cost reduction, 474 data transparency, 477 decision-making, 482 economic growth, 480 industry, 477 management, 472 mobile application, 480 mobility, 478 reasoning, 482 Smart tourism technologies Chatbot, 89 conference rooms, 88 drones, 88, 89 guest rooms, 87 iBeacons, 89 kiosk technology, 90 mobile application, 90 mobile payment, 90

Index restaurants, 87 smart environment, 91 tours, 88 websites, 90 Smart transportation, 515 Smart waste management, 517 Smart water system, 516 Social and online communication, 1266 Social influence, 152, 154, 160 Social listening, 411 Social media (SM), 77, 93, 94, 96, 105, 121, 220, 221, 248, 263, 407, 408, 413, 415, 416, 433, 582, 713, 765, 767, 771, 776, 1111, 1156, 1236 advantages of using, 1028–1029 analytics, 409 apps, 1209 case study of Kolkovna Almaty restaurant, Kazakhstan,1030–1036 classification, 1067 communication, 1066 data gathering, 1069 definitions, 1045 demographic of respondents, 1071 descriptive statistics, 1076 digital advertising phrase, 1066 effectiveness of recruiting, 1026 hospitality industry, 1046 ICT industry, 1045, 1046 impact, 1043 influence, 1067, 1076 information of respondents, 1071, 1072 information source, 1043 interactive features, 1043 internet generation, 1042 listening, 411 listening tools, 31 marketing, 1047, 1048 monitoring, 411 Pulau Langkawi, 1069 as recruitment tool, 1023–1024 reliability analysis, 1070 sites used for recruitment, 1029 SMEs, 1046 tools, 565, 567 tourism business, 1066 tourism industry, 1046 tourism marketing, 1051, 1052 types, 1072 usage habit, 1068, 1072 usefulness, 1068, 1072 youth destination selections, 1076 youth generation, 1068

Index Social media marketing, 1047, 1048 accept customer’s thanks, 1057 angry customer, 1058 basic knowledge, 1054 build relationship, 1055 communication skills, 1057 Covid-19, 1059–1061 diversifying marketing medium, 1056 gratitude for purchase, 1058 identify audience, 1053 monitor conversation, 1057 online community, 1056 online tools, 1054 platforms for business, 1054 quality vs. quantity, 1056 receiving feedback, 1058 start with plan, 1053 thanking customer, 1058 update regularly, 1055 visual component, 1055 Social messages, 715 Social network(ing), 76, 77, 93, 263, 434, 582, 1236 Social network analysis (SNA), 409 Social presence (SP), 822, 823 Social Security Institute (SGK), 614 Social sustainability, 1206 Social tourism, 859 Société Internationale de Télécommunications Aéronautiques (SITA), 20 Socio-economic barriers, 655 Socio-economic benefits challenges, 1257, 1258 economic benefits, 1254, 1255 health outcomes, 1255 social benefits, 1254 South Asia, 1252, 1253 technological advancements, 1255, 1256 technological innovations, 1256, 1257 tourism, 1252, 1253 travel, 1253 virtual communities, 1257 Socioeconomic development, 720 Sociological basis, 211 Soft skills, 1025, 1027 Software, 246 Software as a Service (SaaS), 1215 Sohoz.com, 930 Songsarek, 801 South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), 395, 1222, 1292 South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation (SASEC), 1292

1331 Spiritual tourism, 853 Spurious loyalty, 283 Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono X, 704 Staff training, 751 Stakeholders, 774 attention, 494 Staphylococcus aureus, 1169 State-controlled imaging, 395 State of Brunei, 386 State-of-the-art technology, 598 State Tourism Organisation (STO), 405 Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software, 6, 171 Steady monitoring, 500 Strategic experiential model (SEM), 213 Strategy Formulation of Alternative Technological strategies, 344 Structural equation modelling (SEM), 305 Structural model of tourism destination competitiveness, 52 Student visa, 986 Sub-Inspector (SI), 905 Sub-themes, 566 Sunway City Kuala Lumpur, 499 Supply chain management, 1276 Supply-side medium, 397 Support vector regression (SVR), 1274 Surface transport, 23 Sustainability Asia, 1241–1243 augmented reality, 1237, 1238 destination management, 1208 developmental and environmental contexts, 1230 digitalization, 1235–1237 digital technologies, 1235 economic, 1206 economic development, 1232 environmental, 1206 environmental conflict, 1232 field of production, 1228 host communities, 1231 industrialization, 1228, 1229 industry 4.0, 1235 information and communication technologies, 1235 investments, 1228 natural and cultural resources, 1206 policies, 1231, 1243 practices, 1231 principles, 1207 products, 1233 sectors, 1232

1332 Sustainability (cont.) smart technology, 1238–1241 social, 1206 social capital, 1229 technology, 1235 technology-based innovation, 1232 tourism, 1207, 1230, 1235–1243 tourism industry, 1229, 1244 tourism management, 1208 tourism product, 1232 tourism research, 1230 tourism sector, 1244 virtual reality, 1237, 1238 Sustainable destination management, 1222, 1223 Sustainable Development Commission, 1230 Sustainable development goals (SDG), 302, 688 Sustainable growth, 537 Sustainable tourism, 503, 810, 1229, 1230, 1232, 1243, 1245 development, 453 planning, 925 Synteng, 801 Syria activities, 633 construction businesses, 630, 631 creation vs. adoption, 632 cultural barriers, 636 DIB, 634, 635 digital innovation, 634 environmental barriers, 637 financial barriers, 635 firm size, 637 governmental barriers, 637 hypotheses, 639, 640 innovation function, 632 innovation orientation, 632 justification, ideas, 632 management barriers, 636 nature of innovation, 633 process barriers, 636 psychological barriers, 636 subcontractors, 631 technological barriers, 634 theoretical rationale, 638 tools, 633 tourism, 632 T Tablets, 1153 Tablighi Jamaat visa, 986 Tacking system, 134

Index Taiwan’s high-speed rail system, 33 Talent acquisition, 1029 Tanchangya, 799 Technical innovation obstacles, 656 Technological acceptance model (TAM), 193, 304, 1129–1130, 1276, 1150, 1151 auxiliary model, 832, 833 CMB, 827, 829 cross loadings, 829 data collection, 826 demographic characteristics, 827 and extensions, 1131 interim proportion, 832 measurement model, 830 mediation analysis, 832, 833 vs. mobile tourism shopping, 834 personal shopping, 834, 835 structural model, 830 survey instrument, 827 and tourism industry, 1132–1133 Technological aid, 923 Technological challenges, 1009 Technological developments, 581, 878 Technological factors (PEST) segments, 349 Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), 586 Technology application agriculture, 1302 airlines, 1309 construction industry, 1302 data communication, 1300 emergency medical care, 1301, 1302 everyday shopping, 1303 facilities, 1309 5G, 1300 hotels, 1309 internet information, 1300 intervention business tourism sector, 1144 challenges, 1153, 1154 communication technologies, 1149 consumer acceptance, 1152, 1153 cultural knowledge, 1145 data transmission, 1146 E-tourism, 1147 e-tourism websites, 1155 geographical distribution, 1155 hospitality, 1155 human-robot interaction, 1146, 1150 human-to-human contact, 1144 internet, 1149, 1155 issues, 1153, 1154 Malaysia, 1144

Index media communication, 1148 mobile gadgets, 1144, 1147 mobile information, 1149 online transactions, 1147 organization, 1145 pre-trip, 1147 robot function, 1149 robotics machinery, 1145 service industry, 1144 skill acceptance model, 1152 smartphone, 1144 thinking of learning, 1145 travellers’ behaviour, 1148, 1149 type of guests, 1147 mobile communication system, 1300 multiple simultaneous connections, 1301 natural disasters, 1302, 1308 physical disabilities, 1308 rural areas, 1303 services, 1309 sports, 1303, 1304 transportation industry, 1308 ultra high speed, 1301 ultra-low delay, 1301 Technology-driven approach, 1256 Technology-supported services, 597 Telehealth, 677, 678 Telemedicine, 677 Telephone communication applications, 880 Tepas Tandha Yekti team, 708 Tertiary trades, 809 Text conversations, 478 The Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation (CAREC), 395 The Daily Star, 943 The International Air Transport Association, 2019, 317 The National Park, 1085 The network resource, 215 Theory of planned behavior (TPB), 1148 Theory of reasoned action (TRA), 1148, 1150, 1151 The Responsible Tourism (RT) mission, 418 Thermal tourism, 617 The squares, 1087 The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 20.0), 153 Third-party booking sites, 879 3D computer tomography (CT) scanners, 327 Three-dimensional screener, 327 3D touch screen, 592 Toffee, 943 Tom smart faucet, 330

1333 Total clinic automation system (TCAS), 962 Tourism, 954, 1014 ambassadors, 719 analysis techniques, 904 barometer, 534 business, 728, 851 central investigation, 902 destinations, 535 development, 494 economic activity, 901 entrepreneurs, 729, 770 experience management, 1272, 1273 5G accommodation business, 1305 augmented reality, 1305 characteristics, 1308 communication environment, 1304 communication technology, 1306 with Corona, 1307 cutting-edge technologies, 1304 exchange, 1306 facilities, 1305 interior, 1308 mobile communication systems, 1306 national finance, 1306 remote conferences, 1306 ultralow delay, 1305 virtual reality, 1304, 1305 virtual space, 1308 information, 484 international and domestic tourists, 905, 906 laws, 978 market, 808 ranking status, 901 service industry, 718 services, 901–903, 906 accommodation, 912, 913 amusement parks, 920 banking facilities, 921 beauty parlor, 920 government policies, 922 health, 915 immigration and transportation, 921 international standard recreational facilities, 922 law enforcement efficiency, 919, 920 policy prescriptions, 922–925 restaurants, 913–915 security, 916–918 shopping complex, 920 sustainable tourism planning, 920 sky-rocketing development, 900 technological aids, 909–911

1334 Tourism (cont.) tourist destinations, 902 tourist spots, 906, 909 Tourism 4.0, 1267, 1281 Tourism and hospitality industries (THI), 726 Tourism cloud computing (TCC), 459 Tourism Corporation of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (TCKP), 862 Tourism Development Corporation of Punjab (TDCP), 862 Tourism Focused Smart City, 596 Tourism industry, 494, 496, 1252, 1254–1256, 1258 application, 1290–1293 artificial intelligence, 1294 in Asia advertising, 9 artificial intelligence, 11 biometric verification, 5 businesses, 5 China, 12 competitive benefits, 10 consumer-related websites, 4 CRM, 10 developments of technologies, 4 digital technology, 7 domestic and inbound entertainment markets, 4 education, 14 Hong Kong, 13 hospitality industry, 4, 9 hospitality research, 5 India, 12 Indonesia, 13 information-processing tools, 6 information technology, 14 innovative technologies, 11 Japan, 12 latest trends, 11 Maldives, 13 online evaluation, 5 promotion, 9 service models, 8 social media, 5 Sri Lanka, 12 technology applications, 5–7, 9, 10 Thailand, 13 tourism sector, 4 United Arab Emirates, 13 Vietnam, 13 benefits of technology, 1288, 1289 budget accommodation sector, 1049–1051 challenges, 1288, 1297

Index communication, 1295 cost-saving devices, 1294 during Covid-19 pandemic, 1049 digital advancements, 1294 digital innovation, 1295 economic growth, 497 economy, 1293 e-marketing systems, 1294 future, 1288, 1297 hotels, 1294 information technology, 1293 infrastructure, 497 innovative technology, 1290–1293 job creation, 496 in Malaysia, 1048, 1049 applications, 188 data model, 195, 196 devices, 188 disruptive technologies, 193 e-commerce, 193 e-commerce merchant, 183 e-platform services, 193 identification of approach, 194, 195 internet, 193 internet connectivity, 193 internet use, 187 internet users, 187 online activities, 188, 189 sectors, 193 sites, 188 social factors, 183 social media, 193, 194 sources of information, 184 spending pattern, 185 statistics, 183 tourists, 186, 187 travel information, 193 traveling pattern, 193 trends, 187 mobile technology, 1296 safety, 1289, 1290 sector, 1288 security, 1289, 1290 stakeholders, 497 technology, 1288 vitality reality, 1295, 1296 Tourism marketing affiliate, 98 artificial intelligence, 106 buzz marketing, 94 communication technologies, 102 consumers, 71 digital, 99

Index digital marketing, 92, 93 digital marketing tools, 92, 93 digital platforms, 105 digital transformation, 73, 74 drones, 106 e-mail, 97 e-WOM marketing, 95 game advertising, 101 health sector, 102 industrial revolutions, 71–73 industry 4.0, 104 influencer, 96 information and communication technologies, 74–76 information technology tools, 103 innovations, 71, 91, 92, 105 internet, 73, 74 internet-based communication, 103 labour-intensive sector, 103 mobile, 96, 97 mobile technology applications, 105 omni-channel digital marketing, 101 online advertising, 100 online display advertising, 100 online marketing, 102 pay per click advertising, 100 robot technologies, 106 sectors, 104, 106 smart tourism, 78, 79 social media, 71, 93, 94, 105, 1051, 1052 social networks, 76, 77, 93, 104 technology, 71, 104 technology-based system, 104 tourism 4.0, 78, 79 viral marketing, 94, 95 virtual support assistants, 102 Tourism sector, 1152 biometric tools, 882 challenges, 882 correlation study, 888 data analysis, 887, 888 data collection, 886 digital divide, 883 5G internet, 882, 883 GPS, 892 ICT, 884 instrument development, 885 internet challenges, 890 limitations, 892, 893 methodology, 884, 885 participants, 885 regression results, 889 technological applications, 890

1335 Tourism students adoption, 302 attitude, 309 conventional versus innovative practice, 303 descriptive statistics on students’ perspective, 305 digital innovation, 303 education system, 302 e-Pad, 309 higher education, 302 innovative technologies, 302 learner-centered educational approach, 302 methodology, 304, 305 perceived usefulness, 309 perceive ease of use, 309 self–reported questionnaire, 309 students’ adoption behaviour, 309 sustainable higher education, 303 technology adoption, 303, 304 testing of hypotheses, 306, 308, 309 transformation, 302 Tourism technology behavior and expectations, 544 big data, 543 decision making process, 541 destinations, 541 digital networks, 541 human population, 544 mobile devices, 544 source management, 541 Tourist aid booths, 924 Tourist attraction, 484 Tourist experience approaches, 218 business level, 208 business models, 206 developments, 207 digital transformation, 207 economic basis, 211 elements, 206 industry stakeholders, 207 information and communication technologies, 206 knowledge/skill, 208 memory, 208 number of qualities, 219 psychological basis, 209, 210 sectors, 206 sensory organs, 208 sensory stimulants, 208 skills, 208 smart technologies, 206, 207

1336 Tourist experience (cont.) smart tourism, 206 sociological basis, 211 Tourist loyalty approaches, 281–283 Asian tourism industry, 292 behavior, 278 benefits, 278, 279 communication, 276 consumer, 278 customer relations, 278 digitalization process, 276 enterprises, 277, 278 Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, India, 289, 290 information communication technologies, 276 integration, 293 internet technology, 276 key factors, 280 loyalty programs, 292 marketing approach, 278 marketing approaches, 292 Miles & Smiles, Turkey, 287, 288 ONYX Hospitality Group, Thailand, 290, 291 Reztoran, Turkey, 286, 287 technology, 293 technology applications, 276 tools, 284–286 tourism action, 278 tourism industries, 277 travel agency, 278 types, 280 Vega Izmailovo Hotel and Convention Center, Moscow, Russia, 291, 292 visitors, 277 Yatra.com, India, 288, 289 Tourist Police services, 924 Tourists, 132–134, 138, 141, 142 documentation process, 979 immigration process, 979 visa application process, 979 Tourist visa, 985 Tour-key, 595 Tour operators, 791 Tour plan system, 749 Tracking system, 142 Trades, 809 Traditional arts, 589 Traditional distribution channels, 729 Traditional tourism, 859 industry, 772 sector, 770

Index Traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS), 324 Trans-Canada Air Lines (TCA), 20 Transit visa, 985 Transparency, 502 Transponder SSR, 324 Transportation, 538 Travel, tourism, and hospitality (TTH), 1277 Travel agency, 755, 1209 AGILE software development methodology, 136 application, 132, 140 community, 138 economy, 133 FamiSafe, 135 GeoFence, 135 GeoZilla mobile application, 134 iPhone, 133 iteration, 136 itinerary screen, 142 Location Tracker, 135 login page, 138 messaging screen, 143 mobile application, 133, 134 mobile device, 133 MySQL, 134 planning, 136 Real-Time GPS Tracker 2, 135 registered users, 139 Scrum model, 136 smartphone, 134 survey, 140, 144 technology, 132, 141 testing, 136 tourism industry, 132 tourist, 140 tourist location screen, 141 use case diagram, 137 web sites, 134 Travel Agents and Tour Operators (TATOs), 743 Travel agent (TA), 744, 746 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), 573, 855 Travel community, 890 Travel industry shopping, 835 Travel information system (TIS), 23 Travel IntraNet Application (TINA), 22 Travellers, 683, 684, 687, 689–691, 767 Traveller’s booking system, 871 Travel package, 881 Travel port commerce, 817 Travelports, 483

Index Travel-related websites, 731 Travel sector, 860 Travicom, 21 Trax watch, 329 TripAdvisor, 437 Tripuras, 798 Turkish Language Society (TLS), 278 Twitter, 708, 710, 1042, 1044, 1048 Two-stage communication process model, 121 U Uber.com, 931 Uber, 934 apps, 693 Eats, 937 Unassisted baggage drop, 322 Unfamiliar food, 693 Unified (mixed) loyalty approach, 282 Unified modelling language (UML), 136 Unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT), 1133–1134 and tourism industry, 1134–1138 United Arab Emirates (UAE), 249, 386 1972 United Nations Environment Conference, 1229 United Nations Population Fund (UNPFA), 265 United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), 1252, 1291 UN World Commission on Environment and Development, 1206 UN World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), 905 Urban dynamics, 537 US Customs and Border Protection (CBP), 327 User-generated content (UGC), 55, 220, 407, 410, 1266 V Vehicle information and communication system (VICS), 23 Vehicle rental companies, 23 Versatile shopping, 818 Video advertising, 409 Video messages, 409 Viral marketing, 94, 95 Virtual assistant, 1209 Virtual Ebru Studio, 592 Virtual environment (VE), 126 Virtual marbling art studio, 592 Virtual museum, 588, 589 Virtual reality modeling language (VRML), 82

1337 Virtual reality (VR), 26, 27, 50, 82, 83, 126, 220, 222, 320, 395, 411, 437–440, 582, 734, 750, 768, 1303 Virtual Smart Guide, 1269 Virtual 3D travel, 582 Virtual tours, 583 Virtual travel agencies (VTAs), 747 Virtual travel community (VTC), 1257 Visa, 978 Visa and immigration process analysis, 995, 996 Cronbach’s alpha, 996 data collection, 994 data source, 992 public health requirements, 991, 992 qualitative analysis, 994 questionnaire used, 993 regression analysis, 994, 996 reliability of scale, 994 residual plot, 994, 996 sample size, 992, 993 Visa application process, 979 Visa Entitlement Verification Online (VEVO), 59 Visa on Arrival, 985 Visa types on arrival, 985 business, 985 employment, 985 investor, 985 journalist, 985 NGO workers, 986 research, 986 student, 986 Tablighi-Jamaat, 986 tourist, 985 transit, 985 Visit Orlando, 1270 Voice commands, 598 Voice over internet protocol (VoIP), 393 Voice technology, 34 W Wayanad Tourism Organisation (WTO), 418 Wearable technology, 35–37 Web 1.0, 7 Web 2.0 applications, 4 Web-based business market, 864 Websites, 581, 711, 767, 772 Web technology, 395 Wi-Fi connectivity, 35 Wildlife tourism, 859

1338 Winglets, 319 Wireless connection, 462, 463, 465, 475 Wireless internet connection technology, 482 Wireless network services (WNS), 453 Wireless sensor networks (WSNS), 542 Word-of-mouth (WOM), 409 promotion, 1044 World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), 1230 World Economic Forum Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (WEF TTCI), 54 World Economic Forum (WEF), 573, 900, 904, 905, 1293 World Health Organization (WHO), 964 World Tourism Organization, 495 World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), 852, 905, 1252, 1292

Index World War II, 406 World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), 189 World Wide Web (www), 407, 428, 775 X X-Tend seats, 334 Y Yewae Visitor Center (YVC), 792 Yogyakarta, 700, 704 YouTube, 710, 711, 1042, 1044 YouTubers, 121 Z Zero Moment of Truth (ZMOT), 263