Handbook of Research on Organizational Culture and Diversity in the Modern Workforce 1522522506, 9781522522508

Table of contents :
List of Contributors
Editorial Advisory Board
List of Contributors
Table of Contents
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface
1 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business
2 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research:
3 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability:
4 Human Factors in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing
5 Well-Being at Work:
6 Organizational Diversity:
7 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments:
8 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence:
9 Detecting Sexual Harassment in Workplace Electronic Communications Networks:
10 Relativity in Perspective in Culture Theories:
11 Cross-Cultural Management of the European Textile and Clothing Industries:
12 Relationship Among WorkRelated Micro-OB Variables:
13 Effect of Cynical Individual Factor on the Reverse Mobbing Tendency:
14 The Relationship Between Employee Empowerment and Organizational Cynicism:
15 Exploring the Role of Organizational Justice in the Modern Workplace
16 Exploring Emotional Intelligence at Work:
17 Traits of Leaders and Active Listening:
18 Mastering Employee Turnover Intention in the Modern Workforce
19 The Relationship Between Work-Life Balance (WLB) and Firm Performance
Compilation of References

Citation preview

Handbook of Research on Organizational Culture and Diversity in the Modern Workforce Bryan Christiansen PryMarke LLC, USA Harish C. Chandan Argosy University, USA

A volume in the Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) Book Series

Published in the United States of America by IGI Global Business Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2017 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Christiansen, Bryan, 1960-, editor. | Chandan, Harish C., 1947-, editor. Title: Handbook of research on organizational culture and diversity in the modern workforce / Bryan Christiansen and Harish C. Chandan, editors. Description: Hershey : Business Science Reference, [2017-] | Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016057381| ISBN 9781522522508 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781522522515 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Psychology, Industrial. | Diversity in the workplace--Management. | Marketing--Psychological aspects. Classification: LCC HF5548.8 .H2654 2017 | DDC 158.7--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016057381

This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) (ISSN: 2327-3372; eISSN: 2327-3380)

British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].

Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) Book Series Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos Universidad de Oviedo, Spain Mission

ISSN:2327-3372 EISSN:2327-3380

A solid foundation is essential to the development and success of any organization and can be accomplished through the effective and careful management of an organization’s human capital. Research in human resources management and organizational development is necessary in providing business leaders with the tools and methodologies which will assist in the development and maintenance of their organizational structure. The Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) Book Series aims to publish the latest research on all aspects of human resources as well as the latest methodologies, tools, and theories regarding organizational development and sustainability. The AHRMOD Book Series intends to provide business professionals, managers, researchers, and students with the necessary resources to effectively develop and implement organizational strategies.

Coverage • Workplace Discrimination • Process Improvement • Training and Development • Personnel Retention • Human Relations Movement • Upward Feedback • Change Management • Employment and Labor Laws • Recruitment Process • Organizational development

IGI Global is currently accepting manuscripts for publication within this series. To submit a proposal for a volume in this series, please contact our Acquisition Editors at [email protected] or visit: http://www.igi-global.com/publish/.

The Advances in Human Resources Management and Organizational Development (AHRMOD) Book Series (ISSN 2327-3372) is published by IGI Global, 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033-1240, USA, www.igi-global.com. This series is composed of titles available for purchase individually; each title is edited to be contextually exclusive from any other title within the series. For pricing and ordering information please visit http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-human-resources-management-organizational/73670. Postmaster: Send all address changes to above address. Copyright © 2017 IGI Global. All rights, including translation in other languages reserved by the publisher. No part of this series may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphics, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information and retrieval systems – without written permission from the publisher, except for non commercial, educational use, including classroom teaching purposes. The views expressed in this series are those of the authors, but not necessarily of IGI Global.

Titles in this Series

For a list of additional titles in this series, please visit: www.igi-global.com/book-series

Driving Multinational Enterprises Through Effective Global Talent Management Khaled Tamzini (University of Sousse, Tunisia) Tahar Lazhar Ayed (Umm Al-Qura University, Saudi Arabia) Aisha Wood Boulanouar (Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman) and Zakaria Boulanouar (Umm Al-Qura University, Saudi Arabia) Business Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 272pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522525578) • US $170.00 (our price) Exploring the Influence of Personal Values and Cultures in the Workplace Zlatko Nedelko (University of Maribor, Slovenia) and Maciej Brzozowski (Poznan University of Economics and Business, Poland) Business Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 458pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522524809) • US $205.00 (our price) Effective Talent Management Strategies for Organizational Success Mambo Mupepi (Grand Valley State University, USA) Business Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 365pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522519614) • US $210.00 (our price) Anywhere Working and the New Era of Telecommuting Yvette Blount (Macquarie University, Australia) and Marianne Gloet (University of Melbourne, Australia) Business Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 295pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522523284) • US $195.00 (our price) Human Resources Management Solutions for Attracting and Retaining Millennial Workers Meng-Shan Tsai (Clouder Technology Inc., Taiwan) Business Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 269pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522520443) • US $185.00 (our price) Impact of Organizational Trauma on Workplace Behavior and Performance Stanislav Háša (University of Economics, Czech Republic) and Richard Brunet-Thornton (University of Economics, Czech Republic) Business Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 413pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522520214) • US $190.00 (our price) Strategic Human Capital Development and Management in Emerging Economies Anshuman Bhattacharya (Sunbeam College for Women, India) Business Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 321pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522519744) • US $175.00 (our price) Evolution of the Post-Bureaucratic Organization Pierfranco Malizia (Libera Universita Maria SS Assunta, Italy) Chiara Cannavale (Parthenope University of Naples, Italy) and Fabrizio Maimone (Libera Universita Maria SS Assunta, Italy) Business Science Reference • copyright 2017 • 509pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522519836) • US $205.00 (our price)

701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USA Tel: 717-533-8845 x100 • Fax: 717-533-8661 E-Mail: [email protected] • www.igi-global.com

Editorial Advisory Board Mohammad Abdolshah, Azad University, Iran Archie Addo, Argosy University, USA Ye-Sho Chen, Louisiana State University, USA Rituparna Das, National Law University, India M. Reza Hosseini, Deakin University, Australia Kijpokin Kasemsap, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand Wiboon Kittilaksanawong, Saitama University, Japan Ewa Lechman, University of Gdansk, Poland Seppo Leminen, Laurea University, Finland Allen McKenna, STM Group, UK Jimmyn Parc, Seoul National University, South Korea Agnieszka Piekarz, Independent Researcher, Poland Eren Sekmez, IBM Corporation, Czech Republic David Starr-Glass, SUNY Empire State College, USA Gowri Vijayan, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Shefali Virkar, University of Oxford, UK Sally Wallace, Georgia State University, USA Norhayati Zakaria, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia



List of Contributors

Angelova, Radostina A. / Technical University of Sofia, Bulgaria.................................................... 239 Baykut, Sibel / Bahcesehir University, Turkey.................................................................................... 23 Bishop, Jonathan / Centre for Research Into Online Communities and E-Learning Systems, UK................................................................................................................................................. 181 Camgoz, Selin Metin / Hacettepe University, Turkey................................................................... 78,346 Cicerali, Eyyüb Ensari / Nisantasi University, Turkey...................................................................... 155 Cicerali, Lütfiye Kaya / Nisantasi University, Turkey....................................................................... 155 Cordeiro, Cheryl Marie / University of Gothenburg, Sweden........................................................... 217 Efeoğlu, Efe Ibrahim / Adana Science and Technology University, Turkey...................................... 309 Ferrari, Filippo / Bologna University, Italy........................................................................................ 43 Gedik, İ. Alper / Bülent Ecevit University, Turkey............................................................................. 276 Ghazali, Zulkipli / Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia.............................................................. 60 Greenfield, Marianne / Argosy University, USA................................................................................... 1 Isha, Ahmad Shahrul Nizam / Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia........................................... 60 Javaid, Muhammad Umair / Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia.............................................. 60 Jha, Vidyanand / Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, India................................................... 364 Kamasak, Rifat / Bahcesehir University, Turkey................................................................................ 23 Kar, Altan / Yeditepe University, Turkey............................................................................................. 23 Karapinar, Pinar Bayhan / Hacettepe University, Turkey.................................................................. 78 Kasemsap, Kijpokin / Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand..................................... 323,382 Kumar, Rajiv / Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, India...................................................... 364 Long, Choi Sang / Raffles University Iskandar, Malaysia.................................................................. 402 Mirza, Muhammad Zeeshan / Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia........................................... 60 Nubling, Matthias / Freiburg Research Centre for Occupational Sciences (FFAW), Germany......... 60 Orta, Irem Metin / Atilim University, Turkey..................................................................................... 346 Pekkan, Nazmiye Ulku / Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Turkey................................................... 309 Salazar, Leslie Ramos / West Texas A&M University, USA............................................................... 132 Singh, Surendra Kumar / BHU, India.............................................................................................. 261 Tiwari, Vivek / NIT, India.................................................................................................................. 261 Tran, Ben / Alliant International University, USA............................................................................. 100 Uysal, H. Tezcan / Bülent Ecevit University, Turkey.......................................................................... 276 Yavuz, Meltem / Istanbul University, Turkey....................................................................................... 23

 

Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................. xvii Chapter 1 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business............................................... 1 Marianne Greenfield, Argosy University, USA Chapter 2 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research: An Example of Grounded Theory Data  Analysis.................................................................................................................................................. 23 Rifat Kamasak, Bahcesehir University, Turkey Altan Kar, Yeditepe University, Turkey Meltem Yavuz, Istanbul University, Turkey Sibel Baykut, Bahcesehir University, Turkey Chapter 3 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability: Coordination Mechanisms, Training Models, and Diagnostic Systems for Contingency Management............................................ 43 Filippo Ferrari, Bologna University, Italy Chapter 4 Human Factors in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing....................................................... 60 Muhammad Umair Javaid, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia Ahmad Shahrul Nizam Isha, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia Matthias Nubling, Freiburg Research Centre for Occupational Sciences (FFAW), Germany Muhammad Zeeshan Mirza, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia Zulkipli Ghazali, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia Chapter 5 Well-Being at Work: A Comprehensive Review About Its Predictors and Outcomes.......................... 78 Pinar Bayhan Karapinar, Hacettepe University, Turkey Selin Metin Camgoz, Hacettepe University, Turkey





Chapter 6 Organizational Diversity: From Workforce Diversity to Workplace Inclusion for Persons With Disabilities........................................................................................................................................... 100 Ben Tran, Alliant International University, USA Chapter 7 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments: Antecedents, Consequences, Prevention, and Future Directions............................................................................................................................................. 132 Leslie Ramos Salazar, West Texas A&M University, USA Chapter 8 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence: Theories, Consequences, and Future Research Suggestions.......................................................................................................................................... 155 Eyyüb Ensari Cicerali, Nisantasi University, Turkey Lütfiye Kaya Cicerali, Nisantasi University, Turkey Chapter 9 Detecting Sexual Harassment in Workplace Electronic Communications Networks: The Role of “PROTEGER” for Augmentive Behaviour Monitoring...................................................................... 181 Jonathan Bishop, Centre for Research Into Online Communities and E-Learning Systems, UK Chapter 10 Relativity in Perspective in Culture Theories: The Götheborg IV Model........................................... 217 Cheryl Marie Cordeiro, University of Gothenburg, Sweden Chapter 11 Cross-Cultural Management of the European Textile and Clothing Industries: Application of Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions.......................................................................................................... 239 Radostina A. Angelova, Technical University of Sofia, Bulgaria Chapter 12 Relationship Among Work-Related Micro-OB Variables: A Model Approach.................................. 261 Vivek Tiwari, NIT, India Surendra Kumar Singh, BHU, India Chapter 13 Effect of Cynical Individual Factor on the Reverse Mobbing Tendency: A Planned Behavior.......... 276 H. Tezcan Uysal, Bülent Ecevit University, Turkey İ. Alper Gedik, Bülent Ecevit University, Turkey Chapter 14 The Relationship Between Employee Empowerment and Organizational Cynicism: An Implementation in the Banking Sector................................................................................................ 309 Efe Ibrahim Efeoğlu, Adana Science and Technology University, Turkey Nazmiye Ulku Pekkan, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Turkey



Chapter 15 Exploring the Role of Organizational Justice in the Modern Workplace............................................ 323 Kijpokin Kasemsap, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand Chapter 16 Exploring Emotional Intelligence at Work: A Review of Current Evidence....................................... 346 Irem Metin Orta, Atilim University, Turkey Selin Metin Camgoz, Hacettepe University, Turkey Chapter 17 Traits of Leaders and Active Listening: A Theory.............................................................................. 364 Rajiv Kumar, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, India Vidyanand Jha, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, India Chapter 18 Mastering Employee Turnover Intention in the Modern Workforce................................................... 382 Kijpokin Kasemsap, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand Chapter 19 The Relationship Between Work-Life Balance (WLB) and Firm Performance.................................. 402 Choi Sang Long, Raffles University Iskandar, Malaysia Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 412 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 497 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 503

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................. xvii Chapter 1 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business............................................... 1 Marianne Greenfield, Argosy University, USA Determining the direction of where a field is headed often requires a reflection of its founding principles, the transformations it has endured, and the driving forces that shape its existence. For the past century the world has experienced evolutions in technology, business, and education. This chapter provides a historical review of the practices and professions dedicated to the people side of business. The origins of Personnel Management are discussed where the department formed to meet workforce needs. A transformation to Human Resource Management is explored with an examination of the influence of professional societies on practice. The reflection of the progression of this field of practice ends with a list of challenges facing Industrial Organizational Psychology practitioners of the future. A recommendation to rethink the employer-employee relationship with the workforce of tomorrow closes the chapter and hopefully encourages human resource professionals, I/O professionals, and their professional societies to embrace the next requisite transformation. Chapter 2 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research: An Example of Grounded Theory Data  Analysis.................................................................................................................................................. 23 Rifat Kamasak, Bahcesehir University, Turkey Altan Kar, Yeditepe University, Turkey Meltem Yavuz, Istanbul University, Turkey Sibel Baykut, Bahcesehir University, Turkey This chapter aims to elaborate different research methods that can be employed in organizational studies. Since the complex and indivisible relationships between the constructs and nature of the social content about the phenomena can be understood better through qualitative methods, importance of qualitative investigation is mentioned and a detailed explanation of grounded theory data analysis as a qualitative method is provided. Grounded Theory mainly suggests that theory can be discovered in qualitative data. The theory employs a specific method that follows symbolic interactionism in viewing humans as active agents in their own lives who create meaning in the processes of action and interaction. Grounded Theory which deems researchers as active participants in the construction of knowledge leading to generation of theory has been used in organizational research widely. Therefore, the chapter also offers an example of the application of grounded theory by using several extracts from the sample transcripts of interviewees.  



Chapter 3 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability: Coordination Mechanisms, Training Models, and Diagnostic Systems for Contingency Management............................................ 43 Filippo Ferrari, Bologna University, Italy In the International Strategic Management (ISM) field of research, a frequently studied problem is the impact of distance (both geographical and cultural) on organizational effectiveness and reliability. Furthermore, in multinational corporates, Human Resource Management practices play a fundamental role in order to provide peculiar skills to operators. In fact, in high reliability organizations (HROs), the operator is one who addresses operational issues, often far (hierarchically and physically) from the managerial level, alone or as part of a team. This article discusses issues related to 1) the coordination mechanisms used by a multinational organization to ensure reliability, 2) the characteristics possessed by the operator, and 3) the training strategies that should be used to develop their skills; provides a discussion of 4) the relationship between the group agent (team) and organizational reliability; lastly this chapter proposes 5) a diagnostic model in order to check the organizational reliability. Chapter 4 Human Factors in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing....................................................... 60 Muhammad Umair Javaid, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia Ahmad Shahrul Nizam Isha, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia Matthias Nubling, Freiburg Research Centre for Occupational Sciences (FFAW), Germany Muhammad Zeeshan Mirza, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia Zulkipli Ghazali, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia A workplace never resides in isolation and hence in the workplace employees experience both psychological and social conditions which often called as psychosocial work environment. The psychosocial work environment has become continuous component in studies of occupational health and stress and encompasses concerns on the risks which generate from the psyche perceptions of the individual’s concern in accordance with the risks of the societal environment. The psychosocial environment at work has a deteriorating effect on the general health of workers such as musculoskeletal disorders, mental disorders, cardiovascular diseases, stress, burnout, sickness absence, labor turnover along with the organizational outcomes like the effectiveness of work, motivation, and performance. Psychosocial factors in response to the health repair process have become increasingly important in both developed and developing countries. Such factors have not frequently been studied or addressed in developing countries even though 80 percent of the working population lives in developing countries. Chapter 5 Well-Being at Work: A Comprehensive Review About Its Predictors and Outcomes.......................... 78 Pinar Bayhan Karapinar, Hacettepe University, Turkey Selin Metin Camgoz, Hacettepe University, Turkey Well-being is defined as individuals’ subjective and global judgment whether the individual is experiencing the relative presence of positive emotions, the relative absence of negative emotions, and satisfaction with their life. This chapter addresses individuals’ well-being at work, since work composes an important part of individuals’ life experiences and has important effects on both employees’ and organizations’ effectiveness. For this purpose, this book chapter provides a comprehensive overview of well-being with respect to its predictors as well as its outcomes. More specifically, personality factors, job characteristics,



and occupational stress are explored in terms of individual and organizational antecedents, whereas job satisfaction and work performance are utilized as outcomes of well-being. This chapter will be of interest to researchers, practitioners, and organizational consultants in providing a comprehensive guideline about the implications of well-being at work settings. Chapter 6 Organizational Diversity: From Workforce Diversity to Workplace Inclusion for Persons With Disabilities........................................................................................................................................... 100 Ben Tran, Alliant International University, USA An employer must utilize a systematic approach in predicting who is likely to succeed as a potential employee; in so doing, employers must acknowledge that potential employees, person without a disability and person with a disability, are unique individuals and not machines. Employees’ performances rely not only on technical skills, knowledge, skills, and abilities (aka KSAs) but on the other characteristics, also known as the “O” in KSAOs that person without a disability and person with a disability bring themselves. Such other characteristics are more credible and reliable in predicting and determining the probability of a potential employee’s success. Other characteristics, must not only be identified, but carefully examined and assessed. Validation in focusing on these other characteristics is apparent. Chapter 7 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments: Antecedents, Consequences, Prevention, and Future Directions............................................................................................................................................. 132 Leslie Ramos Salazar, West Texas A&M University, USA Workplace bullying continues to be a prevalent workplace conflict issue in organizations around the world. The organizational reliance of communication technologies and digital media have enabled workplace bullying to evolve into workplace cyberbullying. Workplace bullying impacts individuals, relationships, organizations, and societies. For this reason, this chapter reviewed the transdisciplinary workplace bullying literature to conceptualize key constructs such as workplace bullying and workplace cyberbullying. This chapter also reviews the prevalence of workplace bullying, antecedent behaviors of workplace bullying, the consequences of workplace bullying, and the intervention approaches. Lastly, this chapter offers several recommendations for the future trends of workplace bullying scholarship. Chapter 8 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence: Theories, Consequences, and Future Research Suggestions.......................................................................................................................................... 155 Eyyüb Ensari Cicerali, Nisantasi University, Turkey Lütfiye Kaya Cicerali, Nisantasi University, Turkey This chapter intends to inform the readers about workplace incivility, which is being rude to one’s colleagues, with no apparent intention to harm. It is regarded as the basic level of counterproductive work behavior that might be tremendously injurious to an organization and its members. Not greeting subordinates, making sarcastic grimaces while talking with a coworker, and spreading rumors about the supervisor are few examples to incivility. The progenitors of workplace incivility research are two prominent organizational scientists from the USA, Lynne Andersson and Christine Pearson. They coined this term and published about this concept in a 1999 article. In the 17 years since its introduction, lots of researchers from different countries published about diverse aspects of incivility, its antecedents,



consequences, measurement methods and interventions. Since incivility researchers tested myriad theories mainly from psychology, health, and criminology disciplines using both experimental and empirical methods, currently there is a huge accumulation of data. Chapter 9 Detecting Sexual Harassment in Workplace Electronic Communications Networks: The Role of “PROTEGER” for Augmentive Behaviour Monitoring...................................................................... 181 Jonathan Bishop, Centre for Research Into Online Communities and E-Learning Systems, UK Sexual harassment has been a problem within organisations for some time. Its manifestation in electronic communication networks can be seen to amount to cyber-bullying or cyber-stalking. Through looking at records relating to an instance of sexual harassment at a higher education institution, including from that member of staff’s workplace, and those created by referrals to the police, the court service, and their workplace, this chapter shows how a piece of assistive technology called the ‘Protective Technology for Ensuring Guardianship of Environmental Resources’ (PROTEGER) can automatically detect sexual harassment narratives. In this context, ‘environmental resources’ should refer to both humans and documents. Human resource managers would be better equipped to deal with disputes between staff if PROTEGER was running on their local area network as it might not be a matter of one member of staff’s word against another’s. Chapter 10 Relativity in Perspective in Culture Theories: The Götheborg IV Model........................................... 217 Cheryl Marie Cordeiro, University of Gothenburg, Sweden Changing business environments due to the influence of technological advances have increased awareness amongst scholars and practitioners for a need to re-perspectivise culture beyond the normative dimensional construct. This chapter discusses the relative perspectives of culture in the dimensional and emergent theoretical frameworks. The purpose is to reconcile the two frameworks towards a holistic perspective of the study of culture in the field of international business studies. In illustration of how both frameworks are needed in order to understand human behaviour in the era of Industry 4.0, the processes of firm globalisation are discussed in relation to the elements of the Uppsala model and the Götheborg IV model. This chapter provides readers with a novel means of conceptualising culture beyond the dimensional construct. The model presented in this chapter can be used to help identify gaps in knowledge with regards to culture in organisation management. Practitioners are invited to apply the model supplied in this chapter to their consultative work where applicable. Chapter 11 Cross-Cultural Management of the European Textile and Clothing Industries: Application of Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions.......................................................................................................... 239 Radostina A. Angelova, Technical University of Sofia, Bulgaria The European textile and clothing industries are among the best examples for global level business. The communication between people with different customs and cultures, which occupy different levels of the hierarchy in any company, requires cross-cultural competence and management abilities. The aim of the present chapter is to apply Hofstede’s model and its national cultural dimensions to show its applicability in the cross-cultural management of the European textile and clothing industries. Hofstede’s cultural



dimensions could be a very important starting point for the managers at all levels of the companies’ organizations as they give important knowledge of organizational responsibilities, job satisfaction, the interrelationship between workers and managers, communication style, leaderships and possible conflicts. Chapter 12 Relationship Among Work-Related Micro-OB Variables: A Model Approach.................................. 261 Vivek Tiwari, NIT, India Surendra Kumar Singh, BHU, India The present study investigates the nature of job involvement and its impact on executive’s satisfaction level in providing motivation finally leading to organizational commitment. A model has been developed which examines the relationship between the measurable constructs. The model explores the relationship between the executive’s job involvement level and their outcome with satisfaction level, motivation and organizational Commitment (named ISMC Model). The results indicate there is a goodness-of-fit for the research model, which has been verified with different measures of goodness-of-fit. The path coefficients explained a significant amount of variation along with the identification that job involvement is a significant attribute in the present model. The study examines executive’s perceptions and the significance of job involvement. Management specialists will recognize the dynamics of job involvement and its linkage with job satisfaction, motivation and organizational commitment in an organization. Chapter 13 Effect of Cynical Individual Factor on the Reverse Mobbing Tendency: A Planned Behavior.......... 276 H. Tezcan Uysal, Bülent Ecevit University, Turkey İ. Alper Gedik, Bülent Ecevit University, Turkey The purpose of this chapter is to reveal the interaction between the cynicism levels and reverse mobbing tendencies of employees under the same organizational climate. In line with this purpose, a study was performed via the survey method on 120 people in a public institute in Turkey. The sample size of the study is limited with the public institute included in the study due to cynicism and reverse mobbing levels vary in each organizational climate. The data obtained from the study were analyzed using the confidence, correlation, multiple regression and Kruskal-Wallis H tests. According to the results of these analyses, a medium-level positive significant relationship was determined between the cynicism levels and reverse mobbing tendencies of the employees. The cynicism dimension that increases the reverse mobbing tendency of the employees most was determined to be the behavioral cynicism with the coefficient of 1.922. As a result, cynicism was added to the literature as a new factor affecting the reverse mobbing significantly. Chapter 14 The Relationship Between Employee Empowerment and Organizational Cynicism: An Implementation in the Banking Sector................................................................................................ 309 Efe Ibrahim Efeoğlu, Adana Science and Technology University, Turkey Nazmiye Ulku Pekkan, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, Turkey The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between employee empowerment and organizational cynicism in the banking sector. Conditions of competition increasing with globalization and the rapid changes in technology have made it necessary to reveal creative and innovative sides of employees in organizations. It is a well-known fact that most organizations today, particularly banks,



evaluate employees who work in fierce competition environments in terms of their abilities, skills, and qualifications. Same organizations are also known to develop these abilities, skills, and qualifications of employees through various practices such as authorization and empowerment and by this means they aim to provide their customers with better services. Developing an employee empowerment understanding could only be possible by delegating participation and decision-making authorization to employees, training and developing them, and creating a good communication environment in the organization. Otherwise, employees’ attitudes towards the organization would be affected negatively. Chapter 15 Exploring the Role of Organizational Justice in the Modern Workplace............................................ 323 Kijpokin Kasemsap, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand This chapter indicates the relationship between organizational justice and organizational variables; organizational justice and trust; organizational justice and psychological ownership; organizational justice, ethical behavior, and ethical climate; organizational justice and emotion; organizational justice and negative organizational issues; organizational justice and employee turnover intention; organizational justice and burnout; and the importance of organizational justice in the modern workplace. Employees want to work for the fair and ethical organizations and be treated with respect. Organizational justice is an important asset that sustains productivity, profits, and employee morale in the modern workplace and refers to the extent to which employees perceive workplace procedure, interactions, and outcomes to be fair in nature. Enhancing organizational justice should be a priority for organization because it can reduce the incidence of workplace deviance, absence, and disengagement in the modern workplace. Chapter 16 Exploring Emotional Intelligence at Work: A Review of Current Evidence....................................... 346 Irem Metin Orta, Atilim University, Turkey Selin Metin Camgoz, Hacettepe University, Turkey Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to perceive, understand, regulate, and use emotions. Organizational settings are now considered important arenas for the manifestation of human emotions. In order to establish long-term success, today’s organizations continually emphasize the search for emotionally intelligent employees. This chapter provides a detailed overview of the current literature on emotional intelligence with respect to work-related attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes. In particular, it provides empirical evidence for the associations of emotional intelligence with job satisfaction, work performance, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, effective leadership, and well-being. This chapter also provides practical implications and suggestions for future research by addressing plausible moderators and mediators, which are related to emotional intelligence. Chapter 17 Traits of Leaders and Active Listening: A Theory.............................................................................. 364 Rajiv Kumar, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, India Vidyanand Jha, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, India Listening is an important managerial competency which contributes to managerial effectiveness and also contributes to many positive outcomes at organizational and individual level. In this paper, we investigate, the relationship between personality types and listening styles with a view to find specific listening styles appropriate to different personality types. We have argued that active listening is impacted by the traits



leaders have. Employing the well-established taxonomy of the Big-Five traits, we have formulated five propositions predicting the likely impact of each of these traits on active listening. Extraversion and neuroticism are likely to take a leader away from active listening, but the other three traits—agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to new experiences—seem to enable active listening. We have also discussed the implications of our work for theory and practice. Chapter 18 Mastering Employee Turnover Intention in the Modern Workforce................................................... 382 Kijpokin Kasemsap, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand This chapter indicates the advanced issues of employee turnover intention; employee turnover intention, job satisfaction, and Human Resource Information System (HRIS); employee turnover intention and job burnout; employee turnover intention and mobbing; employee turnover intention, psychological capital, and work-family conflict; employee turnover intention and job engagement; and employee turnover intention in the health care industry. Turnover intention is a measurement of whether the organization’s employees plan to leave their positions or whether that organization plans to remove employees from positions. Employee turnover is a natural part of business in any industry. Replacing employees can affect the organization’s productivity, expenses, and overall performance. Understanding the effects of losing a high number of employees serves as a motivator to work toward reducing the employee turnover rate for the higher profits in the modern workforce. Chapter 19 The Relationship Between Work-Life Balance (WLB) and Firm Performance.................................. 402 Choi Sang Long, Raffles University Iskandar, Malaysia It is paramount that firms accurately assess the cost-effectiveness of WLB policies as initiatives to conduct such policies involve cost. WLB policies should be considered due to synergistic effects by employing a variety of policies. The benefits are usually under-estimated while the costs over-estimated, as the latter is easier to measure. Until longitudinal research is conducted, we cannot discount the possibility that successful organizations are more likely to offer WLB practices, and that the practices themselves are not exerting any favorable effect on organizational performance. Instead, it might simply be that organizations offering WLB practices are more predisposed to engaging in high-quality management practices and that this approach usually generates a positive effect on employees and performance outcomes. Thus, we can surmise that improved firm performance is a result of effective management usually associated with the implementation of WLB policies in the workplace, and not solely because of WLB per se. Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 412 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 497 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 503

xvii

Preface

In today’s globalized economy, an understanding of organizational culture and diversity in the modern workforce is crucial to increasing corporate productivity and profit. This publication provides useful reference material for business and government executives, researchers, and undergraduate/graduate students for guidance in the areas of human resource management, occupational health, and well-being at work including work-life balance and firm performance. Insights into relative perspectives in culture theories such as the Gothberg IV Model and Hofstede’s Model are presented in cross-cultural industrial settings. Qualitative methods in organizational and industrial psychology research are discussed. The latest research on sexual harassment in digital environments, managerial bullying, incivility at work and organizational diversity including inclusion of people with disabilities is presented. Recent research on work-related micro organizational behavior human factors, cynical individual factor, employee empowerment and organizational cynicism, and organizational justice is presented. Leadership traits and active listening and emotional intelligence at work are discussed. Business and industrial organizations can use these articles for guidance in the areas of talent retention and development and international assignments. This publication provides an overview of the historical evolution of the people side of the business in Chapter 1 followed by the qualitative research methods in Industrial and Organizational Psychology in Chapter 2. Human resources management issues, occupational health, and well-being at work are covered in Chapters 3, 4, and 5. Work place diversity and inclusion issues are discussed in Chapter 6. Workplace and cyber bullying and workplace incivility are covered in Chapters 7 and 8. Chapter 9 covers sexual harassment. The Gotheborg Model for relativity in culture perspectives is discussed in Chapter 10. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are applied to cross-cultural management of European textile and clothing industries in Chapter 11. Work-related micro organizational behaviors are covered in Chapter 12. Cynical individual factor and reverse mobbing tendency are covered in Chapter 13. Employee empowerment and organizational cynicism are discussed in Chapter 14. Organizational justice is discussed in Chapter 15. Emotional intelligence at work is explored in Chapter 16. Leadership traits and active listening is discussed in Chapter 17. Mastering employee turnover intention is discussed in Chapter 18. Finally, work-life balance and firm performance are discussed in Chapter 19. We trust this work will be of assistance to the intended audiences to spur future research in the respective areas covered. Bryan Christiansen PryMarke LLC, USA Harish C. Chandan Argosy University, USA 

1

Chapter 1

Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business Marianne Greenfield Argosy University, USA

ABSTRACT Determining the direction of where a field is headed often requires a reflection of its founding principles, the transformations it has endured, and the driving forces that shape its existence. For the past century the world has experienced evolutions in technology, business, and education. This chapter provides a historical review of the practices and professions dedicated to the people side of business. The origins of Personnel Management are discussed where the department formed to meet workforce needs. A transformation to Human Resource Management is explored with an examination of the influence of professional societies on practice. The reflection of the progression of this field of practice ends with a list of challenges facing Industrial Organizational Psychology practitioners of the future. A recommendation to rethink the employer-employee relationship with the workforce of tomorrow closes the chapter and hopefully encourages human resource professionals, I/O professionals, and their professional societies to embrace the next requisite transformation.

INTRODUCTION Search current literature, blogs, and conferences relevant to people at work and one will find there are numerous reports indicating a time for change in the Human Resource (HR) department and function. Some predict the department will be eliminated from most firms by 2020. The July/August 2015 issue of Harvard Business Review headline read, “It’s Time to Blow Up HR and Build Something New”. Afterwards, panic in the HR professional associations went into full force and the millions of HR professionals in the world are in a fight for self-preservation. For over a decade, HR professionals have been clamoring to have a seat at the proverbial executive table. Once in that position, many did not know how to positively contribute to the organization beyond reporting on their 50-year tradition of filling job openings DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2250-8.ch001

Copyright © 2017, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

faster, processing payroll and benefits more economically, and striving to ensure all employees should be treated equally by complying with “check-the-box” training and enforcing policies (McDonald, 2001). HR professionals have made attempts to learn more about business terminology, setting financial goals, and reporting new metrics to the C-level. It has also been noted that in some cases, the HR department has been moved in the organizational structure to report to the Chief Financial Officer (CFO) which may contribute to the unfortunate interpretation of the phrase “People are our most important assets” to literally being something owned versus a philosophy that employees bring the most value to the firm. Transforming the HR department to a metric-driven cost center is obviously not the answer to people or talent management as the war for talent continues to be a major topic of concern around the world (Ulrich, 2015). The Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) published a study in 2012 investigating what HR practitioners thought the challenges facing their profession would be over in the upcoming decade. Results reported that retaining and rewarding the best employees was first on the list. Asking what their HR competencies needed to be is reported in this order: Business Acumen, Organizational Navigation, Relationship Management, and Communication Skills (SHRM, 2012). Similarly, Silzer and Cober (2010) conducted a study of Industrial Organizational Psychology practitioners to determine what they perceived to be important for the future of practice in their field. The conclusion was that they would be considered the gurus of talent. The insinuation that many of the talent management functions now managed by human resource professionals might be moving to another field of practice has created alarm among the millions of HR professionals and has created increasing interest from business leaders. As in other professions, external forces have been the catalyst to begin this transformation of practice in both human resources and industrial organizational psychology. To better understand the current transformative opportunities for those that wish to be the talent experts, a clear understanding of the historical progression and relationship of the people management function over time is investigated beginning with its creation. The purpose of this chapter is to outline a brief historical summary of the people side of business and introduce contemporary challenges facing business leaders as these professions collide.

BACKGROUND Personnel Administration Some might argue that the function of human resources dates back to prehistoric days where consistent methods of selecting tribal leaders have been documented (Rotich, 2015). Others prefer to recognize the origins in the Chinese employee screening techniques used between 2000 BC and 1500 BC and still others claim the first human resource function was documented with the Greek practices of developing and implementing an apprentice system (Beagire, 2004). Modern historical reports tend to note the beginnings of this functional department to be related to the growth of large factories during the British Industrial Revolution during the 19th-century. This revolution brought a demand for rapid hiring practices and record keeping for a large employee population (Boudreau & Ramstad, 2009). According to the Trustees of the British Museum (2016), during this time, “Children were sent to work in factories, where they were exploited and ill-treated; women experienced substantial changes in their lifestyle as they took jobs in domestic service and the textile industries, leaving the agricultural workforce and spend2

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

ing less time in the family home” (para 16). For some, the social and technological innovations brought new wealth and a better life. However, for others these changes brought poor working conditions which gave way to pressures for government intervention to introduce legislation for human rights and safety. At the beginning of the 20th century in the United States, Personnel Administration emerged as a business function focused on employee related issues, safety of workers, and compliance with newly introduced laws (Klerck, 2009). In 1900, the B.F. Goodrich Company established the first employee management department and in 1902, National Cash Register established a Personnel Department to handle employee issues (Niles, 2013). Because of the economic improvements in the United States, the U.S. Department of Labor was established in 1913 with the mission to promote the welfare of working people and their work conditions (Department of Labor, 2010). The members of the Personnel Department were then accountable to stay abreast of regulations. They were also responsible for the administrative aspects of hiring, evaluating, training, and compensating employees. After World War II, the introduction of formal workforce development training programs became a respected unit of the Personnel Department. According to Nankervis (2011), business practices emphasized employee productivity through various motivation techniques, initiated a concern for workforce welfare issues including morale, and activated the emergence of job descriptions which improved recruitment and selection of talent. Additionally, the official recognition of trade unions emerged in various countries, mainly in the United Kingdom and United States. These events were a catalyst for change in the profession as personnel administrators needed knowledge and skills in collective bargaining, employment law, job analysis, recruitment, labor relations, training, and benefits (Nankervis, 2011). By the 1970s, technology had provided the ability for multinational firms to excel and globalization to become an important directive for the personnel functions. The shift from industrial to service economies also impacted the functions and responsibilities of these professionals. Leadership and succession planning became critical elements to the strategic success of the business (Vani, 2011). Competitive advantages for the business were intended to be realized through these functions of the Personnel Department. With this acknowledgment that Personnel was gaining importance in the organization, the department name changed to Human Resources and professional associations expanded to assist in the transformation of knowledge and practices as stated by the Society for Human Resources Management (SHRM, 2016). At some point during the mid-1980s, human resource management was recognized as the proper term for those responsible of managing the human assets of the organization. While employee commitment and motivation were at the center of organizational objectives, attaining technological resources were also a priority in business practices. Examining the subsequent thirty years of global business and employee practices we acknowledge that employee experiences with change become more frequent, the need for education and training continues to rise, the inclusion of technologies disrupts the way we work and play, and the war for talent is formalized. Corporate culture becomes more fluid, data is abundant and ubiquitous, connectivity to others is far reaching, and career options are becoming specialized for those both in and outside of personnel administration.

Human Resource Management In the 21st Century, the conversation regarding the personnel responsibilities has been one laden with much debate. While there is agreement that having the right employees in the right jobs performing at maximum productivity with excellent quality and costing the firm the least amount possible is one objective, the details of who, what, where, when and how to do this remain in dispute with a variety of 3

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

approaches utilized. Human Resources (HR) as a functional department of the business continues to be responsible for the acquisition, assessment, and retention of talent. However, the war for talent brings many organizational challenges resulting in operational responses that range from outsourcing these tasks to unrealistic demands of the internal HR department. Technologies such as applicant tracking systems and employment websites have assisted in reaching job seekers yet they bring additional difficulty in the selection process. This expensive process of building a workforce has led to professional evolutions in the HR functional department. Rotich (2015) reported that through extensive research in the history, evolution and development of human resource management (HRM), there have been several varying definitions of the role but traditionally, HRM is a product of the human relations movement of the 20th century. Additionally, Rotich (2015) reports that HRM, or the predominantly transactional work of HR, has evolved over time due to globalization, consolidation of firms, and technology innovations. The United States Department of Labor (2016) defines the occupation of a Human Resources Manager as those that, “plan, direct, and coordinate the administrative functions of an organization. They oversee the recruiting, interviewing, and hiring of new staff; consult with top executives on strategic planning; and serve as a link between an organization’s management and its employees” (para. 1). And while similar positions described on the website are noted to be specialists in labor relations, training and development, and compensation and benefits, the profession requires only a bachelor degree. This US Department of Labor (DOL) description aligns with one of the mainstream definitions of human resources where HRM has administrative and transactional responsibilities in the process of managing people within an organization. However, business leaders are asking for the HR department to perform beyond this education and skill level as the complexities of managing the people side of business continue to multiply. According to SHRM (2016), another contemporary view of HRM exists where the practice encompasses the management of people in the form of a collective relationship between the management and employees. This approach focuses on the objectives and outcomes of the HRM function and lends itself to be in alignment with the metrics of the business for which they serve. Terms such as employee engagement and people development are often used. These practices may contribute to productivity, retention, and sustainability but the evidence is not clear. What is clear is the need for the transformation of human resource practitioners to possess the knowledge, skills, abilities and competencies beyond the origins of personnel administration or even 20th-century human resource practices. Of particular importance is the evolution of the practice from being directed to protect the employer from employees to a practice empowered to establish the right relationship between the employer and employee so they both realize their individual vision of success. During this transformation, the need increased for a professional society to strengthen the field, educate the practitioners, and drive recognition of their value to the businesses.

The Professional Societies It is recognized that professional societies have the potential to develop change for the profession they represent. Typically, these associations and societies are structured as a non-profit organization seeking to further a particular profession, the interests of individuals engaged in that profession, and the public or private sector interest of the profession. The mission of professional societies has been to serve their members primarily through educational and informational services (Clark, 1989). Often the society can gain influence from commonly defined functions: to publish professional journals, to develop professional excellence, to certify talent, to raise public awareness, host professional conferences, possibly affect legislation, and to create and present professional awards. 4

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

Some societies might provide job postings, professional development workshops, and networking events for members. When a professional society is established it is expected the society will keep abreast of the changes that affect the profession they represent. As the workforce has evolved through the centuries, professional societies have been introduced, formalized, and evolved as well. To see this as a visual trend in professional societies, the growth of national societies from 1880 to 1985 is shown in Figure 1. As transformation in the workplace occurred, increases in the introduction of new professional associations occurred with the most dramatic increase in new societies launching in the 1960-1985 timeframe. By 2010, the Internal Revenue Service of the United States recognized 92,331 trade and professional associations (ASAE, 2012). The pattern of coordinated activity in the private sector has shaped and advanced the United States dating back to the first American settlers and their guilds (ASAE, 2012). As seen throughout history, when the community the professional society serves is transforming, the professional society will either need to transform or risk the possibility they will be replaced with a society that better meets their needs. This is evidenced in the human resource and I/O fields with both new professional societies emerging and others transforming. For example, the Association for Talent Development is the result of the 2014 transformation of the American Society for Training & Development (ASTD) after 71 years of existence. A second example is the creation of the National Association of Organizational Psychology (NAOP) which was legally established in 2014 to support and mentor new I/O Psychology practitioners as they elect a career transition. Even the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) organization, which has traditionally been the association of choice for human resource professionals, has experienced transformation in their renowned certifications. Beginning in 2015, a competency-based certification for human resource professionals replaced the industry standard PHR and SPHR certifications. With a multitude of specializations in the I/O psychology field emerging, professional associations continue to launch and gain mindshare such as the Association of Corporate Executive Coaches (ACEC), the Association for Professional Executive Coaching and Supervision (APECS), the Association of Executive Figure 1. Growth of Professional Societies (Clark, 1989)

5

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

Recruiters (NAER). This list expands with a simple online search in your area of interest. And with these changes, the clear roles and responsibilities of the human resource professional no longer exist. This transformation can be seen as a natural reaction to employees being a huge expense in a decade of a declining economy. In the 21st century organization, the HR department is no longer seen as bringing value if their only role is as an administrative cost center to the organization. Professional associations are attempting to promote the value that their members bring to the business community. But both the associations and businesses are struggling with the new demands of a multigenerational workforce. Millennial workers are reported to place less value on formal and traditional means of networking, preferring to establish their own relationships in their own ways (Lucas, 2014). Social networks now provide easy and convenient ways for industry members to find each other and network. The proliferation of online content has led to vast and often free access to the types of information that professionals used to be able to access only through association membership and industry conferences. With these transformations, it is becoming unclear as to not only the role of a human resource professional versus an I/O professional but also the number of these professionals currently in practice. In an effort to better understand what is trending during our current shift in employment positions that are focused on the people side of business, we might inquire with the social networks, industry forecasters, and the United States Department of Labor for predictions. Each year Randstad, a global HR services company, publishes its predictions of hot jobs based on an analysis of economic projections and market trends. In 2015, Randstad research indicated that most midsize and large companies continue to operate on a lean HR team but with the demand for talent in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) on the rise and projected for the future a more savvy HR professional will be required (Maurer, 2015). Some say this means the HR administrator will be replaced with an I/O practitioner. According to Miller-Merrell (2013), there are over 2 million LinkedIn profiles that claim an affiliation to a human resource role, the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics reports over 5.6 million HR professionals in practice, and Bloomberg BNA (2016) reports human resources staffing relative to the workforce tumbled in 2015 but the job duties increased for those remaining in the HR department. As the needs of talent management efforts grow and change, it is hopeful that human resources and I/O practitioners will both be in higher demand. A possible confusion for both business executives and managers is that they won’t know the difference between them. It is possible that the I/O job title will continue to be illusive as I/O practitioners begin to redefine the roles and values of employees responsible for addressing issues and objectives focused on the people side of business. It is possible that the job titles of HR professionals will have to be amended and/or new certifications will need to emerge in order to better distinguish the knowledge, skills, abilities and competencies of these professionals around the world. Historically the professional societies have driven these initiatives. The following global professional societies may be key stakeholders in the transformation of the practitioners whose talents are targeted at managing talent in the global workforce.

Asia The Asia Pacific Federation of Human Resource Management (APFHRM) is one of the major human resource professional associations representing countries in the Asia Pacific region. As a collective, the Federation’s purpose is to advance the standing of the human resource and people management profession within the region (APFHRM, 2016). Accordingly, the Federation’s major focus is in matters relating specifically to HR in the Asia Pacific region, though it is also an active branch of the World Federation 6

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

of People Management Associations (WFPMA). The countries that form the federation are Australia, Bangladesh, Fiji, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam (APFHRM, 2016). One of the countries in the Federation has developed their own very active HR association, the Australian Human Resource Institute (AHRI), and state they have over 20,000 members (AHRI, 2016). While they do express acknowledgement of the need for some innovative and transformative ideas, their actions remain similar to other associations in education, conferences, legislation, and networking. In the ever evolving world of human resources, new initiatives and changes to existing practices are constantly coming to light. HR practitioners have often been accused of jumping on the latest fad or idea in the market. It is important for practitioners to assess new HR practices for their appropriateness and the potential to add value in assisting an organisation to achieve goals. (AHRI, 2016, para 1)

Europe The European Association for People Management (EAPM) was founded in 1962 by the national associations and professional institutions of personnel management in France, Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom (EAPM, 2016). EAPM has member associations in 30 different countries across Europe where each of the countries is represented by its own national association or professional institute of personnel management (EAPM, 2016). With the current transformation in the United Kingdom as a result of the vote to leave the European Union, the consequences for human resource professionals may be a catalyst for disruptive change. The professional society of today will be called upon to assist in this transition or it is possible that other associations may emerge.

United States The Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), formerly called the American Society for Personnel Administration, was founded in 1948 by a group of 28 individuals and in 1984 with the name changed to the Society for Human Resource Management in 1989 (SHRM, 2016). This professional society claims to be the world’s largest human resource professional society with approximately 285,000 members in more than 165 countries with more than 575 affiliated chapters within the United States and subsidiary offices in China, India and United Arab Emirates (SHRM, 2016). Established in 1951, the National Human Resources Association (NHRA) places primacy on advancing the careers of its members by enhancing their planning and leadership skills. The American Council on International Personnel (ACIP) is a leading voice and resource for employers working worldwide to advance employment-based immigration of highly educated professionals. The College and University Professional Association for Human Resources (CUPA-HR) is an HR organization that places primacy on the efficient management of human resources within the university and college setting.

The Global Initiative With millions of human resource professionals and strong professional associations and societies around the world championing their relevance to business, change may be especially difficult as a global initiative. However, at the time of this publication businesses and the world’s transformations are driving another 7

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

evolution of the human resource, or people management, function. There is no worldwide agreement regarding exactly what the HR department should do, or be, or what their value contribution must be moving forward. Entrepreneurial and innovative firms have been noted to delete the human resource department from their organizational chart to find later that some aspect of the traditional function is needed. Just as globalization, company consolidations, and technology innovations have been disruptive to the world as we know it, many agree disruptive change to people management is required in some way. Morgan (2016) reflects on the new technologies, new recruitment approaches, new discussions on a multigenerational workforce, and the evolution of organizational structures to comment that out of all of the functions of business, “HR has perhaps remained static for the longest period of time yet it is also the only department inside of our organizations that is focused on touching every single employee” (para. 1). Unfortunately, the professionals in this space have been seemingly slow to respond, possibly resisting these changes by holding on to old business practices, norms, metrics, and concepts that are not relevant to the contemporary needs, much less the future needs, of both the business and the employees. Or possibly the change cannot be seen by those on the inside but rather should be initiated from those outside of the human resource community. The practitioners in the field of Industrial Organizational Psychology are eager to address these contemporary needs of the organization as either an internal or external consultant.

MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Industrial Organizational Psychology For a field of study that has been in existence for over 100 years, there has been some confusion about its name, its purpose, and its practitioner. The evolution of this field has been consistently filled with disagreements from within the community of professionals and their associated societies. For many, the profession is known to consist of researchers who may publish new findings and consult with large firms or teach at prestigious universities. Moving research to practice and having a psychology practice are very different in nature, skill, and licensure. Current issues in business practices and people management are now driving those in the industrial organizational psychology field to reflect on their purpose and develop innovative approaches to applying their knowledge, skills, and abilities to a fluid, fast-paced, real-time, global business environment. For some, the field has experienced an identity crisis which remains relevant today. Even the name has been an element of confusion and contention. Gaining perspective of the history of the advancement of the I/O Psychology field begins with the name. The term industrial psychology in the United States became popular after World War I and was characterized by ability testing and vocational assessment (Koppes, 2007). Other names such as economic psychology, business psychology, and employment psychology have also been briefly used. With a number of changes in social, legal and business practices, by 1973 the addition of the word organizational was added to industrial psychology to reflect the growing influence of social psychologists and organizational development consultants (Landy, 1997). Most everyone in the field was dissatisfied with the name of I/O Psychology and in 1976 the first attempt to change the name for the field was made (Campbell, 1997). Complaints and debates remained for almost 30 years yet nothing was changed. By 2010, a vote by the membership of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) to change the name to Organizational Psychology was made yet the 8

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

existing name prevailed by 15 votes (Benjamin, 1997b). For now, the name remains but so does the deliberation about the I/O Psychology practitioner. As Campbell (2007) notes, I/O psychologists “have borrowed heavily from social, cognitive, clinical and counseling psychology, personality and individual differences and even behavioral genetics” (p. 454). But I/O research has also been applied, or put into practice, for decades. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics (2012) Occupational Outlook Report stated that while the current number of I/O practitioners in the workforce is small, employment will rise 53 percent nationwide between 2012 and 2022. This profession is described by the BLS (2016, para. 9) as those that: Apply psychology to the workplace by using psychological principles and research methods to solve problems and improve the quality of work life. They study issues such as workplace productivity, management or employee working styles, and employee morale. They also work with management on matters such as policy planning, employee screening or training, and organizational development. The professional society for Industrial Organizational Psychology has been investigating what this business job function, or practice, might demand. Silzer and Cober (2010) conducted a study with existing I/O psychology practitioners who were members of the professional society SIOP (Society of Industrial Organizational Psychology) in order to gain a better understanding of how they saw the future of I/O psychology practice. Their report suggests that the field of I/O Psychology is highly likely to go through some significant changes similar to those of the human resource field. A key question now is whether I/O psychologists and SIOP are prepared to proactively shape the future of the field or will they let professional societies such as ATD, SHRM, NAOP, ACEC, APECS, NAER, WFPMA or others attempt to take the lead.

Professional Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology As expected, the Society of Industrial Organizational Psychology (SIOP) has evolved just as the profession has evolved over the decades. Today, SIOP (2016) states it is “the premier membership organization for those practicing and teaching I/O psychology” (para. 2). The history of SIOP is a long and winding road where it is noted to begin as part of the American Psychological Association whose mission was to advance psychology as a science. With a lack of recognizing applied psychology early on, there was a need to create a division of industrial psychology. “Reluctantly, APA created a Section of Clinical Psychology in 1919 to accommodate the applied psychologists in clinically-related jobs; however, nothing was created for industrial or educational psychologists” (SIOP, 2016, para. 4). For over 50 years, applied psychologists sought other professional organizations to pursue their interests and in 1921, the New York Association of Consulting Psychologists (ACP) was founded (Sokal, 1992). Tension continued to grow within APA and other professional societies were created as local and state interest groups of the applied and professional psychologies. According to Sokal (1992), one of those was the American Association of Applied Psychology (AAAP) which was introduced as a national association to represent the interests of applied psychology and this organization grew rapidly throughout the United States. Membership was dominated by university-based psychologists although many psychologists employed full-time in industry were members (Benjamin, 1997b). Strife continued and by 1982, what had been developed as Division 14 of APA incorporated as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Inc.- A Division of the American Psychological Association. Hakel (1979, p. 78) stated: 9

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

Incorporation as The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology was proposed to provide Division 14 with an independent and secure base, to sharpen our public identity, to increase member identification with our organization, to gain flexibility and responsiveness in dealing with legal (EEO) issues, to gain more control over our financial affairs, and to enable us better to pursue opportunities. According to Weiner (2013) in the most recent publication of the Handbook of Psychology, there remain tensions between the testing and selection focus of the Industrial side of the profession with those of the attitudinal and social factors of the Organizational side. Another tension is whether the I/O psychology practitioner serves the employer or the employee. From the field’s research, it is indicated that a better understanding of a potential employee coupled with a strong understanding of the current employee provides a bridge to self-actualization of the individual and the productivity goals of the organization.

Evolutionary Briefs on Practice It may be that the leaders of businesses, universities, and professional societies in the fields of human resource management and industrial organizational psychology will need to determine a clearly defined synergy moving forward in order to continue bringing value to their shared clients which are both people and organizations. However, the emigration of I/O psychology and I/O training to business schools has been another source of contention for decades. Universities are moving from only offering a researchbased I/O doctoral degree program towards including a practitioner-based master degree program. Degree programs are also migrating from the psychology department to the business department. Weiner (2013) states “this may provide some positive benefits to the field by making it more interdisciplinary” (p. 5). However, he continues to state that there is also a danger to the field in that this could lead to I/O psychology becoming synonymous with human resource management or organizational behavior. Organizational Behavior has been described as the study of the way people interact within groups (Boundless, 2016). This has historically been important to the study of business management as well as to the results of business practice in terms of efforts to enhance overall organizational performance, individual employment satisfaction, and to determine delegation of tasks to resources for maximized productivity. Other components include examining organizational culture, leadership, and team building (Boundless, 2016). It is clear that all of these fields of study and practice have a goal to improve performance and satisfaction of individuals, teams, and organizations. While not necessarily strategically outlined in planned organizational movements, historical classifications do emerge as we examine the work of I/O and other practitioners focused on the employer to employee relationship over time. Beginning with the Hawthorne Studies in the 1920s, the theme in practice has been to gain a better understanding of human relations in the workplace as outlined in Table 1. By 2015, the evolution can be depicted in terms of four generations of focus by grouping key.

First Generation: Human Relations It is often noted that the 1920 Hawthorne Experiments were revolutionary in terms of research into workplace behavior (Gillespie, 1991). In reflection, throughout the thirty years that followed there was much inquiry for business practices to gain a better understanding of how to achieve higher production rates from existing employees. This remains a concern in business today albeit the work itself and the environments in which work is performed may be vastly different. What we learned in this period is that 10

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

Table 1. Evolution of Theory and Practice Sample List of Contributors First Generation 1920s thru 1950s - Human Relations Change = Unfreeze and Refreeze Gestalt Psychologists

Mind & Behavior as Whole

Frederick W. Taylor

Scientific Management

Elton Mayo Hawthorne Studies

Behavior Change via Attention

Kurt Lewin

Action Research & Change Behaviors (Unfreeze)

Abraham Maslow

Motivation Hierarchy of Needs

Ludwig Von Bertalanffy

Principles of Systems Theory Second Generation 1950s thru 1970s - Management Development Change = Planned and Evolving

Peter Drucker

Practice of Management

Douglas McGregor

Human Side of Enterprise, Theory X and Theory Y

Rensis Likert

Survey Scale

Russell L. Ackoff

Systems Thinking

Blake & Mouton

The Managerial Grid

W. Edwards Deming

Total Quality Management

Frederick Herzberg

Job Enrichment / Motivation

Harry Levinson

Psychoanalytic Approach Third Generation 1980s thru 1990s - System-Wide Change Change = Strategic

Peters & Wasserman

In Search of Excellence

Leonard Nadler

Human Resource Management

Hammer & Champy

Reengineering the Corporation

Patricia McLagan

HRD Competencies

Peter Senge

The Learning Organization

Robert W. Jacobs

Real-time Strategic Change

Harrison Owen

Open Space Technology/ Meetings Fourth Generation 2000 thru 2015 - Innovation and Connection Change = Constant and Desirable

Seely and Duguid

The Social Life of Information

Davenport & Prusak

Knowledge Transmission and Knowledge Transfer

Jacono & Kling

Rise of Internet / Distance Working

Daniel Goleman

Emotional Intelligence

Margaret Wheatly

Chaos / Complexities

11

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

people influence the results of productivity by their own human complexities. Employees must feel a need for security of basic life needs. Managers were thought to be the decision maker and must demonstrate their authority. Organizational loyalty was strong and working with their peers or in groups was desired. The consultants of this time were attempting to assist managers and individuals to work more effectively as individuals. At the same time, the historical reports of personnel departments indicate the 1920s was a time of administrative performance and a focus on avoiding labor unions (Massarik & PeiCarpenter, 2002). Power was heavily weighted in favor of the employer, managers were often abusive, and workers had few rights or protections other than to quit. With the economy beginning to improve, the larger corporations often saw value in providing a few employee benefits as a way of recruiting, retaining and motivating employees. However, there was a worldwide recession that hindered others from adopting new approaches in the employee-employer relationship as they had no difficulty in recruiting labor. During the 1930s, due to collective bargaining tactics and the New Deal, some personnel departments transformed into industrial relations (IR) departments as the need for strong union negotiations and management was prevalent (Zeitlin,1987).

Second Generation: Management Development By 1945, employment management and welfare work had become integrated under the broad term personnel management (Klerk, 2009). Experience of the war had shown that output and productivity could be influenced by employment policies. According to Klerk (2009), the role of the personnel function in wartime had been largely that of implementing the rules demanded by large-scale, state-governed production, and thus the image of an emerging profession was very much a bureaucratic one. Peter Drucker, one of the first management specialists to achieve guru status, was a representative of this era in business (McGrath, 2014). With his response to Alfred P. Sloan’s challenge to better understand how to manage a complex organization such as General Motors, Drucker responded with his book Concept of the Corporation in 1946. Drucker began to see that value created within the organization was not just from productivity but also created by workers’ use of information. As knowledge work grew in demand with the changing business environment of the 1950s into the 1960s, researchers including Ginsberg, Drucker, McGregor, and Likert were presenting methods, theories, and ideas that challenged previous business practices. Motivation and engagement of workers became the center of focus while control and authority transitioned to a more participative coaching role (McGrath, 2014). Topics of research, theories of practice, and consultants focused on increasing performance quality through design or redesign of systems, providing new research and sound theory on how to promote proper conversations and behavior in the workplace, and training managers on the effective use of both informal and formal feedback sessions using communication skills with subordinates such as listening, asking questions, and providing feedback. Team building and conflict management became centers of interest as did implementing surveys, setting goals, and introducing problem solving processes.

Third Generation: System-Wide Strategic Change The economic upheaval of the 1970s led to a new era of economic changes. According to Conte and Karr (2001), the new president of the United States, Ronald Reagan (1981-1989), based his economic program on the theory of supply-side economics, which advocated reducing tax rates so people could keep more of what they earned. The theory was that lower tax rates would induce people to work harder 12

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

and longer, and that this in turn would lead to more saving and investment, resulting in more production, and stimulating overall economic growth. By 1983, inflation had eased, the economy had rebounded, and the United States began a sustained period of economic growth (Conte & Karr, 2001). With a positive outlook came hope, innovation, and investments in the future rooted in strategic change. Toffler (1980) in The Third Wave characterized this shift to relentless change as the defining feature of the third phase of civilization which followed a first wave being agriculture and the second as being the industrial wave. This work further claimed that the dawn of this new phase will cause great anxiety for those that grew up in the previous phases, and will cause much conflict and opportunity in the business world. Bradford and Burke (2005) revisited the transitions of organizational development and reported that during the 1980s organizational development became a more established field with courses and programs being offered in business, education, and administration curricula. In the 1990s and 2000s organizational development continued to grow and evolve and its influences could be seen in theories and strategies such as total quality management (TQM), team building, job enrichment, and reengineering (Bradford and Burke, 2005). Many authors and pundits have attempted to explain what all of this means for business strategy. In 1988, Henry Mintzberg examined the strategic process and concluded it was much more fluid and unpredictable than people had thought. In 1990, Richard Pascale wrote that relentless change requires that businesses continuously reinvent themselves. In his works, he suggested that people generally tend to depend on what has worked before and they often resist change. Successful strategic businesses in this era were implementing technology solutions or products and services at a rapid pace, the workplace was becoming 24 hours by 7 days by 365 days per year operations with automated interactive voice response (IVR) systems, the phone network was integrating with the data network, the employees assumed more accountability, and greater competencies for the workforce were required. Planning, implementing, and managing change was at the center of activity. Topics of research, theories of practice, and consultants focused on facilitating change through self-managed teams, cross-functional teams, developing learning organizations, introducing 360° feedback systems, and assisting organizational leaders in any way possible to facilitate organizational change and innovation.

Fourth Generation: Innovation and Connection Leaving the era of systematic, planned change we enter the era of constant and disruptive change. Businesses relied on organizational development, human resources, and I/O psychology educators, consultants and practitioners to bring businesses through a dynamic age of progress. Human resource professionals were also undergoing changes in their function as the people in the organization were now being considered an important asset. The process of attracting talent was changing with the influence of technology applications, the Internet, and applicant tracking software. Social media became a common way for people to connect with others. A new generation of future employees emerged with differences that are now complicating the practices of business and talent management. Additionally, in the early years of the 21st century, personnel research departments have largely disappeared from organizations, outsourced to research consulting firms, and I/O psychologists have broadened their roles and responsibilities inside organizations (Koppes, 2007). Practitioners in I/O psychology have expressed professional interests and needs that are noticeably different from those I/O psychologists focused on conducting research. Silzer, Cober, Erickson and Robinson (2008a) describe three subgroups of the profession: research, education and practice.

13

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

While the fields of human resources, organizational development, and industrial organizational psychology continue to overlap, merge, diverge, compliment, and contradict each other business leaders are searching for information from all of these professions or any of these professions to assist them in problem solving and strategic planning efforts similar to what they have experienced in the past. Moving into the uncertain future we take with us virtual teams, online communities, social media platforms, global or boundaryless business environments, mergers and acquisitions, a decade of distress in the workforce, and a promise of even more changes in the future. Theories and methods of industrial and organizational psychology are those of all psychology, only slightly constrained by characteristics of employment settings and assumptions about those who populate them (Katzell & Austin, 1992). In review of these theories of human behavior in organizations we can see they are consistent with a classic model that views behavior as a function of ability, motivation, and situational opportunities. Differences among theories within the field are primarily differences of emphasis. Some look within the individual and others focus on tasks, interpersonal factors, or organizational structures to explain behavior. The issue at hand today is to determine what the fifth generation of theory and practice should target and how we might align human resources, organizational behavior, and industrial organizational psychology disciplines in order to address the needs of the workforce of the future.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Rethinking the People Side of Business From a review of the perspectives of the historical evolution of the people side of business, there are no indications that understanding and managing people in the workplace is going to slow down, stabilize, or get simpler in the future. On the contrary, all indicators point to a time of transformation for all professions dedicated to the study and practice regarding people at work. The war for talent continues on a global stage. Technology continues to evolve and bring more automation and self-service applications. The digital revolution has contributed to increasing the value of people in the organization with specialized knowledge and skills. The shift in power has occurred where people desire more control over their careers and loyalty is often not the priority. Pensions are rarely offered. Millennials are bringing new perspectives to the terms work and leadership. The transparency and accessibility of new job opportunities indicate that whoever emerges as the talent gurus for this next era need to change the goals and metrics of what defines successful talent management. A few of the possibilities might be such ideas as to consider that a firm might only need to retain all necessary talent for while the talent is truly utilized and should consider opportunities to trade talent when business needs change. Or maybe to recognize that passion for one’s work is becoming increasingly important to individuals and replaces the desire to simply get a job. We must understand matching work tasks to passion could be a competitive advantage when the labor market grows tighter with improved economic conditions. Whatever we determine to be the solution, the Fifth Generation of people practices will have to evolve from where we are today in the employer-employee relationship. The employer-employee relationship has typically had an obvious entry and exit point represented in the hiring and termination processes. All of the relationship considerations in between these events are developed by the leadership and people within the organization, guided by competitive pressures and 14

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

legislation, and not always appreciated as a contributor to organizational goals. Figure 2 represents the cycle of an individual career with typical relationship elements, called touchpoints, shown as bubbles around the circle. At the top, there is a Start indicator representing when someone becomes familiar with the organization and begins their relationship with it. Moving clockwise, the first few touchpoints are not necessarily sequential but represent the idea that as soon as someone learns of your organization, they have entered the cycle and begin their relationship even though they are not an employee. This could be a customer, a referral, or a potential talent anywhere in the world that happens to know of the organization. During this Awareness period, there is no clear assignment as to what professional is the expert in this space. Often, it has been a mixture of human resources, marketing, or an outsourced recruitment agency. The talent winners of the future will need to develop expertise in activities of employment awareness. Continuing clockwise around the touchpoints, the Consideration and Preference mindset of talent must be mastered. Being this is a behavioral and psychological experience, it would behoove us to realize that only paying attention to the process is a weakness of HR historical practices. The relationship the organization builds during the application experience with talent participating in interviews, assessments and negotiations Figure 2. Cycle of Career Touchpoints

15

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

is crucial to the success of the organization. I/O practitioners are noted to be the experts in this particular set of functions. Once the talent is officially hired, a new set of talent management activities begin which will need to be revolutionized for the predicted future workforce. Engagement, Commitment and Retention phases have been the focus of business practices in recent years with many of the talent issues and programs being focused after the Hire. All professionals focused on the people side of business play a role in the success of each of the touchpoints. Historically, the organization has believed that they control the touchpoints and make the decisions about the employee at each stage of the relationship. However, it is becoming more apparent that as an individual is contemplating their career, they may or may not decide to move forward with the organization based on the pre-application experiences or a reflection and understanding of their passion as it relates to the practices of the firm under consideration. When the individual decides to move forward around the diagram, they next enter the Application experience touchpoints. Once they have applied to the organization, the individual is attentive to additional experiences encountered with the organization through the entire application process. Again, the individual will make decisions whether to move forward to the post application experience touchpoints just as the organization determines if they would like to move them forward. While represented as a few bubbles on the diagram, the employment experiences and touchpoints on the left of the diagram grow increasingly more complicated and the employer-employee relationship is intensified, affected on a daily basis, and often misunderstood. At some point in time, the employee either elects to move to the Exit process from the company or may apply for a promotion or other movement within the organization. The organization can also decide to move the employee to the Exit process. If the employee-employer relationship goes well, individuals could exit from their position and be promoted around to the right side of the diagram quickly and into a new position beginning with the onboarding touchpoint with the new job title and responsibilities. This promotion link is represented by the black arrow shown between the Exit arrow and the Start arrow in Figure 2. To rethink the touchpoints in the future, we can expect that the cycle will move more quickly and individuals will desire more input into their career choices and experiences. This only amplifies the need for I/O psychology practitioners to rise in numbers as employees of businesses working with human resource professionals and business leaders with the joint purpose to work strategically and diligently on each of the touchpoints in order to cost effectively operate the business.

The Millennial Workforce The workforce of tomorrow is actually here today. The Millennial generation has become the largest group of workers as noted in Figure 3. This Millennial generation has been characterized in a number of different ways but is generally defined to be the generation born after 1982 that have been raised with technology at their fingertips. On the negative side, they have been described as lazy, narcissistic and prone to move from job to job in relatively short amounts of time. It is possible that they will prove to be more civically and politically disengaged as well as more focused on materialistic values. On the positive side, they have been described to generally be more open to new ideas, confident, selfexpressive, liberal, and upbeat. In Simpson (2016), the study reported that Millennials place more of an emphasis on extrinsic values such as money, fame, and image, and use social media applications such as Twitter and Instagram to socially identify with people they desire to follow. This study also noted that Millennials do not see leaders of industry to be interesting to follow but rather, they follow leaders for inspirational purposes or those that assist them in their pursuit of money, fame, and image. Implications 16

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

Figure 3. Labor Force Composition (Pew Research, 2015)

of this report could include a catalyst to rethink the employee-employer relationship in ways that have never been considered before. With these changes in the workforce upon us disruptive change is eminent for those practitioners of I/O psychology, human resource management, and all other professionals proclaiming to focus on the people side of business.

CONCLUSION Through this historical review of the evolution of professionals focused on the people side of business it is evident that the lines have blurred and no clear division in responsibilities towards workforce success and talent management can be found. It is understood that HR professionals and I/O Psychology professionals have redefined their duties and attempted to respond to the ever-changing needs of organizations throughout the last century. These professions are currently asking questions about the changes that might be necessary to continue to add value to their field and to the clients in the years to come. In today’s global economy with a new generation taking their place in the workforce, it has become apparent that the need to develop innovative workforce strategies is now more important than ever before. Particular to the future of I/O Psychology practice, there continues to be a need for research in the psychology of work in these changing environments. Additionally, there is an increasing need for I/O practitioners to

17

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

be internal and external consultants to businesses of all sizes. Possibly, I/O practitioners should consider individuals as their focus of practice for career strategies. Then the educational institutions have opportunities to develop relationships with those in I/O research and practice and most likely will be challenged to develop a curriculum that integrates the multiple dimensions of business which includes the people side of business. Of course, human resource professionals will be challenged to implement programs, policies, and events that strengthen the touchpoints in the employer-employee relationship which may necessitate a rethinking of their job titles and roles. Silzer and Cober (2010) conducted a brief survey on the future of I/O practice with members of the I/O Psychology professional society SIOP. In their report, the need for a transformation was acknowledged but a resistance to change was prevailing. A fear of irrelevance, a threat of competition from other fields of practice, a loss of identity for the profession, a challenge to demonstrate their return on investment for contributions, and an academic migration to business schools was the responses to how current practitioners saw their future (Silzer& Cober, 2010). At a minimum, I/O practitioners should develop a strong identity and purpose and then clearly share their message which differentiates them from the historical views of human resource professionals or administrative coordinators or compliance managers. There is opportunity for every field of practice within this genre if lines of demarcation are created. While we cannot definitively say today what tomorrow will bring but what we do know is that the evolutionary process of people at work will continue.

REFERENCES American Society of Association Executives. (2012). Association matter: Associations by the numbers. Retrieved on July 4, 2016, from http://www.thepowerofa.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/AssociationsMatter-FINAL.pdf Asia Pacific Federation of Human Resource Management. (2016). The APFHR Handbook. Retrieved June 14, 2016, from http://www.apfhrm.com/about-apfhrm/vision,-values-and-objectives Australian Human Resource Institute. (2016). Contemporary HR. Retrieved August 1, 2016, from https:// www.ahri.com.au/assist/contemporary-hr Beagire, S. (2004). Events that changed human resources. Personnel Today, l(3), 22–26. Benjamin, L. T. Jr. (1997b). Organized industrial psychology before Division 14: The ACP and the AAAP (19301945). The Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(4), 459–466. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.4.459 Boudreau, J., & Ramstad, P. (2009). HR’s evolution. HR Monthly, (April): 34. Boundless. (2016). What is organizational behavior? Retrieved September 6, 2016, from https://www. boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/organizational-theory-3/whystudy-organizational-theory-28/what-is-organizational-behavior-162-3925/ Bradford, D. L., & Burke, W. W. (Eds.). (2005). Reinventing organization development. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Campbell, J. P. (2007). Profiting from history. In L. L. Koppes (Ed.), Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 441–457). New York: Psychology Press.

18

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

Campbell, R. J. (1997). Incorporation: A coming of age. The Industrial-Organizational psychologist, 34(3), 80–88. Clark, B. R. (1989). The Academic Life: Small Worlds, Different Worlds. The Carnegie Foundation. doi:10.3102/0013189X018005004 Conte, C., & Karr, A. (2001). Outline of the U.S. Economy. U.S. Department of State, Office of International Information Programs. Cummings, T. G., & Worley, C. G. (2009). Organization development and change (9th ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western. Department of Labor. (2010). Chapter 1: Start Up of the Department. Retrieved June 1, 2016 at http:// www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/dolchp01.htm European Association for People Management. (2016). Welcome. Retrieved August 2, 2016, from http:// www.eapm.org/ Gillespie, R. (1991). Manufacturing Knowledge, A History of the Hawthorne Experiments. New York: Cambridge University Press. Hakel, M. D. (1979). Proposal to incorporate as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. The Industrial-Organizational psychologist, 16(4), 4–5. Katzell, R. A., & Austin, J. T. (1992). From then to now: The development of industrial-organizational psychology in the United States. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(6), 803–835. doi:10.1037/00219010.77.6.803 Klerck, G. (2009). Industrial relations and human resource management. In D. G. Collings & G. Wood (Eds.), Human resource management: A critical approach (pp. 238–259). London: Routledge. Koppes, L. L. (1999). Ideals of science: Persons behind the SIOP awards. The Industrial-Organizational psychologist, 36(4), 75–86. Koppes, L. L. (Ed.). (2007). Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology. New York: Psychology Press. Landy, F. J. (1997). Early influences on the development of industrial and organizational psychology. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(4), 467–477. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.4.467 Lefkowitz, J. (1990, July). The scientist–practitioner model is not enough. The Industrial-Organizational psychologist, 28(1), 47–52. Lucas, J. (2014). Millennials as the future of multigenerational membership. Retrieved July 4, 2016, from http://www.webbrightservices.com/the-association-blog/millennials-as-the-future-of-multigenerationalmembership Massarik, F., & Pei-Carpenter, M. (2002). Organization Development and Consulting: Perspectives and Foundations. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

19

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

Maurer, R. (2015). Hot HR jobs for 2015. Retrieved August 1, 2016 from https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/hr-topics/talent-acquisition/pages/hot-hr-jobs-2015.aspx McDonald, D. (2001). HR: Earning its place at the table. WorldatWork Journal, 10(1), 56-62. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/216371243?accountid=458 McGrath, R. (2014, July). Management’s Three Eras: A Brief Story. Harvard Business Review. Meyer, W. S., & Meyer, B. M. (2011). Organizational Development: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow. Retrieved from http://www.cehd.umn.edu/olpd/research/studentconf/2011/ meyerodyesterdaytodaytomorrow.pdf Miller-Merrell, J. (2013). Who are the 5.6 million who work in HR & recruiting? Retrieved, June 22, 2016, from http://www.blogging4jobs.com/hr/because-lead-generation-funnels-are-peopletoo/#AC4FcTRmSIww7XSA.97 Mintzberg, H. (1987, July). Crafting Strategy. Harvard Business Review. Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B., & Lampel, J. (1998). Strategy safari: A guided tour through the wilds of strategic management. New York: The Free Press. Mintzberg, H., & Quinn, J. B. (1988). The Strategy Process. Harlow, UK: Prentice-Hall. Morgan, J. (2016). Why human resources is ripe for disruption. Retrieved March 8, 2016, from http://www. forbes.com/sites/jacobmorgan/2016/01/22/why-human-resources-is-ripe-for-disruption/#5fd180ea32a3 Nankervis, A. (2011). Human resource management: Strategy and practice (7th ed.). Melbourne, Australia: Cengage Learning. Niles, N. J. (Ed.). (2013). Basic concepts of health care human resource management. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. Pew Research Center. (2015). Your favorite fact tank data in 2015. Retrieved April 4, 2016 from http:// www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/12/31/your-favorite-fact-tank-data-in-2015/ Rotich, K. J. (2015). History, evolution and development of human resource management: A contemporary perspective. Global Journal of Human Resource Management, 3(3), 58–73. Silzer, R. F., Ashworth, S., Paul, K., & Tippins, N. (2010b, April). Envisioning the next 25 years of I/O practice—An exercise. Panel discussion presented at the 25th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Atlanta, GA. Silzer, R. F., & Cober, R. (2010). The science–practice gap: A fishbowl exercise. The Industrial-Organizational psychologist, 48(1), 95–103. Silzer, R. F., Cober, R. T., Erickson, A. R., & Robinson, G. (2008b, July). Practitioner satisfaction with SIOP. The Industrial-Organizational psychologist, 46(1), 43–58. Simpson, L. E. (2016). How millennials select leaders and conform behavior to social media content (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Argosy University, Atlanta, GA.

20

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

Society for Human Resource Management. (2012). Challenges facing HR over the next 10 years. Retrieved February 4, 2016, from http://www.slideshare.net/dhunte56/shrm-poll-challenges-facing-organizationsand-hr-in-the-next-10-years Society for Human Resource Management. (2016). About us. Retrieved July 14, 2016, from https://www. shrm.org/about-shrm/pages/default.aspx Sokal, M. M. (1992). Origins and early years of the American Psychological Association, 18901906. The American Psychologist, 47(2), 111–122. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.2.111 Toffler, A. (1970). Future Shock. New York: Bantom Books. Toffler, A. (1980). The Third Wave. New York: Bantom Books. Trustees of the British Museum. (2016). The industrial revolution and the changing face of Britain. Retrieved May 30, 2016, from https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/publications/ online_research_catalogues/ paper_money/paper_money_of_england__wales/the_industrial_revolution/the_industrial_revolution_3. aspx Ulrich, D. (2015). From war for talent to victory through organization. Strategic HR Review, 14(1), 8–12. doi:10.1108/SHR-01-2015-0004 Vaiman, V., & Collings, D. G. (2013). Talent management: Advancing the field. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 24(9), 1737–1743. doi:10.1080/09585192.2013.777544 Vani, G. (2011). Evolution of human resource management. Review of Management, 1(2), 127–133. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1018058214?accountid=458 Weiner, I. B. (2013). Handbook of psychology: Volume 12 industrial and organizational psychology. New York: Wiley. Yohn, D. L. (2016). To stay relevant, professional associations must rebrand. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved August 20, 2016, from https://hbr.org/2016/01/to-stay-relevant-professional-associationsmust-rebrand Zeitlin, J. (1987). From labour history to the history of industrial relations. The Economic History Review, 40(2), 159–184. doi:10.2307/2596686

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Career Cycle: The lifecycle of the employee-employer relationship beginning with ones awareness of the organization through their employment at the organization to the exit from the organization. Human Resource Management: An administrative function in organizations designed to maximize employee performance through the planning, organizing and coordinating of activities such as hiring, firing, performance management and training.

21

 Perspectives on the Historical Evolution of the People Side of Business

Industrial Organizational Psychology: The scientific study of human behavior in organizations and the work place focused on deriving principles of individual, group and organizational behavior and applying this knowledge to the solution of problems at work. Organizational Behavior: The study of the way people interact within groups. Personnel Administration: An administrative function of an organization that exists to provide the personnel needed for organizational activities and to manage the general employee-employer relationship. Professional Societies: Usually a nonprofit organization seeking to further a particular profession, the interests of individuals engaged in that profession, and the public interest. Talent Management: A set of integrated organizational processes designed to attract, develop, motivate, and retain productive, engaged employees.

22

23

Chapter 2

Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research: An Example of Grounded Theory Data Analysis

Rifat Kamasak Bahcesehir University, Turkey

Meltem Yavuz Istanbul University, Turkey

Altan Kar Yeditepe University, Turkey

Sibel Baykut Bahcesehir University, Turkey

ABSTRACT This chapter aims to elaborate different research methods that can be employed in organizational studies. Since the complex and indivisible relationships between the constructs and nature of the social content about the phenomena can be understood better through qualitative methods, importance of qualitative investigation is mentioned and a detailed explanation of grounded theory data analysis as a qualitative method is provided. Grounded Theory mainly suggests that theory can be discovered in qualitative data. The theory employs a specific method that follows symbolic interactionism in viewing humans as active agents in their own lives who create meaning in the processes of action and interaction. Grounded Theory which deems researchers as active participants in the construction of knowledge leading to generation of theory has been used in organizational research widely. Therefore, the chapter also offers an example of the application of grounded theory by using several extracts from the sample transcripts of interviewees.

INTRODUCTION The selection of a research methodology is crucial since it guides the conduct of the research and affects the quality and the accuracy of research results (Creswell, 2014; He & van de Vijver, 2016; Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2012; Scandura & Williams, 2000). Remenyi et al. (1998) stress the critical role of an appropriate methodology choice in obtaining thorough knowledge about a specific problem. The extant research methods literature provides two major research paradigms: positivism and phenomenolDOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2250-8.ch002

Copyright © 2017, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

ogy (Collis & Hussey, 2013; Robson & McCartan, 2016). The term research paradigm has emerged from Kuhn’s (1962) view and has been used “to denote a particular worldview that constitutes a researcher’s values, beliefs and methodological assumptions” (O’Neil & Koekemoer, 2016, p. 3). The assumptions of each paradigm show differences in terms of researchers’ ontology, epistemology, axiology, and methodology (Eriksson & Koalainen, 2008; Howell, 2016). While positivism describes ontology as being objective, phenomenology describes subjective (Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006; Saunders et al., 2012). Typically, positivist research is equated with quantitative research but qualitative research is linked phenomenology paradigm. Therefore, different labels for these paradigms are frequently used in the methodology literature. While rationalist, normative, and quantitative terms are interchangeably used to describe the positivism paradigm, phenomenology is often termed as social constructivism, interpretivism and qualitative research. Positivists suggest that “exploration can only be based upon observed and captured facts using direct data or information” because of the concrete and external nature of the world (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002, p. 25). However, the phenomenology paradigm posits that “the real world is determined by people rather than by objective and external observable facts” (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002, p. 26). Truth and reality are deemed as social phenomena that do not act independently from social actors. Dynamics of social events along with the human activity make the social world too complex to be explained in simple positivist terms. Obviously, this complex world cannot be explored without discovering all details of social relations, events, situations and the mechanisms behind such situations (Collis & Hussey, 2013; Remenyi et al., 1998). In the phenomenological paradigm, human activity was concerned with “a collection of symbols expressing layers of meaning” (Maqsood, 2006, p. 93). In a similar line, Blustein et al. (2005) and Willig (2013) state that phenomenological paradigm is especially relevant for the studies where work is embedded in complex layers of social, cultural, and political meanings. Therefore, the phenomena can only be analyzed and understood through “assessing the meanings that participants assign to them” (Rastrick, 2008, p. 54). Empirical work and theoretical knowledge are often seen as the most interesting, valuable and prestigious part of a scientific study. But lack of theoretical contribution was frequently mentioned by scholars in most of the organizational research (Aytug et al., 2012; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2016). According to Alvesson and Kärreman (2013), “the empirical and theoretical elements are not always engaged in a productive interplay” (p. 2), since the most appropriate methodology that can bridge this gap was not always selected by researchers.

BACKGROUND There is still an ongoing argument among the defenders of positivist and phenomenological paradigms about the usability of these research methods. According to positivists, qualitative data do not exist since “everything is distinctively measurable, either 1 or 0, black or white” (Maqsood, 2006, p. 93). However, phenomenology paradigm researchers oppose this view by claiming that “all data are basically qualitative and so they attach meaning to raw experience, words or numbers” (Maqsood, 2006, p. 93). Such arguments have been continuing for a long time in the research methodology literature. Main distinctions between two different research paradigms are outlined in Table 1.

24

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

Table 1. Main Distinctions Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods (Adapted from Song, 2007, p. 77) Quantitative Research Methods • Deductive; theory testing • Positivism • Hard • Fixed • Objective • Value-free • Survey • Hypothesis-testing • Abstract

Qualitative Research Methods • Inductive; theory building • Phenomenology • Soft • Flexible • Subjective • Political • Case study • Speculative • Grounded

Quantitative methods which emphasize quantification in the collection and data analysis aim to make predictions and explanations that are general to other circumstances and settings (Podsakoff et al., 2016; Kovacic, 2008; Song, 2007). Researchers who prefer employing quantitative methods adopt a nomothetic approach, “thus emphasizing the importance of the deduction of theoretical ideas from earlier knowledge” (Alvesson & Kärreman, 2013, p. 2). Based on rigid sampling, quantitative methods obtain data through questionnaire surveys, on-site observations and secondary data sources and use statistics tools to analyze the data and draw meaningful conclusions. In quantitative analysis, measurable relationships between identifiable constructs are explored and established hypotheses are tested (Alvesson & Kärreman, 2013; Corbetta, 2003; Scandura & Williams, 2000). Various data collection and analysis approaches that are commonly used in quantitative research are shown in table 2. Table 2. Data Collection and Analysis Approaches Used in Quantitative Research (Adapted from Yin, 2003 and Maqsood, 2006) Data Collection and Analysis Approach

Research Questions

Key Features

Laboratory Experiments

How, why

Identification of the precise relationships between chosen variables in a designed laboratory situation. Uses quantitative analysis and allows intensive study of a small number of variables.

Field Experiments

How, why

Extension of laboratory experiments into real-life situations. However, it is often difficult to find organizations prepared to be experimented upon.

Archival Analysis

Who, what, where, how many/much

Based upon the quantitative and qualitative analysis of archival records to describe the incidence or prevalence of a phenomenon, or to be predictive about certain outcomes.

Forecasting Future Research

What, how much

Providing insights into likely future events or impacts, these studies use techniques that include regression analysis, time series analysis, or the Delphi method and change analysis. They attempt to deal with the impact of change, but must deal with complexity and changing relationships between variables under study.

Simulation, Game and Role Playing

What, how

Used to study situations that are otherwise difficult to analyze by simulating the behavior of the system by the generation or introduction of random variables.

Surveys

Who, what, where, how many/ much

Questionnaires, interviews and observation are used to obtain data on the practices, situations or views of a sample of a particular population. Surveys allow large numbers of variables to be analyzed quantitatively, but do not provide insight into underlying causes.

25

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

In organizational research, qualitative methods that aim to investigate a phenomenon and provide a rich understanding about the issues, actors, and events were frequently used. Nonetheless, the volume of qualitative organizational research being produced is still limited when compared with the amount of quantitative research being conducted (Molina-Azorin, 2012; Podsakoff et al., 2016). Although a growing number of researchers in organizational research and psychology are beginning to use qualitative methods, there is still a scepticism about their validity and reliability among some scholars (Carrera-Fernández, Guàrdia-Olmos, & Peró-Cebollero, 2014). Charmaz (2014) states that many social scientists “viewed qualitative research as impressionistic, idiosyncratic, anecdotal, and biased” (p. 1076). However, in order to reveal the complex and indivisible relationships between the constructs and to provide a rich social content about the phenomena, the social actors’ perceptions of the meanings embedded within social settings should have been observed and therefore, the focus on the unfolding process was emphasized (Charmaz, 2014; Scandura & Williams, 2000). Interpretivism does not aim to falsify or identify a variable, but it focuses on uncovering embedded and perceived meanings as ascribed by the participants. In this sense, truth is viewed as relative and existence of multiple realities is accepted. While keeping its complexity intact, the interpretive research may provide several descriptions of realities. According to the interpretivist method, in order to provide a full understanding about a phenomena, subjective evaluations and interpretations of informants should be carefully analyzed. Creswell (2014) suggests that people who try to investigate their world consciously and/or unconsciously attribute meanings to their experiences. Moreover, the researcher becomes an active agent in the research process through his or her own perceptions and interpretations (O’Neil & Koekemoer, 2016). Therefore, a research which ignores the perceptions and interpretations of the researcher may not offer sufficient results. Several researchers (e.g., Charmaz, 2014; Madill & Gough, 2008; Yin, 2003) consider qualitative methods more insightful and holistic than quantitative methods. Yin (2003) states that theory building is at the heart of qualitative research (Yin, 2003). Because of the exploratory nature of qualitative research, qualitative findings mostly derive various deeper and unexpected insights. According to Miles and Huberman (1994), this does not only provide a better understanding of social phenomena, but also “helps in the development and refinement of a hypothesis that can be verified by a positivist approach to develop its significance or cause effect relationship” (Maqsood, 2006, p. 93). Examples of qualitative analysis methods include case study, content analysis, grounded theory, discourse analysis, ethnography, thematic analysis, rapid assessment, task analysis, and action research (CarreraFernández et al., 2014). The most well-known qualitative analysis and data collection approaches are depicted in Table 3. Qualitative methods have long been used in industrial and organizational psychology (I/O) research. The study of Cascio and Aguinis (2008) examined the research activities in the (I/O) literature from 1963 to 2007. Based on the data which included 5,780 articles from top (I/O) journals, content analysis and grounded theory were found among the popular qualitative research methods employed in the area. In fact, qualitative methodologies made significant contributions to the development of (I/O) discipline. Qualitative methods were also employed by eminent psychologists such as Kurt Lewin, Henry Murray, and others (Rogers, 2000). These historical references show the relevance that qualitative methods have had in the development of the (I/O) field. In addition, especially after late 1990s, qualitative analyses were conducted through sophisticated software as a result of technological breakthroughs (Carrera-Fernández et al., 2014). The establishments of the British Psychological Society (BPS) in 2005 and the Qualitative Research Division 26

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

Table 3. Data Collection and Analysis Approaches Used in Qualitative Research (Adapted from Yin, 2003 and Maqsood, 2006) Data Collection and Analysis Approach

Research Questions

Key Features

Case study

How, why, what

Case studies can either be explanatory, exploratory, or descriptive, in all cases focusing on contemporary phenomenon in real-life settings. They allow the capture and analysis of many variables, but are generally restricted to a defined event or organization, making generalization difficult.

Archival analysis

Who, what, where, how many/much

Based upon the quantitative and qualitative analysis of archival records to describe the incidence or prevalence of a phenomenon, or to be predictive about certain outcomes.

History

How, why

Explanatory studies that deal with operational links over time.

Subjective, Argumentative

What

A creative, free-flowing, unstructured approach to theory building that is based upon opinion and speculation. A subjective approach that places considerable emphasis upon the perspective of the researcher, its objective is the creation of new ideas and insights.

Action research

What to do, how, why

This is applied research where there is an attempt to obtain results and benefits of practical value to groups with whom the researcher is allied, while at the same time maintaining a holistic perspective and adding to theoretical knowledge. The underlying philosophy is that the presence of the researcher will change the situation under investigation.

Grounded theory

What, how

A structured approach to forming and eliciting theory grounded in data.

Descriptive, Interpretive

What, how, why

Based upon the philosophy that phenomena are the essence of experience, this form of research seeks to represent reality using an in-depth self-validating process in which presuppositions are continually questioned, and the understanding of the phenomena under study is refined. The approach allows the development of cumulative knowledge by incorporating the thorough review of the literature and past research as well as the current investigation. This encourages additional insight, and well as ensuring that subsequent research builds on past endeavors.

in the American Psychological Association (APA) has supported the use of new qualitative methods in the (I/O) research. The successful applications of qualitative methods, especially within the context of cultural diversity, and their ability to generate hypotheses and their capability to face topics in depth began to be considered valuable (Carrera-Fernández et al., 2014). Against all developments about the use of qualitative methods in the (I/O) field, a research conducted Kidd (2002) found that only 1.3 percent of the manuscripts accepted by 15 APA journals between 1989 and 1999 employed qualitative methods. No qualitative article was found in five of the analyzed journals (Carrera-Fernández et al., 2014). In a similar type of research, the study of Marchel and Owens (2007) which was based on a subsequent search of 57 journals associated with the APA revealed that out of the 96,379 articles published between 1950 and 2002, only 1,248 were considered qualitative (CarreraFernández et al., 2014). The proportion of 1.29 percent verified the findings of the Kidd study. In a more recent study, Carrera-Fernández et al. (2014) conducted a bibliometric study of research publications to provide updated and valuable results about the use of qualitative analysis methods in the (I/O) field. Through 32 keywords and a database search of the Web of Science (WoS), they found 6,283 publications to analyze. The results showed that the most commonly used methods in the field were content analysis (1827), grounded theory (743), discourse analysis (668), action research (404), and ethnography (308).

27

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

Among the qualitative research methods, “grounded theory”, which is a methodology that is grounded in data systematically gathered by multiple sources, was widely used by management and (I/O) researchers (Charmaz, 2014; Howell, 2016). Grounded theory which has been treated “as a neutral, scientific frame of inquiry that researchers can apply anywhere with varied epistemologies” (Charmaz, 2014, p. 1076) has been popular in organization research for three reasons (Jones & Noble, 2007): “it is useful for developing new theory or fresh insights into old theory; it generates theory of direct interest and relevance for practitioners; and it can uncover micro-management processes in complex and unfolding scenarios” (p. 84). Similarly, O’Reilly, Paper and Marx (2012) explain the strength and uniqueness of the approach from an epistemological perspective by mentioning the analytic guidelines that compose the grounded theory: the constant comparative method, theoretical coding, theoretical sampling, theoretical saturation, and theoretical sensitivity. The theory is “grounded” because it is related to and grounded on the qualitative data collected (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Since grounded theory is not rigidly structured as some positivistic paradigms (Glaser, 1992), it allows researchers adopt inductive development and modification of theory through qualitative analysis. This chapter aims to provide a detailed explanation about how grounded theory is used in organizational research. The chapter also offers an example of the application of the grounded theory process that includes data coding, category grouping and labeling by using several extracts from the sample transcripts of interviewees.

GROUNDED THEORY APPROACH Since the late 1980s, grounded theory has become the dominant qualitative approach in many disciplines including management and (I/O). Grounded theory, which is a structured approach to forming and eliciting theory grounded in data, was first presented by two sociologists, Barney G. Glaser and Anslem L. Strauss in 1967 when they were researching in the field of “healthcare and nursing” (Walsh et al., 2015). In the 1960s and 1970s, the research climate of the time ‘‘had the unfortunate consequence of discrediting the generation of theory through flexible qualitative and quantitative research’’ (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, p. 223). The approach mainly advocates that theory should just emerge by itself from the data rather than being discovered somewhere else. Because grounded theory can provide efficient means of generating theory that elicits the present situation as it occurs “out there” in reality, it generally becomes a natural choice for the social scientists. However, although the method enables a researcher to move to empirical generalization through the data, it cannot be entered to the field completely free from previous literature and ideas but the role of literature in grounded theory is still arguable (Heath & Cowley, 2004; O’Reilly et al., 2012). Several researchers (e.g., Creswell, 2014; Saunders et al., 2012) suggest that if the phenomena being investigated has a rigorously established theoretical background, researchers have no luxury of omitting the extant literature completely. Walsh et al. (2015) highlight that “the term grounded theory itself leads to misunderstanding” (p. 582). Grounded theory does not only describe a research process, but also provides the end result which is empirically grounded in data. Identification of a ‘‘core’’ category (or categories) that emerges from the qualitative data to explain the main concern is the focal point of the method (Charmaz, 2014). Another controversial issue in grounded theory is about the presence of the researcher in processing data and in developing theory (Jones & Noble, 2007; Walsh et al., 2015). After several years from the emergence 28

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

of grounded theory, Glaser and Strauss adopted different approaches for the distance of a researcher to theory development process (Conlon et al., 2015; Jones & Noble, 2007). In this context, while Glaser has been more conservative than Strauss with the idea that nothing should be forced or preconceived by researchers in theorizing, Strauss designated an interactive and provocative role to researchers for theory development through logical elaboration, and preconceived tools and techniques (Charmaz & Belgrave, 2012; Conlon et al., 2015; Jones & Noble, 2007). Therefore, the approaches of researchers were termed as classical (Glaserian) and constructivist (Straussian) grounded theories in the literature. According to Conlon et al. (2015), “grounded theories are products of emergent processes that occur through interaction, constructed by researchers from the fabric of interactions, both witnessed and lived” (p. 40).

The Role of Theory in the Grounded Approach In theory development through grounded approach, while Glaser (1992) argues that a researcher should adopt the research problem with almost no prior models and previous literature in mind, Strauss and Corbin (1998) suggest that past experiences, understandings, and existing literature should be used in developing theory to stimulate theoretical sensitivity. They also claim that inductive aspects which may cause to extremely subjective research findings should not be overplayed. According to Creswell (2014), the ideal starting point in building new theory is to omit all preconceptions emerging from existing literature, but this is impractical and misleading. In fact, starting from the early years of the method, researchers (e.g., Atkinson, Coffey, & Delamont, 2003; Bryant, 2009; Martin & Turner, 1986) urged that preconceptions could not be completely abandoned, though they indicated that the researcher should approach the data with an open mind. Conlon et al. (2015) highlight that theory development “involving existing literature, abstract conceptualization from data, and considering all possible explanations to get to the most plausible explanation, critically brings theoretical sensitivity into the process” (p. 40). In a similar line, Creswell (2014), Eisenhardt (1989), and Saunders et al. (2012) concur that unless the field of research is truly novel, existing literature should be considered and incorporated with current research to guide the formation of research questions and ensure that the research is valuable to the field. Lin (2007), stating that failure to refer to relevant literature reduces confidence in findings, suggests the literature comparison helps the researcher to find “similarities, differences and reasons behind any new hypothesis and has the overall effect of increasing both the quality and validity of findings” (p. 132). Therefore, if the researcher aims to further investigate an issue that has a strong theoretical base by grounded approach, the previous literature cannot be ignored completely in theory development. In such a process, the emerging theory would be shaped by the combination of the raw data collected and the existing literature as another source of data as the theory starts to form. Besides, the process would enable the researcher to compare “the emerging theory with concepts already present in the literature and help identify concepts and categories of the structure of resultant theory” (Rastrick, 2008, p. 68). However, while developing theory, the researcher should be meticulous in using the current literature and sensitive to possibilities of changing theories so that theorizing becomes based on the data completely. In the process, extreme induction may be avoided with the concern that it may deprive researcher of useful theoretical viewpoints and concepts that can help guide further exploration of the phenomenon. Apart from the role of prior research, the procedure of analyzing the complex data to build theory in grounded approach is shown in the following sections.

29

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

The Procedure of Analyzing Raw Data The analysis of raw data collected from multiple sources is the vital process in grounded theory approach. The coding and analyzing procedures are explained through real data obtained from sample interview transcripts below.

Data Coding The main purpose of data coding is to reduce, organize, and compare the large amount of data collected (Creswell, 2014; O’Reilly et al., 2012). In our sample, the data were collected through interviews. Therefore, the data coding stage which includes a line by line analysis of the different scripts generated from the interviews began by discovering and identifying the central concepts and their properties. Central concepts are the ideas and the building blocks of a theory which expose the thoughts and meanings about the phenomenon that are represented through the data (Kovacic, 2008). Data collection process may yield a large amount of data that can lead to the danger of drowning in data. For this reason, the researcher should follow a systematic coding process that breaks the huge amount of data down into smaller sections (Saunders et al., 2012; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Hence, after a detailed examination and comparison for similarities and differences in the scripts based on the words, phrases, meanings, sentences or whole paragraphs that can provide connections to the research objectives and questions, the complete raw data should be set down into manageable parts and an initial code should be assigned to each central concept (O’Reilly et al., 2012; Strauss & Corbin, 1998).

Initial Data Coding Although the raw data can be analyzed in a line by line style, in order to overcome the time-consuming effects of the method and to possess a more complete and precise story about the phenomena, the sentences, paragraphs, and the entire document should be analyzed in a more holistic manner (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Therefore, the transcripts should be first revised in a holistic way by taking notes in the margins of the pages instead of just focusing on the frequency of the words and checking the relationships of the words and sentences with the potential phenomena, central concepts and categories (Fendt & Sachs, 2008; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The first holistic revision of the data enables the researcher to investigate the central concepts and assign an initial code to each central concept.The central concepts should be selected and identified based on their connections to the research objectives and questions, the criteria for choosing a central category offered by Strauss and Corbin (1998) are shown in Table 4. In our research, the initial coding phase yielded three central resource categories which were consistent with the previous resource-based view (RBV) literature: tangible resources, intangible resources and capabilities. In identifying the central resource categories, the previous resource-based literature was also considered. In the transcripts, all mentioned resources (e.g., such as cash, financial investments, raised financial capital, production equipment, raw materials, manufacturing facilities, machinery, physical buildings, real estate, land etc.) that can be observed, touched, and quantified by accounting standards were deemed as tangible resources (Barney & Hesterly, 2010; Galbreath & Galvin, 2006). Hence, as an initial code, TR was assigned for the tangible resources mentioned in the study. Similarly, considering the resource-based theory (Boyd, Bergh, & Ketchen, 2010; Molloy et al., 2011; Norman, Butler, & Ranft, 2013; Wang et al., 2016) resources that are intangible in nature (e.g., copyrights, 30

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

Table 4. The Central Category Selection Criteria in Qualitative Analysis (Strauss and Corbin, 1998, p. 147) 1

It must be central; that is, all other major categories can be related to it.

2

It must appear frequently in the data. This means that within all or almost all cases, there are indicators pointing to that concept.

3

The explanation that evolves by relating the categories is logical and consistent.

4

The name or phrase used to describe the central category should be sufficiently abstract that it can be used to do research in other substantive areas, leading to the development of a more general theory.

5

As the concept is refined analytically through integration with other concepts, the theory grows in depth and explanatory power.

6

The concept is able to explain variation as well as the main point made by the data; that is, when conditions vary, the explanation still holds, although the way in which a phenomenon is expressed might look somewhat different. One also should be able to explain contradictory or alternative cases in terms of that central idea.

registered designs, patents, organizational culture, brand name reputation, corporate image, strategic partnerships) were detected in the scripts and the initial code IR was assigned to the central intangible resources category. In order to detect the capabilities mentioned in the interviews, the researcher focused on the skills which possess the ability of turning static resources into competitive advantage that were mentioned in the qualitative data especially with the help of existing RBV literature (Helfat & Martin, 2015; Leiblein, 2011; Maritan & Peteraf, 2011). In the scripts, the respondents especially mentioned the important roles of human resource (both for the employees and managers) quality, relationships built and maintained with customers, suppliers and distributors, and the systems which refer to the business processes (e.g., IT and supply chain systems) to create new configurations of resources. Moreover, the significance of revealing the tacit knowledge, advantages obtained from networking abilities, and possessing organizational routines were frequently emphasized as the key mechanisms to achieve congruence between the firms’ resources and dynamic environmental conditions in the interviews. Therefore, as an initial code, CAP was assigned for the aforementioned capabilities in this research. An example of the coding process along with the other stages of grounded theory is provided below. An extract from a transcript of an interviewee which is a representative of other transcripts is used. Although the sample is a brief extract and it does not highlight all of the phenomena, it is an appropriate representative of the process used throughout the data analysis.

Transcript Extract The first step is undertaken to identify the phenomena and to examine the text through looking at events, objects, actions, or interactions that are considered relevant to the research. Phenomena are identified in the below transcript extract and are numbered and marked in bold.

Sample #1 Interview date: 10.04.2012 (Kamasak, 2014) Erm, then the senior team that was formed to help outsider consultants made a conclusion that (1) they wanted to be able to realize this change, and as a result of that, (2) from top to bottom, (3) our staff showed a keen interest for achieving this. And then a (4) lot of collaboration across functionality between headquarters, branches, and other departments occurred (5) to end this in the best manner.

31

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

Indeed, it was a difficult and (6) long period of time whilst (7) members of the whole organization collaborated on it. The fact that (8) everyone focused on the target and decided to do stuff in line with the requirements of the project, we needed to (9) figure out the most efficient way of doing it. And the reason it took so long, actually it is not finished yet, is because of having that (10) effective and excited conversation which took place among our staff in the (11) different branches who were saying we want to do this way and the consultants saying well, are you sure that makes sense that is a kind of issue needs serious remediation. However, although we were expecting to have at least modest resistance from our employees, (12) they have been so willing and supportive during the process. This situation really impressed me and made me think that the bank created some kind of a (13) change management capability with (14) the help of corporate culture. We always (15) respected to our employees and concerned them as a real source for sustaining competitive advantage since the establishment of the bank. Besides, we have (16) encouraged them (17) to develop their personal and technical skills, and (18) made them feel as our partners rather than employees. For this reason, we always (19) refrained adapting a strict hierarchical structure to the bank. I believe we are getting our (20) human resources investments worth now.

Sample #2 Interview date: 29.03.2012 (Kamasak, 2014) Probably the (21) brand name has the priority mostly in minds’ of the customers. In fact, we thought that (22) the patents and licenses might have a little bit more importance for the firm, but what we think may not be same with what our customers think and (23) they are (customers) always right. However, (24) brand and patent are really attached to each other. Those are the things to be considered for a real valuation of a firm apart from (25) cash flow statements and equipment. (26) Ownership of well-known brands is extremely important in our (food) business where hygiene and (27) product reliability issues cause maximum concern on customers. A recent marketing research study indicated Ülker as the second (28) most recognized brand in Turkey, in all categories.

Sample #3 Interview date: 30.05.2012 (Kamasak, 2014) (29) Human capital is a big deal in this business. This business, just like I think most all businesses that must produce (30) special services and sell directly to their customers, (31) the human piece of this is a big intangible resources. For this reason, we need to understand the (32) dedication and talent of our people and utilize from them as much as we can. We have several consultants who are just (33) extremely talented people that do (34) high quality job of (35) understanding the needs of the customers and (36) offering different sophisticated solutions. This is the rule of the game, competition is fierce in every industry and you are on the stage as long as you can differentiate yourself from others. In this context, our (37) organizational culture dictates to us excellence in delivering what we promise and adding value beyond the expectations and we believe that (38) excellence can only be achieved through innovation, agility and skilled people who are open to learning. (39) Recruiting enough good people is a big challenge for us because there are simply not enough new skilled graduates at our standards. Therefore, apart from attracting (40) talented people by using our (41) corporate reputation and offering a high standard of life for the future to work and stay with us, (42) we have to 32

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

provide our people the opportunity to learn, grow, and succeed on their own terms as well. Having (43) the best consultants is the only way of keeping and retaining (44) our customers whose relationships trace back to 10 to 15 years. Phenomena identified from the extracts are labelled and listed below: (1) Future plan (2) Motivation from top to down (3) Ambition of the staff for success (4) Functional cooperation and collaboration (5) Efficiency sought (6) Concern for time (7) Altogether collaboration (8) High commitment (9) Efficiency and optimization search (10) Effective communication (11) Joint decision making, different visions (12) High commitment (13) Organizational agility (14) Supportive corporate culture (15) Highly respected and empowered staff (16) Consideration of the needs of the employees as a policy (17) Investing to HR (18) Empowered staff (19) Flat organizational structure (20) Investing to HR (21) Importance of brand (22) Importance of patents and licenses (23) Customer orientation (24) Brand and patent relationship (25) Use of cash flow and equipment (26) Well-known brands (27) Product quality concerns of customers (28) Recognized brand (29) Human capital as a source of performance (30) Special services (31) The role of HR quality (32) Highly dedicated staff (33) Skilled and qualified staff (34) High quality concern of the firm (35) Knowledge and information gain (36) Solutions that comprise know-how (37) The role of organizational culture (38) Innovativeness and creativity of staff (39) HR policies adopted 33

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

(40) Quality and skills of the employees (41) The role of corporate reputation (42) Learning desire of the staff / HR policy (43) Quality and skills of the employees (44) Long-term relations with the customers The next stage of the coding process includes grouping similar phenomena and re-labelling them as concepts. The number shown in brackets names relate to the phenomena numbered in the previous step. (A) Core values, shared vision and attitudes (1, 3, 5, 6, 9, 14, 37) (B) Organizational commitment (2, 8, 12, 32) (C) Teamwork (4, 7) (D) Open communication (10) (E) Joint problem solving (11) (F) Change management skills (13) (G) Empowerment, job satisfaction (15, 18) (H) Firm policy (16, 17, 20, 23, 34, 39) (I) Flat organizational structure (19) (J) Investment to HR (17) (K) Unique brands (21, 24, 26, 28) (L) Registered and protected patents and licenses (22, 24) (M) Cash flow (25) (N) Equipment (25) (O) Quality perception (27) (P) Professional service know-how (30, 36) (Q) Skilled and qualified employees (29, 31, 33, 40, 43) (R) Knowledge and information sharing (35) (S) Innovation ability (38) (T) Creativity (38) (U) Strong corporate reputation (41) (V) Openness to learning (42) (W) Relationships established with customers (44) This initial data coding procedure provided some benefits to the researcher. First, data analysis process became much easier. Second, it enabled the researcher to assess the main central resource categories which were used to define the sub-categories of these resources that led to the organization of the resources and capabilities in a coherent manner.

Second Level Data Coding In the second level data coding, the identified central resource categories were divided into sub-categories in order to have a clearer picture and better understanding about the interactions and links between different resources and capabilities. Sub-resource categories were generated by the detailed line by line analysis of the holistic central resource concepts and categories along with the review of current 34

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

resource-based literature. In the last stage of coding, concepts that were found to be conceptually similar or related are then termed categories (Figure 1). The letters shown in brackets related to the concepts presented in the previous step. Therefore, the proposed conceptual model of the resource pool identifies the key resources and capabilities which demonstrate contribution to firm success. Obviously, this model does not capture all the resources mentioned in the literature or the ones that may bear in mind of a researcher. Although every resource or capability can be necessary to execute a specified market strategy, the RBV theorizes that the relative contribution of each resource differs and the resources which play the major role in the attainment of the firm success are strategic in nature (Barney & Hesterly, 2010; Maritan & Peteraf, 2011). Therefore, the identification and categorization of the resource and capability constructs based on the relevant literature and interview data has been a considerable challenge for the researcher.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Resources are organizational in origin and complex, and neither their identification nor their role in creating performance can be assessed easily. Obviously, understanding of complex nature of resources that are embedded in organizations designates the need for fieldwork based qualitative methods like grounded theory. The importance of grounded theory in developing a conceptual resource list and understanding the managerial and organizational processes through which the resources become valuable is emphasized in the organizational literature (Molina-Azorin, 2012). Nevertheless, while investigating the complex interactions between constructs through qualitative studies, the necessity of quantitative methodology for the law-like generalization and validation of a powerful and stringent theory should not be ignored. Although the grounded theory approach was frequently used by researchers to examine the complex relationships between different constructs and the approach was elaborated with all details, each single research method has some limitations and grounded theory approach is not an exception. Therefore, alternative methods including a combination of different approaches that capture data for construct development and measurement along with empirical testing are required (Harrigan, 2009; Saunders et al., 2012). One approach is the use of mixed-methodology including quantitative and qualitative methods together. Mixed-methods research is found in the management and (I/O) literature, but it is rarely used (Harrigan, 2009; Molina-Azorin, 2012). In his specific study, Molina-Azorin (2009) found only 30 research articles using mixed-methods that have been published in all the issues of Strategic Management Journal between 1984 and 2006. As an illustrative example of mixed-methods research, Sharma and Vredenburg (1998) conducted a two-phase qualitative – quantitative (QUAL → QUAN) sequential research design in the Canadian oil and gas industry which aims to ground the RBV of the firm within the domain of corporate environmental responsiveness. In the first phase (exploratory), the linkages between environmental strategies and the development of capabilities along with the nature of any emergent capabilities and their competitive outcomes were examined through in-depth interviews in seven firms in the Canadian oil and gas industry. The first phase ended with a qualitative content analysis and two hypotheses based on previous literature and the findings of qualitative study. In the second phase (confirmatory), the relationship between emergent linkages and competitive outcomes was empirically tested through a mail survey-based study. While the qualitative 35

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

Figure 1. Main Construct Categories

36

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

phase helps to get to know the industry and develop theory, hypotheses and the measurement instrument, the quantitative phase empirically examines the relationships for generalization and verification purposes. In another study, which examines the role of network knowledge resources in influencing firm performance in the American automotive supplier industry, Dyer and Hatch (2006) employed a mixedmethods research that consists of a quantitative – qualitative (QUAN → QUAL) sequential design. In the first phase of the study, the relationship between customer-to-supplier knowledge-sharing activities and the rate of improvement in supplier network performance was empirically examined by the quantitative part. Based on the empirical findings, a total of 13 interviews (in the qualitative part) were conducted to explore why the supplier performs better as a member of one network (i.e., Toyota’s) than another network (i.e., GM, Ford, or Chrysler) in the second phase. As a future research direction, another study may employ a research design that incorporates both qualitative and quantitative approaches that could identify key resource sets of firms, explore how these resources are converted into positions of advantage by managers, and test their effects on firm performance empirically.

CONCLUSION Different methodological perspectives that can be used in organizational research were summarized in this chapter and the grounded theory approach as a qualitative research method was covered. Indeed, the aim of this chapter was not to increase the popularity of a single research method, but rather to provide some practical information useful for researchers. It should be noted that selection of the appropriate methodology must be consistent with the research objectives. This appropriate methodology may be qualitative, quantitative, or a mixed-method. In order to resolve the ongoing debate on the supremacy of one method over another one, different methods can be employed through an approach of “triangulation” which refers to the combination of several research methods to study the same phenomenon. Therefore, the weaknesses, problems and intrinsic biases that may emerge from a single method or a single theory research can be overcome and the validity and reliability of the findings can be increased through convergence of different perspectives.

REFERENCES Alvesson, M., & Kärreman, D. (2013). The use of empirical material for theory development. In Qualitative research and theory development: Mystery as method (pp. 1–22). London: SAGE Publications. Atkinson, P., Coffey, A., & Delamont, S. (2003). Key themes in quality research: Continuities and change. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press. Aytug, Z. G., Rothstein, H. R., Zhou, W., & Kern, M. C. (2012). Revealed or concealed? Transparency of procedures, decisions, and judgment calls in meta-analyses. Organizational Research Methods, 15(1), 103–133. doi:10.1177/1094428111403495 Barney, J. B., & Hesterly, W. S. (2010). Strategic management and competitive advantage: Concepts and cases (3rd ed.). Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

37

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

Blustein, D., Kenna, A., Murphy, K., De Voy, J., & DeWine, D. (2005). Qualitative research in career development: Exploring the centre and margins of discourse about careers and working. Journal of Career Assessment, 13(4), 351–370. doi:10.1177/1069072705278047 Boyd, B. K., Bergh, D. D., & Ketchen, D. J. Jr. (2010). Reconsidering the reputation-performance relationship: A resource-based view. Journal of Management, 36(3), 588–609. doi:10.1177/0149206308328507 Bryant, A. (2009). Grounded theory and pragmatism: The curious case of Anselm Strauss. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 10(3). Retrieved on August 4, 2010, from: www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/1358 Carrera-Fernández, M. J., Guàrdia-Olmos, J., & Peró-Cebollero, M. (2014). Qualitative methods of data analysis in psychology: An analysis of the literature. Qualitative Research, 14(1), 20–36. doi:10.1177/1468794112465633 Cascio, W. F., & Aguinis, H. (2008). Research in Industrial and Organizational Psychology from 1963 to 2007: Changes, choices, and trends. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(5), 1062–1081. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.5.1062 PMID:18808226 Charmaz, K. (2014). Grounded Theory in global perspective: Reviews by international researchers. Qualitative Inquiry, 20(9), 1074–1084. doi:10.1177/1077800414545235 Charmaz, K., & Belgrave, L. (2012). Qualitative interviewing and grounded theory analysis. In Handbook of interview research: The complexity of the craft (pp. 347–367). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. doi:10.4135/9781452218403.n25 Collis, J., & Hussey, R. (2013). Business research: A practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students (4th ed.). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Conlon, C., Carney, G., Timonen, V., & Scharf, T. (2015). Emergent reconstruction in grounded theory: Learning from team-based interview research. Qualitative Research, 15(1), 39–56. doi:10.1177/1468794113495038 Corbetta, P. (2003). Social research: Theory, methods and techniques. London: Sage Publications. doi:10.4135/9781849209922 Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Dyer, J. H., & Hatch, N. (2006). Relation-specific capabilities and barriers to knowledge transfers: Creating advantage through network relationships. Strategic Management Journal, 27(8), 701–719. doi:10.1002/smj.543 Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R., & Lowe, A. (2002). Management research. London: Sage Publications. Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 532–550. Eriksson, P., & Koalainen, A. (2008). Qualitative methods in business research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. doi:10.4135/9780857028044

38

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

Fendt, J., & Sachs, W. (2008). Grounded theory method in management research: Users perspectives. Organizational Research Methods, 11(3), 430–455. doi:10.1177/1094428106297812 Galbreath, J., & Galvin, P. (2006). Accounting for performance variation: How important are intangible resources? The International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 14(2), 150–170. doi:10.1108/10553180610742773 Glaser, B. (1992). Basics of grounded theory analysis. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. New York: Aldine. Harrigan, K. R. (2009). Using hybrid research methodologies for testing contingency theories of strategy. In D. Bergh & D. Ketchen (Eds.), Research methodology in strategy and management (Vol. 5, pp. 121–136). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. doi:10.1108/S1479-8387(2009)0000005006 Hatch, M. J., & Cunliffe, A. L. (2006). Organization theory (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. He, J., & van de Vijver, F. (2016). Cross-cultural methods of research. In H. L. Miller (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of theory in psychology (pp. 193–195). London: Sage Publications. Heath, H., & Cowley, S. (2004). Developing a grounded theory approach: A comparison of Glaser and Strauss. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 41(2), 141–150. doi:10.1016/S0020-7489(03)00113-5 PMID:14725778 Helfat, E. C., & Martin, A. J. (2015). Dynamic managerial capabilities: Review and assessment of managerial impact on strategic change. Journal of Management, 41(5), 1281–1312. doi:10.1177/0149206314561301 Howell, K. E. (2013). Grounded Theory. In An introduction to the philosophy of methodology (pp. 131–153). London: SAGE Publications. doi:10.4135/9781473957633.n9 Jones, R., & Noble, G. (2007). Grounded theory and management research: A lack of integrity? Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management, 2(2), 84–103. doi:10.1108/17465640710778502 Kamasak, R. (2014). The contribution of tangible and intangible resources, and capabilities to a firm’s profitability and market performance: Empirical evidence from Turkey (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). University of Exeter. Kidd, S. A. (2002). The role of qualitative research in psychological journals. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 126–138. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.126 PMID:11928887 Kovacic, W. (2008). Strategy making: Strategic initiative implementation in the context of renewing a firm’s sources of competitive advantage (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). University of Nottingham. Kuhn, T. S. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Leiblein, M. J. (2011). What do resource – and capability – based theories propose? Journal of Management, 37(4), 909–932. doi:10.1177/0149206311408321

39

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

Lin, C. T. S. (2007). Sources of competitive advantage for emerging fast growth small-to-medium enterprises: The role of business orientation, marketing capabilities, customer value and firm performance (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) University. Madill, A., & Gough, B. (2008). Qualitative research and its place in psychological science. Psychological Methods, 13(3), 254–271. doi:10.1037/a0013220 PMID:18778154 Maqsood, T. (2006). The role of knowledge management in supporting innovation and learning in construction (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) University. Marchel, C., & Owens, S. (2007). Qualitative research in psychology: Could William James get a job? History of Psychology, 10(4), 301–324. doi:10.1037/1093-4510.10.4.301 PMID:18348429 Maritan, A. C., & Peteraf, M. A. (2011). Building a bridge between resource acquisition and resource accumulation. Journal of Management, 37(5), 1374–1389. doi:10.1177/0149206310387675 Martin, P. Y., & Turner, B. A. (1986). Grounded theory and organizational research. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 22(2), 141–157. doi:10.1177/002188638602200207 Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Molina-Azorin, J. F. (2009). Understanding how mixed-methods research is undertaken within a specific research community: The case of business studies. International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches, 3(1), 47–57. doi:10.5172/mra.455.3.1.47 Molina-Azorin, J. F. (2012). Mixed-methods research in strategic management: Impact and applications. Organizational Research Methods, 15(1), 33–56. doi:10.1177/1094428110393023 Molloy, J. C., Chadwick, C., Ployhart, R. E., & Golden, S. J. (2011). Making intangibles tangible in tests of resource-based theory: A multidisciplinary construct validation approach. Journal of Management, 37(5), 1496–1518. doi:10.1177/0149206310394185 Norman, P. M., Butler, F. C., & Annette, L. R. (2013). Resources matter: Examining the effects of resources on the state of firms following downsizing. Journal of Management, 39(7), 2009–2038. doi:10.1177/0149206312443560 O’Neil, S., & Koekemoer, E. (2016). Two decades of qualitative research in Psychology, Industrial and Organisational Psychology and Human Resource Management within South Africa: A critical review. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 42(1), 1–16. OReilly, K., Paper, D., & Marx, S. (2012). Demystifying Grounded Theory for business research. Organizational Research Methods, 15(2), 247–262. doi:10.1177/1094428111434559 Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2016). Recommendations for creating better concept definitions in the organizational, behavioral, and social sciences. Organizational Research Methods, 19(2), 159–203. doi:10.1177/1094428115624965 Rastrick, K. C. (2008). Combining capabilities: A resource-based model of ICT advantage (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). University of Waikato, New Zealand.

40

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

Remenyi, D., Williams, B., Money, A., & Swartz, E. (1998). Doing research in business and management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Robson, C., & McCartan, K. (2016). Real world research. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Rogers, A. G. (2000). When methods matter: Qualitative research issues in psychology. Harvard Educational Review, 70(1), 75–85. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2012). Research methods for business students (6th ed.). Essex, UK: Pearson Education. Scandura, T. A., & Williams, E. A. (2000). Research methodology in management: Current practices, trends and implications for future research. Academy of Management Journal, 43(6), 1248–1264. doi:10.2307/1556348 Sharma, S., & Vredenburg, H. (1998). Proactive corporate environmental strategy and the development of competitively valuable organizational capabilities. Strategic Management Journal, 19(8), 729–753. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199808)19:83.0.CO;2-4 Song, H. (2007). The role of information and communication technologies in knowledge management: From enabler to facilitator (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) University, Australia. Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. London: Sage Publications. Walsh, I., Holton, J. A., Bailyn, L., Fernandez, W., Levina, N., & Glaser, B. (2015). What Grounded Theory is...A critically reflective conversation among scholars. Organizational Research Methods, 18(4), 581–599. doi:10.1177/1094428114565028 Wang, H., Choi, J., Wan, G., & Qi Dong, J. (2016). Slack resources and the rent-generating potential of firm-specific knowledge. Journal of Management, 42(2), 500–523. doi:10.1177/0149206313484519 Willig, C. (2013). Introducing qualitative research in psychology (3rd ed.). Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods. London, UK: Sage Publications.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Barney G. Glaser and Anslem L. Strauss: Sociologists who offered a general model for constructing new theory called grounded theory. Data Coding and Analysis: The process of combing the data for themes, ideas and categories and inspecting them to discover useful information. Emergent Reconstruction: Emergent processes that occur through interaction, constructed by researchers from the fabric of interactions, both witnessed and lived. Grounded Theory: A structured approach to forming and eliciting theory grounded in data.

41

 Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research

Interviewing: A face-to-face interaction with someone to have accurate information about something. Qualitative Research Methods: Research methods in which the researcher trusts textual data more than numerical data and analyzes this data in its textual form instead of transforming it into numbers for analysis, with the objective of understanding the meaning of human action. Research Methodology: The process of collecting information and data and analysing the data for the purpose of scientific inquiry. Theory Building: The process of building a statement of concepts and their interrelationships that shows how and/or why a phenomenon occurs.

42

43

Chapter 3

Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability: Coordination Mechanisms, Training Models, and Diagnostic Systems for Contingency Management Filippo Ferrari Bologna University, Italy

ABSTRACT In the International Strategic Management (ISM) field of research, a frequently studied problem is the impact of distance (both geographical and cultural) on organizational effectiveness and reliability. Furthermore, in multinational corporates, Human Resource Management practices play a fundamental role in order to provide peculiar skills to operators. In fact, in high reliability organizations (HROs), the operator is one who addresses operational issues, often far (hierarchically and physically) from the managerial level, alone or as part of a team. This article discusses issues related to 1) the coordination mechanisms used by a multinational organization to ensure reliability, 2) the characteristics possessed by the operator, and 3) the training strategies that should be used to develop their skills; provides a discussion of 4) the relationship between the group agent (team) and organizational reliability; lastly this chapter proposes 5) a diagnostic model in order to check the organizational reliability.

INTRODUCTION International strategic management1 (ISM) research saw rapid growth through the 1980s (Ricks et al., 1990) and the 1990s (Werner, 2002). In her review, Lu (2003) highlights that an important category of research in this field of study is leadership and organization, in particular internal coordination and decision-making. Studies in this group tend to view challenges involved in managing foreign subsidiaries such as issues of the control (Nobel & Birkinshaw, 1998) and coordination (e.g., Martinez & Jarillo, 1991) of international subsidiaries. Research has also examined knowledge flows in the organization DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2250-8.ch003

Copyright © 2017, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

(e.g., Ghoshal et al., 1994; Gupta & Govindarajan, 1991) and a firm’s need for internal coordination (Roth, 1995). Research on decision-making has focused on the effectiveness of planning (Jones et al., 1992), sometimes as contingent on the profiles and effectiveness of boards of directors (Kriger, 1991). From a strategic point of view, in a multinational company it is necessary to translate the subsidiary’s mission into individual objectives at the operator’s level, in accord with a bottom-down process. Hence, this chapter focuses on optimal coordination mechanisms to ensure reliability, and highlights the skills that an operator should have in order to function successfully, and suggests appropriate actions for achieving these skills. In this sense, this work has followed important suggestions from studies on High Reliability Organizations (HROs; Weick, Sutcliffe, 2007) and sensemaking capabilities (Weick, 1993; Lanzara, 1993), here supplemented by indications from the organizational theory of coordination and control (March, 1993; Olson et al., 2005). Given this theoretical scenario, the first aim of this chapter is to discuss issues related to the coordination mechanisms used by a multinational organization to ensure effectiveness and reliability. The whole effectiveness of a multinational organization depends also on the reliability of each subsidiary. Under what conditions can subsidiaries (and their operators) successfully cope with unexpected events? Organizations, and in particular subsidiaries of a multinational company, frequently perform in a situation characterized by bounded rationality (Simon, 1957), uncertainty (outputs/outcomes depending not only on the actions of operators: Jensen & Meckling, 1976), and distribution of information with information asymmetry in favor of the operators, since they are often closer to the “front line” of operations, and far from their headquarters. That characteristics are typical of an Agency Relationship or Theory (AT), largely studied in literature (for a review, Eisenhardt, 1989). Frequently, these units are ephemeral, as their life-cycle is determined by a specific task and/or temporary event. Despite their widespread diffusion, literature suggests that ephemeral organizations are less reliable than permanent ones (Lanzara, 1993; Weick, 1993). I chose semi-isolated, small units because existing literature (Watts, 1999; March, 2004; Fang et al. 2010) underlines several adaptive advantages due to isolation, especially in order to ‘maintain diversity and to explore more diverse solutions in the space of possibilities’ (Fang et al., 2010, p. 625). Despite this evidence, this chapter attempts to underline some weaknesses in small units’ reliability. In management and complex adaptive systems literature, exploration refers to the search for new, useful adaptations, and exploitation refers to the use and propagation of known adaptations (March, 1991; Mitchell, 1996). Hence, exploration seems to ensure more adaptive capabilities for organizations. However, ‘lazy organizations’ often utilized exploitation due to immediate and certain return (Denrell & March, 2001), but could experience future failures and economic losses. Furthermore, sometimes exploitation could also become an ‘invisible trap’ for these organizations: in fact, it’s possible that the current situation could be appraised as profitable and overall as excellent by organizations, in terms of effectiveness and efficiency, but at the same time neglecting reliability in the long term. As cited by Fang et al. (2010, 626), Holland (1992, p. 69) generalized such a dilemma as follows: “Deciding to what degree the present should be mortgaged for the future is a classic problem for all systems that adapt and learn.” Hence, the second aim of this chapter is to outline an organizational model in order to assess organizational resilience and reliability, overcoming the immediate advantages of exploitative behaviour and highlights the factors which, in the long term, could lead to organizational failures, especially in semi-isolated organizational units which face unexpected events (i.e., emergency rescue, subsidiaries, local branch, task force, project team etc.).

44

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND From the theoretical point of view (Lu, 2003), the transaction cost theory and the internalization theory have been the mainstream perspectives employed in ISM studies. Three other theoretical perspectives emerged in the 1990s: institutional theory, organizational learning/knowledge management (OL/KM) theory, and the resource-based view of the firm (RBV). The theoretical perspective adopted in the field of ISM has been shifting from economic theories to multidisciplinary approaches. This chapter aims to give a contribution to theoretical perspective by starting from the point of view of Agency Theory and Organizational Behaviour, providing a literature review focusing on the specific issue of organizational reliability. The AT describes the exchange relationship between an actor (the Principal, in this case the headquarters) who delegates to another actor (the Agent, in this case the subsidiary) the discretionary power (i.e., decision-making responsibilities) to act on behalf of the Principal for a reward (Jensen & Meckling, 1976; Ross, 1973). This exchange relationship makes it possible to align the Agent’s goals with the Principal’s for the sake of achieving desired efficacy. AT is concerned with resolving a problem that can occur in the agency relationship: the goals of the principal and of the agent may come into conflict, and it is difficult for the principal to control what the agent is actually doing. Asymmetrical sharing of information, in fact, can lead to opportunistic behaviour on the part of the agent, and this in turn can lead to unfavorable behaviour for the organization in terms of reliability. In line with an increasing body of literature, this chapter conceptualizes the Multi-National Corporation as consisting of semi-autonomous entities (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989; Gupta & Govindarajan, 1991; Ambos & Ambos, 2009), in which units in dispersed locations take on various missions and control heterogeneous stocks of knowledge (Foss & Pedersen, 2002). In accord with Ambos and Ambos (2009), knowledge is here defined as “accumulated practical skill or expertise that allows one to do something smoothly and efficiently” (Kogut & Zander, 1992, p. 386), and the distribution of information and knowledge is in favor of each company unit (the Agent in the agency relationship). In summary, from a theoretical point of view in an international perspective, AT shows a good fit in explaining the relationship between headquarter (the Principal) and its subsidiaries (the Agents).

Coordination Mechanisms to Ensure Reliability AT allows more effective identification of coordination and control mechanisms, with the aim of reducing the agent’s opportunistic behaviour. In particular, Jensen and Meckling (1976) started from the hypothesis that when the principal-agent relationship is output-based, the agent behaves more frequently in line with the principal’s goals. As noted by Ambos and Ambos (2009), knowledge flows across dispersed organizational units are vital for a company’s success (Bartlett & Ghoshal,1989; Hedlund,1994; Kogut & Zander, 1992). In the literature progress has been made with respect to the organizational mechanisms or capabilities used by multinational companies to transfer knowledge (Foss & Pedersen, 2002; Martin & Salomon, 2003a; Hansen & Lovas, 2004; Almeida et al., 2002). In an attempt to answer the question how different knowledge transfer mechanisms enhance the effectiveness of knowledge transfer itself, Ambos and Ambos (2009) take a closer look at two distinct mechanisms: personal coordination mechanisms (PCM) and technology-based coordination mechanisms (TCM). For instance, scholars suggest that mechanisms of coordination and control that rely on personal interactions between individuals are likely to be harmed by distance (Ambos & Ambos, 2009). Despite 45

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

this evidence, how can coordination mechanisms ensure effectiveness? Often, subsidiaries are far from headquarters and autonomous: when an unexpected event occurs, how can coordination mechanisms ensure reliability? Furthermore, organizational literature describes a number of coordination mechanisms, all aimed at ensuring that in an organization the right actions are carried out at the right time and place and by the right people (Roberts, 2004). This issue is so relevant that, for some authors, coordination is synonymous with organization (Hatchuel, 2002). The coordination mechanisms most studied are direct supervision, standardization by procedures, skills, outputs, and culture. Direct supervision will not be discussed here because, by choice, this chapter focuses on a situation in which the Agent is far (hierarchically but above all physically) from his Principle. Likewise, there will be no discussion of standardization by culture, as the required realization time is often too long for an organization. This chapter will therefore focus on standardization by skills, procedures (routine) and results (output), discussing them in the context of organizational reliability, namely contingency prevention and management. Standardization by skills seeks to provide an a priori definition of the range of skills that must be possessed by persons fulfilling given roles. This is a coordination mode typical of organizations possessing explicit, codified skills sets which are easily replicable and transferable (Grandori, 1992). This mechanism, while making it possible to deal with situations marked by complexity and high-level professionalism, is a preventive control mode whose practical effectiveness is limited in eccentric and unexpected situations. Procedural standardization implies an a priori definition of performance (March, 1993) or routine programs the operator must adhere to. Performance programs function well when the environment is stable and predictable, and they represent an “organizational memory” (Olson et al., 2005), yet they reveal insurmountable limits in conditions of uncertainty or in the presence of bounded rationality, since they do not provide the operator with a strategy for dealing with unexpected situations. Also, routines generate expectations about the environment which in turn cause a selective perception of information, thus limiting the knowledge of that environment (Weick & Sutcliffe, 2007). Standardization by output implies an a priori definition of the results to be achieved. It is a control mechanism based on greater autonomy of the operator, who is permitted margins of discretion even within the constraints that characterize the primary work system. In general, this mechanism proves effective (Merchant & Riccaboni, 2001) when the results to be achieved are known and accurately definable in advance, in a positive sense, or, as in the case of reliable organizations, in a negative sense (what it is desired to avoid at all costs). If standardization by output seems to be the most effective coordination mechanism in terms of preventive reliability, the characteristics of the operator must also be taken into account. In this sense, standardization by output does not deny expertise value; on the contrary, the mechanism of delegation and accountability by results is an antecedent of the Fifth HRO Principle: respect for expertise (Weick & Sutcliffe, 2007). In the context of process, responsibility for the result is assigned to those who are most skilled, regardless of rank, and where the skill in question is linked strictly to the expected result. In addition, the coordination mechanism by result is an antecedent of the Third HRO Principle: sensitivity to ongoing activities (Weick & Sutcliffe, 2007), since it transfers responsibility onto the agent acting in the real situation, in a context of subsidiarity (the problem, wherever it crops up, is dealt with in autonomy). Finally, standardization by output generates a high level of responsibility in an operator who is called on to act in a situation of uncertainty whose outcome does not depend solely on his ac-

46

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

tions. To prevent this uncertainty from being de-motivating, the operator must possess or acquire certain characteristics.

OPERATOR CHARACTERISTICS FOR CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT Standardization by output is considered a powerful means for aligning the operator’s objectives with the organization’s, but organizations must consider the operator’s characteristics in order not to delegate a task to the wrong person, thus endangering the survival of the person himself or even the entire organization. The psychological literature describes at least four operator characteristics associated with the management of high-uncertainty situations: the level of self-efficacy (Bandura & Wood, 1989); the internal locus of control (Rotter, 1966); bricolage skill and the attitude of wisdom (Weick, 1993). Self-efficacy indicates the extent to which a person feels capable of achieving a desired result. Bandura (1969a, 1969b, 1971) emphasizes and describes the influence on behavior of one’s own expectations and those of others, expectations that influence outcomes which, in turn, circularly influences subsequent expectations and outcomes. In other words, the attainment of an outcome influences the perception of one’s own abilities, as well as the expectations regarding the solution of similar problems in the future, and therefore the Agent’s behavior. Those with high levels of self-efficacy persevere in their goal-achieving attempts, attribute failure to lack of commitment and not to adverse situations, are able to cope with environmental stress, have ambitious career objectives, and attain personal success easily. In practical terms, the expectation of self-efficacy seems to be the best predictor of performance (Cooper & Robinson, 1991; Fuad, 1994). For the purposes of organizational reliability, it is important that self-efficacy not turn into overconfidence. The concept of locus of control “expresses the way in which events that occur in accordance with an internal/external polarity are interpreted. It also implies the subject’s perception of the possibility of controlling events.” (Di Fabio, 2003, p. 202). This perception is also referable differentially to positive and negative events. The locus of control is located along a continuum between two polarities, an internal one and an external one. The internal locus is typical of individuals who believe in their own ability to control events. They attribute their successes or failures to factors directly related to the exercise of their skills, determination and aptitudes. In contrast, the external locus characterizes those who consider life events, such as rewards or punishments, to be, not the result of the direct exercise of personal skills, but rather the result of unforeseeable external factors such as chance, luck or destiny. In the context of reliability, we can infer that the internal locus of control is correlated to greater proactivity on the part of the subject. Bricolage skill (Weick, 1993) is what enables an individual to find solutions by using the elements at hand; namely, the ability to see a solution which others fail to see. It is not an innate skill, but one based largely on the operator’s experience. If the operator has acquired a working knowledge of hundreds and hundreds of solutions, based on answers to as many different situations, his bricolage skill will consist of recalling the solution best suited to the problem he faces. ‘Bricoleurs remain creative under pressure, precisely because they routinely act in chaotic conditions and pull order out of them. Thus, when situations unravel, this is simply normal natural trouble for bricoleurs, and they proceed with whatever materials are at hand’ (Weick, 1993, p. 639). Knowing these materials intimately, they then are able, usually in the company of other similarly skilled people, to form the materials or insights into novel combinations. Likewise, Lanzara (1993) called negative capability the ability of an operator to 47

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

generate alternative frames for cognition in a specific situation. An organizational situation ‘produces the agent’s behaviour which, in turn, produces the organizational situation’ (Lanzara, 1993, p. 11). Negative capability is not oriented to apply to well-known routines, but to dispute the mechanisms that underlie a routine, and to assess the efficiency and effectiveness of the routine itself. The attitude of wisdom (Weick, 1993) should not be confused with wisdom itself (which is a knowledge derived from study): wisdom is knowing without excessive certainty and without excessive caution. Understanding the role of wisdom (Bigelow, 1992) as a source of resilience is a Socratic kind of knowledge (the operator knows he does not know), a kind of knowledge which is free of presumption on the one hand and of excessive caution on the other. The cocksure type is short on curiosity, while the milksop type is paralyzed; in either case, an imbalanced attitude towards the situation is to be expected. Psychologists have attempted to define wisdom variously as a composite of personal qualities or abilities (Ardelt, 2005), as the final state of psychosocial development (Herickson, 1982), as a high level of cognitive reasoning (Kramer, 2000), or even as a way to live ‘a good life’ (Yang, 2013). As an attitude, wisdom resides in individuals, and it has been conceptualized in at least two distinct (but not mutually exclusive) domains: a cognitive domain and a constellation of personal attributes. The Max-Planck model (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Dittmann-Kohli & Baltes, 1990; for a review, Kramer, 2000) posits five specific criteria of wisdom: 1) rich factual knowledge about the matters of life; 2) procedural knowledge about ways of dealing with life problems; 3) life-span contextualism and, more relevant to the aims of this paper 4) uncertainty in problem definition and finally 5) relativism regarding problem solution. It is important to note that this last element, wisdom, serves as a moderator of both self-efficacy and the internal locus of control, by preventing them from turning into overconfidence, which would lead to an underestimation of the situation’s danger.

Training Models Which Form the Basis of Reliability As described in the literature (Betz, 1992), an adequate level of self-efficacy and internal locus of control can be developed through training carried out in various ways. One of these is gaining a mastery of experience, by which goal achievement creates in the worker a sense of potentiality and therefore of effectiveness. Vicarious experiences are also important: watching others like oneself achieve a goal bolsters belief in one’s own capacities. Another factor that bolsters a sense of self-efficacy up is social persuasion: if third parties convince the worker of his abilities he will probably be encouraged to try harder to achieve his goal. This approach is consistent with the goal setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990). Among the moderators of the relationship between standardization by output and performance, the literature points to feedback (FB). Providing regular feedback on the agent’s progress in a given activity is a key success factor of his performance. Additionally, FB is the basis for any chance of seeing one’s value recognized, and thereby of increasing one’s self-esteem, sense of self-efficacy, and internal locus of control. FB is itself essentially a learning process which can be considered “information about our progress towards goals we want to achieve” (Schein, 2001, p. 141). The culture of error is a sine qua non for developing an attitude of wisdom. It has by now been proven (Weick & Sutcliffe, 2007) that organizational, managerial, and training models that exploit rather than penalize error and failure incidents are correlations of reliability, and in particular of the First HRO Principle: concern about critical events. Wisdom is built by making mistakes and allowing mistakes to happen, as long as the situation does not affect the survival of the system: it must, of course, occur in a protected environment. The curve of the function that binds experience and wisdom has the form 48

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

of an inverted “U”: at first it increases with experience, to the point where wisdom begins to diminish from overconfidence. Meacham (1983) argued that wisdom is an attitude rather than a skill or a body of information, and therefore it develops through a process of trial and error. Errors lead people to an enhanced awareness of the uncertainty of problem definition that reflects the ambiguity and multiple interpretations of organizational problems; finally, the attitude of wisdom is improved by exploitation of multiple solutions, even in opposition to each other: relativism in problem solving involves the recognition of the inherent unpredictability of outcomes (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Dittmann-Kohli & Baltes, 1990). Findings in literature (Lyster, 1996) suggest that sages underestimate their wisdom, and this is the ‘Socratic corecompetence’ that makes possible attitudes of wisdom; Lyster also found older people to be among the top scorers on wisdom criteria, leading her to assert that wisdom shows a different life-span evolution than other cognitive processes. Bricolage skill develops by imposing on others or oneself the solution to a problem with what one has at hand, without resorting to pre-defined solutions or appealing to more experienced persons. This is not a generative action, because nothing is created from nothing: to solve a problem, the ‘bricoleur’ exploits resources already available in the situation (information, tools, materials). Improvement of bricolage skills demands full delegation to the operator, who is responsible for output, in accordance with the statements of an output-based agency relationship. Furthermore, the operator is often acting far (hierarchically and physically) from the managerial level, alone or as part of a team, and so has ample autonomy in decision-making. According to the goal setting theory, standardization by output as a coordination mechanism has more efficacy if the desired goal is challenging and, conversely, a challenging goal is a powerful mechanism to elicit motivation and to force the operator to enhance bricolage skills. Finally, Lanzara (1993) suggests that only a breakdown event shows the origin and the limits of organizational routine; also, an unexpected event often shows the unconscious routines which underlie organizational behaviour. Therefore, as a training method, the creation of problematic and unexpected situations is the best way to improve bricolage skill.

BEYOND PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS: RESILIENCE IN ORGANIZATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONAL MYOPIA Previous paragraphs underline some organizational and individual characteristics that could be useful in order to prevent an organizational collapse (Weick, 1993). However, organizations should adopt also a diagnostic model for check their reliability, even in absence of weaknesses due to distance (both geographical and hierarchical). In other words, organizations should prevent the undesirable consequences of their myopic behavior in both exploitation and exploration and other adaptive processes. March (1991) suggests that the more immediate returns from exploitation tend to lead organizations to exhibit a myopic bias whereby exploitation is overemphasized at the expense of exploration (see also Denrell & March, 2001). The utilization of existing knowledge, routines, and experience increases the likelihood that solutions will be found quickly and at reasonable costs. As a consequence, adaptive processes can become self-destructive by leading the organization to become trapped in a suboptimal equilibrium. More recent research (Fang et al., 2010, and references here cited) focuses on organizational structure, in order to ensure a balance between exploration and exploitation. More specifically, the role of isolation and decentralization is emerging: to separate a unit from the rest of an organization could permit 49

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

the exploration of a new approach for managing contingency. In this way, there is the possibility to add a contribution from the ‘small worlds structure’ approach (Schilling & Phelps, 2007; Uzzi & Spiro, 2005; Yayavaram & Ahuja, 2008) to traditional contingency theories (Burns & Stalker, 1961; Galbraith, 1973; Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967). The result is a theoretical model which describes how, in particular conditions of the organization’s internal or external environment, semi-isolated small groups can face contingency more profitably. Finally, an important contribution comes from the microfundation approach (Bonesso et al., 2014). The recent debate on the micro-level origins of a firm’s capabilities (Felin et al., 2012; Foss, 2011), has shown that an individual’s characteristics are important antecedents of the development of organizational capabilities, such as reliability. The microfundation approach added an individual, psychological level of analysis to contingency theory, providing a more exhaustive model to analyze and check/assess/examine organizational resilience foundations. In summary, the final rational for the integration of the above approaches with the contingencymanagement stream of study, is in order to assess in which conditions semi-isolated group reliability is only a pretence and not (actually) real. Like March (1991) and Fang et al. (2010), the model exposed below has three main entities: environment characteristics, individuals and structure/organization. Nevertheless, a relatively original feature of this model emphasizes the role of so called inner pathogens in threatening organizational reliability.

Inner Pathogens From the outset it is important to focus on the differences between the concept of latent errors, (Ramanujam & Goodman, 2003) and High Reliability Organizations (HROs: Weick & Sutcliffe, 2005; Weick et al., 1999) that are widespread in literature, and inner pathogens. First, the focus of the HROs approach is on processes to reduce deviations and adverse outcomes (i.e., avoidance of adverse consequences), whereas latent errors refer to uncorrected deviations from procedures and policies that can potentially contribute to adverse organizational consequences (Ramanujam & Goodman, 2003, p. 815). In other words, ‘latent errors spotlight processes, such as escalation of commitment, that contribute to deviations and adverse outcomes, whereas high reliability emphasizes processes, such as mindfulness, that reduce them’ (ibidem, 816). Latent errors’ features include the following: expectations (the institutional and role beliefs about how a task is to be performed and typically take the form of rules, regulations, standard operating procedures, organizational goals, and normative standards); deviations (observable departures from shared expectations) and potential adverse consequences (deviations alone might not immediately lead to adverse consequences: some factors could act as triggers, and generate undesired outcomes over time. In certain conditions, latent errors could even lead to positive consequences, when rules and procedures are inefficient or specified incorrectly (Reason, 1998) Inner pathogens are similar to latent errors, but are not the same: in fact, inner pathogens are factors and/or processes which improve performance immediately, but at same time severely damage reliability. The first feature is the same (expectations), but inner pathogens are also characterized by the development of best practices (strengths), and likely long-term adverse consequences. Such as in a myopic situation,

50

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

organizational and role expectations determine procedures, rules and norms which are likely to severely damage resilience and reliability, and in turn could lead to adverse consequences over time. Drawing on organizational and psychological literature, it’s possible to identify more widespread pathogens, described below.

Pooled /Generic Interdependence As noted in literature (Thompson, 1967) pooled interdependence is positive in terms of efficiency and autonomy; in tightly coupled work systems errors in one part of the system affect the performance of other parts. However, local errors become invisible throughout the system. (Levinthal & March, 1993; Ramanujam & Goodman, 2003; Reason, 1990).

Scarce and Poor Communication A key factor determining the dynamics of such a system is its topology of interaction patterns between members (Fang. et al., 2010; Strogatz, 2001; Lee et al., 2006). Common sense suggests that scarce quantitative communication is positive in terms of efficiency (both economic and psychological). Furthermore, poor or ‘cold’ communication (focused exclusively on professional tasks, neglecting personal and private issues) can lead to more ‘professional’ interpersonal relationships, avoiding and preventing non-professional interference. However, research in HROs (Weick, 1993; Weick & Sutcliffe, 2005) suggests that communication flow among operators in small groups is an important antecedent of resilience, especially when an unexpected, dangerous event happens to a small group. Furthermore, it was found that, despite manager recommendations, in an emergency it is more important to be with a friend rather than a colleague (Weick, 1993).

Routine Task Well-known procedures ensure efficiency and reliability, but also lead to a steep drop of attention, with negative outcomes facing unexpected events (March, 1991; Weick, 1993). Furthermore, task routines foster cognitive energy-saving, but once more can become a trap in an emergency (Nisbett & Ross, 1991).

Low Turnover Among Employees Work-force stability is highly desirable for organizations, because it permits them to invest in long-term programs of skill training, and also permits the exploitation of already possessed skills. Employee stability leads to lower stress and enhances organizational memory, attention and familiarity (Ramanujam & Goodman, 2003). Although, as explained above, low turnover among employees is to the detriment of exploration (March, 1991) due to less importing of best practices, ideas etc. (Fang et al., 2010). Furthermore, low turn-over can lead to groupthink (Janis, 1973); low turn-over improves the total amount of shared knowledge, which in turn leads to knowledge obsolescence (Fang et al., 2010); low turn-over fosters environmental ambiguity, because the level of knowledge (both qualitative and quantitative) about the environment remains the same overtime.

51

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

Standardization by Procedure Widespread literature emphasizes the role of routines and procedures for ensuring positive outcomes. In particular, it was found that the presence of formalization and top-down mechanisms of control (Benner & Tushman, 2003; Jansen et al., 2006; Mom et al., 2007; Zollo & Winter, 2002) supports exploitation, which makes/produces positive return for the organization. Furthermore, and perhaps more notable, coordination by procedures is a very much appreciated mechanism by managers, because the managers have the perception of full control of the situation. Despite these positive outcomes, it was found that the presence of decentralization of decision making and coordination by competence and by goal has a positive impact on exploration (Cardinal, 2001; Jansen et al., 2006). Furthermore, coordination by goals has a relevant impact on employees’ work motivation (Latham & Locke, 1990) which, in turn, leads to better performance.

High Individual Level of Competence and/or Long Tenure in the Job Organizations highly appreciate employees’ fidelity. A long-term relationship between a worker and their organization usually leads organizations to be confident in employees’ behaviour; and at the same time, a trusting atmosphere usually reduces employees’ opportunism (Jensen & Mackling, 1973). Furthermore, long tenure in the job permits workers to develop job-related skills, hence progressively reducing training costs. However, high level of competence and long tenure in a job can lead to underestimation of task difficulty; can also lead workers to more hazardous behaviour, due to an overconfidence effect; finally, a high level of skills leads to a lower probability of learning from one another (March, 1991).

Shared/Mutual Accountability Shared accountability is a comfortable coordination mechanism for organizations. In fact, in this way an organization transfers the responsibility of desired outcomes, and the autonomy to carry out the expected task to a couple of workers (or to a whole group). This delegation mechanism seems to ensure a twofold outcome: the worker’s autonomy and self-efficacy improvement and coordination of time saving. Unfortunately, social cognition (Nisbett & Ross, 1977) shows that in similar situations it is fairly probable that nobody conducts the task because everybody thinks that others are taking care of it. Furthermore, social psychology provides evidence of a phenomenon, widespread in group dynamics, called responsibility diffusion (Wallach et al., 1964): even in an unambiguous situation no one carries out the task.

Extreme Job Differentiation Job specialization is a basic mechanism in organizational behaviour, and also builds on a market grounded on exchange relationships (Smith, 1973), which are necessary since every job makes a partial output that has to be exchanged in the market. This specialization leads to maximum efficiency and skills development, but can also lead the worker to become indispensable. So that for an organization the wage of the worker increases, and the cost of his replacement also increases. Furthermore, a problem of reliability arises due to the fact that the worker is irreplaceable.

52

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

FURTHER RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES The review of the existing literature (Lu, 2003, p. 207) has noted a shift from the dominance of economic theories (transaction cost theory, I/O theory, etc.) to multidisciplinary approaches. More recently, further development in AT as applied to international context (Pepper & Gore, 2013) suggests that an economic approach does not always explain the long-term alignment between principle and agent objectives. Therefore, opportunities exist to study ISM topics through different theoretical approaches, such as psychological and organizational ones. Future research should explore the relationship between output-based agency relationship and issues as self-efficacy level and locus of control, in order to provide a deeper understanding of the psychological dynamics at the base of the organizational reliability. Furthermore, researchers can transform the nine ongoing exposed inner pathogens in a check-list in order to diagnose reliability level in a small, ephemeral unit. This tool could be used by both Principle and Agent, for improving their situational awareness. However, after the diagnosis, which therapy could be used? A promising stream of research considers organizational and individual ambidexterity (Bonesso et al., 2014). In particular, because structural ambidexterity is almost impossible to achieve for ephemeral organizations, research should focus on contextual ambidexterity, especially performance management in a specific social context (Gibson & Birkinshaw, 2004). Finally, research should also focus on individual ambidexterity (Bonesso et al., 2014; Gibson & Birkinshaw, 2004), especially individual skills and capabilities which permit the balance between exploitation and exploration in managing an unexpected event.

CONCLUSION It is necessary to include some words about the limitations showed by the theoretical model. In fact, despite the reliability of the output-based Principle-Agent relationship, the literature on HRO emphasizes the role of relational networks and mutual support for the sake of resilience (Weick, 1993; Weick & Sutcliffe, 2007). Unlike the vertical control system represented by the principal-agent dyad, mutual monitoring concerns the reciprocal assessment of performance among individuals working on common tasks whose contributions are evaluated and rewarded by a firm on the basis of a collective outcome. Mutual monitoring, which de-emphasizes dependence on superiors and instead places control in the hands of peers, is buttressed by the common bond of agents whose interests are intertwined (Welbourne et al., 1995).However, Jensen and Meckling (1976) noted that “[the firm] serves as a focus for a complex process in which the conflicting objectives of individuals are harnessed into common goals. . . . Agency costs arise in any situation involving cooperative effort by two or more people even though there is no clear-cut principal-agent relationship” (p. 307). The psychosocial literature indicates critical points on these issues, critical points that under certain conditions lead to weaknesses in (multi-agent) teamwork. First of all, a situation characterized by ambiguity may increase the chances that the phenomenon of pluralistic ignorance (Latane & Darley, 1970) and social proof (Cialdini, 1984) may occur, to produce paralysis of action. Moreover, in a situation that is unequivocal but characterized by joint and several liability, there may be an increased occurrence of diffusion of responsibility (Wallach et al., 1964), which also paralyzes action and in addition can generate opportunistic behavior in one or more team members. Distance is potentially damaging to effectiveness

53

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

and reliability, as “the decay and loss of distance is precisely the decay and loss of knowledge, relationships, and trust, which in turn undermines the ability to act at and over distance” (Goodall & Roberts, 2003, p. 1155). Following this argument, mechanisms of coordination and control that rely on personal interactions between individuals are likely to be harmed by distance (Ambos & Ambos, 2009, 4). Accordingly, the empirical evidence in organizational literature (AT in particular) would suggest recourse to output-based coordination mechanisms. Nonetheless, the empirical evidence in psychological literature would suggest, wherever possible, recourse to a system of individual responsibilities clearly defined in terms of the expected result (Welbourne et al., 1995). Future research on the subject of HRO will need to clarify the criteria of choice between individual and collective responsibility in emergency management.

REFERENCES Almeida, P., Song, J., & Grant, R. (2002). Are firms superior to markets and alliances? An empirical investigation of cross-boarder knowledge building. Organization Science, 13(2), 147–161. doi:10.1287/ orsc.13.2.147.534 Ambos, T. C., & Ambos, B. (2009). The impact of distance on knowledge transfer effectiveness in multinational corporations. Journal of International Management, 15(1), 1–14. doi:10.1016/j.intman.2008.02.002 Ardelt, M. (2005). How wise people cope with crises and obstacles in life. ReVision, 28(1), 7–19. doi:10.3200/REVN.28.1.7-19 Ashby, W. R. (1960). Design for a brain. New York: Wiley. doi:10.1007/978-94-015-1320-3 Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (1990). The psychology of wisdom and its ontogenesis. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 87–120). New York: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139173704.006 Bandura, A., & Wood, R. E. (1989). Effect of perceived controllability and performance standards on self-regulation of complex decision-making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(5), 804–814. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.5.805 PMID:2724068 Bartlett, C. A., & Ghoshal, S. (1989). Managing Across Boarders: The Transnational Solution. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Benner, M. J., & Tushman, M. (2003). Exploitation, exploitation, and process management: The productivity dilemma revisited. Academy of Management Review, 28, 238–256.Betz, N. E. (1992). Counselling Uses of Career Self-Efficacy Theory. The Career Development Quarterly, 41(1), 22–26. doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.1992.tb00352.x Bigelow, J. (1992). Developing managerial wisdom. Journal of Management Inquiry, 1(2), 143–153. doi:10.1177/105649269212008 Bonesso, S., Gerli, F., & Scapolan, A. (2014). The individual side of ambidexterity: Do individuals perceptions match actual behaviors in reconciling the exploration and exploitation trade-off? European Management Journal, 32(3), 392–405. doi:10.1016/j.emj.2013.07.003

54

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

Burns, T., & Stalker, G. M. (1961). The Management of Innovation. London: Tavistock. Cardinal, L. B. (2001). Technological innovation in the pharmaceutical industry: The use of organizational control in managing research and development. Organization Science, 12(1), 19–36. doi:10.1287/ orsc.12.1.19.10119 Cialdini, R. (1984). Influence: How and why people agree to things. New York: William Morrow. Denrell, J., & March, J. G. (2001). Adaptation as information restriction: The hot stove effect. Organization Science, 12(5), 523–538. doi:10.1287/orsc.12.5.523.10092 Dittmann-Kohli, F., & Baltes, P. B. (1990). Toward a neofunctionalist conception of adult intellectual development: Wisdom as a prototypical case of intellectual growth. In C. Alexander & E. Langer (Eds.), Higher stages o[‘human development: Perspectives on adult growth (pp. 54–78). New York: Oxford University Press. Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Agency Theory: An Assessment and Review. Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 57–74. Erikson, E. (1982). The life cycle completed. New York: Newton. Felin, T., Foss, N. J., Heimeriks, K. H., & Madsen, T. L. (2012). Microfoundations of routines and capabilities: Individuals, processes, and structure. Journal of Management Studies, 49(8), 1351–1374. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2012.01052.x Foss, N. J. (2011). Why micro-foundations for resource-based theory are needed and what they may look like. Journal of Management, 37(5), 1413–1428. doi:10.1177/0149206310390218 Foss, N. J., & Pedersen, T. (2002). Transferring knowledge in MNCs: The role of sources of subsidiary knowledge in organizational context. Journal of International Management, 8(1), 49–67. doi:10.1016/ S1075-4253(01)00054-0 Galbraith, J. R. (1973). Designing Complex Organizations. Reading, MA: Addison- Wesley. Ghoshal, S., Korine, H., & Szulanski, G. (1994). Interunit communication in multinational corporations. Management Science, 40(1), 96–110. doi:10.1287/mnsc.40.1.96 Gibson, C. B., & Birkinshaw, J. (2004). The antecedents, consequences and mediating role of organizational ambidexterity. Academy of Management Journal, 47(2), 209–226. doi:10.2307/20159573 Grandori, A. (1992). L’organizzazione delle imprese industriali e commerciali. In L. Guatri (Ed.), Economia delle aziende commerciali e industriali. Milano: Egea. Gupta, A. K., & Govindarajan, V. (1991). Knowledge flows and the structure of control with multinational corporations. Academy of Management Journal, 16, 768–792. Hannan, M. T., & Freeman, J. (1987). The ecology of organizational foundings: American Labor Unions, 18361985. American Journal of Sociology, 92(4), 910–943. doi:10.1086/228587

55

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

Hansen, M. T., & Lovas, B. (2004). How do multinational companies leverage technological competencies? Moving from single to interdependent explanations. Strategic Management Journal, 25(8–9), 801–821. doi:10.1002/smj.413 Hatchuel, A. (2002). Coordination and control. In A. Sorge (Ed.), Organization. London: Thomson Learning. Hedlund, G. (1994). A model of knowledge management and the N-form corporation. Strategic Management Journal, 15(S2), 73–90. doi:10.1002/smj.4250151006 Holland, J. (1992). Genetic algorithms. Scientific American, 267(1), 66–72. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0792-66 Janis, I. (1973). Groupthink and Group Dynamics: A Social Psychological Analysis Of Defective Policy Decisions. Policy Studies Journal: the Journal of the Policy Studies Organization, 2(1), 19–25. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0072.1973.tb00117.x Jansen, J. J. P., Van Den Bosch, F. A. J., & Volberda, H. W. (2006). Exploratory innovation, exploitative innovation, and performance: Effects of organizational antecedents and environmental moderators. Management Science, 52(11), 1661–1674. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1060.0576 Jensen, M., & Meckling, W. (1976). Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs, and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4), 305–360. doi:10.1016/0304-405X(76)90026-X Jones, R., Jacobs, L., & van’t Spijker, W. (1992). Strategic decision processes in international firms. Management International Review, 32, 219–236. Kogut, B., & Zander, U. (1992). Knowledge of the firm, combinative capabilities, and the replication of technology. Organization Science, 3(3), 383–397. doi:10.1287/orsc.3.3.383 Kramer, D. (2000). Wisdom as a classical source of human strength: Conceptualization and empirical inquiry A. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19(1), 1. doi:10.1521/jscp.2000.19.1.83 Kriger, M. (1991). The importance of the role of subsidiary boards in MNCs: Comparative parent and subsidiary perceptions. Management International Review, 31, 317–331. Lanzara, G. (1993). Capacità negativa. Bologna: Il Mulino. Latanè, B., & Darley, J. M. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why doesen’t he help? New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Lawrence, P. R., & Lorsch, J. W. (1967). Organization and Environment. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Lee, E., Lee, J., & Lee, J. (2006). Reconsideration of the winner-take-all hypothesis: Complex networks and local bias. Management Science, 52(12), 1838–1848. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1060.0571 Levinthal, D. A., & March, J. G. (1993). The myopia of learning. Strategic Management Journal, 14(S2), 95–112. doi:10.1002/smj.4250141009

56

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Lohrke, F. T., & Bruton, G. D. (1997). Contributions and gaps in international strategic management literature. Journal of International Management, 3(1), 25–57. Lu, J. W. (2003). The evolving contributions in international strategic management research. Journal of International Management, 9(2), 193–213. doi:10.1016/S1075-4253(03)00006-1 Lyster, T. L. (1996). A nomination approach to the study of wisdom in old age (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. March, J. G. (1991). Exploration and exploitation in organizational learning. Organization Science, 2(1), 71–87. doi:10.1287/orsc.2.1.71 March, J. G. (1993). Decisioni e organizzazioni. Bologna: Il Mulino. Martin, X., & Salomon, R. (2003). Knowledge transfer capacity and its implications for the theory of the multinational corporation. Journal of International Business Studies, 43(4), 356–373. doi:10.1057/ palgrave.jibs.8400037 Martinez, J., & Jarillo, J. (1991). Coordination demands of international strategies. Journal of International Business Studies, 22(3), 429–444. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490309 Meacham, J. A. (1983). Wisdom and the context of knowledge. In D. Kuhn & J. A. Meacham (Eds.), Contributions in Human Development. Basel: Karger. Merchant, K. A., & Riccaboni, A. (2001). Il controllo di gestione. Milano: McGraw-Hill. Mitchell, M. (1996). An Introduction to Genetic Algorithms. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Mom, T. J. M., Van den Bosch, F. A. J., & Volberda, H. W. (2007). Investigating managers exploration and exploitation activities: The influence of top-down, bottom-up, and horizontal knowledge inflows. Journal of Management Studies, 44(6), 910–931. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2007.00697.x Nobel, R., & Birkinshaw, J. (1998). Innovation in multinational corporations: Control and communication patterns in international R&D operations. Strategic Management Journal, 19(5), 479–496. doi:10.1002/ (SICI)1097-0266(199805)19:53.0.CO;2-U Olson, E. M., Slater, S. F., & Hult, G. T. (2005). The importance of structure and process to strategy implementation. Business Horizons, 48(1), 47–54. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2004.10.002 Pepper, A., & Gore, J. (2014). The economic psychology of incentives: An international study of top managers. Journal of World Business, 49(3), 350–361. doi:10.1016/j.jwb.2013.07.002 Ramanujam, R., & Goodman, P. S. (2003). Latent errors and adverse organizational consequences: A conceptualization. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24(7), 815–836. doi:10.1002/job.218 Reason, J. (1990). Human error. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; doi:10.1017/ CBO9781139062367

57

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

Reason, J. (1998). Managing the risks of organizational accidents. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.Ricks, D. (1991). A letter from the editor-in-chief. Journal of International Business Studies, 22(1), v. doi:10.1057/ jibs.1991.1 Ricks, D., Toyne, B., & Martinez, Z. (1990). Recent developments in international management research. Journal of Management, 16(2), 219–253. doi:10.1177/014920639001600202 Roberts, J. (2004). The Modern Firm: Organizational Design for Performance and Growth. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Ross, S. (1973). The economic theory of agency: The principal’s problem. The American Economic Review, 63, 134–139. Roth, K. (1995). Managing international interdependence: CEO characteristics in a resource-based framework. Academy of Management Journal, 38(1), 200–231. doi:10.2307/256733 Rotter, J.B., (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, General and Applied, 80(1). Schein, E. H. (2001). La consulenza di processo. Milano: Raffaello Cortina. Schilling, M. A., & Phelps, C. (2007). Interfirm collaboration networks: The impact of large scale network structure on firm innovation. Management Science, 53(7), 1113–1126. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1060.0624 Simon, H. A. (1957). Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision-Making Processes. In Administrative Organization (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan. Smith, A. (1973). Indagine Sulla Natura E Le Cause Della Ricchezza Delle Nazioni. Milano: Isedi. Strogatz, S. (2001). Exploring complex networks. Nature, 410(6825), 268–276. doi:10.1038/35065725 PMID:11258382 Thompson, J. D. (1967). Organizations in Action. New York: McGraw-Hill. Uzzi, B. J., & Spiro, S. (2005). Collaboration and creativity: The small world problem. American Journal of Sociology, 111(2), 447–504. doi:10.1086/432782 Wallach, M. A., Kogan, N., & Bem, D. J. (1964). Diffusion of responsibility and level of risk taking in groups. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68(3), 263–274. doi:10.1037/h0042190 PMID:14126840 Watts, D. J. (1999). Small Worlds: The Dynamics of Networks Between Order and Randomness. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Weick, K. E. (1993). The collapse of sensemaking in organizations: The Mann Gulch disaster. Administrative Science Quarterly, 8(4), 628–652. doi:10.2307/2393339 Weick, K. E., & Sutcliffe, K. M. (2005). Managing the unexpected. Resilient performance in an age of uncertainty. New York: Wiley.

58

 Human Resource Management and Organizational Reliability

Weick, K. E., Sutcliffe, K. M., & Obstfeld, D. (1999). Organizing for high reliability: processes for collective mindfulness. In B. Staw & R. Sutton (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior (pp. 81–124). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Welbourne, T. M., Balkin, D. B., & Gomez-Mejia, L. R. (1995). Gainsharing and Mutual Monitoring: A Combined Agency-Organizational Justice Interpretation. Academy of Management Journal, 38(3), 881–899. doi:10.2307/256750 Werner, S. (2002). Recent development in international management research: A review of 20 top management journals. Journal of Management, 28(3), 277–305. doi:10.1177/014920630202800303 Winter, S. (2004). Specialised Perception, Selection, and Strategic Surprise: Learning from the Moths and Bees. Long Range Planning, 37(2), 163–169. doi:10.1016/j.lrp.2004.01.002 Yang, S. Y. (2013). Wisdom and good lives: A process perspective. New Ideas in Psychology, 31(3), 194–201. doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2013.03.001 Yayavaram, S., & Ahuja, G. (2008). Decomposability in knowledge structures and its impact on the usefulness of inventions and knowledge-base malleability. Administrative Science Quarterly, 53(2), 333–362. doi:10.2189/asqu.53.2.333 Zollo, M., & Winter, S. G. (2002). Deliberate learning and the evolution of dynamic capabilities. Organization Science, 13(3), 339–351. doi:10.1287/orsc.13.3.339.2780

ENDNOTE

1

Ricks (1991), Lohrke and Bruton (1997) and Lu (2003) used the following definition of international strategic management: “The core of international business research deals with the multinational enterprise (MNE), the exporting or importing firm, and the problems encountered by these firm. Topics of importance include: the theory of the MNE; the role of the MNE; MNE versus domestic corporation issues; government–MNE issues; the problems of managing international trade, and also functionally oriented topics such as international financial management, international marketing management, international accounting management, international strategy, international management, etc.… Studies which describe how business is done in one country are not considered international business research, but comparative studies are” (Lu, 2003, p. 195) italic is mine).

59

60

Chapter 4

Human Factors in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing Muhammad Umair Javaid Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia Ahmad Shahrul Nizam Isha Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia

Matthias Nubling Freiburg Research Centre for Occupational Sciences (FFAW), Germany Muhammad Zeeshan Mirza Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia

Zulkipli Ghazali Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Malaysia

ABSTRACT A workplace never resides in isolation and hence in the workplace employees experience both psychological and social conditions which often called as psychosocial work environment. The psychosocial work environment has become continuous component in studies of occupational health and stress and encompasses concerns on the risks which generate from the psyche perceptions of the individual’s concern in accordance with the risks of the societal environment. The psychosocial environment at work has a deteriorating effect on the general health of workers such as musculoskeletal disorders, mental disorders, cardiovascular diseases, stress, burnout, sickness absence, labor turnover along with the organizational outcomes like the effectiveness of work, motivation, and performance. Psychosocial factors in response to the health repair process have become increasingly important in both developed and developing countries. Such factors have not frequently been studied or addressed in developing countries even though 80 percent of the working population lives in developing countries.

INTRODUCTION The International Labor Organization (ILO) has defined psychosocial risk factors at work “as the interaction between and among work environment, job content, organizational conditions and workers capacities, needs, cultures, personal extra-job considerations that may, through perceptions and experience, influence DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2250-8.ch004

Copyright © 2017, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

health, work performance and job satisfaction” (ILO, 1986). Gone are the days when physical risks in the working environment were considered the only factor that affects the safety, health, and wellbeing of the workers. Psychosocial risks have emerged and commonly accepted as a major concern over the workers’ health and safety with several aspects that includes, but not limited to, work demands either quantitative or qualitative, lack of control, rewards and social support, job insecurity, and interpersonal relationships at the workplace (Leka et al., 2015). These risks are mainly addressed in developed countries and lack attention in the Industrially Developing Countries (IDCs) due to insufficient knowledge over such risks. Employers in IDCs may fall back with the awareness of psychosocial risks and work-related stress even though these risks were the second most important issue after accident and injuries that needed an urgent attention for impediment (Kortum, Leka, & Cox, 2010). EU-OSHA’s and European Survey of Enterprises on New and Emerging Risks (ESENER) reports that momentous work related changes around the globe heading towards emerging psychosocial risks. From designing and managing of work to the economic and social context of work, these psychosocial risks results an increased level of stress which can lead to the worsening of physical and mental health (ESENER, 2009). According to the Global Occupational Health Network (GOHNET) report, psychosocial risk has either not or has only scarcely been addressed in newly industrialized countries and in developing countries (WHO, 2007b), even though 80% of the working workforce lives in developing countries (Rosenstock & Cullen, 2006). Moreover, advancement in technologies and globalization has brought significant number of changes in the workplace. The World Health Organization (WHO) has disseminated the goal of promoting health in the work place by controlling the psychosocial risks at work in their global plan of action 2008-2017. However, WHO finds there is a significant gap in relation to safety, health, and risks associated with the workplace environment within and amongst countries (Dollard, Shimazu, Nordin, Brough, & Tuckey, 2014a). IDCs face numerous challenges in accordance with the advancement in technologies and globalization which results an increase in psychosocial risks and work-related stress within these developing countries (Widanarko, Legg, Devereux, & Stevenson, 2014).

Study Objective Emotionally demanding situations refers to frequency of exposure or charged interactions at work. Previous empirical findings have shown the negative as well as the positive impact of emotionally demanding conditions at work on employee health and wellbeing; however, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, there is hardly any study which has shown the intervening effect of job insecurity in relationship between emotional demands, social support colleagues and health and wellbeing on the workers of the manufacturing industries. This relationship will be well explained by the health impairment process of Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model. Furthermore, it is also important to consider the external effects caused by the style of leadership prevailing in the organizations. Specifically, health-specific leadership style can really strengthen this relationship. The argument stems from the self-concept theory (Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993) which explained that the actions of the motivational leadership implicate the self-concept of the followers. Hence, health aversive behaviors of individuals can be modified to health conducive behaviors if environment in which they operate educate them about its importance (Conner & Norman, 2005). To create that environment, leaders play the most important role because of the position they hold. They act as role model and their behaviors shapes up followers perceptions and behaviors, through “followers self-concepts” (Viktor, 1982). 61

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

There are two objectives for this study. First is the theoretical and empirical rationale of using job insecurity as an intervening variable between emotional demands, social support from colleagues, and outcome variables health and wellbeing. Second is to develop hypothetically the buffering effect of health-specific leadership between job demands and health and wellbeing for future studies. The next section is to briefly explain the occurrence of work, health promotion and occupational health activities defined by the WHO and the ILO.

BACKGROUND Prevalence of Work It was the early 1500s when the German scientist, Georg Bauer, known as Agricola—The Father of Mineralogy—published De Re Metallica, which introduced the concept of work, worker health, wellbeing, and work performance. Agricola not only discussed the technical details of mine operations but also paid attention to the miner’s health and wellbeing by proposing a 5-day work week with three shifts of eight hours each day to avoid occupational injuries. His work was further carried out in the late 1600s to early 1700s by an Italian physician, Bernardino Ramazzini, on occupational diseases encountered by workers in 52 different occupations. Before the Taylorism approach which lasted until the 1950s, two German scientists named Hugo Munsterberg and William Stern worked on the characteristics of worker and requirements of job by assuming that if there is a good match between job and the worker, only then can worker wellbeing and productivity optimal. Today’s work tasks have been made easier by the industrial revolution begun in the 1800s with technological advancements and the start of globalization in the 1980s which has been marked as the industrial revolution transition period. The history of human being is always in pursuing to make working life easier with minimal efforts required to subsist. It was from the middle of the 1900s when practitioners and researchers started working together on the concept of work and organization by focusing on the appropriate ways of organizing work and work organization before moving into the importance of particular tasks. Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) and his Taylorism approach was considered to be the starting point of contemporary work science with efficiency and standardization as its core ingredients. It was Lillian Gilbreth after 1924 who was considered the first industrial psychologist as the pioneer of human factors or the ergonomics discipline. She worked along with her husband on the time and motion studies where they developed the method of work motions with the time needed to complete the activity while filming it. In this way, they have identified the loop holes and methods of improvement in the work were possible (Basalla, 1988; Peeters, Jonge, & Taris, 2014). In the Asia pacific region, work related stress is a major issue and psychosocial risks at work need to be study in relation to both the psychological and physical health of the workers (Dollard, Shimazu, Nordin, Brough, & Tuckey, 2014b). Here organizations normally examine the quality of work and targets high production by putting excessive job demands on workers with diversified working conditions, adapting new skills, extended working hours, and increased time pressure that ultimately results in the number of stressful factors at work (WHO, 2007b). These risks primarily occur due to the imbalances of Job Demands and Resources faced by workers. A deprived work climate lowers employees’ acquiescence to safety rules and procedures as well their participation in organizational safety activities that results 62

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

in workplace accidents (Tay, 2014). Research on psychosocial risks, work stress, and safety climate in nations such as Malaysia in general and specifically to the manufacturing industries of Malaysia is lacking (Nor Azma, Omar, Muda, & Endut, 2013). In the global economic community, Malaysia’s position as economic participant in the immediate region is increasing, yet we are bound to face challenges in terms of the working environment (MOHR). In recent years, Social Security Organization (SOCSO) Malaysia has been paying progressively more amounts of financial compensation to individual sufferers and the families of workplace fatalities. In 2003, the organization paid a total sum of RM 305 million, followed by a sum of RM 889 million in 2006 and RM 1.55 billion in 2011 (Bernama, 2013). The problem Malaysia is facing that the number of industrial accidents are keep on increasing. In 2009, the total number of cases was reported as 55,186 which increased to 63,557 in 2013 as shown below. Of these numbers, a total of 56.48% were industrial accidents with an increase in industrial accidents by 1.71% from 35,296 cases in 2012 to 35,898 cases in 2013 (SOCSO, 2013).

Global Plan of Action on Workers Health The goal about how best to achieve goals of the WHO and the ILO for its employees has developed over time, but it is still possible to achieve the best in the workplace by improving the employees’ safety, health, and well-being which are complex issues. Over the years, occupational health activities and health promotion activities have operated in two separate streams. However, recently these organizations have converged and health promotion activities have specifically been linked to the workplace for raising the level of employee safety, health, and well-being. Today, “occupational health” activities are understood to include not only health protection, but also health promotion activities in the workplace which shows the importance of health promotion activity as portrayed in Figure 1. below (Burton, 2010).

Petrochemical Industry of Malaysia With the goal of becoming an industrialized economy by 2020, Malaysia started its industrialization effort in the 1960s. Industrialization has been an integral part of Malaysian development strategies, and the manufacturing sector has shown to be one of the important backbones and a major contributor to the Malaysian economy (Said, Said, & Halim, 2012). Under the Third Industrial Master Plan (IMP3) of 2006-2020, a total of twelve industries in the manufacturing sector have been targeted for promotion and development. Of these, six are non-resource based while the remaining are resource-based industries. The World Bank Report 2014 Edition ranked Malaysia as the 6th most business-friendly country in the world ahead of the United Kingdom (10th), Germany (21st) and Switzerland (29th). This is the first time in which Malaysia has achieved a Top Ten ranking since the World Bank and the International Finance Corporation began compiling the annual ranking in 2005. Malaysia was also ranked as the 24th most competitive nation in the world by the World Economic Forum in its Global Competitiveness Report 2012-2013, which is a progression from an efficiency-driven economy to an innovation-driven economy. Malaysia’s performance in these rankings is testimony to its achievements and will fuel investments into the country in 2014. The petroleum and petrochemical industry is comprised of three sub-sectors: natural gas, petrochemicals, and petroleum products. The increasing number of petrochemical plants producing various types of petrochemical products has transformed the country from a net importer to an exporter of 63

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

Figure 1. Importance of Health Promotion

major petrochemical products. The Malaysian petrochemical industry is one of the pillars of Malaysian economy attributing to its rapid growth via the steady availability of oil and gas as feedstock, developed infrastructure, strong supporting services, country’s competitiveness in terms of cost as well as Malaysia’s strategic location within the ASEAN community, and the nation’s close proximity to major markets in the Asia Pacific region (MPA, 2014).

Major Petrochemical Plants According to the Chemical Industries Council Malaysia CICM (2012), the petrochemical industry is an important sector in Malaysia, with investments estimated at RM 28 billion. There are 29 petrochemical plants throughout Malaysia producing 39 types of petrochemical products; the growth of the industry has transformed Malaysia from a net importer to exporter of major petrochemical products. The industrial zones of Malaysia include the following: •

• • •

64

Kertih Terengganu: Formerly a quiet fishing village, Kertih has now been transformed into a petrochemical hub. It houses the PETRONAS Petrochemical Integrated Complex (PPIC) that links the entire range of the oil and gas value chain beginning from upstream exploration and production to the final stage of petrochemical manufacturing. Pahang Gebeng: Is another petrochemical hub for multinational players like BASF, Reliance, Kaneka, Eastman, and Polyplastics. The petrochemical zone provides an integrated environment that meets the specific needs of the petrochemical industry. Pasir Gudang-Tanjung Langsat: Johor located next to the Johor Port, is now an established industrial area. To cope with the needs of the growing petrochemical industry, the adjacent Tanjung Langsat site has been developed to enhance manufacturing capacity. Bintulu, Sarawak: Home to several gas-based petrochemical plants, Bintulu is also the largest producer of liquefied natural gas (LNG) in Malaysia. There are three LNG plants with a combined capacity of 23.3 million tonnes per year. This complex is one of the largest LNG production facilities at a single location in the world.

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

LITERATURE REVIEW In this study, the researcher has highlighted that psychosocial risk factors are dismal in hazardous industry for having their relationships with health and well-being and even more distally related with the environmental factors in high risk industries. Of particular is the psychosocial emotional job stressor which has recently been highlighted among the important influential factor on health and wellbeing, in addition to traditional occupational stress factors such as cognitive and physical demands. The extant literature shows that human factors in relation to psychosocial risks are a major component of the causes of accidents in the workplace and these psychosocial risks at work and its causes are largely neglected and insufficiently understood as they pertain to the developing country context (WHO, 2007a). Though when the importance of safety over technology is comprehended, much more attention has been given to the “the human factor”, which more often symbolizes as an “error prone machine” in contrast to deliberate or meaning-seeking subject (Reiman & Rollenhagen, 2014). The workplace becomes increasingly globalized as exemplified by developing countries such as Malaysia where workers are more likely to be subject to competing demands for productivity and safety. In this environment, workers may become increasingly conflicted in making decisions about safe work practices as they aim to balance risk and reward (Dollard et al., 2014a). Over the past 30 years, research has shown that various situations in the workplace can be marked as “psychosocial hazards” or “work stressors” as they are related to psychological and social conditions of the workplace in comparison to physical conditions and are harmful to physical and mental health of the workers (Burton, 2010).

Psychosocial Work Environment Factors According to the WHO, the psychosocial work environment includes the organization of work and the organizational culture; attitudes, beliefs, and practices demonstrated daily in the organization which affects the mental and physical well-being of employees. These are sometimes referred as workplace stressors which may cause emotional or mental stress to workers. Examples of psychosocial hazards include the following: Poor Work Organization (work demands, time pressure, decision latitude, reward & recognition, workloads, supervisor support, job clarity, job design, job training, poor communication); Organizational Culture (lack of policies and practice related to dignity or respect for all workers; harassment & bullying; discrimination on the basis of HIV status; intolerance for diversity of sex, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion; lack of support for healthy lifestyles); Command & Control Management Style (lack of consultation, two way communication, constructive feedback, respectful performance management); Inconsistent application and protection of basic worker rights (legislated employment standards for contracts, maternity leave, non-discriminatory hiring practices, hours of work, time off, vacation time, OSH rights); others (shift work issues, lack of support for work-life balance, Lack of awareness of and competence in dealing with mental health and illness issues, fear of job loss related to mergers, acquisitions, reorganizations, or the labor market/economy). It is widely known the psychosocial environment at work has a deteriorating effect on the physical and mental health along with the organizational outcomes like effectiveness of work and performance (Bond, Punnett, & Pfirman, 2008). It also effects the health behaviors of the employees (Stansfeld & Candy, 2006). Health behaviors of the workers plays an intermediate role in the relationship between psychosocial work environment and health related outcomes (Gram Quist et al., 2013). European Union 65

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

(EU) member countries gave psychosocial risks as a top priority in the work environment factors (Eusebio Rial, Sarah, Pascal, & Elke, 2005). Researchers consider psychosocial work environment as the most important issue in the contemporary and future societies (Cox, Griffiths, & Rial-Gonzale, 2000). Reports on different countries of the European Union (EU) exposed that large number of workers; work places and society have faced the psychosocial risks and its consequences. Musculoskeletal disorders, mental disorders, cardiovascular diseases, stress, burnout, sickness absence, labor turnover, reduced quality of life, and decreased motivation and productivity are a few of the consequences that has been raised (Kristensen, Hannerz, Høgh, & Borg, 2005). Even though work is considered an imperative facet of quality of life, unfavorable psychosocial working environment creates a threat to the employees mental health and psychological distress and is wide spreading in the working population (Nieuwenhuijsen, Bruinvels, & Frings-Dresen, 2010). In research on psychosocial factors, several different methods can be used including standardized questionnaires, clinical examinations, observational methods, registers, secondary data, and qualitative interviews. Most researchers agree that well-validated standardized questionnaires are necessary tools in research, as well as in practical prevention (Kristensen et al., 2005). Gram Quist et al. (2013) discussed the inconsistency of results on the working conditions and weight change among workers in relation to the traditional work stress models like effort-reward and the job stress model. Some studies have a positive association and some have shown no consistent support between psychosocial working conditions and weight gain or weight loss. Therefore, using a broad psychosocial work environment factors that effects on the workers’ health and well-being is need of an art. Keeping this in view, this study will use broader and the most emerging psychosocial risks by focusing on Copenhagen Psychosocial Work Environment Factors which involves the contexts like workplace, work-individual interface, individual and personality factors.

Prevalence of Psychosocial Risks: Emotional Demands, Social Support, and Job Insecurity Emotionally demanding situations vary from profession to profession. Some types of work are more emotionally demanding in professions such as nursing, teaching, or where there is a direct interaction between worker and customer/client such as a sales task force (Madsen, Diderichsen, Burr, & Rugulies, 2010). Similarly, emotional demands differ in manufacturing industry in particular to the hazardous industry where the worker must not only contend with the physical work environment, but also with the psychosocial job demands such as qualitative (emotional) or quantitative (work overload) job demands. The presence of high job demands such as emotional demands therefore may appear as a blockage against work related satisfaction of the workers which ultimately lead towards constraints of basic needs such as job control and positive social relations at work (Clausen & Borg, 2011). Empirical evidence has revealed a variety of negative mental and physical health consequences of emotion work including burnout (e.g., specifically, emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. See Zapf, 2002). Vegchel et. al. (2004) in their study concluded that emotional demands are as important as quantitative demands and sometimes emotional demands are considered to be more important than quantitative demands. Clausen & Borg (2011) considered emotional demands as occupational challenges; and studying such stressors in terms of occupational perspective is very informative for evaluating the health and wellbeing of the workers (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002). Social support acts as a buffer in our study where we have tested the social support from colleagues as a resource to minimize the effect 66

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

of emotional demands. Social support is described as a network of connections with other individuals who can provide support and assistance to a person (Lambert et al., 2010). Social supports function as personal resources that will be used in situations of need. Among the most important psychosocial factors (risks) at the work place, job insecurity was at the top of the list with maximum scores alongside role ambiguity, workload, role conflicts, lack of control, and interpersonal relations at work (Leka & Jain, 2010). The evidence suggest that exposure to psychosocial and physical risk factors that effects on health and wellbeing may be mediated by direct and indirect stress-mediated pathways (Cox, Griffiths, & Rial-González, 2000). Research on job insecurity particularly the mediating role of it is either new or fairly scarce in developing countries thus far. Job insecurity can be defined as the insecurity that employee has for the future. Such employees are ‘groping in the dark’ with their future because of the uncertainty they have about their jobs that either they will remain the part of the organization or will lose their current job. It is actually situated between the status of employed people who feel threatened to become unemployed (De Witte, 2005). Growing literature on job insecurity suggests the detrimental effect of it varies from the range of work outcomes like an intention to quit, organizational commitment, job satisfaction and performance to the wellbeing of employees (Probst, Stewart, Gruys, & Tierney, 2007; Sverke, Hellgren, & Näswall, 2002). It is widely recognized that if job insecurity is considered to be the universal organizational phenomenon then to predict the consequences of it is very important (Huang et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2006).

Health and Wellbeing In the quickly changing global environment, increasing economic, social, and technological pressure has made work the most important element for many individuals as it not only provides an income, but it also facilitates social status, personal development and identity, self-realization, and growth. This new way of work has brought a new way of stress, specifically psychosocial risk factors. For the past decade, employee psychosocial risk at work is a phenomenon of growing concerns and it has a profound impact on employee well-being (De Jonge, 1995). Within the domain of behavioral sciences, specifically occupational health psychology, much emphasis is given on the well-being of employees both physical and mental (Avey, Luthans, Smith, & Palmer, 2010). The dynamics of employee well-being plays a paramount role in identifying the areas of work which affects the quality of life at work (Baptiste, 2008). Health and well-being of employees are becoming an issue of growing concern (Danna & Griffin, 1999). Well-being is complex concept and is being influenced by various organizational factors (Rasulzada, 2007). Health and well-being of employees plays a vital role because of their consequences for the people working in an organization. Researchers have acknowledged that employee’s well-being and health can adversely impact both the employees and organization (Danna & Griffin, 1999). Well-being is often related to individual traits, coping mechanism and the resources available at personal and organization level (Rasulzada, 2007). Well-being is comprised of various satisfaction from different areas of life which includes personal life such as leisure activities, family and social life, satisfaction from job/work related aspects such as salary, promotion, co-workers, and general health. Health is being viewed as the sub-component of well-being that includes the combination of mental and psychosocial indicators like anxiety, blood pressure, heart condition, and so forth.

67

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

METHODS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION We employed Smart PLS 3.2.4 for analysis and followed the two staged recommended analytical procedures of (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). First, we tested the measurement model and then the structural model. To check the significance of path coefficients, the recommended bootstrapping method (5,000 samples) was used (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2014). The initial results of the tested model on fewer samples are discussed below. First, we assessed the measurement model to examine the convergent validity and then discriminant validity. The convergent validity of the construct is established through loadings of the items, average variance extracted, and composite reliability (Gholami, Sulaiman, Ramayah, & Molla, 2013). All loadings were higher than 0.7; additionally, the composite reliability of all constructs were greater than 0.7, and the AVE of all the constructs were also greater than 0.5 which is in accordance with the literature (Hair et al., 2014), all values are reported in Table 1. Previously, the Fornell and Larcker (1981) criterion was used to assess the discriminant validity of the constructs. However, recently there has been serious concerns raised over the reliability of this technique (Henseler, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2015) so an alternative method, the Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio of correlations, has been suggested. Henseler et al. (2015) established the superior performance of this method over Fornell and Larcker in their study; thus, we used this technique to test the discriminant validity of the constructs. We used the criterion method of HTMT to assess the discriminant validity. According to the criterion method, if the HTMT value is greater than 0.85 (Kline, 2015), then there is a problem of discriminant validity. The results of Table 2 ascertain the discriminant validity of all the constructs. Table 1. Measurement Model for Convergent Validity Construct

Items

Loadings

AVE

CR

ED1

0.895

0.663

0.907

ED2

0.738

ED3

0.867

ED4

0.814

General Health

GH1

1.000

1.000

1.000

Social Support Colleague

SSC1

0.885

0.797

0.992

SSC2

0.866

SSC3

0.925

Emotional Demands

Table 2. Measurement Model for Discriminant Validity ED

GH

JI

ED GH

CI 0.85 0.193

JI

CI 0.85 0.358

CI 0.85 0.178

SSC

CI 0.85 0.135

CI 0.85 0.19

68

CI 0.85 0.162

SSC

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

In reporting, the structural model (Hair et al., 2014) suggested to report R2, beta and t-values after bootstrapping procedure for recommended 5,000 samples. In addition, it is also advisable to report predictive relevance (Q2) and effect sizes (f2). The results of the structural model are summarized in Table 3. Emotional demands were inversely (β = -0.284, p0.0). Furthermore, we also calculated the effect size (f2) which explains the individual significant impact of an exogenous construct on the endogenous construct (Hair et al., 2014). The effect size of both emotional demands (0.091) and social support colleague (0.063) was found to be small according to the guidelines of (Cohen, 1988) which are 0.02 (small), 0.15(medium), and 0.35 (substantial). Additionally, the blindfolding procedure was used to assess the predictive relevance (Q2). The blindfolding procedure is only applied on the endogenous construct. Hair et al. (2014) suggests if the Q2 value is greater than 0, then the model has predictive relevance for that certain endogenous construct. The Q2 values for both emotional demands (0.044) and social support colleague (0.03) is greater than 0 showing adequate predictive relevance.

Moderating Role of Health-Specific Leadership Leader’s as prophets, priests, chiefs, and kings served as symbols, representatives, and models for their people -Bernard. M. Bass The inquiry about the role of leadership in management sciences literature started in the later part of 18th century with the seminal work of (Galton, 1869). He distinguished leaders from non-leaders based on their inherent characteristics and emphasized that leaders having these characteristics excel. His work lead to the beginning of trait paradigm and succeeding work further confirmed that certain inbuilt traits differentiate leaders from the non-leaders (e.g., Terman, 1904). Until the 1940s, the trait paradigm continued to dominate the leadership research, confirmed by the comprehensive review of (Stogdill, 1948). However, in the late 1940s researchers began criticizing the trait models (Jenkins, 1947; Mann, 1959). Their disagreement was based on the notion that if ‘trait theories’ are correct, then the person who lacks these inbuilt characterizes would never become leaders. This lead to the commencement of the behavioral paradigm. The behaviorists stated that leadership traits are not intrinsic; instead, these behaviors can be developed (Borgatta, Bales, & Couch, 1954; Hemphill & Coons, 1957).

Table 3. Structural Model Std Beta

Std Error

t-value

ED -> GH

-0.284

0.202

1.770

SSC -> GH

0.236

0.114

ED -> JI->GH

-0.062

SSC ->JI-> GH

0.03

Decision

R2

f2

Q2

Supported

0.06

0.091

0.044

2.069

Supported

0.042

0.063

0.054

1.134

Not Supported

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.046

0.65

Not Supported

0.03

0.18

0.06

69

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

During the 1960s, the momentous effects of external/situational factors on leadership were also acknowledged (Fiedler & Chemers, 1967; Hersey & Blanchard, 1974). Furthermore, in the 1980s research on leadership witnessed the resumption of the trait paradigm. Achievement motivation (McClelland, 1967) and charismatic leadership theory (House, 1976) were driving forces behind this revival, soon followed by transformational leadership theory (Bass, 1985). It was about that time when the role of leadership started to be recognized in occupational health psychology (Cohen, 1977; Dunbar, 1975). Subsequent work showed that leadership has a meaningful effect on employees individual well-being (Gilbreath & Benson, 2004). The kind of relationship leaderfollowers possess should not be surprising because it is very difficult for a leader to shape his followers’ behavior. The leader behaviors ultimately devise whether it will improve or have detoriammental effects on follower well-being (Skakon, Nielsen, Borg, & Guzman, 2010). In occupational health psychology, leadership has been associated with a number of outcomes: affective wellbeing (Arnold, Turner, Barling, Kelloway, & McKee, 2007; Kelloway, Turner, Barling, & Loughlin, 2012), life satisfaction (Gillet, Fouquereau, Bonnaud-Antignac, Mokounkolo, & Colombat, 2013), employees stress (Skakon et al., 2010), situation satisfaction (Dierendonck, Haynes, Borrill, & Stride, 2004), and so forth. The effectiveness of leadership in improving employee’s wellbeing has been reported by all of these studies, and it would not be erroneous to state that almost every outcome variable have been empirically linked with leadership (Mullen & Kelloway, 2011). The effectiveness of leadership is due to the person to person interaction they have with their followers which is difficult to emulate for any other policy or practice (Yukl, 2006). Additionally, with the extant literature moving towards more domain specific constructs (Judge & Kammeyer-Muller, 2012), a similar situation can be found in occupational health literature where use of domain-specific leadership is now assuming center stage. Safety-specific transformational leadership (Barling, Loughlin, & Kelloway, 2002) was the first one to enter the realm of occupational health literature. The idea was further developed in the occupational health leadership by Gurt, Elke, and Bochum (2009) who first introduced the concept of health-promoting leadership, and then further advanced it to health-specific leadership (Gurt, Schwennen, & Elke, 2011). Health-specific leadership is defined “as the leaders’ explicit and therefore visible consideration of and engagement in employee health” (Gurt et al., 2011, p. 110). They empirically established that health-specific leadership was a remedy for psychological health problems. However, the most important landmark of their research was that they established the fact that health problems are distinct component from safety. As the general forms of leadership have been found to effect employees well-being in a positive manner, the association is moderate to low (Franke & Felfe, 2011). There is a need to investigate how these constructs affects physical and psychological health of workers. In addition, there is a need to identify the pathways through which they affect the end results, such as, physical and psychological health of workers. However, the buffering effects of health-specific leadership is something which has not yet obtained much attention from researchers. It is important to consider the external effects caused by the style of leadership prevailing in the organizations. Specifically, health-specific leadership style can strengthen the relationship between job demands and health well-being. Zohar and Luria (2004) established the mitigating effect of leadership between safety scripts and climate strength. They explained the reason for it being the close leader-follower relationship that even safety scripts were difficult to understand for the followers. This pitfall was covered by the transformational leaders working in close proximate with their followers. Furthermore, empirical studies also 70

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

establishes that senior managers can better deal with the conflicting demands of the organizations when transformational leadership act as moderator in this relationship (Jansen, George, Van den Bosch, & Volberda, 2008). The theoretical reasoning for the moderating effects of health-specific leadership stems from the self-concept theory (Shamir et al., 1993) which explained that the actions of the leaders implicate the self-concept of the followers. Hence, health aversive behaviors of individuals can be modified to health conducive behaviors if environment in which they operate educate them about its importance (Conner & Norman, 2005). To create that environment, leaders play the most important role because of the position they hold. They act as role models (Bass & Avolio, 1993), and their behaviors shapes up followers perceptions and behavaiors through so-called “followers self-concepts” (Viktor, 1982).

CONCLUSION We are living in the era of globalization and technological advancements where the world has captivated itself with modern equipment. All of these developments have increased the efficiency and effectiveness of the plants around the world; however, all have failed to control the rates of accidents and the health and wellbeing issues of the workers that are growing at substantial rates. In fact, minimum job resources and increasing job demands have significantly affecting the mental health of workers which is the area of major concern. In one of the recently proposed study on psychosocial risks in relation to health and well-being, the authors have predicted that higher job demands (quantitative demands, emotional demands and long working hours) in relation to limited job resources (quality of leadership, social support from colleagues and supervisors) have a very significant effect on the workers’ health and wellbeing in the Malaysian petrochemical industries (Javaid et al., 2015). In another study on petrochemical workers of Malaysia, Javaid et al. (2016) proposed that psychosocial risks leads to unsafe acts of the workers working in plants. Our results showed that job insecurity does not have a mediating effect in the relationship of emotional demands and social support with the health of the workers. Instead of mediating effect of job insecurity, future studies should analyze the independent effect of job insecurity along with other psychosocial work environment factors by including the buffering effect of health-specific leadership. The importance of job insecurity and its impact can be seen with the statement mentioned by Schaufeli (2016) in his latest article that job insecurity leads to poor health and wellbeing, remains undisputed. He further added that job insecurity research is still “alive and kicking”. Such constraints create frustration among workers which effects upon the health and their wellbeing. These effects may double in size when workers experience an essence of job insecurity in relation to such emotional demands at work. Even though many researchers agree that excessive emotional demands significantly effect on burnout of the workers, most did not directly measure these demands and used moderating effects such as job control and social support (Vegchel et al., 2004; Zapf, 2002). Therefore, the present study aimed to probe the intervening effect of job insecurity in a relationship of emotional demands, social support from colleagues and health & wellbeing on the petrochemical industry workers in light of JD-R theory, remembering this theory can be applied to all work environments (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014).

71

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

REFERENCES Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411 Arnold, K. A., Turner, N., Barling, J., Kelloway, E. K., & McKee, M. C. (2007). Transformational leadership and psychological well-being: The mediating role of meaningful work. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12(3), 193–203. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.12.3.193 PMID:17638487 Barling, J., Loughlin, C., & Kelloway, E. K. (2002). Development and test of a model linking safetyspecific transformational leadership and occupational safety. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(3), 488–496. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.3.488 PMID:12090606 Basalla, G. (1988). The Evolution of Technology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press. Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1993). Article. Transformational Leadership and Organizational Culture, 17(1), 112–121. Bernama. (2013). SOCSO records accident claims increase to RM1.549 billion. Retrieved on May 29, 2013, from: http://www.bernama.com.my/index.php? Bond, M. A., Punnett, L., & Pfirman, D. (2008). Expanding our Understanding of the Psychosocial Work Environment: A Compendium of Discrimination. Harassment, and Work-Family Issues. Borgatta, E. F., Bales, R. F., & Couch, A. S. (1954). Some findings relevant to the great man theory of leadership. American Sociological Review, 19(6), 755–759. doi:10.2307/2087923 Brotheridge, C. M., & Grandey, A. (2002). Emotional Labor and Burnout: Comparing Two Perspectives of People Work. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60(1), 17–39. doi:10.1006/jvbe.2001.1815 Burton, J. (2010). WHO Healthy Workplace Framework and Model: Background and Supporting Literature and Practice. Academic Press. Clausen, T., & Borg, V. (2011). Job demands, job resources and meaning at work. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 26(8), 665–681. doi:10.1108/02683941111181761 Cohen, A. (1977). Factors in successful occupational safety programs. Journal of Safety Research, 9(4), 168–178. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavior science. Lawrence Erlbaum Association. Conner, M., & Norman, P. (2005). Predicting Health Behaviour (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education. Cox, T., Griffiths, A., & Rial-González, E. (2000). Work-related stress. Academic Press. De Witte, H. (2005). Job insecurity: Review of the international literature on definitions, prevalence, antecedents and consequences. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 31(4), 1–6. doi:10.4102/sajip.v31i4.200

72

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

Dierendonck, V., Haynes, C., Borrill, C., & Stride, C. (2004). Leadership behavior and subordinate well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 9(2), 165–175. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.9.2.165 PMID:15053715 Dollard, M. F., Shimazu, A., Nordin, R. B., Brough, P., & Tuckey, M. R. (2014a). Psychosocial Factors at Work in the Asia Pacific. Amsterdam: Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. Dollard, M. F., Shimazu, A., Nordin, R.B., Brough, P., & Tuckey, M.R. (2014b). Psychosocial Factors at Work in the Asia Pacific. Academic Press. Dunbar, R. L. M. (1975). Managers influence on subordinates thinking about safety. Academy of Management Journal, 18(2), 364–369. doi:10.2307/255538 ESENER. (2009). European Survey of Enterprises on New and Emerging Risks Summary. ESENER. Eusebio Rial, G., Sarah, C., Pascal, P., & Elke, S. (2005). Priorities for occupational safety and health research in the EU-25. Academic Press. Fiedler, F. E., & Chemers, M. M. (1967). A theory of leadership effectiveness. Academic Press. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. JMR, Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. doi:10.2307/3151312 Franke, F., & Felfe, J. (2011). How does transformational leadership impact employees psychological strain?: Examining differentiated effects and the moderating role of affective organizational commitment. Leadership, 7(3), 295–316. doi:10.1177/1742715011407387 Galton, F. (1869). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences (Vol. 27). New York: MacMillan. doi:10.1037/13474-000 Gholami, R., Sulaiman, A. B., Ramayah, T., & Molla, A. (2013). Senior managers perception on green information systems (IS) adoption and environmental performance: Results from a field survey. Information & Management, 50(7), 431–438. doi:10.1016/j.im.2013.01.004 Gilbreath, B., & Benson, P. G. (2004). The contribution of supervisor behaviour to employee psychological wellbeing. Work and Stress, 18(3), 255–266. doi:10.1080/02678370412331317499 Gillet, N., Fouquereau, E., Bonnaud-Antignac, A., Mokounkolo, R., & Colombat, P. (2013). The mediating role of organizational justice in the relationship between transformational leadership and nurses quality of work life: A cross-sectional questionnaire survey. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 50(10), 1359–1367. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2012.12.012 PMID:23298792 Gram Quist, H., Christensen, U., Christensen, K. B., Aust, B., Borg, V., & Bjorner, J. B. (2013). Psychosocial work environment factors and weight change: A prospective study among Danish health care workers. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 43. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-43 PMID:23327287 Gurt, J., Elke, G., & Bochum, R. (2009). Health Promoting Leadership : The Mediating Role of an Organizational Health Culture. Health (San Francisco), (1987), 29–38. Gurt, J., Schwennen, C., & Elke, G. (2011). Health-specific leadership : Is there an association between leader consideration for the health of employees and their strain and well- being? Work & Stress, 37–41.

73

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2014). A Primer on Partial Least Squzres Structural Equation Modeling. PLS-SEM. Hemphill, J. K., & Coons, A. E. (1957). Development of the leader behavior description and measurement. Columbus, OH: Business Research, Ohio State University. Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115–135. doi:10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8 Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. (1974). So you want to know your leadership style? Training and Development Journal. House, R. J. (1976). A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership. University of Toronto, Faculty of Management Studies. Huang, G.-H., Niu, X., Lee, C., & Ashford, S. J. (2012). Differentiating cognitive and affective job insecurity: Antecedents and outcomes. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(6), 752–769. doi:10.1002/ job.1815 ILO. (1986). Psychosocial Factors at Work: Recognition and Control. ILO. ILO. (2012). SOLVE: Integrating health Promotion into Workplace OSH Policies. ILO. Jansen, J. J. P., George, G., Van den Bosch, F. A. J., & Volberda, H. W. (2008). Senior team attributes and organizational ambidexterity: The moderating role of transformational leadership. Journal of Management Studies, 45(5), 982–1007. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2008.00775.x Javaid, M. U., Ghazali, Z., Isha, A. S. N., & Langove, N. (2015). Psychosocial risks: Health and wellbeing of workers in petrochemical industry of Malaysia. In Technology Management and Emerging Technologies (ISTMET), 2015 International Symposium on (pp. 314–318). IEEE. Javaid, M. U., Shahrul, A., Isha, N., Ghazali, Z., & Langove, N. (2016). Psychosocial Stressors in Relation to Unsafe Acts, 6(2015), 108–113. Jenkins, W. O. (1947). A review of leadership studies with particular reference to military problems. Psychological Bulletin, 44(1), 54–79. doi:10.1037/h0062329 PMID:20282185 Judge, T. A., & Kammeyer-Muller, J. D. (2012). A longitudinal examination of the work – nonwork boundary strength construct. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 839–862. Kelloway, E. K., Turner, N., Barling, J., & Loughlin, C. (2012). Transformational leadership and employee psychological well-being: The mediating role of employee trust in leadership. Work and Stress, 26(1), 39–55. doi:10.1080/02678373.2012.660774 Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. London: Guilford Publications. Kortum, E., Leka, S., & Cox, T. (2010). Psychosocial risks and work-related stress in developing countries: Health impact, priorities, barriers and solutions. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 23(3), 225–238. doi:10.2478/v10001-010-0024-5 PMID:20934955

74

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

Kristensen, T. S., Hannerz, H., Høgh, A., & Borg, V. (2005). The Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire—a tool for the assessment and improvement of the psychosocial work environment. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 31(6), 438–449. doi:10.5271/sjweh.948 PMID:16425585 Lambert, E. G., Altheimer, I., & Hogan, N. L. (2010). Exploring the relationship between social support and job bumout among correctional staff. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(11), 1217–1236. doi:10.1177/0093854810379552 Lee, C., Bobko, P., & Chen, Z. X. (2006). Investigation of the multidimensional model of job insecurity in China and the USA. Applied Psychology, 55(4), 512–540. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00233.x Leka, S., & Jain, A. (2010). Health Impact of Psychosocial Hazards at Work: An overview. Academic Press. Madsen, I. E., Diderichsen, F., Burr, H., & Rugulies, R. (2010). Person-related work and incident use of antidepressants : Relations and mediating factors from the Danish work environment cohort study. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 36(6), 435–444. doi:10.5271/sjweh.3049 PMID:20517584 Mann, R. D. (1959). A review of the relationships between personality and performance in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 56(4), 241–270. doi:10.1037/h0044587 McClelland, D. C. (1967). Achieving society. London: Simon and Schuster. MOHR. (n.d.). Occupational Health and Safety Master Plan for Malaysia 2015 OSH-MP 15. MOHR. MPA. (2014). Malaysia Petrochemical Country Report. APIC. MPE. (2012). Sustaining The Quality of Life. MPE. Mullen, J., & Kelloway, E. K. (2011). Occupational health and safety leadership. Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: APA Books. Nieuwenhuijsen, K., Bruinvels, D., & Frings-Dresen, M. (2010). Psychosocial work environment and stress-related disorders, a systematic review. Occupational Medicine (Oxford, England), 60(4), 277–286. doi:10.1093/occmed/kqq081 PMID:20511268 Nor Azma, R., Omar, N. W., Muda, A., & Endut, A. (2013). Exploratory Study on Safety Climate in Malaysian Automotive Manufacturing. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Health, 3(2), 30–34. Peeters, M. C. W., De Jonge, J., & Taris, T. W. (2014). An Introduction to Contemporary Work Psychology. Retrieved on September 27, 2015, from: https://books.google.com/books?id=DXVGAQAAQBAJ&pgis=1 Probst, T. M., Stewart, S. M., Gruys, M. L., & Tierney, B. W. (2007). Productivity, counterproductivity and creativity: The ups and downs of job insecurity. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 80(3), 479–497. doi:10.1348/096317906X159103 Reiman, T., & Rollenhagen, C. (2014). Does the concept of safety culture help or hinder systems thinking in safety? Accident; Analysis and Prevention, 68, 5–15. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2013.10.033 PMID:24275532

75

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

Rosenstock, L., & Cullen, M. R. (2006). Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. Journal of Occupational Health, 1127–1145. PMID:21250328 Said, S. M., Said, F., & Halim, Z. A. (2012). The determinants of industrial accidents in the Malaysian manufacturing sector. African Journal of Business Management, 6(February), 1999–2006. Shamir, B., House, R. J., & Arthur, M. B. (1993). The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Based Theory. Organization Science, 4(4), 577–594. doi:10.1287/orsc.4.4.577 Skakon, J., Nielsen, K., Borg, V., & Guzman, J. (2010). Are leaders’ well-being, behaviours and style associated with the affective well-being of their employees? A systematic review of three decades of research. Academic Press. SOCSO. (2013). Social Security Organization: Annual Report. SOCSO. Stansfeld, S., & Candy, B. (2006). Psychosocial work environment and mental health—a meta-analytic review. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 32(6), 443–462. doi:10.5271/sjweh.1050 PMID:17173201 Stogdill, R. M. (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature. The Journal of Psychology, 25(1), 35–71. doi:10.1080/00223980.1948.9917362 PMID:18901913 Sverke, M., Hellgren, J., & Näswall, K. (2002). No security: A meta-analysis and review of job insecurity and its consequences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(3), 242–264. doi:10.1037/10768998.7.3.242 PMID:12148956 Tay, A. (2014). Maintaining Good Occupational Safety and Health. Journal of Contemporary Issues in Business Research, 3(1), 34–40. Terman, L. M. (1904). A preliminary study in the psychology and pedagogy of leadership. The Pedagogical Seminary, 11(4), 413–483. doi:10.1080/08919402.1904.10534107 Van Vegchel, N., De Jonge, J., Söderfeldt, M., Dormann, C., & Schaufeli, W. (2004). Quantitative Versus Emotional Demands Among Swedish Human Service Employees: Moderating Effects of Job Control and Social Support. International Journal of Stress Management, 11(1), 21–40. doi:10.1037/1072-5245.11.1.21 Viktor, G. (1982). The Self-Concept. Annual Review of Sociology, 8(May), 1–33. WHO. (2007a). Raising awareness of stress at work in developing countries: A modern hazard in a traditional working environment: advice to employers and worker representatives. Protecting Workers’ Health Series. WHO. WHO. (2007b). The Global Occupational Health Network. WHO. Widanarko, B., Legg, S., Devereux, J., & Stevenson, M. (2014). Interaction between physical and psychosocial work risk factors for low back symptoms and its consequences amongst Indonesian coal mining workers. Applied Ergonomics, 46PA, 158–167. PMID:25151314 Yukl, G. A. (2006). Leadership in organizations (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

76

 Human Factor in Context to Occupational Health and Wellbeing

Zapf, D. (2002). Emotion work and psychological well-being. Human Resource Management Review, 12(2), 237–268. doi:10.1016/S1053-4822(02)00048-7 Zohar, D., & Luria, G. (2004). Climate as a Social-Cognitive Construction of Supervisory Safety Practices: Scripts as Proxy of Behavior Patterns. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(2), 322–333. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.2.322 PMID:15065978

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Healthy Workplace: Is one in which workers and managers collaborate to use a continual improvement process to protect and promote the safety, health and well-being of workers and the sustainability of the workplace by considering physical and psychosocial factors. Psychosocial Risks: Is the interaction between and among work environment, job content, organizational conditions and workers capacities, needs, cultures, personal extra-job considerations that may, through perceptions and experience, influence health, work performance and job satisfaction.

77

78

Chapter 5

Well-Being at Work:

A Comprehensive Review About Its Predictors and Outcomes Pinar Bayhan Karapinar Hacettepe University, Turkey Selin Metin Camgoz Hacettepe University, Turkey

ABSTRACT Well-being is defined as individuals’ subjective and global judgment whether the individual is experiencing the relative presence of positive emotions, the relative absence of negative emotions, and satisfaction with their life. This chapter addresses individuals’ well-being at work, since work composes an important part of individuals’ life experiences and has important effects on both employees’ and organizations’ effectiveness. For this purpose, this book chapter provides a comprehensive overview of well-being with respect to its predictors as well as its outcomes. More specifically, personality factors, job characteristics, and occupational stress are explored in terms of individual and organizational antecedents, whereas job satisfaction and work performance are utilized as outcomes of well-being. This chapter will be of interest to researchers, practitioners, and organizational consultants in providing a comprehensive guideline about the implications of well-being at work settings.

INTRODUCTION Well-being refers to an individual’s hedonic experience of feeling good and to the eudemonic experience of fulfillment and purpose (Ryan & Deci, 2001). It represents a universal goal of human existence (New Economics Foundation-NEF, 2014). Beginning from Aristotle’s time, it has been a crucial concern of philosophers, and in societies well-being is promoted as a desirable goal to strive for (Wright & Bonett, 2007). Striving and sustaining well-being is also an important arena in case of modern work force. Today the top management in worldwide organizations, governments and other organizations acknowledge that wellbeing, productivity and profitability are closely linked (NEF, 2014). However, according to DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2250-8.ch005

Copyright © 2017, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Well-Being at Work

Gallup’s World Poll, 63% of the global workforce is ‘checked out’. Likewise, The Wall Street Journal notes that more than half of American workers are less content with their jobs (Why We Need More Wellbeing, 2016). Starting from the millennium, the association between well-being and work has taken the center stage on industrial and organizational psychology and has driven fundamental impetus in welfare politics of organizations (Peeters, Taris & de Jonge, 2013). Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology is the scientific study of individual and group behavior in formal organizational settings (Jex & Britt, 2008). It aims to assess individual, group and organizational dynamics and incorporates that research to identify solutions to problems that improve the well-being and performance of employees. Early prominent scholars of Fisher and Hanna (1931) on their classical research makes it very clear, that dissatisfied worker is “responsible to a much greater extent for labor turnover than is commonly realized. Studies now clearly suggest that well-being of employees may be in the best interest of employers by helping the working employees to feel happy, satisfied and committed in their work life (Harter, Schmidt, & Keyes, 2003). Accordingly, literature pertaining to employee well-being relates it to important outcomes including employee and organizational productivity (Wright & Cropanzano, 2000), absenteeism, turnover, and performance deficits (Cropanzano & Wright, 2001). The definitions of well-being encompass a multifaceted construct including domains of physical, psychological, economic, affective, work related, subjective, and overall well- being (Arcidiacono & Di Martino, 2016; Danna & Griffin, 1999). In this regard, it has been investigated in various diciplines including psychology (Diener, Scollon, & Lucas, 2009), philosophy (Haybron, 2008), and economics (Frey & Stutzer, 2010). However, as the body of research concerning well-being is vast, this would go beyond the scope of this chapter to address them all. Therefore, for the specific purpose of this chapter, we narrow down our focus to employee well-being solely. The major purpose of this chapter is to provide a detailed overview to the current body of knowledge on well-being, particularly with regard to its important dispositional and work related determinants as well as its significant individual and work-related consequences. In essence, employee well-being results from the interaction between the individual and the environment. Explicitly, the way employees feel has not only to do with their personality, but also with their jobs. Therefore, the examination of both personality and work related factors is essential. Mainly, three aims are tried to be achieved: (1) examining the nature of well-being, (2) illustrating the factors and the determinants of employee wellbeing at work, (3) İdentifying the impact of well-being on organizations. In terms of determinants of well-being, personality factors (e.g., Big-Five personality factors, locus of control, Type A behavior), job characteristics, and occupational stress are explored. As to the consequences and impacts of well-being, job satisfaction and job performance are utilized. Throughout this chapter, first, a general introduction and historical overview including definitions and conceptualizations of well-being are provided. Second, a review of empirical research focusing on the determinants and the consequences of well-being are presented. The authors conduct the search of existing literature largely focusing on studies published after the year 2000. The keywords of employee well-being, psychological well-being, well- being at work, occupational well-being, and subjective well-being are used in selecting the articles from relevant electronic databases. Finally, the authors propose a section regarding the cultural variations in well-being. Overall, this chapter will be of interest to researchers, practitioners, and organizational consultants in providing a comprehensive guideline about the implications of well-being at work settings.

79

 Well-Being at Work

BACKGROUND General Conceptualizations of Well-Being There is no agreement around a single definition of well-being; however, it commonly refers to an affective judgment concerning the events that occur in individuals’ lives (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999). Huppert (2009, p. 137) indicated that “well-being is about lives going well, it is the combination of feeling good and functioning effectively”. In general, well-being is considered as a combination of various different positive and negative effects (Diener et al., 1999). Diener (1984) defines well-being as “subjective and global judgment of individuals whether the individual is experiencing the relative presence of positive emotions (e.g., happiness), the relative absence of negative emotions (e.g., depression, anxiety), and the satisfaction with life and positive functioning” (Diener, 1984, p.543). Accordingly, subjective well-being includes three main components: (1) high levels of positive affect, (2) low levels of negative affect, and (3) a cognitive evaluation of one’s satisfaction with their lives as a whole. The first two components refer to the affective parts of the subjective well-being, whereas the last component refers to the cognitive part of subjective well-being (Diener, 1984). In line with this definition, well-being is a subjective phenomenon which means that individuals are psychologically well to the extent they believe to be (Avey, Luthans, Smith, & Palmer, 2010) or, in other words, it reflects an individual’s self-described happiness (Diener, 1984). Many well-being dimensions have been identified and most research has been encouraged by Ryff’s work (1989). In her context free model, Ryff (1989) distinguished six main dimensions of well-being, namely self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth (Ryff 1989). Also Warr (1994) provided one of the most extensive reviews of well-being. Warr proposed dimensions of affective well-being as an indicative of mental health mainly including enthusiasm–depression, anxiety–comfort, and pleasure–displeasure. Differently from Ryff, Warr (1994) conceptualized well-being in a specific context that is in a work context. As the work context is different from general life context, some scholars argue that employee wellbeing should be treated as a different construct (Zheng, Zhu, Zhao, & Zhang, 2015). Job satisfaction has been generally used to operationalize the work-related well-being (Rothmann, 2008); however, different models of work related well-being have been developed. More specifically, Daniels (2000) tested a model with multiple dimensions (anxiety–comfort, depression–pleasure, bored–enthusiastic, tiredness–vigor, and angry– placid) that parallel to negative and positive affects (Watson & Tellegen, 1985). Based upon Warr’s (1994) and Ryff’s (1989) conceptualizations, Horn, Taris, Schaufeli, and Schreurs (2004) proposed a five dimensional model for occupational well-being among Dutch teachers, including affective, professional, social, cognitive, and psychosomatic dimensions. In order to provide a more broad perspective, Rothmann (2008) examined burnout, work engagement, occupational stress, and job satisfaction as components of work-related well-being in a sample of police force. Their results provided an evidence for a four-factorial model of work related well-being. According to Rothmann’s (2008) work related well-being model, job satisfaction forms the part of the pleasure-displeasure dimension, occupational stress forms the part of anxiety-comfort dimension, burnout forms part of the vigor-fatigue dimension, and lastly work engagement forms part of the enthusiasm-depression dimension. Page and Vella-Brodrick (2009) proposed a comprehensive model of employee well-being, which includes subjective well-being and psychological well-being as two key components. They argued that employee well-being can be measured by subjective well-being, which is operationalized as life satisfac80

 Well-Being at Work

tion, positive and negative affect, psychological well-being, work-related affect, and job satisfaction (Page & Vella-Brodrick, 2009). Recently, Seligman (2011), as the defender of positive psychology designs a theory of well-being, including five main domains namely positive emotions, engagement, meaning, relationships and achievements. Moreover, Zheng, Zhu, Zhao, & Zhang (2016) tested the structural dimensions of employee well-being in work setting by using qualitative and quantitative methods. Accordingly, the data collected from Chinese and American culture reveals that employee well-being includes life well-being, workplace well-being and psychological well-being (Zheng et al., 2016).

MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER The Determinants of Well-Being Extensive reviews exist on the determinants of well-being, ranging from demographic (i.e., gender, age), sociodemographic, and labor market (Marks & Fleming, 1999). However, this chapter basically includes the literature on the psychological predictors of well-being, such as the role of personality factors (BigFive traits, locus of control, and Type A personality), work-related factors of job characteristics (e.g., work load, job demands, job insecurity), and occupational stress.

Personality Factors and Well-Being A considerable amount of research has focused on the relationship between personality and well-being. These studies indicate that personality is a consistent and significant predictor of well-being (Diener et al., 1999). In other words, some personality traits, Type A behavior, and locus of control play a role in determining whether the individual will have high or low levels of well-being in an organizational setting (Danna & Griffin, 1999). Moreover, DeNeve and Cooper’s (1998) comprehensive meta-analytic study, by exploring the relationship between 137 personality traits and well-being, reveals that personality is the predictive of life satisfaction, happiness, and positive affect. Other than Big-Five traits, emotional stability, locus of control, hardiness, positive affectivity, self-esteem are found to be positively related with subjective well-being (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998). The following three subsections discuss the effects of Big-five personality traits, locus of control, and Type A personality in relation to well-being. Big-Five Personality Factors Over the last few years, one developing consensus is that the most salient aspects of an individual’s personality can be described with a five-factor model referred to as “Big- Five” (Goldberg, 1990). The Big- Five model implies that personality consists of five relatively independent dimensions which provide meaningful taxonomy to study individual differences (Barrick & Mount, 1991). The Big- Five personality factors are extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. Many empirical studies have shown that subjective well-being is related to the Big-Five personality factors (Weiss, Bates, & Luciano, 2008). A recent finding reveals that extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability are all positively associated with well-being (Berglund,

81

 Well-Being at Work

Johansson, & Strandh, 2016). However, neuroticism and extraversion are considered as the strongest predictors of life satisfaction and happiness among Big-Five personality factors. In this sense, a number of studies show strong negative associations between well-being and neuroticism and positive association between well-being and extraversion (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; Gutiérrez, Jiménez, Hernández, & Pcn, 2005; Hayes & Joseph, 2003; Lucas & Fujita, 2000). It is argued that individuals high in neuroticism experience more negative events compared to others (Magnus, Diener, Fujita, & Pavot, 1993). In line with this assertion, it can be assumed that neuroticism initiates negative emotions. On the other hand, individuals high in extraversion trait are more responsive or sensitive to the positive events in their lives. Therefore, it can be assumed that extraversion contributes to individuals’ well-being levels by initiating positive emotions (Huppert, 2009). Hayes and Joseph (2003) suggest that conscientiousness is also related to subjective well-being, as well as neuroticism and extraversion. According to these authors, conscientiousness could be an important predictor of well-being since individuals with high levels of conscientiousness have more tendency to display goal-directed behavior and to achieve their goals. In turn, goal achievement might lead to happiness and increased levels of well-being. Locus of Control Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe they can control events affecting them (Rotter, 1966). It is considered as a generalized perception of control. Rotter (1966) identifies internal and external locus of control. Accordingly, individuals with an external locus of control are more likely to believe that the things that happen in their environment are out of their control. On the other hand, individuals with internal locus of control are more likely to believe that the outcomes of their actions are results of their own abilities. Therefore, internals believe that their effort would lead them to have more positive outcomes (April, Dharani, & Peter, 2012). Locus of control has been shown to have positive effects on well-being (Fisher, 1984; Ganster & Fusilier, 1989) by encouraging active coping mechanisms (Parkes, 1984) and feelings of competence (Fisher, 1989). It is indicated that individuals with internal locus of control beliefs respond more effectively to stress than individuals with external locus of control beliefs (Krause & Stryker, 1984). The plausible assumption on the effect of locus of control on well-being is that individuals who accept stressors as controllable may have more tendency to cope with them through active problem solving ways and thus it promotes individuals’ well-being (Schmitz, Neumann, & Oppermann, 2000). In line with the above-mentioned reasoning, several studies have examined the relationship between the locus of control and psychological well-being (Ng, Sorensen, & Eby, 2006). For instance, Judge and Bono (2001) support the argument that locus of control is the proximal predictor of well-being. They suggest that locus of control is one of the most important parts of an individual’s self-evaluation. If an individual believes that he/she has lack of control, this represents a negative fundamental evaluation of self-worth which may lead to feelings of helplessness and depression. On the other hand, if an individual believes that he/she has control of the external environment, it refers a positive fundamental evaluation of self-worth and may lead to increased levels of well-being. Spector et al. (2002) examined the effects of control beliefs on well-being on a sample of managers from 24 geopolitical entities. Their results reveal that control belief is positively associated with well-being. Meta-analytic findings of Ng et al. (2006) also provide support that internal locus of control positively relates to life satisfaction, job satisfaction, and well-being.

82

 Well-Being at Work

Type-A Personality Types A and B of personalities concern how people respond to stress. Type A personality individuals are ambitious, hard, rigid, proactive, self-critical, competitive, impatient, and have concerns about time management. These individuals often push themselves by deadlines, experience a constant sense of urgency, and try to do more than one task at one time. Type B behavior, on the other hand, is generally described by opposite qualities. In line with other personality traits, previous research has also associated Type A characteristics with higher scores of extraversion and neuroticism (Cramer, 1991) and intrinsic locus of control (Morrison, 1997). Literature display supporting evidence for the negative relationship between Type A personality, health, and well-being constructs. Friedman and Kern (2014) indicates that Type A personality predicts heart disease risk and certain types of illnesses appear more frequently in individuals with Type A personalities (Danna & Griffin, 1999). In their pioneering study, Friedman and Rosenman (1959) first described Type A personality as a potential risk factor for heart diseases. Starting from this pioneering work, much work was conducted in relating Type A personality to coronary risk (Ivancevich, Matteson, & Preston, 1982), occupational stress, anxiety, and tension at work. Jamal (1990) examined the relationship of Type-A behavior with some well-being constructs on a sample of 215 nurses in a Canadian hospital. The findings revealed that Type A behavior was associated with high psychosomatic health problems, high job stress, high role ambiguity, and conflict. Moreover, Type A behavior was reported as an important moderator for stress-outcome relationships. More recently, Van der Belk and Schalk’s study (1997) investigated the relationships between Type A behavior, work overload, and well-being on a sample of insurance company employees. Their findings revealed a linkage between Type A behavior and well-being; however, they concluded that this relationship is partially mediated by work overload. In Srivastava’s (2009) research with 156 private sector managers, the impact of Type A personality is found to have negative effects on stress related outcomes and the achievement striving component of Type A personality moderated the impact of stress-strain relationships. This means that, when Type A managers (achievement strivings) encounter stress, they are more prone to anxiety and illnesses and feel less satisfied with their job.

Job Characteristics and Well-Being Current evidence regarding the work-related determinants of well-being mostly builds upon the Job Demand-Control (JDC) model (Karasek, 1979), which has been systematically reviewed in relation to well-being and occupational stress research. The JDC model is an occupational stress model which suggests that strain is a response to imbalance between demands on the individual and the resources that one has to deal with those demands (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). This model identifies two important job aspects in work settings, namely job demands and job control (Karasek, 1979). Job demands refer to work load, time pressure, and role conflict, while job control refers to the employee’s capability in controlling his/her tasks and work activities (Karasek, 1985). Accordingly, job strain is most likely to occur when job demands are high and when job resources and control are limited (Bakker, Demerouti, De Boer, & Schaufeli, 2003). In other words, high job demands that exhaust employees’ physical and mental resources may lead to decreases in well-being and depletion of energy among employees (Brom, Buruck, Horvath, Richter, & Leiter, 2015). In contrast, when job resources and control are high, it fosters employees’ engagement and increases well-being (Brom et al., 2015). In other words, jobs high on demands and low on control (‘‘high strain jobs’’) indicate the highest risk of illness and reduced well-

83

 Well-Being at Work

being. By contrast, jobs low on demands and high on control (‘‘low strain jobs’’) indicate less adverse reactions (Karasek, 1979). According to the JDC model, employees working in a high-strain job (high demands-low control) experience the lowest well-being. Van der Doef and Maes’s (1999) comprehensive meta-analytic review reports that working in a high-strain job appears to be associated with lower general well-being and job satisfaction, higher levels of burnout, and more job-related stress. Moreover, Jonge et al.’s (2001) study, testing the relationships between job characteristics and work related well-being on a sample of healthcare professionals, noted that job characteristics influence the psychological well-being of individuals at work. More specifically, these authors argued that both job demands and workplace social support appeared to be the causally dominant factors with regard to well-being. From a different perspective, Van Hooff and Van Hoofft (2014) also report work-related boredom is negatively related with well-being and positively related to depressive complaints, distress, and counterproductive work behavior. In the 1980’s, Johnson and Hall (1988) added the third support dimension to the model, resulting in the Job Demand-Control-Support (JDCS) model. This model predicts that employees with jobs that high demands, low control, and low support from supervisors/co-workers experience the highest risk for psychological or physical disorders (Johnson & Hall, 1988). Van der Doef and Maes’s meta-analytic research (1999) reports 43 independent studies exploring the relationship between the JDCS model and some psychological well-being measures including psychological distress, life satisfaction, general health, and/or anxiety. These studies highlighted that social support moderates the negative impact of high strain and increases psychological well-being. Häusser, Mojzisch, Niesel, and Schulz-Hardt’s (2010) recent meta-analytic study updated and extended Van der Doef and Maes’s (1999) review. Häusser et al’s (2010) review covered the relevant research on JDC and JDCS models, related to psychological well-being, that were published between 1998 and 2007. Accordingly, their review of 83 studies provided support for additive effects of demand, control, and social support on well-being. This additive effect is found to be strongly confirmed in cross-sectional studies (de Witte, Verhofstadt, & Omey, 2007) however, the effects of support rates are reported lower in longitudinal data (Rystedt, Devereux, & Sverke, 2007). Within the frame of job characteristics, the concept of job insecurity has also been studied in relation to employees’ well-being. Job insecurity as a global construct is defined as an overall concern about the continued existence of the job in the future (Van Vuuren and Klandermans, 1990). Job insecurity is a subjective perception and it also contains uncertainty and uncontrollability. As job insecurity is considered as a major stressor and associated with psychological distress, it reduces individuals’ well-being (DeWitte, 1999). Burchell’s (1994) study, with a sample of 600 UK employees, reports lower level of psychological well-being among the employees who perceive insecurity about their jobs. The factors of uncontrollability and unpredictability in the phenomenon of job insecurity plays an important role. In her research, Van Vuuren and Klandermans (1990) has indicated that individuals who report the lowest level of well-being attribute their job insecurity to uncontrollable individual factors, like age and health. Last, but not least, DeWitte’s (1999) findings, with a sample of 356 employees in a multinational metalworking industry, demonstrate that the negative association between job insecurity and psychological well-being remains strongly robust even after controlling occupational status, gender, and age. Moreover, in a recent study Stiglbauer, Selenko, Batinic and Jodlbauer (2012) demonstrate that well-being partially mediates the effect of job insecurity on turnover intentions. In line with job insecurity, several studies (Cuyper & Witte, 2006; Kompier, Ybema, Janssen, & Taris, 2009) have also examined the relationship between contract type and employees’ well-being. The empirical investigation of this relationship is meaningful, given that temporary employment contracts 84

 Well-Being at Work

are associated with higher job insecurity and insecurity perceptions are negatively related with wellbeing. Dawson, Veliziotis and Hopkins (2014) study reports significant differences between permanent and temporary employees in terms of well-being scores. These authors argue that, after controlling differences in job satisfaction with security between contract types, temporary employees have higher well-being and life satisfaction scores.

Occupational Stress and Well-Being Occupational stress is a term used to define ongoing stress that is related to the workplace. Spector (1998, p.108) defines occupational stress as “the total sum of factors experienced in relation to work which affects the psychosocial and physiological homeostasis of the worker, the individual factor is termed a stressor and stress is the individual workers’ reaction to stressors.” The relationship regarding the association between well-being and occupational stress reminds the ‘chicken or the egg causality dilemma’, which generally argues as which one came first. In other words, literature concerning occupational stress treats it mostly as the antecedent and also as the consequence of well-being. Occupational stress literature mostly builds upon Karasek’s (1979) occupational stress model. Accordingly, the quantity of the work (demand) and the degree of the discretion that the person has control over the task are the major determinants of occupational stress. However, Mark and Smith (2008) argues that occupational stress is not a feature of either environment or individual, per se; rather, it is the consequence of the interaction of both categories. In other words, an individual’s perception regarding a situation becomes very important in defining any type of work demand as stressful and harmful. Thus, one might argue that occupational stress is usually associated with the responsibilities of the work itself and/or associated with employees’ dispositional attributes. In this sense, this model accepts occupational stress as the antecedent of well-being, which means that occupational stress factors influence well-being. Cooper and Marshall (1978) developed a comprehensive list which identifies the sources of occupational stress in six categories, including: (1) factors intrinsic to work overload or underload, shift work, long hours, danger, new technology, and quality of the physical working environment; (2) Role ambiguity, role conflict, and the degree of others’ responsibility; (3) Relationships with superiors, colleagues, and subordinates; (4) Career development and job insecurity; (5) Organizational structure and climate; (6) Work/home interface. Under this framework, research literature provides extensive evidence in relating these occupational stress categories to different conceptualizations of well-being. For instance, Sparks, Cooper, Fried, and Shirom’s (1997) findings of a meta-analysis indicate a positive relationship between increasing hours of work, increasing psychosomatic symptoms (e.g., headache) and health problems (e.g.cardiac). In another study, Jackson and Schuler (1985) found associations between role ambiguity, role conflict, and affective reactions in terms of tension, anxiety, propensity to leave, and job satisfaction. Likewise, relationships with superiors, colleagues, and subordinates have also been identified as occupational stressors. Cooper & Cartwright (1994) report that mistrust of colleagues’ leads to poor psychological well-being. Moreover, Adelmann (1987) reports that stress related to occupational characteristics of income, control, and task complexity are related to psychological well-being in terms of happiness and lack of vulnerability to negative experiences. Moreover, Quick, Horn, and Quick (1986) state that occupational stress can lead to behavioral, medical, and psychological problems and, thus, reduce employees’ well-being. These behavioral and medical problems usually include alcohol and drug consumption, smoking, and increased violence, whereas psychological problems include family issues, sleeping disorders, and depression. 85

 Well-Being at Work

The Consequences of Well-Being The theoretical foundation for the outcomes of well-being on organizational issues could be built on the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory which was adopted in organizational settings in early 1990s. This theory suggests that individuals are motivated to obtain, retain, foster, and protect resources they value, therefore they invest in gaining resources (Hobfoll, 2002, p307.). These resources are anything that individuals personally value; thus, they can be categorized as objects, conditions, personal characteristics, and energy. Employees who have experienced resource loss without resource gain are subject to stress and tension (Hobfoll, 1989). As psychological well-being includes the assessments of an individual’s overall experience in life, an individual might view such an evaluation as a valuable resource that might serve as an instrument to buffer the negative effects of stressful conditions and job demands. Therefore, employees’ own evaluations of their well-being determines the severity of their work-related consequences. A vast number of research exploring the consequences of well-being on both individual and organizational outcomes are reported. For instance, psychologically well individuals earn higher salaries and have better work performance than the others (Staw et al., 1994). Furthermore, it has been reported that individuals high in well-being have better social relationships than individuals low in well-being (Diener & Seligman, 2004). As to related literature, job performance and job satisfaction are utilized as work-related outcomes of well-being in preceding sections.

Well-Being and Job Performance Extensive research is available on the linkage between psychological well-being and job performance (Cropanzano & Wright, 2001; Staw, Sutton & Pelled, 1994; Wright & Cropanzano, 2000). Starting from the Hawthorne experiments, there is a widely accepted hypothesis of ‘happy-productive worker’. Accordingly, happy workers demonstrate higher levels of job-related performance than unhappy employees (Brief, 1998). Similarly, psychologically well individuals are more inclined to experience more positive emotions like happiness (Wright & Cropanzano, 2000). Further, over the years, several scholars have provided reviews regarding well-being and performance linkage (Cropanzano & Wright, 1999). The evidence from clinical psychology has shown that depressed and unhappy individuals tend to be pessimistic, exhibit lower levels of motivation, and have slower thinking processes. Researchers mainly argue that work-related dysfunctional well-being is a result of depression, loss of self-esteem, and alcoholism (Quick, Quick, Nelson, & Hurrell, 1997). More direct organizational research has provided an evidence that well-being is positively related to job performance (Wright & Bonett, 1997). It is argued that the presence of positive emotions of the worker and his/her relationship within work settings increases the employees’ performance (Harter, Schmidt, & Keyes, 2003). For instance, Staw, et al. (1994) have revealed that well–being predicts better evaluations from supervisors, performance evaluations, and salary increases, which, in turn, lead to work achievement, job enrichment, and a higher quality social context. Their results have also supported Staw and Barsade’s (1993) findings with a sample of MBA students. Likewise, Staw, et al. (1994) proposed a model according to which employees who feel and display positive emotions on their job will experience favorable outcomes. They argue that employees with positive emotions have desirable results and benefit more from favorable responses by others. Daniels and Harris (2000) also have provided evidence that some forms of psychological well-being are related to subsequent in-role performance.

86

 Well-Being at Work

Wright and Cropanzano’s (2000) study, with a sample of human service employees, indicates that psychological well-being predicts job performance. Empirical evidence from human services counselors employed in public sector supports the positive relationship between psychological well-being and job performance (Wright & Hobfoll, 2004). However, in several studies, both psychological well-being and job satisfaction are considered as predictors in determining job performance (Wright, Cropanzano, & Bonett, 2007). These studies utilize the mediating and moderating effect of job satisfaction on well-beingperformance linkage. In these researches, psychological well-being, job satisfaction, and the interaction of well-being and job satisfaction accounted 25% variance in employee job performance ratings (Wright & Cropanzano, 2000). In line with these studies, we may conclude that high levels of psychological well-being provide happier employees. Those employees high in well-being are in a better position to benefit from positive work experiences compared to those who are lower in well-being. Moreover, they are more capable of be creative, resilient, and social, then they are more productive and effective in their work lives (Wright & Cropanzano, 2000).

Well-Being and Job Satisfaction Within the organizational behavior literature, job satisfaction is considered as one the oldest and the most common operationalization of workplace happiness (Wright, 2005). Job satisfaction is defined as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of an individual’s job or job experience (Locke 1976). It includes both affective and cognitive components. While affective components of job satisfaction refer to negative/positive affects pertaining to a person’s job, cognitive components refer to employee’s evaluation of the job. Relevant literature has shown a wide range of evidence relating well-being and job satisfaction (e.g., Diener et al., 1999; Judge & Locke, 1993). For instance, Bowling, Eschleman, and Wang’s (2010) meta-analytic study reveal that well-being and job satisfaction are positively related. Accordingly, the linkage between well-being and job satisfaction is consistent with the dispositional approach, which suggests that well-being represents a general tendency to experience particular emotions and these emotions may lead to satisfaction towards specific domains including work context. Moreover, some scholars argue that job satisfaction forms part of the pleasure-displeasure dimension of work-related well-being (Bowling et al., 2010; Rothmann, 2008). Similarly, Narainsamy and Van Der Westhuizen (2013) indicate that job satisfaction is the strongest component of well-being. Accordingly, extrinsic factors (e.g., supervisor, compensation package and rewards, and recognition for achievement) and intrinsic factors (e.g., meaningful work, the status of the job, autonomy, job security) are important to the employees’ well-being (Narainsamy & Van Der Westhuizen, 2013). Some authors also emphasize that the relationship between well-being and job satisfaction is reciprocal (Bowling, Eschleman, & Wang, 2010) and argue that this reciprocity leads to the ‘spill-over’ effect (Judge & Watanabe, 1993). The spill-over effect is a process that concerns the transmission of states of well-being from one domain of life to another (Bakker, Demerouti, & Burke, 2009). This process is a with-in person process and the negative and/or positive experiences are transferred from one domain to the other domains of that individual (Bakker, Demerouti, & Burke, 2009). For instance, Judge and Watanabe’s (1993) study, with a randomized sample of workers, reports that the majority of the workers experience the spillover-effect, while the remaining ones either try to compensate for a dissatisfying job by pursuing happiness outside the work or vice versa. From a different perspective some researchers (Wright & Bonett, 2007) also examine the moderating role of well-being on the linkage between job 87

 Well-Being at Work

satisfaction and other the organizational related outcomes. For instance, well-being is found to moderate the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover, such that job satisfaction is most negatively and strongly relates to turnover when well-being is low (Wright & Bonett, 2007). In other words, employees are most likely to leave their job when both their well-being and their job satisfaction are low.

Cultural Influences on Well-Being Culture is said to have important consequences for the functioning of both societies, and of individuals within these societies (Arrindell et al., 1997). Hofstede (1980) defines the culture as the collective programming of the mind which separates the members of one human group from another and includes systems and values. According to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (1980), masculinity stands for a society in which social gender roles are clearly distinct: Men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success; women are supposed to be more modest, and concerned with the quality of life. The cultures high in masculinity are likely to encourage assertiveness, ambition, competition, and financial success over soft feminine values of quality of life, nurturing, service, sexuality equality and relationships. Individualism-collectivism dimension of culture refers the degree of interdependence a society maintains among its members. In highly individualistic countries, decision-making is based on individuals’ own wishes and desires, whereas in collectivistic cultures decisions are made jointly with the ‘in-group’ (e.g., family, relatives, friends), and the primary objective is to optimize the group’s benefit. The uncertainty avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. Countries exhibiting high uncertainty avoidance, try to minimize the unstructured conditions and situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures. Power distance dimension focuses on the degree of equality, or inequality, between individuals in the society. A high power distance indicates that inequalities of power and wealth have been accepted within the society. In contrast a low power distance indicates the society de-emphasizes the differences between individuals’ power. This chapter basically examines whether well-being, or the predictors of well-being, differ according to the cultural dimensions. As such, different levels of well-being may be expected to occur in cultures with different characteristics. In other words, it can be suggested that cultural differences between East and West might result in different beliefs about the psychological well-being. Specifically, Western cultures focus more on autonomy and emotions in psychological well-being, whereas East cultures give more emphasis on harmony and social values in well-being (Gao, Zheng, & Yan, 2010). Diener et al. (2003) asserts that collectivist countries might give more importance to feelings of social support, which may facilitate well- being; on the other hand, in individualistic cultures individuals have greater abilities to pursue their individual goals. Therefore, individuals in individualistic cultures might feel greater responsibility for their achievements, and in turn this can be associated with higher scores on well-being. Economic development levels of societies are also utilized to predict individuals’ well-being levels. It is documented that economic development results in higher levels of subjective well-being (Ahuvia, 2002; Veenhoven, 1999). However, some (Ahuvia, 2002) argue that this finding is not only related with individuals’ increased income levels, but also related with individualistic cultures. Hence, individualism is positively correlated with happiness among rich countries, whereas individualism is negatively associated with happiness among poor countries (Veenhoven, 1999). On the other hand, Arrindell et al. (1997) reports that masculinity is positively correlated with well- being, whereas a negative association

88

 Well-Being at Work

is observed between the masculinity and well- being for rich countries. Furthermore, feminine values are positively correlated with well- being among rich countries. As discussed above, studies examining the effects of cultural dimensions and economic development levels of societies on well-being offer different results. In order to explain these varying results, Schimmack, Radhakrishnan, Oishi, Dzokoto, and Ahadi (2002) argued that culture might impact wellbeing by two ways. The first way indicates that culture may affect well-being directly. This means that cultural values determine the level of individuals’ well-being. In this sense, the studies which examine the relationship between cultural dimensions and well-being are mostly based on Hofstede’s (1980) framework. Consequently, it is argued that individuals from individualistic cultures report higher levels of well-being compared to individuals from collectivistic cultures (Diener & Suh, 1999; Schimmack et al., 2002). It might be that in high individualistic cultures people are more likely to pursue their personal well-being rather than to meet the social demands of others. Similarly, Suh Diener, Oishi, and Triandis (1998) reveal that in individualistic cultures emotions are important predictors of life satisfaction, whereas in collectivist cultures norms and emotions are also valid predictors of life satisfaction. The second way how culture influences well-being emphasizes the moderating role of cultural values. As a result, culture can moderate the strength of the relationships between well-being and life satisfaction. Specifically, Suh et al. (1998) showed that the association between well-being and life satisfaction was stronger in individualistic cultures.

DISCUSSION General Practical Implications This chapter offers several practical implications. The evidence demonstrates that managers in organizations should recognize the need to improve well-being of their employees seriously. In this respect, improving well-being at work is not only an important venture for private organizations but it deserves attention for public organisations as well. As employees’ well-being is a key factor in determining an organization’s long-term effectiveness (ILO workplace well-being, 2016) managers could design potential solutions in order to produce a positive overall experience of work. Some of those interventions would focus directly on the employees by offering strategies about increasing the wellbeing of them. For instance, those interventions might address enabling the employees to maximize their personal resources, supporting the employees to function their best abilities, balancing the demands and the resources of work life and encouraging them to exercise control in carrying out their roles (NEF, 2014). Moreover, some possible interventions might apply to directly to management system and offer managerial solutions with respect to enabling well-being enhancing features to be implemented in the workplace (NEF, 2014). More specifically, work environment, job security, job-design and leadership issues have to be taken into consideration in those type of programs. The findings of this chapter offers several implications to human resource personnel concerned with selection and placement decisions. HR practitioners might consider incorporating personality traits to be used in employee selection packages given the evidence that those with high scores of Big-Five personality traits (e.g. extraversion, openness to experience, emotional stability, agreeableness) relate positively to well-being and job performance (Steel, Schmidt & Shultz, 2008). This effort is advantageous to resolve the possible wellbeing problems originated from dispositional factors. 89

 Well-Being at Work

Limitations and Avenues for Future Research The limitations of this review chapter are connected with its limitations. First, this chapter reports a vast majority of the research related with the individual differences in employee well-being. However, it ignores the within-individual variation in well-being. Some authors in organizational psychology argue that (Bakker, 2015; Sonnentag, 2015) well-being itself is a dynamic process in nature. Accordingly, well-being may change over time and may fluctuate within an individual (Sonnentag, 2015). Thus, future studies would pay more attention to between-person variability as well as within-person variation in well-being and do more on well-being change. The other limitation pertains to the limited number of research results exploring the well-being issues within the changing nature of contemporary organizations. In most industrialized nations, the nature of work life starts to change (Jones, Burke & Westman, 2013). Globalization, technological advancements, competition, the rise of service industry and changes in demographics of workforce can be counted as the driving forces behind those contemporary business strategies. Undoubtedly, those forces also brought new family-friendly policies and practices such as job sharing, flexible work schedules and teleworking to the agenda. Those practices, particularly teleworking, offer potential benefits and are becoming increasingly popular throughout the world (Anderson, Kaplan & Vega, 2015). Despite this trend, the empirical research exploring the impacts of those practices on well-being seems yet largely neglected. Some scholars note that employees may experience social isolation, lack of personal support and worklife imbalance at times of working from home (Jones et al., 2013). Therefore, future studies would pay more attention to the effects of teleworking on well-being of employees. Moreover, research demonstrates that there is variability between countries and cultures in terms of the levels of well-being (Diener et al. 2003, Fischer & Boer, 2011), however more studies are necessary to imply this assertion. The studies reported in this chapter involves a huge majority of the samples coming from North America and Europe mostly, but neglecting Eastern cultures. Furthermore, in the future, scholars could address more comprehensive models that integrates mediator and moderator effects into well-being to gain insight for underlying mechanisms.

CONCLUSION In this chapter, the authors have presented a comprehensive review of employee well-being and recommendations mainly on the issues of personality factors, job characteristics, occupational stress, job performance, and job satisfaction, which are pertinent to contemporary organizations. In terms of the antecedents of well-being, the literature review shows that personality dimensions such as Big- Five, locus of control, Type A behavior are consistently associated with well-being. However, some researchers (Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003) argue that reverse causal direction might be true. For instance, extraversion seems to be one of the important personality factor that might affect well-being levels of individuals. However, from a different perspective, it is also argued that being psychologically well may lead to being social, which is the part of the extraversion trait, too. This chapter indicates that job characteristics are important antecedents of employee well-being and these characteristics (work load, job insecurity, job demands, etc.) are useful for practical implications which could enhance employees’ well-being levels.

90

 Well-Being at Work

While there is some general agreement about the relationship between occupational stress and well-being, there is still controversy about the causal direction of this relationship. Particularly, it is not clear whether high occupational stress leads to lower well-being levels, nor if the employees with low well-being are more likely to report higher occupational stress. Thus, the analysis of this causality issue should be encouraged. In relation to the consequences of well-being, scholars have studied the relationship of well-being to individual level of job satisfaction and individual level of performance simultaneously, as indicated before. Although meta-analyses reveal a positive relationship between job satisfaction and individual performance, the direction and the causality of these relationships still remains inconclusive (Harter et al., 2003). This all said, this chapter basically is just a starting point for future theorizing and empirical studies on the dynamics of well-being. However, taken all together, the findings suggest that the associations among individual differences, organizational factors, organizational outcomes and well-being are complex and warrant in-depth consideration by scholars and practitioners (Anderson et al., 2015).

REFERENCES Adelmann, P. K. (1987). Occupational complexity, control, and personal income: Their relation to psychological well-being in men and women. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(4), 529–537. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.72.4.529 Ahuvia, A. C. (2002). Individualism/collectivism and cultures of happiness: A theoretical conjecture on the relationship between consumption, culture and subjective well-being at the national level. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 23–36. doi:10.1023/A:1015682121103 Anderson, A. J., Kaplan, S. A., & Vega, R. P. (2015). The impact of telework on emotional experience: When, and for whom, does telework improve daily affective well-being? European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 24(6), 882–897. April, K. A., Dharani, B., & Peters, K. (2012). Impact of locus of control expectancy on level of wellbeing. Review of European Studies, 4(2), 124–137. doi:10.5539/res.v4n2p124 Arcidiacono, C., & Di Martino, S. (2016). A critical analysis of happiness and well-being. Where we stand now, where we need to go. Community Psychology in Global Perspective, 2(1), 6–35. Arrindell, W. A., Hatzichristou, C., Wensink, J., Rosenberg, E., van Twillert, B., Stedema, J., & Meijer, D. (1997). Dimensions of national culture as predictors of cross-national differences in subjective wellbeing. Personality and Individual Differences, 23(1), 37–53. Avey, J. B., Luthans, F., Smith, R. M., & Palmer, N. F. (2010). Impact of positive psychological capital on employee well-being over time. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15(1), 17–28. doi:10.1037/ a0016998 PMID:20063956 Bakker, A. B. (2015). Towards a multilevel approach of employee well-being. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 24(6), 839–843.

91

 Well-Being at Work

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands-resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309–328. doi:10.1108/02683940710733115 Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Burke, R. (2009). Workaholism and relationship quality: A spillovercrossover perspective. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14(1), 23–33. doi:10.1037/a0013290 PMID:19210044 Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., De Boer, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2003). Job demands and job resources as predictors of absence duration and frequency. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 62(2), 341–356. doi:10.1016/S0001-8791(02)00030-1 Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The big five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta‐analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44(1), 1–26. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00688.x Berglund, V., Johansson Sevä, I., & Strandh, M. (2016). Subjective well-being and job satisfaction among self-employed and regular employees: Does personality matter differently? Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 28(1), 55–73. doi:10.1080/08276331.2015.1115699 Bowling, N. A., Eschleman, K. J., & Wang, Q. (2010). A meta‐analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well‐being. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(4), 915–934. doi:10.1348/096317909X478557 Brom, S. S., Buruck, G., Horváth, I., Richter, P., & Leiter, M. P. (2015). Areas of worklife as predictors of occupational health–A validation study in two German samples. Burnout Research, 2(2), 60–70. doi:10.1016/j.burn.2015.05.001 Burchell, B. (1994). The effects of labour market position, job insecurity and unemployment on psychological health. In D. Gallie, C. Marsh, & C. Vogler (Eds.), Social change and the experience of unemployment (pp. 188–212). Oxford, UK: University Press. Cooper, C. L., & Cartwright, S. (1994). Healthy mind; healthy organizations-a proactive approach to occupational stress. Human Relations, 47(4), 455–471. doi:10.1177/001872679404700405 Cooper, C. L., & Marshall, J. (1978). Sources of managerial and white collar stress. Stress at Work, 81-105. Cropanzano, R., & Wright, T. A. (2001). When a “happy” worker is really a “productive” worker: A review and further refinement of the happy-productive worker thesis. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 53(3), 182-199. Cuyper, N., & Witte, H. (2006). The impact of job insecurity and contract type on attitudes, well‐being and behavioural reports: A psychological contract perspective. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79(3), 395–409. Daniels, K., & Harris, C. (2000). Work, psychological well-being and performance. Occupational Medicine, 50(5), 304–309. doi:10.1093/occmed/50.5.304 PMID:10975125 Danna, K., & Griffin, R. W. (1999). Health and well-being in the workplace: A review and synthesis of the literature. Journal of Management, 25(3), 357–384. doi:10.1177/014920639902500305

92

 Well-Being at Work

Dawson, C., Veliziotis, M., & Hopkins, B. (2014). Temporary employment, job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Economic and Industrial Democracy. De Witte, H., Verhofstadt, E., & Omey, E. (2007). Testing Karasek’s learning and strain hypotheses on young workers in their first job. Work and Stress, 21(2), 131–141. DeNeve, K. M., & Cooper, H. (1998). The happy personality: A meta-analysis of 137 personality traits and subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 197–229. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.197 PMID:9747186 DeWitte, H. D. (1999). Job insecurity and psychological well-being: Review of the literature and exploration of some unresolved issues. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 8(2), 155–177. doi:10.1080/135943299398302 Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542–575. doi:10.1037/00332909.95.3.542 PMID:6399758 Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 403–425. doi:10.1146/annurev. psych.54.101601.145056 PMID:12172000 Diener, E., Scollon, C. N., & Lucas, R. E. (2009). The evolving concept of subjective well-being: The multifaceted nature of happiness. In Assessing well-being (pp. 67–100). Springer Netherlands. Diener, E., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Beyond money toward an economy of well-being. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5(1), 1–31. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00501001.x PMID:26158992 Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276–302. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276 Fischer, R., & Boer, D. (2011). What is more important for national well-being: Money or autonomy? A meta-analysis of well-being, burnout, and anxiety across 63 societies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(1), 164–184. Fisher, S. (1984). Stress and the Perception of Control. London: Erlbaum. Fisher, S. (1989). Stress, control, worry prescriptions and the implications for health at work: a psychobiological model. In S. L. Sauter, J. J. Hurrell, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Job Control and Worker Health (pp. 114–123). Chichester, UK: Wiley. Fisher, V. E., & Hanna, J. V. (1931). The dissatisfied worker. Frey, B. S., & Stutzer, A. (2010). Happiness and economics: How the economy and institutions affect human well-being. Princeton University Press. Friedman, H. S., & Kern, M. L. (2014). Personality, well-being, and health. Annual Review of Psychology, 65(1), 719–742.

93

 Well-Being at Work

Friedman, M., & Rosenman, R. (1959). Association of specific overt behaviour pattern with blood and cardiovascular findings. Journal of the American Medical Association, 169(12), 1286–1296. doi:10.1001/ jama.1959.03000290012005 PMID:13630753 Ganster, D. C., & Fusilier, M. R. (1989). Control in the work place. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 235–280). Chichester, UK: Wiley. Gao, L., Zheng, X., & Yan, B. B. (2010). The Differences of Well-being between the East and the West: from the View of Self-construal. Advances in Psychological Science, 7. Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative” description of personality”: The big-five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(6), 1216–1229. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.6.1216 PMID:2283588 Gutiérrez, J. L. G., Jiménez, B. M., Hernández, E. G., & Pcn, C. (2005). Personality and subjective wellbeing: Big five correlates and demographic variables. Personality and Individual Differences, 38(7), 1561–1569. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.09.015 Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Keyes, C. L. (2003). Well-being in the workplace and its relationship to business outcomes: A review of the Gallup studies. Flourishing: Positive Psychology and The Life Well-Lived, 2, 205–224. Häusser, J. A., Mojzisch, A., Niesel, M., & Schulz-Hardt, S. (2010). Ten years on: A review of recent research on the Job Demand–Control (-Support) model and psychological well-being. Work and Stress, 24(1), 1–35. doi:10.1080/02678371003683747 Haybron, D. M. (2008). The pursuit of unhappiness: The elusive psychology of well-being. Oxford University Press on Demand. Hayes, N., & Joseph, S. (2003). Big 5 correlates of three measures of subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(4), 723–727. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00057-0 Hobfoll, S. E. (2002). Social and psychological resources and adaptation. Review of General Psychology, 6(4), 307–324. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.4.307 Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: National differences in thinking and organizing. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing. Horn, J. E., Taris, T. W., Schaufeli, W. B., & Schreurs, P. J. (2004). The structure of occupational well‐ being: A study among Dutch teachers. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(3), 365–375. doi:10.1348/0963179041752718 Huppert, F. A. (2009). Psychological Well‐being: Evidence Regarding its Causes and Consequences. Applied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 1(2), 137–164. ILO Workplace well-being. (2016, October 10). Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/safework/ areasofwork/ workplace-health-promotion-and-well-being/WCMS_118396/lang--en/index.htm

94

 Well-Being at Work

Ivancevich, J. M., Matteson, M. T., & Preston, C. (1982). Occupational stress, Type A behavior, and physical well-being. Academy of Management Journal, 25(2), 373–391. doi:10.2307/255998 PMID:10255815 Jackson, S. E., & Schuler, R. S. (1985). A meta-analysis and conceptual critique of research on role ambiguity and role conflict in work settings. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 36(1), 16–78. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(85)90020-2 Jamal, M. (1990). Relationship of job stress and Type-A behavior to employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment, psychosomatic health problems, and turnover motivation. Human Relations, 43(8), 727–738. doi:10.1177/001872679004300802 Jex, S. M., & Britt, T. W. (2008). Leadership and influence processes. Organizational Psychology: A Scientist-Practitioner Approach, 2, 303-338. Johnson, J. V., & Hall, E. M. (1988). Job strain, work place social support, and cardiovascular disease: A cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population. American Journal of Public Health, 78(10), 1336–1342. doi:10.2105/AJPH.78.10.1336 PMID:3421392 Jones, F., Burke, R. J., & Westman, M. (2013). Work-life balance: A psychological perspective. Psychology Press. Jonge, J., Dormann, C., Janssen, P. P., Dollard, M. F., Landeweerd, J. A., & Nijhuis, F. J. (2001). Testing reciprocal relationships between job characteristics and psychological well‐being: A cross‐lagged structural equation model. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74(1), 29–46. doi:10.1348/096317901167217 Judge, T. A., & Bono, J. E. (2001). Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 80–92. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80 PMID:11302235 Judge, T. A., & Locke, E. A. (1993). Effect of dysfunctional thought processes on subjective wellbeing and job satisfaction. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(3), 475–490. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.78.3.475 Judge, T. A., & Watanabe, S. (1993). Another look at the job satisfaction-life satisfaction relationship. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(6), 939–948. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.78.6.939 Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude and mental strain: Implications for job design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), 285–308. doi:10.2307/2392498 Kompier, M., Ybema, J. F., Janssen, J., & Taris, T. (2009). Employment contracts: Cross-sectional and longitudinal relations with quality of working life, health and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health, 51(3), 193–203. Krause, N., & Stryker, S. (1984). Stress and well-being: The buffering role of locus of control beliefs. Social Science & Medicine, 18(9), 783–790. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(84)90105-9 PMID:6729538 Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 1297-1343.

95

 Well-Being at Work

Magnus, K., Diener, E., Fujita, F., & Pavot, W. (1993). Extraversion and neuroticism as predictors of objective life events: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(5), 1046–1053. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.5.1046 PMID:8246112 Mark, G. M., & Smith, A. P. (2008). Stress models: A review and suggested new direction. Occupational Health Psychology, 3, 111–144. Marks, G. N., & Fleming, N. (1999). Influences and consequences of well-being among Australian young people: 1980–1995. Social Indicators Research, 46(3), 301–323. doi:10.1023/A:1006928507272 Morrison, K. A. (1997). Personality correlates of the Five-Factor Model for a sample of business owners/ managers: Associations with scores on self-monitoring, Type A behavior, locus of control, and subjective well-being. Psychological Reports, 80(1), 255–272. doi:10.2466/pr0.1997.80.1.255 PMID:9122336 Narainsamy, K., & Van Der Westhuizen, S. (2013). Work Related Well-Being: Burnout, Work Engagement, Occupational Stress and Job Satisfaction Within a Medical Laboratory Setting. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 23(3), 467–474. New Economics Foundation-NEF. (2014). Well-being at work A review of the literature. Retrieved 1 October 2016, from http://b.3cdn.net/nefoundation/ 71c1bb59a2ce151df78am6bqr2q.pdf Ng, T. W., Sorensen, K. L., & Eby, L. T. (2006). Locus of control at work: A meta‐analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(8), 1057–1087. doi:10.1002/job.416 Page, K. M., & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2009). The what, why and how of employee well-being: A new model. Social Indicators Research, 90(3), 441–458. doi:10.1007/s11205-008-9270-3 Peeters, M. C., De Jonge, J., & Taris, T. W. (Eds.). (2013). An introduction to contemporary work psychology. John Wiley & Sons. Quick, J. C., Quick, J. D., Nelson, D. L., & Hurrell, J. J. Jr. (1997). Preventive Stress Management in Organizations. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10238-000 Quick, J. D., Horn, R. S., & Quick, J. C. (1986). Health consequences of stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 8(2), 19–36. doi:10.1300/J075v08n02_03 Rothmann, S. (2008). Job satisfaction, occupational stress, burnout and work engagement as components of work-related wellbeing. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 34(3), 11–16. doi:10.4102/sajip.v34i3.424 Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80(1). Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 141–166. doi:10.1146/annurev. psych.52.1.141 PMID:11148302 Rydstedt, L. W., Devereux, J., & Sverke, M. (2007). Comparing and combining the demand-controlsupport model and the effort reward imbalance model to predict longterm mental strain. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 16, 261–278.

96

 Well-Being at Work

Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological wellbeing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069 Schimmack, U., Radhakrishnan, P., Oishi, S., Dzokoto, V., & Ahadi, S. (2002). Culture, personality, and subjective well-being: Integrating process models of life satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(4), 582–593. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.4.582 PMID:11999925 Schmitz, N., Neumann, W., & Oppermann, R. (2000). Stress, burnout and locus of control in German nurses. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 37(2), 95–99. doi:10.1016/S0020-7489(99)00069-3 PMID:10684950 Seligman, M. E. (2011). Learned optimism: How to change your mind and your life. Vintage. Sonnentag, S. (2015). Dynamics of well-being. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2, 261–293. Sparks, K., Cooper, C., Fried, Y., & Shirom, A. (1997). The effects of hours of work on health: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 70(4), 391–408. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8325.1997.tb00656.x Spector, P. E. (1998). A control theory of the job stress process. Theories of Organizational Stress, 153-169. Spector, P. E., Cooper, C. L., Sanchez, J. I., ODriscoll, M., Sparks, K., Bernin, P., & Miller, K. et al. (2002). Locus of control and well-being at work: How generalizable are western findings? Academy of Management Journal, 45(2), 453–466. doi:10.2307/3069359 Srivastava, S. (2009). Effect of Type A Personality on Stress-strain Relationship: A Study on Private Sector Managers. Management and Labour Studies, 34(4), 582–595. doi:10.1177/0258042X0903400408 Staw, B. M., & Barsade, S. G. (1993). Affect and managerial performance: A test of the sadder-but-wiser vs. happier-and-smarter hypotheses. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38(2), 304–331. doi:10.2307/2393415 Staw, B. M., Sutton, R. I., & Pelled, L. H. (1994). Employee positive emotion and favorable outcomes at the workplace. Organization Science, 5(1), 51–71. doi:10.1287/orsc.5.1.51 Suh, E., Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Triandis, H. C. (1998). The shifting basis of life satisfaction judgments across cultures: Emotions versus norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2), 482–493. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.482 Van den Berg, P. T., & Schalk, R. (1997). Type A behavior, well-being, work overload, and role-related stress in information work. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 12(1), 175. Van der Doef, M., & Maes, S. (1999). The job demand-control (-support) model and psychological well-being: A review of 20 years of empirical research. Work and Stress, 13(2), 87–114. doi:10.1080/026783799296084 Van Hooff, M. L., & Van Hooft, E. A. (2014). Boredom at work: Proximal and distal consequences of affective work-related boredom. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(3), 348–359.

97

 Well-Being at Work

Van Vuuren, C. V., & Klandermans, P. G. (1990). Individual reactions to job insecurity: An integrated model. In P.J. Drenth, J. A. Sergeant, & R. J. Takens (Eds.), European perspectives in psychology, Vol. 3: Work and organizational, social and economic, cross-cultural (pp. 133-146). Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Veenhoven, R. (1999). Quality-of-life in individualistic society. Social Indicators Research, 48(2), 159–188. doi:10.1023/A:1006923418502 Warr, P. (1994). A conceptual framework for the study of work and mental health. Work and Stress, 8(2), 84–97. doi:10.1080/02678379408259982 Watson, D., & Tellegen, A. (1985). Toward a consensual structure of mood. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 219–235. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.219 PMID:3901060 Weiss, A., Bates, T. C., & Luciano, M. (2008). Happiness is a personal (ity) thing the genetics of personality and well-being in a representative sample. Psychological Science, 19(3), 205–210. doi:10.1111/j.14679280.2008.02068.x PMID:18315789 Why We Need More Well-being. (2016, October 12). Retrieved from http://wellbeing.nd.edu/ about/ Wright, T. A., & Bonett, D. G. (1997). The role of pleasantness and activation-based well-being in performance prediction. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2(3), 212–219. doi:10.1037/10768998.2.3.212 PMID:9552291 Wright, T. A., & Cropanzano, R. (2000). Psychological well-being and job satisfaction as predictors of job performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 84–94. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.84 PMID:10658888 Wright, T. A., Cropanzano, R., & Bonett, D. G. (2007). The moderating role of employee positive wellbeing on the relation between job satisfaction and job performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12(2), 93–104. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.12.2.93 PMID:17469992 Wright, T. A., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2004). Commitment, psychological well-being and job performance: An examination of conservation of resources (COR) theory and job burnout. Journal of Business and Management, 9, 389–406. Zheng, X., Zhu, W., Zhao, H., & Zhang, C. (2015). Employee well‐being in organizations: Theoretical model, scale development, and cross‐cultural validation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36(5), 621–644. doi:10.1002/job.1990

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Job Demand-Control (JDC) Model: This is a type of an occupational stress model which suggests that stress is a reaction to imbalance among the demands, the resources and the discretion that an employee has over his task. Job Insecurity: It is a construct which is used to define individuals’ perceptions about their continuity of their existing job in the future.

98

 Well-Being at Work

Job Performance: An appraisal report indicating how well an employee is fulfilling the expected related job activities. Job Satisfaction: It is a work attitude as to how an employee evaluates his/her job emotionally and cognitively. Occupational Stress: It is an ongoing stress which is originated from workplace factors. Personality Factors: These are stable, and specific personal characteristics which discriminate one individual from another. Well-Being: Individual’s overall experience in relation to how well a person’s life goes for the person.

99

100

Chapter 6

Organizational Diversity:

From Workforce Diversity to Workplace Inclusion for Persons With Disabilities Ben Tran Alliant International University, USA

ABSTRACT An employer, according to Tran (2008), must utilize a systematic approach in predicting who is likely to succeed as a potential employee; in so doing, employers must acknowledge that potential employees, person without a disability and person with a disability, are unique individuals and not machines. Employees’ performances rely not only on technical skills, knowledge, skills, and abilities (aka KSAs) but on the other characteristics, also known as the “O” in KSAOs that person without a disability and person with a disability bring themselves. Such other characteristics are more credible and reliable in predicting and determining the probability of a potential employee’s success. Other characteristics, must not only be identified, but carefully examined and assessed. Validation in focusing on these other characteristics is apparent.

INTRODUCTION Regarding those individuals with a disability, major legislative and philosophical forces during the past 30 years have attempted to enhance the participation of work-age Americans with disabilities in the competitive labor market. The public policy initiatives related to employers and/or work disability began in 1970 with the passage of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA). OSHA was followed by the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, state workers’ compensation enactment of the 1980s and 1990s, the American with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998, and the Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act (TWWIIA) of 1999 (Hunt, 1999). Furthermore, a review of literature on employers’ attitudes toward workers with disabilities was completed by Unger (2002), and based on this literature review, factors that may affect employers’ attitudes toward persons with disabilities in the workforce are provided. Although several key themes DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2250-8.ch006

Copyright © 2017, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Organizational Diversity

emerged, decades of employers’ attitudinal research has generally produced inconsistent findings, due to variations in research design. The forces that have both paralleled and provided the impetus for passage of much of the legislation include the following: (1) significant changes in thinking regarding the vocational rehabilitation and employment potential of American with disabilities, (2) the evolving role of employers in addressing disabilities in the workplace, and (3) the civil rights movement. Therefore, for persons with significant disabilities who might have once been viewed as unemployable, these societal trends have fostered a shift from a medical model emphasizing a clinical or center-based approach of fixing or curing people with disabilities to the present emphasis on capabilities, choice, and workplace supports in maximizing the work potential of people with disabilities. However, despite increased laws designed to address employment discrimination and provide for workplace accommodations for qualified workers with disabilities, the employment rate of persons with disabilities has increased very little since the late 1980s. A series of studies of conducted by the National Organization on Disability (NOD), in collaboration with Louis Harris and Associates (1998), reported an actual increase in the unemployment rate from 66% in 1986 to 71% in 1998. The unemployment rate of persons with disabilities is especially disheartening because these studies found that an overwhelming majority (72%) of unemployed persons with disabilities indicated they preferred to work and because representatives from business and industry identified recruitment and selection of qualified workers as their top concerns for the new millennium [Bureau of National Affairs (BNA), 2000]. More recently, in 2015, a total of 17.5 percent of persons with a disability were employed the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported today. In contrast, the employment-population ratio for those without a disability was 65.0 percent. The employment-population ratio for persons with a disability edged up in 2015, and the ratio for persons without a disability continued to increase. The unemployment rate for persons with a disability fell to 10.7 percent in 2015, and the rate for those without a disability declined to 5.1 percent (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016). Furthermore, according to the highlights from the 2015 data (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016): 1. Persons with a disability were about three times as likely as those with no disability to be age 65 and over, 2. For all age groups, the employment-population ratio was much lower for persons with a disability than for those with no disability, 3. Unemployment rates were higher for persons with a disability than for those with no disability among all educational attainment groups, 4. In 2015, 32 percent of workers with a disability were employed part time, compared with 18 percent for those with no disability, and 5. Workers with a disability were more likely to be self-employed than those with no disability. In a time marked by a critical demand for labor and significant economic expansion and prosperity, it is discouraging that members of our nation’s largest minority, persons with a disability, are not participating in the labor force to the same extent as their peers without disabilities. The purpose of this chapter is to clearly define and address the original intended usage of terms among academicians (researchers), businesses (practitioners), and the law (politicians) respectively regarding diversity, global diversity, workforce diversity, cultural diversity, and multicultural diversity. Upon having a clearly defined understanding of terms and their original intended usage, strategy in identifying knowledge, skills, 101

 Organizational Diversity

abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) within diversity (Tran, 2008; Tran, 2012, 2015c, 2016c) will be addressed. Thereafter, this chapter will conclude with recommendations for effective and appropriate program(s) on managing diversity in organizations based on KSAOs.

PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES AND EMPLOYMENT Employment concerns have always been a major challenge for individuals with disabilities in contrast to their counterparts who do not have a disability. Since the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was enacted in 1990 to protect individuals with disabilities from being discriminated against in the workplace, according to Siperstein, Romano, Mohler, and Parker (2006), the socially appropriate course of action is to support the hiring of individuals with disabilities. However, this support is not represented in recent employment figures because it is estimated that only 19% of the American people with disabilities are employed, in comparison with the 77% of Americans without a disability who are employed (Houetenville, 2005). Many studies have been conducted to understand and explain why this discrepancy exists (Peck & Kirkbride, 2001). However, to date there has been little movement in narrowing the employment gap. While the ADA has raised awareness and provided guidelines for hiring people with disabilities, it has not yet fulfilled its promise. Based on a recent news release by the U.S. Department of Labor, the Bureau of Labor Statistics (U.S Department of Labor, 2010) indicated the unemployment rate for persons with disabilities was 14.5%, higher than the rate for those without disabilities which was 9%. Another perspective is the employment to population ratio which is 19.2% among those with a disability versus 64.5% for those without a disability. It is also important to note that a marked portion of those with a disability, about eight in ten, were not considered in the labor force in 2009, compared to only three in ten among those without a disability. A final perspective relates to underemployment: active workers with a disability include 33% who are working part-time as compared to only 19% of workers without a disability (Fraser, Ajzen, Johnson, Hebert, & Chan, 2011). These concerns have been documented in detail by other authors (Chan, Strauser, Maher, Lee, Jones, & Johnson, 2010). Through the ADA, employers have been encouraged to develop the means to include people with disabilities in the workplace by providing accommodations and appropriate job training. Even prior to the ADA, there was some recognition in the business world that people with disabilities should be provided the same access to employment as their colleagues who do not have a disability. Shafer and colleagues (Fraser et al., 2011; Shafer, Hill, Seyfarth, & Wehman, 1987; Siperstein et al., 2006) found that the top reason stated by employers for hiring a worker with a disability was the belief that people with disabilities deserved an opportunity to work. That is, not only do they deserve equal access, but they also need equal access. However, this legislation alone has not changed employer hiring practices or their attitudes toward hiring a person with a disability. Amir, Wynn, Chan, Strauser, Whitaker, and Luker (2010) indicated that the low employment rate of people with disabilities can partially be attributed to employer attitudes and the traditional approach for preparing and placing persons with disabilities for employment. Copeland (2007) summarizes the current employment dilemma quite well in observing that employers appear conflicted regarding the employability of workers with disabilities. Although positive attitudes towards workers with disabilities are generally expressed, when pressed about actual hiring employers often indicate reluctance to recommend hiring activities (Bruyère, Erickson, & Ferrentino, 2003; Copeland, 2007; Hernandez, Keyes, & Balcazar, 2000). Amir et al. (2010) 102

 Organizational Diversity

underscore that although there has been a longstanding interest in employer attitudes toward hiring, most vocational rehabilitation clinical services and research activity have been focused on the supply side approach versus understanding the demand side characteristics. The National Institute of Disability Rehabilitation and Research (2006) emphasizes that on the demand side of employment research, the focus shifts to the needs of the employer and the work environment.

ORGANIZATIONAL DIVERSITY The 21st century organization is characterized by ever-increasing global competition, ever-changing customer expectations, and ever-increasing change (Cao, Clarke, & Lehaney, 2004). The world’s increasing globalization requires more interaction among people from diverse cultures, beliefs, and backgrounds than ever before. To respond to these pressures, many organizations face a situation where they “either change or die” (Beer & Nohria, 2000, p. 133), with “approximately 84 percent of American companies… undergoing at least one major business transformation” (Ashkanasy, Härtel, & Daus, 2002; Romano, 1995, p. 6). However, while the management of change (MOC) has become an increasingly important area for management attention, the downside is that it seems to suffer adversely high failure rates, at times above 70% (Siegal, Church, Javitch, Waclawski, Burd, Bazigos, Yang, Anderson-Rudolp, & Burke, 1996; Spector & Beer, 1994; Stanton, Hammer, & Power, 1992). The high failure rate is a result in that managing diversity is a concept that appeared solid in theory, but has provided mixed results in practice. Top managers are becoming increasingly frustrated and disenchanted with managing diversity programs that have cost organizations billions of dollars over the years, but have yielded little in the way of identifiable positive impact on the bottom line (Hansen, 2003; Kochan, Bezrukova, Ely, Jackson, Aparna, Jehn, Leonard, Levin, & Thomas, 2003; Naff & Kellough, 2003). Part of the reason for this lack of efficacy may be traced to the dual assumptions that diversity is both inevitable and inherently good (Knouse & Stewart, 2003). Diversity management consultants were quick to stress that research had identified many positive aspects of a diverse workforce. In making a business case on behalf of managing diversity programs, they citied research suggesting that diverse groups outperformed homogeneous groups, in areas of creativity and flexibility. There was also benefit in having a workforce that reflected an increasingly diverse marketplace. Therefore, if diversity could not be avoided, at least it would be good for business (Cox, 1994; Gudmudson & Hartenian, 2000; Hansen, 2003; Robinson & Dechant, 1997). The dual assumptions have resulted in a relatively homogeneous approach to diversity management that seeks to value (accentuate, celebrate, and accommodate) differences in an effort to free the “whole person” to contribute to the organization. At the same time, traditional workers have to be acclimated to the sometimes drastic change in organizational culture. However, field research on the diversity/performance relationship seems to suggest that the impact of diversity on organizational performance is contingent on its fit with organizational and environmental imperatives. Richard (2000) and Richard, McMillan, Chadwick, and Dwyer (2003) find, for instance, that the level of ethnic and gender diversity had a positive impact on performance for organization with an externally focused strategy, but a negative impact on those with an internally focused strategy. As such, based on the traditional dual assumptions of diversity and diversity management, the failure rates continue. These failure rates will not cease because there is a miscommunication, that there is a misun-

103

 Organizational Diversity

derstanding, and that there is an incorrect usage of terms among academicians (researchers), businesses (practitioners), and the law (politicians), respectively. A preeminent scholar on corporate culture, Edgar Schein, outlined three levels of culture within organizations (Schein, 1992, 1999). The most fundamental level consists of values and norms that guide an organization as it encounters new situations and problems. These taken-for-granted beliefs usually are unspoken and often unconscious. More formally, corporate culture at this level consists of a (Schur, Kruse, & Blanck, 2005): A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaption and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems (Schein, 1992, p. 12). Other conceptions of corporate culture place emphasis on a “common set of shared meanings or understandings about the group/organization” (Reichers & Schneider, 1990, p. 23). These fundamental beliefs may be distinguished from Schein’s second level of corporate culture, which is the espoused values of an organization (Schein, 1992). Espoused values include the stated strategies, goals, and philosophies that explicitly guide organizational policies. Schein (1999) defines the third levels as the manifestations or artifacts of culture, which include the physical and social environment in a corporation. While the different levels of culture often reinforce one another, incongruities and conflicts may exist among them. For example, an expressed commitment to hiring more employees with disabilities may be part of the second level of organizational culture (shared meaning), but it may not be accepted at the most basic level—the unstated and often unconscious assumptions of the organization (Lawrence, 1987). This lack of acceptance may, in turn, be reflected in the third level of culture, so that the physical environment remains inaccessible, jobs are structured in ways that make it difficult for people with disabilities to work there, and co-worker and supervisor attitudes remain unchanged.

Existing Evidence From Studies of Disability Employer surveys provide insights into the ways in which corporate culture may affect people with disabilities. A 2003 Rutgers University nationally representative survey of private businesses (with five or more employees) found that 20% of employers said the greatest barrier to people with disabilities finding employment is discrimination, prejudice, or employer reluctance to hire them (Dixon, Kruse, & Van Horn, 2003). A 1999 Cornell University survey found that 22% of private-sector employers reported that attitudes and stereotypes were a barrier to employment of people with disabilities in their own firms (Bruyère, 2000). In addition, among those who made changes to enhance the employment of people with disabilities, a total of 32% of employers in the Cornell survey said it was difficult or very difficult to change supervisor and co-worker attitudes, while only 17% said this about creating flexibility in the performance management system, and 17% said this about modifying their return to work policies. The importance of corporate culture is indicated by the Cornell survey’s finding that 81% of private-sector employers said visible top-management commitment was effective or very effective for reducing barriers to employment for persons with disabilities, while 62% said this about staff training and 59% said this about mentoring efforts (Bruyère, 2000).

104

 Organizational Diversity

These surveys show that a substantial share of employers believe that employer, supervisor, and co-worker attitudes are a significant problem. These figures are probably understated due to the social desirability bias in surveys that leads respondent to avoid acknowledging prejudicial attitudes (Stone & Colella, 1996, p. 393). In addition, a literature review found a consistent discrepancy between the attitudes that employers express towards people with disabilities on surveys and their actual hiring practices (Wilgosh & Skaret, 1987). Assessing corporate culture must therefore go beyond surveys of employer attitudes and opinions. A few studies have addressed the relationship between social factor within organizations and the employment experiences of people with disabilities (Schur, Kruse, & Blanck, 2005). The following section lays out the different ways in which these social factors operate, first looking at how corporate policies affect the incidence of disability, and then reviewing research on the treatment of people with disabilities in the workplace, including the socialization of new employees, performance evaluations, return to work policies, and the provision of accommodations.

Incidence of Disability Corporate culture and practice affect employee stress levels. Increased stress is an important factor in the occurrence of workplace injuries and stress-related health conditions, and in coping with the effects of existing disabilities. A Columbia University study of large U.S. employers found lower rates of lost time days due to illness and injuries among companies that used: (1) employee involvement programs, (2) conflict resolution and grievance procedures, (3) workforce stabilization and continuity policies, and (4) early support and assistance programs for employees who experienced chronic disabling illnesses or injuries (Lewin & Schecter, 1995). The authors conclude that “companies that have well developed policies in these areas are likely to experience lower rates of disability than comparable companies in their industry group” (Lewin & Schecter, 1995, p. 14). Furthermore, the impact of an organization’s social environment on the incidence of disability is reviewed by Yandrick (1997) who notes that “[p]sychological and work environmental factors are far more accurate predictors of disability than physical factors”, and “[t]he attitude of injured workers toward their job, manager, and co-workers carries greater weight in the occurrence of chronic disability then the severity of the injury itself”.

Supervisor and Co-Worker Attitudes Toward Employees With Disabilities The treatment of people with disabilities in organizations is a new research area. The results from the few extant studies and related psychological evidence have been used to create theoretical models of the treatment and attitudes toward employees with disabilities. Following is a summary of this evidence and the predictions from these models (Colella, 1996, 2001; Stone & Colella, 1996). Supervisor and co-worker attitudes have a profound impact on the employment experiences of people with disabilities, even in corporations that are committed to hiring employees with disabilities. Negative attitudes from supervisors and co-workers affect the socialization of new employees with disabilities, and limit their ability to become fully accepted and well-functioning insiders. If employees with disabilities remain marginalized, this limits their job performance and opportunities for training and advancement. Supervisor and co-worker attitudes toward employees with disabilities reflect several influences (Schur et al., 2005):

105

 Organizational Diversity

1. Stereotypes. These include the views that people with disabilities are saints, needy and helpless, or embittered (Colella, 1996, pp. 362-364). Stereotypes are resistant to change since people selectively attend to information consistent with pre-existing stereotypes (Blanck, 2001). 2. Negative affect or discomfort in being around people with disabilities. Negative affect varies by type of disability, with greater discomfort for mental and sensory impairments than for mobility and other physical impairments (Stone & Colella, 1996). The negative affect may be counteracted in many instances by a norm of kindness, although such a norm can lead to condescending attitudes or overly helpful behavior. 3. Strain caused by communication difficulties. Some disabilities, such as speech or hearing impairments, make communication more difficult. Co-workers avoid interacting with employees who have such disabilities because of the extra time and strain involved. 4. Prior contact with people with disabilities. Prior contact helps counteract the effects of negative stereotypes, since it allows “individuals to gather detailed information about out-group members so that they are viewed as individuals rather than members of a stereotyped group” (Stone & Colella, 1996, p. 370). Makas (1988) finds that greater contact leads to more positive attitudes toward those with disabilities.

Organizational Structures, Values, and Practices A bureaucratic system is often based on an equity value system which “pits the fairness of treatment for all employees against the personalized consideration of individuals’ needs” (Stone & Colella, 1996, p. 373). This leads to greater resentment of individualized treatment of employees with disabilities than would exist in more flexible, supportive organizations. Other values expressed in the organization are important. An emphasis on rugged individualism, self-reliance, and competitive achievement hinders efforts on individuals with disabilities to show they are qualified for jobs, while an emphasis on cooperation, helpfulness, social justice, and egalitarianism enhances their ability to show they are capable of making contributions to the organization (Stone & Colella, 1996). In addition, companies that value diversity along all dimensions are likely to create a hospitable environment for workers with disabilities. Organizational values may be reflected in policies and practices that restrict employees with disabilities. Job analysis that identifies ideal job characteristics, rather than essential job characteristics, may tend to exclude employees with disabilities. Similarly, individuals with disabilities are helped when “interviewers are trained to distinguish essential from marginal requirements” (Stone & Colella, 1996, p. 374). The problem of “established job methodologies” was one of the significant barriers identified by employees with disabilities in the study by Boyle: “the biggest problem is not the unsuitability of jobs but rather finding an organization that is willing to break the mold and allow individuals with disabilities a chance to prove their capabilities” (1997, pp. 264-265). An example of a corporate practice that assists those with disabilities include visible support from top management to incorporate individuals with disabilities into the organization, selection of managers who are committed to those values, and use of reward systems to reinforce the inclusion of people with disabilities (Stone & Colella 1996).

Accommodations for Employees With Disabilities Providing accommodations for workers with disabilities presents challenges for an organization. Beyond the financial cost of some accommodations, there may be a negative response from co-workers who 106

 Organizational Diversity

resent special treatment for an individual with a disability (Blanck & Marti, 1997). This is important since co-worker reactions may influence the success of accommodations—many accommodations require cooperation and support of others in the workgroup. Additionally, co-worker morale and treatment of the employee with a disability affects workplace relationships and performance (Colella, 2001); hence, accommodations are likely to provoke a response when they are salient to coworkers and relevant to coworkers. Colella (2001) notes that if accommodations are viewed as inappropriate for addressing the impairment—possible requested for utilitarian reasons unrelated to the impairment—they are less likely to be seen as warranted and fair. In addition, co-workers using an equity rule likely view an accommodation as unfair to the extent that the accommodation is seen as: (1) making the accommodated person’s work easier, (2) making the co-worker’s job harder or less desirable, (3) a reward or perk, (4) using scare resources, or (5) causing co-workers to lose competitive rewards. Those who use a needs rule are likely to approve of accommodations generally, but are less likely to see an accommodation as warranted if the disability is invisible, undesirable, or seen as self-caused. The organization of the workgroup relationships influences co-worker responses to requested accommodations. In highly regimented workplaces where work is performed in a uniform manner, accommodations for employees with disabilities are less salient in work environments that stress individual autonomy and let employees decide how to perform their own work (Colella, 2001). Unfortunately, there is little direct evidence on how employer and co-worker attitudes affect the provision of workplace accommodations. The Cornell employers survey found that almost one-third (31%) of employers reported that a barrier to employing people with disabilities was the lack on supervisor knowledge about accommodations, while only 16% said that the cost of accommodations was a barrier (Bruyère, 2000). A study of one company by Harlan and Robert found that a low number of requested accommodations were granted, which they took as evidence of employer resistance to granting accommodations and the company’s desire to maintain control over the workplace in the face of challenges to organizational hierarchy and authority” (1998, pp. 426-427). In unionized workplaces. corporate culture may be reflected in the terms of collective bargaining agreements, which may make it difficult to accommodate workers and job applicants with disabilities (Blanck, Schur, Kruse, Schwochau, & Song, 2003). Worker with disabilities are as likely as those without disabilities to be union members (Schur, 2002). While unions, as well as employers, are covered by the ADA, collective bargaining agreements typically establish seniority systems and other rules that can make workplace accommodations difficult. Many unions have worked with employers to include exceptions in the contract to allow accommodations for workers and job applicants with disabilities. There have been no studies, however, on the extent to which unions have worked with companies to develop policies that help people with disabilities obtain jobs and remain employed (Schur et al., 2005).

Organizational Structures, Values, and Practices A bureaucratic system is often based on an equity value system which “pits the fairness of treatment for all employees against the personalized consideration of individuals’ needs” (Stone & Colella, 1996, p. 373). This leads to greater resentment of individualized treatment of employees with disabilities than would exist in more flexible, supportive organizations. Other values expressed in the organization are important. An emphasis on rugged individualism, self-reliance, and competitive achievement hinders efforts on individuals with disabilities to show they are qualified for jobs, while an emphasis on cooperation, helpfulness, social justice, and egalitarianism enhances their ability to show they are capable 107

 Organizational Diversity

of making contributions to the organization (Stone & Colella, 1996). In addition, companies that value diversity along all dimensions are likely to create a hospitable environment for workers with disabilities. Organizational values may be reflected in policies and practices that restrict employees with disabilities. Job analysis that identifies ideal job characteristics, rather than essential job characteristics, may tend to exclude employees with disabilities. Similarly, individuals with disabilities are helped when “interviewers are trained to distinguish essential from marginal requirements” (Stone & Colella, 1996, p. 374). The problem of “established job methodologies” was one of the significant barriers identified by employees with disabilities in the study by Boyle: “the biggest problem is not the unsuitability of jobs but rather finding an organization that is willing to break the mold and allow individuals with disabilities a chance to prove their capabilities” (1997, pp. 264-265). Examples of other corporate practices that help people with disabilities include visible support from top management to incorporate individuals with disabilities into the organization, selection of managers who are committed to those values, and use of reward systems to reinforce the inclusion of people with disabilities (Stone & Colella 1996).

DIVERSITY Diversity is commonly defined as acknowledging, understanding, accepting, valuing, and celebrating differences among people with respect to age, class, ethnicity, gender, physical and mental ability, race, sexual orientation, spiritual practice and public assistance status (Esty, Griffin, & Schorr-Hirsh, 1995). However, diversity also refers to the co-existence of employees from various socio-cultural backgrounds within the company, such that diversity includes, but not limited to cultural factors such as race, gender, age, color, physical ability, and ethnicity. However, the broader definition of diversity may include age, national origin, religion, disability, sexual orientation, values, ethnic culture, education, language, lifestyle, beliefs, physical appearance, and economic status (Wentling & Palma-Rivas, 2000). Diversity requires a type of organizational culture in which each employee can pursue his or her career aspirations without being inhibited by gender, race, nationality, religion, or other factors that are irrelevant to performance (Bryan, 1999). 1. Global Diversity/Multicultural Diversity. Global diversity is defined as addressing issues of difference on a global scale to capitalize on the diversity of all employees. This involves cultural awareness and sensitivity in understanding the differences in culture, language and legal, economic and political systems in the countries where an organization does business (Merl, 2006). 2. Workforce Diversity/Cultural Diversity. If the workforce profile in an organization is composed of worker groups that show differences depending on demographic or other characteristics, diversity emerges. Broadly defined, workforce diversity is the systematic and planned commitment by the organization to recruit, retain, reward, and promote a heterogeneous mix of employees.

Diversity: The Law The institutional and legal recognition of multiculturalism has been achieved through the concomitant legal framework of antidiscrimination and particularly—in the case of the USA—through highly polemical, but still influential state and federal laws such as the affirmative action acts and the Equal Employment Opportunity Act (Dietz, 2007). The argument on multiculturalism in the USA is highly 108

 Organizational Diversity

polemical in that while the country claims to be multicultural and anti-discrimination, for according to Kolb (2009), the USA is more of a “mixing bowl” than a “melting pot,” and that the nation is anything but anti-discrimination (Fuchs, 1990; Jacoby, 2004; Organista, 2009). The European Union’s legislation differs from the legislation in the USA in the sense that multiple forms of identification and/or discrimination are explicitly stated and considered. In general, the Amsterdam Treaty in Article 13 targets discrimination in the spheres of gender, ethnicity, race, religion, sexual orientation, age and disability. The directives emphasize different spheres. The Race Directive focuses only on ethnicity and race as possible sources of discrimination, but does so by extending its range to all public and private contexts in which people of color discrimination may occur. However, the Employment Directive, which only applies to work related to work contexts, extends its definition of discrimination beyond race and ethnicity by including age, disability and religion. Both directives are framed by an action program to combat discrimination and a political campaign to encourage the member states to create independent anti-discrimination bodies (ECRI, 2002; ENAR, 2002; Niessen, 2001).

Diversity as a Right Quite often a practical business strategy may not necessarily translate into a practical political strategy. One practical strategy can be effective within one organization but not necessarily effective for another organization. The starting point for managing diversity within an organization is the recognition of collective rights and the negotiation based on the concession of individual rights. The participants in this negotiation must necessarily include the communities that consider themselves as bearers of these differential rights. In business this is also known as a psychological contract (Anderson & Schalk, 1998; Cropanzano & Prehar, 2001; Gakovic & Tetrick, 2003; Hiltrop, 1995; Rousseau, 1995; Rousseau & Parks, 1993).

KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, ABILITIES, AND OTHER CHARACTERISTICS Generally, employers often utilize and rely on a traditional and formal or standardized selection method that is derived from existing personnel selection processes, when selecting and assessing potential employees. The personnel selection processes are the methods by which employers use to evaluate potential employees’ knowledge, skills, and abilities in order to determine whether there is a good fit between an available position and a candidate. These are the commonly used sets of criteria that identify successful potential employees, and these sets of criteria are well-known and have been used for a long time but again, primarily for potential employees (Tran, 2008) who do not have a disability. Knowledge, skills, and abilities will be referred to as KSAs while the criteria including other attributes will be referred to as KSAOs (Tran, 2008; Tran, 2012, 2015c, 2016c): 1. Knowledge is usually defined as the degree to which a candidate is required to know certain technical material. 2. Skill indicates adequate performance on tasks requiring the use of tools, equipment, machinery, etc.

109

 Organizational Diversity

3. Abilities are physical and mental capacities to perform tasks not requiring the use of tools, equipment, or machinery. 4. Other characteristics include personality, interest, or motivational attributes that indicate a candidate will learn certain tasks, rather than whether they can do those tasks (Schneider & Schmitt, 1992: 53). Based on the definition, purpose, and usage, KSAs are only applicable to the assessment and selection of potential employees who do not have a disability and are not sufficient for the assessment and selection of potential employees (Peterson, Mumford, Borman, Jeanneret, Fleishman, Levin, Campion, Mayfield, Morgeson, Pearlman, Gowing, Lancaster, Silver, & Dye, 2001) who are potentially disabled. The detrimental outcome (Baliga & Baker, 1985; Black, 1988; Black, Gregersen, Mendenhall, & Stroh, 1999; Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Borstorff, Harris, Field, Giles, 1997; Copeland & Briggs, 1985; McDonald, 1993; Mendenhall, Dunbar, & Oddou, 1987; Poe, 2002; Shay & Tracey, 1997; Talbott, 1996; Tung, 1981, 1982, 1988; Wederspahn, 1992; Zeira & Banai, 1985) of selecting potential employees based solely on KSAs cannot continue if employers plan to expand and succeed (Bjorkman & Schaaps, 1994; Caligiuri, 2000; Hodgetts & Luthans, 1993; Katz & Seifer, 1996; The Conference Board, 1992; Webb, 1996; Windham International, 1998; Zeira & Banai, 1987) and yield a positive return on investment (ROI). Therefore, employers should use Tran’s expatriate-specific manual to assess a potential employees’ other characteristics (O), when assessing potential employees. The other characteristics consist of (a) the expatriates desire to prematurely terminate the assignment resulting from the supervisor-rated performance on the expatriate assignment, (b) stable competencies, and (c) intercultural/international business communication skills (Tran, 2008, 2016a, 2016b).

IDENTIFIYING THE OTHER CHARACTERISTICS Tran (2008) states that employers must utilize a systematic approach in predicting who is likely to succeed as a potential employee. In so doing, employers must acknowledge that potential employees, person without a disability and person with a disability, are unique individuals and not machines. Employees’ performances rely not only on technical skills, knowledge, skills, and abilities (aka KSAs), but on the other characteristics also known as the “O” in KSAOs that person without a disability and person with a disability bring themselves. Such other characteristics are more credible and reliable in predicting and determining the probability of a potential employee’s success. Other characteristics, must not only be identified, but carefully examined and assessed. Validation in focusing on these other characteristics is apparent. However, because there are insufficient researchers and practitioners in industrial psychology, and too few personnel to focus on this area, there is no clear definition of what these other characteristics are, even though they are significant in an employee’s successful employment and consequently affect an employer’s costs and success. After much research, with the focus of disabled employees, two among three common characteristics were ultimately identified. These two characteristics, in the author’s opinion, were researched in-depth and deemed not only credible, but also reliable and valid as other characteristics in predicting an employee (especially person with a disability) success. Each of these two other characteristics has been independently adopted

110

 Organizational Diversity

by many employers to aid in assessing and selecting potential employees (including person without a disability). These other characteristics are (Tran, 2008): 1) stabled competencies and 2) intercultural/ international (business) communication: bilingual.

Stable Competencies Potential employees, those individuals with and without a disability, who are unprepared for the challenges of the employment position offered are likely to have difficulty adjusting within the organization and the organizational culture, and are likely to experience culture shock (Oberg, 1960). Poorly adjusted employees are, in turn, likely to perform poorly (Ones & Viswesvaran, 1997). In the extant management literature, myriad lists of cross-cultural (C/C) competencies have been posited to be helpful for C/C adjustment (Hammer, Gudykunst, & Weisman, 1978). Accordingly, extensive evidence exists for the effectiveness of C/C training as a means of providing these competencies and improving C/C adjustment (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). These C/C competencies are dynamic and stable and are framed in Black and Mendenhall’s (1990) three-dimensional taxonomy of C/C competencies: the self-maintenance dimension, the relationship dimension, and the perceptual dimension. Black and Mendenhall’s taxonomy was used because it has received widespread recognition in the management literature (Deshpande & Viswesvaran, 1992).The dynamic versus stable nature of competencies stems from the KSAO categorization that is common in domestic human resource management literature. KSAOs refer to Knowledge, Skills, Ability, and other, where other includes both interests and personality constructs (Peters, Greer, & Youngblood, 1997; Tannenbaum & Yukl, 1992; Tran, 2008; Tran, 2012, 2015a, 2015b, 2016c). Knowledge and Skills represent dynamic competencies because they may be acquired through training, be it training on or off the job (Peters et al., 1997). Ability and personality represent stable competencies because they are relatively fixed and may constrain the potential to develop a skill (Peters et al., 1997; Tannenbaum & Yukl, 1992). Personality, for example, refers to a stable pattern of behavior across time and situations (Carlos, 1984). To date, the management literature has often used the terms C/C skill and C/C ability interchangeably (Leiba-O’Sullivan, 1999). Thus, one of the other characteristics is the presence of stable competencies also known as ability and personality. Stable competencies are one of three characteristics for two reasons. The first is that stable competencies are essential for the acquisition of dynamic competencies, meaning that the two kinds of competencies are not entirely independent. The second is that stable competencies may be “must-have” (for C/C adjustment), as opposed to dynamic competencies, which may simply be “nice-to-have” (LeibaO’Sullivan, 1999). These stable competencies are cross-cultural self-maintenance dimension competency and cross-cultural relationship dimension competency.

INTERCULTURAL/INTERNATION BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: BILINGUAL Intercultural business communication is a sum of culture, communication, and business (Tran, 2016a, 2016b; Varner, 2000). In the intercultural business communication process, the participants also bring with them their own corporate culture. Out of all these parts, the new transactional culture emerges. In intercultural business communication the business strategies, goals, objectives, and practices become

111

 Organizational Diversity

an integral part of the communication process and help create a new environment out of the synergy of culture, communication, and business. The result is a complex system of layers of culture, communication, and business (Tran, 2016a, 2016b; Varner, 2000). Intercultural business communication (Cheney, 2001; Cheney & Martin, 2000; Schaub, 2001; Tran, 2016a, 2016b; Varner, 2001) is also known and referred to as international business communication (Babcock & Du-Babcock, 2001; Beamer, 1992; Tran, 2016a, 2016b; Varner, 2000).

Foundation of Intercultural/International Business Communication: Bilingual Extensive literature has identified a range of cultural variables that impact international business communication encounters, and studies on national culture have provided background and contextual material for comparing different cultural communication styles and methods (Hall, 1959, 1976; Hofstede, 1980, 1991; Trompenaars, 1993). Following Hall, researchers have focused directly on the international communication process by using the contextual framework to contrast and compare interaction patterns among communicators emanating from high-context and low-context cultural societies (Ting-Toomey, 1985). Cultural research studies have also used Hofstede’s (1980, 1991) and Trompenaars’ (1993) national culture variables to compare culturally influenced behaviors, including communication among countries. Theoretical and applied studies that deal directly or indirectly with intercultural business communication and provide more in-depth analysis of communication patterns have supplemented these comparative studies. Culture-specific studies have focused attention on cultural and communication practices in specific countries and cultures (Gannon & Associates, 1994; Hsu, 1981), while conflict resolution and negotiation studies have integrated intercultural considerations into their theories (Leung, 1988; Rahim, 1983, 1986; Rahim & Bonoma, 1979; Ting-Toomey, 1985, 1988; Trubisky, Ting-Toomey, & Lin, 1991). Studies have identified factors influencing intercultural business communication which include affect or emotions (Ekman & Friesen, 1971, 1978; Izard, 1977), non-verbal behavior (Bond & Iwata, 1976; Bond & Komai, 1976; Ramsey, 1979; Ramsey & Birk, 1983), face behavior (Bond, 1991; Bond & Hwang, 1986; Bond & Lee, 1981; 2016b), politeness (Brown & Levinson, 1987), and “guanxi” or relationships (Bian, 1994; Davies, 1996; de Keijzer, 1992; Stewart & Keown, 1989; 2015c).

Answering the Call of Intercultural/International Business Communication Useful models and frameworks have been established to facilitate the study of international business communication in a global environment, useful models and frameworks. In a model aimed at better defining and developing boundaries for the field of international business communication, Varner (2000) identified a comprehensive list of factors that interactively impact the intercultural and international business communication process. Varner places these variables in three categories: business strategy (11 variables), intercultural strategy (11 variables), and communication strategy {12 variables (including language)}. Babcock & Du-Babcock (2001) agree that language should be included but add that language deserves special prominence as it determines how the other variables are activated. Babcock & Du-Babcock (2001) argue that it is not only the languages that international business communicators speak (e.g., English, Japanese, Mandarin), but also the language and communicative competence of such communicators (as full or partial bilinguals or unilinguals) that impact both interpersonal and organizational communication. In addition, language can be seen as the gateway to culture

112

 Organizational Diversity

as it frames the nature of cultural exposure and contact as well as how information is filtered through the perceptual screens of all communicators (Clark & Clark, 1977; Whorf, 1966). Indeed, language shapes how international business communicators perceive cultural influences and cues in different communication zones as they engage in the international business communication process.

DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT: BASED ON KSAOs Workforce diversity is a complex phenomenon to management in an organization. The management of workforce diversity as a tool to increase organizational effectiveness cannot be underscored, especially with current changes sweeping across the global; thus, it is argued that organizations that value diversity will definitely cultivate success and have a future in this dynamic global labor market (Al-Jenaibi, 2011; Bialostocka, 2010; Jain & Verma, 1996; Jones & George, 2011; Martin, 2014; Wambui, Wangombe, Muthura, Kamau, Jackson, 2013). Workforce diversity management has become an important issue for both governments and private organizations. Its importance has mainly been brought about by the free movement of labor due to globalization and the fight for human rights by certain minority groups who feel excluded from the employment sector (Al-Jenaibi, 2011; Bialostocka, 2010; Henry & Evans, 2007; Jones & George, 2011; Martin, 2014; Wambui et al., 2013), particularly, persons with disability. The workforce diversity, according to Henry and Evans (2007) and Jones and George (2011), emerged mainly to further the availability equal opportunities in the workplace. This equal opportunity philosophy is aimed at ensuring that organizations make the most out of the difference from a diverse workforce rather than losing talent which might assist the organization to be more efficient and effective. The increased mobility and interaction of people from diverse backgrounds as a result of improved economic and political systems and the recognition of human rights by all nations has put most organizations under pressure to embrace diversity at the work place. Diversity brings with it the heterogeneity that needs to be nurtured, cultivated, and appreciated as means of increasing organizational effectiveness in the competitive world (Al-Jenaibi, 2011; Bialostocka, 2010; Jones & George, 2011; Martin, 2014; Wambui et al., 2013). Therefore, companies need to focus on diversity and look for ways to become totally inclusive organizations because diversity has the potential of yielding greater productivity and competitive advantages (Society for Human Resource Management, 1998). Diversity is an invaluable competitive asset that organizations cannot afford to ignore (Robinson, 2002). Managing and valuing diversity is a key component of effective people management, which can improve workplace productivity (Black Enterprise, 2001), and achieve competitive advantage (Tran, 2014a). Diversity management is a process intended to create and maintain a positive work environment where the similarities and differences of individuals are valued. According to Wambui et al. (2013), the literature on diversity management has mostly emphasized on organization culture, its impact on diversity openness, human resource management practices, institutional environments and organizational contexts to diversity-related pressures, expectations, requirements and incentives, perceived practices, and organizational outcomes related to managing employee diversity. Given that diversity in the workplace is paramount and that managing diversity in the workplace should be a part of the culture of the organization, this process of managing diversity, in itself, is an on-going process to maximizes the full potential of all, in a cultural context where everyone benefits (Rosado, 2006). By managing diversity at the workplace, organizations create an inclusive and harmonious environment that enhances good reputation of the organization with people seeking jobs hence able to attract 113

 Organizational Diversity

the best workers in the market. The employees feel valued, rewarded, and motivated while working in an organization that manage diversity. According to a research done worldwide, three million employees indicated that diversity brings about satisfaction and organizational performance. It was also discovered that creating an inclusive and harmonious environment was a key driver in employee engagement and commitment. Managing diversity creates greater employee engagement that eventually leads to reduced labor turnover. The following steps show how to management workplace diversity (Wambui et al., 2013): 1. Develop a recruitment strategy that stresses on the need for diversification. As an organization, develop policies and guidelines for staff conduct and ensure that each staff member has a copy (Wambui et al., 2013). Implement Tran’s (2008) Expatiate Selection and Retention Handbook on recruiting, assessing, selecting, training, and developing persons without a disability and with a disability, 2. Invest in cultural sensitivity training for all staff to facilitate better communication, promote tolerance, and enhance organizational culture and politics knowledge (Tran, 2015d), 3. Seek and gather feedback from staff and management in the form of a questionnaire or staff survey. Analyze and communicate the results to and with staff, identifying any progress made in staff satisfaction, and highlight any diversity or conflict issues so that persons can be addressed before they become unmanageable, 4. Encourage open communication and teamwork across work functions. Horizontal communication is more relevant in business environments where social media networking platforms are causing hierarchical boundaries to disappear. Encourage employees to work together to solve problems and consider incentives and rewards for successful projects. Implement performance reviews, 360 Degree Feedback, and mentorship (Tran, 2008), and 5. Plan an annual event to break down formal barriers and improve staff morale. Retreats and informal gathering can promote better interpersonal relationships and foster a culture of inclusiveness.

RECOMMENDATION Studies (Armstrong, 2011; Emerson & Murphy, 2014; Lauring & Selmer, 2011; Nataatmadia & Dyson, 2005; Stephens, Fryberg, Markus, Johnson, & Covarrubias, 2012; Stevens, Plaut, & Snachez-Burks, 2008) have continuously shown that organizations are faced with a serious challenge in responding to the increasingly diverse nature of the workforce: neither the colorblind nor the multicultural approach to organizational diversity is received by all employees as a positive affirmation of their belongingness in the organization (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Nonminorities feel excluded in organizations espousing a multicultural approach and feel more comfortable with a colorblind approach. For these employees who interpret multicultural initiatives as applying only to minority group members, such initiatives pose a threat to their social identity (Verkuyten, 2005) and may decrease their desire to affiliate with the organization. The reverse pattern emerges among minorities who experience exclusion in workplaces that espouse colorblindness. For organizations to bring their positive core to the forefront, thus stimulating positive change, they need an alternative approach to diversity that does not face resistance from both nonminority and minority organizational members. The all-inclusive multiculturalism (AIM) approach, according to Stevens et al. (2008), meets these needs, emphasizing that diversity includes all employees—that is, both minorities and nonminorities alike. 114

 Organizational Diversity

The AIM approach also helps organizations deal with the increasing complexity of a diverse workforce, including the challenge of how employees within diverse organizations interact with one another. The fact is that organizations are increasingly diverse, social categorizations—for instance, along the lines of gender and race—become particularly salient in employees’ daily interactions (Hogg & Terry, 2000). A key component in the creation of a truly inclusive climate is moving beyond surface-level tactics that display an appreciation of diversity and inspiring individuals to integrate diversity into their work lives through self-appreciation and other-appreciation within their organizational context (Davidson & James, 2006; Thomas & Ely, 1996). The formation for developing an all-inclusive organization is in focusing on the formation of high-quality relationships among dissimilar others—that is, relationships that engender positive affect, encourage ongoing learning, are resilient, have longevity, and create “the capacity for individuals to engage, challenge, and support one another with clarity and confidence” (Davidson & James, 2006, p. 139). With the AIM approach to diversity, employees are able to thrive and reach their fullest potential because there is a climate that encourages open communication and learning, affording individuals the opportunity to move past social categorizations and build mutually supportive and resilient relationships (Spreitzer, Sutcliffe, Dutton, Sonenschein, & Grant, 2005). Such relationships are precluded in organizations with colorblind and multicultural diversity initiatives because of the feelings of exclusion engendered by each. This is because the all-inclusive organization recognizes—and celebrates—the contextually salient identities of its employees, like race, opportunities for learning are created rather than squandered. By fostering an environment where individual differences are not ignored, as with the colorblind approach, or where feelings of inclusion are cultivated, in contrast with the exclusion of nonminorities engendered by multiculturalism, employees can engage each other in open, honest conversations about their differences. The AIM approach, through its facilitation of learning, promotes the formation of authentic relationships among diverse individuals and eschews the prejudice and stereotyping typically associated with diversity (Davidson & James, 2006; Wolsko, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink, 2000).

FUTURE RESEARCH Cox (1993) states that managing diversity is the planning and the implementing of organizational systems and practices to manage people so that potential advantages of diversity are maximized while its potential disadvantage are minimized. Hence, diversity in the workplace is by default, for from diversity, the organization extracts the qualifications, skills, and competencies of its workforce. The effort, therefore, should be management driven from the very top all the way to the bottom, enforced in such a way that behavior, rather than attitudes, is changed. This is referred to as diversity management, and it also involves the drawing of direct benefits from difference in people and their perspectives. The ultimate objective of managing these diversities is to create an organization whose culture recognizes, respects, and encourages individual differences. Included among these differences is the co-existence of employees from various socio-cultural backgrounds with the company: race, gender, age, color, physical ability, ethnicity, national origin, religion, disability, sexual orientation, values, ethnic culture, education, language, lifestyle, beliefs, physical appearance, and economic status (Wentling & Palma-Rivas, 2000). With the inclusion of diversity management, for future research, organizations need to explore

115

 Organizational Diversity

and implement three additional factors for persons without disability and for persons with disability: 1) assistive technologies (Tran, 2014b, 2015f, 2016e), 2) job coaching, and 3) on-the-job-training (OJT).

CONCLUSION Organizations can succeed at diversity if the initiative to create, manage, and value the diver workforce has the full support of the top management (Hayes, 1999; Jackson, La Fasto, Schultz, & Kelly, 1992). The following are the conditions which would make workforce diversity a success in any organization: 1) the organization should assign this work to a senior manager (Jackson et al., 1992), organizational psychologist (OG), an organization development (OD) practitioner, or an industrial and organizational (I/O) psychologist, 2) the organization should create such a working environment as well increase the motivation, satisfaction, and commitment of diverse people, 3) the strategy must be based on the ill of the human resources, strength, and culture of the organization (Hayes, 1999), and 4) create a clear business case for diversity initiatives and link the case with and to the changing demographics and social changes. Therefore, while the legal motive focuses on legal compliance and the branding motive emphasizes making the workplace representative of the consumer market to gain a bigger share, the value-in-diversity motive focuses exclusively on the value that is attributed to the workplace as a result of increased diversity (Armstrong, 2011). When employers aim to increase diversity to reap from its benefits, they hope to take advantage of the “treasure trove of valuable opportunities for innovation, networking, marketing savvy, and similar assets” (Carr-Ruffino, 2005, p. 102). In addition, valuing diversity is thought to “lead to greater creativity, more flexibility in responding to change, stronger commitment and better cooperation within heterogeneous work teams, and better-quality products and services to an increasingly diverse customer base” (Fernandez & Barr, 1993, p. 292). Furthermore, “proponents of diversity hold those differences among group members give rise to varied ideas, perspectives, knowledge, and skills that can improve their ability to solve problems and accomplish their work” (Polzer, Milton, & Swann, 2002, p. 296). According to Richard, McMillan, Chadwick, and Dwyer, “diverse groups […] have more extensive experiences and a greater breath of perspectives from which to draw [and] as a result […] are often more creative and possess a greater problem-solving capability” (2003, p. 114). Further characterizing the value-in-diversity motive, Phillips and Thomas-Hunt (2007) argue that the variety in perspectives and information individuals bring fosters beneficial cognitive conflict within groups. Given the wealth of benefits of diversity discussed, organizations operating from the value-in-diversity motive as defined aim to increase diversity to capitalize on its purported benefits. In the case of an employer increasing diversity for legal reasons, methodology of measurement not only varies, but existences of loop-holes are more readily available for some employers than others. For employers who are not in an educational industry, “to measure progress, one needs a metric by which to evaluate it. The simplest metric is a headcount: how many women and minorities have been hired or promoted after the diversity initiative” (Agars & Kottke, 2005, p. 159). If branding is the motive for an organization to increase diversity, the metric of a headcount will again suffice to determine the progress made (Agars & Kottke, 2005), yet while “some companies measure diversity results with recruitment, promotion, or turnover rates, […] few look beyond simple head counts to measure the full financial or performance impact of their programs” (Hansen, 2003, p. 31). In the case of increasing diversity for branding reasons, in addition to the number of employees hired and retained from protected classes, the 116

 Organizational Diversity

organization should measure the ways in which the organizational diversity composition resembles that of its market and surrounding society. Organizations can easily monitor the results of the first of two reasons for increasing diversity by such methods as determining how the diversity of the workforce has changed over time and how the success of the company has changed since its image was diversified. However a more interesting, and not as easily tracked, reason to increase diversity is the value-in-diversity motive, which is realized when teams are used in decision making (Armstrong, 2011). For employers who are in an educational industry, the measurement of diversity, due to the available loop-holes of the law, could be achieved through visual diversity. The value of diversity purported by this motive transcends the visible aspects of diversity which organizations might obtain when motivated by legal compliance or branding and features both the detectable aspects of diversity as well as those not as easily detectable, arguably making its progress more difficult to measure as well as the resultant diversity more complex to manage (Armstrong, 2011). More specifically for the present research and implied from diversity research as well as the value-in-diversity motive, increased diversity is purported to bring about improved team outcomes such as better problem solving and decision making abilities (Cox & Blake 1991; Watson, Kumar, & Michaelsen, 1993). In the decision making process, an organization that is motivated by value-in-diversity will attempt to capitalize on its human capital by participating in decision making integration that takes into account the varying diversity that brings value to the organization. In so doing, a value-on-diversity, based on all-inclusive multiculturalism, must assess its multiculturalism’s knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs): language [and dialect(s) based on the needs of an organization/educational institution] at hand (Tran, 2008) in order to possess and maintain competitive advantages and meet and fulfill the needs of its market—students.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT I would like to dedicate this chapter to William Marc Weisman, M.S. (Marc Weisman), at the State of California, Department of Rehabilitation, in San Francisco, California, who inspired me to write this chapter. Marc Weisman is a Staff Services Manager I with the State of California, Department of Rehabilitation, who manages a team in which I am a member of. Marc is a team manager that I have the pleasure to work under and an opportunity to being mentored by, who demonstrates the behavior and definition of servant leadership, and practices the act of servant leadership. Marc continuously demonstrates the behavior of servant leadership, and practices the act of servant leadership, through the implementation of his knowledge, skills, abilities, wisdom, charm, humor, and charisma. Marc exemplifies his managerial skills and (servant) leadership qualities through his actions with how efficiently he is able to handle and resolve situations at hand.

REFERENCES Agars, M. D., & Kottke, J. (2005). Innovations in diversity management: Advancement of practice and thought. In R. J. Burke & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Reinventing human resource management: Challenges and new directions (pp. 151–169). New York: Routledge.

117

 Organizational Diversity

Al-Jenaibi, B. (2011). The scope and impact of workplace diversity in the United Arab Emirates: An initial study. Journal of Communication and Culture, 1(2), 49–81. Amir, Z., Wynn, P., Chan, F., Strauser, D., Whitaker, S., & Luker, K. (2010). Return to work after cancer in the UK: Attitudes and experiences of line managers. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 20(4), 435–442. doi:10.1007/s10926-009-9197-9 PMID:19890619 Anderson, N., & Schalk, R. (1998). The psychological contract in retrospect and prospect. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19(1), 637–647. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(1998)19:1+3.0.CO;2-H Armstrong, V. (2011). Diversity integration. Schmidt Labor Research Center Seminar Paper Series. Ashkanasy, N. M., Härtel, C. E. J., & Daus, C. S. (2002). Diversity and emotion: The new frontiers in organizational behavior research. Journal of Management, 28(3), 307–338. doi:10.1177/014920630202800304 Babcock, R. D., & Du-Babcock, B. (2001). Language-based communication zones in international business communication. Journal of Business Communication, 38(4), 372–412. doi:10.1177/002194360103800401 Baliga, G., & Baker, J. C. (1985). Multinational corporation policies for expatriate managers: Selection, training, and evaluation. Advanced Management Journal, 50(4), 31–38. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. doi:10.1037/00332909.117.3.497 PMID:7777651 Beamer, L. (1992). Learning intercultural communication competence. Journal of Business Communication, 29(3), 285–304. doi:10.1177/002194369202900306 Beer, M., & Nohria, N. (2000). Cracking the code of change. Harvard Business Review, 78(3), 133–141. PMID:11183975 Bialostocka, P. (2010). Cultural diversity in organizational: Theory and practice. Journal of Intercultural Management, 2(2), 5–15. Bian, Y. (1994). Work and inequality in urban China. New York: State University of New York Press. Bjorkman, I., & Schaaps, A. (1994). Outsiders in the Middle Kingdom. European Management Journal, 12(2), 147–153. doi:10.1016/0263-2373(94)90005-1 Black, J. S. (1988). Work role transitions: A study of American expatriate managers in Japan. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(2), 277–294. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490383 Black, J. S., Gregersen, H. B., Mendenhall, M. E., & Stroh, L. K. (1999). Globalizing people through international assignments. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Black, J. S., & Mendenhall, M. (1990). Cross-Cultural Training Effectiveness: A Review and a Theoretical Framework for Future Research. Academy of Management Review, 15(1), 113–136. Black Enterprise. (2001). Managing a multicultural workforce. Black Enterprise Magazine. Blanck, P. D. (2001). Civil war pensions and disability. Ohio State Law Journal, 62, 109–249.

118

 Organizational Diversity

Blanck, P. D., & Marti, M. W. (1997). Attitudes, behavior and the employment provisions of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Villanova Law Review, 42(2), 345–408. Blanck, P. D., Schur, L., Kruse, D., Schwochau, S., & Song, C. (2003). Calibrating the impact of the ADA’s employment provisions. Stanford Law & Policy Review, 14, 267–290. Bond, M. H. (1991). Beyond the Chinese face: Insights from psychology. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Bond, M. H., & Hwang, K. (1986). The social psychology of the Chinese people. In M. Bond (Ed.), The psychology of the Chinese people (pp. 213–266). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Bond, M. H., & Iwata, Y. (1976). Proxemics and observation anxiety in Japan: Nonverbal and cognitive responses. Psychologia, 19, 119–126. Bond, M. H., & Komai, H. (1976). Targets of gazing and eye contact during interviews: Effect of Japanese nonverbal behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(6), 1276–1284. doi:10.1037/00223514.34.6.1276 PMID:1003325 Bond, M. H., & Lee, P. (1981). Face-saving in Chinese culture: A discussion and experimental study of Hong Kong students. In A. King & R. Lee (Eds.), Social life and development in Hong Kong (pp. 288–305). Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Borstorff, P. C., Harris, S. G., Field, H. S., & Giles, W. F. (1997). Who’ll go? A review of factors associated with employee willingness to work overseas. Human Resources Planning, 20(3), 29–40. Boyle, M. A. (1997). Social barriers to successful reentry into mainstream organizational culture: Perceptions of people with disabilities. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 8(3), 259–268. doi:10.1002/ hrdq.3920080308 Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Bruyère, S. M. (2000). Disability employment policies and practices in private and federal sector organizations. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University (Program on Employment and Disability). Bruyère, S. M., Erickson, W., & Ferrentino, J. T. (2003). Identity and disability in the workplace. William and Mary Law Review, 44, 1173–1196. Bryan, J. H. (1999, July). The diversity imperative. Executive Excellence, New Delhi. Caligiuri, P. M. (2000). The big five personality characteristics as predictors of expatriates desire to terminate the assignment and supervisor-rated performance. Personnel Psychology, 53(1), 67–88. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2000.tb00194.x Cao, G., Clarke, S., & Lehaney, B. (2004). The need for a systemic approach to change management—A case study. Systemic Practice and Action Research, 17(2), 103–126. doi:10.1023/B:SPAA.0000018906.16607.cc Carr-Ruffino, N. (2005). Making diversity work. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

119

 Organizational Diversity

Chan, F., Strauser, D., Maher, P., Lee, E., Jones, R., & Johnson, E. (2010). Demand-side factors related to employment of people with disabilities: A survey of employers in the Midwest region of the United States. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 20(4), 412–419. doi:10.1007/s10926-010-9252-6 PMID:20602153 Chaney, L. H., & Martin, J. D. (2000). Intercultural business communication (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Cheney, R. S. (2001). Intercultural business communication, international students, and experiential learning. Business Communication Quarterly, 64(4), 90–104. doi:10.1177/108056990106400410 Clark, H., & Clark, E. (1977). Psychology and language: An introduction to psycholinguistics. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Colella, A. (1996). The organizational of employees with disabilities: Theory and research. In G. R. Ferris (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resources management (Vol. 14, pp. 351–417). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Colella, A. (2001). Coworker distributive fairness judgments of the workplace accommodation of employees with disabilities. Academy of Management Review, 26(1), 100–116. Copeland, J. L. (2007). The impact of disability in the workplace: An assessment of employer attitudes toward people with disabilities and the Americans with Disabilities Act (Unpublished Doctoral Thesis). Cappella University. Copeland, J. L., & Griggs, L. (1985). Going international. New York: Random House. Cox, T. H. Jr. (1994). Cultural diversity in organizations: Theory, research and practice. San Francisco: Berrett–Koehler. Cox, T. J. Jr, & Blake, S. (1991). Managing cultural diversity: Implications for organizational competitiveness. The Academy of Management Executive, 5(3), 45–55. doi:10.5465/AME.1991.4274465 Cropanzano, R., & Prehar, C. A. (2001). Emerging justice concerns in an era of changing psychological contracts. In R. Cropanzano (Ed.), Justice in the workplace: From theory to practice (Vol. 2, pp. 245–269). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Davidson, M. N., & James, E. J. (2006). The engines of positive relationships across difference: Conflict and learning. In J. E. Dutton & B. R. Ragins (Eds.), Exploring positive relationships at work: Building a theoretical and research foundation (pp. 137–158). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Davies, H. (1996). Interpreting guanxi. The role of personal connection in a high context transitional economy in China business: Context and issues. Hong Kong: Logman (Asia). De Keijzer, A. (1992). China: Business strategies for the 90s. Berkeley, CA: Pacific View Press. Deshpande, S. P., & Viswesvaran, C. (1992). Is cross-cultural training of expatriate managers effective: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 16(3), 295–310. doi:10.1016/01471767(92)90054-X

120

 Organizational Diversity

Dietz, G. (2007). Keyword: Cultural diversity. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 10(1), 7–30. doi:10.1007/s11618-007-0003-1 Dixon, K. A., Kruse, D., & Van Horn, C. E. (2003). Restricted access: A survey of employers about people with disabilities and lowering barriers to work. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University’s John J. Heldrich Center for Workforce Development. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17(2), 124–129. doi:10.1037/h0030377 PMID:5542557 Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1978). Facial action coding system: A technique for the measurement of facial movement. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Emerson, K. T. U. E., & Murphy, M. C. (2014). Identity threat at work: How social identity threat and situational cues contribute to racial and ethnic disparities in the workplace. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(4), 508–520. doi:10.1037/a0035403 PMID:25133411 Esty, K. C., Griffin, R., & Schorr-Hirsh, M. S. (1995). Workplace diversity: A manager’s guide to solving problems and turning diversity into a competitive advantage. Adams Media Corporation. European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI). (2002). General recommendation no 7 on national legislation to combat racism and racial discrimination. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Fernandez, J., & Barr, M. (1993). The diversity advantage: How American business can outperform Japanese and European companies in the global marketplace. New York: Lexington Books. Fraser, R., Ajze, I., Johnson, K., Hebert, J., & Chan, F. (2011). Understanding employers’ hiring intention in relation to qualified workers with disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 35, 1–11. Fuchs, L. H. (1990). The American kaleidoscope: Race, ethnicity, and the civil culture. Wesleyan. Gakovic, A., & Tetrick, L. E. (2003). Psychological contract breach as a source of strain for employees. Journal of Business and Psychology, 18(2), 235–246. doi:10.1023/A:1027301232116 Gannon, M. et al. (1994). Understanding global cultures: Metaphorical journeys through 17 countries. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Gudmudson, L. S., & Hartenian, D. E. (2000). Cultural diversity in small business: Implications for firm performance. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 5(3), 209–220. Hall, E. T. (1959). The silent language. New York: Fawcett. Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday Anchor Books. Hammer, M. R., Gudykunst, W. B., & Wiseman, R. L. (1978). Dimensions of intercultural effectiveness: An exploratory study. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2(4), 382–393. doi:10.1016/01471767(78)90036-6 Hansen, F. (2003). Diversity’s business case doesn’t add up. Workforce, 82(4), 28–32. Harlan, S., & Robert, P. (1998). The social construction of disability in organizations: Why employers resist reasonable accommodations. Work and Occupations, 25(4), 397–435. doi:10.1177/0730888498025004002

121

 Organizational Diversity

Hayes, E. (1999). Winning at diversity. Executive Excellence. Henry, O., & Evans, A. J. (2007). Critical review of literature on workforce diversity. African Journal of Business Management, 12, 72–76. Hernandez, B., Keyes, C., & Balcazar, F. (2000). Employer attitudes toward workers with disabilities and their ADA employment rights: A literature review. Journal of Rehabilitation, 66, 4–16. Hiltrop, J. M. (1995). The changing psychological contract: The human resource challenge of the 1990s. European Management Journal, 13(3), 286–294. doi:10.1016/0263-2373(95)00019-H Hodgetts, R. M., & Luthans, F. (1993). U.S. multinationals expatriate compensation strategies. Compensation and Benefits Review, 25(1), 57–62. doi:10.1177/088636879302500111 Hofstede, G. (1980). Cultures’ consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organization: Software of the mind-intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival. Berkshire, UK: McGraw-Hill. Hogg, M. A., & Terry, D. J. (2000). Social identity and self-categorization processes in organizational contexts. Academy of Management Review, 25(1), 121–140. Houtenville, A. J. (2005). Disability statistics in the United States. Ithaca, NY: Cronell University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center. Hsu, F. (1981). American and Chinese passage to differences (3rd ed.). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. Izard, C. (1977). Human emotions. New York: Plenum. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-2209-0 Jackson, B. W., La Fasto, F., Schultz, H. G., & Kelly, D. (1992). Diversity. Human Resource Management, 31(1/2), 21–34. doi:10.1002/hrm.3930310103 Jacoby, T. (2004). Reinventing the melting pot: The new immigrants and what it means to be American. Basic Books. Jain, H. C., & Evans, A. (1996). Managing workforce diversity for competitiveness: The Canadian experience. International Journal of Manpower, 17(4/5), 14–29. doi:10.1108/01437729610127677 Jones, G., & George, J. (2011). Essentials of contemporary management (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Katz, J. P., & Seifer, D. M. (1996). It’s a different world out there: Planning for expatriate success through selection, pre-departure training and on-site socialization. Human Resource Planning, 19(2), 32–54. Knouse, S. B., & Stewart, J. B. (2003). “Hard” measures that support the business case for diversity: A balanced scorecard approach. The Diversity Factor, 11(4), 5–10. Kochan, T., Bezrukova, K., Ely, R., Jackson, S., Aparna, J., Jehn, K., & Thomas, D. et al. (2003). The effects of diversity on business performance: Report of the diversity research work. Human Resource Management, 42(1), 3–21. doi:10.1002/hrm.10061

122

 Organizational Diversity

Kolb, E. (2009). The evolution of New York city’s multiculturalism: Melting pot or salad bowl. Bod. Lauring, J., & Selmer, J. (2011). Multicultural organizations: Does a positive diversity climate promote performance? European Management Review, 8(2), 81–93. doi:10.1111/j.1740-4762.2011.01011.x Lawrence, C. R. III. (1987). The is, the ego, and equal protection: Reckoning with unconscious racism. Stanford Law Review, 39(2), 317–388. doi:10.2307/1228797 Leiba-OSullivan, S. (1999). The distinction between stable and dynamic cross-cultural competencies: Implications for expatriate trainability. Journal of International Business Studies, 30(4), 709–725. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490835 Leung, K. (1988). Some determinants of conflict avoidance. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 19(1), 125–136. doi:10.1177/0022002188019001009 Lewin, D., & Schecter, S. (1995). Four factors lower disability rates. The Personnel Journal, 74(11), 14–15. Makas, E. (1988). Positive attitudes toward disabled people: Disabled and nondisabled persons perspectives. The Journal of Social Issues, 44(1), 49–61. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1988.tb02048.x Martin, G. C. (2014). The effects of cultural diversity in the workplace. Journal of Diversity Management, 9(2), 89–92. doi:10.19030/jdm.v9i2.8974 McDonald, G. M. (1993). ET go home? The successful management of expatriate transfers. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 8(2), 18–29. doi:10.1108/02683949310032758 Mendenhall, M. E., Dunbar, E., & Oddou, G. R. (1987). Expatriate selection, training, and career-pathing: A review and critique. Human Resource Management, 26(3), 331–345. doi:10.1002/hrm.3930260303 Merl, C. (2006). Diversity management: From “one size fits all” to a more inclusive approach. Rural Development News. Retrieved on April 26, 2013, from: http://www.gardenswartzrowe.com/documents/ DiversityManagement.pdf Naff, K. C., & Kellough, J. E. (2003). Ensuring employment equality: Are federal diversity programs making a difference? International Journal of Public Administration, 26(12), 1307–1336. doi:10.1081/ PAD-120024399 Nataatmadia, I., & Dyson, L. E. (2005). Managing the modern workforce: Cultural diversity and its implications. Proceedings of the 2005 Information Resources Management Association International Conference: Managing Modern Organizations through Information Technology. National Institute of Disability Rehabilitation and Research. (2006). National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research: Long-range plan for fiscal year 2005-2009. Washington, DC: Author. Niessen, J. (2001). Die europaische union und der kampf gegen den rassismus nach dem vertrag von Amsterdam. In Europaische einwanderungs und fluchtlingspolitik. Bonn: FES. Oberg, K. (1960). Cultural shock: Adjustment to new cultural environment. Practical Anthropology, 7, 177–182.

123

 Organizational Diversity

Ones, D. S., & Viswesvaran, C. (1997). Personality Determinants in the Prediction of Aspects of Expatriate Job Success. In Z. Aycan (Ed.), Expatriate management: Theory and practice (pp. 63–92). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Organista, P. B. (2009). The psychology of ethnic groups in the United States. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Peck, B., & Kirkbride, L. T. (2001). Why businesses don’t employ people with disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 16, 71–75. Peters, L. H., Greer, C. R., & Youngblood, S. A. (1997). The Blackwell Encyclopedia Dictionary of Human Resource Management. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers, Ltd. Peterson, N. G., Mumford, M. D., Borman, W. C., Jeanneret, P. R., Fleishman, E. A., Levin, K. Y., & Dye, D. M. et al. (2001). Understanding Work Using the Occupational Information Network (O*NET): Implications for practice and research. Personnel Psychology, 54(2), 451–493. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2001. tb00100.x Phillips, K. W., & Thomas-Hunt, M. C. (2007). Garnering the benefits of conflict: The role of diversity and status distance in groups. In K. J. Behfar & L. L. Thompson (Eds.), Conflict in organizational teams: New directions in theory and practice (pp. 37–55). Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Poe, A. C. (2002). Selection savvy. HRMagazine, 47(4), 77–83. Polzer, J. T., Milton, L. P., & Swann, W. B. Jr. (2002). Capitalizing on diversity: Interpersonal congruence in small work groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47(2), 296–324. doi:10.2307/3094807 Rahim, A. (1983). A measure of styles of handling interpersonal conflict. Academy of Management Journal, 26(2), 368–376. doi:10.2307/255985 PMID:10263067 Rahim, A. (1986). Managing conflict in organizations. New York: Praeger. Ramsey, S. (1979). Nonverbal behavior: An intercultural perspective. In M. K. Asante, E. Newmark, & C. A. Blake (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural communication (pp. 105–143). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Ramsey, S., & Birk, J. (1983). Preparation of North Americans for interaction with Japanese: Considerations of language and communication style. In D. Landis & R. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (pp. 227–259). New York: Pergamon Press. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-027535-2.50017-X Rehim, A., & Bonoma, Y. (1979). Managing organizational conflict: A model for diagnosis and intervention. Psychological Reports, 44(3S), 1323–1344. doi:10.2466/pr0.1979.44.3c.1323 Reichers, A., & Schneider, B. (1999). Climate and culture: An evolution of constructions. In B. Schneider (Ed.), Organizational climate and culture (pp. 5–29). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Richard, O. (2000). Racial diversity, business strategy, and firm performance. Academy of Management Journal, 43(2), 164–177. doi:10.2307/1556374 Richard, O., McMillan, A., Chadwick, K., & Dwyer, S. (2003). Employing an innovation strategy in racially diverse workforces. Group & Organization Management, 28(1), 107–126. doi:10.1177/1059601102250022

124

 Organizational Diversity

Robinson, G., & Dechant, K. (1997). Building a business case for diversity. The Academy of Management Executive, 11(3), 21–31. Robinson, K. S. (2002). U.S. must focus on diversity or face decline in competitiveness. The Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM). Retrieved on July 10, 2016, from: http://www.shrm.org Romano, C. (1995). Managing change, diversity and emotions. Management Review, 84(7), 6–7. Rosado, C. (2006). What do we mean by “managing diversity”? Sumati Reddy. Hyderabad, India: ICAFAI University. Rousseau, D. M. (1995). Psychological contracts in organizations: Understanding written and unwritten agreements. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Rousseau, D. M., & Parks, J. M. (1993). The contracts of individuals and organizations. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (pp. 1–47). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Schaub, M. (2001). Intercultural business communication. Business Communication Quarterly, 64(2), 132–135. doi:10.1177/108056990106400217 Schein, E. H. (1992). Organizational culture for ‘IT Works’. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 20, 637–657. Schein, E. H. (1999). The corporate culture survival guide. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Schneider, B., & Schmitt, N. (1992). Staffing organizations (2nd ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Harper Collins, Inc. Schur, L., Kruse, D., & Blanck, P. (2005). Corporate culture and the employment of persons with disabilities. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 23(1), 3–20. doi:10.1002/bsl.624 PMID:15706620 Schur, L. A. (2002). Dead-end jobs or a path to economic well-being? The consequences of non-standard work among people with disabilities. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 20(6), 601–620. doi:10.1002/ bsl.512 PMID:12465130 Shafer, M. S., Hill, J., Seyfarth, J., & Wehman, P. (1987). Competitive employment and workers with mental retardation: Analysis of employers’ perceptions and experiences. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 92(3), 304–311. PMID:3426841 Shay, J., & Tracey, J. B. (1997). Expatriate managers: Reasons for failure and implications for training. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 38(1), 30–35. doi:10.1177/001088049703800116 Siegal, W., Church, A. H., Javitch, M., Waclawski, J., Burd, S., Bazigos, M., & Burke, W. W. et al. (1996). Understanding the management of change: An overview of managers perspectives and assumptions in the 1990s. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 9(6), 54–80. doi:10.1108/09534819610150521 Society for Human Resource Management. (1998). SHRM survey explores the best in diversity practices. Fortune 500 firms outpace the competition with greater commitment to diversity. The Society for Human Resources Management (SHRM). Retrieved on July 10, 2016, from: http://www.shrm.org/press/ releases/980803.htm

125

 Organizational Diversity

Spector, B., & Beer, M. (1994). Beyond TQM programmes. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 7(2), 63–70. doi:10.1108/09534819410056087 Spreitzer, G. M., Sutcliffe, K. M., Dutton, J. E., Sonenshein, S., & Grant, G. M. (2005). A socially embedded model of thriving at work. Organization Science, 16(5), 537–549. doi:10.1287/orsc.1050.0153 Stanton, S., Hammer, M., & Power, B. (1992). From resistance to results: Mastering the organizational issues of re-engineering. Insights Quarterly: The Executive Journal of Business Reengineering, 4(2), 6–16. Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Johnson, C. S., & Covarrubias, R. (2012). Unseen disadvantage: How American universities focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 1178–1197. doi:10.1037/a0027143 PMID:22390227 Stevens, F. G., Plaut, V. C., & Sanchez-Burks, J. (2008). Unlocking the benefits of diversity: All-inclusive multiculturalism and positive organizational change. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 44(1), 116–133. doi:10.1177/0021886308314460 Stewart, S., & Keown, C. (1989). Talking with the dragon: Negotiating in the People’s Republic of China. The Columbia Journal of World Business, 21(3), 68–72. Stone, D., & Colella, A. (1996). A model of factors affecting the treatment of disabled individuals in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 21, 352–401. Talbott, S. P. (1996). Building a Global Workforce Starts with Recruitment. The Personnel Journal, 3, 9–12. Tannenbaum, S. I., & Yukl, G. (1992). Training and Development in Work Organizations. Annual Review of Psychology, 43(1), 399–441. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.43.020192.002151 The Conference Board. (1992). Recruiting and selecting international managers (report no. 998). New York: The Conference Board. Ting-Toomey, S. (1985). Toward a theory of conflict and culture. In W. Gudykunst, L. Stewart, & S. Ting-Toomey (Eds.), Communication, culture, and organizational processes (pp. 71–86). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Ting-Toomey, S. (1988). Intercultural conflict styles: A face-negotiation theory. In Y. Kim & W. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication (pp. 213–235). New Bury Park, CA: Sage. Tran, B. (2008). Expatriate selection and retention (Doctoral dissertation). California School of Professional Psychology at Alliant International University, San Francisco, CA. Tran, B. (2012). Gendered technology-based organizations: A view of the glass cliff through the window of the glass ceiling. In D. Jemielniak & A. Marks (Eds.), Managing dynamic technology-oriented businesses: High-tech organizations and workplaces (pp. 253–272). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-14666-1836-7.ch015

126

 Organizational Diversity

Tran, B. (2014a). The human element of the knowledge worker: Identifying, managing, and protecting the intellectual capital within knowledge management. In M. A. Chilton & J. M. Bloodgood (Eds.), Knowledge management and competitive advantage: Issues and potential solutions (pp. 281–303). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-4679-7.ch017 Tran, B. (2014b). Assistive technology: Impact on independence, employment, and organizations for the motor disabled. In G. Kouroupetroglou (Ed.), Assistive technologies and computer access for motor disabilities (pp. 320–349). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-4438-0.ch011 Tran, B. (2015a). The next generation of leaders: Women in global leaderships in hotel management industry. In J. Feng, S. Stocklin, & W. Wang (Eds.), Educational strategies for the next generation leaders in hotel management (pp. 16–42). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-8565-9.ch002 Tran, B. (2015b). Ethical and legal data mining: Paradigms of organizational development practitioners and organizational psychologists. In Human rights and ethics: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Tran, B. (2015c). Expatriate selection and retention: Identifying and assessing the other characteristics beyond knowledge, skills, and abilities. In A. A. Camillo (Ed.), Handbook of research on global hospitality and tourism management (pp. 468–492). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-8606-9.ch023 Tran, B. (2015d). Rhetoric of game: Utilizing the game of Tavistock Method on organizational politics training. In Gamification: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications. Hershey, PA, USA: IGI Global. Tran, B. (2015e). Rhetoric of play: Utilizing the gamer factor in selecting and training employees. In Gamification: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Tran, B. (2015f). Assistive technology. In M. Khosrow-Pour (Ed.), Encyclopedia of information science and technology (3rd ed.; Vol. 6, pp. 4053–4061). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-46665888-2.ch399 Tran, B. (2016a). Communication (intercultural and multicultural) at play for cross cultural management within multinational corporations (MNCs). In N. Zakaria, A. N. Abdul-Talib, & N. Osman (Eds.), Handbook of research on impacts of international business and political affairs on the global economy (pp. 62-92). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Tran, B. (2016b). Communication (intercultural and multicultural) at play for cross cultural management within multinational corporations (MNCs). In International business: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1781–1811). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Tran, B. (2016c). Expatriate selection and retention: Identifying and assessing the other characteristics beyond knowledge, skills, and abilities. In International Business: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications (pp. 1756–1780). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Tran, B. (2016d). Assistive technology: Human capital for mobility (dis)abled workforce diversity development. International Journal of Ambient Computing and Intelligence, 6(2), 15–28. doi:10.4018/ IJACI.2014070102

127

 Organizational Diversity

Trompenaars, F. (1993). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding cultural diversity in business. London: Nicholas Brealey. Trubisky, P., Ting-Toomey, S., & Lin, S. L. (1991). The influence of individualism, collectivism, and self-monitoring on conflict styles. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 15(1), 65–84. doi:10.1016/0147-1767(91)90074-Q Tung, R. L. (1981). Selection and training of personnel for overseas assignments. The Columbia Journal of World Business, 16(1), 21–25. Tung, R. L. (1982). Selection and training procedures of United States, European, and Japanese multinationals. California Management Review, 25(1), 57–71. doi:10.2307/41164993 Tung, R. L. (1988). Career issues in international assignments. The Academy of Management Executive, 11(3), 241–244. doi:10.5465/AME.1988.4277265 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2016). Persons with a disability: Labor force characteristics news release. Retrieved on July 10, 2016, from: http://www.bls.gov/news.release/disabl.htm U.S. Department of Labor. (2010). Bureau of Labor Statistics. Persons with a disability: Labor force characteristics. Retrieved on July 3, 2016, from: http://www.bls.gov/news.release/disable.toc.htm Varner, I. I. (2000). The theoretical foundation for intercultural business communication: A conceptual model. Journal of Business Communication, 37(1), 39–57. doi:10.1177/002194360003700102 Verkuyten, M. (2005). Ethnic group identification and group evaluation among minority and majority groups: Testing the multiculturalism hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(1), 121–138. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.121 PMID:15631579 Wambui, T. W., Wangombe, J. G., Muthura, M. W., Kamau, A. W., & Jackson, S. M. (2013). Managing workplace diversity: A Kenyan perspective. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4(16), 199–218. Watson, W. E., Kumar, K., & Michaelsen, L. K. (1993). Cultural diversitys impact on interaction process and performance: Comparing homogeneous and diverse task groups. Academy of Management Journal, 36(3), 590–602. doi:10.2307/256593 Webb, A. (1996). The expatriate experience: Implications for career success. Career Development International, 1(5), 38–44. doi:10.1108/13620439610130632 Wederspahn, G. (1992). Costing failures in expatriate human resource management. Human Resource Planning, 15(2), 27–35. Wentling, R. M., & Palma-Rivas, N. (2000). Current status of diversity initiatives in selected multinational corporations. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11(1), 35–60. doi:10.1002/15321096(200021)11:13.0.CO;2-# Whorf, B. (1966). Language, thought, and reality. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.

128

 Organizational Diversity

Wilgosh, L., & Skaret, D. (1987). Employer attitudes toward hiring individuals with disabilities: A review of the recent literature. Canadian Journal of Rehabilitation, 1(2), 89–98. Windham International and National Foreign Trade Council, Inc. (1998). Global relocation trends: 1998 survey report. New York: Windham International. Wolsko, C., Park, B., Judd, C. M., & Wittenbrink, B. (2000). Framing interethnic ideology: Effects of multicultural and color-blind perspectives on judgments of groups and individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(4), 635–654. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.635 PMID:10794371 Yandrick, R. M. (1997). Speed your disabled worker’s return. HRMagazine, 42, 154–157. Zeira, Y., & Banai, M. (1985). Selection of expatriate-managers in multinational corporations: The host environment point of view. International Studies of Management & Organization, 15(1), 33–51. doi:1 0.1080/00208825.1985.11656402 Zeira, Y., & Banai, M. (1987). Selecting managers for foreign assignments. Management Decision, 25(4), 38–40. doi:10.1108/eb001460

ADDITIONAL READING Allen, R., Dawson, G., Wheatley, K., & White, C. S. (2004). Diversity practices: Learning responses for modern organisations. Development and Learning in Organisations, 18(6), 13–15. Anderson, A. (2013). How to manage diversity in a workplace. Demand Media: Hearst Communication, Inc. Armstrong, M. (2006). A handbook of human resource management practice (10th ed.). London: Kogan Page Limited. Bagshaw, M. (2004). Is diversity divisive? Journal of Industrial and Commercial Training, 36(4), 153–157. doi:10.1108/00197850410542383 Banton, C. (2013). How to manage diversity in the workplace. Demand Media: Hearst Communication, Inc. Barker, S., & Hartel, C. E. J. (2004). Intercultural service encounter: An exploratory study of customer experience. Cross Cultural Management, 11(1), 3–14. doi:10.1108/13527600410797710 Dessler, G. (2011). Human resource management (12th ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education. Dobbs, M. F. (1996). Managing diversity: Lessons from the private sectors. Public Personnel Management, 25(3), 351–368. doi:10.1177/009102609602500308 Friday, E., & Friday, S. S. (2003). Managing diversity using a strategy planned change approach. Journal of Management Development, 22(10), 863–880. doi:10.1108/02621710310505467 Gilbert, J. A., Stead, B. A., & Ivancevich, J. M. (1999). Diversity management: A new organizational paradigm. Journal of Business Ethics, 21(1), 61–67. doi:10.1023/A:1005907602028

129

 Organizational Diversity

Hartel, E. J. (2004). Towards a multicultural world: Identifying work systems, practices and employee attitudes that embrace diversity. Journal of Australian Management, 29(2), 189–200. doi:10.1177/031289620402900203 Henderson, J. K. (2005). Language diversity in international management teams. International Studies of Management & Organization, 35(1), 66–82. Kandola, R., Fullerton, J., & Ahmed, Y. (1995). Managing diversity: Succeeding where equal opportunities has failed. Equal Opportunities Review, 59, 31–36. Knippenberg, D. V., de Dreu, C. K. W., & Homan, A. C. (2004). Work group diversity and group performance: An integrated model and research agenda. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(6), 1008–1022. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.6.1008 PMID:15584838 Kossek, E. E., & Lobel, S. A. (1996). Managing diversity: Human resources strategies for transforming the workplace. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Mastrine, J. (2013). The importance of diversity in your workplace. London: Proof Branding. Nkomo, S. M., & Cox, T. H. (1996). Diverse identities in organization. In S. Clegg, C. Hardy, & W. Nord (Eds.), Handbook of organization studies (pp. 338–356). London: Sage Publications. Onsongo, E. N., & Maina, Z. R. (2013). Employee attitudes towards organizational diversity on business performance; Perspectives from the small and medium enterprises employees in Kissi town. Review of Contemporary Business Research, 2(1), 30–40. Warden, C. A., Liu, T. C., Huang, C. T., & Lee, C. H. (2003). Service failures away from home: Benefits from intercultural service encounters. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 14(4), 436–457. doi:10.1108/09564230310489268 Watson, W. E., Kumar, K., & Michaelsen, L. (1993). Cultural diversitys impact on interaction process and performance: Comparing homogeneous and diverse task groups. Academy of Management Journal, 36(3), 590–602. doi:10.2307/256593 Wiersema, M. F., & Bantel, K. A. (1992). Top management demography and corporate strategic change. Academy of Management Journal, 35(1), 91–121. doi:10.2307/256474 Wright, P. M., & Snell, S. A. (1999). Understanding executive diversity: More than meets the eye. HR Human Resources Planning, 22, 49–51. Zweigenhaft, R. L., & Domhoff, G. W. (1998). Diversity in the power elite: Have women and minorities reached the top? New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Abilities: Physical and mental capacities to perform tasks not requiring the use of tools, equipment, or machinery.

130

 Organizational Diversity

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA): Is a wide-ranging civil rights law that is intended to protect against discrimination based on disability. Enacted by the U.S. Congress in 1990, it affords similar protections against discrimination to Americans with disabilities as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which made discrimination based on race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics illegal. In addition, unlike the Civil Rights Act, the ADA also requires covered employers to provide reasonable accommodations to employees with disabilities, and imposes accessibility requirements on public accommodations. Assistive Technology: Umbrella term that includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities and also includes the process used in selecting, locating, and using them. Assistive technology promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to, or changing methods of interacting with, the technology needed to accomplish such tasks. Disability: Consequence of an impairment that may be physical, cognitive, intellectual, mental, sensory, developmental, or some combination of these that results in restrictions on an individual’s ability to participate in what is considered normal in their everyday society. Diversity: Acknowledging, understanding, accepting, valuing, and celebrating differences among people with respect to age, class, ethnicity, gender, physical and mental ability, race, sexual orientation, spiritual practice and public assistance status. Job Coaching (Job Coaches): Individuals who specialize in assisting individuals with disabilities to learn and accurately carry out job duties. Job coaches provide one-on-one training tailored to the needs of the employee. Knowledge: The degree to which a candidate is required to know certain technical material. On-the-Job Training (OJT): Is a type of skill development where a worker learns how to do the work through hands-on experience. This is in contrast to skill formation that is purely cognitive or perceptual. OJT generally gives the trainee the opportunity to work in the same place and with the same equipment that will be used regularly which can make it an efficient approach to learning new things. It can also be a useful tool to helping unemployed people develop new job skills. Skills: Adequate performance on tasks requiring the use of tools, equipment, machinery.

131

132

Chapter 7

Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments:

Antecedents, Consequences, Prevention, and Future Directions Leslie Ramos Salazar West Texas A&M University, USA

ABSTRACT Workplace bullying continues to be a prevalent workplace conflict issue in organizations around the world. The organizational reliance of communication technologies and digital media have enabled workplace bullying to evolve into workplace cyberbullying. Workplace bullying impacts individuals, relationships, organizations, and societies. For this reason, this chapter reviewed the transdisciplinary workplace bullying literature to conceptualize key constructs such as workplace bullying and workplace cyberbullying. This chapter also reviews the prevalence of workplace bullying, antecedent behaviors of workplace bullying, the consequences of workplace bullying, and the intervention approaches. Lastly, this chapter offers several recommendations for the future trends of workplace bullying scholarship.

INTRODUCTION Being harassed by a peer or a supervisor in the workplace can harm employees and an organization’s working environment when not managed effectively. Being called malicious names at work such as, “You’re an idiot, you can’t do anything right” or “You’re stupid, why don’t you just quit your job, we don’t need you” can make long-lasting emotional scars in individual employees. Other indirect forms of aggression can include being excluded from a team and being ignored from participating in meaningful work tasks. Because of the latest technological advances within organizations, workplace bullying has evolved into workplace cyberbullying. Aggressors, or bullies, may use mobile devices to harass other workers within and outside of working hours through email, text messaging, instant messaging, or through apps. Victims may also receive threatening and harmful messages from their colleagues and supervisors through email systems and social networking sites. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2250-8.ch007

Copyright © 2017, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

The Workplace Bullying Institute (2014) conducted a national survey which revealed that 27% of American workers have experienced abusive conduct in the workplace (Namie, Christensen, & Phillips, 2014). Most of the reported workplace bullying behaviors were enacted by organizational leaders such as supervisors and managers. Interestingly, even though 72% of Americans were conscious of workplace bullying behavior at work, they reported not reporting the behavior and not addressing the problem adequately (Namie, Christensen, & Phillips, 2014). Approximately 27% of employees reported directly witnessing workplace bullying behaviors without taking action (Namie, Christensen, & Phillips, 2014). Researchers and practitioners have conducted a plethora of research studies to investigate this phenomenon by examining it from the psychological, communication, organizational, and sociological perspectives. Despite the high prevalence of behavioral misconduct at work, managers and employees continue to struggle with this issue with little to no preparation. Some of these common struggles include identifying and reporting workplace bullying behavior, managing workplace bullying as a manager, and developing a civilized organizational culture. In order to prevent workplace bullying, Yamada (2002) originated the Healthy Workplace Bill (HWB) to prevent abuse in the workplace; however, criticisms have been reported about the bill. First, the bill does not require employers to take responsibility for workplace bullying behavior (Namie, Namie, & Lutgen-Sandvik, 2011). Although many employers were aware of the bill, several employers did not implement the suggested recommendations to create a safe working environment. Second, the bill is not linked to any judicial action by the courts and it did not protect all victims of workplace abuse. Without the support from lawmakers and federal legislation, making amends due to the injustices of workplace abuse became more difficult to achieve (Namie, Namie, & Lutgen-Sandvik, 2011). According to the Workplace Bullying Institute (2014), thus far, there is no federal law protecting the labor rights of abused American workers, despite the consistent reports of physical and psychological injuries due to workplace misconducts. Given the continued high prevalence of victimization in the workplace and the lack of understanding of workplace bullying, this chapter will address the following six themes: 1) the conceptualization of workplace bullying, 2) the prevalence, 3) the antecedent behaviors, 4) the consequences, 5) the prevention approaches, and 6) the future directions of workplace bullying scholarship.

BACKGROUND Conceptualizing Workplace Bullying, Workplace Harassment, and Cyberbullying Workplace bullying has been previously defined as the “repeated behavior that offends, humiliates, sabotages, intimidates, or negatively affects someone’s work when there is an imbalance of power” (Barron, 2003, & Zapf & Einarsen, 2001, p. 5). It also includes “harassing, offending, or socially excluding someone or negatively affecting someone’s work” (Einarsen, Hoel, Zapf, & Cooper, 2011, p.22). Nielsen, Matthiesen, and Einarsen (2010) also extended Olweus’ (1991) definition of bullying that was tailored to children to the definition of workplace bullying based on the following four elements: target exposure, repeated negative behaviors, duration of mistreatment, and an imbalance of power. First, a target receives a direct or indirect negative message (e.g., threat) that is both unwanted and emotionally disturbing. Second, the aggressive behavior is not a singular event, but rather repeated over time toward 133

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

one or more individuals in an organizational setting. Third, the duration of the workplace bullying behavior occurs over an extended period of time (e.g., months, years). Fourth, there is a power imbalance between the target and the bully (e.g., supervisor-subordinate). In addition to this definition, several typologies have been proposed in order to conceptualize workplace bullying behaviors. For instance, Harvey, Heames, Richey, and Leonard (2006) developed a five-facet typology which includes aggressive behavior, self-esteem attacks, manipulation of work, ostracizing, and threats. Aggressive behavior include both verbal and physical abuse behaviors such as shoving, shouting, and physical intimidation (Harvey et al., 2006; Moayed, Daraiseh, Shell, & Salem, 2006). Self-esteem attacks serve to reduce the confidence of workers at work by spreading malevolent rumors, ridiculing workers’ performance, and expressing criticisms and belittling remarks (Harvey et al., 2006; Moayed et al., 2006). Manipulation of work focuses on hindering workers’ capacity to perform effectively, which can include assigning an excessive workload, setting workers up to fail, and excessive micromanaging (Harvey et al., 2006; Moayed et al., 2006). Ostracizing includes isolating workers from a work group through ignoring workers’ presence, making practical jokes, and through social exclusion (Harvey et al., 2006; Moayed et al., 2006). Threats focus on eliciting fear among workers through threats to their personal or professional status and through physical threats (e.g., punching, kicking, and poking). This typology highlights how workplace bullying behaviors vary by the intensity of cognitive and physical attacks, and by the motives of the aggressor. Ultimately, these differing workplace bullying behaviors enable managers and workers to identify workplace bullying episodes. Another taxonomy of workplace bullying strategies was developed by Rodríguez-Carballeira, Escartín, Visauta, Porrúa, & Martin-Peña (2010). The indirect workplace bullying strategies include isolation, control and manipulation of information, and control-abuse of working conditions (Rodríguez-Carballeira et al., 2010). Isolation focuses on the marginalization of workers by physically isolating workers from other colleagues or by socially isolating workers by restricting employees’ interactions with other colleagues. Control and manipulation of information focuses on manipulating information which workers receive through interference or deceptive practices to sabotage the workers. Control-abuse of working conditions refers to putting workers at risk through obstructionism, which hinders workers’ performance or through assigning risky work tasks that can harm an individuals’ health. The direct workplace bullying strategies include emotional abuse, professional discredit, and devaluation of the workers’ role in the workplace (Rodríguez-Carballeira et al., 2010). Emotional abuse focuses on expressions that harm workers’ emotional well-being through messages that are threatening, disrespectful, humiliating, and rejecting. Professional discredit focuses on cognitive processes such as discrediting of workers’ professional credibility through belittlement of workers’ expertise, knowledge, and performance. Devaluation of the role in the workplace refers to undervaluing employees’ duties and roles in order to make workers feel inferior within an organization. This taxonomy conceptualizes workplace bullying using both indirect and direct workplace bullying strategies in order to enable researchers and practitioners to identify workplace bullying behavior within an organization. On the other hand, workplace cyberharassment is another increasing modern workplace conflict problem which includes sending threatening messages that can be racist or sexist via email or mobile phone technology (Whitty & Carr, 2006). Cyberharassment is defined as “a personal attack against an individual using any form of technology” (Ophoff, Machaka, & Stander, 2015, p. 494), which can include computers, telephones, mobile devices, tablets, and electronic watches. It can include “obscene or hate

134

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

e-mail/text messages that threaten or frighten, or e-mails/text messages that contain offensive content” (Bowie, Fisher, & Cooper, 2005, p.252). Cyberharassment in the workplace can also include cyberstalking through surveillance systems, cyber-terrorism behaviors such as spreading computer viruses that harm personal computers, and unwanted cybersex solicitations (Piotrowski, 2012). Scholars also use the harassment term synonymously to cyberbullying behaviors (Ophoff, Machaka, & Stander, 2015). Employees may become targets of cyberharassment from their peers, subordinates, supervisors, or clients. This form of cyberharassment abuse in the workplace has gained an enhanced amount of attention in the fields of psychology, business, and communication (Durkin & Patterson, 2011). However, insufficient literature exists about the topic and defining workplace cyberharassment has been a continuous struggle. While face-to-face workplace bullying and workplace cyberbullying share similar conceptualizations, workplace cyberbullying extends to the Internet with the use of communication technology and it is not limited to only the workplace environment. For instance, it is possible to get cyberbullied by a supervisor or a manager using a mobile device from one’s home, or from an environment outside of a workplace setting. This lack of geographical restriction is one of the key characteristics of cyberbullying. Furthermore, cyberbullying that only occurs within a workplace setting such as exchanging hostile emails at work is referred to as “cyber incivility” (Lim & Teo, 2009). Cyber incivility tends to occur due to the lack of netiquette training, which is necessary to train employees to fulfill an organization’s ethical communication standards when communication with other workers (Giumetti, McKibben, Hatfield, Schroeder, & Kowalski, 2012; Giumetti, Hatfield, Scisco, Schroeder, Muth, & Kowalski, 2013; Park, Fritz, & Jex, 2015). Cybervictims are employees who receive threatening messages through the Internet or through communication technology, and they experience workplace cyberbullying in face-to-face environments and/ or in electronic environments. Cybervictims tend to consistently receive several negative attacks from one individual such as a colleague, supervisor, or a customer, or by a work group (Zapf & Einarsen, 2001). Because cybervictims can receive negative, threatening electronic messages from their coworkers and/or supervisors outside of a working environment, their emotional pain is extended to the privacy of their own homes and lives, which can make cyberbullying more emotionally painful in comparison to face-to-face workplace bullying (Zapf & Einarsen, 2001; Baruch, 2005). However, cyberbullies in the workplace are characterized as aggressive communicators who send direct or indirect negative messages to intimidate or harass others online or via communication technology such as a mobile device, tablet, laptop, or computer (Zapf & Einarsen, 2001). Unlike face-toface bullies, cyberbullies often remain anonymous when engaging in aggressive behaviors due to the Internet’s anonymity characteristics (Griffiths, 2003). A cyberbully may elect to remain anonymous, use pseudo-names, and pseudo-accounts to post harmful messages in social networking sites, blogs, and websites without any perceived consequences (Griffiths, 2003). The anonymity of the Internet can make it difficult to identity the perpetrators of cyberbullying and it may empower bullies to continue their negative behaviors. Because the Internet and technological advices are not well regulated by organizations, bullies tend to continue to harass their workplace victims without the fear of getting caught (Patchin & Hinduja, 2006; Tokunaga, 2010; Forsell, 2016). Cyberbullies also experience the disinhibition effect, or reduced social boundaries in online interactions between themselves and their targets (Griffiths, 2003). In face-to-face aggressive episodes, workplace bullies may practice impression management strategies to maintain their identity in front of their peers or supervisors, but in a technological environment, where nonverbal 135

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

cues are unapparent, bullies may engage in cyberbullying behaviors without facing similar identity risks (Sheridan, 2014). Without the nonverbal cues such as facial expressions and gestures, cyberbullies are less likely to empathize with their victims because they are not able to see the negative consequences of their behavior (Slonje & Smith, 2008; Forsell, 2016). Thus, workplace bullying and workplace cyberbullying have several unique characteristics and distinctions that set these concepts apart.

Prevalence The prevalence of workplace bullying in the U.S. is widely documented by various researchers. According to Wheeler, Halbesleben, and Shanine (2010), approximately 50% of U.S. employees have reported incidents of workplace bullying, which can include acts such as having one’s opinions being ignored, getting insulted, humiliated, joked about, or threatened. Another study found that approximately 14.6% of employees reported being bullied at work (Nielsen, Matthiesen, & Einarsen, 2010). Likewise, Fox and Stallworth (2005) noted that when assessing workplace bullying behaviors across five years, a total of 95% of employees reported being bullied in the workplace. In another study, Lutgen-Sandvik, Tracy, and Alberts (2007) suggested that “approximately 35-50 percent of US workers experience one negative act at least weekly in any 6-12 month period” (p. 855). These high prevalence rates suggest that workplace bullying continues to affect many American workers and that it still is a significant organizational problem to examine to better understand this phenomenon. Workplace bullying is also prevalent in other countries. For instance, an Australian study by Privitera and Campbell (2009) found that the prevalence for cyberbullying in the workplace was 10.7%. In addition, this study found that the majority of respondents experienced face-to-face bullying (34%) in comparison to cyberbullying (10.7%) (Privitera & Campbell, 2009). In Europe, workplace bullying ranges from 10% to 15% (Zapf et al., 2011), in Sweden it is 15% (Olweus, 1991), in the United Kingdom it is 23% (Stephenson & Smith, 1989), in Norway it ranges from 2% to 14.3% (Nielsen et al., 2009), and in Scandinavian it ranges from 3.5% to 16% (Mikkelsen & Einarsen, 2001). In a Turkish study, Bilgel, Aytac, and Bayran (2006) found that 51% of white-collar workers perceived being bullied in the workplace. Another recent Swedish study found that 9.7% of workplace employees had at least one cyber victimization of a negative act during the last six months (Forsell, 2016). From this sample, a total of 43.1% were male respondents and 39.9% were female respondents who had a position of authority (Forsell, 2016). Given these prevalence rates across different countries, workplace bullying continues to be a global phenomenon that impacts both male and female workers.

Antecedents Individual Antecedents The workplace bullying literature has revealed individual antecedents of workplace bullying, which target mainly the bully’s behavior. An individual’s egotistical tendencies such as Machiavellianism, narcissism, and selfishness tend to be correlated with workplace bullying behaviors (Einarsen, 2005; Astrauskaite, Kern, & Notelaers, 2014). Feelings of worthlessness, low self-esteem, and low self-confidence have also been linked to workplace bullying (Stein, 2006; Astrauskaite, Kern, & Notelaers, 2014). Emotional imbalances such as the inability to control anger, vengeance, and blame have also been linked to bullying behavior (Braithwaite, Ahmed, & Braithwaite, 2008). Power dynamics have also played a role given that 136

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

bullies report feeling dominant or superior to others at work (Glaso, Nielsen, & Einarsen, 2009). Some bullies have reported feeling victimized themselves in stressful and highly competitive work environments (Braithwaite, Ahmed, & Braithwaite, 2008). Studies have also shown that bullying behaviors are motivated by a lack of social skills and leadership skills (Zapf & Einarsen, 2003). For example, Sheard, Kakabadse, and Kakabadse (2013) discovered different types of bullying behaviors manifested by leaders in the workplace, which include deluded, narcissistic, paranoid, and sociopathic bully types. Deluded leaders are unskillful, self-focused, and incapable of accomplishing tasks in a timely manner, and these leaders tend to blame others for their lack of competence. Narcissistic leaders may be socially skillful and ambitious, but they tend to belittle others in order to reclaim their power within an organization. Paranoid leaders are untrusting of others, yet possess no leadership competence, and they tend to use passive-aggressive approaches toward their employees. Sociopathic leaders are antisocial, yet competent leaders due to their harassment of the quality of performance of other workers. These leadership styles lead to a destructive workplace environment (Sheard, Kakabadse, & Kakabadse, 2013). Few studies recounted the antecedents of victims of workplace bullying. A couple of studies found that personality characteristics were not associated with workplace bullying victimization experiences (Leymann, 1996; Hoel, Rayner, & Cooper, 1999). However, some studies revealed associations with being victimized in the workplace and negative personal characteristics such as shyness, high anxiety levels, low interpersonal skills, and neuroticism (Einarsen, Raknes, & Matthiesen, 1994; Vartia, 1996; Zapf, 1999). Negative affectivity, which involves the experience of negative emotions in the workplace has also been associated with workplace harassment (Duffy, Ganster, & Pagon, 2002; Bowling & Beehr, 2006). In another study, workers who reported being victimized at work reported possessing high cognitive skills and high job performance (Kim & Glomb, 2010). These studies suggest that victims tend to report having negative personality traits, high cognitive abilities, and poor conflict management skills. Being a prior victim of workplace harassment has also been linked to episodes of future revictimization (Desraumaux, Machado, Przygodzki-Lionet, & Lourel, 2015). Victims who perceived low responsibility of the workplace bullying event were also more likely to get revictimized in the future (Desraumaux et al., 2015). Low status employees were also more likely to get harassed in the workplace in comparison to high status employees (Bowling & Beehr, 2006). When examining the coping skills of victims, some studies suggest that victims report having an avoidant style in addressing workplace conflict and having passive tendencies (Einarsen et al., 1994; Zapf, 1999). Given the findings of this scholarship, victims of workplace bullying report having low responsibility, low status, and poor conflict management skills, which might be the reason why workplace bullying persists in the workplace.

Organizational Antecedents Researchers have also examined the antecedents of workplace bullying at the organizational level. For instance, Baillien, De Cyper, and De Witte (2011) conducted a two-wave longitudinal study and found that a lack of job autonomy and a heavy workload were significant antecedents of perpetrators of workplace bullying. In a series of interviews, Ciby and Raya (2014) found the antecedents for workplace bullying included supervisors’ job demands such as setting unrealistic goals for employees, having an unsupportive leadership style, and an unprofessional management style. Additionally, a meta-analysis revealed that stressors such as role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, and work constraints were linked with workplace bullying (Bowling & Beehr, 2006). 137

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Other studies found that status inconsistency, peer pressure, competition, and social exclusion in the workplace leads to workplace bullying (Heames, Harvey, & Treadway, 2006; Leymann, 1996). The lack of social support at work from managers and coworkers can also lead to an escalation of workplace bullying (Leymann, 1996). The culture of an organization can also impact workplace bullying such having a poor climate, lack of workplace bullying policies, and poor organizational communication (Vartia 1996; Baillien, Neyes, & De Witte, 2004). Organizations with unclear job characteristics such as job requirements, role expectations, and ambiguous skills tend to cultivate negative working environments that yield high levels of stress, which can stir up organizational conflict and workplace harassment behaviors (Einarsen, 1994; Vartia, 1996; Hoel & Cooper, 2000).

Social Antecedents Only a handful of studies have examined the social antecedents of workplace bullying. Societal norms promoted by the mass media need to be considered in order to understand how these social factors impact the behavioral processes of employees within an organization (Johnson, 2011). Coyne (2004) examined the role of mass media effects on abusive forms of organizational behavior. Television violence that displays workplace bullying with TV shows such as The Office for entertainment purposes, tend to normalize the perceptions of violence in the workplace (Coyne, 2004). In a content analysis of British television programs such as Friends and the Simpsons, Coyne and Archer (2004) investigated the different forms of indirect aggression displays (e.g., social exclusion, spreading negative rumors) and found that these forms of aggression were not perceived to be violent in comparison to direct forms of aggression (e.g., punching, shoving). While most studies of traditional bullying and cyberbullying focus on the media’s impacts on youth and children (Bauman, 2015), organizational implications may be derived from these investigations. Bauman (2015) argued that popular media such as television programs and movies promote a distorted view of cyberbullying and traditional bullying. In an empirical study, participants reported a higher prevalence of suicide over cyberbullying issues, when statistical reports indicate that traditional bullying had a stronger statistical link to youth suicide. Given the findings of this study, different types of popular media may need to be explored as antecedents of workplace bullying and cyberbullying in adult populations. Because not many scholars have examined mass media as an antecedent factor, future scholars may fulfill this gap in the workplace bullying scholarship. The laws implemented by society can also provoke judicial actions against workplace bullying behaviors. To date, there are no existing laws at the federal nor state levels that make workplace cyberbullying illegal. While the U.S. has not implemented a federal law against workplace bullying, a couple of states have initiated statues to protect American workers (Yamada, 2015). In the U.S., only two states began their statues from the Healthy Workplace Bill (HWB) to illegalize workplace bullying, which include California and Tennessee (Yamada, 2015). Unlike the U.S., several countries have implemented laws against workplace bullying, which include Canada, Australia, and several European countries such as Sweden, France, and Denmark (Cobb, 2013; Ragusa & Groves, 2015). Victimized individuals who are employed in countries with legislative support have an advantage to pursuit lawsuits and to obtain support when experiencing these types of abusive behaviors (Cobb, 2013; Davidson & Harrington, 2012). Without legislative support, organizational leaders may not motivated to take workplace bullying ‘seriously’ and may not make the proper amends when workplace bullying occurs within their organizations (Martin & LaVan, 2010; Oppermann, 2009). 138

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Thus, a society’s laws may serve as antecedents to understanding the occurrence and prolongation of workplace bullying. The culture of a society can also impact workplace bullying behavior. Hofstede (2001) cultural dimensions theory explains how the values, norms, and rules in a given society serve to ascribe a series of workplace behaviors based on the nations’ perceptions of power distance and individualistic motives. For example, in the U.S., United Kingdom, and Sweden, organizational leaders maintain a low power distance between themselves and their subordinates. These leaders adopt open communication approaches to engage in direct communication with their subordinates without the interference of power dynamics, which may enhance the prospects for direct forms of harassment (Hofstede, 1997; 2001). In these countries, leaders tend to have an individualistic orientation in order to succeed in competitive environments (Jacobson, Hood, & Van Buren, 2014). Given these orientations, leaders and supervisors may engage in workplace bullying to maintain their status and individualism (Hofstede, 1997; 2001). On the other hand, countries such as Singapore, Mexico, and France maintain a high power distance orientation (Hofstede, 1997). Authoritarian leaders maintain their high power distance by not engaging in personal conversations with their subordinates, which may enhance their odds of excluding subordinates in the decision-making process (Jacobson, Hood, Van Buren, 2014). A country with a collectivist orientation promotes values of social cooperation and unity (Hofstede, 1997). Organization leaders with a collectivistic orientation may pressure members to engage in consensus to maintain the harmony of the group and may adopt mobbing to pressure individuals who disagree with the group’s objective (Khan, 2014). In collectivistic cultures, members may engage in indirect forms of workplace harassment using nonverbal cues (e.g., rolling the eyes; lack of eye contact) or social exclusion through silence practices (Samnani, 2013). In summary, individual, organizational, and social antecedents should be considered when dealing with face-to-face and electronic workplace bullying. Examining one or two antecedent factors alone will not highlight the extent of workplace bullying problems, which can limit one’s ability to understand the complexity of this phenomenon. Exploring different types of antecedents may be necessary to develop training manuals and organizational policies to address this problem in the workplace.

Consequences In addition, digital workplace bullying has several negative individual, interpersonal, and organizational consequences. Digital workplace bullying has been associated with individual issues such as psychological, emotional, and physical distress (Altman, 2012). For instance, victims report feeling fear and anxiety due to prolonged workplace bullying behaviors (Lutgen-Sandvik, 2003). Victims of workplace bullying have also reported higher depression rates, stress (Mikkelsen & Einarsen, 2002), and sleep disorders (Guastella & Moulds, 2007). Consistently receiving threats and hurtful messages from coworkers or managers also lead to reduced self-esteem, self-confidence, self-worth, and autonomy (Kinney, 1994; 2006). In a 3-wave longitudinal Norweian study, Birkeland Nielsen, Hostmark Nielsen, Notelaers, and Einarsen (2015) found that victims of workplace bullying reported an increase of suicide ideation overtime. Not only does it impact individuals’ mental well-being, but it also impacts individuals’ physical health in terms of elevated blood pressure (Hoel, Faragher, & Cooper, 2004). Vie, Glasø, and Einarsen (2011) found support for self-labeling as victims of workplace bullying as a moderator of the relationship between workplace bullying victimization and poor health outcomes such as physical fatigue, back pain, and experiencing headaches. Victims of workplace bullying also 139

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

report experiencing low job satisfaction and intentions to exit the organization (Lutgen-Sandvik et al., 2007). Another study found that workplace cyberbullying in a multi-national corporation led to poor job satisfaction and low job performance regardless of the particular technological medium that was used (e.g., e-mail, phone) (Baruch, 2005). Interpersonal issues also emerge from workplace bullying. Victims tend to experience social isolation and feelings of stigmatization, which negatively impacts their workplace relationships and career opportunities (Keller, Shiflett, Schleifer, & Bartlett, 1994; Kinney, 2012). Bystanders and team workers may also distance themselves from both the victims and bullies, to avoid any possible risks from being involved with workplace bullying (Coyne, Craig, & Chong, 2004). Victims’ romantic partners and children also become negatively affected by the victims’ emotional distress (Heames & Harvey, 2004). Additionally, the victim-bully relationship tends to deteriorate the victims’ future professional relationship with the bully (Lutgen-Sandvik, 2006). Given these interpersonal disturbances, victims sometimes choose to exit an organization to distance themselves from the bully and from their colleagues (Lutgen-Sandvik et al., 2006). Fundamentally, workplace bullying tends to place an additional relational burden on the victims. There are also direct and indirect organizational consequences to workplace bullying. Indirect consequences include job burnout, absenteeism, poor organizational commitment, decreased productivity, and high turnover from victimized workers (Dhar, 2012; Glaso & Notelaers, 2012). Organizations may also face litigation leading to legal lawsuits, damaged corporate image, and reduced credibility (Earnshaw & Cooper, 1996). Organizations may also deal with direct economic consequences due to workplace bullying from turnovers and lawsuits, which can range from US$20,000 to US$750,000 annually (Indvik & Johnson, 2012). Lieber (2010) argues that workplace bullying can cost any organization about US$2 million dollars per year. Given these economical costs, organizations are better off preventing and managing this issue before it becomes uncontrollable. Organizations that develop workplace bullying also become vulnerable to cultivating a negative work climate, which may lead to poor organizational performance (Samnani & Singh, 2012). As these studies suggest, digital (and non-digital) workplace bullying have consequences at the individual-level, interpersonal-level, and the organizational-level.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Given these consequences, prevention and intervention efforts have been implemented by organizational leaders and researchers to determine ways of reducing workplace bullying at the individual, organizational, and societal levels.

Individual Some workplace bullying prevention efforts have focused on dealing with individuals within an organization. Prevention efforts are designed according to how workplace bullying is defined. For instance, if workplace bullying focuses on psychological traits such as personality, then prevention approaches will tailor their trainings to deal with a bully’s aggressive behaviors and their personality traits (Kinney, 2012). By treating a bully’s aggressive tendencies and helping bullies to manage their anger and stress, these approaches focus on decreasing the bully’s aggressive behaviors (Osatuke, Moore, Ward, Dyrenforth, & Belton, 2009). 140

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Other approaches train bystanders to learn to identify and report workplace bullying behavior (Hogh & Dofradottir, 2001). These preventative approaches train bystanders to avoid negligence and distancing behaviors (Paull, Omari, & Standen, 2012). In addition, other approaches focus on treating the victims of workplace bullying, by providing social support and helping them to engage in self-advocacy behaviors (Fox & Stallworth, 2009). Prevention and intervention approaches that focus solely on individuals (e.g., bully, victim, bystander) at the micro-level are not always effective, due to the complexity of onsite and online workplace bullying (Johnson, 2011).

Organizational Prevention and interventions have been designed at the organizational level, to implement formal policies and rules to address workplace bullying behaviors. For example, studies have examined company policies that reduce cyberbullying in the workplace and managers’ responses to digital interpersonal conflicts emerging in the workplace such as the use of counseling and workshops (Lalonde, 2007; Piotrowski, 2012). Having an official zero-tolerance policy against workplace bullying behaviors that includes online harassment in an organization may not always be effective, and for this reason, organizational leaders need to train their staff about the use of the policy (Martin & Lavan, 2010). Cowan (2011) interviewed human resource professionals and inquired about their knowledge of anti-bullying policies at their current organization, and some were oblivious to their organizations’ anti-bullying policies. Therefore, it is important to ensure that human resource professionals and managers understand the existing policies that exist to cope with onsite and digital workplace bullying. Having Internet and civility policies in place in the workplace does not guarantee the implementation of these policies. For this reason, some companies have implemented a variety of alternative strategies to overcome workplace bullying. Some organizations use software technology to monitor technological communication in the workplace to detect threatening or hurtful messages through office computers and email systems (Whitty, 2004). Psychological assessments have also been used during the hiring process to detect potential ‘bullies’ or aggressive employees (Whitty & Carr, 2006). Organizational personnel also adopt consulting approaches to intervene in workplace bullying issues (Saam, 2010). For example, mediation has been adopted as a common intervention strategy to cope with workplace bullying, which is handled by an external mediator or a supervisor that facilitates the dialogue between bullies and their victims (Hubert, 2003). Mediation efforts are mildly successful and have been criticizes due to the power imbalances and the lack of negotiation skills of the parties involved in the de-escalation process (Hubert, 2003; Ferris, 2004). Ferris (2004) investigated the various organizational responses to workplace bullying, which include trainings for potential bullies and staff, counseling, and performance management (p. 393ff). Interventions that treat workplace bullying as a multi-faceted, complex issue, are more likely to implement a variety of different strategies at the individual and organizational levels, which may be more effective in the long-run (Saam, 2010).

Societal Unlike other countries, the U.S. still needs to obtain anti-workplace bullying laws at the federal and state levels. Countries such as Canada, Norway, and Sweden have implemented laws that protect employees from workplace harassment (Ordinance Swedish National Board of Occupational Safety and Health, 1993; Work Environment Act, 2012; Worksafe Victoria, 2012). Employees who experience workplace 141

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

bullying are encouraged to document their experiences and apply to the Fair Work Commission (Fair Work Amendment, 2013). International studies suggest the implementation of anti-bullying laws serve to empower employees’ decisions to report workplace bullying behavior, which ultimately, can prevent negative outcomes such job turnover and low job satisfaction (Work Environment Act, 2012). However, Yamada (2003) found that U.S. courts are less likely to penalize face-to-face or online workplace bullying due to employees’ emotional distress. Willard (2001) found that the laws that are implemented at the state-level do not deal with workplace cyberbullying, but rather more general behaviors of bullying in educational institutions. For example, California, Tennessee, and Utah have mandated trainings based on the WBI Healthy Workplace Bill (HWB) that applies to state employees, and this bill trains managers about the negative impact of “abusive conduct,” which include only face-to-face workplace harassment (e.g., verbal abuse) to attempt to prevent workplace abuse (Workplace Bullying, 2016). However, without the implementation of protective laws across the United States at the federal level, organizations and victims of workplace bullying will continue to face challenges in overcoming violence and abuse in the workplace (Yamada, 2003).

Informal Organizations also tend to address workplace bullying using informal approaches. For instance, some organizations adopt and encourage ethical leadership in their organizations that discourage aggressive behaviors in the workplace (Appelbaum, Semerjian, & Mohan, 2012). Organizations may also develop values of respect, civility, and cooperation, which cultivate a civilized workplace culture (Power, 2013). With an emphasis of workplace safety, an organization’s culture can impact the communication behaviors of employees and the managers (Power, 2013). By being informally intolerant of workplace violence behaviors, employees and managers are less reluctant to report and address workplace bullying as it emerges (Meloni & Austin, 2011). Organizations may also informally reward “netiquette” behavior in the workplace to promote civility, reduce cyberbullying, and foster positive work relationships (Whitty & Carr, 2006). The literature suggests that adopting only one approach is ineffective to address workplace bullying. It is recommended that organizations implement a variety of strategies to prevent, intervene, and cope with workplace bullying (Kinney, 2012). According to Kinney (2012, 2009), prior to selecting a preventative or intervention approach, an organization should follow the following four-step criteria. First, develop workplace bullying policies and practices within the organization to build a civilized culture (Kinney, 2012, 2009). Managers and employees may receive training regarding how to refer to and use these anti-bullying policies when confronted with misconduct in the workplace. Second, an organization needs to assess the approach’s effectiveness (Kinney, 2012, 2009). Without assessments, an organization may continue to face obstacles in its prevention of workplace bullying. Assessments may include periodic monitoring of employees’ behaviors, surveying and/or interviewing of employees and supervisors regarding their workplace bullying experiences, and observing the organizational climate through a third-party perspective. Third, implement a tracking system of workplace bullying incidents (Kinney, 2012, 2009). These tracking systems may be maintained through paper documentation for each incidence or through electronic files. When implementing this tracking system, privacy and confidentiality issues need to be considered. Fourth, build supportive educational systems to educate all staff within an organization about workplace bullying (Kinney, 2012, 2009). These can include electronic podcasts, webinars, and 142

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

trainings and/or face-to-face workshops and trainings that educate all staff on identifying, dealing, and coping with workplace bullying that occurs face-to-face or in electronic environments (e.g., email, chat rooms, text messaging). By following these four criteria, organizations may reduce workplace bullying behaviors that occur onsite and/or online.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Previous research studies have highlighted possible areas of growth in the future scholarship of faceto-face and digital workplace bullying. First, taxonomies must be developed to conceptualize concepts such as workplace cyberharassment and workplace cyberbullying. Thus far, the literature suggests that most existing taxonomies are focusing on face-to-face workplace bullying behaviors (Harvey et al., 2006; Moayed, Daraiseh, Shell, & Salem, 2006; Rodríguez-Carballeira et al., 2010). While researchers have a solid research foundation on workplace bullying, more research is needed to develop new taxonomies to better identify the specific electronic behaviors that occur via the Internet and through communication technology during workplace cyberbullying situations. For instance, future taxonomies might distinguish between email bullying, text message bullying, app bullying, and social network bullying. By developing cyberbullying taxonomies, researchers can improve their conceptualizations of cyberbullying and their measurement of cyberbullying. Second, several models need to be developed to understand workplace bullying behaviors using a combination of different mediums (face-to-face; Internet; technology). Most recent models emphasize workplace bullying in face-to-face contexts emphasizing antecedents and consequences of workplace bullying during working hours, while neglecting electronic forms of harassment such as through email, text messages, and social networking sites (Van den Brande, Baillien, De Witte, Vander Elst, & Godderis, 2016; Perminiene, Kern, & Perminas, 2016; Trépanier, Fernet, Austin, & Boudrias, 2016). Because cyberbullying at work is becoming more prevalent, newer models need to be developed to understand the perplexity of cyberbullying at work using the Internet in social networking sites and email systems, and computer mediated technologies such as laptops, mobile devices and apps, tablets, and iWatches. Developing hybrid models may enhance our understanding of the theoretical connections between the antecedents and the effects of workplace bullying. In addition to the different communication channels, several factors need to be considered in the development of these hybrid workplace cyberbullying models such as individual factors (e.g., personality traits, motivations, emotions, gender), interpersonal factors (e.g., hostility, status, power dynamics), organizational factors (e.g., climate, leadership styles, competitive values, hierarchy levels), and societal factors (e.g., socioeconomics, injustice, discrimination, inequality) that relate to cyberbullying perpetration and victimization behaviors. Due to the complexity of cyberbullying in the workplace, models need to account for the possible phases of the cyberbullying process. Third, workplace bullying researchers need to apply computer-mediated theories to understand, prevent, and intervene in cyberbullying incidents in the workplace. While psychosocial and organizational psychology theories have been used effectively to understand workplace bullying such as social learning theory (Kolbert, Crothers, & Wells, 2014), social identity theory (Solanelles, Ullrich, Zapf, Schlüter, & Dick, 2013), attribution theory (Cowan, 2013), structuration theory (Boucat, 2001), and ecological systems framework (Johnson, 2011), computer-mediated theories should be implemented to understand workplace cyberbullying, for instance, social presence theory (Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976) can be 143

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

used to understand how the emotions of intimacy are impacted through cyberbullying behaviors and the role of psychological distance in mediated settings has on victims’ emotional experiences. Social information theory (Walther, 1992) can be used to understand whether cyberbullying perpetration behaviors are perceived to be more (or less) threatening due to the lack of nonverbal cues. Similarly, the uses and gratification theory (Blumer & Katz, 1974) can help explain why cyberbullying victims in the workplace continue to use social networking sites, microblogging sites, and other mobile applications despite being cyberbullied outside of the workplace environment. The social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE) (Lea & Spears, 1991) can also be used to understand the role of anonymity and the expression of social identity in online mobbing behaviors that occur in group-based workplace cyberbullying. Thus, the application of computer-mediated theories may benefit the future scholarship of workplace bullying. Fourth, additional studies need to place more emphasis on the examination of upward cyberbullying, which focus on low status individuals cyberbullying high status individuals within a workplace setting. Most studies focus on managers bullying employees through power abuse and aggressive tendencies (Hutchingson, Vickers, Jackson, & Wilkes, 2010; Hershcovis, Reich, Parker, & Bozeman, 2012; Arenas, León-Pérez, Munduate, & Medina, 2015). However, upward cyberbullying has emerged with the development of new technologies and social media. For instance, low status employees can use social networking sites such as Facebook and microblogging tools such as Twitter to post hostile messages about their managers, which may harm managers’ reputation and the organization’s credibility. By examining upward cyberbullying behavioral patterns in the workplace through surveying and interviewing organizational managers regarding their experiences, we can begin to understand this phenomenon with greater clarity.

CONCLUSION This chapter reviewed the literature that conceptualizes workplace bullying and workplace cyberbullying. To date, no consensus has been achieved given the transdisciplinary nature of workplace bullying. What definitions are used in a given study will determine the factors that are used, which determine the outcomes of the findings. Scholars have emphasized several antecedents of workplace bullying at the individual, organizational, and societal levels. Research has also documented the negative consequences of workplace bullying, which continue to affect individuals in a variety of working environments. Given these consequences, researchers have implemented a variety of intervention approaches to help practitioners and scholars prevent and cope with workplace bullying problems within organizations. Suggestions to stimulate future scholarship on cyberbullying issues in the workplace are also offered. Because workplace bullying (face-to-face and online) will continue to aggravate organizations’ working climates and the civility established within an organization, we need to continue to understand, identify, and address this prevalent workplace problem.

REFERENCES Altman, B. A. (2012). Changes in self-assessed work performance over time as a result of workplace bullying. Dissertation Abstracts International, 72(9-A), 3075.

144

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Appelbaum, S., Semerjian, G., & Mohan, K. (2012). Workplace bullying: Consequences, causes and controls. Industrial and Commercial Training, 44(4), 203–210. doi:10.1108/00197851211231478 Arenas, A., León-Pérez, J., Munduate, L., & Medina, F. J. (2015). Workplace bullying and interpersonal conflicts: The moderation effects of supervisors power. Revista de Psicología Social, 30(2), 295–322. doi:10.1080/21711976.2015.1016753 Astrauskaite, M., Kern, R. M., & Notelaers, G. (2014). An individual psychology approach to underlying factors of workplace bullying. Journal of Individual Psychology, 70(3), 220–244. doi:10.1353/ jip.2014.0020 Baillien, E., De Cuyper, N., & De Witte, H. (2011). Job autonomy and workload as antecedents of workplace bullying: A two-wave test of Karaseks job demand control model for targets and perpetrators. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84(1), 191–208. doi:10.1348/096317910X508371 Baillien, E., Neyens, I., & De Witte, H. (2004). Literature on physical violence, bullying and sexual harassment at work: The influence of organizational, team-related and task-related characteristics. KU Leuven. Department of Psychology. Barron, O. (2003). Workplace violence and bullying: Your rights, what to do and where to go for help. Melbourne, Australia: Jobwatch & Worksafe Victoria. Baruch, Y. (2005). Bullying on the net: Adverse behavior on email and its impact. Information & Management, 42(2), 361–371. doi:10.1016/j.im.2004.02.001 Bauman, S. (2015). Cyber-bullying and suicide: Is there a link? What are the roles of traditional bullying and the media? In P. Goldblum, D. L. Espelage, J. Chu, B. Bongar, P. Goldblum, D. L. Espelage, & B. Bongar (Eds.), Youth suicide and bullying: Challenges and strategies for prevention and intervention (pp. 77–89). New York: Oxford University Press. Birkeland Nielsen, M., Hostmark Nielsen, G., Notelaers, G., & Einarsen, S. (2015). Workplace bullying and suicidal ideation: A 3-wave longitudinal Norwegian study. American Journal of Public Health, 105(11), e23–e27. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302855 PMID:26378852 Blumer, J. G., & Katz, E. (1974). The uses of mass communication. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Boucat, R. (2001). Understanding workplace bullying: A practical application of Gidden’s structuration theory. International Education Journal, 2(4), 65–73. Bowie, V., Fisher, B. S., & Cooper, C. L. (2005). Workplace violence: Issues, trends, strategies. London: Routledge. Bowling, N. A., & Beehr, T. A. (2006). Workplace harassment from the victims perspective: A theoretical model and meta-analysis. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(5), 998–1012. doi:10.1037/00219010.91.5.998 PMID:16953764 Braithwaite, V., Ahmed, E., & Braithwaite, J. (2008). Workplace bullying and victimization: The influence of organizational context, shame and pride. International Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 13(2), 71–94.

145

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Ciby, M., & Raya, R. P. (2014). Exploring victims’ experiences of workplace bullying: A grounded theory approach. The Journal of Decision Makers, 39(2), 69–81. Cobb, E. P. (2013). Workplace bullying: USA versus much of the world. Retrieved from http://www. workplacebullying.org/isosceles/ Cowan, R. L. (2011). Yes, we have an anti-bullying policy, but…: HR professionals understandings and experiences with workplace bullying policy. Communication Studies, 62(3), 307–327. doi:10.1080/10 510974.2011.553763 Cowan, R. L. (2013). “**it rolls downhill” and other attributions for why adult bullying happens in organizations from the human resource professionals perspective. Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 14(1), 97–104. doi:10.1080/17459435.2013.835347 Coyne, I., Craig, J., & Chong, P. S. L. (2004). Workplace bullying in a group context. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 32(3), 301–317. doi:10.1080/03069880410001723530 Coyne, S. M. (2004). Indirect aggression on screen: A hidden problem? The Psychologist, 17(12), 688–691. Coyney, S. M., & Archer, J. (2004). Indirect aggression in the media: A content analysis of British television programs. Aggressive Behavior, 30(3), 254–271. doi:10.1002/ab.20022 Davidson, D., & Harrington, K. V. (2012). Workplace bullying: It’s not just about lunch money anymore. Southern Journal of Business and Ethics, 4, 93–99. Desrumaux, P., Machado, T., Przygodzki-Lionet, N., & Lourerl, M. (2015). Workplace bullying and victims prosocial or antisocial behaviors: What are the effects on equity, responsibility judgements, and help giving? Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 25(6), 509–521. doi:10.1080/109 11359.2014.988318 Dhar, R. L. (2012). Why do they bully? Bullying behavior and its implication on the bullied. Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, 27(2), 79–99. doi:10.1080/15555240.2012.666463 Duffy, M. K., Ganster, D. C., & Pagon, M. (2002). Social undermining in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 45(2), 331–351. doi:10.2307/3069350 Durkin, K., & Patterson, D. (2011). Cyberbullying, cyberharassing, and cyberstalking. In C. D. Bryant & C. D. Bryant (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of deviant behavior (pp. 450–455). New York: Routledge/ Taylor & Francis Group. Earnshaw, J., & Cooper, C. L. (1996). Stress and employer liability. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Einarsen, S. (2005). The nature, causes and consequences of bullying at work: The Norwegian experience. Pistes, 7(3), 1–14. Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., Zapf, D., & Cooper, C. L. (Eds.). (2011). Workplace bullying: Developments in theory, research and practice. London: Taylor & Francis.

146

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Einarsen, S., Raknes, B. I., & Matthiesen, S. B. (1994). Bullying and harassment at work and their relationships to work environment quality: An exploratory study. European Work and Organizational Psychologist, 4(4), 381–401. doi:10.1080/13594329408410497 Fair Work Amendment 2013. (2013). Fair work amendment. Retrieved on August 9, 2015, from: http:// www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Bills_Legislation/Bills_Search_Results Ferris, P. (2004). A preliminary typology of organizational response to allegations of workplace bullying: See no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 32(3), 389–395. do i:10.1080/03069880410001723576 Forsesell, R. (2016). Exploring cyberbullying and face-to-face bullying in working life –prevalence, targets and expressions. Computers in Human Behavior, 58, 454–460. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.01.003 Fox, S., & Stallworth, L. E. (2009). Building framework for two internal organizational approaches to resolving and preventing workplace bullying: Alternative dispute resolution and training. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 61(3), 220–241. doi:10.1037/a0016637 Fox, S., & Stallworth, L. E. (2010). The battered apple: An application of stressor-emotion-control/ support theory to teachers experience of violence and bullying. Human Relations, 63(7), 927–954. doi:10.1177/0018726709349518 Giumetti, G. W., Hatfield, A. L., Scisco, J. L., Schroeder, A. N., Muth, E. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (2013). What a rude e-mail! Examining the differential effects of incivility versus support on mood, energy, engagement, and performance in an online context. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 18(3), 297–309. doi:10.1037/a0032851 PMID:23834445 Giumetti, G. W., McKibben, E. S., Hatfield, A. L., Schroeder, A. N., & Kowalski, R. M. (2012). Cyber incivility @ work: The new age of interpersonal deviance. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(3), 148–154. doi:10.1089/cyber.2011.0336 PMID:22304404 Glaso, L., Nielsen, M. B., & Einarsen, S. I. (2009). Interpersonal problems among perpetrators and targets of workplace bullying. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39(6), 1316–1333. doi:10.1111/j.15591816.2009.00483.x Glaso, L., & Notelaers, G. (2012). Workplace bullying, emotions, and outcomes. Violence and Victims, 27(3), 360–377. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.27.3.360 PMID:22852437 Griffiths, M. (2003). Internet abuse in the workplace: Issues and concerns for employers and employment counselors. Journal of Employment Counseling, 40(2), 87–96. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1920.2003.tb00859.x Guastella, A., & Moulds, M. (2007). The impact of rumination on sleep quality following a stressful life event. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(6), 1151–1162. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.04.028 Harvey, M. G., Heames, J. T., Richey, R. G., & Leonard, N. (2006). Bullying: From the playground to the boardroom. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 12, 1–11. Heames, J., & Harvey, M. (2004). Workplace bullying: A cross-level assessment. Management Decision, 44(9), 1214–1230. doi:10.1108/00251740610707695

147

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Heames, J. T., Harvey, M. G., & Treadway, D. (2006). Status inconsistency: An antecedent to bullying behavior in groups. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17(2), 348–361. doi:10.1080/09585190500404952 Hershcovis, M. S., Reich, T. C., Parker, S. K., & Bozeman, J. (2012). The relationship between workplace aggression and target deviant behaviour: The moderating roles of power and task interdependence. Work and Stress, 26(1), 1–20. doi:10.1080/02678373.2012.660770 Hoel, H., & Cooper, C. L. (2000). Destructive conflict and bullying at work. Manchester, UK: Manchester School of Management, UMIST. Hoel, H., Faragher, B., & Cooper, C. L. (2004). Bullying is detrimental to health, but all bullying behavior is not necessarily equally damaging. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 32(3), 367–387. doi: 10.1080/03069880410001723594 Hoel, H., Rayner, C., & Cooper, C. L. (1999). Workplace bullying. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 14, 195–230. Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Hogh, A., & Dofradottir, A. (2001). Copying with bullying in the workplace. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 10(4), 485–4955. doi:10.1080/13594320143000825 Hubert, A. B. (2003). To prevent and overcome undesirable interaction: A systematic approach model. In S. Einarsen, H. Hoeal, D. Zapf, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Bullying and emotional abuse in the workplace: International perspectives in research and practice (pp. 299–311). New York: Taylor & Francis. Hutchinson, M., Vickers, M. H., Jackson, D., & Wilkes, L. (2010). Bullying as circuits of power. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 32(1), 25–47. doi:10.2753/ATP1084-1806320102 Indvik, J., & Johnson, P. R. (2012). Lawsuits walk in on two feet: The bully in the workplace. Journal of Organizational Culture. Communications & Conflict, 16(2), 73–77. Jacobson, K. J., Hood, J. N., & Van Buren, H. J. III. (2014). Workplace bullying across culture: A research agenda. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 14(1), 47–65. doi:10.1177/1470595813494192 Johnson, S. L. (2011). An ecological model of workplace bullying: A guide for intervention and research. Nursing Forum, 46(2), 55–63. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6198.2011.00213.x PMID:21517878 Keller, S. E., Shiflett, S. C., Schleifer, S. J., & Bartlett, J. A. (1994). Stress, immunity, and health. In R. Glaser & J. Kiecolt-Glaser (Eds.), Handbook of human stress and immunity (pp. 217–244). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-285960-1.50013-7 Khan, S. N. (2014). Impact of Hofstedes cultural dimensions on subordinates perception of abusive supervision. International Journal of Business and Management, 9(12), 239–251. doi:10.5539/ijbm. v9n12p239

148

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Kim, E., & Glomb, T. M. (2010). Get smarty pants: Cognitive ability, personality, and victimization. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(5), 889–901. doi:10.1037/a0019985 PMID:20718509 Kinney, T. A. (1994). An inductively derived typology of verbal aggression and its association to distress. Human Communication Research, 21(2), 183–222. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1994.tb00345.x Kinney, T. A. (2006). Should I stay or should I go now? The role of negative communication and relational maintenance in distress and well-being. In J. M. H. Fritz & B. L. Omdahl (Eds.), Problematic relationships in the workplace (pp. 179–201). New York: Peter Lang. Kinney, T. A. (2009). Toward understanding anti-social communication: A theoretical model. In T. A. Kinney & M. Pörhölä (Eds.), Anti and pro-social communication: Theories, methods, and applications (p. 314). New York: Peter Lang. Kinney, T. A. (2012). Workplace bullying as interpersonal violence? A reconceptualization in progress. In B. L. Mondahl & J. M. H. Fritz (Eds.), Problematic relationships in the workplace (Vol. 2, pp. 68–84). New York: Peter Lang. Kolbert, J. B., Crothers, L. M., & Wells, D. S. (2014). Evolutionary psychological models for predicting bullying and implications for intervention. In J. Lipinski, L. M. Crothers, J. Lipinksi, & L. M. Crothers (Eds.), Bullying in the workplace: Causes, symptoms, and remedies (pp. 85–98). New York: Routledge/ Taylor & Francis Group. Lalonde, C. (2007). Crisis management and organizational development: Towards the conception of a learning model in crisis management. Organization Development Journal, 25, 17–26. Lea, M., & Spears, R. (1991). Computer-mediated communication, de-individuation and group decision-making. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 39(2), 283–301. doi:10.1016/00207373(91)90045-9 Leymann, H. (1996). The content and development of mobbing at work. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5(2), 165–184. doi:10.1080/13594329608414853 Lieber, L. (2010). How workplace bullying affects the bottom line. Employment Relations Today, 37(3), 91–101. doi:10.1002/ert.20314 Lim, V. K. G., & Teo, T. S. H. (2009). Mind your e-manners: Impact of cyber incivility on employees work attitude and behavior. Information & Management, 46(8), 419–425. doi:10.1016/j.im.2009.06.006 Lutgen-Sandvik, P. (2003). The communicative cycle of employee emotional abuse: Generation and regeneration of workplace mistreatment. Management Communication Quarterly, 16(4), 471–501. doi:10.1177/0893318903251627 Lutgen-Sandvik, P. (2006). Take this job and…: Quitting and other forms of resistance to workplace bullying. Communication Monographs, 73(4), 406–433. doi:10.1080/03637750601024156 Lutgen-Sandvik, P., Tracy, S. J., & Alberts, J. K. (1997). Burned by bullying in the American workplace: Prevalence, perception, degree and impact. Journal of Management Studies, 44(6), 837–862. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2007.00715.x

149

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Martin, W., & LaVan, H. (2010). Workplace bullying: A review of litigated cases. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 22(3), 175–194. doi:10.1007/s10672-009-9140-4 Meloni, M., & Austin, M. (2011). Implementation and outcomes of a zero tolerance of bullying and harassment program. Australian Health Review, 35(1), 92–94. doi:10.1071/AH10896 PMID:21367338 Mikkelsen, E. G., & Einarsen, S. (2001). Bullying in Danish work-life: Prevalence and health correlates. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 10(4), 393–413. doi:10.1080/13594320143000816 Mikkelsen, E. G., & Einarsen, S. (2002). Basic assumptions and post-traumatic stress among victims of workplace bullying. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 11, 87–111. doi:10.1080/13594320143000861 Moayed, F. A., Daraiseh, N., Shell, R., & Salem, S. (2006). Workplace bullying: A systematic review of risk factors and outcomes. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 7(3), 311–327. doi:10.1080/14639220500090604 Namie, G., Christensen, D., & Phillips, D. (2014). 2014 WBI U.S. workplace bullying survey. Retrieved on October 7, 2015, from: http://www.workplacebullying.org/2014-prevalence Namie, G., Namie, R., & Lutgen-Sandvik, P. (2011). Challenging workplace bullying in the USA: A communication and activist perspective. In S. Einarsen, H. Hoel, D. Zapt, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Bullying and harassment in the workplace: Developments in theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.; pp. 447–468). London: CRC Press. Nielsen, M. B., Mathiesen, S. B., & Einarsen, S. (2010). The impact of methodological moderators on prevalence rates of workplace bullying. A meta-analysis. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(4), 955–979. doi:10.1348/096317909X481256 Nielsen, M. B., Skogstad, A., Matthiesen, S. B., Glaso, L., Aasland, M. S., Notelaers, G., & Einarsen, S. (2009). Prevalence of workplace bullying in Norway: Comparisons across time and estimation methods. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 18(1), 81–101. doi:10.1080/13594320801969707 Olweus, D. (1991). Bullying/victim problem among school children. In I. Rubin & D. Pepler (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 411–448). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Ophoff, J., Mahaka, T., & Stander, A. (2015). Exploring the impact of cyber incivility in the workplace. Proceedings of Information Science & IT Education Conference (InSITE), 443-504. Retrieved on June 2, 2016, from: http://proceedings.informatingscience.org/InSITE2015/InSITE15p493-504Ophoff1565.pdf Oppermann, S. (2008). Workplace bullying: Psychological violence? Retrieved on August 22, 2015, from: http://www.workplacebullying.org/workplace-bullying-psychological-violence/ Ordinance of Swedish National Board of Occupational Safety and Health. (1993). Containing provisions on measures against victimization at work. Retrieved on February 8, 2013, from: http://www.diritto.it/ osservatori/diritti_umani/mobbing/ordinance_swed.html Osatuke, K., Moore, S. C., Ward, C., Dyrenforth, S. R., & Belton, L. (2009). Civility, respect, engagement in the workplace (CREW): Nationwide organization development intervention at Veterans Health Administration. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 45(3), 384–410. doi:10.1177/0021886309335067

150

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Park, Y., Fritz, C., & Jex, S. M. (2015). Daily cyber incivility and distress: The moderating roles of resources at work and home. Journal of Management. doi:10.1177/0149206315576796 Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2006). Bullies move beyond the schoolyard: A preliminary look at cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4(2), 148–169. doi:10.1177/1541204006286288 Paull, M., Omari, M., & Standen, P. (2012). When is a bystander not a bystander? A typology of the roles of bystanders in workplace bullying. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 50(3), 351–366. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7941.2012.00027.x Perminiene, M., Kern, R. M., & Perminas, A. (2016). Lifestyle, conflict-solving styles, and exposure to workplace bullying: A model of mediation. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 75(2), 57–59. doi:10.1024/14210185/a000173 Piotrowski, C. (2012). From workplace bullying to cyberbullying: The enigma of e-harassment in modern organizations. Organization Development Journal, 30(4), 44–53. Power, J. L., Brotheridge, C. M., Blenkinsopp, J., Bowes-Sperry, L., Bozionelos, N., Buzády, Z., & Nnedumm, A. U. O. et al. (2013). Acceptability of workplace bullying: A comparative study of six continents. Journal of Business Research, 66(3), 374–380. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.08.018 Privitera, C., & Campbell, M. (2009). Cyberbullying: The new face of workplace bullying? Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 12(4), 395–400. doi:10.1089/cpb.2009.0025 PMID:19594381 Ragusa, A. T., & Groves, P. (2015). Stigmatisation and the social construction of bullying in Australian administrative law: You can’t make an omelette without cracking an egg. The University of New South Wales Law Journal, 38(4), 1507–1528. Rodríguez-Carballeira, A., Escartín, J., Visauta, B., Porrúa, C., & Martin-Peña, J. (2010). Categorization and hierarchy of workplace bullying strategies: A Delphi survey. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 13(1), 297–308. doi:10.1017/S1138741600003875 PMID:20480698 Saam, N. J. (2010). Interventions in workplace bullying: A multilevel approach. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 19(1), 51–75. doi:10.1080/13594320802651403 Samnani, A. J. (2013). The early stages of workplace bullying and how it becomes prolonged: The role of culture in predicting target responses. Journal of Business Ethics, 113(1), 119–132. doi:10.1007/ s10551-012-1286-6 Samnani, A.-K., & Singh, P. (2012). 20 years of workplace bullying research: A review of the antecedents and consequences of bullying in the workplace. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(6), 581–589. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2012.08.004 Sheard, A. G., Kakabadse, N., & Kakabadse, A. (2013). Destructive behaviours and leadership: The source of the shift from a functional to dysfunctional workplace. International Journal of Social Science Studies, 1(1), 73–89. doi:10.11114/ijsss.v1i1.31 Sheridan, T. A. (2014). Managerial fraud: Executive impression management, beyond red flags. Farnham, UK: Routledge.

151

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Short, J. A., Williams, E., & Christie, B. (1976). The social psychology of telecommunication. London: John Wiley & Sons. Slonje, R., & Smith, P. K. (2008). Cyberbullying: Another main type of bullying? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49(2), 147–154. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2007.00611.x PMID:18352984 Solanelles, J. E., Ullrich, J., Zapf, D., Schlüter, E., & Dick, R. V. (2013). Individual- and group-level effects of social identification on workplace bullying. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 22(2), 182–193. doi:10.1080/1359432X.2011.647407 Stein, H. T. (2006). The collected clinical works of Alfred Adler (12th ed.). Bellingham, WA: Classical Adlerian Translation Project. Stephenson, P., & Smith, D. (1989). Bullying in the junior high school. In D. Tattum & D. Lane (Eds.), Bulling in schools (pp. 45–57). Stoke-on-Trent: Trentham. Tokunaga, R. S. (2010). Following you home from school: A critical review and synthesis of research on cyberbullying victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(3), 277–287. doi:10.1016/j. chb.2009.11.014 Trépanier, S., Fernet, C., Austin, S., & Boudrias, V. (2016). Work environment antecedents of bullying: A review and integrative model applied to registered nurses. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 55, 5585–5597. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2015.10.001 PMID:26603730 Van den Brande, W., Baillien, E., De Witte, H., Vander Elst, T., & Godderis, L. (2016). The role of work stressors, coping strategies and coping resources in the process of workplace bullying: A systematic review and development of a comprehensive model. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 29, 61–71. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2016.06.004 Vartia, M. (1996). The sources of bullying-psychological work environment and organizational climate. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5(2), 203–214. doi:10.1080/13594329608414855 Vie, T. L., Glasø, L., & Einarsen, S. (2011). Health outcomes and self-labeling as a victim of workplace bullying. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 70(1), 37–43. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2010.06.007 PMID:21193099 Walther, J. B. (1992). Interpersonal effects in computer-mediated interaction: A relational perspective. Communication Research, 19(1), 52–90. doi:10.1177/009365092019001003 Wheeler, A. R., Halbesleben, J., & Shanine, K. (2010). Eating their cake and everyone elses cake too: Resources as the main ingredient to workplace bullying. Business Horizons, 53(6), 553–560. doi:10.1016/j. bushor.2010.06.002 Whitty, M. T. (2004). Should filtering software be utilized in the workplace? Australian employees’ attitudes toward Internet usage and surveillance of the Internet in the workplace. Surveillance & Society, 2(1), 39–54. Whitty, M. T., & Carr, A. N. (2006). New rules in the workplace: Applying object-relations theory to explain problem Internet and email behavior in the workplace. Computers in Human Behavior, 22(2), 235–250. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.06.005

152

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Willard, N. (2011). School response to cyberbullying and sexting: The legal challenges. Brigham Young University Education and Law Journal, 1, 75–125. Work Safe Victoria. (2012). Workplace bullying-prevention and response. Retrieved from http://www. worksafe.vic.gov.au/_data/assets/pdf_file/0008/42893/WS_Bullying_Guide_Web2.pdf Workplace Bullying. (2016). California ‘clarifies’ mandated abusive conduct training. Retrieved on September 2, 2016, from: http://www.workplacebullying.org/category/workplace-bullying-laws/ Workplace Bullying Institute. (2014). 2014 WBI U.S. workplace bullying survey. Retrieved on June 15, 2015, from: http://www.workplacebullying.org/wbiresearch/wbi-2014-us-survey/ Yamada, D. (2002). A policy analysis perspective on the role of the law in responding to workplace bullying. Paper presentation at the International Conference on Bullying and Harassment at Work, London, UK. Yamada, D. (2003). Workplace bullying and the law: Towards a transnational consensus? In S. Einarsen, H. Hoel, D. Zapf, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Bullying and emotional abuse in the workplace: International perspectives in research and practice. London: Taylor and Francis. Yamada, D. C. (2015). Workplace bullying and the law: U.S. legislative developments 2013-15. Employee Rights and Employment Policy Journal, 19(1), 49–59. Zapf, D. (1994). Organizational, work group related and personal causes of mobbing/bullying at work. International Journal of Manpower, 20(1/2), 70–85. doi:10.1108/01437729910268669 Zapf, D., & Einarsen, S. (2001). Bullying in the workplace: Recent trends in research and practice – an introduction. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 10(3), 369–373. doi:10.1080/13594320143000807 Zapf, D., & Einarsen, S. (2003). Individual antecedents of bullying victims and perpetrators. In S. Einarsen, H. Hoel, D. Zapf, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Bullying and emotional abuse in the workplace: International perspectives in research and practice (pp. 165–184). New York: Taylor & Francis. Zapf, D., Escartin, J., Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., & Vartia, M. (2011). Empirical findings on prevalence and risk groups of bullying in the workplace. In S. Einarsen, H. Hoel, D. Zapf, & C. Cooper (Eds.), Bullying and harassment in the workplace: Developments in theory, research, and practice (2nd ed., pp. 75–106). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Aggressive Behavior: Unwanted hurtful verbal and nonverbal behaviors that damage an individual’s emotional and/or physical well-being. Conflict Management: The process of reacting skillfully to conflictual situations in relational and business settings. Cyberbullying: The process of sending and/or receiving harmful messages through communication technology, email, and social media.

153

 Workplace Bullying in Digital Environments

Cyberharassment: Unwanted harassment behaviors such as intimidation, threats, and exclusion occurring in online environments through the Internet, mobile technology, and social media. Deviant Behavior: Human behaviors ranging outside of the acceptable norm. Healthy Workplace Bill: A California bill developed by David Yamaha to prevent workplace bullying. Workplace Bullying Institute: A U.S. organization that educates individuals about workplace bullying issues. Workplace Harassment: Unwanted harassment behaviors occurring in the workplace through intimidation, threats, exclusion, and physical abuse.

154

155

Chapter 8

Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence:

Theories, Consequences, and Future Research Suggestions Eyyüb Ensari Cicerali Nisantasi University, Turkey Lütfiye Kaya Cicerali Nisantasi University, Turkey

ABSTRACT This chapter intends to inform the readers about workplace incivility, which is being rude to one’s colleagues, with no apparent intention to harm. It is regarded as the basic level of counterproductive work behavior that might be tremendously injurious to an organization and its members. Not greeting subordinates, making sarcastic grimaces while talking with a coworker, and spreading rumors about the supervisor are few examples to incivility. The progenitors of workplace incivility research are two prominent organizational scientists from the USA, Lynne Andersson and Christine Pearson. They coined this term and published about this concept in a 1999 article. In the 17 years since its introduction, lots of researchers from different countries published about diverse aspects of incivility, its antecedents, consequences, measurement methods and interventions. Since incivility researchers tested myriad theories mainly from psychology, health, and criminology disciplines using both experimental and empirical methods, currently there is a huge accumulation of data.

INTRODUCTION In the simplest sense, workplace incivility is being verbally or non-verbally rude to one’s colleagues with seemingly unclear intention. In theoretical and research articles, it has been documented as a progressive, dynamic, and risky issue (Andersson & Pearson, 1999; Pearson, Andersson, & Porath, 2000; Estes & Wang, 2008; Reio & Ghosh, 2009; Trudel & Reio, 2011; Porath & Pearson, 2013). It is dynamic because DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2250-8.ch008

Copyright © 2017, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

it depends on shifting interactions between changing numbers of people who themselves are transformed through the nasty process. New players may come into the play, or the original players may leave it at any time. It is progressive in terms of intensity, as well as the increase in the number of exposed people involved. Once an uncivil move started, it is usually reciprocated with more intense reaction than the initial move (Glomb & Liao, 2003). Thus, intensity grows in time as parties try to reciprocate more forcefully than the received incivility. Since incivility afflicts both those involved and those who vicariously learn about the process, it can inflict damage on the whole workforce (Lim, Cortina, & Magley, 2008), and the negative process can ultimately result in a climate of incivility (Pearson et al., 2000). A supervisor that acts uncivilly can become a role model for a large number of employees (Estes & Wang, 2008), as direct and indirect observers of the uncivil behaviors may learn about, and consequently adopt similar negative interaction styles (Pearson et al., 2000). Thus, incivility may pervade through and disturb the entire organization in surprisingly short time (Pearson, Andersson, & Porath, 2005). Therefore, it is regarded as the basic level of counterproductive work behaviors (Andersson & Pearson, 1999) carrying a potential of “extreme harmfulness” to organizations and their members (Meier & Semmer, 2013). After many years of research in the workplace aggression domain, Cortina, Magley, Williams, and Langhout, (2001) warned “workplace incivility merits serious research and organizational attention because of its theoretically harmful effects on organizations and individuals alike (p. 65)”. Although the perception of incivility is a matter of cultural and interpersonal differences, it is still possible to discuss a huge spectrum of uncivil behaviors varying in rudeness level, yet commonly perceived to be rude. A collection of instances of uncivil behaviors noted in literature includes ignoring a partner’s salutations, giving a teammate the cold shoulder, sending offensive and belittling messages via body language, mimicry, or oral/written messages to an organizational member; making sarcastic remarks about the supervisor; disgracing a coworker’s integrity; looking down on a colleague; reprimanding a colleague for something he/she is not accountable for; chiding a subordinate publicly; making groundless denunciations and spreading rumors and malicious information about an associate (Rau-Foster, 2004; Reio & Ghosh, 2009; Meier & Semmer, 2013). Other examples to incivility reported often by researchers are not informing a colleague of a common gathering; not silencing mobiles during meetings; texting during social interactions; leaving the workplace areas in a clutter; eavesdropping on others’ conversations; disregarding a colleague’s entreaties; not letting an assistant complete his/her speech; making provocative comments; mannered attitude while listening to a colleague’s speech; and using a colleague’s goods without permission (Trudel & Reio; 2011; Cortina & Magley, 2009). In their own study, Trudel and Reio (2011) found that more than 85% of their sample reported being both an instigator and a target of incivility (target-instigators) over the previous year, while doubting someone’s judgment, paying little attention, and speaking condescendingly were reported to be the most widespread uncivil behaviors engaged by both groups. Research investigating such problematic behaviors across various sectors (e.g., Porath & Pearson, 2013) shows that workplace incivility has increasingly become ubiquitous with huge yearly costs (e.g., affecting 98% of employees in the USA amounting to millions of dollars). The motive behind the sudden emergence and incessant growth of such novel and expensive interpersonal issues in society was not simply explicable; a confluence of globalization, scientific and technic innovations, and corporate capitalism led to a social transformation, which also created brand new workplace issues waiting to be controlled by the organizations (O’Toole & Lawler, 2006). Fortunately, two prominent organizational scientists from the USA, Lynne Andersson and Christine Pearson, acquired an interest in theorizing 156

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

about, investigating, and explaining such discourteous staff behaviors, and they became the progenitors of workplace incivility theory and research. Their studies have a focus on the murky aspects of postmodern organizations and dysfunctional or counterproductive workplace behavior as a reflection of the deconstruction of traditional (workplace) values. In the following parts of this chapter, critical information will be shared about the definition, theories, and consequences of workplace incivility concept. This chapter aims to imbue the readers not only with the fundamental theories and research trends of workplace incivility, but also to gain them the most recent know-how in the field of workplace mistreatment. The chapter will close with the discussion of idiosyncratic future research and intervention proposals. The real-life case of incivility with teaching notes in the end would be helpful to university students, as well as to human resource professionals, compliance officers, and attorneys working on workplace mistreatment cases.

BACKGROUND Workplace incivility literally refers to the actions and situations, which are against the social rules of an organization. People who do not abide by the particular set of policies required by organizational citizenship act uncivilly in that sense, and may cause incivility to prevail in that organizational culture. It is an erosion risk for the organizational culture, and refers to “low-level breaches of community standards that signal an erosion of conventionally accepted norms and values” in criminology literature (LaGrange, Ferraro, & Supancic, 1992, pp. 311-312, as cited in Andersson & Pearson, 1999). Andersson and Pearson, the coiners of the construct “workplace incivility” defined it in their seminal article “Tit for tat? The spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace” in the Academy of Management Review in 1999. The authors inform, “Workplace incivility is low-intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the target, in violation of workplace norms for mutual respect. Uncivil behaviors are characteristically rude and discourteous, displaying a lack of regard for others” (p. 457). They claim that until recently it was common among Americans to see civility as a matter of “cultural superiority,” therefore civil-behaving used to lead to social advantage, while incivility was an indication of cultural crudeness. With the leveling of hierarchical structures in society and organizations, appropriate and acceptable social behaviors went through a transformation. The speed of interactions boosted via progressively pervasive communication channels, particularly the omnipresent Internet connections, and people started to act thoughtlessly, on the spur of the moment, usually skipping tactfulness in interpersonal exchanges, like not greeting one in the morning when they met colleagues in the morning. In line with the changing times, the language of workplace communication and business decorum changed rapidly, as well. It was realized that incivility behaviors became more intricate and myriad as the number of exchanges increased. However, since incivility does not overtly aim to harm the target or the organization (due to its “ambiguous intent” quality) it is usually overlooked, and thus its spiraling into a culture of incivility could hardly be prevented. Incivility phenomenon is tightly linked to and shares commonalities with other behaviors having the potential to cause psychological and mental harm such as abusive supervision, antisocial behavior, bullying, harassment, mobbing, and social undermining, however its intensity is cited to be the lowest among them (Andersson & Pearson, 1999; Hershcovis, 2011; Torkelson, Holm, Bäckström, & Schad, 2016). To define the incivility concept, Andersson and Pearson (1999) used deductive reasoning and initially summarized the concept of organizational mistreatment in a giant circular figure, which en157

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

compassed all types of antisocial behavior that deteriorates organizations. Within this biggest circle sits a smaller one encasing all the deviant behaviors, which are associated with the voluntary violation of social norms, thereby intimidating both organizational and personal welfare. Aggressive deviant behaviors are characterized by the presence of a clear intent to cause injury such as homicide, physical abuse, vandalism, sabotage, and harassment; therefore, it is a still smaller circle within deviant behaviors. A part of aggressive behaviors is intense, physically damaging violent behaviors. Another part of aggressive behaviors constitutes incivility, which traverses the circle and partially extends into non-intentional deviant behavior. Hence, concerning the final definition for incivility “Low-intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm” (Andersson & Pearson, 1999, p. 1998). According to Hershcovis (2011) incivility is similar to abusive supervision and social undermining in its exclusion of physical acts. Barron and Neuman (1998) set the stage for incivility researchers documenting, in their classic study on workplace aggression and violence, that in general people in organizations would prefer milder and indirect forms of aggression rather than physically injurious and ostensible ones. In the same year, Einarsen, Matthiesen, and Skogstad, (1998) put forth that the majority of instigators who engage in aggressive behavior might camouflage their hostility by opting for the “right” aggression method. Since the ambiguous nature of uncivil behavior makes it hard to elucidate and prove as mistreatment, and since the intent to injure is by no means diagnosable, it is much easier for the instigators to deny or conceal incivility, compared to other forms of organizational mistreatment. Therefore, particularly for the subordinates who want to retaliate against their supervisors, it is a more appropriate form of aggression. Confirming this perspective, Meier and Gross (2015) recently demonstrated that the probability of subordinates’ engagement in incivility, rather than other types of more intense and frequent mistreatment methods such as bullying, to react against their supervisors was reasonably high.

MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER The main focus of this chapter is workplace incivility phenomenon itself. It is a sickness brought by postmodern lifestyles. Extant research demonstrates that incivility risk occurs in all social interactions but mainly when people evaluate their job as demanding and the odds of losing their job is high, when there is huge power struggle and only weak social support from colleagues, when there is a dominant masculinity culture and males try to protect the masculine identity against female entrants into the industry, and lastly when organizational change such as restructuring or merger is present (Lopez et al., 2009; Doshy & Wang, 2014; Schilpzand, De Pater, & Erez, 2016; Torkelson, Holm, Bäckström, & Schad, 2016; Miner, & Smittick, 2016). A recent Swedish study including many of these variables found that on top of all these antecedent or precipitating factors, people tend to behave coarsely towards each other if they are mistreated themselves (Torkelson, Holm, Bäckström, & Schad, 2016). This means, instigated incivility has the strongest relationship with experienced incivility from coworkers. Fortunately, every single mistreated employee does not seek revenge (Meier & Gross, 2015), indicating this retaliation tendency also depends on personal factors. For example, Doshy and Wang (2014) made semi-structured interviews with employees allowing them to think about incidents of uncivil behavior, the coping tools they used, and their final reaction. The interviews indicated that if a person perceived his/her job as important, was highly submissive, and experienced at work, then he/she was more likely to handle uncivil treatments elegantly and diplomatically. Contrarily, if the job was not valued by the

158

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

individual, if he/she was a dominant character, and relatively novice at work, confrontation and retaliation were reported to be more likely. Certain other personality characteristics, besides submissiveness, were demonstrated to be related to anti-incivility propensity. An enlightening study on the relationships of non-ethical, uncivil leadership and follower incivility revealed those characteristics. It is well known that employees follow their leaders. However, what if the leader is an unethical perpetrator of incivility? Do all the followers imitate incivility or do some of them resist? A survey study carried out in the academic context of the USA (Taylor & Pattie, 2014) revealed that conscientiousness and core self-evaluation (CSE) personality traits played decisive roles in instigation of and retaliation to uncivil behavior when the leaders as role models were unethical. Applying social learning theory, Taylor and Pattie (2014) divulged that employees following ethical leaders were less prone to treat people uncivilly, with these two follower personality traits affecting this relationship. Their study also demonstrated that the positive relationship between unethical leadership and follower incivility was mitigated for followers with comparatively higher conscientiousness and core self-evaluations. Conscientiousness includes features like having lofty ideals, persevering in the face of difficulties, planning ahead, striving for excellence and confidence in one’s capacity to achieve, while CSE is related to having positive self-appraisals (e.g., high self-efficacy, self-worth, locus of control and emotional stability). As such, all those sub-traits are expected to be associated with civility. According to the trait-activation theory developed by Tett and Guterman (Schilpzand, De Pater, & Erez, 2016), the interplay between personality traits, and the contextual cues triggering these traits at the task, interpersonal, group or organizational levels could predict behavioral responses to diverse life episodes. This explains how the same person with anti-incivility personality traits such as submissiveness, conscientiousness and/or high core self-evaluations can be very tactful as expected in Company A, and a ferocious bully against expectations in Company B. Then it may be postulated that incivility is a matter of context-personality interaction. Sick contexts (e.g., organizations) may turn the most modest and responsible person into a savage beast; while a toxic leader may turn a peaceful company into hell.

Issues, Controversies, Problems The main controversy in incivility research is about the definition of the term. There is even an article telling that all those mistreatment terminology is a jungle of overlapping ideas (Hershcovis, 2011). Defining a term delineating a psychologically hazardous workplace behavior like incivility is important for two main reasons: First, human beings have a limited cognitive budget and they need categorizing behaviors easily to interpret what is revolving around them and to find meaning in their lives. Naming and defining behaviors will enable people to categorize them (e.g., as normal/abnormal), understand their lives better, and hence will ease the cognitive load. If there would be a good definition of incivility, then any employee who is knowledgeable about that definition would recognize when he/she encounters it. The second reason calling for a good definition relates to the politics of interpersonal behavior at the workplace, including the legal aspects. Since only criminal acts defined in the penal code book could be legally binding (e.g., prosecuted, compensated for, reciprocated, or punished by legal bodies) for the actors, when there is no clear-cut definition of an offensive workplace behavior, which is not physically injurious but which has the potential to cause psychological or mental harm, it cannot be categorized as legal/illegal or offensive/non-offensive. Thus, the targets of such behavior cannot file lawsuit against the offender. In the same vein, only the misconducts defined in the organizational policies and codes of 159

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

conduct booklets and having definite, prearranged, written retributions could be questioned, corrected or reprimanded (e.g., with admonitions or dismissal) by the organizations. Bullying and incivility are examples to such psychologically injurious issues currently having no scientifically consensual and legally agreed-upon definitions, criminal provisions, and punitive sanctions. For Hershcovis (2011), based on the comparisons with other workplace aggression behaviors, the distinguishing characteristics of incivility seem to be its low intensity and ambiguous intent. Although bullying is the most frequently mixed up organizational mistreatment with incivility, the former is more powerful than the latter due to the actor’s perseverant and frequent mistreatment to the target. Additionally, in bullying the apparent aim is driving the target out of the organization. Therefore, while bullying is altogether intentional, uncivil treatment arising from thoughtlessness is likely to cause harm only accidentally. For Cortina and Magley (2009), the low intensity claim for incivility is vague and hardly operationalizable, since intensity can be differentially evaluated from perpetrator, victim and witness perspectives, and since culture may also influence the perception of intensity. Thus, both perspectives and cultural norms should be taken into consideration when operationalizing this core aspect of incivility (Vagharseyyedin, 2015). Another issue relates to the defining features of incivility from different researchers’ perspectives. Andersson and Pearson (1999) published their introductory work on workplace incivility in the Academy of Management Review. Their theory of workplace incivility postulated that uncivil exchanges are naturally reciprocal, incremental and recurrent, and occur among dyadic coworkers. Shortly after its conceptual introduction, a number of empirical researchers noticeably departed from the original theoretical foundations and somewhat altered its dimensions (Rousseau, Manning, & Denyer, 2008). For example, time dependent intensification of dyadic incivility was questioned by the presentations of occasional or single incivility cases (Schilpzand, De Pater, & Erez, 2016), which occurred not only among dyads (e.g., between supervisor and subordinate; between two coworkers) but also between non-dyadic individuals (e.g., customer-sales person incivility in Arnold & Walsh, 2015; or in Diefendorff & Croyle, 2008). The fact that observers (i.e., the third parties) do also suffer from witnessing uncivil interactions made the dyadic element even more suspicious. After 17 years of research, workplace incivility literature still lacks a steady theoretical backbone. It seems the required systematic accumulation of similar observations, which can summarize and categorize the outcomes of myriad workplace incivility studies together to produce a sturdy model will take a long time. Therefore, many theories from psychology, health and criminology disciplines are still being employed to test and explain diverse aspects of workplace incivility.

Theories Used in Incivility Research The number of theoretical frameworks used in incivility research are numerous, yet they are overtly similar and/or linked, and the research outcomes from their applications mainly converge on two essentials. Succinctly, these include the following: (1) the origination of incivility in particular social interactions under particular conditions, and (2) the dependence of its consequences on the stress resulting from those interactions. This, in turn, triggers certain affect states and attributions only to build up more stress, which eventually leads to poor health and well-being, deteriorated engagement, performance, and other work results, and retaliatory behavior tendencies. Thus, in the following pages, rather than covering each theory concerning the questions about the etiology, evolution, precipitators, antecedents and consequences of workplace incivility one after another under special headings, complementary theories are categorized according to these two essentials in 160

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

favor of expressional parsimony. For example, the questions of etiology such as “Why is there workplace incivility” are explainable using the social interactionist perspective, the theory of coercive actions, the power theory, and the theory of routine activities, which all complement each other and thus converge under the first heading defining how particular social interactions and conditions interact to bear uncivil behaviors. Regarding the questions investigating the consequences of workplace incivility, researchers frequently use attribution theory, affective events and stress theories, hence hereby they are interrelated under the second heading. Since questions regarding the evolution (i.e., process, development) of workplace incivility are related with all these theories, a new heading would be redundant.

Theories Related to the Origination of Incivility Given the extant research, the theories about the genesis, course, antecedents, and precipitators of workplace incivility have a common thread to social interactions with particular qualities and in particular conditions. These theories emphasizing the social interactionist nature of workplace incivility are the social interactionist perspective, the theory of coercive actions, the power theory, and the theory of routine activities. The seminal review of the previous workplace aggression research by Andersson and Pearson (1999) indicated that incivility and coercive actions routinely arose from social interactions. Accordingly, they framed workplace incivility as an event where the instigator(s) and the target(s) would exchange verbal and non-verbal signs in a social context. There would also been observers or witness(es) playing diverse scripts, besides making observations. These witness(es) were delineated as potentially responsive agents to the encounter, both physically and psychologically. Based on these facets, the originators of incivility research domain underlined its moral effects, and adopted a social interactionist viewpoint on its emergence and escalation. In addition, they used the exact terminology of social interactionism (e.g., exchange of coercive actions; dynamic interchange), and emphasized the importance of contextual and relational variables, which they thought prepared the ground for coercive actions (i.e., incivilities). Andersson and Pearson particularly favored the theory of coercive actions by Tedeschi and Felson (1994), which approached aggression and violence as social interactions. They introduced the term coercive action to depict an intentionally harmful social move. The wide range of coercive actions wielded to frighten others and enforce obedience included the use of threats, insults, physical power and even homicide with the intention to protect and affirm own identity and dignity or to restore justice (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997). Briefly stated, a social interactionist perspective was used by the progenitors of incivility research as an explanatory framework for this phenomenon, which they construed as a social process extended in time and place and under the dynamic influence of the contextual/situational particularities rather than as one-time static events. According to their account, uncivil social interactions at the workplace could easily spiral beyond the initial low-intensity and ambiguous state, to reach a serious and intentionally harmful one. In line with this account, Doshy and Wang (2014) renamed it as the spiral theory of incivility. The spiral would start with the perception of a negative act violating the norms for acceptable interpersonal conduct. The target might respond either by an enormous negative affect and craving for revenge or by a wish to escape from the unbearably stressful organizational context. This decision-making might occur at any time across the spiral. Retaliation drive would lead to an eye for an eye mentality, and would result in targeting the instigator with an even more uncivil payback. 161

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

As such, retaliated rudeness is anticipated to be more negative than the received one (Glomb & Liao, 2003); hence, it is rightly named escalation (or spiraling) of negativity. While incivilities escalate, wrathful, humiliating, or abusive mindsets would make one or both parties reach a tipping point, which could activate intentionally-extreme behaviors, like aggression or violence. This is similar to what previously Folger and Skarlicki (1998) termed “interpersonal heat,” which would culminate in a flare-up of violence. This incivility spiral would not stop before the restoration of justice, the withdrawal of a party from the play, or the merciful development of mutual tolerance, rather would it get widespread spilling over to the initially uninvolved. In the meanwhile, the witnesses of incivility could unwind a secondary spiral. More likely would this happen if the witnesses previously beheld (e.g., heard, saw or somehow learned) positive reinforcement of such behaviors. Briefly, the theoretical process of spiraling portrays how a minor issue would intensify into severe coarseness, and how a vicious cycle of repeated negative acts would pervade through the organization like an epidemic. As an escalation has almost no bounds, unless adequately “managed,” more physical pitches reaching to workplace violence should be estimated. This “management” might be personal or organizational. Personal management might depend on individual differences (e.g., personality factors such as impulsivity, coping styles such as problem-focused coping, conflict management style, or intelligence), as well as previous learning of self-control starting from the social bonding learned within the family and supported by trusted social circles, leading to learning stress-management during workplace training programs. For instance, it is a well-documented observation that personal retaliatory behavior tendencies against received offensive behaviors impact the spiraling of uncivil exchanges (van Jaarsveld, van Jaarsveld, Walker, & Skarlicki, 2010). It means how people react when faced with rudeness at the workplace would partially depend on how they generally cope with negativity. Accordingly, an initial uncivil move against the self might be overlooked, resolved using problem solving strategies, or fiercely reciprocated by different individuals. The behavioral choice in such situations would also depend on the conflict management strategies one adopts. A study by Trudel and Reio (2011) investigating the effects of conflict management style on incivility found that a personal choice of integrating strategies (i.e., collaborating, problem-solving, and emphasizing win-win) to resolve conflicts decreased the frequency of reciprocal retaliation and consequently organizational incivility among both instigators and targets, while opting for dominating conflict management strategies (i.e., forcing, competing, and emphasizing personal gain) significantly increased them. Accommodating, avoiding, and compromising strategies were not linked to incivility at all, thus confirming an earlier finding that the prevalence of incivility in the organizational culture is contingent upon the behavioral conflict management styles of individual employees (Liu et al., 2009). Regarding the “organizational management” of incivility, a theoretical model from the non-organizational area seems to be the most appropriate in covering all preventive and interventional elements organizations may use in dealing with incivility-like workplace mistreatment issues. The routine activity theory, originally developed to explain criminal deviance provides a practical heuristic, predicting interpersonal crime, deviance, or abuse when motivated offenders and suitable targets meet in time and space at the absence of capable guardians (Cohen & Felson 1979). Here, the term “capable guardians” might be seen as the organizational correlate of a skillful management putting all relevant rules and procedures in place, closely monitoring deviance from interpersonal codes of conduct, and making appropriate interventions contingent to nonconformity. Routine everyday activities of incivility targets at a workplace provide predictability of their whereabouts and engagements, creating deviance opportunities for the motivated perpetrators if effective 162

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

guardians do not make their presence felt. This theory brings theoretical power to the study of workplace incivility by underscoring the organizational factors that enable the identification of suitable victims (e.g., with certain physical characteristics, personality and coping styles), and that encourage the deviance of potential perpetrators (e.g., environmental incivility cues), as well as highlighting the importance of organizational agents or structures (i.e., social controls as capable guardians) that can manage (e.g., prevent, halt, or interfere with) incivility (Lopez, Hodson, & Roscigno, 2009). According to routine activity theory, while the existence of likeminded colleagues increases the gratification of engagement with deviant behavior, unstructured and unplanned socialization activities decrease social control and create opportunities to deviate (Osgood, Wilson, O’Malley, Bachmen, & Johnston, 1996). As such, the workplaces with structured schedules, binding codes of conduct and socialization, and well-thought-out grievance procedures may regulate and control interpersonal behavior among employees- especially the ones with a propensity to deviate- considerably. Besides the aforementioned social opportunities for workplace deviance, environmental opportunities that increase the likelihood of deviance at work should be managed by the organizations to decrease incivility. These are environmental incivility cues such as the smoky atmosphere, dilapidated building, cluttered documents, dying plants, graffiti on the walls, litter on the floor or tables, sloppily-dressed employees, and the absence of cameras that conveys the lack of monitoring and control, and decreases the probability of being captured on the very uncivil act. Based on the cross-norm inhibition effect, witnessing other people transgress norms is known to increase the odds of norm-violation in another area. Therefore, any norm-violation should be heeded and what needed to be done should be done contingently by the organizational guardians. Socially-aware, good-monitoring and prosocial colleagues and administrative bodies in addition to carefully prepared and strictly observed organizational policy and procedures regulating interpersonal relations are comparable to the capable guardians in this theory. Another theory used to explain the genesis of incivility at organizations is social power theory (French & Raven, 1959), which postulates that employees at lower social ranks in the organizational ladder or those who are members of low-grade social clusters in the workstation may be more prone to incivility from higher social-rank or upper-grade employees. As anticipated, incivility progresses from the top of the organization downwards. Numerous studies have demonstrated that incivility is in many ways associated with the power position of the perpetrator and serves as a tool for exercising power. (Cortina et al., 2001). In line with the theory, the perpetrators are often located higher up in the administrative hierarchy (Estes & Wang, 2008; Pearson & Porath, 2009; Callahan, 2011). Yet a new study conducted in Sweden with findings highlighting co-worker instead of supervisor incivility stand in contradiction to this topdown nature of the phenomenon, thereby countering the social power theory (Torkelson et al., 2016). It may be a reflection of Swedish horizontal individualism, where people are not considered as superior to each other due to their rank in the workplace and/or social status, thus normatively thereabouts supervisors do not exercise incivility as a means of power assertion. However, in vertically individualistic countries employees being ignored by their supervisors might not even perceive it as an act of uncivil conduct, since it might be in accord with normal socialization patterns expected to be seen between supervisors and employees (Kaya Cicerali & Cicerali, 2016; Schilpzand et al., 2016). Therefore, research results about social power theory should be carefully considered in light of national and geographical culture. Industry and organizational culture also impact the classification of certain acts as uncivil. For instance, being shouted at in a masculine organizational culture such as the US Army might be perceived as normal, although being exposed to the same behavior in a 163

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

feminine organizational culture such as in a pediatric health care center would be perceived as entirely uncivil (Schizpad et al., 2016). Masculine organizational culture is the breeding ground for incivility due to the physical demandingness of the tasks or on behalf of the defense of masculine identity (Lopez et al., 2009; Miner & Smittick, 2016). In summary, (1) incivility occurs routinely as a result of interpersonal communication (social interactionist perspective), (2) even a single impolite communication may lead to reciprocation and instigation of mutual incivility (coercive action theory), (3) there are personal, organizational and environmental factors that antecede or precipitate incivility (routine activity theory), (4) incivility may be the outcome of social power distance, where high-status people use mistreatment as a strategy to manage their subordinates (social power theory).

Theories Related to the Consequences of Incivility In the previous section, workplace incivility was presented as a dynamic process engendered during nasty interpersonal communications. During this process of negative interactions, stress is the most salient element, felt deeply by the target and the instigator, and observable to anybody around. It is known that even witnessing workplace mistreatment increases stress levels remarkably (Reich & Hershcovis, 2015). Analogous with Andersson and Pearson’s (1999) conceptualization of incivility as the snowballing of seemingly trivial but irritating encounters, Lazarus and Folkman (1985) theorized that low-level hassles or micro-events would have a greater impact on individuals than major, exceptional stressors or macroevents. Pursuant to this association between incivility and the organization-scale stress it creates, the second most important theoretical perspective used in incivility research after the social interactionist perspective emerges as the transactional model of stress (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985), which is reasonably complemented with the affective events theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Therefore, both perspectives will be explained here. Fairness theory (Folger & Cropanzano, 2001) and attribution theory are also in many ways connected to stress-related consequences of incivility. Thus, such research is also incorporated below. The transactional model construes individual-environment transactions or contacts as stressful events; hence, it is called the transactional model of stress. According to Lazarus and Folkman (1985), the way in which individuals perceive and deal with challenges and threats in the environment are shaped by their appraisals (i.e., cognitive evaluations). The nature of transactions between people and their environments depend on the influence of environmental stressors. In terms of organizational research, the manner in which an individual appraises workplace stressors compared to the personal resources to cope with them mediates the quality of employee-work relationship. As a result, employees would appraise stressful work events either positively as challenges, or negatively as threats. This theory was used as a ground for the Meaning Making Model (Marchiondo, 2012) in explanation of workplace incivility. Using two surveys of working adults, Marchiondo demonstrated that targets form both harm and challenge appraisals of their uncivil experiences. The first survey, composed of 419 female participants having diverse occupations in the USA, confirmed that the more incivility targets appraised their experiences as harmful, the worse their work-related outcomes, such as job satisfaction, were. Further, when targets believed their perpetrators intentionally and consciously applied uncivil treatment, their harm appraisals were more intense. The second study, composed of 479 participants from both genders across professions, confirmed the findings from the first survey and enlarged it querying whether targets ever formed challenge (i.e., 164

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

learning opportunity, personal growth) appraisals during uncivil interactions. Results indicated that incivility targets holding challenge appraisals experienced improvements in their organizational outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, success at work). It was revealed that when targets perceived their perpetrators’ behavior as unintentional, they tended to appraise incivility as challenging. Concisely, the perception of the incivility-perpetrator’s intent determined whether a person adopted an adaptive challenge appraisal, or a non-adaptive threat/harm appraisal; and this in turn determined occupational outcomes such as job satisfaction and job performance. With regards to the affective events theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996), on the other hand, work events are assumed to be the causes of affective reactions. They elicit positively or negatively charged affective responses (i.e., moods and emotions) that in turn influence health and well-being, as well as job performance and job satisfaction (Branch, Ramsay, & Barker, 2013). When the work stress is perceived as a challenge positive affect ensues (i.e., appraisal as an uplift), while when it is perceived as a threat negative affect is sensed (i.e., appraisal as a hassle) and distress is felt. Attitudes, behavioral intentions and consequent behaviors follow from these affect states. Cortina et al., (2001) employed the affective events theory with the transactional stress model to delineate how incivility targets coped with daily stressful events and how their performance was affected. In their article “Incivility in the workplace: Incidence and Impact” the authors reported that extended appraisal of routine daily incivilities as threatening, in other words as offensive and inappropriate, causes the flare-up of psychological distress and leads to job dissatisfaction and job withdrawal. Similarly, Bunk and Magley (2013) drew on these theories to assess how people cognitively evaluated uncivil events, associating them with specific emotions, which in turn determined the likelihood of an uncivil retaliation toward the instigator. The precise emotions associated with reciprocation were not revealed in their study, yet the mediating role of emotional states (i.e., anger and disgust) between experienced and instigated incivility was acknowledged. A current variant of transactional stress theory used in incivility research is the stressor-emotion model of counterproductive work behavior (Spector & Fox, 2005). It assumes that negative feelings are among the principal antecedents to antisocial behavior at work. Gallus, Bunk, Matthews, Barnes-Farrell, and Magley (2014) applied this theory in their longitudinal study and showed how uncivil experiences predicted uncivil acts, and how targets of incivility tended to engage in more counterproductive work behavior. Now that the negative impacts of stress and emotions on both targets and target-instigators well-established, would it be possible to make a general statement as all incivility experiences are conductive to reciprocated incivility, counterproductive workplace behavior or abuse? To answer this question, it is useful to review the outcomes of research testing the self-control strength model (Muraven, Tice, & Baumeister, 1998). It purports that coping with stressful events depletes the limited self-regulation budget, which people employ to refrain from impulsive and antisocial acts. When there are many stressful events in one’s life, the self-regulation reserve may totally go empty, and even tiny daily hassles (like incivilities) may lead to a loss of self-control. At best, such people would respond by an ostensible incivility towards their environment. Meier and Gross (2015) used this theory to assess the relations between the total stressors in one’s life, trait self-regulation capacity, state self-regulation status (exhaustion) and incivility. Fortunately, they found that all incivility experiences did not lead to reciprocated incivility or other antisocial behavior. Only when the period between uncivil interactions was short, experiencing incivility predicted incivility in the following interaction. Particularly when individuals were exhausted, selfregulatory abilities were needed to prevent the targets from giving impulsive retaliatory responses. It is 165

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

an interesting finding from this study that trait self-control was not found to be influential on instigated incivility, denoting even naturally non-impulsive individuals can take up incivility at times. The final theory to be presented here concerns the influences of incivility on witnesses. Fairness and attribution theories are popularly resorted, to explain the consequences of incivility for the witnesses. According to the fairness theory (Folger & Cropanzano, 2001), the witnesses evaluate whether an injustice has occurred through cognitive calculations of how fair an instance or act is by checking the cues of respect, dignity and social inclusion. It is empirically demonstrated that when the result reveals unfairness, then observers perceive it as humiliating, and it bears significant negative consequences for their well-being, leading to an associated dissatisfaction with organization and decrease in organizational citizenship behaviors (Colquitt, et al., 2011, in Laschinger, Leiter, Day, Oore, & Mackinnon, 2012). Reich and Herschovis (2015) in their experimental studies conducted on 60 students at a university lab in the United Kingdom (UK) demonstrated that the observers of incivility tended to punish the perpetrators, whereas their behavior to targets were generally unaffected. Further, they found that negative affect towards the perpetrator mediated this impact (i.e., the desire to punish the instigator) of witnessing incivility. Briefly, the observers of incivility were influenced due to the destruction of their belief in fairness; thus they wanted to compensate for it punishing the instigator. In short, (1) emotional reactions towards being a target, instigator, and witness of incivility, and subsequent health and work-related outcomes can be assessed using the transactional stress model and the affective events theory complementarily; in other words, they are integrative models to assess the generic consequences of incivility (2) stressor-emotion model of counterproductive work behavior, and the self-control strength model are potentially useful for assessment of how targets turn to target-instigators (i.e., the reciprocating targets), (3) fairness theory is particularly appropriate for the assessment of observer-related consequences of incivility.

Consequences of Incivility •

•

•

166

Bullying and Violence: It is well-established that this relatively low-level workplace aggression has the potency to escalate into more intense aggression forms including bullying (i.e., workplace psychological harassment) and workplace violence (Namie, 2003). Definitely, workplace aggression is a spectrum that “starts with incivility, moves to bullying and ends with workplace violence” (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2011, p. 71). Deontological Loss of Ethical Business: In terms of business ethics, incivility is against the sustainability of business. It is considered a mode of unethical behavior because of its consequences with regards to the targets (e.g., deteriorated mental/physical health and shattered lives), companies (e.g., employee turnover, lost time, lost trust, decreased productivity and profitability, legal costs, lost reputation), and social welfare system (e.g., a sick society, increased health service and rehabilitation costs). Therefore, organizations, which tolerate such uncivil behavior, violate the norms maintaining social welfare and their ethical responsibility to offer employees a safe, professional and respectful workplace. Financial Costs: Stress induced by incivility and bullying at the workplace is a ubiquitous and costly problem for employees and employers alike. As reported by the recent European Unionfunded project conducted by Matrix in 2013, the costs of work-related depression to Europe was estimated to be €617 billion annually, and no small part of this figure is due to incivility (Hassard, Teoh, Cox, Dewe, Cosmar, Gründler, Flemming, Cosemans, & Van den Broek, 2014). The break-

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

•

down of total costs to employers consists of absenteeism and presenteeism (e.g. being present at workplace in an unengaged, sick, burned-out and/or disgruntled fashion, €272 billion), loss of productivity (€242 billion), health care costs (€63 billion), and social welfare costs in the form of disability benefit payments (€39 billion). The majority of studies within Europe indicate that between 10% and 15% of the workforce are exposed to workplace bullying (Zapf, Escartin, Einarsen, Hoel, & Vartia, 2011). However, there are differing figures, for example McAvoy and Murtagh (2003) inform that with an annual prevalence of up to 38%, workplace bullying affects almost 50% of the UK workforce during their working life. The cost of work-related stress to British society is £4.55 billion, and a big part of it (£682.5 million per year) is directly related with workplace bullying (Giga, Hoel, & Lewis, 2008). The cost of workplace harassment in the UK is estimated to be between 1.4% and 2% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Hassard et al., 2014). When the figures for absenteeism, staff turnover, and reduced productivity are included, the total cost for organisations in the UK is estimated to be more than £13.75 billion (Giga et al., 2008). An early far-reaching study of bullying behaviour in Germany found that almost all (98.7%) of those bullied employees experienced employment and/or health consequences; close to half (43.9%) became ill and 68.1% left their employment (includes 14.8% who were dismissed) (Sloan, Matyok, Schmitz, & Short, 2010), while a relatively recent study by Bodeker and Friedrichs (2011) found that the cost of work-related stress in Germany accounts to €30.86 billion. Finally, Pearson and Porath (2009) projected the cost of incivility to a company in the USA to be close to US$14,000 annually per employee due to interruptions of work and postponement of projects. Infringement of Human Rights: Beyond the financial costs and health consequences it incurs, incivility is a human rights issue because employees deserve to pursue their work in a civil environment, free from hostile workplace communication, tense behaviour and related psychosocial hazards. Science reveals that individuals perform best in an environment characterized by mutual respect and personal dignity (Leka & Jain, 2010). For those who could not work in an environment where human rights prevail, the consequences are dreadful.

SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The best solution of incivility is prevention before the deflagration starts; otherwise, intervention would be required which may include or lead to many undesirable, forced changes or forced choices such as being relocated to a new workplace or into a new team, demotions or dismissals, and coaching or training schedules. To prevent incivility in the very first place, it is essential to establish a civil culture with zero-tolerance towards incivility (Pearson & Porath, 2005). This begins with the recruitment of a workforce with civil qualities, and includes additional trainings to enable and encourage tactful and graceful handling of even very confrontational and difficult situations. Coarse leaders and supervisors cannot create a culture or climate of civility. Therefore, even before the recruitment of refined employees comes the correct recruitment of the managerial ranks which will shape the employee behaviors as civil or uncivil role models. After the recruitment, constantly monitoring and assessing their communications with people of different statuses and ranks during the meetings, in the halls, at the cafeteria, during urgent and relaxed times is of prime importance since people may behave extra-nicely in the recruitment phase. Written codes of conduct should be thoroughly considered with sanctions in case of their violation during the orientation and induction phases and they should 167

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

be easily available on the employee portal right beside the workplace grievance policy and procedures. These easy actions will structure the interpersonal communications in an organization, and work as preliminary preventions against the burgeoning of an uncivil culture. As a common preventive approach, HRDs might develop and implement management-training interventions, which include context-adapted mediation or conflict management exercises to cope with uncivil behavior among employees, before it escalates to bullying and other more severe forms of mistreatment. Based on research findings, cognitive and behavioral training offered to managers for improvement of integrating conflict management style featured by synergy, and discouragement of dominating conflict management style characterized by hostility are supposed to be fruitful plans to diminish workplace incivility (Trudel & Reio, 2011). Interpersonal skills training in the form of mentoring and coaching would also be used to mold managers into civil role models in using integrating conflict management style. Priority of training is given to the managers based on social learning and social power theories, since many researchers such as Ashforth (1994), Tepper (2000), Taylor and Pattie (2014), and Doshy and Wang (2014) established that relational mistreatment is often instigated from higher-status individuals and learned by observing role models. Given the essential role the organizational leaders play in molding workplace attitudes and behavior of employees, as mentioned above, it is crucial that leaders display, maintain, and support organizational and relational workplace decorum to curb the globally pervading incivility culture. As a further prevention strategy, HRDs should support the organizational leaders to talk with employees who claim to be the targets or victims of incivility. Thereby, employees will have an opportunity to share their perceptions and experiences and the organizations would not futilely design ineffective interventions which do not address the contextual and personal requirements. Another action suggested to be taken by the HRDs is conducting exit interviews with employees who are leaving to understand the causes of their departure. This would enable organizations to gain a real insight into cases of mistreatment and to plan effective policies and schemes to tackle those issues (Doshy & Wang, 2014; Pearson & Porath, 2005). Intervention decisions against workplace incivility are made based on the generic cultural particularities of a society. For example, although many research outcomes present the prevalence of bullying in Mediterranean countries such as Italy, Spain, and Turkey to be very low, the reason is usually attributed to the differences in cultural perception of the same behaviors as normal in those countries, compared with the USA or Australia where bullying statistics are reported to be higher. Doshy and Wang (2014), being workplace incivility researchers from Indian and Chinese high power distance collectivistic cultures, which paradoxically emphasize hierarchy, authority and respect for status on the one hand, and harmony, gratitude, and happiness of others on the other hand, claim that uncivil behaviors in such cultures are despised albeit tolerated. Hence, in such countries incivility does not materialize as an intolerable issue, which needs an immediate solution. Organizations and persons develop idiosyncratic solutions to incivility issues. While deciding on solutions, the former usually takes into account particular macro-level factors such as the organizational targets, the relatively-permanent organizational culture, the relatively-transient clima, contextual variables such as economy and politics, and the general characteristics of employees; whereas the latter considers micro-level factors such as personal goals, relative strengths and weaknesses to deal with nasty issues such as psychological support mechanisms (e.g., self-efficacy, self-confidence, psychological resilience), and social support mechanisms (e.g., information resources, comforting family members, and reconciling friends).

168

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

Consequently, organizations design interventions and produce policies to solve incivility concerns and diminish its prevalence by preventive actions, while individuals resort to varying coping strategies (e.g., seeking information, seeking help, making their case known, focusing on their emotions or retaliation) with different levels of efficiency in terms of evading being a potential target of incivility. In different organizations, formal and informal conflict resolution issues (including incivility) are handled with the involvement of different units besides the litigious employees’ departments, and via use of different mechanisms such as supporting, coaching, mediating, conciliating or arbitrating. In over mid-sized organizations, usually it is the duty of the Compliance Departments to identify the risks— including psychosocial ones like incivility—an organization faces, to design and implement relevant legal and ethical guidelines and regulations against these risks, and to support the organizational units to comply with the rules. However, HRDs highlight unwritten rules and procedures towards finding ways of reconstructing workplace relationships, showing a commitment to employee well-being and development, and using innovative tactics to build interpersonal trust. Since HRD responsibilities include the recruitment of appropriate people, training them according to the particular organizational culture, retaining useful employees, and making exit interviews with leaving ones, HRD practitioners are usually involved in internal mediation of conflicts besides department managers and arbitrators, or key-persons from the compliance departments. Therefore, practitioners from these two departments should be active in finding and implementing solutions for psychosocial risk factors. When likely legal issues are involved, such as discrimination allegations or harassment, outside help may be sought, and resorting to attorneys for litigation may be necessary.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Workplace incivility studies are usually carried out by social and organizational psychologists, business management researchers, and less frequently by business ethics scholars. The topics of investigation are frequently related with perpetrator (instigator) and target characteristics (e.g., personality, coping styles), organizational variables (e.g., leadership, job design) and group variables (e.g. status incongruence of group members, group cohesion). Although social processes such as the development of incivility into more severe forms of workplace aggression and violence are usually dynamic, complex, and randomly happening in extended timeframes, the methods used to study the evolution of incivility (e.g., survey) often reflect only static, simple and hardly-representative glimpses of the entire process. Using these data collection methods, measures of only few variables are taken at particular time points (usually just once), and comparison of diverse incivility episodes and circumstances is not possible. On the other hand, real longitudinal studies in organizations are very rare and are influenced by complications such as company reluctance, participant attrition over time, and ethical and practical difficulties in obtaining various forms of critical personal data (e.g., “instigators of incivility” is an existing but non-available population, since people do not tend to acknowledge their misbehavior and reveal their methods due to social desirability issues; real data on coworker relationships, performance, promotions and salary are also hardly correctly provided). Therefore, agent based modelling and simulation (ABMS) is better suited for researching these dynamic and data-problematic organizational processes in incivility (Hughes, Clegg, Robinson & Crowder, 2012). Based on this context, even social psychologists advocate the use of ABMS grounded on the argument that the “ABMS approach is better able than prevailing approaches in the field (i.e., the 169

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

variable-based modelling techniques such as causal modelling) to capture types of complex, dynamic, interactive processes so important in the social world” (Smith & Conrey, 2007). Since it is a new and interdisciplinary approach that requires learning new technical knowledge and skills, social researchers adopt ABMS with reservation, staying loyal to their old and familiar methods. Abraham (2014) was among few researchers who employed ABMS to investigate a subtype of workplace aggression (i.e., bullying) in schools. He regarded bullying as a growth process whereby, “a class of children may be patternless on the first day of school, but soon a pattern emerges in which bullies and victims are differentiated” (p. 115). He reviewed substantial literature of mathematical models and computer simulations and found that Complex Dynamic Systems are convenient in this context, as the gradual transformation of a neutral person into a bully or victim may be achieved by changing a control parameter in the dynamical scheme. He used NetLogo program as his modelling environment and found it to be an easy to handle tool for social scientists interested in taking up ABMS method. A wide literature review on Wiley-Blackwell, Scopus, Taylor & Francis, Elsevier Science Direct, Springerlink, and Google Scholar shows there is no published simulation article on workplace aggression, particularly incivility, using complex dynamic systems approach and ABMS. Against this backdrop, ABMS is suggested to be used in future workplace incivility research. ABMS is a computer technique to simulate complex systems whose components are proactive (i.e., can take initiative), adaptive, autonomous and intelligent entities called agents (Jiang, Karwowski, & Ahram, 2012). Scientists use ABMS to analyze complex bottom-up systems (e.g., from employee level to organizational level). In order to carry out simulation experiments to test the hypotheses about workplace incivility, real world data can be collected from organizations, since ABMS allows for the integration of actual measures. Since there is yet no published study on workplace incivility using this method, it presents itself as an innovative future research opportunity for organizational researchers. Another promising trend would be the use of randomized controlled trials, a medical experimental model, in investigations of the effectiveness of organizational interventions. A systematic literature review shows there is no real randomized controlled trial in workplace mistreatment research literature, including the incivility and bullying studies (Hodgins, MacCurtain, & Mannix-McNamara, 2014). Without comparisons of the pre-post test results of real randomized groups (instead of matched ones), with the comparison group, it is not possible to reliably attribute the outcomes of a study to the designed interventions. Therefore, it is a necessary gap to be fulfilled, for the really scientific aspect of organizational behavior to develop. Likewise, more participatory action research and longitudinal studies are necessary since researchers like Meier and Gross (2015) challenge the original assumption by Andersson and Pearson (i.e., which tells received incivility will be retaliated and may activate an incivility spiral) claiming that it has not been appropriately tested, although it is of huge theoretical and practical significance. From a social interactionist perspective, an episode of incivility is a continuous process of exchanges between at least two people through a time span. In spite of this, mainstream research queries about the long-term familiarity with incivility (e.g., during the past year or past five years, e.g., Cortina & Magley, 2009) based on retrospective and cross-sectional data gathering methodologies. This means there is little tangible and reliable information about workplace incivility. Diary studies by Totterdell, Hershcovis, and Niven, (2012), Meier and Spector (2013), Zhou, Yan, Che, and Meier (2015), and Meier and Gross (2015) examined incivility longitudinally over a longer time frame and tried to close this gap, exposing the evolution of incivility episodes with antecedents and consequences. Meier and Gross (2015), in their study “Episodes of incivility between subordinates 170

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

and supervisors: examining the role of self-control and time with an interaction-record diary study” investigated if experienced supervisor incivility would be reciprocated by subordinates depending on the target’s trait and state level (exhaustion) self-control. Additionally, they investigated if time affected the retaliatory uncivil behavior. Their method was quite novel: interaction-record diary keeping. The participants noted each and every communication with their supervisors. Instant records of communication episodes illuminated the interaction dynamics, eliminated retrospection bias and reduced selective reporting. Following interactions between subordinate and supervisor is exceptionally suitable to test the incivility process proposed by Andersson and Pearson (1999). Similar research employing diverse methodologies would consolidate outcomes acquired by cross-sectional investigations.

CONCLUSION Postmodern deconstruction of values is the underlying reason of incivility, not only at the organizational level but also at the social level. Coarseness, rustic mentality, or thoughtlessness in interpersonal exchanges would lead to the destruction of a livable world unless awareness of incivility develops and required actions are taken. Living beings cannot tolerate incivility; that is apparent in the accompanying stress and negative affect reactions festering us as a consequence of being treated uncouthly. Not only human actions but also human environments can be uncivil (e.g., soiled, dirty, cluttered). Uncivil environments increase norm-deviance, implying that disorganization is the breeding ground for disorganized actions starting from the uncivil ones. When people observe other people perpetrating uncivil acts, they start to feel familiar with such acts first, normalize them later, and turn uncivil themselves in the end. It is called the spillover effect of incivility: It is pervasive. These examples are provided simply to remind us that a single tolerated uncivil element in the environment or action will spread like a virus and make the society ill. Therefore, researchers should attempt new ways to investigate and understand its antecedents, consequences, and should endeavor to develop better prevention and intervention methodologies. Here, mainly based on its superior data provision capacities for progress analysis, the authors particularly suggest the use of ABMS as a future research direction.

REFERENCES Abraham, R. (2014). Agent-based modeling of growth processes. Mind, Brain, and Education, 8(3), 115–131. doi:10.1111/mbe.12045 Andersson, L. M., & Pearson, C. M. (1999). Tit for tat? The spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace. Academy of Management Review, 24(3), 452–471. Arnold, K. A., & Walsh, M. M. (2015). Customer incivility and employee well-being: Testing the moderating effects of meaning, perspective taking and transformational leadership. Work and Stress, 29(4), 362–378. doi:10.1080/02678373.2015.1075234 Ashforth, B. (1994). Petty tyranny in organizations. Human Relations, 47(7), 755–778. doi:10.1177/001872679404700701

171

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

Barron, R. A., & Neuman, J. H. (1998). Workplace aggression-The iceberg beneath the tip of workplace violence: Evidence on its forms, frequency, and targets. Public Administration Quarterly, 21(4), 446–464. Bartlett, J. E. II, & Bartlett, M. E. (2011). Workplace bullying: An integrative literature review. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 13(1), 69–84. doi:10.1177/1523422311410651 Bartlett, M. E. (2009). Workplace incivility and conflict management styles of community college leaders in the nine mega states (Doctoral Thesis). Clemson University. Bodeker, W., & Friedrichs, M. (2011). Kosten der psychischen Erkrankungen und Belastungen in Deutschland. In L. Kamp (Ed.), Regelungslucke psychische Belastungen schliesse (pp. 69–102). Dusseldorf: Hans Bockler Stiftung. Branch, S., Ramsay, S., & Barker, M. (2013). Workplace bullying, mobbing and general harassment: A review. International Journal of Management Reviews, 15(3), 280–299. doi:10.1111/j.14682370.2012.00339.x Callahan, J. (2011). Incivility as an instrument of oppression: Exploring the role of power in construction of civility. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 13(1), 10–21. doi:10.1177/1523422311410644 Cohen, L., & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44(4), 588–608. doi:10.2307/2094589 Cortina, L. M., & Magley, V. J. (2009). Patterns and profiles of response to incivility in the workplace. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14(3), 272–288. doi:10.1037/a0014934 PMID:19586222 Cortina, L. M., Magley, V. J., Williams, J. H., & Langhout, R. D. (2001). Incivility in the workplace: Incidence and impact. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6(1), 64–80. doi:10.1037/10768998.6.1.64 PMID:11199258 Diefendorff, J. M., & Croyle, M. H. (2008). Antecedents of emotional display rule commitment. Human Performance, 21(3), 310–332. doi:10.1080/08959280802137911 Doshy, P. V., & Wang, J. (2014). Workplace incivility: What do targets say about it. American Journal of Management, 14(1-2), 30–42. Einarsen, S., Matthiesen, S., & Skogstad, A. (1998). Bullying, burnout and well-being among assistant nurses. Occupational Health & Safety (Waco, Tex.), 14, 563–568. Estes, B., & Wang, J. (2008). Workplace incivility: Impacts on individual and organizational performance. Human Resource Development Review, 7(2), 218–240. doi:10.1177/1534484308315565 Folger, R., & Cropanzano, R. (2001). Fairness theory: Justice as accountability. In J. Greenberg & R. Cropanzano (Eds.), Advances in Organizational Justice (pp. 1–55). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Folger, R., & Skarlicki, D. P. (1998). When tough times make tough bosses: Managerial distancing as a function of layoff blame. Academy of Management Journal, 41(1), 79–87. doi:10.2307/256899

172

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(1), 150–170. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.150 PMID:2980281 French, R. P., Jr., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies in Social Power (pp. 150-167). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Gallus, J. A., Matthews, R., Bunk, J., Barnes-Farrell, J., & Magley, V. (2014). An eye for an eye? Exploring the relationship between workplace incivility experiences and perpetration. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(2), 143–154. doi:10.1037/a0035931 PMID:24635736 Giga, S., Hoel, H., & Lewis, D. (2008). The costs of workplace bullying: A report and review for the dignity at work partnership: A partnership project funded jointly by Unite and the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform. University of Manchester. Glomb, T. M., & Liao, H. (2003). Interpersonal aggression in work groups: Social influence, reciprocal, and individual effects. Academy of Management Journal, 46(4), 486–496. doi:10.2307/30040640 Hassard, J., Teoh, K., Cox, T., Dewe, P., Cosmar, M., Gründler, R., & Van den Broek, K. et al. (2014). Calculating the cost of work-related stress and psychosocial risks. European Risk Observatory. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Hershcovis, M. S. (2011). Incivility, social undermining, bullying…oh my!: A call to reconcile constructs within workplace aggression research. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32(3), 499–519. doi:10.1002/job.689 Hodgins, M., MacCurtain, S., & Mannix-McNamara, P. (2014). Workplace bullying and incivility: A systematic review of interventions. International Journal of Workplace Health Management, 7(1), 54–72. doi:10.1108/IJWHM-08-2013-0030 Hughes, H. P. N., Clegg, C. W., Robinson, M. A., & Crowder, R. M. (2012). Agent-based modelling and simulation: The potential contribution to organizational psychology. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 85(3), 487–502. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8325.2012.02053.x Kaya Cicerali, L., & Cicerali, E. (2016). A qualitative study on how Swedish organizations deal with workplace bullying. Nordic Psychology, 68(2), 87–99. doi:10.1080/19012276.2015.1071198 Kelley, H. H., & Michela, J. L. (1980). Attribution theory and research. Annual Review of Psychology, 31(1), 457–501. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.31.020180.002325 PMID:20809783 Laschinger, H. K. S., Leiter, M. P., Day, A., Oore, D. G., & Mackinnon, S. P. (2012). Building empowering work environments that foster civility and organizational trust: Testing an intervention. Nursing Research, 61(5), 316–325. doi:10.1097/NNR.0b013e318265a58d PMID:22935768 Leka, S., & Jain, A. (2010). Health impact of psychosocial hazards at work: An overview. Geneva: World Health Organization. Lim, S., Cortina, L. M., & Magley, V. J. (2008). Personal and workgroup incivility: Impact on work and health outcomes. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 95–107. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.95 PMID:18211138

173

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

Liu, W., Chi, S. S., Friedman, R., & Tsai, M. (2009). Explaining incivility in the workplace: The effects of personality and culture. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 2(2), 164–184. doi:10.1111/ j.1750-4716.2009.00035.x Lopez, S. H., Hodson, R., & Roscigno, V. J. (2009). Power, status, and abuse at work: General and sexual harassment compared. The Sociological Quarterly, 50(1), 3–27. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2008.01131.x Marchiondo, L. A. (2012). What were they thinking? A meaning-making model of workplace incivility from the target’s perspective (Doctoral dissertation). University of Michigan. McAvoy, B., & Murtagh, J. (2003). Workplace bullying the silent epidemic. British Medical Journal, 326(7393), 776–777. doi:10.1136/bmj.326.7393.776 PMID:12689952 Meier, L. L., & Gross, S. (2015). Episodes of incivility between subordinates and supervisors: Examining the role of self-control and time with an interaction-record diary study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36(8), 1096–1113. doi:10.1002/job.2013 Meier, L. L., & Spector, P. E. (2013). Reciprocal effects of work stressors and counterproductive work behavior: A five-wave longitudinal study. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(3), 529–539. doi:10.1037/ a0031732 PMID:23379915 Miner, K. N., & Smittick, A. L. (2016). Workplace incivility, culture of honor, and aggression: Precarious manhood and the demoralized male. Culture. Society & Masculinities, 8(1), 20–38. Muraven, M., Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Self-control as limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 774–789. doi:10.1037/00223514.74.3.774 PMID:9523419 Namie, G. (2003, November). Workplace bullying: Escalated incivility. Ivey Business Journal: Improving the Practice of Management, 1-6. Nicholson, T., & Griffin, B. (2016). Thank goodness it’s Friday: Weekly pattern of workplace incivility. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 1–14. doi:10.1080/10615806.2016.1192150 PMID:27281356 O’Toole, J., & Lawler, E. E. (2006). The New American Workplace. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Osgood, D. W., Wilson, J. K., OMalley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Johnston, L. D. (1996). Routine activities and individual deviant behavior. American Sociological Review, 61(4), 635–655. doi:10.2307/2096397 Pearson, C., & Porath, C. (2005). On the nature, consequences and remedies of workplace incivility: No time for “nice”? Think again. The Academy of Management Executive, 19(1), 7–18. Pearson, C., & Porath, C. (2009). The cost of bad behavior: How incivility is damaging your business and what to do about it. New York: Penguin Books. Pearson, C. M., Andersson, L. M., & Porath, C. L. (2000). Assessing and attacking workplace incivility. Organizational Dynamics, 29(2), 123–137. doi:10.1016/S0090-2616(00)00019-X Pearson, C. M., Andersson, L. M., & Porath, C. L. (2005). Workplace incivility. In S. Fox & P. E. Spector (Eds.), Counterproductive work behaviour: Investigations of actors and targets (pp. 177–200). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10893-008

174

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

Porath, C. L., & Pearson, C. (2013). The price of incivility. Harvard Business Review, 91(1-2), 115–121. PMID:23390745 Rau-Foster, M. (2004). Workplace civility and staff retention. Nephrology Nursing Journal, 31(6), 702. PMID:15686340 Reich, T., & Hershcovis, S. (2015). Observing workplace incivility. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(1), 203–215. doi:10.1037/a0036464 PMID:24731181 Reio, T. G. Jr, & Ghosh, R. (2009). Antecedents and outcomes of workplace incivility: Implications for human resource development research and practice. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 20(3), 237–264. doi:10.1002/hrdq.20020 Rousseau, D. M., Manning, J., & Denyer, D. (2008). Evidence in management and organizational science: Assembling the fields full weight of scientific knowledge through syntheses. The Academy of Management Annals, 2(1), 475–515. doi:10.1080/19416520802211651 Schilpzand, P., De Pater, I. E., & Erez, A. (2016). Workplace incivility: A review of literature and agenda for future research. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37, 57–88. doi:10.1002/job.1976 Skarlicki, D. P., & Folger, R. (1997). Retaliation in the workplace: The roles of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(3), 434–443. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.3.434 Sloan, L., Matyok, T., Schmitz, C. L., & Short, G. (2010). A story to tell: The cost of bullying and mobbing in the workplace. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 1(3), 87–96. Smith, E. R., & Conrey, F. R. (2007). Agent-based modeling: A new approach for theory-building in social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11(1), 87–104. doi:10.1177/1088868306294789 PMID:18453457 Spector, P. E., & Fox, S. (2005). The stressor-emotion model of counterproductive work behavior (CWB). In S. Fox & P. E. Spector (Eds.), Counterproductive work behavior: Investigations of actors and targets (p. 46). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10893-007 Taylor, S. G., & Pattie, M. W. (2014). When does ethical leadership affect workplace incivility? The moderating role of follower personality. Business Ethics Quarterly, 24(4), 595–616. doi:10.5840/ beq201492618 Tepper, B. J. (2000). Consequences of abusive supervision. Academy of Management Journal, 43(2), 178–190. doi:10.2307/1556375 Torkelson, E., Holm, K., Bäckström, M., & Schad, E. (2016). Factors contributing to the perpetration of workplace incivility: The importance of organizational aspects and experiencing incivility from others. Work and Stress, 30(2), 115–131. doi:10.1080/02678373.2016.1175524 PMID:27226677 Totterdell, P., Hershcovis, S. M., Niven, K., Reich, T. C., & Stride, C. (2012). Can employees be emotionally drained by witnessing unpleasant interactions between coworkers? A diary study of induced emotion regulation. Work and Stress, 26(2), 112–129. doi:10.1080/02678373.2012.681153

175

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

Trudel, J., & Reio, T. G. Jr. (2011). Managing workplace incivility: The role of conflict management styles—Antecedent or antidote? Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22(4), 395–423. doi:10.1002/ hrdq.20081 Vagharseyyedin, S. A. (2015). Workplace incivility: A concept analysis. Contemporary Nurse, 50(1), 115–125. doi:10.1080/10376178.2015.1010262 PMID:26213258 van Jaarsveld, D. D., Walker, D. D., & Skarlicki, D. P. (2010). The role of job demands and emotional exhaustion in the relationship between customer and employee incivility. Journal of Management, 36(6), 1486–1504. doi:10.1177/0149206310368998 Weiss, H. M., & Cropanzano, R. (1996). Affective events theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 18, 1–74. Zapf, D., Escartin, J., Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., & Vartia, M. (2011). Empirical findings on prevalence and risk groups of bullying in the workplace. In S. Einarsen., H. Hoel., D. Zapf, & C. Cooper, (Eds.), Bullying and Harassment in the Workplace: Developments in Theory, Research, and Practice (pp. 75-106). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Zhou, Z. E., Yan, Y., Che, X. X., & Meier, L. L. (2015). Effect of workplace incivility on end-of-work negative affect: Examining individual and organizational moderators in a daily diary study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 20(1), 117–130. doi:10.1037/a0038167 PMID:25347686

ADDITIONAL READING Lim, S., Cortina, L. M., & Magley, V. J. (2008). Personal and workgroup incivility: Impact on work and health outcomes. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 95–107. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.95 PMID:18211138 Liu, W., Chi, S. S., Friedman, R., & Tsai, M. (2009). Explaining incivility in the workplace: The effects of personality and culture. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 2(2), 164–184. doi:10.1111/ j.1750-4716.2009.00035.x Marchiondo, L. A. (2012). What were they thinking? A meaning-making model of workplace incivility from the target’s perspective (Doctoral dissertation). University of Michigan. Trudel, J., & Reio, T. G. Jr. (2011). Managing workplace incivility: The role of conflict management styles—Antecedent or antidote? Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22(4), 395–423. doi:10.1002/ hrdq.20081

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Coercive Action: An intentionally harmful social move in interpersonal interactions. Incivility: Rudeness, coarseness, hurtful and inappropriate manners stemming from carelessness. Instigator: Perpetrator of incivility.

176

 Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

Workplace Aggression: Extreme and intentionally hurtful behavior, which is not in line with workplace codes of conduct. Workplace Bullying: A large range of moderately intense, psychologically injurious behaviors perpetrated generally by a group of people against a single person with intention to secure his/her discharge or walkout. Workplace Incivility: Rude and offensive interpersonal communication among colleagues with no specific ulterior motive. It is the lowest level of unacceptable behavior at the workplace. Workplace Violence: Physically damaging abnormal behavior at the workplace.

177

Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

APPENDIX Teaching Notes: A Case Study Ambiguous Path Bridging Incivility to Serial Murder Erdal, a pharmacy technician working at a large pharmacy store of a university hospital in Turkey’s capital of Ankara opened fire and killed four pharmacists in early June, 2016. In his police interview, the perpetrator recounted how events started and unraveled in the period of few months. The very first interpersonal coldness began when he started to feel excluded from launch meetings. Normally, all six of the individuals working at the store used to inform each other via intranet to go to the cafeteria together. Erdal saw Aysen and Jale ceased their talk when he entered the store the other day. He felt something was wrong. Then, he asked about it to another colleague, Mehmet, who gave a very abrupt, and cold response “take care of your own business, don’t make something out of nothing.” A week passed stressfully when Erdal could not be sure of the intentionality of their offensiveness and their changed conduct towards him. Perhaps it was all his apprehension. Feeling uneasy with the new atmosphere at the store, he decided to behave exactly as he was being treated. In few weeks, innuendos about a large amount of lost drugs were apparent. One day he went to Aysen’s office in the store and asked if the reference of these innuendos was him. Aysen, the head of the pharmacy store, being formerly a nice, considerate, and affectionate colleague, yelled at him to go out of her room and know his place from then on. A few days later he received a letter from the prosecution office informing that he was accused of stealing and illegally selling the drugs that belonged to the university hospital’s pharmacy store. Erdal said only after that point could he make a meaning out of the changes in his colleagues’ behaviors, his being missed out of their company, the allusions about the lost drugs, and finally the reminder about his inferior place. He said, “Although I was acquitted of the alleged guilt, they conspired against me and tried to transfer me to another pharmacy department at the university.” Feeling mobbed, Erdal went to Aysen’s office again where she was talking with the other three pharmacists and uttered threats about gunning them down if they do not halt this game. Furthermore, he said in his statement at the police station that he is an honorable person and receiving this kind of maltreatment is difficult to comprehend for a human being. In his own words: “They still continued mistreating me after being accused and cleared of the crime of theft, and it stuck in my gizzard.” On the day of the act, Erdal went to the office to find Aysen, Jale, Mehmet, and Kemal talking at the store’s gate. They informed him that he was being relocated to another office; therefore, they would not let him in the office. Reportedly, Kemal even said, “You may be a lousy schizophrenic, but I believe I am more schizophrenic than you; plus, I know where your children are located”, upon which Erdal lost his self-control, rushed inside, took out the gun he deposed in his locker and shot them all dead. The hospital administrators made a public announcement after Erdal’s arrest: “It was only a matter of ubiquitous and routine interpersonal conflict; nobody could have guessed it would have reached to this point.”

178

Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

1. Questions and Answers 1. What is the main factor leading to the problems related to this case? Problems with setting interpersonal boundaries at work: Although there is a hierarchical culture and an expected power distance at such organizations in Turkey, these people somehow became too familiar with each other and formed unstructured relationships, which caused them to easily transgress the normative boundaries of professionality and regard. As such, hierarchical structure became ambivalent and the requirements of interpersonal decorum were not observed. 2. If you put yourself in Erdal’s position, what would you do after being excluded? The first thing to do would be to understand the reasons of coworkers’ behavior change by openly asking them about it just as Erdal did. After the rebuff, it would be better to resort to an administrative person who could give support and make the arrangements for officially intervening with the uncivil communications. Since the pharmacy store was composed of a team of only six members, and four of them united against Erdal, relocation to another university hospital pharmacy store would be a considerable option, rather than letting the spiral of incivility reach to bullying and violence in sequence only to protect that particular position. 3. Visualize yourself as the HR Manager of this university hospital. What actions would you take if the problem reached you? It is known from previous research that if early signs of incivility are not prevented, there is the likelihood that it will reach to more severe forms of workplace antisocial behavior. Therefore, the first thing to do is to talk with the involved parties individually and learn about their view of the problem and solution proposals. Later, the HRD should settle few alternative solutions with the help of an external consultant or mediator and experts from the compliance department, since the outcomes of such conflicts might be legally binding. While solutions are devised, the parties should not come together, since it may cause further escalation of the confrontations. The solution package should not only include policies structuring and limiting the actions of parties but also a schedule composed of social/psychological support and soft-skills trainings to increase the social skills, self-control and resilience of the the parties. If there was no written workplace codes of conduct and zero-tolerance policy for incivility, they should be prepared immediately with the accompanying sanctions against violations, and the employees should be imbued with these policies until they develop insight about the norms. 4. Considering the hospital administrators’ public announcement after Erdal’s arrest, what can be said about the organizational command of social interactions? Do you think they are responsible for the grisly outcome? The administrators were not aware of the seriousness of uncivil social interactions, since they normalize conflicts with the words “routine” and “ubiquitous.” Most probably there was a well-prepared set of rules in reserve-since at the governmental organizations in Turkey they are carefully prepared- yet

179

Workplace Incivility as Low-Level Violence

considering the immense size of the organization management may have problems in ensuring normconforming behavior. It is apparent that the managers were aware of the conflict, since malversation and theft allegations against Erdal reached to the court. The administrators should have intervened immediately after they were informed of the conflict and prevented its escalation. For this reason, they might be held considerably responsible. 5. Which soft-skill trainings would have been beneficial to prevent this case from happening? In line with the research outcomes, a training program including self-control, stress management, conflict management, coping skills, social communication skills, resilience and teamwork modules would have been beneficial.

2. Epilogue and Lessons Learned This is a contemporary real-life case (only the involved individuals’ names are different) including all major elements highlighted by incivility researchers. It starts with an ambiguous coldness towards Erdal, continues with the scapegoating of him by his team for the lost drugs, takes a turn with Erdal’s decision to reciprocate with an eye for an eye mentality, reaches to a legal allegation against him, and his forced-relocation in spite of the acquittal, to finally culminate in violence, and Erdal’s murder of the four pharmacists. It clearly shows the significance of contingent and relevant organizational response at the first flicker of incivility cues at the workplace. We see the way unhalted incivility progresses towards bullying and workplace violence just as theorized by the progenitors of incivility research, Andersson and Pearson. To prevent this undesirable process, the presence and awareness of zero tolerance policies concerning workplace mistreatment should have been ensured and abidance by the rules and regulations set for delimiting social interactions should have been maintained. Storing a gun at the locker, humiliating a colleague by telling him “know your place,” calling him “schizophrenic,” and threatening to harm his children are clearly ostensibly abnormal workplace behaviors. Technological (e.g., cam recorders) and social controls (i.e., outside witnesses) monitoring the social exchanges, in addition to fortifying trainings against communication barriers and stress which far exceeds endurance budgets would have preventative impact. The lessons learned from this case are: 1. Workplace discipline is important; interpersonal boundaries and communication decorum should be well defined, heeded, and carefully observed. Unstructured socialization should be eschewed, since disorganized relationships bring forth disorganized relational responses. 2. Organizations should not be negligent to interpersonal conflicts and bullying. Doings so would lead to normalization of deviant behavior and leads to the escalation of conflict up until violence. Personal attributes such as self-control (versus impulsivity), emotion-focused coping, dominating conflict management style and cognitive exhaustion would also play significant roles in this escalation. 3. If organizations have grievance procedures and agents (such as an ombudsman) and make these known to the employees, people would not feel deeply helpless. Stress and stress-activated negative affect may overtax individual forbearance limits. If they have a structured path to follow, they will not have to exert extra energy from their limited cognitive capacity to discover potential solutions.

180

181

Chapter 9

Detecting Sexual Harassment in Workplace Electronic Communications Networks: The Role of “PROTEGER” for Augmentive Behaviour Monitoring Jonathan Bishop Centre for Research Into Online Communities and E-Learning Systems, UK

ABSTRACT Sexual harassment has been a problem within organisations for some time. Its manifestation in electronic communication networks can be seen to amount to cyber-bullying or cyber-stalking. Through looking at records relating to an instance of sexual harassment at a higher education institution, including from that member of staff’s workplace, and those created by referrals to the police, the court service, and their workplace, this chapter shows how a piece of assistive technology called the ‘Protective Technology for Ensuring Guardianship of Environmental Resources’ (PROTEGER) can automatically detect sexual harassment narratives. In this context, ‘environmental resources’ should refer to both humans and documents. Human resource managers would be better equipped to deal with disputes between staff if PROTEGER was running on their local area network as it might not be a matter of one member of staff’s word against another’s.

INTRODUCTION The modern workplace is one often underpinned by electronic communications and the production of documents through software and other electronic means. In those organisations that have significant levels of management there are often power struggles and behaviours carried out to increase authority through promotion and other forms of achieving a higher status and greater influence. What is often not discussed, especially in the drive to create sex equality, is the abuse of sex to gain and use power. The psychology of such actions is often only observable in the real world, in terms of the shunning of DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2250-8.ch009

Copyright © 2017, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

 Detecting Sexual Harassment in Workplace Electronic Communications Networks

people through body language or other ways of belittling through tone of voice or facial expression. Therefore, this chapter seeks to define a computer system that can understand how the pursuit of power manifests as a form of sexual harassment in those workplaces based around electronic communications and document creation. To achieve this goal, documents produced by a manager engaged in the sexual harassment of a student with a disability who was a vulnerable adult is used to, on the one hand show how they achieved their power with a rhetoric of wanting to achieve equality, and on the other hand used that power to do the opposite.

DEFINING SEXUAL HARASSMENT Sexual harassment is not about sex; rather, it is about power (Dougherty, 2006; Tinsley, & Stockdale, 1993). Another key factor is that sexual harassment has at the heart of it sexism (Dziech & Weiner, 1990), which can be in the form of chivalrous attitudes and behaviours (Bishop, 2015c). Those organisations whose ‘psychology’ is based on the pursuit of power, while at the same time carrying a rhetoric of equality of opportunity, are at greatest risk of intersectionality resulting in dominance being sought as a means to enable oppression and discrimination (Seabright, 2012; Van de Velde, Huijts, Bracke, & Bambra, 2013). Table 1 presents several concepts that have been aggregated from several different sources to explain how an algorithm – like that initiated by this chapter – can be used to distinguish between those documents that show no risk of sexual harassment or abuse of intersectional imaginations of equality and those that do. The first of these is trolling magnitude (TM) which refers to the seriousness of a set of one or more actions of trolling by one person towards another. A TM of 1 is light banter and not serious, whereas a TM of 4 relates to a sophisticated campaign that requires serious effort by the troller and serious harm to their victim. The second of these, seduction gravity, refers to the risk that if a document were to get into the hands of someone for whom it was not intended, this could prey on their mind or provoke unwanted behaviours. The third, namely trolling intensity, refers to the amount of effort a person is exerting to achieve the desired outcome. These categories are based on a long-established model of trolling (Jansen, 2002; Jansen, & James, 1995) describing how trolling ranges from being light entertainment for all to enjoy (i.e., Playtime) to that which causes harm to one or more individuals for a sustained period (i.e., Domination). Table 1. The trolling magnitude scale and associated categories of behaviour TM

Seduction Gravity

Trolling Intensity

Befriending Mode

1

Exempt

Playtime

Cyberbantering

2

Universal

Tactical

Cyber-trickery

3

Advisory

Strategic

Cyber-bullying

4

Explicit

Domination

Cyber-hickery

182

Kudos Motive

Description

Cybertrolling (for the lols)

In the moment and quickly regret.

Cyberstalking (for the lulz)

Go out of way to cause problems, but without a sustained and planned long-term campaign.

In the moment but don’t regret and continue.

Goes out of the way to create rich media to target one or more specific individuals.

 Detecting Sexual Harassment in Workplace Electronic Communications Networks

The fourth is the befriending mode – or defriending mode depending on one’s point of view. All four types can, for someone who is enjoying it, result in befriending and for those who are not enjoying it result in defriending. Cyber-bantering might be employed in the development of new relationships and cyber-hickery could occur where people might become friends after engaging in an intense flamewar that is, nevertheless, consensual and mutually enjoyed. In terms of that which leads to defriending, cyber-bantering might be where someone says something offensive to someone one does not know well but might be a friend of a friend, whereas cyber-hickery might involve the long-term abuse of a public figure the person has never met, commonly called “stranger stalking.” The fifth is kudos motive – or flaming motive – and refers to the reason why someone says something, such as whether it is friendly and therefore kudos and nasty and therefore a flame. If someone posts a message for the mutual benefit of others, then it is cyber-trolling and done for the ‘lols’ (for shared fun) and if it is intended to harm at least one other person then it is cyber-stalking and done for the ‘lulz’ (the enjoyment of a select few).

IMPACT OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT ON THOSE WITHIN AN ORGANISATION It has been argued that harassment must be considered at the team-level of organisations (Raver & Gelfand, 2005). Some of the signs that an organization might have a culture of sexual harassment is that if a specific sex dominates a certain section of the organization (Bell, Quick, & Cycyota, 2002). It has been argued that if an organization makes clear its objective to remove sexual harassment, this will have a positive effect in terms of encouraging victims to come forward and deterring perpetrators from practising it (Keyton, Ferguson, & Rhodes, 2001). As is clear from this study, the biggest overriding factor within an organisation that allows sexual harassment to occur is the acceptance of autocratic practices in the managers or others with power (Dougherty, Lutgen-Sandvik, & Sypher, 2009).

CONCEIVING SEXUAL HARASSMENT AS A FORM OF DIGITAL ADDICTION In this chapter, the term “digital addiction” is used to refer to the fact that some people with compulsive behaviours – including the tendency to use their power to abuse others they perceive weaker than them – will use digital technologies to enable those compulsions to be manifested in a way that benefits them, but may be to the detriment of others. The next section explains how digital addiction can occur in an organisational context and then the following sections describe a system that can be used to identify those who might be suffering from digital addiction and using the power invested in them to gain satisfaction for themselves but cause harm to others through sexual harassment. This is looked at from the point of view of a manager who uses her power to sexually harass a student with a disability, including using false victim narratives to present that student as if they are the ones doing the harassing, by using the fact that they are a woman to convey that they are a victim in the same way that status was used to obtain the position in the first place, albeit by claiming it meant they deserved power in the name of sex equality.

183

 Detecting Sexual Harassment in Workplace Electronic Communications Networks

THE DIGITAL ADDICTION CYCLE AND DEVELOPMENT OF A SEXUAL HARASSMENT-BASED PSYCHOPATHY The Internet was once seen as a bastion of free speech where one could say anything without any repercussions (Barlow, 1996). This has changed somewhat in recent times, with freedom of expression on the Internet being limited in various legal jurisdictions (Bishop, 2011a). In the United Kingdom, the Malicious Communications Act of 1988, the Protection from Harassment Act of 1997, and the Communications Act 2003, are among only three heavily used laws that have a function for enabling the censorship of those who say things contrary to the liking of the established media and political institutions (Bishop, 2014d). In the United States of America, there are several federal laws that can be used to tackle Internet trolling, as is the term now given to posting provocative or offensive messages on the Internet (Bishop, 2014f). What has become clear in recent years is that anti-trolling legislation has been used by the establishment to censor those who question or criticise their self-indulgent reputations which they may not deserve. Such a person is explored in this chapter to identify the characteristics of such persons who try to use the legal system to present a rosier picture of them than is the case. Called ‘troll-callers,’ because they accuse people of trolling to vilify those who criticise them, these people will use all methods at their disposal to improve representations of themselves online.

Understanding Psychopathy in the Modern Workplace Based Around Electronic Communications Most workplaces now have some connection with the Internet. Electronic communications are a standard part of business practice. However, the same social and indeed psychological problems that existed prior to the mass adoption of the Internet now manifest through electronic communications.

Seduction Gravity: Exempt, Universal, Advisory, Explicit It is widely recognised that ratings of video recordings are there to both advise and protect viewers from harm. It has been argued that in terms of virtual environments this process can be automated (Bishop, 2014g). Some video recordings that are rated ‘exempt’ can in the wrong hands be as shocking as that which is rated explicit. For instance, a sex education video that is rated ‘exempt’ could still reactivate traumatic memories in a victim of rape to the same extent that ‘explicit’ pornography could deprave those with no experience of sexual imagery. This makes developing systems to detect sexual harassment difficult. For instance, an invitation to a meeting might seem like a normal practice, but if requested by someone who is sexually harassing another, it could indicate an intention to subject that person to further harm. In victims of abuse, where memories of that abuse could be considered ‘explicit,’ then exposure to similar events that might be considered ‘exempt’ by others could reactivate that trauma. In some people, such as with digital addiction, this might be intentional. Therefore, for instance, a chatroom bob who is a victim of sex abuse would be traumatised when experiencing that stimuli at an exempt level and so seek out imagery that is explicit to offset the effects of re-exposure (Bishop, 2012b). The selection of ‘explicit’ materials of offset unwanted trauma from being exposed to ‘exempt’ materials could be seen as a form of digital addiction (Alrobai, Phalp, & Ali, 2014; Bishop, 2014g; Bishop, 2015a; Solo & Bishop, 2015).

184

 Detecting Sexual Harassment in Workplace Electronic Communications Networks

Trolling Intensity: Playtime, Tactical, Strategic, Domination Internet trolling has been allowed to continue because of the inhibitions on the Internet when the perpetrator has a degree of anonymity, most often in the form of pseudonymity, where they have an identity which is not their own (Herring, Job-Sluder, Scheckler, & Barab, 2002). Many of those who practise Internet trolling consider their actions to be meaningless and not intended to harm (Craker & March, 2016). Trolls see their actions as harmless, even though the way trolling is done today is different from what it was like in the past (Coles & West, 2016). Conceptualising the intensity of trolling in terms of whether it is playtime, tactical, strategic or domination is therefore an effective practice (Jansen, 2002; Jansen & James, 1995). Playtime is usually acceptable, tactical and strategic might be considered grey areas, whereas domination is always harmful and mostly unacceptable. In terms of sexual harassment, playtime might be an inappropriate but one off sexist joke, whereas domination might be a campaign of harassment where someone uses the fact they are a minority sex to gain control over those of the opposite sex who do not have the power they do.

Befriending/Defriending Mode: Cyber-Bantering, CyberTrickery, Cyber-Bullying, Cyber-Hickery The befriending and defriending concepts are important in understanding how sexual harassment can manifest in the modern workplace. Harmless banter can promote befriending, but where there is a prior history between two people, one of the parties might intensify their need to defriend the other person. However, when a person carrying out the sexual harassment is in a position of power, the opportunity to defriend them might be limited, as was the case of the study in this chapter. Cyber-trickery can include a more sophisticated form of winding someone up, but can again amount to sexual harassment if the focus is on the difference between the sex and/or power of the person carrying out the sexual harassment compared to the person receiving it. Cyber-bullying is where the sexual harassment begins to have an effect, such as where a person starts to feel they no longer want to be in the organisation, but they might have to be so that they can meet their goals, which in the case of the victim in the study in this chapter was to obtain an educational qualification not available at other organisations. Cyber-hickery is a serious campaign of harassment involving many steps, like the study in this chapter, where the person conducting the sexual harassment involved the police and other authorities to harass their victim by falsely claiming they were the victim and relying on the benevolent sexism in the police to achieve that sexual harassment.

Kudos/Flaming Modes: Cyber-Trolling (for the LOLs) and Cyber-Stalking (for the LULZ) Internet trolling has become a widely-adopted term to refer to the practice of posting messages on the Internet, which are either provocative or offensive. The term appears to have had a similar journey to flaming. A flame originally referred to a post to an online community that was passionately spoken (Marcus & Watters, 2002), but has since come to mean the posting of offensive messages (Jansen, 2002; Jansen & James, 1995). Trolling once simply meant the posting of provocative messages for humorous effect, and now because of change of use by the media to fit their agendas has come to mean the posting of any messages on the Internet that are of an abusive nature (Bishop, 2014d). 185

 Detecting Sexual Harassment in Workplace Electronic Communications Networks

A Model for Understanding Psychopathy in the Modern Workplace There are three stages of a person developing digital addiction to the point that it results in them compulsively cyber-stalking. These include the following: (1) serotonergic-dopaminergic asynchronicity (Bishop, 2011b; Bishop, 2012b), (2) histrionic personality disorder (Mohandie, Hatcher, & Raymond, 1998), and (3) false-victimisation syndrome (Mohandie et al., 1998; Pathe, Mullen, & Purcell, 1999). Figure 1 shows how the second of these – histrionic personality disorder – sits among other personality disorders. Most particularly there is anti-social personality disorder, which is associated with a group of trollers known as Haters (Bishop, 2013c). Those with histrionic personality disorder can be seen to be associated with Lolcows.

Cycle 1 Outcome: Serotonergic-Dopaminergic Asynchronicity Serotonergic-dopaminergic asynchronicity (SDA) is the name given to a neurological imbalance where lesions or impaired synaptic flow result in dopamine and serotonin receptors activating in such a way to cause distress and not relief to the affected person (Bishop, 2011b; Bishop, 2012b; Bishop, 2014g). SDA includes conditions referred to in Figure 1. It is also argued that while most people obtain satisfaction from increased dopamine and reduced serotonin, troll-callers who claim others are stalking or harassing them online actually enjoy the anxiety that comes from higher serotonin levels, which people who are being stalked might not desire. As dopamine and serotonin are often high in the levels of successful or famous people, then it is easy to see how ordinary people thrown into the spotlight could want to regain the intense emotions they had at that initial point. Table 2 sets out the prefrontal cortex functions that impact on SDA and what effect this has.

Cycle 2 Outcome – Histrionic Personality Disorder Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD) is a recognised condition for those who show neurotic behaviours. The ease of anonymity on the Internet might, therefore, show how easy it is for people with HPD to be able to make allegations as false victims in order to feed their need for attention and other factors considered in Table 3, which is based on the ICD-10 descriptor of the World Health Organisation (Loranger, Janca, & Sartorius, 1997). As was seen in Figure 1, HPD is a neurotic spectrum disorder that interacts with other personality disorders, including schizoid, borderline and avoidant. Researchers to date have found strong relationFigure 1. Personality disorders (based on the preference continuum)

186

 Detecting Sexual Harassment in Workplace Electronic Communications Networks

Table 2. Impairments associated with serotonergic-dopaminergic asynchronicity (SDA) Prefrontal Cortex Function

SDA Impairment

Description

Problem-solving

Preoccupation with problem-solving

People with SDA often seek senior positions of employment or to be the dominant force in a relationship, where problem-solving is a key part. Solving problems – some of which are not theirs – gives a sense of control and certainty. Some people with SDA have isolated lives where loss of control is not an issue.

Empathy

Empathy based on reasoning not emotion

People with SDA often are unable to feel the emotional states of others through simulation. Their empathy for others is based on beliefs and values, a sense of right and wrong, or identification with one of their personal characteristics.

Working memory

Inefficient working memory

A person with SDA has difficulty in social situations and others where working memory is essential. They might not be able to follow a conversation where a contribution differs from one they made, or will take a conversation in a different direction to the one it is on.

Self-control

Repetitive lapses of self-control

People with SDA often have difficulties in terms of self-control. They might not have control over their internal mental states and so seeking some form of external control – whether through withdrawing from society or seeking to control others – is often the response.

Deception

Deception as to latent emotions

Due to conflicts between their ideal wellbeing and goals and their actual competencies people with SDA will seek to deceive as to their true emotions. This may be trying to hide unwanted emotional expression or exaggerating emotions to achieve a particular outcome.

Conscience

Pre-occupation with conscience and dilemma

People with SDA often experience a difference between what they want and what they have. There may be personal characteristics that have developed from life-changing incidents contrary to their ideal perception of themselves. Drama provides a way for someone with SDA to avoid crises of conscience in other aspects of their lives.

Table 3. Factors that define histrionic personality disorder Factor

Description and Examples

Shallow and labile affectivity

Feelings change very suddenly and unexpectedly, sometimes for no obvious reason. The emotions involved are not necessarily negative ones, such as anxiety, depression, and irritability, but may include enthusiasm, warmth, joy, etc.

Self-dramatization

Almost always shows feelings in a very obvious way for others to see.

Theatricality

Theatrical or frequent exaggerated expression of emotions, regularly displayed.

Exaggerated expression of emotions

The emotions expressed by the person do not reflect what would normally be expected in the situation.

Suggestibility

The person is easily influenced by others or circumstances.

Egocentricity

The person is primarily focussed on their needs and wants to the exclusion of others.

Self-indulgence

The person sees it as their role to carry out specific behaviours to ‘benefit’ others when in fact it is to benefit themselves.

Lack of consideration for others

In meeting their needs, wants or goals, the person has disregard for others, including those they claim to be acting in the interests of.

Easily hurt feelings

The person is easily offended or upset by things someone else in the same position would not be.

Continuous seeking for appreciation, excitement and attention.

The person is constantly seeking assurance of their own self-worth, and will go to extraordinary lengths to get experiences that confirm their self-defined importance.

187

 Detecting Sexual Harassment in Workplace Electronic Communications Networks

ships between HPD and false victimisation syndrome in people who make false reports of harassment and stalking (Mohandie et al., 1998), as is the case with troll-callers.

Cycle 3 Outcome – False Victimisation Syndrome False-Victimisation Syndrome (FVS) involves persons who consciously or unconsciously want to play the role of a victim by claiming someone else is stalking them, when in fact it is them stalking by making the accusations (Goode, 1996; Hubbard, 2008). FVS has not yet been viewed in a way to provide descriptions, explanations or interventions for the problem (Mohandie et al., 1998). In all cases, FVS involves a person falsely claiming to be a victim to gain attention (Kamphuis & Emmelkamp, 2000). Cases of troll-callers claiming to be victims of cyber-harassment are becoming common, and in many cases these are false. Most notably, allegations were made following the death of teenager Hannah Smith that she was a victim of flame trolling on the anonymous website ask.fm, which was later shown to be Smith trolling herself. A similar instance occurred in the case of Michelle Chapman who reported that her parents had been abusing her on Facebook and following a police investigation it was established that Chapman had been posting the messages from her parents’ computer without their permission. It is therefore argued that troll-callers resemble the characteristics of people who suffer from false-victimisation syndrome and histrionic personality disorder (Mohandie et al., 1998). Table 4 suggests how to differentiate between false and genuine reports of stalking.

DEVELOPING “PROTEGER” FOR THE MONITORING OF SIGNS OF DIGITAL ADDICTION AND SEXUAL HARASSMENT IN NETWORKED ENVIRONMENTS This study aims to identify in documentary evidence the behaviours typical of someone suffering from Histrionic Personal Disorder and False Victimisation Syndrome. The study relates to an investigation Table 4. Sheridan & Blaauw’s differentiating factors between false and genuine reporters of stalking Factor

Differences between false/genuine stalking reporters

Victim Characteristics

There are few differences in the sex/gender of genuine stalking reporters compared to false ones, and marital status is also not a factor. Those who make false reports are generally older years (>=42 years) than those who make genuine reports (50 years) than genuine stalkers (