Guide to Basic Medical Terminology [1 ed.] 9788024630816, 9788024622118

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Guide to Basic Medical TerMinology

karel černý ka r ol inum

Guide to Basic Medical Terminology Karel Černý

Reviewers: PhDr. Hana Bouzková Mgr. Bohdana Divišová Published by Charles University in Prague Karolinum Press as a teaching text for students of the First Faculty of Medicine Layout by Jan Šerých Typesed by DTP Karolinum First reprint, first edition Text has not been revised by publisher ISBN 978-80-246-2211-8 ISBN 978-80-246-3081-6 (online : pdf)

Univerzita Karlova v Praze Nakladatelství Karolinum 2015 www.karolinum.cz [email protected]

content

preface ––––––––––––– 11 part 1: dentistry and general medicine – 1st term ––––––––––––– 13 Glossary of Basic Terms ––––––––––––– 15 List of Abbreviations ––––––––––––– 17 lesson 1 (General Overview, Notes on Pronunciation, Reading) ––––––––––––– 18 General Overview ––––––––––––– 18 Spelling in Medical Terminology ––––––––––––– 19 Pronunciation in Medical Terminology ––––––––––––– 19 Further Examples of Medieval Pronunciation ––––––––––––– 21 Exercises ––––––––––––– 22 Homework ––––––––––––– 22 lesson 2 (Grammatical Case, Number, and Gender) ––––––––––––– 23 Grammatical Case ––––––––––––– 23 Which Cases are Used in Medical Terminology? ––––––––––––– 24 Difference between “of ” and “and” ––––––––––––– 24 Grammatical Number ––––––––––––– 25 Grammatical Gender ––––––––––––– 25 Summary ––––––––––––– 26 Homework ––––––––––––– 26 lesson 3 (1st Declension) ––––––––––––– 27 Review ––––––––––––– 27 Five Declensions ––––––––––––– 27 Paradigm ––––––––––––– 27 Summary ––––––––––––– 29 Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 29 Exercises ––––––––––––– 31 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 32 Homework ––––––––––––– 32 lesson 4 (2nd Declension) ––––––––––––– 33 Review ––––––––––––– 33 Introduction ––––––––––––– 33 Masculine Paradigms ––––––––––––– 33 Neutral Paradigms ––––––––––––– 34 Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 35 Exercises ––––––––––––– 37 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 38 lesson 5 (1st and 2nd Declension Adjectives) ––––––––––––– 39 Review ––––––––––––– 39 Attribute ––––––––––––– 39 Syntax ––––––––––––– 40

Paradigm ––––––––––––– 41 Exception ––––––––––––– 42 Examples ––––––––––––– 42 Summary ––––––––––––– 43 Vocabulary of Adjectives from the 1st and 2nd Declension ––––––––––––– 43 Exercises ––––––––––––– 45 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 46 Homework ––––––––––––– 46 lesson 6 (4th and 5th Declension) ––––––––––––– 47 Review ––––––––––––– 47 Introduction ––––––––––––– 47 Paradigm of the 4th Declension ––––––––––––– 48 Paradigm of the 5th Declension ––––––––––––– 49 Combination with Adjectives ––––––––––––– 49 Summary ––––––––––––– 50 Vocabulary of the 4th Declension ––––––––––––– 50 Vocabulary of the 5th Declension ––––––––––––– 51 Exercises ––––––––––––– 52 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 53 Homework ––––––––––––– 53 lesson 7 (3rd Declension Imparisyllabics) ––––––––––––– 54 Review ––––––––––––– 54 Introduction ––––––––––––– 54 Division of the 3rd Declension ––––––––––––– 55 Change in Stem ––––––––––––– 55 Paradigms ––––––––––––– 56 Examples of Stem Change ––––––––––––– 57 Combination with Adjectives ––––––––––––– 57 Summary ––––––––––––– 58 Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 58 Exercises ––––––––––––– 62 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 63 Homework ––––––––––––– 63 lesson 8 (3rd Declension Parisyllabics) ––––––––––––– 64 Review ––––––––––––– 64 Introduction ––––––––––––– 64 Identification of Parisyllabic Groups ––––––––––––– 64 Paradigm ––––––––––––– 66 Summary ––––––––––––– 67 Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 67 Exercises ––––––––––––– 69 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 70 Homework ––––––––––––– 70 lesson 9 (3rd Declension Adjectives) ––––––––––––– 71 Review ––––––––––––– 71 Introduction ––––––––––––– 71 Identification and Vocabulary Form ––––––––––––– 72 Paradigm ––––––––––––– 72 Summary ––––––––––––– 74 Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 74 Exercises ––––––––––––– 76 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 77 Homework ––––––––––––– 77

lesson 10 (Clinical Terminology – Stems and Endings) ––––––––––––– 78 Review ––––––––––––– 78 Role of Ancient Greek in Medical Terminology ––––––––––––– 78 Stems ––––––––––––– 79 Endings ––––––––––––– 80 Latin or Greek ––––––––––––– 81 Grammar ––––––––––––– 82 Summary ––––––––––––– 82 Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 83 Stems ––––––––––––– 83 Endings ––––––––––––– 85 Exercises ––––––––––––– 86 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 87 Homework ––––––––––––– 87 lesson 11 (Clinical Terminology – Prefixes, Review Lesson) ––––––––––––– 88 Review ––––––––––––– 88 Prefixes ––––––––––––– 88 Vocabulary of Prefixes ––––––––––––– 89 Additional Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 90 Exercises ––––––––––––– 90 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 91 part 2: general medicine – 2nd term ––––––––––––– 93 lesson 12 (Review) ––––––––––––– 95 Dictionary Form ––––––––––––– 95 Dictionary Form of Noun ––––––––––––– 95 Dictionary Form of Adjective ––––––––––––– 96 Syntactical Relations ––––––––––––– 96 Noun + Noun ––––––––––––– 96 Noun + Adjective ––––––––––––– 97 Nouns ––––––––––––– 97 Grammatical Cases ––––––––––––– 97 Grammatical Number ––––––––––––– 98 Declensions ––––––––––––– 98 List of Paradigms of Nouns from the First Part of the Course ––––––––––––– 99 Adjectives ––––––––––––– 99 Clinical terminology ––––––––––––– 100 lesson 13 (Prepositions) ––––––––––––– 101 Introduction ––––––––––––– 101 Division of Prepositions ––––––––––––– 101 Prepositions with Nouns and Adjectives ––––––––––––– 102 Prepositions a, ab, e, ex, in, sub ––––––––––––– 102 Summary ––––––––––––– 103 Vocabulary of Prepositions ––––––––––––– 103 Exercises ––––––––––––– 104 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 105 Homework ––––––––––––– 105 lesson 14 (1st and 2nd Declension with Prepositions) ––––––––––––– 106 Review ––––––––––––– 106 Introduction ––––––––––––– 106 Paradigm ––––––––––––– 106 Gender Exceptions ––––––––––––– 108 Summary ––––––––––––– 108 Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 109 Exercises ––––––––––––– 110

Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 111 Homework ––––––––––––– 111 lesson 15 (1st and 2nd Declension Adjectives, Adjectives Used as Nouns) ––––––––––––– 112 Review ––––––––––––– 112 Introduction ––––––––––––– 112 Paradigm ––––––––––––– 113 Complex Latin Medical Expressions ––––––––––––– 114 Adjectives as Nouns ––––––––––––– 115 Summary ––––––––––––– 115 Vocabulary of Adjectives ––––––––––––– 116 Vocabulary of Adjectives Used as Nouns ––––––––––––– 117 Exercises ––––––––––––– 117 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 118 Homework ––––––––––––– 119 lesson 16 (4th and 5th Declension) ––––––––––––– 120 Review ––––––––––––– 120 Introduction ––––––––––––– 120 Paradigm ––––––––––––– 121 4th and 5th Declension Noun with Adjective ––––––––––––– 121 Summary ––––––––––––– 121 Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 122 Exercises ––––––––––––– 122 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 123 Homework ––––––––––––– 123 lesson 17 (3rd Declension Imparisyllabics) ––––––––––––– 124 Review ––––––––––––– 124 Introduction ––––––––––––– 124 Stem Change ––––––––––––– 125 Paradigm ––––––––––––– 126 Summary ––––––––––––– 127 Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 127 Exercises ––––––––––––– 127 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 128 Homework ––––––––––––– 129 lesson 18 (3rd Declension Parisyllabics) ––––––––––––– 130 Review ––––––––––––– 130 Introduction ––––––––––––– 130 Identification of Various Paradigms ––––––––––––– 131 Step by Step Directions ––––––––––––– 132 Paradigm auris and dens ––––––––––––– 132 Paradigm basis and febris ––––––––––––– 133 Paradigm rete ––––––––––––– 134 Summary ––––––––––––– 134 Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 134 Exercises ––––––––––––– 134 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 136 Homework ––––––––––––– 136 lesson 19 (3rd Declension Adjectives) ––––––––––––– 137 Review ––––––––––––– 137 Introduction ––––––––––––– 137 Paradigm ––––––––––––– 138 Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 140 Exercises ––––––––––––– 140 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 141 Homework ––––––––––––– 142

lesson 20 (Comparison of Adjectives) ––––––––––––– 143 Review ––––––––––––– 143 Introduction ––––––––––––– 143 Comparatives and Superlatives Created with Auxiliary Adverbs ––––––––––––– 144 Comparative Paradigm ––––––––––––– 145 Superlative Paradigm ––––––––––––– 146 Exceptions ––––––––––––– 146 Adjectives without Positives ––––––––––––– 147 Irregular Superlatives ––––––––––––– 147 Irregular Adjectives ––––––––––––– 148 Summary ––––––––––––– 148 Exercises ––––––––––––– 149 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 150 Homework ––––––––––––– 150 lesson 21 (Clinical Terminology, Numerals) ––––––––––––– 151 Review ––––––––––––– 151 Introduction ––––––––––––– 151 Numerals ––––––––––––– 151 Declinable vs. Non-Declinable Cardinals ––––––––––––– 152 Subtracting from Tens ––––––––––––– 152 Paradigms of Numerals ––––––––––––– 155 Paradigm of Numeral One ––––––––––––– 155 Paradigm of Numeral Two ––––––––––––– 155 Paradigm of Numeral Three ––––––––––––– 155 Paradigm for Hundreds ––––––––––––– 156 Use of Complex Numbers ––––––––––––– 156 Additional Clinical Terminology ––––––––––––– 157 Summary ––––––––––––– 158 Exercises ––––––––––––– 158 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 159 Homework ––––––––––––– 160 lesson 22 (Introduction to Verbs, Vocabulary of Remedies, Latin Medical Prescription) ––––––––––––– 161 Review ––––––––––––– 161 Introduction ––––––––––––– 161 Verbs ––––––––––––– 162 Remedies ––––––––––––– 163 Vocabulary of Remedies ––––––––––––– 164 Medical prescriptions ––––––––––––– 165 Summary ––––––––––––– 166 Exercises ––––––––––––– 167 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 168 Homework ––––––––––––– 168 lesson 23 (Greek Paradigms) ––––––––––––– 169 Review ––––––––––––– 169 Introduction ––––––––––––– 169 Paradigm Systole ––––––––––––– 170 Vocabulary of Greek Type Systole ––––––––––––– 171 Paradigm Diabetes ––––––––––––– 171 Greek Adjectival Endings “-genes”, “-ides”, “-morphes” ––––––––––––– 172 Exercises ––––––––––––– 173 Correct Answers ––––––––––––– 173 General Vocabulary ––––––––––––– 175

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preface

The Guide offers an introduction to Latin Medical Terminology on a level and in accordance with requirements of the university programmes of dentistry and general medicine. As these study programmes are accredited in the Czech Republic, the course has to reflect certain specifics of the Czech medical environment, most notably its strong focus on Latin grammar. In this sense the Guide differs from textbooks that are used for the same subject in other European countries, because they often emphasise medical aspect of the Medical Terminology, while the Czech course aims to build a philological understanding. Among other things the difference is apparent from the structure of foreign textbooks, where lessons are often concentrated on various anatomical structures, pathological, or physiological principles. Contrariwise, this Guide is built around philological principles describing types of nouns, adjectives, and later even prepositions or verbs used in Latin language. As a result the students following our course will have knowledge of Medical Terminology which probably surpasses that of an ordinary English, French, or German student of medicine. On the other hand there are disadvantages as well, because the general overview of the human body, usually offered in the courses of medical terminology has to be provided by different subjects like anatomy or physiology. Apart from this fundamental difference from other courses of Medical Terminology, we would like to comment on four points, which seem important for understanding the exposition, the aim, and the structure of this book. First, our goal was to provide as unsophisticated description of grammatical features as possible. Consequently, we had to sacrifice certain philological principles that would perhaps point to a wider context, but make the subject more difficult to understand for an ordinary student of medicine or dentistry with no interest in further pursuing the study of Latin. Second, we had to take in consideration a broad spectrum of foreign students who take courses of general medicine or dentistry in the Czech Republic. Therefore we have also strived to create a textbook free from the language and cultural background. This requirement means that there are some parts of the exposition which may seem superfluous to students, whose mother language belongs to Indo-European language family. For similar reasons we also focus on repetition of certain fundamental

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grammatical and syntactical features, which is why nearly every lesson is provided with a review at the beginning and a summary wrapping up the exposition itself. Third, we do not want to interrupt the continuity of education of the Medical Terminology at the First Faculty of Medicine. As a result, the bulk of the vocabulary and most of the grammar in this Guide are similar to these, which are used by the textbook written by Dana Svobodová.1 What is different, however, is a general approach and structure of the course. And finally, unlike the already existing textbook, this Guide offers two-layered approach. What does it mean? Let us take the structure of Latin nouns as an example. The existing textbook distributes five declensions over most of the year so that during the winter term students are taught first three with the rest coming during the summer term. This approach is acceptable for the study of general medicine, which has, at the First Faculty of Medicine, a two-term course of Medical Terminology. On the other hand, it makes the adaptation of Svobodová’s textbook to the curriculum of dentistry very difficult, because dentistry has only one-term course. To avoid this difficulty, the Guide consists of two independent parts; the first one contains the whole Latin grammar, but only on the basic level, while the second part discusses the same grammatical and syntactical features but in much greater detail. We believe that this approach has three advantages. The first part of this Guide can be used both by students of general medicine and dentistry while offering a simple but comprehensive insight into the subject. The second part forces students of general medicine to review the basics from the winter term as they are led once again through the same topics. Finally, it allows students of dentistry, who would be interested in further study of Latin, to continue the course in form of non-compulsory subject studying together with a general medicine group.

1

Dana Svobodová: An introduction to Greco-Latin medical terminology. Prague, 2006.

part 1 / preface

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part 1: dentistry and general medicine – 1st term

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glossary of basic terms

ablative grammatical case Ablative grammatical case, abbreviated Abl., is form of noun or adjective, which follows after some prepositions.

accusative grammatical case This grammatical case, abbreviated Acc., is used with part of prepositions.

adjective An Adjective is a word class which qualifies noun. It describes a particular quality or property of a noun.

dictionary form The Dictionary form of word contains the word itself and additional information which is necessary for its correct use.2 It is called “dictionary” because it usually serves as a dictionary entry. Structure of the dictionary form varies depending on word class, because it has to provide different information for each.

genitive grammatical case Genitive Grammatical Case, abbreviated Gen., is a form of noun or adjective which is used in nominal attributes. It is similar to preposition “of ” or possessive “’s” in English. 2

Let us take Latin word corpus (body) as an example. The word itself doesn’t provide sufficient information on grammar. Therefore the whole dictionary form corpus, -poris n. is necessary to know that corpus (a) belongs to the 3rd declension, (b) its genitive singular is corporis, and (c) its gender is neutral.

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grammatical case The grammar “case” is a form of word (usually noun, pronoun or adjective) which express its role in a sentence. In English, the “case” is indicated either by word order or by the ending, with the former possibility being much more prevalent. However, many languages use different approach and rely heavily on a system of endings which signify the “case” instead of the word order. Number of cases used in various languages differs significantly, Latin employs six cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and ablative) with only four actually useful for purpose of the medical terminology (those are: nominative, genitive, accusative, and ablative).

grammatical number Grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, adjectives, and other word classes, which expresses count distinctions. In Latin as well as English there are only two possible sub-categories: singular (signifies only one thing) and plural (more than one thing).

grammatical gender Gender is a grammatical category of nouns and pronouns. In Latin, there are three genders: masculine, feminine, and neutral. Every Latin noun has a gender. In English, genders are usually assigned to nouns on the basis of natural gender, which means that terms for individuals who are males are considered masculine, terms for female individuals are feminine, and all the rest is generally thought to be neutral. In other languages (German, Czech as well as Latin) the gender of noun results from an arbitrary convention; therefore it is not important whether we consider the thing to be “male” or “female”. This type of gender cannot be guessed from the word itself, it is something you have to remember.

nominative grammatical case Nominative Grammatical Case, abbreviated Nom., is the basic form of noun or adjective. In complex medical expressions the subject is given in Nominative.

noun Noun is a word class used to name a person, animal, place, thing or abstract idea. It is the most frequent word class in the medical terminology. Most medical expressions contain at least one noun, which may or may not be accompanied by an adjective.

part 1 / preface

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paradigm Word “Paradigm” is used throughout this textbook to describe specific pattern of endings expressing different grammatical cases. By “paradigm” we usually also refer to a sample word which serves as reference pattern for particular declension. For example in the first declension the paradigm would be vena (vein) with all its subsequent changes i.e. venae, venam, vena, venae, venarum, venas, venis.

word classes The Word Class is a linguistic category which describes word as a subject of morphological and syntactic changes. In medical terminology generally only four word classes are used – prepositions, nouns, adjectives,3 and verbs. Furthermore from these four only two (nouns and adjectives) are common. Combinations involving verbs are less frequent, since we use them nearly exclusively in imperative sentences as a part of medical prescriptions. Latin prepositions are usually part of anatomical descriptions, they signify that something is “above”, “under”, “outside”, or moves “through” an anatomical structure.

list of abbreviations Abl. Acc. f. Gen. m. n. Nom. Pl. Sg.

3

Ablative grammatical case Accusative grammatical case Feminine grammatical gender Genitive grammatical case Masculine grammatical gender Neutral grammatical gender Nominative grammatical case Plural grammatical number Singular grammatical number

For purpose of this course we will consider numerals to be adjectives.

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lesson 1 (general overview, notes on pronunciation, reading)

general overview Medical Terminology describes an artificial form of communication which is used to convey professional information in medical context. It does not cover all the interaction which happens in the medical environment, because of its limitation to professionals. The medical terminology is not and should not be used in a dialog between medical professionals and patients where the natural language is preferable. Despite its resemblance to language, the medical terminology should rather be regarded as a special form of code. This stems from fact that the very purpose of medical terminology is opposite to many inherent functions of natural languages. An ordinary phrase in our mother language is often inaccurate, vague, approximate, “fuzzy”, which is a feature necessary to describe our everyday life with all its emotions, feelings, idiosyncrasies, and so on. Contrary to the mundane use of language, the medical terminology strives to avoid any uncertainty; it aims to achieve “machine-like” or “computer-like” form of communication. This feature makes medical terminology both easier and more difficult to comprehend. The simplicity is based on fact, that to achieve the desired clarity we limit the spectrum of language tools to minimum. On the other hand the clarity requires precise use of these tools, there is no place for improvisation or uncertainty. This textbook is divided into two parts; the first one is compulsory for both students of general medicine as well as dentistry, while the second part is relevant only for general medicine. Before we proceed further, let us enlist main problems, which will be discussed in the first part of the course: ●● Latin nouns, which are divided into five groups called “declensions”. ●● Latin adjectives are treated in two groups. ●● Each of these seven groups of words has its own vocabulary. ●● Two types of syntactical relations (noun + noun, noun + adjective). ●● Clinical terminology (Greek stems, Greek endings). That is all, if you master these five topics; you have a very good chance to pass the credit test at the end of the winter term.

part 1 / lesson 1 (general overview, notes on pronunciation, reading)

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spelling in medical terminology During the Antiquity Latin served as a natural language with all the peculiarities and features typical for such socio-cultural phenomenon. Later, it gradually lost its contact with the common people and became a means of communication for elites. This led to subsequent fossilisation, as Latin ceased to exist as naturally spoken language. As a result, there are different kinds of Latin spelling and pronunciation which can be found in various contexts. Latin basically lacks diacritical signs, the only exception which shall be occasionally used in this course is double dot called diaeresis or “umlaut”. For example in word aër, which stands for English “air”, the diaeresis is employed to signify that vowels “a” and “e” at the beginning, which would be normally pronounced as one long sound, should be treated separately. Note: Use of square brackets [] in the following text signifies pronunciation. The text between “[” and “]” is usually in IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet).

pronunciation in medical terminology The pronunciation is a bit more problematic, because there are several different pronunciations of Latin used in different contexts. Classical philology for example tends to use the original ancient pronunciation. However, most nations across Europe use a version of medieval (also called church) Latin pronunciation. This applies notably to Germany, Austria, Poland as well as the Czech Republic. The English speaking countries abandoned this way of pronunciation during the first half of the 20th century in attempt to introduce more “traditional” or “classical” approach. Nevertheless, result of this change is not a resurrection of truly ancient pronunciation but rather distinctive mix of classical and anglicised features. As a result, students of medical terminology may come across three different approaches: classical, medieval, and English.4 In our course students should choose the option which will be later most beneficial for their professional career. Therefore they should avoid strictly classical pronunciation and use either the one prevalent today among English speakers or so called “medieval” one. Both possibilities will be considered correct for purpose of the course. The relation between the English and medieval pronunciation can be summarised in the following table.

4

A  good example of this is name of famous ancient politician and orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. During the classical era his own contemporaries called Marcus Tullius [ˈkɪkɛroː], the medieval or church Latin pronunciation is [tsitsero], and English tend to pronounce his surname as [ˈsɪsɨroʊ].

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Main differences between English and medieval pronunciation Letters

Medieval pronunciation

English pronunciation

Example

ae (æ)

[e:]

[eɪ] or [i:]

saepe, bonae

oe (œ)

[e:]

[i:]

foetus

c (only if followed by sound [e, i])

[ts]

[s]

cista, caeruleus

ch

[x]

[k]

pulcher

e (and other vowels with macrons)

[e:]

[ɛ], [eɪ] or [i:] (depending on context)

vena

g (followed by [e, i])

[g]

[dʒ]

agimus

h

[h]

[h] or [-]

homo

qu

[kv]

[kw]

questio

sc (followed by [e, i])

[sts]

[s]

ascites

ti (followed by vowel and not precedented by s, x)

[tsi]

[ʃɪ]

fractio

As the English pronunciation comes naturally to native speakers, we will focus on particular features of medieval pronunciation. AE/OE Diphthongs “ae” and “oe” are pronounced as a  long [e:], unless there is an umlaut (diaeresis) above the “e”, in which case we have to divide the pronunciation into two separate vowels pronouncing [ae] and [oe]. Examples: taenia [te:nia], oesophagus [e:sofagus], lagoena [lage:na]. However aër cannot be pronounced [e:r] but rather [aer]. Beware; students often confuse ae/oe combination with ea/eo, which are not diphthongs but two distinct vowels. Therefore word area leads to pronunciation [area], with separate vowels spoken at the end. C Letter “c” is normally pronounced as [k], unless it is followed by something that sounds like [e] or [i]. In such case the pronunciation changes into [ts]. Therefore “c” turns into [ts] if it is put before “e”, “i”, “y”, “ae”, or “oe” (the last two are both pronounced as long [e:]). A “c” at the beginning of the word is subject of the similar rules. If found at the end (like in lac), it is pronounced as [k]. Examples: scatula [skatula], tinctura [tinktura], calvaria [kalvaria], clavicula [klavikula], fascia [fastsia], cellula [tselula], orificium [orifitsium]. CH Consonant combination “ch” turns in English pronunciation of Latin usually into [k] therefore trachea renders [trake:a], but in medieval Latin it is a sound very much like

part 1 / lesson 1 (general overview, notes on pronunciation, reading)

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the one in Scottish term “loch”. International Pronunciation Alphabet indicates this sound using sign [x]. Example: charta [xarta], trachea [traxea], chronicus [xronikus]. TI Pronunciation of “ti” varies between [ti], like in English word “tee” and [tsi]. The latter applies if the “ti” is is followed with a vowel and is not preceded by “s” or “x”, while the former is used if the “ti” is put in front of a consonant or if it is preceded by “s” or “x”. Examples: tibia [tibia], tinctura [tinktura], vestibulum [vestibulum], questio [kvestio],5 mixtio [mikstio],6 spatium [spatsium], tertius [tertsius]. Particularly useful example is word justice: iustitia, which contains two “ti” with different pronunciation [yustitsia]. The rest of the differences between English and medieval pronunciation of Latin is pretty straightforward: ●● Letter “g” never turns into [dʒ] like in “genius”, it always remains similar to English “goblet” or “garden”. ●● Latin “j” also doesn’t turn into [dʒ], therefore if you write Latin equivalent for justice with “j” at the beginning (both “i” and “j” are correct), you should pronounce it [yustitsia]; similarly word jejunum renders sound [yeyunum]. ●● Digraph “th” sounds in medieval Latin always like in English “Thomas”, never [θ] or [ð] like in “think” or “this”. ●● Latin “r” resembles the Scottish or Spanish one. ●● Combination of “rh” can sound either as clear [r] or [rh]. ●● “H” at the beginning is pronounced, in contrast with for example French. Remember, the pronunciation you choose is not very important as long as you use it consistently. Our course of Medical Terminology does not impose one specific type of pronunciation. If you want to try the medieval version, focus on “ae/oe”, “c”, and “ti”, the rest does not lead to critical errors.

further examples of medieval pronunciation ruptura musculi bicipitis [ruptu:ra muskuli bitsipitis] lagoena aquae [lage:na akve:] caput hominis [kaput hominis] intestinum caecum [intestinum tse:kum] fractura carpi [fraktura karpi] philosophia, thesis, menorrhea [filozofia, tesis, menorhea] vagina, fascia, staphylococus aureus [vagina (not -dʒ-), fastsia, stafilokokus aureus] 5 6

In this case there is a vowel “o” following the “ti” which should lead to [stsi] pronunciation, but the “s” before the “ti” causes it to assume pronunciation [sti]. Similar as in questio.

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exercises Read following texts aloud: Per Apollinem medicum et Aesculapium, Hygiamque et Panaceam iure iurando affirmo et Deos Deasque omnes testor, me quantum viribus et iudicio valuero, quod nunc iuro et ex scripto spondeo plane observaturum. Praeceptorem quidem qui me hanc artem edocuit, parentum loco habiturum, eique cum ad victum, tum etiam ad usum necessaria, grato animo communicaturum et suppeditaturum. (Part of the Hippocratic Oath.) Pestis morbus est ferus et contagiosus, qui sub vulgarium specie passim in bruta et homines involans, multos de medio tollit, febris continuae, bubonum, anthracum, exanthematum, nauseae, vomituum, et aliorum ejusmodi malignorum accidentium comitatu cinctus. Perniciosus est hic morbus non tam qualitate elementari, quam venenata quadam malignitate, cujus vires communis putredinis conditionem superant. (Beginning of the treatise on Plague by French surgeon Ambroise Paré, about 1594.)

homework 1. Re-read given examples of Latin texts aloud at least once, mark any difficulties you have with individual words and ask your teacher about them at the beginning of the next lesson. 2. Try to think about individual Latin words, do they look familiar to you? Are you able to guess their meaning?

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lesson 2 (grammatical case, number, and gender)

grammatical case Before we proceed to the first group of Latin nouns called “1st declension", it is important to understand concept of grammatical cases. First, think about a sentence like this: Antibiotics remove microbial infections. There is a verb (to remove), an adjective (microbial), and two nouns (antibiotics, infections), which have two different roles. The first one is a subject (the one that causes the activity described by the verb) and the second one is an object (it further describes something involved in that activity). The question is, how can a reader tell that the word antibiotics is a subject and not the other way around? In English this information stems from the word order. The subject is at the beginning, followed by a verb, and then there is the object. If we break the original word order and create something like “Infections microbial antibiotics remove”, the meaning is apparently lost. In other words, without a proper word order we are unable to figure out what removes what. Let’s take another example: John sees Mary. Here we have again two nouns John and Mary. The fact that it is John, who sees Mary (and not the other way around), is given by “John” being at the beginning and Mary at the end. Changing the word order (Mary sees John) renders a different meaning. However, not all the languages use the same method. While some follow the example of English, a lot of European languages convey the information about the role of noun in a sentence by different means. Compare the previous English sentences about John and Mary with their Latin equivalent: Joannes videt Mariam. (John sees Mary.) Joannem videt Maria. (Mary sees John.) While English simply swaps both nouns to express that they have a different role, the method used in Latin is different. The word order is not very important, because the role of both nouns is indicated by their respective endings. Therefore Joannes has to be a subject and Joannem has to be an object, and the same goes for Maria/Mariam too. This change in endings is what we call inflection.

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An ordinary noun in Latin can assume various endings to express a range of possible roles (apart from subject or object) in a sentence. These variants are called grammatical cases. Different languages have different sets of grammatical cases, for example Czech has seven, German four and Latin is somewhere in the middle with six grammatical cases. Here they are enlisted using Latin word for “muscle” as an example: 1. Nominative musculus 2. Genitive musculi 3. Dative musculo 4. Accusative musculum 5. Vocative muscule! 6. Ablative musculo

which cases are used in medical terminology? Six forms of noun look difficult to understand, especially for students whose mother language does not employ such extensive inflexion. Fortunately not all the grammatical cases are required in this course, so we can simplify the problem to manageable extent. First, the 3rd and 5th case (Dative and Vocative) are not actually necessary in the Medical Terminology at all. Second, from the remaining cases (Nominative, Genitive, Accusative, and Ablative) we can further cross out Accusative and Ablative, since those two will be treated during the summer term with Latin prepositions. And now we are left with only two grammatical cases: Nominative and Genitive. The Nominative grammatical case (abbreviated Nom.) is the most basic form of word, which serves as subject in sentences. If you open a dictionary, every entry starts with a word in Nominative grammatical case. The Genitive grammatical case (abbreviated Gen.) expresses a possessive relation between two nouns. In English the equivalent would be either the ending “-’s” (as in teacher’s, student’s, patient’s) or the preposition “of ” to convey similar meaning (operation of tumour). It is possible to simplify the use of Genitive grammatical case to a following rule: A noun, which is preceded by the preposition “of ” in English, must be given in Genitive in Latin. The purpose of Latin genitives is to create so called nominal attribute. For further details see Lesson 5, section “Attribute”.

difference between “of” and “and” Apart from connecting the nouns using the “of ” relation (i.e. with genitive grammatical case in Latin) there is another way which will be occasionally employed throughout

part 1 / lesson 2 (grammatical case, number, and gender)

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this course. In making a list of two or more things we may employ the conjunction “and”, which is translated to Latin as et. Two words linked together with et share from the syntactical point of view a similar role. As a result both words will have the same grammatical case (either Nom. or Gen.).

grammatical number Another grammatical category we have to explain is grammatical number. Latin nouns assume one of two possible grammatical numbers: Singular (abbreviated Sg.) or Plural (abbreviated Pl.). Word in Singular refers to only one thing; if we speak about two or more things, we have to use Plural form. This is very similar to English, where plural is usually differentiated from singular using the ending “-s”.

grammatical gender Every noun in Latin assumes one of three grammatical genders: ●● masculine (abbreviated m.) ●● feminine (f.) ●● neutral (n.) Meaning of gender can be demonstrated using English pronouns, so Latin masculines would be called “he”, feminines “she”, and neutrals “it”. In English the grammatical gender usually coincides with the “natural gender”, which means that all males are masculines, persons of female gender are grammatically feminines and all the rest is neutral.7 Contrarywise, Latin genders are results of arbitrary convention. In case of persons the natural gender is usually observed, but all the rest of vocabulary has “randomly” assigned genders that really cannot be guessed from the thing itself. In this aspect Latin resembles other European languages. For example Latin word for water – aqua is feminine (she), its German translation “Wasser” is neutrum (it), and in Czech the same word “voda” is again feminine. This kind of arbitrarily assigned gender must be memorized. Fortunately there is certain regularity in relation between declensions and genders, therefore words belonging to the 1st declension are overwhelmingly feminines, while the 2nd declension harbours mostly masculines and neutrals.

7

There are exceptions though, for example boats and ships are referred as females. Therefore instead of “the ship is adrift” you can say “she is adrift” despite the fact that boats do not have a perceivable femininity.

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summary 1. D  uring the first term of this course a noun will appear in two forms (grammatical cases) called Nominative and Genitive. 2. Nominative is used as the basic one. 3. Genitive is used wherever the English sentence would use the preposition “of ”. 4. A noun can be given in two grammatical numbers – Singular and Plural. 5. If you employ Singular in English, the same will happen in Latin. Likewise Plural in English leads to Plural in Latin. 6. There are three arbitrarily assigned genders in Latin. They are called masculine, feminine, and neutral. Gender of each noun has to be memorized.

homework 1. Try to re-read the Latin texts from the 1st lesson aloud using the medieval pronunciation. Mark the difficult words aside and ask your teacher about the correct pronunciation at the beginning of the next lesson. 2. Review the subject of grammatical case, number, and gender in Latin. If there is anything you do not understand, ask the teacher. 3. Think about your mother language and answer following questions: a) Does it use the inflection, the word order, or both? b) Do you have similar grammatical numbers in your native language? What grammatical means uses you native language to express the difference between singular “vein” and plural “veins”? c) Do you have masculines, feminines, and neutrals in your language, or is the list of genders different?

27

lesson 3 (1st declension)

review 1. For now, we shall use two grammatical cases: Nominative and Genitive (abbreviated Nom., Gen.). 2. Nominative is a standard form of word, while Genitive is employed in expressions with preposition “of ”. 3. Latin has two grammatical numbers: Singular and Plural (abbreviated Sg., Pl.). 4. There are three grammatical genders in Latin: masculine, feminine, and neutral (abbreviated m., f., n.).

five declensions In Latin, nouns are divided into five declensions. A declension is group of nouns which have similar ending in Genitive Singular. Thus there are five possible endings associated with declensions: Declension

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

Gen. Sg. ending

-ae

-i

-is

-us

-ei

This means that all nouns which have Gen. Sg. ending -ae belong to the 1st declension, all nouns with Gen. Sg. -i belong to the 2nd declension, and so on. There is no exception from this rule.

paradigm Nouns which belong to the 1st declension have pattern of endings shown in the table below. We will use word vena (vein) as the paradigm:

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Singular

Plural

Nom.

ven-a

ven-ae

Gen.

ven-ae

ven-arum

The part of word before the dash (-) is called stem, in vena the stem is therefore ven-. The rest of the word is called ending. If you remove ending “-a” from words of the 1st declension, you get the respective stems and by appending the endings we have provided in the table above, you create all four forms. In the first declension this process is easy and has no notable exceptions. Based on what we have already said about grammatical cases and numbers, the English meaning of four forms of word vena given in previous table is roughly this: Singular

Plural

Nom.

vein

veins

Gen.

… of vein

… of veins

Note that ending used in Latin 1st declension for Gen. Sg. is similar to Nom. Pl. As a result, if you consider only form venae separately from the context, it is impossible to determine the meaning. In this course this may happen in tests where you are asked to translate from Latin to English. In such case our particular example (venae) would have two possible answers (“of vein” or “veins”), which are both correct. Application of the paradigm vena to the vocabulary of the 1st declension is rather straightforward. Only few words can cause problems, see following comparative table: Latin word

vena

arteria

area

ala

Its stem

ven-

arter-

are-

al-

Nom. Sg.

vena

arteria

area

ala

Gen. Sg.

venae

arteriae

areae

alae

Nom. Pl.

venae

arteriae

areae

alae

Gen. Pl.

venarum

arteriarum

arearum

alarum

In case of arteria (artery) the stem ends with vowel “i”, which means that you have to use sometimes up to three vowels in row (Gen. Sg. and Nom. Pl. arteriae) with pronunciation [arterie:]. Word area has vowel “e” at the end of stem, this leads to confusing combinations of “a” and “e” at the end so do not forget that “ae” is not the same as “ea” for purposes of pronunciation. We have already mentioned this problem in the Lesson 1 (part about AE/OE pronunciation). However, if you check the paradigm all the words create their grammatical cases regularly. Grouping of vowels does not lead to any change.

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part 1 / lesson 3 (1st declension)

summary 1. In Latin, nouns are divided into five declensions. 2. Nouns belong to a particular declension based on its genitive ending. 3. Every declension has its own paradigm. In the 1st declension the paradigm is vena. 4. The paradigm renders four endings for two grammatical cases (Nom. and Gen.) in two grammatical numbers (Sg. and Pl.). Some endings may be similar. 5. Vocabulary form consists of full Nom. Sg., Gen. Sg. ending, and gender. 6. There are three genders in Latin (masculine, feminine, neutral). 7. Genders are usually not natural and therefore have to be memorized with every new word in your vocabulary. 8. However, the 1st declension consists of feminines.8

vocabulary Words in the vocabulary of this lesson belong all to the 1st declension and therefore follow the paradigm vena. All the words are provided in vocabulary form (vena, ae, f.), which consists of full Nom. Sg. (vena), Gen. Sg. ending (ae), and grammatical gender (f.). ala, ae, f.

wing

aqua, ae, f.

water

area, ae, f.

area

areola, ae, f.

small area

arteria, ae, f.

artery

arteriola, ae, f.

small artery

barba, ae, f.

beard

bestia, ae, f.

beast, animal

bucca, ae, f.

cheek

bursa, ae, f.

small sack

capsula, ae, f.

capsule

causa, ae, f.

cause, reason

cellula, ae, f.

cell

charta, ae, f. [xarta]9

paper

8

9

Although during the initial lessons students often come to believe that words ending with -a are feminines and those ending with -us are masculines, it does not apply to all words in your textbook and there are many exceptions. For example word idiota, -ae belongs to the 1st declension and is masculine, word coma, comatis belongs to the 3rd declension and is neutral. The pronunciation is based on IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) system. For further details see http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipa and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_regional_pronunciation.

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clavicula, ae, f.

collar bone, clavicle

columna, ae, f.

column

cuticula, ae, f.

epidermis, general meaning is “small skin”, in anatomy it refers to several structures for example layers of dead skin cells at the base and sides of the fingernail

eminentia, ae, f.

eminence, protuberance

fascia, ae, f.

sheet of connective tissue, thin sheath of fibrous tissue enclosing a muscle or other organ, soft tissue component of the connective tissue system

femina, ae, f.

woman

fibula, ae, f.

the outer and usually smaller of the two bones between the knee and the ankle in humans

forma, ae, f.

form

fossa, ae, f.

pit

glandula, ae, f.

gland

glossa, ae, f.

tongue

gutta, ae, f.

drop

hora, ae, f.

hour

influenza, ae, f.

flu, influenza

lacrima, ae, f.

tear

lingua, ae, f.

tongue

lympha, ae, f.

lymph, a colorless fluid

mamilla, ae, f.

nipple, a nipple-shaped structure

mamma, ae, f.

breast, mammary gland

mandibula, ae, f.

lower jaw

maxilla, ae, f.

upper jaw

medulla, ae, f.

marrow

membrana, ae, f.

a paper thin structure which separates two environments

mentha, ae, f.

mint, pennyroyal

natura, ae, f.

nature

olla, ae, f.

(ointment, drug) jar

papilla, ae, f.

a small rounded protuberance

patella, ae, f.

kneecap

pilula, ae, f.

pill

prostata, ae, f.

a gland in male reproductive system

puella, ae, f.

girl

pupilla, ae, f.

pupil of the eye

rima, ae, f.

fissure, crack, narrow cleft

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part 1 / lesson 3 (1st declension)

scapula, ae, f.

shoulder blade

scatula, ae, f.

box

stella, ae, f.

star

stilla, ae, f.

drop

substantia, ae, f.

substance

summa, ae, f.

total, sum

tabula, ae, f.

table

taenia, ae, f.

strip

terra, ae, f.

earth

tibia, ae, f.

shin bone

tinctura, ae, f.

tincture

tonsilla, ae, f.

tonsil

trachea, ae, f.

windpipe

uvula, ae, f.

a fleshy extension at the back of the soft palate that hangs above the throat

via, ae, f.

way

exercises Note that you can check your answers against the list of correct answers provided below. 1. Provide all the forms (from Nom. Sg. to Gen. Pl.) from following words: clavicula mamma taenia tinctura stella 2. Transform given words to the opposite grammatical number (i.e. if the noun is in Singular, give it in Plural, if it is in Plural, give it in Singular), preserve the Grammatical case: barbarum summae tibia areae influenzarum

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3. Translate to Latin (pay attention to Sg./Pl.): form of breast cell of epidermis cells of epidermis area of cheek area of cheeks substance of lymph small sack of tears

correct answers: 1. clavicula, claviculae, claviculae, clavicularum; mamma, mammae, mammae, mammarum; taenia, taeniae, taeniae, taeniarum; tinctura, tincturae, tincturae, tincturarum; stella, stellae, stellae, stellarum 2. barbae, summa or summarum, tibiae, area or arearum, influenzae 3. forma mammae; cellula cuticulae (“one cell” Nom. Sg., “of an epidermis” Gen. Sg.); cellulae cuticulae (“several cells” Nom. Pl., “of an epidermis” Gen. Sg.); area buccae (Nom. Sg., “of cheek” Gen. Sg.); area buccarum (Nom. Sg., “of cheeks” Gen. Pl.); substantia lymphae; bursa lacrimarum

homework 1. Try to learn provided vocabulary by heart before the next lesson. Every week more words will follow, so do not postpone this step or you may face difficulties in the future. 2. Try to create both grammatical cases in singular and plural (i.e. all four forms) from every word in your vocabulary. If you have doubts about correct inflection, ask the teacher. 3. Do the exercises and check your answers against the list of correct answers provided at the end of the lesson.

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lesson 4 (2nd declension)

review 1. Nominative is a basic form of word. 2. Genitive is used to connect two nouns, usually as equivalent to English “something of something”, where the second noun will be given in Genitive. 3. Words are sorted into five separate declensions depending on the Genitive ending. 4. Ending of Gen. Sg. and information about the gender of each word is provided in vocabulary form. 5. The 1st declension contains nouns ending with “-a” in Nom. Sg. and “-ae” in Gen. Sg. The vocabulary of the 1st declension is mostly of feminine gender.

introduction Subject of this lesson – the second declension – complements to certain extent the first one. While the 1st declension harbours mostly feminines, the second one covers vocabulary consisting of masculines and neutrals. Therefore similar grammatical and syntactical principles, already well known from the previous lesson, apply to this one as well, although there are minor irregularities in Nom. Sg. endings for both masculines and neutrals. As the 2nd declension contains endings for two genders, we will provide them in separate tables. First, let’s focus on masculines.

masculine paradigms There are two masculine paradigms in the 2nd declension, musculus and cancer. They have similar endings with the only difference in Nom. Sg., which ends in some masculines with “-us” (paradigms musculus), and in others with “-r” (paradigms cancer). In fact, it

34

is possible to understand 2nd declension masculines as having only one paradigm (musculus) with few exceptions spurting “-r” in Nom. Sg., because all the rest is the same. Singular

Plural

Nom.

muscul-us

muscul-i

Gen.

muscul-i

muscul-orum

This pattern works in the similar way as the 1st declension does, therefore meaning of the various forms is approximately as follows: Singular

Plural

Nom.

muscle

muscles

Gen.

… of (one) muscle

… of (several) muscles

The second group of masculines with “-r” in Nom. Sg. follows paradigm cancer: Singular

Plural

Nom.

cancer

cancr-i

Gen.

cancr-i

cancr-orum

As you can see this type differs only in Nom. Sg. where the ordinary “-us” ending is substituted with “-r”. The rest is practically similar and we can therefore consider the whole masculine group in the 2nd declension as having only one paradigm with a slight derivation in Nom. Sg. Remaining cases also skip the “-e-” so cancer turns into cancri as well as cancrorum. This is an exception, which you have to memorize. You will find in the vocabulary that number of words using paradigm cancer is very small.

neutral paradigms In neutral paradigms the situation very much resembles masculines, as there is a standard version: Singular

Plural

Nom.

intestin-um

intestin-a

Gen.

intestin-i

intestin-orum

As well as its variation: Singular

Plural

Nom.

col-on

col-a

Gen.

col-i

col-orum

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part 1 / lesson 4 (2nd declension)

Note that in neutrals Nom. Plural ending “-a” is similar to Nom. Singular ending of feminines from the 1st declension, therefore it is always important to learn the whole vocabulary form of word to avoid errors in tests, because if you are given a word ending with “-a” and you do not know its vocabulary form, you will be unable to tell whether the word belongs to the 1st or 2nd declension. Just as in case of cancer, the amount of nouns that use paradigm colon is very limited. It is useful to learn the 1st and the 2nd declension endings for all three genders together, the resulting table will be: Singular

Plural

Gender

m.

f.

n.

m.

f.

n.

Nom.

-us/-r

-a

-um/-on

-i

-ae

-a

Gen.

-i

-ae

-i

-orum

-arum

-orum

vocabulary acromion, i, n.

part of scapula

angulus, i, m.

angle

annus, i, m.

year

bacillus, i, m.

a rod-shaped microorganism

carpus, i, m.

wrist

cavum, i, n.

cave, cavity

cerebellum, i, n.

literally “small brain”; the part of the brain at the back of the skull in vertebrates

cerebrum, i, n.

brain

circulus, i, m.

circle

collum, i, n.

neck

colon, i, n.

large intestine/bowel

condylus, i, m.

protuberance on a joint (condyle)

cranium, i, n.

skull

cubitus, i, m.

elbow

digitus, i, m.

finger

dorsum, i, n.

the back

ductulus, i, m.

small duct (tube, channel, tunel)

fundus, i, m.

bottom, base of an organ

ganglion, i, n.

a center in nerve system

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grammum, i, n.

gram10

humerus, i, m.

upper arm bone

intestinum, i, n.

intestine

intestinum caecum or caecum, i, n.

literally “blind gut”; a pouch connected to the junction of the small and large intestines

intestinum crassum or crassum, i, n.

large or “fat” bowel

intestinum duodenum or duodenum, i, n.

duodenum; the first part of the small intestine immediately beyond the stomach, leading to the jejunum

isthmus, i, m.

a narrow organ, passage, or piece of tissue connecting two larger parts

jejunum, i, n. (spelling ieiunum is also correct)

jejunum, literally “fasting gut” because usually found empty after death; the part of the small intestine between the duodenum and ileum

labium, i, n.

lip

ligamentum, i, n.

ligament

litrum, i, n.

litre (unit of volume)

lobus, i, m.

lobe

magister, tri, m.

teacher

manubrium, i, n.

literally “handle”; part of breast bone

miligrammum, i, n.

milligram

morbilli, orum, m. (only plural form exists)

measles

morbus, i, m.

illness, disease

musculus, i, m.

muscle

nasus, i, m.

nose

nervus, i, m.

nerve

oculus, i, m.

eye

oesophagus, i, m.

part of the alimentary canal that connects the throat to the stomach; the gullet

olecranon, i, n.

bony elbow protuberance

organum, i, n.

organ

orificium, i, n.

orifice, entrance, opening

ostium, i, n.

orifice, entrance, opening

ovarium, i, n.

ovary (organ containing embryonic human eggs)

pericardium, i, n.

pericardium (double-walled sac that contains the heart and the roots of the great vessels)

radius, i, m.

radius; the thicker and shorter of the two bones in the forearm

10

English word “gram” and its derivatives has two possible versions in Latin, the first one is 2nd declension grammum and the second one is 3rd declension imparisyllabic gramma, atis, n.

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part 1 / lesson 4 (2nd declension)

ramus, i, m.

branch, bough

rectum, i, n.

final section of large intestine

septum, i, n. (spelling saeptum is also correct)

thin partition, divider, barrier

spatium, i, n.

space

sternum, i, n.

breast bone

sulcus, i, m.

a groove or furrow, esp. one on the surface of the brain

thymus, i, m.

thymus – a lymphoid organ situated in the neck of vertebrates that produces T-cells for the immune system

tuberculum, i, n.

small swelling, bump, protuberance, excrescence, tumour

uterus, i, m.

womb

ventriculus, i, m.

literally “small belly”; in medical terminology a hollow part or cavity in an organ esp. brain or heart

vestibulum, i, n.

literally “entrance hall”; in medical terminology central part of osseous labyrinth

vir, viri, m.

man

vitrum, i, n.

glass

exercises 1. Provide all the grammatical forms (from Nom. Sg. to Gen. Pl.) for following words: digitus vir organum morbilli thymus 2. Translate to English: mammilae tonsilarum fossa lobi fractura manubrii sterni 3. Use following pairs of nouns to create medical expressions in Singular: fractura, humerus epidemia, influenza ruptura, colon fractura, acromion septum, nasus

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4. Transform expressions from the task No. 3 to Plural form. 5. Translate to Latin (pay attention to use of Singular and Plural): wrists number of men fracture of skull substance of organ cause of measles bottom of womb branches of arteries entrance of cavities

correct answers 1. digitus, digiti, digiti, digitorum; vir, viri, viri, virorum; organum, organi, organa, organorum; morbilli, morbillorum;11 thymus, thymi, thymi, thymorum 2. nipples (or “of a nipple”), of tonsils, hole, lobes (or of a lobe), fracture of the upper part of sternum 3. fractura humeri, epidemia influenzae, ruptura coli, fractura acromii, septum nasi. 4. fracturae humerorum, epidemiae influenzarum, rupturae colorum, fracturae acromiorum, septa nasorum. 5. carpi, numerus virorum, fractura cranii, substantia organi, causa morbillorum, fundus uteri, rami arteriarum, ostium cavorum (or ostium cavarum).

11 Word morbilli does not have a singular form, therefore only Nom. Pl. and Gen. Pl. can be provided.

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lesson 5 (1st and 2nd declension adjectives)

review 1. 2. 3. 4.

Vocabulary form of noun consists of full Nom. Sg., Gen. Sg. ending, and gender. Nominative is the basic form of noun. Genitive stands for “-’s” or “of ” in English. The 1st declension contains feminines ending with “-a” in Nom. Sg. and “-ae” in Gen. Sg. 5. The 2nd declension contains masculines ending with “-us(-r)” in Nom. Sg., with “-i” in Gen. Sg. as well as neuters ending with “-um(-on)” in Nom. Sg. and with “-i” in Gen. Sg.

attribute In a Medical Terminology, a simple term is often further specified using other words in order to create an exact description. For this purpose we use something called attribute. There are two types of attributes we are going to use in the Medical Terminology. First one is based on nouns (nominal attribute) and the second on adjectives (adjectival attribute). The nominal attribute is already known to you from previous lessons. The Genitive grammatical case is employed exactly for this purpose. It allows nouns to provide further information about other nouns. Thus in expression fractura claviculae (fracture of clavicle) the simple term “fracture” is made more specific by adding “of clavicle”. Here the latter is attribute to the former. That is why the English translation uses preposition “of ” with the clavicle, which is replaced with Gen. Sg. claviculae in Latin. The adjectival attribute behaves differently. Instead of being given in Genitive grammatical case in Latin (or using “of ” in English), the adjectival attribute assumes grammatical parameters of the noun it points to. This is a new principle which lacks appropriate parallel in English. For example in the expression “complicated fracture” the adjective “complicated” does not change its ending to express a particular relation

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to the noun “fracture”. However, English language is in this sense rather exceptional as many others do change adjectives depending on nouns they are attached to.12 Latin is no exception, i.e. adjectives have to follow grammatical parameters of nouns. For this purpose the adjective must have not only the same spectrum of endings (two grammatical cases and two grammatical numbers) as an ordinary noun, but in addition it must also provide the same set for all three genders. As a result the Latin adjectives are furnished with an extensive paradigm (trice as many endings as nouns have). Fortunately the problem is made easier by the fact that adjectives “borrow” endings from nouns, so you will only apply the set of endings you already know to newly learned adjectives.

syntax To sum up the previous paragraphs: If a noun is further specified with another noun, we simply give the second one in Genitive. If the noun is further specified using an adjective the procedure is a bit more complicated. First, you have to examine the noun and decide its grammatical case, grammatical number as well as its gender. Then you must apply this information to the paradigm of the adjective showed further below and thus render the proper ending. Demonstration: Let us suppose that you are asked to translate the expression “acute illness”, where the “illness” is noun and “acute” the adjective. Latin term for “illness” is morbus, which will be given in Nominative (because there is no “of ” in front of illness), Singular (it is only one illness), and it is masculine (you can tell from the vocabulary form). Using this you will have to find an ending of acutus that corresponds with all three parameters given above. It is important to bear in mind that adjectives do not copy endings of particular nouns they are attached to. They only extract relevant grammatical parameters and apply them to their own table. In other words, because the paradigm of adjectives is based on the 1st and 2nd declension endings of nouns, if we connect the adjective with a noun from the 1st and 2nd declension, the ending will be the same. But adjectives can be connected to nouns from any other declension as well. If this happens, the adjective still retains the 1st and 2nd declension endings even though it is attached to the 3rd, 4th, or 5th declension noun. As a result the noun – adjective pair will have different endings although the adjective will still reflect the grammatical case, number, and gender of the noun. The system of endings allows user to precisely pinpoint which adjective is related to which noun in more complex expressions. Consider following example: morbus chronicus vestibuli sinistri (chronic disease of the left vestibulum)

12

For example in the similar Italian expression frattura complicata the “-a” in complicata signifies feminine gender of the noun frattura. In German, the situation is similar with the “-e” in die komplizierte Fraktur.

41

part 1 / lesson 5 (1st and 2nd declension adjectives)

There are two nouns (morbus, vestibulum) and two adjectives (chronicus, sinister). Because adjectives follow grammatical case, number, and gender of the noun the translation provided above is the only one possible, because morbus (Nom., Sg., m.) must be associated with chronicus, which has similar grammatical parameters. It cannot be related to sinistri, as this adjective suggests by using ending “-i” either Gen. Sg. or Nom. Pl. There is another difference between English and Latin that should be considered when connecting nouns and adjectives. While in English the adjective usually precedes the noun, in Latin the word order is mostly reversed. So the expression “open fracture” (open is an adjective and fracture a noun) will render fractura aperta, literally “fracture open” in Latin. There are some exceptions from this rule, for example pia mater, but it is always good to put the noun first and the adjective later. After all the former determines parameters and ending of the latter, so there is certain logic in the reversed order.

paradigm Because the adjectives differ in the structure of paradigm from nouns, they have also different vocabulary form. While nouns follow pattern (1) full Nom. Sg., (2) Gen. Sg. ending, and (3) gender, the adjectives have by definition no gender and must provide endings for all three genders. For this purpose their vocabulary form consists of full Nom. Sg. for masculine gender, Nom. Sg. for feminine gender, and Nom. Sg. for neuters. The vocabulary form for Latin equivalent of the word “long” is this: longus, a, um Here longus is Nom. Sg. which is used with masculines, following ending “-a” stands for longa (Nom. Sg. to be used with feminines) and finally “-um” stands for longum used with neutrals. The paradigm of adjectives is following: Singular

Plural

Gender

m.

f.

n.

m.

f.

n.

Nom.

long-us

long-a

long-um

long-i

long-ae

long-a

Gen.

long-i

long-ae

long-i

long-orum

long-arum

long-orum

Please, note: ●● The adjective has trice as many endings as the noun because it has to serve with nouns of all three genders. ●● The masculine set of endings follows the paradigm musculus from the second declension, the feminine set of endings draws from the vena paradigm of the first declension and finally the neutrals copy intenstinum from the second declension.

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exception If you recall the 2nd declension masculine paradigms, there are two of them (1) a standard musculus and (2) its derivation cancer, with different Nom. Sg. (“-r” instead of “-us”). The similar thing happens also in adjectives. There is a small group which instead of the standard “-us” in Nom. Sg. for masculines employs the “-r” ending. These adjectives can be easily identified by their vocabulary form, because instead of longus, a, um it looks like this: dexter, tra, trum (in English “right” as opposite to “left”) Again, dexter is masculine form, “-tra” stands for feminine dextra, and “-trum” for neutral dextrum. It is important to realize that the only difference between type longus, a, um provided in table above and dexter, tra, trum discussed here is the Nom. Sg. for masculines. All the remaining endings for all the genders are similar. For full list of these “-r” exceptions see the vocabulary of this lesson.

examples Combination of masculine noun and an adjective: musculus longus

long muscle

musculi longi

long muscles

musculi longi

of long muscle

musculorum longorum

of long muscles

In the following example an ordinary type of adjective is replaced with an “-r” exception, compare the results: musculus dexter

right muscle

musculi dextri

right muscles

musculi dextri

of right muscle

musculorum dextrorum

of right muscles

Note how the ending of noun and adjective in Nom. Sg. differ. Combination with feminines usually does not present a problem: vena longa

long vein

venae longae

long veins

venae longae

of long vein

venarum longarum

of long veins

An example of neutral: intestinum longum

long intestine

intestina longa

long intestines

intestini longi

of long intestine

intestinorum longorum

of long intestines

Note how Nom. Pl. ending with “-a” resembles the Nom. Sg. from the 1st declension.

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part 1 / lesson 5 (1st and 2nd declension adjectives)

These two cases can be easily confused. And finally there is again a Nom. Sg. difference: colon longum

long fat bowel

cola longa

long fat bowels

coli longi

of long fat bowel

colorum longorum

of long fat bowels

Neutral noun colon differs from the adjective in Nom. Sg., because the adjective has only one option which signifies neutral gender: “-um”.

summary 1. The adjective follows grammatical case, number, and gender of the noun. 2. Adjectives may or may not have similar endings as nouns they are attached to. 3. Adjectives in this lesson borrow endings from the 1st and 2nd declension nouns, but can be attached to a noun from any declension. They would still preserve their original endings. 4. Adjectives have separate set of endings for every gender. 5. The common paradigm is longus, a, um but there is also small sub-group which uses paradigm dexter, tra, trum, with the only difference in Nom. Sg.

vocabulary of adjectives from the 1st and 2nd declension acquisitus, a, um

acquired, gained

acutus, a, um

acute

aeger, gra, grum

ill

aegrotus, a, um

ill

albus, a, um; niveus, a, um

white

benignus, a, um

benign

bifidus, a, um

split, broken, cleft

bonus, a, um

good

calidus, a, um

warm

chronicus, a, um

chronic

compactus, a, um

compact

complicatus, a, um

complicated

congenitus, a, um

congenital, inbred

creber, a, um

frequent

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destillatus, a, um

distilled

dexter, tra, trum

right

directus, a, um; rectus, a, um

direct, straight

externus, a, um

external

extrauterinus, a, um

outside the womb (especially about pregnancy)

falsus, a, um

false, wrong, spurious

felleus, a, um

biliary, bilious, related to gall

frigidus, a, um

cold

indirectus, a, um

indirect

insanus, a, um

ill

integer, gra, grum

intact, healthy, unspoiled

internus, a, um

internal

interosseus, a, um

interosseous (located between two bones)

laesus, a, um

damaged, wounded, hurt

latus, a, um

broad, wide

longus, a, um

long

malignus, a, um

malignant, malign, deadly

malus, a, um

bad

maximus, a, um

the biggest, huge

minimus, a, um

the smallest, very small

mortuus, a, um

dead

mucosus, a, um

mucous, slimy

niger, a, um

black

nutricius, a, um

alimentary, nourishing, nurturing

oblongatus, a, um

oblong

plenus, a, um

full

postoperativus, a, um

postoperative

profundus, a, um

deep

purus, a, um

pure, clear

rarus, a, um

rare

salvus, a, um

healthy

sanus, a, um

healthy

sinister, tra, trum

left

spongiosus, a, um

spongy, spongiform (mushroom like)

sterilisatus, a, um

sterilized

tuberculosus, a, um

tubercular, tuberculous (related to TB)

urinarius, a, um

urinary, uretic

part 1 / lesson 5 (1st and 2nd declension adjectives)

vacuus, a, um; vanus, a, um

empty

valgus, a, um

turned inward (i.e. knock-kneed)

varus, a, um

turned outward (i. e. calfkneed)

verus, a, um

true

vivus, a, um

alive

primus, a, um

1st

secundus, a, um

2nd

tertius, a, um

3rd

quartus, a, um

4th

quintus, a, um

5th

sextus, a, um

6th

septimus, a, um

7th

octavus, a, um

8th

nonus, a, um

9th

decimus, a, um

10th

undecimus, a, um

11th

duodecimus, a, um

12th

exercises 1. Create Nom. Sg. for feminines and neuters from following adjectives: alimentary black biliary direct dead ill empty left white full 2. Transform from singular to plural: signum malum signum morbi cavum plenum enteron laesum cuticula alba 3. Translate singulars from the previous task to English.

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4. Provide all the grammatical cases in both numbers for the following expressions: isthmus prostatae membrana interossea ligamentum latum uteri 5. Translate to Latin: frequent illness damaged handle wide veins fracture of left humerus

complicated fracture of left humerus third vertebra fracture of the third vertebra malignant illness of fifth vertebra

correct answers 1. nutricia, nutricium; fellea, felleum; mortua, mortuum; vacua, vacuum; nivea, niveum (or alba, album); nigra, nigrum; recta, rectum; aegra, aegrum (or aegrota, aegrotum; insana, insanum); sinistra, sinistrum; plena, plenum 2. signa mala, signa morborum, cava plena, entera laesa, cuticulae albae 3. bad sign, sign of an illness, full cavity, damaged intestine, white epidermis 4. isthmus prostatae, isthmi prostatae, isthmi prostatarum, isthmorum prostatarum; membrana interossea, membranae interosseae, membranae interosseae, membranarum interossearum; ligamentum latum uteri, ligamenti lati uteri, ligamenta lata uterorum, ligamentorum latorum uterorum 5. morbus creber, manubrium laesum, venae latae, fractura humeri sinistri, fractura complicata humeri sinistri, vertebra tertia, fractura vertebrae tertiae, morbus malignus vertebrae quintae

homework 1. Try to memorize new vocabulary. Review also vocabulary of previous lessons. 2. Focus on differences between nominal and adjectival attribute. Try to think about few examples like ruptura venae x ruptura longa to make yourself familiar with the principle. If you have questions, ask your teacher to verify the example for you.

47

lesson 6 (4th and 5th declension)

review 1. Nouns are assigned to declensions on basis of the Gen. Sg. ending (not Nom. Sg.). 2. All nouns from the 1st declension have Gen. Sg. ending “-ae”, all nouns from the 2nd declension have Gen. Sg. ending “-i”. 3. Grammar of the 1st declension contains one paradigm vena. 4. The 2nd declension has four different paradigms, two masculines (type musculus, cancer) and two neutrals (type intestinum, colon). 5. Adjectives use their own paradigm, which is based on endings from the 1st and 2nd declension. 6. Adjectives do not copy endings from nouns they are attached to.

introduction Altogether Latin nouns have five different declensions. So far we have dealt with the 1st and 2nd whereas this lesson explains the 4th and 5th one. This means that we are skipping the 3rd declension for now, because it is by far the most difficult subject among nouns in the Medical Terminology. Contrariwise the present topic – the 4th and 5th declension – is rather easy, because there are very few exceptions, the vocabulary is modest, and there are lots of similarities with what you already know from the first two declensions. As noted at the beginning of this lesson, nouns are associated with declensions based on their Gen. Sg. endings. For full set of Gen. Sg. endings from all five declensions check the table at the beginning of the 3rd lesson. As you can see, all the words from the 4th declension have Gen. Sg. -us, while nouns from the 5th declension have -ei. The 5th declension contains only feminines, while the 4th comprises of masculines and two neutrals.

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paradigm of the 4th declension Singular

Plural

Gender

masculine

neutral

masculine

neutral

Nom.

stat-us

gen-u

stat-us

gen-ua

Gen.

stat-us

gen-us

stat-uum

gen-uum

The translation is similar to first two declensions: Nom. Sg.

status

state

genu

knee

Gen. Sg.

status

… of state

genus

… of knee

Nom. Pl.

status

states

genua

knees

Gen. Pl.

statuum

… of states

genuum

… of knees

Many grammatical cases in this declension in both Sg. and Pl. have ending “-us”. This leads to two problems. First, any noun with Nom. ending “-us” may belong either to the 2nd or to the 4th declension. That is why you have to learn proper vocabulary forms, including Gen. Sg. endings and genders. If you neglect this, you will be subsequently unable to distinguish the declension in many words. Second, if you are given a 4th declension noun with “-us” ending, you may not be able to tell its grammatical case and number with certainty. Status can be Nom. Sg., Gen. Sg. or Nom. Pl., which also means that you do not know precisely whether the term status is actually subject or attribute. If such ambiguous situation occurs (for example in tests that accompany this course) there are three possible solutions: ●● The question in test may have more than one correct answer. (If not stated otherwise at least one from these is required for your answer to be counted as correct, so you are not required to list all the possibilities.) ●● Sometimes the meaning may suggest the correct answer, for example in expression defectus tractus both nouns if treated individually can be either Nom. Sg., Gen. Sg., or Nom. Pl. However, they cannot be both in nominative case, because neither of possible English translations (literally “defect tract”, “defect tracts”, “defects tract”, or “defects tracts”) would render sensible meaning. Therefore at least one has to be in Gen. Sg., thus playing the role of attribute to the other one. But which one is the attribute? If it is word “defect”, the translation would be literally “tract of defect”, if the other possibility is true, the result is “defect of tract”. It is obvious, that only the latter one makes sense.13 ●● If such ambiguous noun is connected to an adjective, the mutual combination may substantially limit the range of possibilities. For further details see section “Combination with Adjectives” in this lesson. 13

There is another acceptable possibility, if you understand word defectus as Nom. Pl. instead of Sg., the translation is “defects of tract”, both results will be counted as correct answers in your test results.

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part 1 / lesson 6 (4th and 5th declension)

All the words using paradigm status in your vocabulary are masculines with one exception: manus, us, f., which means “hand”, is actually a feminine. It still follows otherwise masculine set of endings similar to status provided below. If treated separately the gender of manus has no impact on its endings, but if connected to an adjective (e.g. “left hand”) then the adjective will reflect the exceptional gender of manus. Neutrals in the 4th declension create only very small sub-group which consists of two terms: genu (knee) and cornu (horn).

paradigm of the 5th declension Singular

Plural

Nom.

faci-es

faci-es

Gen.

faci-ei

faci-erum

Singular

Plural

Nom.

face

faces

Gen.

… of face

… of faces

Translation:

The vocabulary of the 5th declension consists of feminines. The only word, which may pose some difficulty to students, is Latin term for “thing” – res. Here the stem consists of only one letter and the suffix is actually much longer. The complete paradigm for res is as follows: res, rei, res, rerum.

combination with adjectives There are no 4th and 5th declension adjectives, but the set of adjectives that you have learned in the last lesson can be connected with nouns from any declension. The principle is still the same, you have to extract grammatical case, number, and gender from the noun and apply these pieces of information to the table provided in the Lesson 5. This means that if a noun from the 4th and 5th declension is further specified using an adjectival attribute (i.e. adjective) the endings of noun and the adjective will differ. For example if we want to inflect an expression “bad state”, where “state” is a 4th declension masculine and “bad” is the adjective, the result will be as follows: bad state

status malus

… of bad state

status mali

bad states

status mali

… of bad states

statuum malorum

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As you can see the adjective does not copy endings of the noun it is attached to, only its grammatical parameters. Therefore it will use masculine set of 2nd declension endings as presented in the previous lesson and follow the case and number of the noun.

summary 1. The 4th declension consists of masculines with paradigm status and two neutrals with paradigm genu. 2. There is one exception, manus, which is a feminine using paradigm status. 3. The 5th declension consists of feminines. 4. The 4th and 5th declension nouns can be connected with adjectives. The noun and the adjective have often different ending.

vocabulary of the 4th declension abusus, us, m.

addiction, abuse

aditus, us, m.

entrance

apparatus, us, m.

apparatus, equipment

appetitus, us, m.

appetite

aquaeductus, us, m.

channel carrying water

arcus, us, m.

arch

auditus, us, m.

sense of hearing

cornu, us, n.

horn, corner

decubitus, us, m.

decubit, bedsore

decursus, us, m.; cursus, us, m.

course, progress of patient or disease

defectus, us, m.

defect, malfunction, failure

ductus, us, m. (ductus choledochus)

duct, canal (bile duct)

exitus, us, m.

departure, exit, death

genu, us, n.

knee, knee-like structure

genu varum x genu valgum

calfknee, knock-knee

gustus, us, m.

sense of taste, gustation

infarctus, us, m.

infarction (necrosis of a tissue)

infarctus myocardii insultus, us, m. insultus cerebri; ictus, us, m.

heart attack insultation, attack brain attack

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part 1 / lesson 6 (4th and 5th declension)

intellectus, us, m.

intellect

lapsus, us, m.

error, blunter, mistake, flaw

manus, us, f. (!)

hand

meatus, us, m. (meatus acusticus)

passage (auditory meatus)

olfactus, us, m.

sense of smell, olfactory sense

processus, us, m. (processus mastoideus)

prominence, process (mastoid process)

prolapsus, us, m.

prolapse (slip of vertebra, prolapse of uterus, coming out of bowels)

pulsus, us, m.

pulse

recessus, us, m.

recession

sensus, us, m.

sense, sensory

sinus, us, m.

sinus, cavity, hollow

situs, us, m. (carcinoma in situ)

position (primary cancer)

spiritus, us, m. (spiritus vini)

spirit (alcohol)

status, us, m.

state, condition

successus, us, m.

success

tactus, us, m.

touch

tractus, us, m. (tractus opticus, t. respiratorius)

tract, apparatus, system (optical tract, respiratory tract)

usus, us, m.

usage, practice

visus, us, m.

eyesight

vomitus, us, m.

to be sick

vocabulary of the 5th declension canities, ei, f.

(unnatural) hair greying

caries, ei, f. (caries sicca and c. humida)

tooth decay (decay of bone or tooth x decay of soft tissue)

facies, ei, f.

face

rabies, ei, f.

rabies, hydrophobia, lyssa (an infectious disease)

res, ei, f.

thing

scabies, ei, f.

scabies, mange, scab (a parasitic disease of skin)

series, ei, f.

series

species, ei, f. (!)

species, in plural it has a different meaning: tea

superficies, ei, f.

surface

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exercises 1. Convert following expressions to the opposite grammatical number, i.e. from Sg. to Pl. and vice versa:14 vena profunda ruptura musculi oblongati manus dextra vesicae urinariae genu varum caries siccae species morbi congeniti 2. Create five medical expressions from words provided below (one expression in a line). Do not change the word order, but you will probably have to change endings to transform words to desired grammatical cases and numbers. All the adjectives are provided in Nom. Sg. masculine form. Example: ruptura, musculus, longus renders ruptura musculi longi morbus, acquisitus fractura, vertebra, primus status, oculus, dexter infarctus, musculus fractura, manus, sinister 3. Translate the results from the previous exercise to English. 4. Give all the grammatical cases in both numbers from following expressions: epidemia scabiei visus et auditus status auditus 5. What is the difference in grammar between the last two pairs from the previous exercise? 6. Translate to Latin: fracture of the base of skull rupture of dividers congenital disease of lips chronic state acute illness of urinary bladder

14

For example if the entry is musculus longus (long muscle) the answer should be musculi longi (long muscles). Each line is one expression consisting from one or more words; you have to transform the expression as a whole.

part 1 / lesson 6 (4th and 5th declension)

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correct answers 1. venae profundae, rupturae musculorum oblongatorum, manus dextrae, vesica urinaria, genua vara, caries sicca, species morborum congenitorum 2. morbus acquisitus, fractura vertebrae primae or fractura vertebrae prima, status oculi dextri, infarctus musculi, fractura manus sinistrae 3. acquired disease, fracture of the first vertebra (or first fracture of vertebra) state of the right eye, necrosis of muscle, fracture of the left hand 4. epidemia scabiei, epidemiae scabiei, epidemiae scabiei,15 epidemiarum scabiei; visus et auditus, visus et auditus, visus et auditus, visuum et audituum; status auditus, status auditus, status auditus,16 statuum auditus 5. In visus et auditus both words are connected using a conjunction “and”, thus preserving identical grammatical case and number, while the second pair is a typical “noun of noun” construction. The word status cycles between Nom. and Gen. and auditus remains always in Gen. 6. fractura fundi cranii, ruptura saeptorum, morbus congenitus labiorum, status chronicus, morbus acutus vesicae urinariae

homework 1. Learn vocabulary and paradigms of the 4th and 5th declensions. 2. Do not forget to review previous lessons, focus especially on adjectives. 3. Try to combine various nouns and adjectives to create more complex expressions. Give these expressions in all the grammatical cases and numbers. For example vena profunda, venae profundae, venae profundae, venarum profundarum. If you have a doubt about validity of your results, mark them down on paper, and give them to the teacher for control.

15 16

In this case the scabies should probably remain in Singular, as there is only one type of scabies in humans. In this case it also makes sense to preserve Gen. Sg. of the word auditus, because humans have only one type of hearing.

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lesson 7 (3rd declension imparisyllabics)

review 1. Nouns are divided into declensions on basis of Gen. Sg. ending. Nominative endings are not relevant. 2. Adjectives borrow endings from the 1st and 2nd declension, but they do not copy endings from nouns they are attached to. 3. Adjectives may or may not have similar ending as the nouns they are associated with. 4. The 4th declension harbours mostly masculines, two neuters, and one feminine. Paradigms: status, genu. 5. 5th declension contains feminines with paradigm facies.

introduction Subject of this lesson will be the 3rd declension. As with all others, there is one attribute which is common to all words belonging to this group and it is Gen. Sg. ending “-is”. In other words, all nouns that have Gen. Sg. “-is” are part of the 3rd declension. There is no exception from this rule. If you compare the paradigms of declensions we have had so far, you may notice, that we have two distinctive groups. One consists of the 1st and 2nd declension while the other of the 4th and 5th one. Both groups contain paradigms for all three genders and they also have substantial similarities in their endings. The 3rd declension is the third and the last large type of nouns, which stands apart from both groups we have discussed so far. As such, it covers all three genders and paradigms presented in this declension have many similar endings. It is also different from the 1st/2nd as well as 4th/5th groups in many aspects. The 3rd declension is generally considered to be the most difficult from the grammatical point of view with problems roughly summarized in three points: ●● The 3rd declension is divided into several sub-groups with their own minor differences in paradigms, the most important division being between so called imparisyllabics and parisyllabics.

part 1 / lesson 7 (3rd declension imparisyllabics)

●● ●●

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In contrast to all other declensions, some words from the 3rd one change stem during inflection. While in previous declensions the gender was more or less clearly associated with a Nom. Sg. ending (“-a” in the 1st declension suggested feminine, “-us” in the 2nd declension masculine, and “-um” neuter) in the 3rd declension the genders are very difficult to ascertain. It is important that you memorize the gender of every word as part of its vocabulary form.

division of the 3rd declension The declension is divided into two major groups: imparisyllabics and parisyllabics. Imparisyllabics consist of two paradigms, while the parisyllabic group is further divided into four or five sub-groups, depending on definition. The main difference between imparisyllabics and parisyllabics is Gen. Pl. ending which is either “-um” (imparisyllabics) or “-ium” (parisyllabics). The problem is that we build our knowledge of nouns on the vocabulary form, which contains Nom. Sg., Gen. Sg. ending, and gender. There is no information about Gen. Pl. That is why we have to search for a different approach which will allow us to distinguish between these major groups of nouns. To achieve this goal, we will consider the imparisyllabic group from the present lesson to be a baseline, and all the parisyllabics as exceptions defined by certain combinations of Nom. and Gen. endings in singular. Thus the definition of imparisyllabic group is in fact negative. In other words everything that does not belong to parisyllabics will be an imparisyllabic. This is not very functional concept without the information provided in the next lesson, but it allows us to put this subject aside for now and focus on more important problems associated with the 3rd declension.

change in stem Unlike the rest of Latin nouns, some words from the 3rd declension when turned into various grammatical cases and numbers change not only an ending, but also the stem. First let us review what is a stem and ending using an example from the 1st declension. In vena, venae, venae, venarum the ven- part is stem and the rest is called ending. As you can see only the ending is subject of change in various forms of word, while the stem remains stable. In the 3rd declension this rule does not always apply. Some, but not all, words change both the stem and the ending. Compare following examples:

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Nom. Sg.

calor

atlas

Gen. Sg.

caloris

atlantis

Nom. Pl.

calores

atlantes

Gen. Pl.

calorum

atlantum

The word calor (heat) has an ordinary inflection without the stem change, contrariwise atlas (one of vertebrae) shows apparent shift from atlas in Nom. Sg. (whole nominative is actually the stem) to atlant- in subsequent grammatical cases. Note that endings are otherwise similar, there is “zero” ending in Nom. Sg., “-is” ending in Gen. Sg., “-es” in Nom. Pl., and finally imparisyllabic “-um” in Gen. Pl. The key factor for understanding this feature lies in the vocabulary form. At the beginning of the Introduction we have mentioned that all the words from the 3rd declension have a common Gen. Sg. ending “-is”. If the word has also a change in stem, this fact is signified by inserting the change in front of the “-is” suffix in the vocabulary form in such a way, that you should be able to reconstruct the whole change without difficulties. In other words, if you remember the vocabulary form, you shall be able not only to identify the declension and gender, but also a change in stem, providing that there is any. For example, compare the vocabulary forms of the two words from the table above: ●● calor, is m., there is only the “-is” ending, which signifies no change in stem, ●● atlas, ntis m., here we have not only the “-is”, but also “-nt-” inserted in front of the ending. If you want to determine the modified stem from the vocabulary form, just take the Nom. Sg. atlas, remove the last consonant “-s” and replace it with “-nt-”. That is all. Now, you are able to identify nouns that have a change in stem. The ending itself should be mostly pretty self-explanatory, so you should be able to create the modified stem without major difficulties. The final question is, in which grammatical cases and numbers does the change occur? The answer is actually very easy, if there is a change, the Nom. Sg. will have the basic version (as signified by the vocabulary form) and all the remaining grammatical cases in both numbers will use the modified stem. See the example of atlas provided above.

paradigms The imparisyllabic group of the 3rd declension consists of two paradigms. The first one applies to masculines and feminines, while the second governs neuters.

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part 1 / lesson 7 (3rd declension imparisyllabics)

Singular Gender Nom. Gen.

m. and f.

Plural n.

m. and f.

n.

dolor

caput

dolor-es

capit-a

dolor-is

capit-is18

dolor-um

capit-um

17

There are few things worth to mention: ●● Note that in the paradigm dolor there is no specific Nom. Sg. suffix. Various masculines and feminines put various endings on this place or they have a “zero” ending as in case of dolor; only good knowledge of vocabulary forms will tell you what is the correct version. ●● Dolor is an example of word without the stem change, which is also apparent from the vocabulary form dolor, is, m. ●● Caput on the other hand has the stem change; its vocabulary form is caput, pitis n. Where the “-pit-” in front of the final “-is” signify the change. ●● It is not important, whether the paradigm itself has the change. The endings from dolor apply to all masculines and feminines and similarly caput endings are used by all the neutrals. The table does not suggest that neutrals have the change, while masculines and feminines have not.

examples of stem change At this stage you should be able to apply the paradigm on the vocabulary provided further below. Let us do some practice on few vocabulary forms with the change in stem: ●● ordo, dinis, m. (use the “d” as a connective sign), the correct forms are: ordo, ordinis, ordines, ordinum ●● extremitas, tatis, f. (the “t” shows how to connect the modified stem together): extremitas, extremitatis, extremitates, extremitatum ●● latus, teris, n.: latus, lateris, latera, laterum

combination with adjectives Combination of the 3rd declension nouns with adjectives works in similar fashion as in the 4th and 5th declension. The adjective preserves its own set of endings from the 1st and 2nd declension, while the noun follows paradigms dolor or caput. As a result both words shall have a different set of endings. For example “long pain” comprise of the noun dolor 17 18

Various endings or “zero” ending. Note that there is a stem change from caput to capitis.

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and adjective longus, a, um. Because dolor is a masculine, you have to choose the masculine set of endings in longus. The results in all the grammatical cases and numbers are: dolor longus

dolores longi

doloris longi

dolorum longorum

summary 1. The difference between imparisyllanics and parisyllabics is Gen. Pl. ending “-um” or “-ium”. 2. Some words have change in stem. 3. You can identify words with the change in stem when looking at the vocabulary form. If there is anything in front of the genitive “-is” suffix, the word has a change in stem. 4. Adjectives have different endings.

vocabulary In the vocabulary there are few words which deserve special attention: ●● Os, with Gen. Sg. ossis means bone, while os, with Gen. Sg. oris is mouth. When translating the term “os” from Latin you cannot tell whether is has the first or the second meaning. Only context can help you to find the correct solution. ●● Also note, that os, ossis (bone) is an exception, it is the only imparisyllabic in your vocabulary with Gen. Pl. “-ium” (i.e. ossium), despite this fact it does not belong to the parisyllabic group. abdomen, minis, n. abdomen acutum

abdomen sudden severe pain of uncertain origin in the area of abdomen (literally “acute abdomen”)

abductor, is, m.

abductor muscle, a muscle that abducts

adductor, is, m.

muscle that adducts (for example the thigh)

adipositas, tatis, f.

obesity

albumen, minis, n. (also albumin, minis, n.)

protein, group of proteins, egg white

apex, picis, m.

apex, tip of an organ

appendix, dicis, f.

appendix

articulatio, onis, f.

joint

calor, is, m.

heat

part 1 / lesson 7 (3rd declension imparisyllabics)

caput, pitis, n.

head

cartilago, ginis, f.

cartilate, gristle

cavitas, tatis, f.

cavity

cervix, icis, f.

neck

cicatrix, icis, f.

scar

coma, comatis, n.

coma, blackout

commotio, onis, f. (c. cerebri)

concussion (of the brain)

complicatio, onis, f.

complication

contusio, onis, f.

bruise

corpus, poris, n.

body

corrugator, is, m.

corrugator, Corrugator supercilii is “frowning” muscle – produces wrinkles of the forehead

cortex, ticis, m.

cortex, bark

crus, cruris, n.

shin

detoxicatio, onis, f.

removal of toxic elements from organism

dislocatio, onis, f.

dislocation, displacement

dolor, is, m.

pain

excisio, onis, f.

excision

exspiratio, onis, f.

expiration, exhalation

extensor, is, m.

extensor

extremitas, tatis, f.

extremity, limb

fel, fellis, n.

bile

flexor, is, m.

flexor

foetor, is, m.

foul odour

foramen, minis, n.

aperture, opening, hole

functio, onis, f.

function

genus, neris, n.

gender

gramma, atis, n.

gram (unit of weight)

graviditas, tatis, f.

pregnancy

hallux, ucis, m.

big toe

hepar, hepatis, n.

liver

humor, is, m.

fluid, solution

index, dicis, m.

forefinger

inspiratio, onis, f.

inhalation

lac, lactis, n.

milk

laesio, onis, f.

damage, wound, injury

larynx, ngis, f.

windpipe

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60

latus, teris, n.19

side

levator, is, m.

levator, “lifter”

liquor, is, m.

liquid

lux, lucis, f.

light

mater, matris, f.

mother, also layer surrounding the brain

pia mater (pius, a, um is an adjective, it means “saint” or “holy”)

“soft” meninx, the innermost layer of the meninges surrounding the brain

dura mater (durus, a, um is an adjective, litteraly “hard”)

“hard” meninx, outermost of the three layers of the meninges surrounding the brain

mel, mellis, n.

honey

mortalitas, tatis, f.

mortality, death rate

obesitas, tatis, f.

obesity

odor, is, m.

odour

operatio, onis, f.

operation

opus, operis, n.

work, opus, publication, creation

ordo, dinis, m.

order

origo, ginis, f.

origin, beginning, source

os, oris, n.

mouth

os, ossis, n. (this word has irregular Gen. Pl. -ium instead of -um)

bone

iliac bone (literally “bone of iliac areas”)

os ilium20 os ischii

ischium

21

os pubis

pubic bone (literally “bone of pubic area”)

22

os sacrum

23

sacrum (a large triangular bone at the base of spine)

palor, is, m.

paleness, pallor, pallidness

pancreas, atis, n.

pacreas

paries, etis, m.

wall

pectus, toris, n.

breast (anterior part of thorax)

pes, pedis, m.

foot

phalanx, ngis, f.

finger bone

19

Not to be confused with latus, a, um (wide). Often used in abbreviated form: lat. Typically describes sides of human body or an organ: lat. dx. and lat. sin. (meaning right and left side). Expression lateris utiusque (lat. utr.) means “of both sides”, synonymum is the adjective bilateralis, e. 20 Word ilium is Gen. Pl. of a noun. 21 Word ischii is a noun in Gen. Sg. 22 Word pubis is Gen. Sg. of a noun. 23 Sacer, sacra, sacrum is an adjective.

part 1 / lesson 7 (3rd declension imparisyllabics)

pharynx, ngis, f.

throat

pollex, licis, m.

thumb

pulmo, monis, m. pulvis, veris, m. (p. adspersorius)

lung 24

dust, powder (dusting powder or baby powder)

pus, puris, n.

pus, purulence

quaestio, onis, f.

question

radix, icis, f.

root

ratio, onis, f.

method, reason, intellect

reactio, onis, f.

reaction

regio, onis, f.

region, area

ren, renis, m.

kidney

respiratio, onis, f.

respiration, breathing

restitutio, onis, f.

cure

rigor, is, m.

stiffness, rigidity

rubor, is, m.

reddening, to become red

sanatio, onis, f.

therapy, treatment

sanguis, guinis, m.

blood

semen, minis, n.

seed, sperm

solutio, onis, f.

solution

sterilitas, tatis, f.

sterility, impotence

sudor, is, m.

sweat

suspicio, onis, f. (is used with genitive case)

suspicion

suspicio fracturae

suspicion of fracture

syphilis, idis, f.

syphilis

tempus, poris, n.

time, temple (anatomy)

thorax, acis, m.

thorax

tuber, is, n.

tuber, abscess

tumor, is, m.

tumour, swelling

ulcus, ceris, n.

ulcer

venter, ventris, m.

belly

virgo, ginis, f.

virgin

vulnus, neris, n.

wound, trauma

vulnus punctum25

24 25

puncture wound

Adspersorius, a, um is an ordinary adjective. Punctus, a, um is an adjective.

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62

vulnus scissum26 vulnus sectum

vulnus lacertum vulnus morsum

incision, incised wound incision, cut

27 28

29

laceration bite

exercises 1. Create Nom. Pl. from following words: flexor corrugator liquor venter apex pes ren articulatio commotio virgo mortalitas semen corpus ulcus tuber 2. Add the adjective provided in brackets to create two word expressions, respect the grammatical case and number of the noun. All the adjectives are provided in Nom. Sg. for masculine gender: tumores (malignus) graviditas (extrauterinus) pulmonis (sinister) matres (pia) index (longus) abdomen (acutus)30 regio (magnus) foramina (parvus) functionis (laesus) latus (sinister) 3. Give all the grammatical cases in both numbers from following expressions: dolor musculi apex pulmonis functio respirationis extremitas dextra 4. Use words provided on every line to compose a medical expression, do not change the word order, and translate the result to English: origo, epidemia, scabies, chronicus sterilitas, acquisitus laesio, durus, mater contusio, latus (noun), sinister, thorax 26 27 28 29 30

Scissus, a, um is in adjective. Sectus, secta, sectum is an adjective. Lacertus, a, um is an adjective. Morsus, a, um is an adjective. This term if rendered correctly means an acute abdominal illness, although the literal meaning is “acute belly”.

part 1 / lesson 7 (3rd declension imparisyllabics)

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5. Translate to Latin: long scars body of the sacral bone complicated fracture of the left temple mouths epidemic of syphilis rupture of liver

correct answers 1. flexores, currugatores, liquores, ventres, apices, pedes, renes, articulationes, commotiones, virgines, mortalitates, semina, corpora, ulcera, tubera 2. tumores maligni, pulmonis sinistri, index longus, regio magna, functionis laesae, graviditas extrauterina, matres piae, abdomen acutum, foramina parva, latus sinistrum 3. dolor musculi, doloris musculi, dolores musculorum, dolorum musculorum; apex pulmonis, apicis pulmonis, apices pulmonum, apicum pulmonum; functio respirationis, functionis respirationis, functiones respirationum (or respirationis), functionum respirationum (or respirationis); extremitas dextra, extremitatis dextrae, extremitates dextrae, extremitatum dextrarum 4. origo epidemiae scabiei chronicae (origin of chronic epidemic of scabies), sterilitas acquisita (acquired sterility), laesio durae matris (damage of dura mater), contusio lateris sinistri thoracis (bruise of left side of chest) 5. cicatrices longae, corpus ossis sacri, fractura complicata temporis sinistri, ora, epidemia syphilidis, ruptura hepatis

homework 1. Try to learn new vocabulary, review also previous lessons. 2. Create all the grammatical cases in both numbers from every word in your vocabulary at least once. If you are unsure how to create the correct modification in stem, ask you teacher at the beginning of the next lesson. 3. Train the use of the 3rd declension nouns with adjectives.



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lesson 8 (3rd declension parisyllabics)

review 1. The 3rd declension is divided into two major groups called imparisyllabics and parisyllabics. 2. Imparisyllabics use two paradigms, dolor for masculines and feminines, caput for neuters. 3. Some nouns in the 3rd declension have a change in stem. 4. The change in stem is detected by looking at the Gen. Sg. ending in the vocabulary form. 5. When connected with a 1st and 2nd declension adjective, the noun and the adjective have different ending.

introduction During the last lesson we have already established that the 3rd declension is divided into two major groups called imparisyllabics and parisyllabics. We were using the imparisyllabic group as a baseline, while the parisyllabic one will be treated as set of exceptions from the rule. Therefore this lesson aims to achieve two things: (1) how do we identify words belonging among parisyllabics, (2) what is the difference between imparisyllabic and parisyllabic paradigm.

identification of parisyllabic groups The main difference between imparisyllabics and parisyllabics is Gen. Pl. ending, which is “-um” in former and “-ium” in the latter group. Unfortunately, Latin words are usually provided in the vocabulary form, which consists of Nom. Sg., Gen. Sg. ending, and gender. The Gen. Pl. is not included. As a result the vocabulary form cannot be directly used for purpose of identification of parisyllabics.

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This means that there must be another way which would allow to distinguish between both groups using just the information provided in the vocabulary form. For this purpose the parisyllabics are divided in four sub-groups, each with its own set of characteristic features. First three contain masculines and feminines and lead to one general paradigm only slightly different from imparisyllabic dolor. The last one is associated with neutrals and thus creates a parallel to the caput from the previous lesson. Sub-group auris Nouns belonging to this group comply with following conditions: 1. they are masculines or feminines (no neuters here), 2. they have in Nom. Sg. ending “-is” or “-es”, 3. there is no change in stem, so their vocabulary form contains pure “-is” as Gen. Sg. ending. Examples: cutis, is, f. (skin), finis, is, m. (end), lues, is, f. (syphilis). Sub-group dens Nouns belonging to this group comply with following conditions: 1. they are masculines or feminines (no neuters here), 2. they have only one syllable in Nom. Sg., 3. the Nom. Sg. ends with “-ns” or “-rs”. Examples: ars, artis, f. (art), mens, mentis, m. (mind). Sub-group basis31 Nouns belonging to this group comply with following conditions: 1. they are only feminines, 2. they have both Nom. Sg. and Gen. Sg. ending “-sis”. Examples: diagnosis, sis, f., prognosis, sis, f. Sub-group rete Nouns belonging to this group comply with following conditions: 1. they are neuters, 2. the Nom. Sg. ends with “-ar”, “-e”, or “-al”. Words that do not belong to any of the sub-groups described above, are imparisyllabics and follow the paradigm dolor or caput. The differentiation is not actually as complicated as it looks on the first sight. Following table may help you with the task:

31 This group covers set of loanwords from Greek.

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If it is masculine, and

First, identify the gender: If the gender is feminine, and

If the gender is neutral, and

Nom. Sg. -is/-es Gen. Sg. -is no stem change

auris

Nom. Sg. -ns, -rs only one syllable

dens

everything else

dolor

Nom. Sg. -is/-es Gen. Sg. -is no stem change

auris

Nom. Sg. -ns, -rs only one syllable

dens

Nom. Sg. -sis Gen. Sg. -sis

basis

everything else

dolor

Nom. Sg. -ar, -e, -al

rete

everything else

caput

paradigm Paradigm for parisyllabic masculines and feminines differs only slightly from dolor. We will use word auris (ear) as paradigm here: Singular

Plural

Nom.

aur-is (various)

aur-es

Gen.

aur-is

aur-ium

Note: ●● This paradigm covers sub-groups auris, dens, and basis. ●● Nom. Sg. ending is variable similarly to the dolor paradigm. ●● The only difference of these three sub-groups with the dolor is Gen. Pl. with “-ium” instead of “-um”. Neutral paradigm is: Singular

Plural

Nom.

ret-e (-ar, -al)

ret-ia

Gen.

ret-is

ret-ium

●● The caput has only “-a” in Nom. Pl. and only “-um” in Gen. Pl. Because parisyllabic group is considered an exception from the ordinary imparisyllabic baseline, all the remaining features are similar to imparisyllabics. This applies namely to possible stem changes and connecting parisyllabics with adjectives.

part 1 / lesson 8 (3rd declension parisyllabics)

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summary 1. The parisyllabic group is further divided in four sub-categories: auris, dens, basis, rete. 2. A noun which does not belong to any of these sub-categories, follows the imparisyllabic paradigms dolor and caput. 3. The stem change in parisyllabics works similarly to the stem change in imparisyllabics. It is signified by the Gen. Sg. ending in the vocabulary form, which contains pure “-is” (no change) or something in front of the “-is”, that describes the change. 4. Connection of parisyllabics with adjectives is similar to that of imparisyllabics.

vocabulary analysis, is, f.

analysis

anamnesis, is, f.

patient’s medical history

animal, alis, n.

animal

ars, artis, f.

art

auris, is, f.

ear

avis, is, f.

bird

axis, is, m.

a line around which body parts are arranged; the second cervical vertebra; epistropheus

basis, is, f.

base

calcar, aris, n.

spur

canalis, is, m.

canal

cholelithiasis, is, f.

gallstone

cirrhosis, is, f.

result of a degenerative process in the tissue of liver (cirrho- means yellow)

cochlear, aris, n.

spoon

crisis, is, f.

crisis

cutis, is, f. cutis anserina

skin 32

dens, dentis, m.

32

goose bumps, goose pimples tooth

dens bicuspidatus

tooth having two cusps or points, also premolar tooth

dens caninus

canine tooth, dog-tooth

dens incisivus

incisor tooth

Anserinus, a, um is an adjective meaning “goose-like”.

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dens lacteus

milk tooth

diagnosis, is, f.

identification of a medical condition or a disease of a patient

dialysis, is, f.

dialysis

diaphysis, is, f.

shaft of a long bone

dosis, is, f.

dose

emesis, is, f.

to be sick

epiphysis, is, f.

end of a long bone

fauces, ium, f. (this word has only plural form, there is no singular)

pharynx, throat

febris, is, f.

fever

febris flava

yellow fever

33 34

f ebris dromedaria (this expression is used very rarely)

intermittent fever

finis, is, m.

end

frons, frontis, f.

forehead

lues, is, f.

syphilis

mens, mentis, f.

mind

mensis, is, m.

month (plural menses is sometimes used to describe menstruation)

mons, montis, m. mons pubis or mons Veneris

mountain, mound 35

literally “pubic mound”, fatty tissue above pubic bone in women

mors, mortis, f.

death

necrosis, is, f.

non-natural death of cells or tissue (a natural death is called apoptosis)

osteoporosis, is, f.

rarefaction of bones

pars, partis, f.

part, portion

pelvis, is, f.

basin, pelvis

pertussis, is, f.

whooping cough

pons, pontis, m. pons Varolii

33 34 35 36

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bridge anatomical structure above the medulla and below the midbrain

Flavus, a, um means yellow. Dromedarius, a, um is an adjective meaning “dromedary-like”; a dromedary is one-humped camel. The word Veneris is a genitive from the name of ancient Roman goddess of love Venus. Grammatically it belongs to the 3rd declension imparisyllabics, and its vocabulary form is Venus, -neris, f. Word “Varolii” (also Varoli) is Gen. Sg. from the surname of the 16th century anatomist Constanzo Varolio, who described the structure as the first one and gave it name pons (bridge).

part 1 / lesson 8 (3rd declension parisyllabics)

prognosis, is, f.

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prognosis

prophylaxis, is, f.

37

pubes, is, f.

prevention pubic region

rete, retis, n.

net

sal, salis, n.

salt

semicanalis, is, m.

channel open at one side or a deep groove on the edge of a bone that accommodates part of an adjoining bone

sitis, is, f.

thirst

spondylosis, is, f.

a pathological condition of vertebrae

stenosis, is, f.

pathological narrowing of a tubular structure

symphysis, is, f.

fusion between two bones, type of cartilaginous joint

synthesis, is, f.

integration, merging, synthesis

tabes, bis, f.

result of untreated syphilis in some cases; a symptom of tertiary form of syphilis

testis, is, m.

testicle

tuberculosis, is, f.

TB

tussis, is, f.

cough

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unguis, is, m.

nail .

urolithiasis, is, f

stones in urinary tract

exercises 1. Use words provided in every line to create one expression: magnus, pars, cerebellum necrosis, ren, sinister fractura, diaphysis, ulna caries, dens, caninus 2. Create all the grammatical cases in both numbers from the following expressions: auris externa mens sana basis cranii calcar pedis

37 38

Word prophylaxis belongs to paradigm basis, despite its “-xis”, “-xis” combination in Nom. and Gen. Sg., because the “-x-” stands for original “-s-”. It is an exception that you have to remember. The word “sal” can be also inflexed as masculinum, i.e. sal, salis, m.

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3. Translate to English: cochlear salis inflammatio unguis fractura axis morbus cutis digitorum tussis neonatorum 4. Now take the Latin terms from the previous exercise and give them in Plural. 5. Translate to Latin: narrowing of veins TB of bones bad prognosis fracture of pelvis the first month small doses

correct answers 1. pars magna cerebelli, necrosis renis sinistri, fractura diaphysis ulnae, caries dentis canini 2. auris externa, auris externae, aures externae, aurium externarum; basis cranii, basis cranii, bases craniorum, basium craniorum; mens sana, mentis sanae, mentes sanae, mentium sanarum; calcar pedis, calcaris pedis, calcaria pedum (or pedis), calacrium pedum/pedis 3. spoon of salt, inflammation of nail, fracture of the second vertebra, illness of skin of fingers, cough of newborns 4. cochlearia salis, inflammationes unguium, fracturae axium, morbi cutis digitorum, tusses neonatorum 5. stenosis venarum, tuberculosis ossium, prognosis mala, fractura pelvis, mensis primus, doses parvae

homework 1. Review the vocabulary; try to memorize definitions of individual sub-categories of parisyllabics. 2. Focus on use with adjectives. 3. Try to inflect one imparisyllabic and one parisyllabic simultaneously and pay attention to differences in endings.

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lesson 9 (3rd declension adjectives)

review 1. Nouns are divided into five different declensions according the Gen. Sg. ending. 2. The 3rd declension has two major groups: imparisyllabics and parisyllabics with Gen. Pl. “-um” in former and “-ium” in the latter one. 3. Imparisyllabics have two paradigms: dolor (masculines and feminines), caput (neuters). 4. Parisyllabics have two paradigms: auris (masculines and feminines), rete (neuters) 5. Paradigm auris applies to various sub-categories, namely types auris, dens, basis. 6. Combination of Nom. Sg. and Gen. Sg. ending in vocabulary form allows for differentiation between these parisyllabic sub-categories.

introduction Latin adjectives are divided into two groups using different sets of endings. The first one, which was the subject of the 5th lesson, contains adjectives that always borrow endings from the 1st and 2nd declension nouns. These adjectives never adopt endings from the 3rd to 5th declensions and retain only their basic “-us/-r”, “-a”, “-um” structure. The declension of noun, they are attached to, never dictates their own ending, on the other hand the grammatical case, number, and gender of that noun must reflect on the adjective. The second group of Latin adjectives behaves in a similar fashion, but uses endings from the 3rd declension nouns. There are no adjectives that would use 4th and 5th declension endings. This does not mean, however, that you cannot connect adjectives with nouns from the 4th and 5th declension. Quite the opposite, any noun from any declension can be (at least from grammatical point of view) connected with any adjective regardless the declension. The only relevant features that connect the noun and the adjective are grammatical case, number, and gender. This lesson wraps up the subject of adjectives in this semester. From now on you shall be able to connect any noun with any Latin adjective, as there are no additional types.

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identification and vocabulary form How do we identify which adjective belongs to the first group (1st and 2nd decl.) and which follows the paradigm of the 3rd declension? The key factor is again the vocabulary form. In the first group the vocabulary form is twofold: longus, a, um dexter, tra, trum Note that in both cases there are three separate endings, one for each gender. While masculine ending is either “-us” or “-r”, the rest is always “-a” for feminine, and “-um” for neutral gender. The 3rd declension adjectives use three different structures: acer, acris, acre brevis, e recens, ntis Meaning of these structures will be explained shortly, but – for purpose of distinction – note that all the 3rd declension types have somewhere among their endings an “-is”. Therefore we can summarize this section with rule that if there is an “-is” in the vocabulary form, the adjective belongs to the 3rd declension type; otherwise it must be the 1st and 2nd declension type.

paradigm Overall there are three paradigms which are called “one-termination”, “two-termination”, and “three-termination” type. The “-termination” part of the name refers to amount of separate forms available for genders in Nom. Sg. grammatical case. To illustrate this point better, let us go back for a moment to the 1st and 2nd declension type of adjectives you already know from the Lesson 5. Paradigm longus, a, um has three different forms in Nom. Sg., where the first one “-us” is used with masculines, the second one “-a” with feminines and finally the “-um” with neuters. As result, the longus, a, um is effectively three-termination adjective. From this example it should be obvious, that the one-termination adjective has only one form which is used with all three genders of nouns, while two-termination has two forms, and lastly the three-termination takes three different forms. For example the word acer, acris, acre (sharp) has one form (acer) to connect with masculines, another (acris) with feminines, and the last (acre) with neuters. Therefore it is a three-termination one. Another example is two-termination adjective brevis, e, which connects using form brevis to masculines and feminines, while breve serves neuters. And as a last example let us take a one-termination adjective like lactans, ntis, which has only one form lactans for connecting with either masculines, feminines, or neuters. The important information is that the division to one-, two-, and three-termination adjectives applies only in Nom. Sg. In all the remaining grammatical cases and

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part 1 / lesson 9 (3rd declension adjectives)

numbers there is only one common inflection. As result we shall treat the two-termination paradigm as the basic one, and remaining two as minor variations. Let us look at the basic two-termination adjective brevis (short) first: Singular Gender

m. and f.

Nom.

brev-is

Plural

Gen.

n.

m. and f.

brev-e

brev-es

brev-is

n. brev-ia brev-ium

What does the table mean? Word brevis, if attached to m. or f. noun will use following inflection: brevis, brevis, breves, brevium. If it is connected with a neuter the series will be different: breve, brevis, brevia, brevium. Note, that in genitive grammatical cases the ending is actually common for all three genders. From this basic paradigm the three-termination and the one-termination differ only in Nom. Sg., while all the remaining cases have exactly the same structure. So the three-termination paradigm acer (sharp) looks like this: Singular

Plural

Gender

m.

f.

n.

m. and f.

n.

Nom.

ace-r

acr-is

acr-e

acr-es

acr-ia

Gen.

acr-is

acr-ium

The Gen. Sg. copies the brevis, and plural has also similar structure with two forms in nominative and one in genitive. And lastly the one-termination paradigm recens (recent) looks like this: Singular

Plural

Gender

m., f., and n.

m. and f.

Nom.

recens

recent-es

Gen.

recent-is

n. recent-ia recent-ium

Let us reiterate once again that where an ordinary adjective like longus, a, um, has three separate forms the recens type has only one. In other words, “he” is longus, “she” is longa, and “it” is longum, but all three are recens. How do we recognize which 3rd declension adjective belongs to which sub-category? Check the vocabulary form. The three-termination adjectives will always have three endings, so they are easy to discern. The two-termination adjectives have only the combination “-is”, “-e” and nothing else (example: mobilis, e; utilis, e; similis, e). The one-termination adjectives have also two endings because they have the unique Nom. Sg. one, which is accompanied with the Gen. Sg. For example capax, cis; degener, is; prominens, ntis. Note that in two-termination adjectives the first ending is always “-is”, while in the one-termination group it is the second ending and never the first one.

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Furthermore the genitives in vocabulary form of one-termination adjectives are provided for purpose, because many of them have a change in stem which is similar to that in 3rd declension nouns. As you can already see in case of the paradigm recens, where the “-ns” in stem turns in other cases into “-ntis”. This is an important feature which must not be ignored, for example genitive from duplex is not duplexis, but duplicis; the genitive from permanens shall not be permanensis but permanentis. So pay attention to avoid critical mistakes in tests.

summary 1. There are overall two major groups of adjectives: the 1st and 2nd declension ones and the 3rd declension ones. 2. The 3rd declension adjectives are further divided into three sub-categories called one-, two-, and three-termination. 3. The difference between these groups is apparent only in Nom. Sg. everywhere else the two-termination paradigm brevis applies. 4. Adjectives are divided into these three sub-categories based on their vocabulary forms. 5. In one-termination adjectives there is usually a stem change.

vocabulary Three-termination acer, acris, acre

sharp, acute

biventer, tris, tre

having two bellies

celer, ris, re

quick, fast

puter, tris, tre

rotten

saluber, bris, bre

wholesome, healthy, salubrious

Two-termination abdominalis, e

related to abdomen

brevis, e

short

capitalis, e

related to (oriented to) head

caudalis, e

related to (oriented to) end

credibilis, e

credible, trustworthy

difficilis, e

difficult, uneasy

dissimilis, e

dissimilar

dorsalis, e

related to back, backward oriented

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part 1 / lesson 9 (3rd declension adjectives)

facilis, e

easy

febrilis, e

feverish

fragilis, e

fragile

frontalis, e

being in front of, frontal (e.g. musculus frontalis)

gravis, e

heavy, severe

inoperabilis, e

inoperable

iuvenilis, e

juvenile

iuvenis, e (also juvenis)

young

levis, e

light, mild

mandibularis, e

gnathic, maxillary, related to jaw

molaris, e

molar (dens molaris)

mollis, e

soft

occipitalis, e

in the back of (e.g. musculus occipitalis)

ocularis, e

ocular

omnis, e

all, every, the whole

operabilis, e

operable

palmaris, e

related to open hand (palm)

pectoralis, e

pectoral, related to breast

sanabilis, e

curable, medicable

senilis, e

senile

similis, e

similar

solubilis, e

soluble

stabilis, e

stable

sterilis, e

sterile

ventralis, e

oriented toward abdomen or another such structure39

vulgaris, e

folk, plebeian, popular, widespread

vulnerabilis, e

vulnerable

One-termination afferens, ntis

afferent

ascendens, ntis

rising, climbing

capax, acis

capable, roomy

communicans, ntis

communicating

deferens, ntis or efferens, ntis

deferent, efferent

deformans, ntis

causing deformity

degener, is

degenerate

39

For example, ventral or frontal surface of scapula superficies ventralis scapulae.

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descendens, ntis

descending, sinking

duplex, duplicis

double

evidens, ntis

visible, plain, evident

frequens, ntis

frequent

imminens, ntis

impending, threatening

impar, imparis

unequal

latens, ntis

latent

multiplex, plicis

multiple

par, paris

equal

patiens, ntis

suffering, patient

penetrans, ntis

penetrating

perforans, ntis

perforating

permanens, ntis

permanent, lasting

praecox, cocis

premature

prominens, ntis

rising, prominent, protuberant

recens, ntis

recent, fresh

senex, senis

old

simplex, simplicis

simple

sufficiens, ntis

sufficient

triplex, triplicis

triple

exercises 1. Connect the adjectives in brackets with provided nouns. Adjectives have to follow grammatical case, number, and gender of the noun: dentis (molaris) dentes (molaris) nervi (mandibularis) ossa (fragilis) ductus (defferens) laesionis (deformans) morbi (latens) renum (migrans) vertebra (dorsalis) operationes (similis) doloris (acer) traumata (multiplex) 2. Provide both grammatical cases in both numbers for following expressions: vulnus recens status febrilis vena brevis musculus biventer cornu longum et (= and) penetrans intestinum tenue et intestinum crassum

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part 1 / lesson 9 (3rd declension adjectives)

3. Translate to English: os sacrum fragile ossium fragilium ruptura musculi occipitalis periculum cancri inoperabilis trauma multiplex costarum 4. Translate to Latin: rising tumour fast operation suspicion of latent cancer

permanent vomiting epidemic of light fevers heavy tooth decays

correct answers 1. dentis molaris, nervi mandibulares (or mandibularis), ductus defferens (or ductus defferentis, or ductus defferentes), morbi latentes (or latentis), vertebra dorsalis, doloris acris, dentes molares, ossa fragilia, laesionis deformantis, renum migrantium, operationes similes, traumata multiplicia 2. vulnus recens, vulneris recentis, vulnera recentia, vulnerum recentium; vena brevis, venae brevis, venae breves, venarum brevium; cornu longum et penetrans, cornus longi et penetrantis, cornua longa et penetrantia, cornuum longorum et penetrantium; status febrilis, status febrilis, status febriles, statuum febrilium; musculus biventer, musculi biventris, musculi biventres, musculorum biventrium; intestinum tenue et intestinum crassum, intestini tenuis et intestini crassi, intestina tenuia et intestina crassa, intestinorum tenuium et intestinorum crassorum 3. fragile sacral bone, … of fragile bones, rupture of occipital muscle, danger of inoperable cancer, multiple trauma of ribs 4. tumor protuberans, operatio celeris, suspicio cancri latentis, vomitus permanens, epidemia febrium levium, caries dentium graves

homework 1. Learn the vocabulary; review also the 1st and 2nd declension adjectives. 2. Focus on combinations of nouns in various declensions with adjectives from both major groups.

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lesson 10 (clinical terminology – stems and endings)

review 1. Latin nouns are divided into five declensions based on the Gen. Sg. ending. 2. Latin adjectives are divided into two groups, which use endings borrowed from the 1st + 2nd and the 3rd declension. 3. Adjectives are connected with nouns as attributes; they are affected by grammatical case, number, and gender of the noun. They usually do not copy the ending.

role of ancient greek in medical terminology In the past the medical terminology went through several stages of development. In certain periods various languages were more or less fashionable. For example Arabic exerted a substantial influence over the medieval medicine only to be practically completely purged during the great classical revival of the 16th century. Today the medical terminology is based mostly on Latin and Greek with English slowly gaining a foothold during recent decades. The relationship between Latin and Greek in medical terminology has always been complex. In ancient times Greek was the medical terminology as many specialists working for wealthy Romans were Greeks and naturally used their mother tongue to discuss medical theory and practice. Two authors, who were probably the most influential authorities throughout late antiquity, the medieval age, and even in the early modern times, were Greeks: Hippocrates of Cos and Galenos of Pergamon. Despite its huge influence, Greek language was unable to retain its privileged position and medieval Europe accepted as language of educated elites Latin instead of Greek. In medicine Greek has never vanished completely, but created – together with Latin – a specific mix where both languages have their own roles. Now Latin dominates anatomy and its grammar is used to glue various words, even those of Greek origin, together to create complex expressions. Greek, on the other hand, is very influential as source of newly coined specialist terms. With certain simplification it is possible to say that while students of medicine encounter at the beginning of their study mostly

part 1 / lesson 10 (clinical terminology – stems and endings)

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Latin, later the importance of Greek rises substantially. It is therefore possible to say that Latin serves as an anatomical vocabulary, while Greek is the backbone of the clinical terminology. For physicians from English speaking countries with less influence of the classical Latin education than in the Czech Republic, the importance of Greek terminology is even higher. So where do we find Greek in today’s medical terminology? It serves as a pool of words and their fragments which – if combined together – are used to create new, complex, highly specialised terms in everyday clinical practice although even clinical terminology still relies on Latin grammar when it comes to connecting words together into longer expressions and sentences. If we imagine the medical terminology as a house, the mortar will be Latin, but the bricks mostly Greek. The purpose of this lesson therefore is not to learn new grammar, but rather focus on how the clinical terms are created by merging several word stems together and adding appropriate endings. As result we shall first speak about stems and how to connect them into complex words, then we shall add the most frequent endings, and in the end we shall explain how the Latin grammar you already know is applied to these endings.

stems Greek stems serve as building blocks for specialised terms. Because they are “stems” they exist only in the middle of the words. A stem has no grammar per se. The grammar in medical terminology is applied only to endings. That is why every stem will be accompanied by at least one ending. In other words, every clinical term consists of at least one stem and one suffix. There can be more than one stem, and (as we shall show in the next lesson) also one or more prefixes. But at the end there will be always one ending which allows the term to be connected with other words in a clause. An ordinary stem looks like this: phleb(o)neur(o)nephr(o)The dash “-” at the end signifies that it is only a stem, not a complete word. As a rule, the stem can never occur at the end of word and cannot replace an individual Latin term. For example phleb(o)- is a Greek parallel to Latin vena and English vein. But because it has no inflexion, it cannot be used to replace the individual term vena. If you try to replace the anatomical term vena saphena with something like phleb(o)saphena, the result will be incorrect. The “(o)” before the dash is called connecting “o”. It conveys no meaning and serves no other purpose than to achieve a natural order of alternating consonants and vowels. It is put in the middle between two stems or the stem and the ending depending on what combination of vowels and consonants occurs at the joint. For example, if we put together nephr(o)- (kidney) with ending -itis (inflammation) the resulting term

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nephritis (inflammation of kidney) will be without the connecting “o”, because the ending already provides the vowel “i”, that naturally comes after the consonant “r” from the nephr(o)-. However, if we connect the same stem with the suffix -pathia, which means an unspecified disease, the stem ends with “r”, the suffix starts with “p” and the connecting “o” is necessary to achieve the alternation of consonants and vowels (nephropathia). Apart from alternating order of consonants and vowels there is no other rule which would govern the connecting of stems and endings together. If you are unsure whether to include the “o” in the combination or not, try to pronounce the whole combination aloud with and without the “o”. Then choose the version that is easier to pronounce. Avoid having two or more consonants and vowels grouped together. This is basically all you need to know about the Greek stems. Now, let us look at the endings.

endings Every clinical term consists of one ending and at least one stem. The ending is therefore indispensable because apart from having usually its own meaning, it also provides grammatical information which allows the resulting term to be used in a sentence. Fortunately, Greek endings do not introduce a new grammar, as they belong to ordinary Latin declensions (mostly the 1st and the 3rd one). A structure of complex clinical term can be expressed in a diagram like this: (-stem-) … (-stem-) (-ending) Example: hepatitis (an inflammation of liver) consists of stem hepat(o)- and the ending -itis meaning literally “liver” + “inflammation”. This system allows for a huge amount of combinations to be created using relatively limited list of stems and endings. Compare following examples:

nephr(o)(kidney)

+

-itis (inflammation)

nephritis

inflammation of kidney

-osis (non-inflammatory disease)

nephrosis

non-inflammatory disease of kidney

-pathia (unspecified disease)

nephropathia

unspecified disease of kidney

-oma (cancer)

nephroma

cancer of kidney

-algia (pain)

nephralgia

pain located to kidney

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part 1 / lesson 10 (clinical terminology – stems and endings)

Not only stems can be combined with various suffixes, it works also the other way around, see the next table: nephr(o)(kidney)

nephritis

inflammation of kidney

hepat(o)(liver)

hepatitis

inflammation of liver

dermatitis

inflammation of skin

encephal(o)(brain)

encephalitis

inflammation of brain

enteron40 (intestine)

enteritis

inflammation of intestines

dermat(o)(skin)

+

-itis (inflammation)

You can also combine more than one stem together to make words like cheilognathopalatoschisis, which can be broken down as: cheil(o)- -gnath(o)- -palat(o)- -schisis stem- -stem- -stem- -ending lip- -jaw- -palate- -cleft (cleft of the upper lip, upper jaw and soft palate). The advantage of such prolonged term is that it stitches several pieces of information together and wraps them up into one grammatical entity, which will be inflected using paradigm basis.

latin or greek You will often find that for many things in medicine there are at least two words, one Latin and the other Greek. For example inflammation can be expressed using Latin word inflammatio or Greek ending -itis, a cancer is described using Latin cancer or Greek ending -oma, and so on. If there is such ambiguity, an important rule applies: only the Greek stem can be used in clinical terms. In other words, you can use Greek stem phleb(o)- to create term phlebitis (inflammation of veins), but you must not “crossbreed” -itis with Latin vena into venitis, which is incorrect. If you, for some reason, have to use vena, you must break the expression into two words: inflammatio venarum. There are few exceptions from this rule. First, if an appropriate Greek stem is missing, it may be substituted with a Latin word. Second, in some situations the Latin 40 The enteron is not provided as a Greek stem, but rather as a complete word because it is a Greek word, which was borrowed by the Latin terminology. If such situation occurs, which happens mostly with words inflected according the paradigms colon and basis (a parisyllabic sub-category of auris) simply detach the ordinary ending to get the desired stem.

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version is used to avoid confusion. For instance the inflammation of tonsils is called tonsilitis, using Latin tonsila, ae, f. (almond) instead of a proper Greek stem amygdal(o)-. It is because there are actually two almond-like structures in the human body: tonsils in throat and amygdala in the brain. Amigdalitis would therefore suggest an inflammation of a brain structure rather than sore throat.

grammar Grammar associated with Greek stems and endings is rather simple. Based on previous lessons, you should be already able to identify to which declension each ending belongs. To make things easier, the vocabulary provides the paradigms in brackets. At this stage you can ignore special paradigms like -pnoe, as they shall be subject of the second part of the course for general medicine. Grammatically probably the most difficult endings are -gramma, atis, n. (result of diagnostic procedure) and -oma, omatis, n. (cancer), which belong to the 3rd declension (paradigm caput). Both behave in similar fashion; resulting words shall be neuters with following grammatical cases: Singular

Plural

Nom.

dermatoma

dermatomata

Gen.

dermatomatis

dermatomatum

Equally difficult is very frequent ending -itis, itidis, f. (inflammation), which also belongs to the 3rd declension with paradigm dolor. In addition it brings a stem change so Nom. Sg. “-it-” is replaced with “-itid-” (-itis with -itidis). Singular

Plural

Nom.

hepatitis

hepatitides

Gen.

hepatitidis

hepatitidum

The rest of stems follows either vena or the 3rd declension type auris, which is easier, because there is no stem change.

summary 1. Greek stems or endings cannot be used to replace standalone Latin words. They have to be combined together in complex terms with a suffix at the end. 2. Stems are merged together using connecting “o”, which is used to achieve regular alternation of consonants and vowels in resulting combinations.

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3. If there is Latin word and Greek stem for the same thing, only the Greek one can be merged with Greek ending to make a clinical term. 4. Pay attention to endings -oma and -itis.

vocabulary stems

acromi(o)-

part of shoulder blade

aden(o)-

gland

aer(o)-

air

alg(o)- or -algia

pain

andr(o)-

male

angei(o)-

blood vessel

arthr(o)-

joint, articulation

cardi(o)-

related to heart, or related to cardia, which is part of stomach attached to esophagus

cephal(o)-

head

cheil(o)-

lip

chir(o)-

hand

chondr(o)-

cartilage

col(o)-

large intestine

colp(o)- or kolp(o)-

vagina

cyt(o)-

cell

dermat(o)-

skin

encephal(o)-

brain

enter(o)-

intestines

gastr(o)-

stomach

geront(o)-

old person

gloss(o)-

tongue

gnath(o)-

jaw

gon- or gonat(o)-

knee

gynaec(o)-

female

haem(o)- or haemat(o)-

blood

hist(o)-

tissue

hypn(o)-

sleep

iatr(o)-

physician

lact(o)- or galact(o)-

milk

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lapar(o)-41

abdomen

lip(o)-

fat

lith(o)-

stone

log(o)- also ending -logia, ae, f.

word, speech, science

lymph(o)-

lymph

mast(o)-

breast

men(o)-

month

metr(o)- or hyster(o)-

uterus

morph(o)-

form

my(o)- or myos-

muscle

myel(o)-

marrow

nephr(o)-

kidney

neur(o)-

nerve

odont(o)-

tooth

onk(o)-

tumour

onych(o)-

nail

oste(o)-

bone

ot(o)-

ear

paed(o)-

child

path(o)- or -pathia

disease

phleb(o)-

vein

pneum(o)- or pneumat(o)-

air, lung

pod(o)- or -podia, ae, f.

foot

por(o)-

way, path

psych(o)-

soul, psychic

py(o)-

pus

rhin(o)-

nose

salping(o)-

uterine tube

scelet(o)-

skeleton

splen(o)-

spleen

spondyl(o)-

vertebra

stom- or stomat(o)-

mouth

stomach(o)-

stomach

42

41 42

There is difference between two major types of operations of abdomen. First, called laparotomia, is performed usign large incision into the abdominal wall, while the second, operatio laparoscopica, is “keyhole surgery”. Note the difference in ending. Use of my(o)- versus myos- depends on following letters; if there is a vowel, medical terminology usually chooses myos-, in case of consonant my(o)- is preferable.

part 1 / lesson 10 (clinical terminology – stems and endings)

thanat(o)-

death

toxic(o)-

poison

troph(o)-, also ending -trophia, ae, f.

nutrition

ur(o)-

urine

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endings The paradigm that applies to words created with these stems is provided in brackets. Endings -pnoe and -rrhoe are inflected using special paradigm, but they can be substituted with more “latinized” versions -pnea and -rhea. -algia, ae, f. (vena)

pain43

-ectomia, ae, f. (vena)

excision

-gramma, atis, n. (caput)

a result of a graphical/visual examination (e.g. sonographia leads to sonogramma)

-graphia, ae, f. (vena)

graphical/visual examination

-ia, ae, f.

Serves as general purpose ending for creation of nouns. Without specific meaning.

-iasis, sis, f. (basis)

not specified but non-inflammatory disease

-itis, -itidis, f. 44 (dolor)

inflammation

-odynia, ae, f. (vena), -odyn-

pain (can be used as stem too)

-oma, omatis, n. (caput)

cancer, swelling, thickening

-osis, sis, f. (basis)

not specified but non-inflammatory disease

-pathia, ae, f. (vena)

unspecified disease (the most general term)

-plastica, ae, f. (vena)

plastic surgery

-pnea, ae, f. (vena)

breathing

-rhytmia, ae, f.; -rhythm(o)-

rhythm (can be used as stem, too)

-rrhoe, es, f. (special Greek declension), -rrhea, ae, f. (vena)

flow

-scopia, ae, f. (vena)

-scopy, visual examination

-tomia, ae, f. (vena)

cut, section

-us, a, um

Serves as general purpose ending for creation of adjectives. This ending lacks own meaning.

-us, i, m.

Serves as general purpose ending for creation of nouns. Without specific meaning.

43 44

We have also two specific terms for pain: migraena, ae, f. (vena) which means headache, and angina, ae, f. (vena) with meaning “sharp pain”. In this ending pay attention to number of syllables. Genitive has one more syllable than nominative grammatical case. All the remaining cases are derived from the Gen. Sg. Example: nephritis (Nom. Sg.), nephritidis (Gen. Sg.).

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exercises 1. Create clinical terms for: unspecified disease of gland inflammation of ear inflammation of stomach menses (month + flow) surgical removal of breast unspecified disease of bones stone in urinary tract (urinary + stone + non-inflammatory disease) surgical intervention in abdomen plastic surgery of nose 2. Create all the grammatical cases from following terms, translate the terms in Nom. Sg. to English: angioplastica gastropathia neuralgia gerontopathia colpitis dermatitis osteomyeloma odontopathia 3. Change the adjectives in brackets (provided in Nom. Sg. masculine form) to match the clinical term. Note that nouns are provided in various grammatical cases and numbers: nephrosis (chronicus) neuralgiae (incipiens) urolithiasium (acutus) odontopathia (juvenilis) osteomyelomatis (latens) 4. Translate results from the task 3 to English. 5. Translate to Latin, use Greek clinical terminology wherever possible: chronic disease of teeth acute inflammation of uterine tube suspicion of non-inflammatory disease of cartilage epidemic of chronic inflammation of liver visual examination of urine suspicion of congenital unspecified disease of heart

part 1 / lesson 10 (clinical terminology – stems and endings)

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correct answers 1. adenopathia, otitis, gastritis, menorrhea, mastectomia, osteopathia, urolithiasis, laparotomia, rhinoplastica 2. angioplastica (surgical reconstruction of veins), angioplasticae, -ae, arum; neuralgia (pain of nervous origin), neuralgiae, -ae, -arum; colpitis (inflammation of vagina), colpitidis, colpitides, colpitidum; osteomyeloma (cancer of bone marrow), osteomyelomatis, osteomyelomata, osteomyelomatum; gastropathia (unspecified disease of stomach), gastropathiae, -ae, -arum; gerontopathia (disease associated with the old age), gerontopathiae, -ae, -arum; dermatitis (inflammation of skin), dermatitidis, dermatitides, dermatitidum; odontopathiae, -ae, -arum (non-specified disease of teeth) 3. nephrosis chronica, neuralgiae incipientis (or incipientes), urolithiasium acutarum, odontopathia juvenilis, osteomyelomatis latentis 4. chronic non-inflammatory disease of kidney, … of beginning pain of nervous origin (or alternatively “beginning pains of nervous origin”), … of acute presences of stones in urinary tracts (Gen. Pl.), juvenile non-specified pathology of teeth, … of hidden cancer of bone marrow 5. odontopathia chronica, salpingitis acuta, suspicio chondrosis, epidemia hapatitidis, uroscopia, suspicio cardiopathiae congenitae

homework 1. Learn new vocabulary, but review also previous lessons. 2. Focus on grammar of Greek endings. Try to use them in combination with a Latin adjective.

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lesson 11 (clinical terminology – prefixes, review lesson)

review 1. Clinical terminology consists of Greek prefixes, stems, and endings. 2. In clinical terminology, if a Greek stem is available, it has always precedence before its Latin synonym. 3. Stem and ending or several stems and ending are joined together using connecting “o”. 4. The purpose of connecting “o” is to achieve regular alternation of consonants and vowels. 5. Grammar of Greek endings uses ordinary paradigms vena, caput, basis.

prefixes Apart from stems and endings there is another constituent in the clinical terms, which may or may not be present – prefixes. In every term there must be at least one stem and one ending, the prefix or other additional stems are therefore facultative. A prefix has to precede a stem, it cannot be attached directly to an ending. Prefixes and stems usually are not connected together using an “o”, instead the prefixes undergo slight changes as in case of several variants of “syn-” or “anti-” versus “ant-” as signified in the vocabulary. Again the goal is regular rhythm of vowels and consonants as well as euphonic. Variants are not governed by a universal rule; some prefixes for instance do not change at all. The vocabulary should help you to recognise the prefix generally; in the future it may be necessary to consult a specialised dictionary.

part 1 / lesson 11 (clinical terminology – prefixes, review lesson)

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vocabulary of prefixes A selection of most frequent prefixes: allo-45

different, alien, foreign

an-

in-, un-, non-, -less, suggest that something is missing

ana-

apart

aniso-

unequal

anti-, ant-

against, opposite

auto-, aut-

self, one’s own

dia- (di-)

apart, between, through

dys-

dys- (like dysgraphia),46 a missing ability and/or quality

epi-

upon, above

hetero-

different, dissimilar (often in contrast with homo-)

homo-, homeo-

similar

hyper-

above, over, too high, excessively

hypo-

below, too low

ec-, ecto-

out(side)

en-

in(side)

endo-, ento-

inside

iso-

same (same level of quality), equal

meso-

in the middle

meta-

beyond, after

para-

next to, beside sth.

peri-

around

pro-

in front of, forward

syn-, sym-, sy-, syl-

together

xeno-

foreign

45

46

English term “allopathic” medicine (Lat. medicina allopathica) is generally used for modern western medicine in contrast to alternative theories about healing, namely homeopathics. The term allopathia comes from rule that the remedy should primarily oppose (therefore the prefix “foreign”) the effect of an illness. Homeopatic remedies (from Greek word for “the same”) strive to copy the effect of the pathological process and thus supposedly provoke a self-healing reaction of the organism. Usually congenital impediment, which causes a person to have difficulties with correct writing. Related to dyslexia (impaired ability to read) or dyscalculia (impaired ability to do math).

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additional vocabulary Following vocabulary is a collection of various minor sets of words from various declensions which may be part of your credit or examination tests and have not been mentioned so far. -ectasia, ae, f.

(unnatural) enlargement

-penia, ae, f.; olig(o)-

deficiency

aneurysma, atis, n.

aneurysm, bulge

deficiencia, ae, f.

insufficiency, deficiency (immune def.)

dilatatio, onis, f.

widening, enlargement

insufficientia, ae, f.

deficiency, insufficiency

macro-; mega-; gigant(o)-

big

magno-; magnus, a, um

big

medi(o)-

average

micro-

small

multi-

more than one (multigravida)

normo-; normalis, e

normal

parvo-

small

permagno-; permagnus, a, um

huge

exercises 1. Can you explain meaning of following words? Divide them into their constituent parts and translate these parts individually: allopathia, homeopathia, magnocellularis, normotensio, cytopaenia, parauterinus, metacarpus 2. Write Latin and Greek alternatives to following words: vein tongue muscle pus nerve cell skin ear big man tooth brain

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3. Translate to Latin: chronic insufficiency of respiratory tract suspicion of cancer of womb suspicion of congenital syphilis acute cancer of bone marrow disease of ocular nerves

correct answers 1. Discuss your results with teacher. 2. vena, phleb(o)-; musculus, my(o)-; nervus, neur(o)-; cutis, dermat(o)-; magnus, megal(o)-; dens, odont(o)-; lingua, gloss(o)-; pus, py(o)-; cellula, cyt(o)-; auris, ot(o)-; vir, andr(o)-; cerebrum, encephal(o)3. insufficiencia chronica tractus respiratorii, suspicio hysteromatis (cancri uteri), suspicio syphilidis congenitae, osteomyeloma acutum, morbus nervorum ocularium





part 2 / lesson 11 (clinical terminology – prefixes, review lesson)

part 2: general medicine – 2nd term

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lesson 12 (review) This lesson should serve as a review of grammar from the 1st part of the course. To achieve this goal we shall present all the relevant subjects in a structured way. First, let us start with few pieces of technical and syntactical information.

dictionary form If you want to understand Latin nouns you have to learn not only the noun itself but also additional information which is essential in order to work with them correctly. For this purpose we use so called dictionary form of a word. So far we have worked with dictionary forms of nouns and adjectives.

dictionary form of noun Example: ●● vena, -ae, f. (the meaning is: nominative is vena, genitive is venae, and gender is feminine), ●● nervus, -i, m. (nominative is nervus, genitive is nervi, and gender is masculine), ●● caput, -itis, n. (nominative is caput, genitive is capitis, and gender is neutral). As shown above the dictionary form consists of three parts. In the beginning a nominative singular is given, then follows suffix of genitive singular ending, and at the end there is a gender. It is important to memorize all those three pieces of information because without them you cannot effectively use the words in context. Generally speaking, we need the genitive suffix to distinguish a declension to which the noun belongs, and to describe potential changes in stem between the nominative and the genitive which occur in the 3rd declension (see the word caput given above). Gender is also important because every Latin noun is masculine, feminine, or neutral and there is no generally usable rule that would allow us to deduce the gender from nominative or genitive form of a word.47 Gender is particularly important when connecting nouns with adjectives.

47

Although during the initial lessons students often come to believe that words ending with “-a” are feminines and those ending with “-us” are masculines, it does not apply to all words in your textbook and there are many exceptions. For example word idiota, -ae belongs to the 1st declension and is masculine, word coma, comatis belongs to the 3rd declension and is neutral.

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dictionary form of adjective Example: ●● novus, a, um (meaning: Nom. Sg. form for masculine gender is novus, Nom. Sg. for feminine gender is nova, and for neuters novum), ●● saluber, bris, bre (meaning is similar as in the case above), ●● vitalis, e (meaning: Nom. Sg. for masculines and feminines is vitalis, while Nom. Sg. for neuters is vitale), ●● migrans, ntis (Nom. Sg. for masculines, feminines, and neuters is migrans, Gen. Sg. for all three genders is migrantis, and there is furthermore a stem change from migrans to migrant-). The adjectival dictionary form consists of all the endings available for the word in Nom. Sg. Or alternatively (in case of one-termination adjectives) it consists of universal Nom. Sg. for all three genders, which is accompanied with Gen. Sg. ending. It tells the reader whether the adjective belongs to the 1st and 2nd declension type (the first example) or the 3rd declension type (the remaining three). In the latter group it furthermore allows recognition of one-, two-, or three-termination sub-category. In addition, it also identifies possible stem change in one-termination adjectives.

syntactical relations Syntax describes how words are connected together to form sentences. So far we have had two main syntactical relations: (1) noun + noun and (2) noun + adjective.

noun + noun There are two ways how to connect two nouns in medical terminology. We use either conjunction “and” or the preposition “of  ”.48 If you use English conjunctive “and” (the Latin version is et) then both nouns will be in the same grammatical case. (It could be the nominative or any other case depending on context.) Use of “and” relation is relatively infrequent. Examples: ●● Windpipe and artery – trachea et arteria. (Both Nom. Sg., this is the simplest possibility.) ●● Fracture of rib and vertebra – fractura costae et vertebrae. (The word fractura requires genitive of following noun costa. And because the vertebra is connected to costa with “and” it has to assume the similar case.) 48

The use of “and” is technically called “coordinate clause”, while the use of “of ” is named “hypotactic relation”.

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The second option occurs if you connect two nouns using prepositional phrase with “of ”. In this case the second word (the one after the “of ”) will be always in genitive regardless of the case of the first one. (Of course both numbers are possible.) .

Examples: ●● Rupture of a muscle – ruptura musculi. (“Muscle” follows an “of ”, and therefore has to be given in Gen. Sg.) ●● Rupture of muscle of arm – ruptura musculi brachii. (Here musculus is a noun which is preceded with an “... of ...”, thus it shall be given in genitive. Noun brachium forms another noun + noun connection with musculus that forces brachium to be transformed to genitive as well.)

noun + adjective The rule for connecting nouns and adjectives in Latin is: The adjective follows gender, grammatical case, and number of a noun to which it is attached. Note that in Latin an adjective usually follows after the noun. Therefore English “long muscle” is musculus longus. This word order is obligatory with few exceptions like pia mater.49 Examples: ●● Damaged vein – vena laesa. (Noun vena is in nominative case, singular, and its gender is feminine therefore we use laesa.) ●● Removal of damaged vein – excisio venae laesae. (Excisio and vena are in noun + noun relation, which means that vein must be in genitive, this in turn forces the adjective to assume the genitive, too.)

nouns grammatical cases Latin uses grammatical cases to clarify the grammatical context of nouns and adjectives using various suffixes. Overall there are six cases in Latin: 1. nominative (nominativus), abbrev. Nom. 2. genitive (genitivus), abbrev. Gen.

49

Pia mater (one of meninges – layers – which wrap human brain) is usualy written in reverse sequence pia (adjective) mater (noun).

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3. dative (dativus) 4. accusative (accusativus), abbrev. Acc. 5. vocative (vocativus) 6. ablative (ablativus), abbrev. Abl. However, in medical terminology we apply only nominative, genitive, accusative and ablative as remaining two (dative and vocative) are not used. From these four cases we have had so far an opportunity to employ only the first two (Nom., Gen.). ●● Nominative is the most basic grammatical case. ●● Genitive is used to express the English prepositional phrase “... of ...” or (less frequently) instead of English possessive case, preserved as the inflexions ‘s and s’.50 Remaining two grammatical cases (Acc., Abl.) are subject of the Lesson 13 of this textbook.

grammatical number Grammatical cases of nouns can be used in two numbers (i.e. Singular and Plural).51 This means that so far every Latin noun has for purpose of this course four different forms (two in singular and two in plural) to express its various roles.

declensions Latin nouns are divided into five groups according similar patterns of suffixes they use in various grammatical cases. These groups are called “declensions”. Declensions are further divided to paradigms. To use a noun properly, we have to know its paradigm. To discern the paradigm, we have to start with the declension. Declensions are assigned to nouns on basis of Gen. Sg. ending, which can be deduced from the vocabulary form. See the table: Declension

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

Gen. Sg. ending

-ae

-i

-is

-us

-ei

50 51

Example: fracture of bone (fractura ossis) or patient’s medicine (remedium patientis). Number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions (such as “one” or “more than one”). In Latin “singular number of noun” means “one” and “plural number of noun” means “more than one”.

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part 2 / lesson 12 (review)

list of paradigms of nouns from the first part of the course Declension

1st

Gender

f.

2nd m.

3rd n.

4th

m./f.

5th

n.

m.

n.

f.

???

???

-us

-u

-es

-is

-is

-us

-us

-ei

Singular Nom.

-a

-us/-er

-um/-on

Gen.

-ae

-i

-i

Plural Nom.

-ae

-i

-a

-es

-a/-ia

-us

-ua

-es

Gen.

-arum

-orum

-orum

-um/-ium

-um/-ium

-uum

-uum

-erum

Comments: ●● “Gender” as signified in the table is not a rule; there are occasional exceptions, like word manus which belongs technically to “masculine” column of the 4th declension, although it is a feminine. More exceptions will be discussed during this term. ●● Alternatives in Nom. Sg. of the 2nd declension express difference between paradigms musculus x cancer, and intestinum x colon. ●● Alternatives in the 3rd declension columns express difference between imparisyllabic and parisyllabic paradigms.

adjectives There are two major groups of adjectives that borrow endings either from the 1st and 2nd declension of nouns or the 3rd declension. The full paradigm looks like this: 1st and 2nd decl. adjective

3rd decl. adjective three-termination

m.

f.

n.

m.

f.

n.

two-termination

one-term.

m./f.

n.

m./f./n.

-is

-e

Singular Nom.

-us/-er

-a

-um

-r

Gen.

-i

-ae

-i

see →

Nom.

-i

-ae

-a

Gen.

-orum

-arum

-orum

-is

-e

-is

??? ← see

Plural see →

-es -ium

-ia

← see

Comments: ●● Alternatives in Nom. Sg. for masculine gender in the 1st and 2nd declension adjectives reflects difference between sub-categories longus, a, um x dexter, tra, trum.

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●●

Among the 3rd declension adjectives the three- and one-termination groups copy the two-termination one in all the grammatical cases and numbers with exception of Nom. Sg.

clinical terminology Clinical terms are created using Greek prefixes, stems, and endings. Presence of a prefix is facultative; however, there will be always at least one stem and one ending in every clinical term. Overall we have two rules which govern Greek medical terminology: 1. Two stems or stem and ending may be connected using an additional “o”, which helps to achieve alternating order of vowels and consonants. 2. If there is both Greek and Latin alternative (e.g. phleb(o)- and vena), you must create the clinical terms using the Greek one. For full list of prefixes, stems, and endings see Lessons 10 and 11.

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lesson 13 (prepositions)

introduction In this lesson we will introduce a new word class – prepositions. Prepositions allow us to describe more complex anatomical and pathological reality especially with regards to directions, time, and mutual relationships between various aspects of medical expressions. In contrast to English, where the prepositions do not affect the form of noun, in Latin they require the noun to assume one of two grammatical cases: accusative or ablative. So far, we have used only nominative (Nom.) and genitive (Gen.), the first one being the basic form of word, while the second one serves to create nominal attribute. From now on we shall extend the set of endings in all paradigms to accusative and ablative grammatical case in order to accommodate the prepositions.

division of prepositions In comparison with many European languages, Latin prepositions are rather easy to work with. They are divided into three major groups according the grammatical case they are linked to: ●● Prepositions a, ab, e, ex, de, cum, sine, pro are associated with the ablative. ●● Prepositions ad, adversus, ante, apud, circum (circa), contra, extra, infra, inter, intra, per, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, trans connect to the accusative. ●● Prepositions in and sub use both grammatical cases with a different meaning. This means, that every time we use, let us say, Latin preposition a (English meaning is “from”) the affected noun has to be given in ablative grammatical case with proper ending, similarly with ad the noun has to be in accusative. There are no prepositions which would necessitate the use of nominative or genitive. Every preposition belongs only to one of these three groups, they cannot switch from one to another and there are no exceptions. So for example, the a  must be always given with an ablative, never with accusative, while the ad is only found with nouns or adjectives in accusative and never the other way around. The last two (in, sub), which use both cases, do so according a single rule which is discussed below.

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prepositions with nouns and adjectives Prepositions themselves lack the inflexion. In other words, they do not have endings and they do not change in various grammatical cases. As a result there are no paradigms for prepositions. All the changes we will discuss in association with the prepositions happen in nouns and adjectives they are connected to. To gain an idea compare three examples: English: from muscle due to fracture Latin: ex musculo propter fracturam

against disease contra morbum

Note that an ordinary 2nd declension word musculus cannot be associated with the preposition ex in its Nom. or Gen. form; we have to attach a special ending “-o” (the ablative singular) to follow the rules of Latin language properly. The same thing applies also in case of fractura which has to be given with accusative ending “-am” and morbus with an accusative “-um” at the end. To do so, we will extend all our paradigms of declensions in nouns and adjectives starting from the next lesson. Nevertheless today we will focus solely on prepositions, their vocabulary, and division.

prepositions a, ab, e, ex, in, sub Apart from division of prepositions, there are two problems which deserve clarification. The first one concerns the form of prepositions a, ab, e, ex and the second explains grammatical cases used with in and sub. The a  and ab (English meaning is “from”) are in fact one preposition, which assumes two different forms depending on the initial letter of the following word. In this sense it behaves similarly to the English indefinite article a/an. If the preposition a/ab precedes a word starting with a consonant, we should use the a variant, in the opposite case (before a vowel) the ab variant should be selected. The same rule applies to the pair e/ex, again according the initial consonant/vowel of the following word. It is worth to note, that an error in this case is not considered a critical mistake in tests of medical terminology, but you should follow the rule wherever possible. Prepositions in and sub present a different kind of problem. While all the remaining Latin prepositions are associated unambiguously with only one grammatical case, in and sub have two distinct options. In this case we have to focus on meaning in relation to movement and stability. The rule which applies to both prepositions states that: If the preposition is meant to express movement, the noun has to be given in the accusative. Contrariwise if it is supposed to suggest stability, it is associated with the ablative. For example, among several meanings of the preposition in is also the English “inside”. Thus if we want to say, that something is moving inside (a tumour penetrates inside another anatomical structure) the accusative is required. On the other hand if something is residing inside something else (the tumour is located inside an anatomical

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structure), the ablative case is necessary. The sub works in similar fashion. A statement that heart is located under (sub) the ribs, requires the ablative, while the needle which is pushed under the rib will require an accusative.

summary 1. Latin prepositions affect the grammatical case of nouns or adjectives. 2. Prepositions are divided into three groups according the grammatical case they are associated with. 3. Preposition a/ab and e/ex use two forms depending on the initial letter of the following word (either consonant or vowel). 4. Prepositions in and sub are associated with the accusative if they describe some kind of movement, or with the ablative if they describe a stable situation.

vocabulary of prepositions In order to master the grammatical cases associated with various prepositions better, we suggest following approach: ●● First remember in and sub with the rule about accusative and ablative use. ●● Then focus on ablative prepositions as there are only six of them. ●● Every other preposition has to be given with accusative. Prepositions with accusative ad

toward

adversus

against, opposite

ante

in front of, before, previously

apud

next to

contra

against, opposed

extra

outside of

infra

below, under

inter

between, among

intra

inside, within

per

through, during, by means of

post

behind, after

praeter

except, besides

prope

near by, close to

propter

on account of

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secundum

along, according to

supra

over, above

trans

across, over, beyond

versus

towards

extra

outside

intra

inside

super

over, on

inter

between

contra

opposite, against

infra

below, under

circum

around

supra

above

Prepositions with ablative a, ab

(away) from

cum

with

de

(down) from, about, according to

e, ex

(out) of, from

pro

for, on behalf of

sine

without

Prepositions with either accusative or ablative sub + Acc.

downwards

sub + Abl.

below

in

in, inside, into, during52

exercises 1. Create one-word clinical terms for: plastic surgery of veins surgery of abdomen unspecified disease of heart non-inflammatory disease of kidney inflammation of nervous tissue

52

Latin preposition in has several meanings, which only partially correspond with the English “in”. Probably the most important meaning is “inside” (something is inside something else), while expressing movement Latin in corresponds with English “into”. It also has temporal meaning similar to “during” or “after” (in horis tribus means “during three hours”).

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2. Now take the terms from the first exercise and put them into Gen. Pl. form. 3. Make all grammatical cases in both numbers from following expressions: enteritis chronica vulnus punctum nephrosis dens incisivus 4. Translate to English: chondroplastica, lithotomia, osteoporosis, mastectomia, gastroenteritis 5. Translate to Latin: Scientific discipline that studies poisonous substances. Acute cancer of lymphatic cells (literally “cancer of lymph”). Danger of acute cancer of lymphatic cells. Inspection of uterine cavity (literally “inspection of uterus”). Related to body as well as soul.

correct answers 1. angioplastica, laparotomia, cardiopathia, nephrosis, neuritis 2. angioplasticarum, laparotomiarum, cardiopathiarum, nephrosium, neuritidum 3. enteritis chronica, enteritidis chronicae, enteritides chronicae, enteritidum chronicarum; vulnus punctum, vulneris puncti, vulnera puncta, vulnerum punctorum; nephrosis, nephrosis, nephroses, nephrosium; dens incisivus, dentis incisivi, dentes incisivi, dentium incisivorum 4. reconstructive or corrective surgery of cartilage, surgical removal of stones (bladder, gall, etc.), process during which bones become porous and brittle, surgical removal of breast, inflammation of stomach and small intestine 5. Toxicologia. Lymphoma acutum. Periculum lymphomatis acuti. Hysteroscopia (or metroscopia). Psychosomaticus.

homework In this lesson there are no exercises related to prepositions, because we have not started the subject of accusative and ablative paradigms yet, however in order to understand the next lesson it is necessary to review the vocabulary and paradigm of the 1st and 2nd declension nouns.

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lesson 14 (1st and 2nd declension with prepositions)

review 1. Latin prepositions are associated with two grammatical cases: accusative and ablative. 2. There are three types of prepositions: 1. prepositions with accusative, 2. prepositions with ablative, 3. prepositions in and sub which go with accusative or ablative depending on meaning. 3. The 1st and 2nd declension consists of five paradigms, vena for feminines from the 1st declension, musculus and cancer for masculines from the 2nd declension, and intestinum and colon for neuters from the 2nd declension.

introduction The goal of this lesson is to review the 1st and 2nd declension paradigm and add the two grammatical cases, which are necessary, if we want to use Latin prepositions. The previous lesson already explained that there are three groups of prepositions, (1) with accusative, (2) with ablative, and (3) with both cases.

paradigm From now on, the accusative grammatical case will be abbreviated to Acc., while the ablative to Abl. The complete paradigm of the 1st declension looks like this:

Nom.

Singular

Plural

ven-a

ven-ae

Gen.

ven-ae

ven-arum

Acc.

ven-am

ven-as

Abl.

ven-a

ven-is

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Let us review the English meaning of these forms: Singular

Plural

Nom.

vein

veins

Gen.

… of vein

… of veins

Acc.

vein with an Acc. preposition

veins with an Acc. preposition

Abl.

vein with an Abl. preposition

veins with an Abl. preposition

Note that there are two pairs of cases which share the same ending, thus possibly leading to confusion (Nom. Sg., Abl. Sg.; Gen. Sg., Nom. Pl.). In this situation it is important to take in consideration the context; for example, if a preposition is present, then the required case is probably Abl. as Nom. cannot be employed with any preposition. In tests you may also encounter situation where more than one answer is correct. For example the question “convert the word vena to the opposite grammatical number” renders two correct answers (venae, venis), because you may understand the initial vena as Nom. Sg. which leads to Nom. Pl. or as Abl. Sg. with the result being Abl. Pl. The paradigm for the 2nd declension shall be divided in two tables, first masculines: Singular

Plural

Nom.

muscul-us

cancer

muscul-i

cancr-i

Gen.

muscul-i

cancr-i

muscul-orum

cancr-orum

Acc.

muscul-um

cancr-um

muscul-os

cancr-os

Abl.

muscul-o

cancr-o

muscul-is

cancr-is

It is important to remember, that both masculine paradigms differ only in Nom. Sg., all the remaining grammatical cases are exactly the same. As result it is not necessary to learn them independently, just remember, that there is an “-r” variation in limited amount of words in Nom. Sg. The table of English meanings would look similar to the 1st declension one. Neutral paradigms are following: Singular

Plural

Nom.

intestin-um

col-on

intestin-a

col-a

Gen.

intestin-i

col-i

intestin-orum

col-orum

Acc.

intestin-um

col-on

intestin-a

col-a

Abl.

intestin-o

col-o

intestin-is

col-is

There are three important things: ●● Note that in neutrals both paradigms have similar ending in Nom. and Acc. grammatical case. These two cases are called “direct grammatical cases” and they are

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●●

●●

similar in all the neutral paradigms in all five declensions. Even the adjectives have the same feature. While masculine paradigm musculus differs from cancer only in Nom. Sg., neutral paradigm intestinum differs from the colon on two places: Nom. Sg. and Acc. Sg. This variation is caused by the rule given above. In other words, because every neutral paradigm has to have similar Nom. and Acc. ending, the colon instead of accepting an ordinary Acc. ending “-um” takes “-on”. Nom. and Acc. Pl. neutrals usually ends with “-a”, which often leads to confusion, because students presuppose that word with “-a” suffix belongs to the 1st declension. The only way to avoid this kind of error is to remember the vocabulary forms.

gender exceptions At the end of this lesson we provide additional vocabulary for the 1st and 2nd declension. Most words are rather ordinary; however, there are few, which we call “gender exceptions”. The “gender exception” means that the word has a different gender from the paradigm it is associated with. From the first term you already know one gender exception mentioned in the 4th declension – manus, which is feminine despite being inflexed in masculine paradigm status. Now we have more of these words in the 2nd declension. Their different gender is noted in the vocabulary form provided in the list below. From the practical point of view, these words have ordinary “masculine” endings, but if you connect them with adjectives, you have to apply the rule about the corresponding grammatical case, grammatical number, and gender. As a result the adjective will have unexpectedly different set of endings, because it will follow feminine (or neutral in case of virus) set of suffixes. Example: Ordinary masculine with adjective Exception with and adjective musculus longus musculi longi methodus bona methodi bonae musculi longi musculorum longorum methodi bonae methodorum bonarum musculum longum musculos longos methodum bonam methodos bonas musculo longo musculis longis methodo bona methodis bonis For complete paradigm of adjectives used in this example see the next lesson.

summary 1. Every paradigm in this lesson is provided with an additional Acc. and Abl. grammatical case, which is used with prepositions.

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2. Some paradigms have similar endings in certain cases and numbers, for example Nom. Sg. and Abl. Sg. in the 1st declension is both “-a”. 3. Masculine paradigms musculus and cancer differ only in Nom. Sg. 4. Neutral paradigms intestinum and colon differ in Nom. Sg. and Acc. Sg. 5. All the neutrals have similar ending in so called “direct grammatical cases” (Nom. and Acc.) 6. Certain words from the 2nd declension have a gender exception. This does not affect their inflection, which still follows the 2nd declension paradigms, but it has to be taken in account if these words are used with adjectives.

vocabulary acidum, i, n. (boricum, sulphuricum)

(Boric, Sulphuric) acid

cancer, cri, m.

disease caused by uncontrolled division of abnormal cells

cibus, i, m.

meal, food

delirium, i, n.

hallucination, extasy

emplastrum, i, n.

plaster

extractum, i, n.

extract

guttatorium, i, n.

dropper

icterus, i, m.

jaundice, inflammation of liver

icterus neonatorum

jaundice of newborns

ileus, i, m.

intestinal obstruction

instrumentum, i, n.

instrument

magister, tri, m.

pharmacist, teacher

medicamentum, i, n. or remedium, i, n.

remedy

medicus, i, m.

physician, doctor of medicine

numerus, i, m.

number

oleum, i, n.

oil

periculum, i, n.

danger

scalpellum, i, n.

scalpel

signum, i, n.

symptom, sign (of disease)

sirupus, i, m.

treacle, molasses

spasmus, i, m.

spasmus, cramp

sputum, i, n.

phlegm, expectoration

suppositorium, i, n.

a solid medical preparation designed to be inserted into the rectum or vagina to dissolve

tetanus, i, m.

a bacterial disease marked by rigidity and spasms of the voluntary muscles, caused by Clostridium tetani

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unguentum, i, n.

ointment

venenum, i, n.

venom, poison

vinum, i, n.

wine

vitium, i, n.

defect

tabuleta, ae, f.

pill

crystallus, i, f.

crystal

diameter, tri, f.

diameter

methodus, i, f.

method

virus, i, n.53

virus

exercises 1. Give following expressions in the opposite number, preserve the grammatical case: signa tetani status post cancrum sine vino bono spasmi musculorum extremitatum diameter cavae 2. Combine the nouns with the prepositions given at the top: ex infra sine sub (movement) taenia ramus oculus instrumentum sirupus

prope

3. Create one-word clinical terms: Plastic surgery of cardia (part of stomach). Keyhole surgery of abdomen (consists of two words: operatio ...). Wasting away of tissue (literally “insufficient nutrition of tissue”). Having unequal legs (use masculine ending). Shortness of breath, breathlessness.

53

This word exists only in Sg. It follows the musculus paradigm but has neutral gender; not to be confused with vir, i, m.

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4. Create all the grammatical cases in both numbers from the following words. Is there something special about these words? morbilli diameter ganglion virus 5. Translate to Latin: without danger of epidemic suppository from acid and oil bad methods remedy in dropper meal with treacle and vine

correct answers 1. signum tetani, status post cancros, sine vinis bonis, spasmus musculi extremitatis, diametri cavarum 2. taenia, taeniam, taenia, taeniam, taeniam; ramo, ramum, ramo, ramum, ramum; oculo, oculum, oculo, oculum, oculum; instrumento, instrumentum, instrumento, instrumentum, instrumentum; sirupo, sirupum, sirupo, sirupum, sirupum 3. cardioplastica, operatio laparoscopica, atrophia, anisopodus,54 dyspnea 4. morbilli, morbillorum, morbillos, morbillis (word morbilli lacks singular forms); diameter, diametri, diametrum, diametro, diametri, diametrorum, diametros, diametris (word diameter is feminine, although it follows mostly masculine paradigm cancer); ganglion, ganglii, ganglion, ganglio, ganglia, gangliorum, ganglia, gangliis (word ganglion belongs to rare paradigm colon, which contains words of Greek origin); virus, viri, virum, viro (despite the fact that virus is neutral, it follows paradigm musculus, virus also lacks plural form) 5. sine periculo epidemiae, suppositorium ex acido et oleo, methodi malae, remedium in guttatorio (in guttatorium is also correct), cibus cum sirupo et vino

homework 1. Review the prepositions. 2. Review the vocabulary of the 1st and 2nd declension from the first term, and then memorize the new vocabulary. While doing so, try to recite all the grammatical cases for all the words at least once. 54

Anisopodus is a genus of beetles.

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lesson 15 (1st and 2nd declension adjectives, adjectives used as nouns)

review 1. Latin medical terminology employs four grammatical cases: Nom. (the basic form), Gen. (nominal attribute “… of …”), Acc. (with prepositions), Abl. (with prepositions). 2. Latin adjectives are divided into two groups: 1st + 2nd declension and 3rd declension ones. 3. Latin adjectives from any declension can be connected to any noun, regardless of its own declension. For example a 3rd declension adjective can be attached to a 5th declension noun. If such thing happens the suffixes of both words will be different. 4. All the adjectives in the medical terminology are attached to a noun. 5. Latin adjectives follow grammatical case, number, and gender of the noun.

introduction In this lesson we will discuss two things. First, the extension of the paradigm of adjectives, so that they can be used with prepositions. Subsequently we will also provide general rules for translating complex medical expressions. Second, we will explain adjectives that sometimes substitute nouns and take over their role in an expression. The extension of the standard adjectival paradigm from the first term is quite easy. In fact with knowledge of the 1st and 2nd declension nouns from the previous lesson, you should be already able to reconstruct the paradigm yourselves. Before we proceed to the table, however, let us review how the adjectives behave in the sentence: ●● An adjective will be always connected to a noun, they cannot be used independently. The only exception are adjectives used as nouns as we will explain further during this lesson. ●● An adjective does not have a gender by itself, but it can be attached to a noun with any gender. That is why it must be equipped with list of endings for all the possible genders.

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part 2 / lesson 15 (1st and 2nd declension adjectives, adjectives used as nouns)

●●

As a rule an adjective reflects a grammatical case, number, and gender of the noun it is connected with. This means that in order to give the adjective a correct ending, you have to find the relevant noun, discern its case, number, and gender and apply the information to the paradigm of adjectives. ●● Because any adjective can be in theory connected with any noun, the aforementioned procedure leads to: – either similar endings if the adjective and the noun belong by coincidence to the same declension, or – different endings if the adjective and the noun are from different declensions, this second option is much more prevalent. So, what does the addition of Acc. and Abl. grammatical case in nouns mean for adjectives? As you can see, adjectives have to follow among other things also the grammatical case of the relevant noun. As a result, if a preposition causes the noun to be given in Acc. or Abl., the adjective attached to the noun has to do the same.

paradigm Singular

Plural

Gender

m.

f.

n.

m.

f.

n.

Nom.

long-us (-r)

long-a

long-um

long-i

long-ae

long-a

Gen.

long-i

long-ae

long-i

long-orum

long-arum

long-orum

Acc.

long-um

long-am

long-um

long-os

long-as

long-a

Abl.

long-o

long-a

long-o

long-is

long-is

long-is

Notice that in Nom. Sg. for masculines there is, apart from the standard “-us” ending, an alternative “-r”, which is employed in small group of adjectives like sinister, niger, integer etc. This variation has already been explained in the first part of this course. Also, compare all the Nom. and Acc. in neutrals, which, as a rule, are similar. Otherwise this paradigm is simply a copy of the paradigms provided for nouns in the previous lesson.

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complex latin medical expressions Let us review Latin syntactical rules using some blank examples, with the instruction how to work with them. We will use “P” as abbreviation for “preposition”, “A” as abbreviation for “adjective”, and “N” for “noun”: Example in English

General pattern

Procedure

Latin translation

in the left extremity55

P + N + A 

1. preposition forces the noun “extremity” to be given in Acc. or Abl. 2. the adjective “left” then copies the grammatical case, number, and gender of the noun

in extremitate sinistra

superficial trauma on the left side

N + A + P + N + A

1. we start with the first noun “trauma”, there is no preposition in front of it therefore it will be given in Nom. 2. then follows the adjective “superficial” which depends on the first noun “trauma”. It has to assume the same case, number and gender as the noun, i.e. Nom., Sg., neutral 3. then we proceed to the preposition. Latin in in this case suggests stable position, which means that the following noun “side” must be given in Abl. 4. finally the adjective “left” attached to the noun “side” must copy the case, number, as well as gender of “side”

trauma superficiale in latere sinistro

from rupture of nervus trigeminus

P + N + of + N + A

1. start with the initial preposition, which affects the case of the following noun 2. the “of ” means that the second noun “nervus” has to be given in Gen. 3. the adjective “trigeminus” has to assume the same case (Gen.) as the noun “nervus”

ex ruptura nervi trigemini

To sum up previous examples we can deduce a list of instructions for translating complex medical expressions from English to Latin: 1. Start at the beginning, search for nouns or prepositions, whatever comes first. 2. Every noun that is preceded by a preposition has to be given in Acc. or Abl., depending on that preposition. Every preposition will affect at least one noun. A preposition can affect more than one noun if they are connected using conjunction “and” (Latin et). 3. Otherwise search for nouns connected with an “of ”, the second one in each pair shall be given in Gen. There can be more than one pair chained together like this: noun of noun of noun of noun etc. Each one after the “of ” has to be in Gen. 55

Note that in English the order of the noun and adjective is reversed.

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4. Finally find all the adjectives, discern which nouns are the guiding ones for every individual adjective and apply their case, number, and gender to the adjective.

adjectives as nouns So far we have worked on the presumption that in a medical expression the adjective cannot appear alone. Since the grammar of adjectives is governed by nouns, an independent adjective would pose a problem. However, there are certain situations, where we find the adjectives without a guiding noun that sets the case, number, and gender. These arose as results of repetitive pairs of nouns and adjectives, in which the noun seemed superfluous and was subsequently dropped. For example, there used to be a  standard expression femina gravida (pregnant woman), which consists of a noun (femina, ae f.) and an adjective (gravidus, a, um). As it seems highly unlikely that we encounter a vir gravidus (pregnant man) or infans gravidum (pregnant child), it is obvious, that the word femina can be skipped, with only the adjective remaining. There are several other such cases in human anatomy: intestines are often called only by their adjective, without the noun intestinum, see for instance caecum, jejunum, or crassum. If such situation occurs, the strain adjective starts to behave like the noun which was dropped. The adjectives do not have a gender per se, so it borrows the gender of the former guiding noun. As result, the gravidus, a, um turns into a noun gravida, ae f., the adjective caecus, a, um (blind) becomes a neutral noun caecum, i n. All the remaining grammatical and syntactical rules apply, as if the former adjective were a noun including for example the rule about genitive in nominal attributes (i.e. after “of ”). For list of examples of this phenomenon see the vocabulary.

summary 1. Adjectives from the 1st and 2nd declension group copy Acc. and Abl. endings from the 1st and 2nd declension nouns. 2. The key principle in translating complex medical expressions from English to Latin is certain hierarchy of word classes: start at the beginning of the expression and first translate prepositions, then nouns, and adjectives as the last ones. 3. Some adjectives turn into nouns. If such thing happens, the adjective functions as a full fledged noun with all its grammatical features. It will create nominal attribute instead of adjectival one and it will assume its own gender.

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vocabulary of adjectives adultus, a, um

adult, grown-up, of age

alcoholicus, a, um

alcoholic

aromaticus, a, um

aromatic

arteriosus, a, um

related to artery

auditivus, a, um

auditive

bilifer, a, um (ductus bilifer)

carrying bile (bile duct)

caecus, a, um

blind

certus, a, um

certain, sure, definite

chirurgicus, a, um

surgical

circulatorius, a, um

circulatory

compositus, a, um

composed

contagiosus, a, um

infectious, contagious

coracoideus, a, um

“in form of raven’s beak” (since corax is raven)

crassus, a, um

fat

digestorius, a, um; digestivus, a, um (apparatus digestivus)

digestive (digestive apparatus)

directus, a, um

direct

glutaeus, a, um

pertaining to buttocks

incertus, a, um

uncertain, dubious

infectiosus, a, um

infectious, contagious

lactifer, a, um (ductus lactifer)

carrying milk

medianus, a, um

placed at the central plane

medius, a, um

middle

obliquus, a, um

oblique

oblongatus, a, um

oblong

oculomotorius, a, um

oculomotor

opticus, a, um

visual

optimus, a, um

the best

perforatus, a, um

pierced, perforated

periculosus, a, um

dangerous

pessimus, a, um

the worst

postoperativus, a, um

postoperative

praematurus, a, um

premature, early

praeoperativus, a, um

preoperative

respiratorius, a, um (apparatus respiratorius)

resporatory (respiratory apparate)

part 2 / lesson 15 (1st and 2nd declension adjectives, adjectives used as nouns)

retardatus, a, um

retarded

stomachicus, a, um

pertaining to stomach

subitus, a, um

sudden

suspectus, a, um

suspicious, suspect

tardus, a, um

slow, slowgoing

transversus, a, um

transverse, crossverse, x-like

urologicus, a, um

urological

vagus, a, um

erratic, wandering (wandering kidney)

varius, a, um

various

venosus, a, um

related to vein

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vocabulary of adjectives used as nouns adultus, i, m.; adulta, ae, f.

adult (male), adult (female)

aegrotus, i, m.

ill (person), sick (person)

caecum, i, n.

blind gut

coniunctiva, ae, f.

coniunctiva (protective layer lining eyelids)

gravida, ae, f.

pregnant woman

ieiunum, i, n.

jejunum (part of intestines)

mucosa, ae, f.

layer producing mucous substance

rectum, i, n.

rectum

sedativum, i, n.

sedative

exercises 1. Use the words provided on every line to create a  Latin expression, do not change the word order: in, vesica, urinarius propter, ruptura, nervus, oculomotorius sub, musculus, transversus, sinister post, epidemia, morbus, periculosus cum, ruptura, ante, ostium, intestinum, caecum

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2. Create all the grammatical cases in Sg. and Pl. from the following expressions: crystallus alba periculum spasmi ruptura fasciae ramus sinister ligamentum interosseum digitus primus ganglion minimum 3. Translate expressions from the previous task to English. 4. Create one-word clinical terms in Nom. and Gen. Sg.: cancer of a gland inflammation of skin unspecified disease of muscles scientific discipline that focuses on diseases associated with old age non-inflammatory disease of cartilage 5. Translate to Latin: cancer in the left lobe in glass through entrance of womb between the lips complicated fracture of small olecranon

correct answers 1. in vesica urinaria (or -am, -am), propter rupturam nervi oculomotorii, sub musculo transverso sinistro (also -um, -um, -um), post epidemiam morbi periculosi, cum ruptura ante ostium intestini caeci 2. crystallus alba, crystalli albae, crystallum albam, crystallo alba, crystalli albae, crystalorum albarum, crystallos albas, crystallis albis; periculum spasmi, periculi spasmi, periculum spasmi, periculo spasmi, pericula spasmorum, periculorum spasmorum, pericula spasmorum, periculis spasmorum; ruptura fasciae, rupturae fasciae, rupturam fasciae, ruptura fasciae, rupturae fasciarum, rupturarum fasciarum, rupturas fasciarum, rupturis fasciarum; ramus sinister, rami sinistri, ramum sinistrum, ramo sinistro, rami sinistri, ramorum sinistrorum, ramos sinistros, ramis sinistris; ligamentum interosseum, ligamenti insterossei, ligamentum interosseum, ligamento interosseo, ligamenta interossea, ligamentorum interosseorum, ligamenta interossea, ligamentis interosseis; digitus primus, digiti primi, digitum primum, digito primo, digiti primi, digitorum primorum, digitos primos,

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digitis primis; ganglion minimum, ganglii minimi, ganglion minimum, ganglio minimo, ganglia minima, gangliorum minimorum, ganglia minima, gangliis minimis 3. white crystal, danger of spasm, rupture of connective tissue, left branch, ligament located between the bones, the first finger, the smallest neural center 4. adenoma, adenomatis; dermatitis, dermatitidis; myopathia, myopathiae; gerontologia, gerontologiae; chondrosis, chondrosis 5. cancer lobi sinistri, in vitro, per ostium (orificium) uteri, inter labia, fractura complicata olecrani parvi

homework 1. Learn the new vocabulary and review also the vocabulary of adjectives found in the 1st part of this course. 2. Focus on combination of prepositions, nouns, and adjectives in more complex expressions.

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lesson 16 (4th and 5th declension)

review 1. You can always tell to which declension belongs a particular noun by looking at its Gen. Sg. ending in the vocabulary form. For full list of endings and corresponding declensions see Lesson 3 or 12. 2. A preposition causes the noun to change into Acc. or Abl. grammatical case. 3. The noun then affects the adjective, which adopts the same grammatical case as the noun. 4. Some adjectives can assume the role of nouns, in such case they start to behave like nouns also in grammatical sense.

introduction This lesson brings very little in terms of new information, because the 4th and 5th declension behaves in a similar fashion as the 1st and 2nd one. Again we have additional endings for Acc. and Abl. grammatical cases, which are necessary for proper use of prepositions. You should pay attention to the fact, that any word from the 4th and 5th declension can be linked to any adjective. However, because there are no adjectives with endings from these two declensions, the resulting noun – adjective pairs will have always different endings, as the adjective follows the case, number, and gender, but not the ending of the guiding noun.

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part 2 / lesson 16 (4th and 5th declension)

paradigm Singular

Plural

4th declension

5th decl.

4th declension

5th decl.

m.

n.

f.

m.

n.

f.

Nom.

stat-us

gen-u

faci-es

stat-us

gen-ua

faci-es

Gen.

stat-us

gen-us

faci-ei

stat-uum

gen-uum

faci-erum

Acc.

stat-um

gen-u

faci-em

stat-us

gen-ua

faci-es

Abl.

stat-u

gen-u

faci-e

stat-ibus

gen-ibus

faci-ebus

A few things are worth to note here: ●● Do not forget the gender exceptions (manus in the 4th declension). ●● These two declensions have exceptionally high number of similar endings, namely “-us” in masculine paradigm and “-u” in neutral one. Pay attention to possible combinations, if you are given word genu in a test with task to transform it into the opposite number, there are several correct answers. ●● Neutral paradigm has identical endings in Nom. and Acc. both in Sg. as well as Pl. ●● Plural Nom. and Acc. suffix in neutrals ends in all the declensions with “-a”. ●● Ablative plural in the 3rd, 4th, and 5th declension ends always with “-bus”.

4th and 5th declension noun with adjective Compare following examples, the adjective always has to follow its own set of endings: status periculosus (dangerous state)

genu valgum (knock-knee)

status periculosus

status periculosi

genu valgum

genua valga

status periculosi

statuum periculosorum

genus valgi

genuum valgorum

statum periculosum

status periculosos

genu valgum

genua valga

statu periculoso

statibus periculosis

genu valgo

genibus valgis

For the list of adjective endings see the previous lesson.

summary 1. The 4th and 5th declension nouns have three paradigms: status for 4th declension masculines, facies for 5th declension feminines, and finally genu for 4th declension neuters genu and cornu.

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2. Some words from the 4th and 5th declensions are gender exceptions. 3. Because there are no adjectives which use the 4th and 5th declension endings, if nouns from these two declensions are connected to an adjective, their endings must, by definition, differ.

vocabulary There is no new vocabulary, review words from the Lesson 6.

Exercises 1. Create all the grammatical cases from following expressions: decubitus profundus manus dextra 2. Combine words provided on every line to create a valid Latin expression, do not change the word order, add an English translation: status, post, insultus, cerebrum operatio, propter, morbus, tractus, respiratorius defectus, intellectus, in, vir sinus, sinister, apud, nasus cum, fractura, complicatus, manus, dexter 3. Translate to English: insultus in coma post operationem morbus tractus opticus carcinoma in situ sub superficie maxillae caries dentium lacteorum endometriosis 4. Create one-word clinical terms: increased blood pressure inflammation of tooth surroundings fear of foreigners uterine bleeding

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5. Translate to Latin: without a defect of sense of smell through the fat bowel small jar of urological tea in the 3rd day of dangerous illness operation after heart attack

correct answers 1. decubitus profundus, decubitus profundi, decubitum profundum, decubitu profundo, decubitus profundi, decubituum profundorum, decubitus profundos, decubitibus profundis; manus dextra, manus dextrae, manum dextram, manu dextra, manus dextrae, manuum dextrarum, manus dextras, manibus dextris 2. status post insultum cerebri (state after brain stroke), operatio propter morbum tractus respiratorii (operation because of an illness of respiratory tract), defectus intellectus in viro (defect of intellect in man), sinus sinister apud nasum (left sinus in vicinity of nose), cum fractura complicata manus dextrae (with complicated fracture of the right hand) 3. stroke in coma after an operation; illness of optical tract; primary cancer;56 under surface of lower jaw; decay of milk teeth; a process when cells from inside of uterus grow in other parts of female body (literally “inside” + “uterus” + “non-inflammatory disease”) 4. hypertensio, paradentitis (or periodontitis), xenophobia, metrorhagia 5. sine defectu olfactus, per intestinum crassum (per colon), olla parva specierum urologicarum, in die tertio morbi periculosi, operatio post infarctum myocardii

homework 1. As there are no new words in this lesson we suggest reviewing the existing vocabulary. 2. The combination of adjectives and nouns with variable endings can be difficult. Try to return back to the vocabulary of the 4th and 5th declension from the last term and create as many combinations with the 1st and 2nd declension adjectives as possible, then transform the pairs in all the grammatical cases in both numbers to get a grip of different endings.

56

See vocabulary of the Lesson 6.

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lesson 17 (3rd declension imparisyllabics)

review ●● ●● ●● ●●

To learn a declension of Latin noun, one needs to remember its vocabulary form, focus on the Gen. Sg. ending and apply table from the Lesson 3 or 12 of this course. Every noun that belongs to the 3rd declension has Gen. Sg. ending “-is”. Some 3rd declension words have Nom. Sg. ending, which resembles other declensions like “-a” or “-us”. Do not get confused, Nom. Sg. is not the decisive case. In some 3rd declension nouns, there is also a stem change. Whether there is a stem change or not, can be found from the vocabulary form.

introduction As you remember from the 1st part of this course, the 3rd declension is rather difficult one, with an extensive vocabulary as well as diverse grammatical paradigms. At the beginning of this lesson, we would like to review two main issues associated with the 3rd declension. First, it is divided into two groups called imparisyllabics and parisyllabics. The chief difference between those two rests in Gen. Pl. ending, which can be either “-um” or “-ium”. However, as the Gen. Pl. of Latin substantives is not normally provided in vocabularies, it is necessary to find a different clue that will allow us to recognize nouns belonging to both groups. In the first part of this course we have defined imparisyllabics as the basic form of the 3rd declension nouns with two paradigms: dolor (for masculines as well as feminines) and caput (for neutrals). Parisyllabics consist of four sub-groups called auris, dens, basis, and rete, each with its own set of distinctive features, that allow us to tell which noun belongs to which sub-group. From these four, the masculine and feminine auris, dens, and basis share one paradigm (auris), while rete has its own neutral set of endings. A noun which cannot be identified as belonging to any of these sub-groups must by definition be an imparisyllabic. To sum up previous paragraphs, we suggest following:

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part 2 / lesson 17 (3rd declension imparisyllabics)

1. Check the gender, 2. if it is masculine of feminine, verify whether it belongs to auris, dens, or basis type. If it does, use the paradigm auris. 3. If the masculine or feminine does not belong to auris/dens/basis, then it must be imparisyllabic. Use the paradigms dolor instead. 4. If it is neutral noun, check whether it belongs to the rete type. If it does, use the paradigm rete, otherwise use caput. There is another problem associated with the 3rd declension – the stem change. This happens in both imparisyllabics and parisyllabics; therefore we are going to look into this issue in the next part of this lesson. Apart from that, the 3rd declension works in a similar fashion as all the previous declensions. There is one joint paradigm for masculines and feminines and one for neutrals. All the usual rules apply, for example the neutrals have always similar ending in Nom. and Acc. grammatical case. Also, if you connect a 3rd declension noun with a 1st and 2nd declension adjective, the resulting pair will have different endings.

stem change In the first part of this textbook we have already explained that many 3rd declension nouns have a stem change. This means, that if given in various grammatical cases, they change not only the suffix – as nouns from all other declensions normally do – but they also change the “middle” part of the word in sometimes confusing manner. At this point we have to deal with the stem change when taking in consideration also the Acc. and Abl. grammatical case. To do that, we will discuss three things, (1) in which words the change occurs, (2) how to create the transformation in a correct way, and finally (3) in which grammatical cases does the change take place. In response to the first question, we have to go back to the vocabulary form of word. You are already aware that the vocabulary form consists of full Nom. Sg. form, Gen. Sg. ending, and a gender. Furthermore final letters of the Gen. Sg. ending of all the nouns from the 3rd declension have to be “-is”. As result, if you want to know whether a particular word has the stem change or not, you have to focus on what comes before the “-is” in vocabulary form. Words without the stem change have as Gen. Sg. ending in the vocabulary form only the “-is”, while words with the stem change have the “-is” which is preceded with series of letters signifying the change. Compare following examples: No stem change tumor, is, m.

Stem change foramen, minis, n.

Stem change operatio, onis, f.

The inflection of tumor is simple, as the Gen. grammatical case is created simply by attaching the “-is” ending to the Nom. Sg., which leads to tumoris. In case of foramen

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however, the similar approach is incorrect, because it would result in erroneous form foramenis, while the correct one is foraminis. The last example works in a similar way, the Gen. Sg. is not simply operatis or something along this line, but operationis. Notice that the information about the stem change is constructed in a way, which usually allows to attach the transformed stem to the rest of the word. In foramen the central “-m-” makes clear where the stem modification “-min-” should continue. Similar role is played by “-o-” in operatio. This mechanism should work throughout the vocabulary, if you are unsure about particular case, ask the teacher. Where does the stem change occur? So far we have had only Nom. and Gen. grammatical cases in both singular and plural. In this setup the rule was simple; the Nom. Sg. has the original stem, while all the rest uses the modification. In this lesson we introduce additional Acc. and Abl. grammatical cases, and the old rule is still generally true, with one exception. You may remember, that neutrals must have same form in “direct cases” (Nom. and Acc.). This means that neutrals with change in stem have the original stem in Nom. Sg. and also in Acc. Sg., while the rest uses the modification. This happens also in the paradigm caput further below.

paradigm There are two paradigms in imparisyllabics: Singular

Plural

m./f.

n.

m./f.

n.

Nom.

dolor

caput

dolor-es

capit-a

Gen.

dolor-is

capit-is

dolor-um

capit-um

Acc.

dolor-em

caput

dolor-es

capit-a

Abl.

dolor-e

capit-e

dolor-ibus

capit-ibus

Note that both paradigms have Gen. Sg. “-is” (signifying the 3rd declension) and Gen. Pl. “-um” (signifying that they are imparisyllabics). There is also a stem change in caput, the basic nominative stem is marked with dark-grey background, while all the remaining cases use the modification. Let us provide further examples which would explain how the stem change functions in both paradigms. Pay attention to underscored words. Letters typed in bold are subject of change:

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part 2 / lesson 17 (3rd declension imparisyllabics)

Masculine without the stem change

Masculine with the stem change

Neutral without stem change

Neutral with stem change

extensor

cortex

tuber

ulcus

extensoris

corticis

tuberis

ulceris

extensorem

corticem

tuber

ulcus

extensore

cortice

tubere

ulcere

extensores

cortices

tubera

ulcera

extensorum

corticum

tuberum

ulcerum

extensores

cortices

tubera

ulcera

extensoribus

corticibus

tuberibus

ulceribus

summary 1. All imparisyllabics have Gen. Pl. “-um”, there is only one exception in word os, ossis, n. (bone) which belongs among imparisyllabics despite having the Gen. Pl. ossium. 2. There are two paradigms, dolor for masculines and feminines, caput for neutrals. 3. Many words from the 3rd declension have a stem change. Check the vocabulary form to see whether the word does change the stem or not.

vocabulary There is no new vocabulary for the 3rd declension imparisyllabics. Please, review the list of words from the Lesson 7. Do not forget that some endings from the clinical terminology also belong to the 3rd declension: -itis, itidis f.; -oma, omatis n.

exercises 1. Provide all the grammatical cases in Sg. and Pl. from following expressions: pia mater functio laesa tumor benignus corpus luteum

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2. Can you explain meaning of these clinical terms? Isolate their constituting parts and describe their basic meaning: progeria paralympics proteinuria macroglossia amenorrhoea anencephalicus 3. Use words provided on every line to create an expression, do not change the word order: cartilago, vertebra, primus post, fractura, extremitas, sinister contusio, in, regio, ren fractura, os, sacer ante, operatio, ruptura, profundus, pancreas 4. Use the expression on every line with provided prepositions: propter cum prolapsus uteri pes planus sterilitas congenita abdomen acutum 5. Translate to Latin: honey and milk in jar danger of ulcer of shin with acute abdomen operation of damaged liver chronic pain between 5th and 10th vertebra

correct answers 1. pia mater, piae matris, piam matrem, pia matre, piae matres, piarum matrum, pias matres, piis matribus; functio laesa, functionis laesae, functionem laesam, functione laesa, functiones laesae, functionum laesarum, functiones laesas, functionibus laesis; tumor benignus, tumoris benigni, tumorem benignum, tumore benigno, tumores benigni, tumorum benignorum, tumores benignos, tumoribus benignis; corpus luteum, corporis lutei, corpus luteum, corpore luteo, corpora lutea, corporum luteorum, corpora lutea, corporibus luteis

part 2 / lesson 17 (3rd declension imparisyllabics)

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2. pro/ger(onto)/ia (advancing forward + related to the old age), children that suffer this rare genetic disease look as if they are rapidly ageing; para/lympics (attached to something, Olympics), literally games associated with the Olympic games; protein/ur/ia (protein + urine + feminine ending for nouns), presence of proteins in urine; macro/gloss/ia (big + tongue + feminine ending for nouns), extraordinarily big tongue associated for example with some genetic disorders; a/meno/rhea (being absent + “month” + flow), absence of menstruation; an/en/cephal/icus (being absent + being inside + the head + ending for adjectives), lethal developmental defect of foetus when the brain is missing 3. cartilago vertebrae primae, post fracturam extremitatis sinistrae, contusio in regione renis (renum), fractura ossis sacri, ante operationem rupturae profundae pancreatis 4. prolapsum uteri, prolapsu uteri; pedem planum, pede plano; sterilitatem congenitam, sterilitate congenita; abdomen acutum, abdomine acuto 5. mel et lac in olla, periculum ulceris cruris, cum abdomine acuto, operatio hepatis laesi, dolor chronicus inter vertebram quintam et decimam

homework 1. Review the vocabulary, do not forget to add the clinical endings. 2. When repeating the vocabulary, try to say all the grammatical forms of every word at least once aloud, in order to remember them better and get familiar with transformations of stems.

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lesson 18 (3rd declension parisyllabics)

review 1. Nom. Sg. in the 3rd declension tells very little about the noun. Furthermore, it can be easily confused with nominatives from other declensions (namely “-us” or “-a” ending). 2. All the words from the 3rd declension have Gen. Sg. suffix “-is”. 3. There are two separate paradigms for imparisyllabics, dolor which serves masculines as well as feminines, and neutral caput. 4. The difference between imparisyllabics and parisyllabics lies in Gen. Pl. ending, which is either “-um” or “-ium”. 5. If there is a stem change in masculines or feminines, the basic stem will be in Nom. Sg. and the modified one in all the rest of grammatical cases. 6. If there is a stem change in neutrals, the basic stem will be in Nom. Sg. and Acc. Sg. and the modified in all the rest of grammatical cases.

introduction You may remember from the last lesson that there are two main groups of nouns from the 3rd declension called imparisyllabics and parisyllabics. The difference between these two is based on the Gen. Pl. ending which is “-um” in imparisyllabics and “-ium” in parisyllabics. There are other dissimilarities in Acc. and Abl. grammatical cases, as we will show later, but these are never consistent across the whole group while the “-um/-ium” one is. Let us reiterate that the elemental tool for working with Latin nouns is the vocabulary form, which provides all the information necessary to use any noun properly in the grammatical context. The vocabulary form, however, does not contain information about the Gen. Pl. ending, which means that we have to find another way in distinguishing between imparisyllabics and parisyllabics. As a result this lesson will focus on two main problems. First, we shall divide the 3rd declension parisyllabics in several sub-groups, each with its own identification. Then we shall explain how these groups differ among themselves in Acc. as well as Abl. grammatical case.

part 2 / lesson 18 (3rd declension parisyllabics)

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identification of various paradigms During the last lesson we have reiterated, that the definition of imparisyllabics is basically negative. This means that every noun from the 3rd declension, which does not belong to one of the parisyllabic sub-groups described further in this lesson, is an imparisyllabic. To certain extent it is possible to define the imparisyllabics as a norm and parisyllabic groups as exceptions, each with its unique set of identification marks. So far we have worked on presumption that parisyllabics consist of four subgroups, which share two paradigms: auris (valid for all the masculines as well as feminines) and rete. Unfortunately the introduction of Acc. and Abl. grammatical cases makes this initial presumption obsolete, because at this point it is necessary to introduce another sub-group febris and as a result we will have five different types auris, dens, basis, febris, rete which follow one of three paradigms (auris, basis, rete). To sum it up, in comparison with the first part of the course, we will use one subgroup more and we will also divide formerly unified masculine/feminine paradigm auris into two. As a result, there is one paradigm for types auris and dens, which differ in their identification marks, but otherwise share the same set of endings. The second paradigm applies to words belonging to the types basis and, newly, febris. Finally the last paradigm serves parisyllabic neutrals from the group rete. Let us review identification of individual sub-groups, including the new one. Words belonging to the type auris have to match following definition: 1. there are masculines or feminines, 2. Nom. Sg. ending is either “-is” or “-es”, 3. Nom. Sg. and Gen. Sg. have similar amount of syllables. These words are easy to recognise. First, there are no neutrals, and second they have usually similar form in Nom. and Gen. Sg. The word auris has genitive auris, word cutis creates genitive cutis and so on. There are words that follow the pattern lues with genitive luis (see the point 2). But these are few and far between. Type dens has to match following definition: 1. there are masculines or feminines, 2. they have only one syllable in Nom. Sg., 3. the Nom. Sg. ends with “-ns”, “-rs” or “-rx”. Again, there are no neutrals. The words are short (one syllable in Nom.) and they end with an easily recognisable combination of two consonants (dens, ars, mors, arx, etc.). Type basis has to match following: 1. there are only feminines, 2. they end in both Nom. and Gen. Sg. with “-sis”. Words that belong to the type febris are these three: febris (fever), tussis (cough), sitis (thirst).

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This is a tiny group which consists of words with archaic irregular Latin endings, therefore we cannot provide identification, and you must learn them as a list instead. All three words in this groups are feminines. Type rete has to match following: 1. there are only neutrals, 2. Nom. Sg. ends with endings “-ar”, “-e”, “-al”.

step by step directions Previous set of rules looks rather complex; here we will try to provide a step by step manual how to use them. If you have a word form the 3rd declension (Gen. Sg. ends with “-is”), and you do not know its paradigm, we suggest, that you do following: ●● Look at the gender, is it neutral? – If it is neutral, there are only two paradigms available, caput and rete. Then, look at the Nom. Sg. ending: – if the ending is either “-ar”, “-e”, or “-al”, use the paradigm rete, – otherwise use caput. ●● If the word is masculine, then there are three paradigms available: dolor, auris, dens. Look at its Nom. Sg.: – if it is “-is” or “-es” and Nom. Sg. is equally long as Gen. Sg., then use the paradigm auris, – if it is “-ns”, “-rs”, “-rx” and the nominative has only one syllable, then use the paradigm auris, – otherwise use dolor. ●● If the word is feminine, then there are five paradigms available: dolor, auris, dens, basis, febris. Check the Nom. Sg. and: – if the word is febris, tussis, sitis use the paradigm basis, – if the word has Nom. Sg. ending with “-is” or “-es”, which is equally long as Gen. Sg., then use the paradigm auris, – if the word has Nom. Sg. ending “-ns”, “-rs”, “-rx” and the nominative has only one syllable, then use the paradigm dens, – if the word has both Nom. Sg. and Gen. Sg. endings “-sis”, use the paradigm basis, – otherwise use dolor.

paradigm auris and dens Words that belong to auris and dens group differ in their identification but they share one paradigm.

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part 2 / lesson 18 (3rd declension parisyllabics)

Singular

Plural

Nom.

aur-is

dens

aur-es

dent-es

Gen.

aur-is

dent-is

aur-ium

dent-ium

Acc.

aur-em

dent-em

aur-es

dent-es

Abl.

aur-e

dent-e

aur-ibus

dent-ibus

Note that Nom. Sg. ending varies from “-is”, “-es” in type auris to “-ns”, “-rs” or “-rx” in dens. Also the only difference between an ordinary imparisyllabic paradigm dolor and this group si the Gen. Pl. Remaining endings are identical.

paradigm basis and febris Paradigm basis is used for words of Greek origin which were adopted by Latin. As a result the Gen. Sg. and Acc. Sg. have two versions, one is more latinised and the other preserves more of the Greek legacy. For our purpose, both versions are equal. It is important to understand that we do not speak about two different paradigms, as you can choose one version and apply it to all the words, which belong to paradigm basis. In the table below the first set of suffixes is more latinised while the second is more traditional. By the way, the traditional Greek Gen. Sg. ending with “-eos”, goes against our definition of declension as group of words with similar Gen. Sg. ending, which should be “-is” in case of the 3rd declension. This is an exception caused by the Greek influence, even if you use ending “-eos”, the word would still be considered part of the 3rd declension. Singular Nom. Gen.

Plural

bas-is bas-is

bas-es 57

bas-eos

Acc.

bas-im bas-in

Abl.

bas-i

58

bas-ium bas-es bas-ibus

Note, that plural endings do not differ from an ordinary auris/dens paradigm. In singular there are some dissimilarities, namely Gen. (providing that you use Greek version), Acc. with “-im” (or even “-in” in Greek version) instead of more ordinary “-em”. And finally the Abl. in singular is “-i” not “-e” as in all other masculines and feminines. There is also group of three words febris, tussis, sitis which uses same set of endings. However, the type febris does not contain loanwords from Greek, but instead Latin words with an archaic set of endings. By coincidence this set is similar to the latinised version of basis (the first column), therefore we have merged both types to one group. 57 58

Alternative Greek Gen. Alternative Greek Acc.

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As a result, for febris, tussis, sitis you cannot use alternative endings “-eos” in Gen. and “-in” in Acc. singular. To sum this paradigm up, the easiest way how to master the basis is to learn the first set of endings and apply them both to basis and febris type of words. The alternatives applicable to Greek loanwords are facultative.

paradigm rete This paradigm contains only neutrals ending with “-ar”, “-e”, “-al”. Singular

Plural

Nom.

ret-e

ret-ia

Gen.

ret-is

ret-ium

Acc.

ret-e

ret-ia

Abl.

ret-i

ret-ibus

In comparison with imparisyllabic caput, there are several transformations: Abl. Sg. is “-i” not “-e”, also Nom. and Acc. Pl. is “-ia” instead of “-a”, and finally the Gen. Pl is “-ium”.

summary 1. There are three paradigms in the parisyllabic group; each paradigm contains one or more types of words. 2. “Types” refer to groups of nouns with a similar characteristic, usually Nom. Sg. ending, and gender, which allow us the identification using the vocabulary form. 3. Types auris and dens both use one paradigm, types basis and febris, use the second one, while rete is the third one. 4. In basis group there are alternative endings, it is not necessary to learn both versions. Use one set of endings and do so consistently. 5. In stem change and connection with adjectives all the ordinary rules from the 3rd declension apply, for details check the previous lesson.

vocabulary There is no new vocabulary, please review the one from the Lesson 8. Some endings from clinical terminology are parisyllabics: -osis, -osis f.; -iasis, -iasis f.

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exercises 1. Following words are from the 3rd declension but you would not find them in the vocabulary of this textbook. Nevertheless you should be able to identify the paradigm they follow: ankylosis, sis, f. (decline of joint’s ability to move) capillare, is, n. (capillary vein) chirarthritis, itidis, f. (inflammation of one or more joints of hand) fibrinolysis, sis, f. (dissolution of protein called fibrin by enzyme) cuspis, idis, f. (tip, corner) ignis, is, m. (fire) expulsio, onis, f. (expulsion) exemplar, aris, n. (example) hemiparesis, sis, f. (partial paralysis on one side of body) peritonitis, nitidis, f. (inflammation of peritoneum) 2. Transform to opposite grammatical number (from Sg. to Pl. or back), preserve the grammatical case: operatio varia in latere dextro radix dentis propter vulnus punctum atlantes laesos apices hepatum hepatitis infectiosa obesitatis periculosae cum prognosi optima ex parte parva 3. Create one-word clinical terms for: multiple injury lower than normal urination inflammation of gland process of transplanting tissue from one part of the body to another in the same individual (transplanting is transplantatio, onis f. in Latin) ultrasonic examination 4. Give all the grammatical cases in both numbers from following expressions: meatus acusticus vulnus scissum lobus hepatis 5. Translate to Latin: caries in milk tooth damage of the left testicle after complicated fracture of pelvis before the yellow fever because of great danger of congenital syphilis

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correct answers 1. ankylosis (basis), capillare (rete), chirarthritis (dolor), fibrinolysis (basis), cuspis (dolor), ignis (auris), expulsio (dolor), exemplar (rete), hemiparesis (basis), peritonitis (dolor) 2. operationes variae, radices dentium, atlantem laesum, hepatitides infectiosae, cum prognosibus optimis, in lateribus dextris, propter vulnera puncta, apex hepatis, obesitatum periculosarum, ex partibus parvis 3. polytrauma, oliguria, adenitis, autotransplantatio, sonographia 4. meatus acusticus, metus acustici, meatum acusticum, meatu acustico, meatus acustici, meatuum acusticorum, meatus acusticos, meatibus acusticis; vulnus scissum, vulneris scissi, vulnus scissum, vulnere scisso, vulnera scissa, vulnerum scissorum, vulnera scissa, vulneribus scissis; lobus hepatis, lobi hepatis, lobum hepatis, lobo hepatis, lobi hepatum, loborum hepatum, lobos hepatum, lobis hepatum 5. caries dentis lactei, laesio testis sinistri, post fracturam complicatam pelvis, ante febrim flavam, propter periculum magnum syphilidis congenitae (luis congenitae)

homework 1. There is no new vocabulary, which is a great opportunity to focus on repeating the previous lessons. 2. Focus on using the 3rd declension nouns with adjectives; these combinations are very frequent in tests. 3. Do not forget to review prepositions.

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lesson 19 (3rd declension adjectives)

review 1. Latin adjectives are divided into two groups, the first one uses endings from the 1st and 2nd declension of nouns, while the second group employs the 3rd declension endings. There are no adjectives with the 4th or 5th declension endings. 2. Adjectives seldom occur alone. In medical terminology they usually form an attribute which further expands meaning of a noun. If an adjective plays the independent role, then it starts to behave like a noun. 3. Grammar of an adjective is therefore nearly always given by the controlling noun. The adjective reflects grammatical case, number, and gender of that noun. 4. An adjective from both groups (the 1st + 2nd or the 3rd declension grammar) can be linked to a noun from any declension. As a result, the noun – adjective couple only rarely share the same ending. 5. “Direct cases” in Latin are Nom. and Acc. Neutrals have always identical endings in direct cases.

introduction As you may recall from the winter term, in Latin there are two distinct groups of adjectives. The first one borrows endings from the 1st and 2nd declension nouns, while the second group employs the 3rd declension parisyllabic endings. In Lesson 13 we have already supplemented the first group with Acc. and Abl. grammatical cases, which are necessary for proper use of prepositions. Now, we will do the same with the second group. All the rules about nouns and adjectives mentioned so far apply here as well. The subject of this lesson therefore basically boils down to adding few new suffixes to a paradigm, you already know. Before we continue, however, let us review important points from the Lesson 9: ●● The 3rd declension adjectives are divided in three sub-categories called one-, two-, and three-termination one. The name is based on number of separate forms for

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genders in Nom. Sg., so the one-termination adjectives have only one form for all three genders, the two-termination adjectives have one form for masculines and feminines, while the other is reserved for neutrals, and finally the three-termination adjectives have separate forms for all three genders. ●● Apart from Nom. Sg. all these sub-categories behave like two-termination. As a result, it is sufficient to learn the two-termination paradigm brevis, e and remember that some adjectives have an exception in Nom. Sg. ●● Some adjectives have a stem change, which should be obvious from the vocabulary form. Search for ending “-is”, if there is anything in front of the “-is” then there is also a stem change. The only thing that may complicate the understanding in this lesson is the rule about similarity of “direct cases” in neutrals, which applies to the 3rd declension adjectives as well. Consequently the one-termination adjectives differ slightly from the universal paradigm brevis (which has ending “-e” for neutral Acc. Sg.), because they have to copy the nominative form to neutral Acc. Sg.

paradigm First the universal two-termination paradigm brevis, e: Singular

Plural

Gender

m./f.

n.

m./f.

n.

Nom.

brev-is

brev-e

brev-es

brev-ia

Gen. Acc. Abl.

brev-is brev-em

brev-e brev-i

brev-ium brev-es

brev-ia brev-ibus

Note that the 3rd declension adjectives borrow basically the parisyllabic paradigm, so the Abl. Sg. is “-i”, the Nom. and Acc. Pl. for neutrals “-ia”, and Gen. Pl. “-ium”. Also, compare the Nom. and Acc. for neutrals in both numbers, the ending is always identical, in order to comply with the rule about direct cases in neutrals. Next paradigm, three-termination acer, cris, cre differ only in Nom. Sg. Note also a slight irregularity between Nom. Sg for masculines with the stem acer and all the remaining forms that use modified stem acr-, i.e. without “-e-”. This stem change is signified by the vocabulary form acer, acris, acre and repeats in many (but not all) three-termination adjectives.

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part 2 / lesson 19 (3rd declension adjectives)

Singular

Plural

Gender

m.

f.

n.

m./f.

n.

Nom.

acer

acr-is

acr-e

acr-es

acr-ia

Gen.

acr-is

Acc.

acr-em

Abl.

acr-ium acr-e

acr-es

acr-i

acr-ia acr-ibus

The plural follows the previous paradigm brevis without an exception. In singular, the only difference is in Nom. Sg., with masculine form having not only different ending “-r”, but also an additional “-e-” in the stem. One termination paradigm felix, cis looks again very similar, pay attention to dark grey areas. Singular Gender

m./f.

Plural n.

Nom.

felix

Gen.

felic-is

Acc. Abl.

felic-em

felix felic-i

m./f. felic-es

n. felic-ia felic-ium

felic-es

felic-ia felic-ibus

The plural follows paradigm brevis. In singular, there are two important points to be made: ●● Difference between Nom. Sg. and Gen. Sg. shows the stem change, that is why both grammatical cases are part of the vocabulary form in one-termination adjectives. ●● Neutral column has identical ending in Nom. Sg. and Acc. Sg. Finally, we would like to comment shortly on linking the 3rd declension adjectives with nouns. As with other adjectives, they follow their own particular paradigm even if connected to nouns from different declensions. For example, here are all the grammatical cases and numbers from ductus deferens (literally “carrying away duct”), where ductus is a 4th declension noun, while deferens is a one-termination 3rd declension adjective: ductus deferens ductus deferentes ductus deferentis ductuum deferentium ductum deferentem ductus deferentes ductu deferenti ductibus deferentibus The suffixes naturally differ in all the cases. However, even if we choose to connect the adjective with the 3rd declension noun, there may be some variations. Compare for example the expression operatio simplex, where operatio is imparisyllabic feminine and simplex one-termination adjective: operatio simplex operationes simplices operationis simplicis operationum simplicium operationem simplicem operationes simplices operatione simplici operationibus simplicibus

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As you can see the adjective differs from the noun in Abl. Sg. as well as Gen. Pl., because operatio is imparisyllabic while simplex, being a 3rd declension adjective, favours parisyllabic endings. Even a combination of parisyllabic masculine axis, is m. with an adjective will not render completely similar set of endings, see the Abl. Sg.: axis frontalis axes frontales axis frontalis axium frontalium axem frontalem axes frontales axe frontali axibus frontalibus The last example demonstrates a  combination of parisyllabic neuter rete with a one-termination adjective, pay attention above all to the Acc. which has to be same as the Nom. Also, this combination (parisyllabic neuter with the 3rd declension adjective) is the only one, where there is no difference in Abl. Sg.: rete simplex retia simplicia retis simplicis retium simplicium rete simplex retia simplicia reti simplici retibus simplicibus

vocabulary There is no new vocabulary. Please review the Lesson 9 instead.

exercises 1. Give all the grammatical cases from following expressions: emesis chronica nervus palmaris dens molaris lues congenita pars dentis 2. Create Abl. Sg., Gen. Pl., and Acc. Pl. from following expressions: vita brevis morbus levis vir saluber tumor sanabilis decubitus recens periculum latens inflammatio perforans

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3. Provide Latin as well as Greek synonyms: excision hand ear cell vein nose tissue 4. Divide following clinical terms into basic constituents and translate them: myocarditis gastrotomia gastrostomia gynecopathia osteomyelitis nephroscopia 5. Translate to Latin: with sufficient number of patients against sharp pain of nerves healing without a permanent defect from multiple perforating injuries on the left side of abdomen because of rupture of mandibular nerves

correct answers 1. emesis chronica, emesis (or emeseos) chronicae, emesim (or emesin) chronicam, emesi chronica, emeses chronicae, emesium chronicarum, emeses chronicas, emesibus chronicis; nervus palmaris, nervi palmaris, nervum palmarem, nervo palmari, nervi palmares, nervorum palmarium, nervos palmares, nervibus palmaribus; dens molaris, dentis molaris, dentem molarem, dente molari, dentes molares, dentium molarium, dentes molares, dentibus molaribus; lues congenita, luis congenitae, luem congenitam, lue congenita, lues congenitae, luium congenitarum, lues congenitas, luibus congenitis; pars dentis, partis dentis, partem dentis, parte dentis, partes dentium, partium dentium, partes dentium, partibus dentium 2. vita brevi, vitarum brevium, vitas breves; morbo levi, morborum levium, morbos leves; viro salubri, virorum salubrium, viros salubres; tumore sanabili, tumorum sanabilium, tumores sanabiles, decubitu recenti, decubituum recentium, decubitus recentes; periculo latenti, periculorum latentium, pericula latentia; inflammatione perforanti, inflammationum perforantium, inflammationes perforantes

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3. excisio, -ectomia; manus, chiro-; auris, oto-; cellula, cyto-; vena, phlebo-; nasus, rhino-; tela, histo4. myo/card/itis (muscle + heart + inflammation), inflammation of heart muscle; gastro/tomia (stomach + surgical intervention) general term for a surgical intervention in stomach; gastro/stomia (stomach + mouth) surgically created opening into stomach; gyneco/pathia (woman + illness) general term for all diseases specific for women; osteo/myel/itis (bone + marrow + inflammation) inflammation of the bone marrow; nephro/scopia (kidney + examination) an edoscopic examination of kidney 5. cum numero patientium sufficienti,59 contra dolorem acrem nervorum (or contra neuralgiam acrem), sanatio sine defectu permanenti, ex vulneribus perforantibus multiplicibus in latere sinistro abdominis, propter rupturam nervorum mandibularium

homework 1. Review vocabulary of the Lesson 9. Select ten adjectives and use them in combination with a noun and decline the pair in all the grammatical cases. Focus on subtle differences between the 3rd declension parisyllabic/imparisyllabic paradigms and the adjective ones. 2. For purpose of the next lesson, review paradigms dolor and caput.

59

The word order is not important here, cum numero sufficienti pacientium is also correct.

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lesson 20 (comparison of adjectives)

review 1. Latin adjectives come in two groups, according the set of endings they use: the 1st + 2nd declension and the 3rd declension. 2. Adjectives from both groups can be connected with nouns from any declension. The adjective retains its own set of endings, thus it is not affected directly by the declension of the noun. 3. Adjectives follow grammatical case, number, and gender of the noun.

introduction In this lesson, we shall explain additional forms of adjectives called comparatives and superlatives. While relatively rare, certain forms of comparatives are necessary for anatomical use and some superlatives and comparatives can be found in certain idiomatic phrases. The lesson basically consists of three parts, at the beginning we will explain meaning of comparative and superlative as well as the way how they are generally created. The second part will focus on regular paradigm of both forms, and finally we shall also pay attention to exceptions. Adjectives in many languages have three distinct forms: positive, comparative, and superlative. The basic form of adjective is positive and it serves as simple description of a property or quality. So far nearly all of our adjectives have been positives (with exception of maximus and minimus that are superlatives from big and small). Comparative is a form of an adjective which denotes higher degree of certain property or quality. So comparative from English “long” is “longer”, comparative from “complicated” is “more complicated”. As you can see, English uses basically two ways to create comparatives. It either appends ending “-er” to the end of word, or adds the auxiliary adverb “more” in front of it.60 Latin comparatives have similar meaning as the English ones, and they are also created by an additional ending or an adverb. Unlike English, Latin comparatives have to be declined in grammatical cases. 60

Linguists call this second way “periphrastic formation of comparatives”, for details see the next section.

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Superlative is form of adjective which has two meanings. So called absolute superlative denotes the highest degree of certain quality, example: “Skin is the biggest organ of human body.” However, Latin superlatives have sometimes also another meaning, which is called elative. The elative is a superlative, which can be translated as “very high degree of quality”. So the expression diagnosis optima (literally “the best diagnosis”) does not mean “the best diagnosis from all the possible diagnoses”, rather it should be translated as “a very good diagnosis”. From the grammatical point of view, the elative and absolute superlative are identical, they have similar endings. Only when translating into or from Latin, you should pay attention to situations where expressions like “very much” occur, because these are often rendered in Latin using the elative.

comparatives and superlatives created with auxiliary adverbs Normally the comparative and superlative is created using an ending. In English it is “-er” for comparatives and “-est” for superlatives (short – shorter – shortest). Nevertheless, some English adjectives, particularly the longer or less frequent ones form the comparative and superlative with adverbs “more” and “the most” (frequent – more frequent – the most frequent). This is called “periphrastic formation” and both ordinary and periphrastic formation is not freely interchangeable. For instance the triplet long – more long – the most long is obviously incorrect, as is also the opposite example recent – recenter – the recentest. To sum the subject up, periphrastic formation is used only with some adjectives while with others we have to use the ordinary construction. Latin adjectives behave analogically to the English ones. Most of them create the ordinary comparative and superlative using endings, but small groups relay on periphrastic formation. The rule which distinguish both groups is simple: ●● Adjectives from the 1st and 2nd declension, which have another vowel before the ending “-us”, “-a”, “-um” use the auxiliary adverb to make comparatives and superlatives. ●● All other adjectives form comparatives and superlatives in an ordinary way, i.e. using an ending. In medical terminology, the first type of adjectives appears only rarely. Probably, the only acceptable example being dubius, a, um (dubious) which has “-i-” in front of the ending “-us”. Periphrastic comparatives and superlatives are easily made by putting Latin adverbs magis or maxime in front of the adjective. So English “more dubious” stands for Latin magis dubius while “the most dubious” is rendered maxime dubius. Remember, that when inflected in various grammatical cases, only the adjective changes the ending, the adverb remains the same.61 61

For example English “very dubious diagnosis” can be translated into Latin (using and elative meaning of superlative) as diagnosis maxime dubiosa. If we transform the same thing to Gen. Sg., so the English meaning will be

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comparative paradigm Although rather simple, the periphrastic formation of comparatives and superlatives is very rare. Great majority of adjectives use an ordinary formation instead. Regular comparative is created by adding first “-ior-” to a genitive stem of the adjective and then attaching endings from the paradigm dolor or caput to the end. This principle works for adjectives from both major groups, so even if the adjective has positive endings from the 1st and 2nd declension, like longus, a, um, the comparative is created using the 3rd declension paradigms. Endings taken from the 3rd declension paradigm dolor serve as feminine and masculine forms of the comparative. The caput endings are used whenever the comparative is linked to a neutral. The neutral set of endings has also one exception, while normally all the cases are made from stem + “-ior” + ending, Nom. Sg. as well as Acc. Sg. lack the “-ior-” insertion and have instead combination stem + “-ius”. So, nominative forms of comparative from the adjective “long” are either longior for masculines and feminines or longius for neutrals. Apart from Nom. and Acc. Sg. all the remaining grammatical cases use “-ior-” insertion even for neutrals. Step by step instructions for creation of comparative may look like this: ●● First you have to obtain proper Gen. Sg. stem. – To do this, create the Gen. Sg. from the positive, – then remove “-i” (if the adjective is the 1st and 2nd declension type) or “-is” (if the adjective is the 3rd declension type). Examples: latus → lati → lat-; celer → celeris → celer-; senex → senis → sen-. ●● Add “-ior” in every grammatical case for every gender with exception of Nom. and Acc. Sg. for neutrals, where the “-ior” is replaced with “-ius”. ●● Add the final ending from dolor and caput paradigms (if there is any). For example Nom. Sg. for the adjectives mentioned above will be: latior (m./f.), latius (n.); celerior (m./f.), celerius (n.); senior (m./f.), senius (n.). Genitive Sg. looks like this: novioris (m./f./n.), celerioris (m./f./n.), senioris (m./f./n.). The paradigm can also be shown in form of table: Singular Nom.

m./f.

n.

m./f.

n.

long-ior

long-ius

long-ior-es

long-ior-a

Gen. Acc. Abl.

Plural

long-ior -is long-ior-em

long-ius long-ior-e

long-ior-um long-ior-es

long-ior-a long-ior-ibus

something like “... of very dubious diagnosis”, the Latin translation will be diagnosis maxime dubiosae. (Note that word diagnosis has similar Nom. and Gen. Sg.)

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Notice how easily you can adapt the dolor paradigm from the 3rd declension. Just add the “-ior-” in front of the ending. The process works for neutrals too, with just Nom. and Acc. Sg being exceptions, in the table they are marked in dark grey, for these two cases replace the characteristic “-ior” with “-ius”. Let us repeat that this way of making comparatives works for all the adjectives regardless of their initial declension in positive, so even the 1st and 2nd declension ones create comparatives using set of endings from dolor/caput paradigm. Finally, we should also point out that both dolor and caput are imparisyllabic paradigms. This may lead to a confusion, because basic positive from the 3rd declension adjectives, like the paradigm brevis make use of parisyllabic endings. As a result, while Abl. Sg. from “short” ends with “-i” (brevi), the comparative “shorter” has in the same place ending “-e” (breviore). The dissimilarities continue further in Nom. and Acc. Pl. for neutrals (brevia vs. breviora) as well as in Gen. Pl. for all three genders (brevium vs. breviorum).

superlative paradigm The process of making superlatives resembles that of comparatives. First you have to get the initial Gen. Sg. stem. Then you have to add an insertion “-issim-”, and finally you complete the form with ending from the 1st and 2nd declension paradigm longus, a, um. This instruction works for all the adjectives regardless their initial declension. For example, to get the superlative from “long”, you take away the Gen. Sg. ending in positive (“-i”), add “-issim-”, and put “-us” at the end to make longissimus, a, um. Latin latus, a, um leads in superlative to latissimus, a, um; senex makes senissimus, a, um, and so on. The superlative can be also shown in the following table: Singular Gender m.

Plural f.

n.

m.

brev-issim-um brev-issim-i

f.

n.

brev-issim-ae

brev-issim-a

Nom.

brev-issim-us brev-issim-a

Gen.

brev-issim-i

Acc.

brev-issim-um brev-issim-am brev-issim-um brev-issim-os

brev-issim-as

brev-issim-a

Abl.

brev-issim-o

brev-issim-is

brev-issim-is

brev-issim-ae brev-issim-i

brev-issim-a

brev-issim-o

brev-issim-orum brev-issim-arum brev-issim-orum

brev-issim-is

exceptions There are basically three types of exceptions to be found in comparatives and superlatives: 1. adjectives without positives, 2. adjectives with irregular superlatives, 3. completely irregular adjectives.

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adjectives without positives The first group is often employed in anatomy. These so called “defective adjectives” lack the positive form having only comparative and rarely employed irregularly created superlative. These are namely: Comparative

Translation

Superlative

Translation

superior, ius

higher, superior

supremus, a, um

highest, greatest, or very high62

inferior, ius

lower

infimus, a, um

lowest, or very low

interior, ius

inner

intimus, a, um

intimate, inmost

exterior, ius

stranger, on the outside

extremus, a, um

strangest

proprior, ius

near

proximus, a, um

nearest, adjoining

ulterior, ius

beyond

ultimus, a, um

farthest

posterior, ius

posterior, next, more to the back

postremus, a, um

next, following

anterior, ius

anterior, more forward

(does not exist)

prior, prius

prior, former

primus, a, um

first

Not all the forms noted in this table are frequent in medical terminology. However, the anatomy uses extensively superior, inferior, posterior, and anterior to denote directions. Also some other forms like intimus (tunica intima) have already appeared in the vocabulary. From the grammatical point of view, all these comparatives use regular dolor/caput paradigm, while all the superlatives follow longus, a, um. In this course, you are not required to remember superlatives from this set of words.

irregular superlatives Adjectives with irregular superlatives can be divided into two groups. First, all the adjectives which have in Nom. Sg. form for masculine gender ending “-r”, like acer, is, e; degener, is; creber, a, um have superlative with endings “-rrimus”, “-rrima”, “-rrimum” instead of the ordinary “-issimus”, “-issima”, “-issimum”. So superlative from acer is not acerissimus, but rather acerrimus, superlative from degener is degenerrimus, and from creber creberrimus. These words are rare but they appear in both major groups of adjectives (the 1st + 2nd declension, the 3rd declension). Second, four adjectives similis, dissimilis, facilis, difficilis have superlative with “-llimus”, “-llima”, “-llimum” instead of “-issimus”. For example similis leads to simillimus 62

“Very high” would be an elative meaning.

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and not to incorrect similissimus. In medical terminology this exception applies only to these four adjectives, rest of adjectives ending with “-lis” in positive have ordinary “-issimus” superlatives.

irregular adjectives Four adjectives create comparatives and superlatives in completely irregular way.63 These have to be memorised: English

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

good

bonus, a, um

melior, ius

optimus, a, um

bad

malus, a, um

peior, ius

pessimus, a, um

big

magnus, a, um

maior, ius

maximus, a, um

small

parvus, a, um

minor, minus

minimus, a, um

Note that their positives are the ordinary 1st and 2nd declension type, comparatives follow the dolor/caput scheme, and superlative again is the ordinary 1st and 2nd declension adjective. Various forms of these irregular adjectives are employed either in anatomy (m. glutaeus maximus) or even in clinical terminology for example in relation to diagnosis (diagnosis optima, pessima).

summary 1. Basic quality is called “positive”, higher degree of a quality “comparative”, and the highest degree “superlative”. The superlative is sometimes used to express very high level of quality, in which case it is called “elative”. 2. Both major groups of adjectives (the 1st and 2nd declension, the 3rd declension) form comparatives and superlatives in the same way, regardless the declension of positive. 3. Comparative is made from Gen. Sg. stem of the positive with addition of “-ior-” and ending from dolor/caput paradigm. Only Nom. and Acc. Sg. for neutrals uses endings “-ius”. 4. Superlative is made from Gen. Sg. stem of the positive adding endings “-issimus”, “-issima”, and “-issimum”. 5. Some anatomical terms (anterior, posterior, superior, …) lack positive altogether. 6. Adjectives with “-r” in masculine Nom. Sg. create superlative using “-rrimus”, “-rrima”, “-rrimum”. 63

There is also the fifth one multi, ae, a → plures, a → plurimi, ae, a which means “many” or “very many”. Logically this adjective does not have a singular form (“many” is always more than “one”), but this irregular adjective is not required in the course.

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7. Adjectives facilis, difficilis, similis, dissimilis have superlative “-llimus”, “-llima”, “-llimum”. 8. Good, bad, big, small have completely irregular comparatives and superlatives.

exercises 1. Make comparatives and superlatives for all genders in Nom. Sg. from given adjectives. Example: longus – longior, ius – longissimus, a, um latus profundus dissimilis complicatus saluber senilis acutus malignus capax frigidus levis imminens 2. Connect given words to create one medical expression per every line; do not change the word order. Adjectives are always given in Nom. Sg. for masculines. Preserve the comparative or superlative: sub, musculus, longior contra, epidemia, periculosissimus sine, signum, latentior, morbus prope, nervus, vulnerabilissimus post, operatio, difficillimus 3. Provide Latin and Greek synonyms for: vagina cancer bone tongue womb form 4. Translate to English: caries dentis molaris status stabilis post operationem situs vulnerabilis propter vulnera multiplicia in regione dorsi collapsus imminens

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5. Translate to Latin: with shorter and more fragile bone worse case of flu with very good outlook before very long operations very acute state before removal of toxins from organism

correct answers 1. latus – latior, ius – latissimus, a, um; complicatus – complicatior, ius – complicatissimus; acutus – acutior, ius, acutissimus, a, um; frigidus – frigidior, ius – frigidissimus, a, um; profundus – profundior, ius – profundissimus, a, um; saluber – salubrior, ius – saluberrimus, a, um; malignus – malignior, malignius – malignissimus, a, um; levis – levior, ius – levissimus, a, um; dissimilis – dissimilior, ius – dissimillimus, a, um; senilis – senilior, ius – senilissimus, a, um; capax – capacior, ius – capacissimus, a, um; imminens – imminentior, ius – imminentissimus, a, um 2. sub musculo longiore, contra epidemiam periculosissimam, sine signo latentiore morbi, prope nervum vulnerabilissimum, post operationem difficillimam 3. vagina, colpo-; cancer or tumor, onco- or onko-; os, osteo-; lingua, glosso- or glotto-; uterus, hystero- or metro-; forma, morpho4. decay of a molar, stable status after an operation, vulnerable place, because of multiple injuries in the area of back, threatening collapse 5. cum osse breviore et fragiliore, casus peior influenzae, cum prognosi optima, ante operationes longissimas, status acutissimus ante detoxicationem

homework 1. Focus on points where the comparative differs in paradigm from the ordinary 3rd declension. 2. Do not forget to review irregular adjectives (superlatives “-rrimus”, “-llimus”, or completely irregular ones). 3. This lesson is a good opportunity to review the vocabulary of both major groups of adjectives from the first part of this course.

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lesson 21 (clinical terminology, numerals)

review 1. Basic adjectives form two groups which have endings from the 1st and 2nd or the 3rd declension. Comparatives have all endings from the 3rd declension and superlatives have only endings from the 1st and 2nd declension. 2. Two nouns can be connected together either using conjunction “and” or preposition “of ”. In the former case both nouns have identical grammatical case and number (but not necessarily the ending, which depends on paradigm), in the latter case the second noun (after “of ”) is given in genitive grammatical case. 3. If we connect noun with an adjective, the adjective follows grammatical case, number, and gender of the noun. This may or may not lead also to similar ending. 4. Preposition causes following noun to be given in Acc. or Abl.

introduction This lesson focuses on two areas: Latin ordinal numerals with their paradigms and additional Greek stems. Numerals present rather complex subject which includes chiefly two tasks (1) ability to create correct Latin numerals (i.e. you have to learn how to count in Latin) and (2) knowledge of required paradigms wherever applicable. Greek stems in this lesson are only additional vocabulary to the Lessons 10 and 11 from the first part of this course, there is no new grammar.

numerals Numeral is a word class consisting of various words related to numbers. Although there are several types of numerals, for example ordinal numerals (1st, 2nd, 3rd, … 10th, 11th, etc.), cardinal numerals (one, two, three, four, …, ten, eleven), distributive numbers (single, double), multiplicative adverbs (once, twice), in medical terminology we use chiefly two

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types. The first are ordinal numerals, which you have already encountered among 1st and 2nd declension adjectives. These are employed chiefly to count vertebrae or ribs and from the grammatical point of view they work exactly like adjectives. The second group which sometimes appears in pharmacology and is employed by the Czech GPs when issuing medical prescriptions are cardinal numerals. As prescriptions still have to be written in Latin a GP has to know how to write “two doses” or “fifty grams”. Apart from that, other types of numerals appear with negligible frequency and will not be part of this course. In this lesson you have to learn two things concerning cardinal numerals, first their vocabulary and second what paradigm (if any) they use. Latin cardinal numerals are basically adjectives, which means that the basic rule about connecting nouns and adjectives (the adjective follows grammatical case, number, and gender of the noun) applies in this case as well.

declinable vs. non-declinable cardinals From the grammatical point of view, cardinals can be divided in two groups: declinable and non-declinable. Non-declinable cardinals are very easy to use, because they do not change endings. For example Latin word for “ten” decem is always decem no matter in which context it is used. In all the grammatical cases, genders, and numbers we use only this one basic form. However, some cardinals do change endings, using partially their own paradigms and partially paradigms borrowed from nouns. Declinable cardinals are all numbers ending with 1, 2, or 3 (with exception of 11, 12, 13), as well as full hundreds (200, 300, 400, … 900), but not one hundred, which is non-declinable. One thousand is non declinable, while two or more thousands are declinable. A list of declinable numerals may look like this: 1, 2, 3, 21, 22, 23, 31, 32, 33, … 91, 92, 93, 101, 102, 103, 121, 122, 123, … 200, 201, 202, 203, … 300, 301, 302, 303, … 900, 991, 992, 993, 1001, 1002, 1003, … There are basically two kinds of declinations. 1, 2, and 3 use their own dedicated sets of endings, while hundreds (200, 300, 400, …) borrow endings form plural of the 1st and 2nd declension nouns. The paradigms are described in detail further below after the list of numerals.

subtracting from tens When learning how to count in Latin, you will face one unusual problem. Some numerals are created with subtracting rather than adding numbers. What does it mean? Some numbers are expressed using special words (one, two, three, and so on up to twelve), but we obviously cannot have individual terms for every number we use, there are simply too many of them. That is why more complex numbers are created as combinations: Thirteen is three plus ten, fourteen four plus ten, fifteen (5+10), sixteen (6+10), seventeen

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(7+10), eighteen (8+10), nineteen (9+10), and twenty (2×10). Thus twenty one consists of “twenty” and “one” and this leads analogically to “twenty eight” or “twenty nine”. Latin works in similar fashion with exception of numerals ending with 8 or 9, because these numerals are made by subtracting. Where English counts twenty plus eight to create “twenty eight”, Latin subtracts two from the following ten, so 28 is literally “thirty minus two”, 29 “thirty minus one”, 38 is “forty minus two”, 39 “forty minus one”, and so on. Fortunately this exception is rather easy to learn, because it occurs regularly between 18 and 89, and leads to non-declinable numerals. So it is used in following numbers: 18, 19, 28, 29, 38, 39, 48, 49, 58, 59, 68, 69, 78, 79, 88, 89, but not in 8, 9, 98 or 99. Look at the table of numerals provided below, the exception does not apply to 8 and 9, but starts in 18 and continues in every numeral ending with 8 or 9 up to 89. It is not employed in 98 and 99, so there is no “hundred minus two” or “hundred minus one”, instead these two numerals are created regularly as “ninety eight” and “ninety nine”. Also these exceptional numerals are not difficult to create, because “something minus two” and “something minus one” are expressed in Latin as prefixes duode- and unde-. So eighteen, literally “twenty minus two” is in Latin duodeviginti, while nineteen undeviginti. Note that both numerals are one word; there is no space after “duo” or “de”. The exception appears analogically in every hundred, which means that 118 is literally “hundred and twenty minus two”, 179 makes “hundred and eighty minus one”, and again no exception shall be in 198, 199 (“hundred ninety eight”, “hundred ninety nine”) and so on. In the following table the declinable cardinal numerals are marked with dark grey colour. Ordinal numerals are all declinable by definition. No.

64

Cardinal

Ordinal64

No.

Cardinal

 1

unus, una, unum

primus, a, um

31

triginta unus, a, um

 2

duo, duae, duo

secundus, a, um

32

triginta duo, ae, o

 3

tres, tria

tertius, a, um

33

triginta tres, tria

 4

quattuor

quartus, a, um

34

triginta quattuor

 5

quinque

quintus, a, um

35

triginta quinque

 6

sex

sextus, a, um

36

triginta sex

 7

septem

septimus, a, um

37

triginta septem

 8

octo

octavus, a, um

38

duodequadraginta

 9

novem

nonus, a, um

39

undequadraginta

10

decem

decimus, a, um

40

quadraginta

11

undecim

undecimus, a, um

50

quinquaginta

12

duodecim

duodecimus, a, um

60

sexaginta

In this course only ordinals 1 to 12 are required.

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13

tredecim

 70

septuaginta

14

quattuordecim

 80

octoginta

15

quindecim

 88

duodenonaginta

16

sedecim

 89

undenonaginta

17

septendecim

 90

nonaginta

18

duodeviginti

 98

nonaginta octo

19

undeviginti

 99

nonaginta novem

20

viginti

100

centum

21

viginti unus, a, um

101

centum unus, a, um

22

viginti duo, ae, o

200

ducenti, ae, a

23

viginti tres, tria

300

trecenti, ae, a

24

viginti quattuor

400

quadringenti, ae, a

25

viginti quinque

500

quingenti, ae, a

26

viginti sex

600

sescenti, ae, a

27

viginti septem

700

septingenti, ae, a

28

duodetriginta

800

octingenti, ae, a

29

undetriginta

900

nongenti, ae, a

30

triginta

1000

mille

Apart from subtracting from tens there are some additional numerals which require comments: ●● Note that while “ten” is decem with “-e-”, following numbers based on ten have “-i-” in the middle, so undecim, duodecim, etc. ●● Five is quinque, but in fifteen we have to drop the “-que”, which leads to quindecim. ●● Six is sex in Latin, but sixteen drops the “-x”, so the result is sedecim. ●● Seven has “-m” at the end (septem), but seventeen replaces the “m” with “n” resulting in septendecim. ●● Note that while “twenty” viginti ends with “-i”, all the other multiplications of ten end with “-a” (triginta, quadraginta, … nonaginta). ●● One thousand is mille, which is non-declinable word, however more than one thousand is expressed using a cardinal numeral (duo, tria, quattuor, etc.) with noun milia. 2000 is therefore duo milia, 3000 tria milia. Note that mille has “-ll-” while milia has only “-l-” in the middle. Milia is declinable and follows paradigm rete.65

65 Word milia is different from all other numerals, because it is a noun, not an adjective. This means that while other numerals follow case, number, and gender of counted noun (like gram, litre, drop, box, dose, etc), milia is connected with this noun using genitive: “thousands of something”. One thousand grams is mille grammata (gramma is given in Nom. Pl.), but two thousand grams is duo milia grammatum (literally “two thousands of grams”).

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paradigms of numerals All the numerals ending with 1, 2, or 3 are declinable using following paradigms:

paradigm of numeral one m.

f.

n.

un-us

un-a

un-um

Acc.

un-um

un-am

un-um

Abl.

un-o

un-a

un-o

Nom. Gen.

un-ius

Note that there is only singular, which is logical because we work with numeral that signifies only one thing. Even in case of 21, 31, 41, etc. we construct the number in Latin as “twenty one gram” not “twenty one grams”. Analogically following two paradigms are given only in plural, because they cannot describe singulars.

paradigm of numeral two m.

f.

n.

Nom.

du-o

du-ae

du-o

Gen.

du-orum

du-arum

du-orum

Acc.

du-os

du-as

du-o

Abl.

du-obus

du-abus

du-obus

Paradigm of “two” mostly follows plural from the 1st and 2nd declension, but there are numerous exceptions: ●● Nominative has ending “-o” for both masculine and neutral form. ●● Ablative assumes unusual endings “-obus” or “-abus”. ●● Neutral paradigm has to have similar Nom. and Acc. endings, that is why “duo” appears on both occasions.

paradigm of numeral three m. + f. Nom.

tr-es

Gen. Acc. Abl.

n. tr-ia tr-ium

tr-es

tr-ia tr-ibus

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This paradigm is the easiest one, because it is simply a parasyllabic plural. Compare series for masculines and feminines (tres, trium, tres, tribus) with paradigm auris and series for neutrals (tria, tium, tria, tribus) with paradigm rete.

paradigm for hundreds 200–900 use simply plural endings from paradigm longus, a, um, they have no singulars for obvious reasons. See following example: m.

f.

n.

Nom.

ducent-i

ducent-ae

ducent-a

Gen.

ducent-orum

ducent-arum

ducent-orum

Acc.

ducent-os

ducent-as

ducent-a

Abl.

ducent-is

ducent-is

ducent-is

use of complex numbers Higher numbers are created using additions, thus 120 leads to “hundred twenty” (centum viginti) in Latin, 121 to “hundred twenty one” (centum viginti unus, -a, -um), 122 “hundred twenty two” (centum viginti duo, -ae, -o), and so on. Do not forget that some numerals subtract to get the ending “8” or “9”. So 777 is “seven hundred seventy seven” (septingenti, -ae, -a septuaginta septem), 888 is “eight hundred ninety minus two” (octingenti, -ae, -a duodenonaginta), 889 “eight hundred ninety minus one” (octingenti, -ae, -a undenonaginta). On the other hand 999 “nine hundred ninety nine” (nongenti, -ae, -a nonaginta novem) has no subtraction. In combination with other types of words (word classes) like nouns, adjectives, or prepositions, the numeral behaves like an adjective, so there will always be a noun it is attached to. This governing noun will also cause a declinable numeral to assume certain grammatical ending, depending on case, number, and gender of the noun. For example 21 doses translated to Latin lead to viginti una dosis (literally twenty + one + a dose), notice the singular at the end. “Twenty two doses” render viginti duae doses (literally twenty + two for feminine gender + plural from dose). Compare following examples; note that word “gramma” (gram) is a 3rd declension neutral, which follows paradigm caput. 1 gram … unum gramma 2 drops … duae guttae 3 doses … tres doses 10 grams … decem grammata Note that when measuring quantity of something the numeral is grammatically connected to the units of quantity (grams, litres, drops, doses, etc.) not to the material

part 2 / lesson 21 (clinical terminology, numerals)

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which is measured. 17 grams of remedy … sedecim grammata remedii 18 grams of remedy … duodeviginti grammata remedii 23 drops of water … viginti tres guttae aquae (here tres follows guttae, while aquae is Gen. Sg. “of water”) 345 grams of powder … trecenta quadraginta quinque grammata pulveris (here only trecenta is declinable and it has to follow neutral gramma in plural, therefore trecenta; word pulvis is given in Gen. Sg. pulveris) After 3 hours … post horas tres

additional clinical terminology The additional clinical vocabulary consists of few endings but mostly stems that are used in similar fashion as those mentioned in Lessons 10 and 11. Some stems lack the connecting “o”, because a vowel at the end of the stem makes it unnecessary. There are also Greek numerals, which are employed mostly in chemical terminology. brachy-

short

brady-

slow

chlor(o)-

green

cyan(o)-

blue

dolich(o)-

long

erythr(o)-

red

eury-

broad, wide

glauc(o)-

green

hygr(o)-

wet, moist

leuc(o)-

white

macr(o)-

big, large

malac-

soft

-malacia, ae, f.

softening

megal(o)-, mega-

big, large

-megalia, ae, f.

enlargement

melan(o)-

black

micr(o)-

small

platy-

flat

-poenia, ae, f.

deficiency, shortage

poli(o)-

grey

scler(o)-

hard, hardening, thick, thickening

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sten(o)-

narrow

tachy-

fast

xer(o)-

dry

bi-

two

tri-

three

tetra-

four

penta-

five

hexa-

six

hepta-

seven

octo-

eight

ennea-

nine

deka-

ten

summary 1. Ordinal numerals work like normal adjectives form the 1st and 2nd declension. 2. Cardinal numerals are declinable or non-declinable. Non-declinable cardinal numerals simply do not change the ending. 3. Declinable cardinal numerals are those ending with 1, 2, 3, and hundreds (200–900). 4. Latin numbers are mostly created in similar way as English ones, exception are numbers between 18 and 89 which end with 8 or 9. These have to be subtracted from the following ten. 5. Numerals in Latin are adjectives, so they follow grammatical case, number, and gender of a noun.

exercises 1. Translate following numerals to Latin: 7, 17, 19, 33, 55, 89, 98, 100, 110, 220, 222, 350, 417, 1987 2. Use words provided on every line to create Latin expression. Numerals are provided in English in order to distinguish between cardinals and ordinals. cum, 2, trauma inter, vertebra, 3rd, et, 4th 5, dosis, remedium, novus ante, operatio, 2nd post, 10, hora, coma

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3. Provide Latin prepositions and their Greek synonyms in form of prefixes: above below inside next to outside 4. Create one-word clinical terms: softening of material of bones flatfeet shortage of white blood cells inflammation of brain stem and the spinal chord leading to paralysis (literally “grey”+”marrow”+”inflammation) blue discoloration of skin resulting from insufficient oxygen supply (literally “blue”+”non-inflammatory disease”) 5. Translate to Latin: three signs of dangerous illness without two damaged ribs three nerves and seven veins 450 grams of remedy in 10 doses five puncture wounds in two places under the seventh vertebra

correct answers 1. septem, septendecim, undeviginti, triginta tres, quinquaginta quinque, undenonaginta, nonaginta octo, centum, centum decem, ducenti (-ae, a) viginti, ducenti (-ae, a) vigniti duo (-ae, o), trecenti (-ae, a) quinquaginta, quadringenti (-ae, a) septendecim, mille nongenti octoginta septem 2. cum traumatibus duobus, inter vertebram tertiam et quartam, quinque doses remedii novi, ante operationem secundam, post decem horas comatis 3. epi- or hyper-, supra; hypo-, sub; en- or endo- or ento-, intra; para-, prope or apud; ec- or ecto-, extra 4. osteomalacia, platypodia, leucocytopenia, poliomyelitis, cyanosis 5. tria signa morbi periculosi, sine costis duabus laesis, tres nervi et septem venae, quadringeta quinquaginta grammata remedii in decem dosibus, quinque vulnera puncta in locis duobus, sub vertebra septima

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homework 1. Try to familiarize yourself with counting in Latin, at least from 1 to 100. Higher numerals will be required mostly in rounded figures (250, 500, 650, …). 2. Numerals will become more useful in combination with imperative verbs, which will be explained in the next lesson. 3. Add new Greek stems to the vocabulary of the Lesson 10 and 11, review these two lessons as well.

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lesson 22 (introduction to verbs, vocabulary of remedies, latin medical prescription) review 1. Medical terminology uses ordinal and cardinal numbers. 2. Latin numbers are adjectives, which means that they follow a grammatical case, number, and gender of a noun. 3. Numerals ending with 1, 2, 3 and hundreds from 200 to 900 are declinable. The rest is non-declinable. 4. 1 and 2 use their own paradigms, 3 follows paradigm auris and rete in plural. Hundreds follow paradigm longus, a, um in plural.

introduction This lesson will focus on form of medical prescription, which is obligatory in Czech medical environment. In order to do so, we have to explain two additional pieces of medical terminology: verbs and vocabulary of remedies. Both are rather simple and do not introduce new paradigms. Medical prescription is a special form of communication between physician and pharmacist. It can be divided into two groups, because some remedies are prescribed specialiter and others magistraliter. In the first case, which is now overwhelmingly prevalent, physician simply picks one of the products manufactured for the market by pharmaceutical companies and gives a simple instruction, that patient should be issued certain amount of the remedy. However, sometimes the physician does not choose already manufactured product, but instructs the pharmacist himself to make a mixture which should be issued to the patient. This means that some pharmacies are still able to prepare these individually tailored remedies in their own laboratories. The first type of prescription requires only knowledge of Latin numbers, because in the Czech Republic the amount of doses of some substances with limited availability (e.g. opiates) must be written in Latin. The rest is basically filled with abbreviations. In case of magistraliter prescribed remedies, the physician is required to construct an imperative sentence, which starts with verb and contains all the necessary information for the pharmacist.

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verbs Latin verbs are complex and difficult to master. Fortunately, medical terminology requires physicians in the Czech Republic to know basically only one form of verb, so called imperative. In order to be able to do this we have to start with a form of verb which is available in vocabularies (i.e. part of the vocabulary form) called infinitive, which is in English expressed using “to” plus present form (to do, to see, to mix, …). For list of Latin infinitives see the first column in the table provided below. Note that the infinitive always ends with “-re”. In order to turn the infinitive into imperative, simply remove the “-re” from the word and the rest is the imperative. So if conservare means “to conserve” in English, then conserva can be translated as imperative, or command “conserve!”. Similarly “to give” is dare and “give!” will be da. Infinitive

Translation

addere

to add

adhibere

to use

capere

to take, to catch

cavere

beware (of)

componere

to compose

conservare

to preserve

consumere

to consume

dare

to give

delere

to destroy

destillare

to distill

expedire

to dispatch

extrahere

to pull out, to extract

facere

to make, to do

formare

to form

iterare

to repeat

liquefacere

to melt, to dissolve

miscere

to mix, to blend

mittere

to admit, to send

parare

to prepare

praescribere

to prescript, to command

recipere

to take (in prescriptions Rp.)

repetere

to repeat

scribere

to write

servare

to serve, to preserve

signare

to sign, to label

part 2 / lesson 22 (introduction to verbs, vocabulary of remedies, ...)

solvere

to solve

sterilisare

to sterilise

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remedies In this part we shall discuss an additional vocabulary containing remedies. These are generic terms, which describe whole groups of medicines. For example Latin word immunosuppresiva stands for “remedies which inhibit immune reaction of patient’s body” and consequently there are various commercially available immunosuppresives. Because these terms are generic, they are often provided in the plural form, our task is to determine their declension in order to incorporate them properly into medical prescriptions. Grammatically all these terms follow one of two paradigms. Remedies, which end with “-ntia” in plural, have Nom. Sg. ending “-ns” and are originally one-termination adjectives from the 3rd declension that are now used as neutral nouns. For example plural exsiccantia (cause drying up of a  tissue) have singular exsiccans, roborantia (strengthening remedies) have singular roborans and so on. Despite the fact that they are used as nouns, they still follow the adjectival paradigm for one-termination adjectives from the Lesson 17. Thus all the grammatical cases from roborans will be: Singular

Plural

Nom.

roborans

roborantia

Gen.

roborantis

roborantium

Acc.

roborans

Abl.

roborantia 66

roboranti

roborantibus

Notice that this type has a stem change from “-ns” to “-ntis”. The change is identical in all the remedies from the 3rd declension type. Also, these words are neutrals and consequently they have identical ending in Nom. and Acc. The remaining remedies, i.e. these which do not end in plural with “-ntia” follow the paradigm intestinum. For example word abortiva has these endings: Singular

Plural

Nom.

abortivum

abortiva

Gen.

abortivi

abortivorum

Acc.

abortivum

abortiva

Abl.

abortivo

abortivis

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In this case the ending “-e” is also allowed.

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vocabulary of remedies abortiva

pharmaceuticals which cause abortion

adjuvantia

compounds which modify, assist, or help the main effect of the remedy67

anabolica

support production of proteins

analgetica

painkiller68

anesthetica

cause loss of sensation, usually used in surgery

antacida

substances neutralising stomach acidity

antalgica

painkiller

antiallergica

against allergies

antibiotica

antibiotics

anticoagulantia

prevent coagulation

anticonvulsiva

alleviates spasms

antidiarrhoica

cure diarrhoea

antidota

antitoxin, antidote

antiemetica

suppress the urge to vomit

antiepileptica

act against epilepsy

antihypertensiva

lower blood pressure

antiinfectiva

suppress infection

antimigrenica

type of painkiller, which works against headache

antipyretica

lower the fever

antirheumatica

cure or suppress the signs of joint related diseases

antiscabiosa

cures scabies, which is parasitic infection of skin caused by mite Sarcoptes scabiei

antiseptica

antimicrobial pharmaceuticals limiting sepsis, putrefaction, or infection

antitussica

suppress cough

antivirotica

limit replication of viruses

antivomitiva

suppress the urge to vomit

anxiolytica

alleviates anxiety

aphrodisiaca

pharmaceuticals which arouse libido

bronchodilatantia

widen passage of airway in the respiratory tract

cardiotonica

heart stimulants

contraceptiva

prevent conception

corrigentia

compounds which modify taste, smell and other sensory qualities of drugs

67 68

For example aluminium salts are used as part of many vaccines, because they strengthen the reaction of organism to the main compound of the vaccine. There is a difference between anaesthetics and painkillers, the first group causes also loss of sensation, while the second only suppress pain.

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cytostatica

suppress cancerous growth

desinficientia

desinfections

detoxicantia

remedies which remove toxins from organism

digestiva

help the digestive process

dissolventia

pharmaceuticals which dissolve something

diuretica

boost creation of urine

expectorantia

help clearing the throat, help expectoration

exsiccantia

pharmaceuticals which cause drying of a tissue

hemostatica

stop bleeding

hepatica

affect function of liver

hypnotica

induce sleep

immunostimulantia

support immune reaction

immunosuppressiva

suppress immune reaction

insecticida

kills insects

laxantia

laxative

mucolytica

dissolve mucus

myorelaxantia

relax muscle tension

nutrientia

help to nourish

prophylactica

remedies used as prevention of diseases

psychopharmaca

psychoactive drugs

psychostimulantia

stimulate the mind

purgantia

induce diarrhoea to purge harmful agents from body

roborantia

strengthening pharmaceuticals

sedativa

psychopharmaceutics which help to calm a person

solventia

pharmaceuticals which dissolve something, see dissolventia

tocolytica

suppress premature labour thus delay the birth

vasoconstringentia

cause contraction of vessels

vasodilatantia

cause relaxation and widening of diameter of vessels (opposite to previous one)

virostatica

limit replication of viruses

medical prescriptions Medical prescriptions are basically Latin sentences, that start with an imperative verb (giving instruction to pharmacist to do something) and continue with other parts of the sentence. In the majority of simple cases (which also happen most often) the whole sentence is condensed to a single abbreviation “Rp.”, which stands for Recipe! Literally

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“take the drug described below and give it to the patient”. Here, no grammar is necessary, and in case of normal drugs, the Czech legislative does not even require use of Latin numerals. A prescription which should be created magistraliter, i.e. the pharmacist is first expected to make the mixture in the laboratory and then give appropriate dose to the patient, has more complex structure. The sentence starts with an imperative, and then there are usually quantities of individual components which should be mixed or otherwise processed. The initial verb causes a unit which follows to be given in accusative (usually plural). The rest of the sentence is in accordance with syntactical rules you already know. Let us sum up all the rules in one list: ●● Noun following after a preposition will be given in Acc. or Abl. depending on that preposition. ●● Noun which is attribute to other noun (in English they would be connected using “of ”) will be given in Gen. ●● Adjective or numeral will always follow grammatical case, number, and gender of its governing noun. ●● Verb will cause the following counted units to be given in Acc. Example 1 “Mix 23 grams of powder with 30 drops of water!” In this sentence the verb “mix” will cause the first counted unit “grams” to be given in Acc. Consequently numeral 23, which behaves like an adjective to the noun “gram” will be given in Acc. Pl. for neutral gender (gram is neutrum in Latin). Word “powder” follows after “of ” and therefore it will be given in Gen. Sg., the preposition “with” will affect nearest noun “drops” to be given in Abl. Pl., numeral 30 is non-declinable and water will be in Gen. as it follows after another “of ”: Misce viginti tria grammata pulveris cum triginta guttis aquae! Example 2 “Dispatch 120 doses of remedy in three packages!” Again we start with the verb “dispatch” which causes “doses” to be in Acc., 120 is non-declinable. “Remedy” is preceded by “of ” and therefore in genitive, then the preposition “in” affects noun “package” (in Abl.) and finally numeral “three” must be in the same grammatical case, number, and gender as the package. Expedi centum viginti doses remedii in tribus expeditionibus!

summary 1. Verbs are usually given in form of infinitives. The infinitive always ends with “-re”. 2. In order to create the imperative, simply remove the ending “-re” from the verb.

part 2 / lesson 22 (introduction to verbs, vocabulary of remedies, ...)

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3. Verbs require the following object, which is usually a counted unit, to be given in Acc. 4. Remedies are generic nouns that grammatically follow either the 3rd declension one-termination paradigm (plural ends with “-ntia”), or paradigm intestinum (plural ends with simple “-a”). 5. Remedies are usually given in plural, which always ends with “-a”, consequently singular ends either with “-ns” (in the 3rd declension remedies) or “-um” in the 2nd declension remedies.

exercises 1. Explain effect of given drugs and create their Nom. Sg.: vasodilatantia contraceptiva analgetica desinficientia antivirotica 2. Transform given expressions to the opposite grammatical number (Sg. → Pl. or Pl. → Sg.): cochlear mellis parvum finis epidemiae periculosae inter primam et secudam operationem in statu post infarctum myocardii carcinoma mammae 3. Create one-word clinical expressions: abnormal dryness of skin (“dry” + “skin” + ending for nouns) malignant greenish tumour (“green” + “tumour”) having only four fingers (“four” + “finger” + ending for nouns) inflammation of skin accompanied with its thickening having relatively long head/skull (noun) 4. Provide all the grammatical cases from following expressions: dosis una expeditiones duae vulnera tria grammata ducenta guttae duodeviginti

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5. Translate to Latin: Mix 25 grams of remedy and form five pills. Dispatch 18 doses of remedy in 3 boxes. Add 53 grams of powder into 22 drops of solution. Prepare 3 doses of remedy against fever. Take remedy that contracts the blood vessels and serve in drops.

correct answers 1. widens blood vessels, vasodilatans; prevents conception, contraceptivum; alleviates pain, analgeticum; desinfecting, desinficiens; stops viral infection, antiviroticum 2. cochlearia parva mellis (or mellum), fines epidemiarum periculosarum, inter primas et secundas operationes, in statibus post infarctus myocardii (or myocardiorum), carcinomata mammarum 3. xerodermia, chloroma, tetradactylia, sclerodermatitis, dolichocephalia or dolichocrania 4. dosis una, dosis unius, dosim unam, dosi una; expeditiones duae, expeditionum duarum, expeditiones duas, expeditionibus duabus; vulnera tria, vulnerum trium, vulnera tria, vulneribus tribus; grammata ducenta, grammatum ducentorum, grammata ducenta, grammatibus ducentis; guttae duodeviginti, guttarum duodeviginti, guttas duodeviginti, guttis duodeviginti 5. Misce viginti quinque grammata remedii et forma quinque pilulas. Expedi duodeviginti doses remedii in tribus scatulis. Adde quinquaginta tria grammata pulveris in viginti duas guttas solutionis. Prepara tres doses antipyretici. Recipe vasoconstringens et serva in guttas

homework 1. Latin medical prescriptions are the most complex expressions you are required to make. You will need to review grammar of (1) prepositions, (2) adjectives, (3) numerals, (4) nouns as well as to learn imperatives. 2. Also remember that now you have four syntactical relations: (1) noun + noun, (2) noun + adjective or numeral, (3) preposition + noun, (4) verb + noun. Try to review how they work together. Think about examples.

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lesson 23 (greek paradigms)

review 1. Verbs in imperative sentences require objects to be in Acc. 2. Latin numerals have similar syntax to adjectives, i.e. they follow grammatical case, number, and gender of the counted noun. 3. Remedies are neutral nouns, which are usually given in plural ending with “-a”. 4. Most remedies are declined like intestinum, however part of them has Nom. Pl. ending “-ntia” and these are declined like the 3rd declension one-termination adjectives.

introduction This lesson sums up additional subjects mostly related to ancient Greek. In context of our course these topics represent marginal or exceptional grammar; nevertheless, some of them, like word diabetes, are rather frequent. You already know, that medical terminology arose as mixture of two ancient languages – Greek and Latin. As a result, grammar of medical terminology is mostly provided by Latin, whereas Greek offers word stems that can be combined together to create complex medical terms. Greek existing in context of medical terminology therefore mostly assumes Latin endings and from grammatical point of view behaves as genuine Latin words. There are numerous examples of Greek loanwords that adapted fully to Latin grammatical context: masseter, iris, or hepar are three of them. However, the transition has not always been smooth, and sometimes the terms became stuck in the middle, mostly accepting Latin grammar, while still preserving some residual Greek endings. This happened for example in paradigm colon from the 2nd declension, which contains neuters of Greek origin. Another such case is paradigm basis with alternative singular Gen. “-eos” and Acc. “-im” or even “-in”. In this lesson, we will discuss three such additional cases: 1st declension Greek paradigms systole and diabetes as well as group of 3rd declension adjectival endings.

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paradigm systole Paradigm systole serves limited amount of Greek feminines, which were partially absorbed by the Latin 1st declension. Words belonging to this group can be divided into two categories: 1. Some can assume either forms of the regular Latin paradigm vena or the Greek paradigm systole. In this case you can stick with the easier vena paradigm and ignore the Greek one. However, you should be prepared for option that they may appear in their more traditional form. 2. Words that use exclusively paradigm systole. In this case latinized vena cannot be used. In your vocabulary this applies only to ending “-raphe”, “-rhoe”, words acne and chole. Whether the word belongs to the first or the second group is noted in the vocabulary. Greek paradigm systole shares a lot with the Latin 1st declension, therefore the plural is identical and only the singular differs: Singular

Plural

Nom.

systol-e

systol-ae

Gen.

systol-es

systol-arum

Acc.

systol-en

systol-as

Abl.

systol-e

systol-is

Systole itself is an example of word that can use either pure 1st declension endings from paradigm vena or Greek set of endings, therefore it is possible to decline systole also in this way: Singular

Plural

Nom.

systol-a

systol-ae

Gen.

systol-ae

systol-arum

Acc.

systol-am

systol-as

Abl.

systol-a

systol-is

However, both types of declination cannot be combined together, so if you choose to use systola, ae, f., you cannot mix it with endings from systole, es, f.

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part 2 / lesson 23 (greek paradigms)

vocabulary of greek type systole acne

skin disease

chole

bile

diastole (also diastola, ae)

relaxation of heart muscle

morphe

form, synonymous to Latin forma, ae

-pnoe

Greek ending which signifies relation to respiration or breathing

apnoe

temporary pause in breathing

bradypnoe

slow respiration

dyspnoe

difficult breathing

orthopnoe

grave condition in which the patient is able to breath without assistance only while being erect, if such person lies on a bed he/she would suffocate without support

tachypnoe

quick respiration

-rrhoe (also -rrhoea, ae)

something to do with “flow”

menorrhoe (also menorrhoea, hoeae)

menstruation (literally “monthly flow”)

systole (also systola, ae)

contraction of hear muscle

-tome (also -tomia, ae)

cut

paradigm diabetes Paradigm diabetes applies to very limited amount of words. In this course we will mention apart from the diabetes itself also term ascites which describes creation of fluid in abdominal cavity. Words that follow type diabetes are originally Greek masculines which were partially absorbed by the Latin 1st declension. As a result, the plural again follows paradigm vena, despite the fact that these words are still masculines. Analogically to the paradigm systole we have two options. One set of endings is more traditional, while the other is more latinized. Unlike the systole, however, there is no option of abandoning the Greek endings altogether, so the Nom. Sg. will always remain “-es”, it cannot be “-a”. Both possibilities are signified in the table: Singular

Plural

Nom.

diabet-es

diabet-ae

Gen.

diabet-ae

diabet-arum

Acc.

diabet-en (-am)

diabet-as

Abl.

diabet-e (-a)

diabet-is

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As you can see diabetes can be declined either with one exception in Nom. Sg. (-es) or with exceptions in Nom., Acc., and Abl. Sg. The second option is more traditional and should be employed in the Czech environment. Also, do not forget, that diabetes as well as ascites are masculines. This means that although they are technically part of the 1st declension, and in plural follow the paradigm vena, any adjective attached to these words must reflect the masculine gender. Therefore diabetes is mellitus and not mellita. Whole paradigm of diabetes mellitus is here: Singular

Plural

Nom.

diabetes mellitus

diabetae melliti

Gen.

diabetae melliti

diabetarum mellitorum

Acc.

diabeten mellitum

diabetas mellitos

Abl.

diabete mellito

diabetis mellitis

greek adjectival endings “-genes”, “-ides”, “-morphes” There are also three Greek endings, which are used to create various adjectives in clinical terminology. These are “-genes” (related to origin of something), “-ides” (suggest appearance of something), as well as “-morphes” (describe form of something). For example cryptogenes is adjective meaning “unknown origin”, because the stem crypt(o)means “unknown”, while ending “-genes” signifies “origin”. Analogically anthropomorphes would mean “a thing that has bodily form resembling humans”. Although these three endings serve to form various adjectives, they follow nominal paradigms dolor and caput from the 3rd declension. So while normal Latin adjectives from the 3rd declension reflect the paradigm brevis, which is parisyllabic (with Abl. Sg. “-i” and Gen. Pl. “-ium”), these three originally Greek endings are declined according imparisyllabics. See example of combination of both types with a noun: bacterium pyogenes69

bacteria pyogena

Plasmodium ovale70

Plasmodia ovalia

bacterii pyogenis

bacteriorum pyogenum

Plasmodii ovalis

Plasmodiorum ovalium

bacterium pyogenes

bacteria pyogena

Plasmodium ovale

Plasmodia ovalia

bacterio pyogene

bacteriis pyogenibus

Plasmodio ovali

Plasmodiis ovalibus

69 70

Literally “pus generating bacterium”. Plasmodium ovale is species of parasitic protozoa which causes one form of malaria in humans.

part 2 / lesson 23 (greek paradigms)

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exercises 1. Give all the grammatical cases from following expressions: prognosis melior acromion laesum diarrhoe chronica ascites postoperativus 2. Connect given words to make an expression; do not change the word order: expeditio, immunosuppresivum, in, 20, tabuleta fractura, costa, tertius, in, latus, sinister contusio (Pl.), et, suffusio (Pl.), in, extremitas, superior propter, necrosis, cutis, in, digitus, quartus in, coma, post, contusio 3. Create one-word clinical terms: producing pus (adjective) slow breathing having bigger form (as result of genetic mutation) temporary pause in breathing frequent urination blocked or otherwise stopped urination being of bone-related origin (adjective) 4. Provide all the grammatical cases from: acne vulgaris diabetes mellitus coma permanens basis cranii 5. Translate to Latin: necrosis of fingers of legs because of diabetes mellitus long periods between systola and diastola crisis after complicated operation with very bad prognosis remedies against signs of the new illness congenial defect of skull

correct answers 1. prognosis melior, prognosis melioris, prognosim meliorem, prognosi meliore, prognoses meliores, prognosium meliorum, prognoses meliores, prognosibus me-

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2.

3. 4.

5.

71

lioribus; acromion laesum, acromii laesi, acromion laesum, acromio laeso, acromia laesa, acromiorum laesorum, acromia laesa, aromiis laesis; diarrhoe chronica, diarrhoes chronicae, diarrhoen chronicam, diarrhoe chronica, dirrhoae chronicae, diarrhoarum chronicarum, diarrhoas chronicas, diarrhois chronicis; ascites postoperativus, ascitae postoperativi, asciten postoperativum, ascite postoperativo, ascitae postoperativi, ascitarum postoperativorum, ascitas postoperativos, ascitis postoperativis expeditio immunosuppresivi in viginti tabuletis, fractura costae tertiae in latere sinistro, contusiones et suffusiones in extremitate superiore, propter necrosim cutis in digito quarto, in comate post contusionem pyogenes, bradypnoe, hypermorphia,71 apnoe, polyuria, anuria, osteogenes acne vulgaris, acnes vulgaris, acnen vulgarem, acne vulgari, acnae vulgares, acnarum vulgarium, acnas vulgares, acnis vulgaribus; diabetes mellitus, diabetae melliti, diabeten mellitum, diabete mellito, diabetae malliti, diabetarum mellitorum, diabetas mellitos, diabetis mellitis; coma permanens, comatis permanentis, coma permanens, comate permanenti, comata permanentia, comatum permanentium, comata permanentia, comatibus permanentibus; basis cranii, basis cranii, basim cranii, basi cranii, bases craniorum, basium craniorum, bases craniorum, basibus craniorum necrosis digitorum pedum propter diabeten mellitum, periodi longae inter systolen et diastolen, crisis post operationem complicatam cum prognosi pessima, remedia contra signa morbi novi, defectus congenitus cranii

This term is used to describe results of genetic mutations in Drosophila genus of fly.

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general vocabulary a, ab (+ Abl.)

(away) from

abdomen, minis, n.

abdomen



sudden severe pain of uncertain origin in the area of abdomen (literally “acute abdomen”)

abdomen acutum

abdominalis, e

related to abdomen

abductor, is, m.

abductor muscle, a muscle that abducts

abortiva (remedy)

pharmaceuticals which cause abortion

abusus, us, m.

addiction, abuse

acer, acris, acre

sharp, acute

acidum, i, n. (boricum, sulphuricum)

(Boric, Sulphuric) acid

acne, es, f.

skin disease

acquisitus, a, um

acquired, gained

acromi(o)-

part of shoulder blade (Greek stem for following)

acromion, i, n.

part of scapula

acutus, a, um

acute

ad (+ Acc.)

toward

addere

to add

adductor, is, m.

muscle that adducts (for example the thigh)

aden(o)-

gland

adhibere

to use

adipositas, atis, f.

obesity

aditus, us, m.

entrance

adjuvantia (remedy)

compounds which modify, assist, or help the main effect of the remedy72

adultus, a, um

adult, grown-up, of age

adultus, i, m.; adulta, ae, f.

adult (male), adult (female)

adversus (+ Acc.)

against, opposite

aeger, gra, grum

ill

aegrotus, a, um

ill

aegrotus, i, m.

ill (person), sick (person)

aer(o)-

air

afferens, ntis

afferent

ala, ae, f.

wing

72

For example aluminium salts are used as part of many vaccines, because they strengthen the reaction of organism to the main compound of the vaccine.

176

albumen, minis, n. (also albumin, minis, n.)

group of proteins, egg white

albus, a, um; niveus, a, um

white

alcoholicus, a, um

alcoholic

alg(o)- or -algia

pain

-algia, ae, f. (vena)

pain73

allo-

different, alien, foreign

alvus, i, f.

faeces

an-

in-, un-, non-, -less

ana-

apart

anabolica (remedy)

support production of proteins

analgetica (remedy)

painkiller74

analysis, is, f.

analysis

anamnesis, is, f.

patient’s medical history

andr(o)-

male

anesthetica (remedy)

cause loss of sensation, usually used in surgery

aneurysma, atis, n.

aneurysm, bulge

angei(o)-

blood vessel

angulus, i, m.

angle

animal, alis, n.

animal

aniso-

unequal

annus, i, m.

year

antacida (remedy)

substances neutralising stomach acidity

antalgica (remedy)

painkiller

ante (+ Acc.)

in front of, before, previously

anterior, ius

anterior, forward, ventral part

anti-, ant-

against, opposite

antiallergica (remedy)

against allergies

antibiotica (remedy)

antibiotics

anticoagulantia (remedy)

prevent coagulation

anticonvulsiva (remedy)

alleviate spasms

antidiarrhoica (remedy)

cure diarrhoea

antidota (remedy)

antitoxin, antidote

antiemetica (remedy)

suppress the urge to vomit

73 74

We have also two specific terms for pain: migraena, ae, f. (vena) which means headache, and angina, ae, f. (vena) with meaning „sharp pain“. There is a difference between anaesthetics and painkillers; the first group causes also loss of sensation, while the second only suppress pain.

177

general vocabulary

antiepileptica (remedy)

act against epilepsy

antihypertensiva (remedy)

lower blood pressure

antiinfectiva (remedy)

suppress infection

antimigrenica (remedy)

type of painkiller, which works against headache

antipyretica (remedy)

lower the fever

antirheumatica (remedy)

cure or suppress the signs of joint related diseases

antiscabiosa (remedy)

cures scabies, which is parasitic infection of skin caused by mite Sarcoptes scabiei

antiseptica (remedy)

antimicrobial pharmaceuticals limiting sepsis, putrefaction, or infection

antitussica (remedy)

suppress cough

antivirotica (remedy)

limit replication of viruses

antivomitiva (remedy)

suppress the urge to vomit

anxiolytica (remedy)

alleviates anxiety

apex, icis, m.

apex, tip of an organ

aphrodisiaca (remedy)

pharmaceuticals which arouse libido

apnoe, es, f.

temporary pause in breathing

apparatus, us, m.

apparatus, equipment

appendix, dicis, f.

appendix

appetitus, us, m.

appetite

apud (+ Acc.)

next to

aqua, ae, f.

water

aquaeductus, us, m.

channel carrying water

arcus, us, m.

arch

area, ae, f.

area

areola, ae, f.

small area

aromaticus, a, um

aromatic

ars, artis, f.

art

arteria, ae, f.

artery

arteriola, ae, f.

small artery

arteriosus, a, um

related to artery

arthr(o)-

joint, articulation

articulatio, onis, f.

joint

ascendens, ntis

rising, climbing

auditivus, a, um

auditive

auditus, us, m.

sense of hearing

auris, is, f.

ear

178

auto-, aut-

self, one’s own

avis, is, f.

bird

axis, is, m.

a line through the center of a structure; a line around which body parts are arranged; the second cervical vertebra; epistropheus

bacillus, i, m.

a rod-shaped microorganism

barba, ae, f.

beard

basis, is, f.

base

benignus, a, um

benign

bestia, ae, f.

beast, animal

bi-

two

bifidus, a, um

split, broken, cleft

bilifer, a, um (ductus bilifer)

carrying bile

biventer, tris, tre

having two bellies

bonus, a, um

good

brady-

slow

bradypnoe, es, f.

slow respiration

brachy-

short

brevis, e

short

bronchodilatantia (remedy)

widen passage of airway in the respiratory tract

bucca, ae, f.

cheek

bursa, ae, f.

small sack

caecum, i, n.

blind gut

caecus, a, um

blind

calcar, aris, n.

spur

calidus, a, um

warm

calor, is, m.

heat

canalis, is, m.

canal

cancer, cri, m.

disease caused by uncontrolled division of abnormal cells

canities, ei, f.

(unnatural) hair greying

capax, acis

capable, roomy

capere

to take, to catch

capitalis, e

related to (oriented to) head

capsula, ae, f.

capsule

caput, pitis, n.

head

cardi(o)-

heart

cardiotonica (remedy)

heart stimulants

179

general vocabulary

caries, ei, f. (caries sicca and c. humida)

tooth decay (decay of bone or tooth x decay of soft tissue)

carpus, i, m.

wrist

cartilago, inis, f.

cartilate, gristle

caudalis, e

related to (oriented to) end

causa, ae, f.

cause, reason

cavere (verb)

beware (of)

cavitas, atis, f.

cavity

cavum, i, n.

cave, cavity

cephal(o)-

head

celer, ris, re

quick, fast

cellula, ae, f.

cell

cerebellum, i, n.

literally “small brain”; part of the brain at the back of the skull in vertebrates

cerebrum, i, n.

brain

certus, a, um

certain, sure, definite

cervix, icis, f.

neck

cibus, i, m.

meal, food

cicatrix, icis, f.

scar

circulatorius, a, um

circulatory

circulus, i, m.

circle

circum (+ Acc.)

around

cirrhosis, is, f.

result of a degenerative process in the tissue of liver (cirrho- means yellow)

clavicula, ae, f.

collar bone, clavicle

cochlear, aris, n.

spoon

col(o)-

large intestine

collum, i, n.

neck

colon, i, n.

large intestine/bowel

colp(o)- or kolp(o)-

vagina

columna, ae, f.

column

coma, comatis, n.

coma, blackout

commotio, onis, f. (c. cerebri)

concussion (of the brain)

communicans, ntis

communicating

compactus, a, um

compact

complicatio, onis, f.

complication

complicatus, a, um

complicated

componere

to compose

180

compositus, a, um

composed

condylus, i, m.

protuberance on a joint (condyle)

congenitus, a, um

congenital, inbred

coniunctiva, ae, f.

coniunctiva (protective layer lining eyelids)

conservare

to preserve

consumere

to consume

contagiosus, a, um

infectious, contagious

contra (+ Acc.)

opposite against

contraceptiva (remedy)

prevent conception

contusio, onis, f.

bruise

coracoideus, a, um

“in form of raven’s beak” (since corax is raven)

cornu, us, n.

horn, corner

corpus, oris n.

body

corrigentia (remedy)

compounds which modify taste, smell and other sensory qualities of drugs

corrugator, is, m.

corrugator, corrugator supercilii is “frowning” muscle – produces wrinkles of the forehead

cortex, icis, m.

cortex, bark

cranium, i, n.

skull

crassus, a, um

fat

creber, a, um

frequent

credibilis, e

credible, trustworthy

crisis, is, f.

crisis

crus, cruris, n.

shin

crystallus, i, f.

crystal

cubitus, i, m.

elbow

cum (+ Abl.)

with

cuticula, ae, f.

epidermis, general meaning is “small skin”, in anatomy it refers to several structures for example layers of dead skin cells at the base and sides of the fingernail

cutis, is, f.

cutis anserina

skin 75

goose bumps, goose pimples

cyan(o)-

blue

cyt(o)-

cell

cytostatica (remedy)

suppress cancerous growth

dare

to give

75

Anserinus, a, um is an adjective meaning “goose-like”.

181

general vocabulary

de (+ Abl.)

(down) from, about, according to

decimus, a, um

10th

decubitus, us, m.

decubit, bedsore

decursus, us, m.; cursus, us, m.

course, progress of patient or disease

defectus, us, m.

defect, malfunction, failure

deferens, ntis or efferens, ntis

deferent, efferent

deficiencia, ae, f.

insufficiency, deficiency (immune def.)

deformans, ntis

causing deformity

degener, is

degenerate

deka- (deca-)

ten

delere

to destroy

delirium, i, n.

hallucination, extasy

dens, dentis, m.

tooth



dens bicuspidatus

tooth having two cusps or points, also premolar tooth



dens caninus

canine tooth, dog-tooth



dens incisivus

incisor tooth



dens lacteus

milk tooth

dermat(o)-

skin

descendens, ntis

descending, sinking

desinficientia (remedy)

desinfections

destillare

to distill

destillatus, a, um

distilled

detoxicantia (remedy)

remedies which remove toxins from organism

detoxicatio, onis, f.

removal of toxic elements from organism

dexter, tra, trum

right

dia- (di-)

apart, between, through

diagnosis, is, f.

identification of a medical condition or a disease of a patient

dialysis, is, f.

dialysis

diameter, tri, f.

diameter

diaphysis, is, f.

shaft of a long bone

diastole, es, f. (also diastola, ae, f.)

relaxation of heart muscle

difficilis, e

difficult, uneasy

digestiva (remedy)

help the digestive process

digestorius, a, um; digestivus, a, um (apparatus digestivus)

digestive (digestive apparatus)

digitus, i, m.

finger

182

dilatatio, onis, f.

widening, enlargement

directus, a, um

direct

dislocatio, onis, f.

dislocation, displacement

dissimilis, e

dissimilar

dissolventia (remedy)

pharmaceuticals which dissolve something

diuretica (remedy)

boost creation of urine

dolich(o)-

long

dolor, is, m.

pain

dorsalis, e

related to back, backward oriented

dorsum, i, n.

the back

dosis, is, f.

dose

ductulus, i, m.

small duct (tube, channel, tunel)

ductus, us, m. (ductus choledochus)

duct, canal (bile duct)

duodecimus, a, um

12th

duplex, duplicis

double

dys-

dys- (like dysgraphia),76 a missing ability and/or quality

dyspnoe, es, f.

difficult breathing

e, ex

(out) of, from

ec-, ecto-

out(side)

-ectasia, ae, f.

(unnatural) enlargement

-ectomia, ae, f. (vena)

excision

emesis, is, f.

to be sick

eminentia, ae, f.

eminence, protuberance

emplastrum, i, n.

plaster

en-

in(side)

encephal(o)-

brain

endo-, ento-

inside

ennea-

nine (Greek)

enter(o)-

intestines

epi-

upon, above

epiphysis, is, f.

end of a long bone

erythr(o)-

red

eury-

broad, wide

76

Usually congenital impediment, which causes a person to have difficulties with correct writing. Related to dyslexia (impaired ability to read) or dyscalculia (impaired ability to do math).

183

general vocabulary

evidens, ntis

visible, plain, evident

excisio, onis, f.

excision

exitus, us, m.

departure, exit, death

expectorantia (remedy)

help clearing the throat, help expectoration

expedire

to dispatch

exsiccantia (remedy)

pharmaceuticals which cause drying of a tissue

exspiratio, onis, f.

expiration, exhalation

extensor, is, m.

extensor

exterior, ius

external, on the outside

externus, a, um

external

extra (+ Acc.)

outside

extractum, i, n.

extract

extrahere

to pull out, to extract

extrauterinus, a, um

outside the womb (especially about pregnancy)

extremitas, atis, f.

extremity, limb

facere

to make, to do

facies, ei, f.

face

facilis, e

easy

falsus, a, um

false, wrong, spurious

fascia, ae, f.

sheet of connective tissue, thin sheath of fibrous tissue enclosing a muscle or other organ, soft tissue component of the connective tissue system

fauces, ium, f. (this word has only plural form, there is no singular)

pharynx, throat

febrilis, e

feverish

febris, is, f.

fever 77

febris dromedaria (this expression is used very rarely)

febris flava78

intermittent fever yellow fever

fel, fellis, n.

bile

felleus, a, um

biliary, bilious, related to gall

femina, ae, f.

woman

fibula, ae, f.

the outer and usually smaller of the two bones between the knee and the ankle in humans

finis, is, m.

end

77 78

Dromedarius, a, um is an adjective meaning “dromedary-like”, a dromedary is one-humped camel. Flavus, a, um means yellow.

184

flexor, is, m.

flexor

foetor, is, m.

foul odour

foramen, minis, n.

aperture, opening, hole

forma, ae, f.

form

formare

to form

fossa, ae, f.

pit

fragilis, e

fragile

frequens, ntis

frequent

frigidus, a, um

cold

frons, frontis, f.

forehead

frontalis, e

in front of (e.g. musculus frontalis), frontal

fundus, i, m.

bottom, base of an organ

functio, onis, f.

function

ganglion, i, n.

center or node in nerve system

gastr(o)-

stomach

genu, us, n.

knee, knee-like structure



calfknee, knock-knee

genu varum x genu valgum

genus, neris, n.

gender

geront(o)-

old person

gigant(o)-

big

glandula, ae, f.

gland

glauc(o)-

green

gloss(o)-

tongue

glossa, ae, f.

tongue

glutaeus, a, um

pertaining to buttocks

gnath(o)-

jaw

gon- or gonat(o)-

knee

gramma, atis, n.

gram (unit of weight)

-gramma, atis, n. (caput)

a result of a graphical/visual examination (e.g. sonographia leads to sonogramma)

grammum, i, n.

gram79

-graphia, ae, f. (vena)

graphical/visual examination

gravida, ae, f.

pregnant woman

graviditas, atis, f.

pregnancy

79

English word “gram” and its derivatives have two possible versions in Latin, the first one is the 2nd declension grammum and the second one is the 3rd declension imparisyllabic gramma, atis n.

185

general vocabulary

gravis, e

heavy, severe

gustus, us, m.

sense of taste, gustation

gutta, ae, f.

drop

guttatorium, i, n.

dropper

gynaec(o)-

female

haem(o)- or haemat(o)-

blood

hallux, ucis, m.

big toe

hemostatica (remedy)

stop bleeding

hepar, hepatis, n.

liver

hepatica (remedy)

affect function of liver

hepta-

seven

hetero-

different, dissimilar (often in contrast with homo-)

hexa-

six

hist(o)-

tissue

homo-, homeo-

similar

hora, ae, f.

hour

humerus, i, m.

upper arm bone

humor, is, m.

fluid, solution

hygr(o)-

wet, moist

hyper-

above, over, too high, excessively

hyper-; supra-

something is above average value

hypn(o)-

sleep

hypnotica (remedy)

induce sleep

hypo-

below, too low

hypo-; sub-

something is under average value

charta, ae, f. [xarta]

paper

cheil(o)-

lip

cheir(o)-

hand

chirurgicus, a, um

surgical

chlor(o)-

green

chole, es, f.

bile

cholelithiasis, is, f.

gallstone

chondr(o)-

cartilage

chronicus, a, um

chronic

-iasis, sis, f. (basis)

not specified but non-inflammatory disease

iatr(o)-

physician

186

icterus, i, m.

jaundice, inflammation of liver



jaundice of newborns

icterus neonatorum

ieiunum, i, n.

jejunum (part of intestines)

ileus, i, m.

intestinal obstruction

imminens, ntis

impending, threatening

immunostimulantia (remedy)

support immune reaction

immunosuppressiva (remedy)

suppress immune reaction

impar, imparis

unequal

in (+ Acc. or Abl.)

in, inside, into, during80

incertus, a, um

uncertain, dubious

index, icis, m.

forefinger

indirectus, a, um

indirect

infarctus, us, m.

infarction (necrosis of a tissue)



heart attack

infarctus myocardii

infectiosus, a, um

infectious, contagious

inferior, ius

lower

influenza, ae, f.

flu, influenza

infra (+ Acc.)

below, under

inoperabilis, e

inoperable

insanus, a, um

ill

insecticida (remedy)

kills insects

inspiratio, onis, f.

inhalation

instrumentum, i, n.

instrument

insufficientia, ae, f.

deficiency, insufficiency

insultus, us, m.

insultation, attack



brain attack

insultus cerebri; ictus, us, m.

integer, gra, grum

intact, healthy, unspoiled

intellectus, us, m.

intellect

inter (+ Acc.)

between, among

interior, ius

inner

internus, a, um

internal

interosseus, a, um

interosseous (located between two bones)

80

Latin preposition in has several meanings, which only partially correspond with the English “in”. Probably the most important meaning is “inside” (something is inside something else), while expressing movement Latin in corresponds with English “into”. It has also temporal meaning similar to “during” or “after” (in horis tribus means “during three hours”).

187

general vocabulary

intestinum, i, n.

intestine



intestinum caecum or caecum, i, n.

literally “blind gut”; a pouch connected to the junction of the small and large intestines



intestinum crassum or crassum, i, n.

large or “fat” bowel



intestinum duodenum or duodenum, i, n.

duodenum; the first part of the small intestine immediately beyond the stomach, leading to the jejunum

intra (+ Acc.)

inside, within

iso-

same (same level of quality), equal

isthmus, i, m.

a narrow organ, passage, or piece of tissue connecting two larger parts

iterare

to repeat

-itis, -itidis,81 f. (dolor)

inflammation

iuvenilis, e

juvenile

iuvenis, e (also juvenis)

young

jejunum, i, n.

jejunum, literally “fasting gut” because usually found empty after death; the part of the small intestine between the duodenum and ileum

labium, i, n.

lip

lac, lactis, n.

milk

lacrima, ae, f.

tear

lact(o)- or galact(o)-

milk

lactifer, a, um (ductus lactifer)

carrying milk

laesio, onis, f.

damage, wound, injury

laesus, a, um

damaged, wounded, hurt

lapar(o)-

abdomen

lapsus, us, m.

error, blunter, mistake, flaw

larynx, ngis, f.

windpipe

latens, ntis

latent, hidden

latus, a, um

broad, wide

latus, teris, n.

side

laxantia (remedy)

laxative

laxativa (remedy)

laxatives

leuc(o)-

white

82

81 82

Here pay attention to number of syllables. Genitive has one more syllable in comparison with the nominative grammatical case. All the remaining cases are derivated from the Gen. Sg. Example: nephritis (Nom. Sg.), nephritidis (Gen. Sg.). Not to be confused with latus, a, um (wide). Often used in abbreviated form: lat. Typically describes sides of human body or an organ: lat. dx. and lat. sin. (meaning right and left side). Expression lateris utriusque (lat. utr.) means “of both sides”, synonymum is the adjective bilateralis, e.

188

levator, is, m.

levator, “lifter”

levis, e

light, mild

ligamentum, i, n.

ligament

lingua, ae, f.

tongue

lip(o)-

fat

liquefacere

to melt, to dissolve

liquor, is, m.

liquid

lith(o)-

stone

litrum, i, n.

litre (unit of volume)

lobus, i, m.

lobe

log(o)-

word, speech, science

longus, a, um

long

lues, is, f.

syphilis

lux, lucis, f.

light

lymph(o)-

lymph

lympha, ae, f.

lymph, a colorless fluid

macr(o)-

big, large

magister, tri, m.

pharmacist, teacher

magno-; magnus, a, um

big

malac(o)-

soft

-malacia, ae, f.

softening

malignus, a, um

malignant, malign, deadly

malus, a, um

bad

mamilla, ae, f.

nipple, a nipple-shaped structure

mamma, ae, f.

breast, mammary gland

mandibula, ae, f.

lower jaw

mandibularis, e

gnathic, maxillary, related to jaw

manubrium, i, n.

literally “handle”; part of breast bone

manus, us, f. (!)

hand

mast(o)-

breast

mater, matris f.

mother

dura mater (durus, a, um is an adjective, litteraly “hard”)

“hard” meninx, outermost of the three layers of the meninges surrounding the brain

pia mater (pius, a um is an adjective, it means “saint” or “holy”)

“soft” meninx, the innermost layer of the meninges surrounding the brain

maxilla, ae, f.

upper jaw

maximus, a, um

the biggest, huge

189

general vocabulary

meatus, us, m. (meatus acusticus)

passage (auditory meatus)

medi(o)-

average

medianus, a, um

placed at the central plane

medicamentum, i, n. or remedium, i, n.

remedy

medicus, i, m.

physician, doctor of medicine

medius, a, um

middle

medulla, ae, f.

marrow

mega-

big

megal(o)-

big, large

-megalia, ae, f.

enlargement

mel, mellis, n.

honey

melan(o)-

black

membrana, ae, f.

a paper thin structure which separates two environments

men(o)-

month

menorrhoe, es, f. (also menorrhea, heae)

menstruation (literally “monthly flow”)

mens, mentis, f.

mind

mentha, ae, f.

mint, pennyroyal

meso-

in the middle

meta-

beyond, after

methodus, i, f.

method

metr(o)- or hyster(o)-

uterus

micr(o)-

small

miligrammum, i, n.

miligram

minimus, a, um

the smallest, very small

miscere

to mix, to blend

molaris, e

molar (dens molaris)

mollis, e

soft

mons, montis, m.

mountain, mound



literally “pubic mound”, fatty tissue above pubic bone in women

mons pubis or mons Veneris

morbilli, orum, m. (only plural form exists)

measles

morbus, i, m.

illness, disease

morph(o)-

form

morphe, es, f.

form, synonymous to Latin forma, ae

mors, mortis, f.

death

mortalitas, atis, f.

mortality, death rate

190

mortuus, a, um

dead

mucolytica (remedy)

dissolve mucus

mucosa, ae, f.

layer producing mucous substance

mucosus, a, um

mucous, slimy

multi-

more than one (multigravida)

multiplex, plicis

multiple

musculus, i, m.

muscle

my(o)- or myos-

muscle

myel(o)-

marrow

myorelaxantia (remedy)

relax muscle tension

nasus, i, m.

nose

natura, ae, f.

nature

necrosis, is, f.

non-natural death of cells or tissue (a natural death is called apoptosis)

nephr(o)-

kidney

nervus, i, m.

nerve

neur(o)-

nerve

niger, a, um

black

niveus, a, um

white

nonus, a, um

9th

normo-; normalis, e

normal

numerus, i, m.

number

nutricius, a, um

alimentary, nourishing, nurturing

nutrientia (remedy)

help to nourish

obesitas, atis, f.

obesity

obliquus, a, um

oblique

oblongatus, a, um

oblong

occipitalis, e

in the back of (e.g. musculus occipitalis)

octavus, a, um

8th

octo-

eight

ocularis, e

ocular

oculomotorius, a, um

oculomotor

oculus, i, m.

eye

odont(o)-

tooth

odor, is, m.

odour

-odynia, ae, f. (vena), -odyn-

pain (can be used as stem too)

191

general vocabulary

oesophagus, i, m.

the part of the alimentary canal that connects the throat to the stomach; the gullet

olecranon, i, n.

bony elbow protuberance

oleum, i, n.

oil

olfactus, us, m.

sense of smell, olfactory sense

olla, ae, f.

(ointment, drug) jar

-oma, omatis, n. (caput)

cancer, swelling

omnis, e

all, every, the whole

onk(o)- or onc(o)-

tumour

onych(o)-

nail

operabilis, e

operable

operatio, onis, f.

operation

opticus, a, um

visual

optimus, a, um

the best

opus, operis, n.

work, opus, publication, creation

ordo, inis, m.

order

organum, i, n.

organ

origo, inis, f.

origin, beginning, source

orthopnoe, es, f.

grave condition in which the patient is able to breath without assistance only while being erect, if such person lies on a bed he/she would suffocate without support

os, ossis, n. (this word has irregular Gen. Pl. -ium instead of -um)

bone



os ilium83

iliac bone (literally “bone of iliac areas”)



os ischii84

ischium



os pubis85

pubic bone (literally “bone of pubic area”)



os sacrum86

sacrum (a large triangular bone at the base of spine)

os, oris, n.

mouth

-osis, sis, f. (basis)

not specified but non-inflammatory disease

oste(o)-

bone

osteoporosis, is, f.

rarefaction of bones

ostium, i, n. or orificium, i, n.

orifice, entrance, opening

ot(o)-

ear

83 Word ilium is Gen. Pl. of a noun. 84 Word ischii is a noun in Gen. Sg. 85 Word pubis is Gen. Sg. of a noun. 86 Sacer, sacra, sacrum is an adjective.

192

ovarium, i, n.

ovary (organ containing embryonic human egg)

paed(o)-

child

palmaris, e

related to open hand (palm)

palor, is, m.

paleness, pallor, pallidness

pancreas, atis, n.

pacreas

papilla, ae, f.

a small rounded protuberance on a part or organ of the body

par, paris

equal

para-

next to, beside sth.

parare

to prepare

paries, etis, m.

wall

pars, partis, f.

part, portion

parvo-

small

patella, ae, f.

kneecap

path(o)-

disease

-pathia, ae, f. (vena)

unspecified disease (the most general term)

patiens, ntis

suffering person, patient

pectoralis, e

pectoral, related to breast

pectus, oris, n.

breast (anterior part of thorax)

pelvis, is, f.

basin, pelvis

penetrans, ntis

penetrating

-penia, ae, f.; olig(o)-

deficiency

penta-

five

per

through, during, by means of

perforans, ntis

perforating

perforatus, a, um

pierced, perforated

peri-

around

pericardium, i, n.

pericardium (double-walled sac that contains the heart and the roots of the great vessels)

periculosus, a, um

dangerous

periculum, i, n.

danger

permagno-; permagnus, a, um

huge

permanens, ntis

permanent, lasting

pertussis, is, f.

whooping cough

pes, pedis, m.

foot

pessimus, a, um

the worst

phalanx, ngis, f.

finger bone

193

general vocabulary

pharynx, ngis, f.

throat

phleb(o)-

vein

pilula, ae, f.

pill

-plastica, ae, f. (vena)

plastic surgery

platy-

flat

plenus, a, um

full

pneum(o)- or pneumat(o)-

air, lung

-pnoe, es, f. (special Greek declension), -pnea, ae, f. (latinized form according vena)

Greek ending which signifies relation to respiration or breathing

-podia, ae, f.

foot

pod(o)-

foot

-poenia, ae, f.

deficiency, shortage

poli(o)-

grey

pollex, icis, m.

thumb

poly-

many, too much, too many

pons, pontis, m.

bridge

por(o)-

way, path

post (+ Acc.)

behind, after

posterior, ius

posterior, next, more to the back

postoperativus, a, um

postoperative

praecox, cocis

premature

praematurus, a, um

premature, early

praeoperativus, a, um

preoperative

praescribere

to prescript, to command

praeter (+ Acc.)

except, besides

primus, a, um

1st

prior, prius

prior, former

pro

for, on behalf of

pro- (+ Abl.)

in front of, forward

processus, us, m. (processus mastoideus)

prominence, process (mastoid process)

profundus, a, um

deep

prognosis, is, f.

prognosis

prolapsus, us, m.

prolapse (slip of vertebra, prolapse of uterus, coming out of bowels)

prominens, ntis

rising, prominent, protuberant

prope (+ Acc.)

near by, close to

prophylactica (remedy)

remedies used as prevention of diseases

194

prophylaxis, is, f.87

prevention

proprior, ius

near

propter (+ Acc.)

on account of

prostata, ae, f.

a gland in male reproductive system

psych(o)-

soul, psychic-

psychopharmaca (remedy)

psychoactive drugs

psychostimulantia (remedy)

stimulate the mind

pubes, is, f.

pubic region

puella, ae, f.

girl

puer, i, m.

boy

pulmo, onis, m.

lung

pulsus, us, m.

pulse

pulvis, veris, m. (p. adspersorius)

dust, powder (dusting powder or baby powder)

pupilla, ae, f.

pupil of the eye

purgantia (remedy)

induce diarrhoea to purge harmful agents from body

purus, a, um

pure, clear

pus, puris, n.

pus, purulence

puter, tris, tre

rotten

py(o)-

pus

quaestio, onis, f.

question

quartus, a, um

4th

quintus, a, um

5th

rabies, ei, f.

rabies, hydrophobia, lyssa (an infectious disease)

radius, i, m.

radius; the thicker and shorter of the two bones in the human forearm

radix, icis, f.

root

ramus, i, m.

branch, bough

rarus, a, um

rare

ratio, onis, f.

method, reason, intellect

reactio, onis, f.

reaction

recens, ntis

recent, fresh

recessus, us, m.

recession

recipere

to take (in prescriptions Rp.)

88

87 88

Word prophylaxis belongs to paradigm basis, despite its “-xis, -xis” combination in Nom. and Gen. Sg., because the “-x-” stands for original “-s-”. It is an exception that you have to remember. Adspersorius, a, um is an ordinary adjective.

195

general vocabulary

rectum, i, n.

final section of large intestine, rectum

regio, onis, f.

region, area

ren, renis, m.

kidney

repetere

to repeat

res, ei, f.

thing

respiratio, onis, f.

respiration, breathing

respiratorius, a, um (apparatus respiratorius)

resporatory (respiratory apparatus)

restitutio, onis, f.

cure

retardatus, a, um

retarded

rete, retis, n.

net

rhin(o)-

nose

-rhytmia, ae, f.; -rhythm(o)-

rhythm (can be used as stem too)

rigor, is, m.

stiffness, rigidity

rima, ae, f.

fissure, crack, narrow cleft

roborantia (remedy)

strengthening pharmaceuticals

-rrhoe, es, f. (special Greek declension), -rrhia, ae, f. (vena)

flow

rubor, is, m. sal, salis, n.

89

redden, to become red salt

salping(o)-

uterine tube

saluber, bris, bre

wholesome, healthy, salubrious

salvus, a, um

healthy

sanabilis, e

curable, medicable

sanatio, onis, f.

therapy, treatment

sanguis, guinis, m.

blood

sanus, a, um

healthy

scabies, ei, f.

scabies, mange, scab (a parasitic disease of skin)

scalpellum, i, n.

scalpel

scapula, ae, f.

shoulder blade

scatula, ae, f.

box

scelet(o)-

skeleton

scler(o)-

hard, hardening, thick, thickening

-scopia, ae, f. (vena)

-scopy, visual examination

scribere

to write

secundum (+ Acc.)

along, according to

89

The word “sal” can be also inflexed as masculinum, i.e. sal, salis, m.

196

secundus, a, um

2nd

sedativa (remedy)

psychopharmaceutics which help to calm patients

semen, minis, n.

seed, sperm

semicanalis, is, m.

channel open at one side or a deep groove on the edge of a bone that accommodates part of an adjoining bone

senex, senis

old

senilis, e

senile, old

sensus, us, m.

sense, sensory

septimus, a, um

7th

septum, i, n. (spelling saeptum is also correct)

thin partition, divider, barrier

series, ei, f.

series

servare

to serve, to preserve

sextus, a, um

6th

signare

to sign, to label

signum, i, n.

a symptom sign

similis, e

similar

simplex, simplicis

simple

sine (+ Abl.)

without

sinister, tra, trum

left

sinus, us, m.

sinus, cavity, hollow

sirupus, i, m.

treacle, molasses

sitis, is, f.

thirst

situs, us, m. (carcinoma in situ)

position (primary cancer)

solubilis, e

soluble

solutio, onis, f.

solution

solventia (remedy)

pharmaceuticals which dissolve something, see also dissolventia

solvere

to solve

spasmus, i, m.

spasmus, cramp

spatium, i, n.

space

species, ei, f. (!)

species, in plural it has a different meaning: tea

spiritus, us, m. (spiritus vini)

spirit (alcohol)

splen(o)-

spleen

spondyl(o)-

vertebra

spondylosis, is, f.

pathological condition of vertebrae

spongiosus, a, um

spongy, spongiform

sputum, i, n.

phlegm, expectoration

197

general vocabulary

stabilis, e

stable

status, us, m.

state, condition

stella, ae, f.

star

sten(o)-

narrow

stenosis, is, f.

pathological narrowing of a tubular structure

sterilis, e

sterile

sterilisare

to sterilise

sterilisatus, a, um

sterilized

sterilitas, atis, f.

sterility, impotence

sternum, i, n.

breast bone

stilla, ae, f.

drop

stom- or stomat(o)-

mouth

stomach(o)-

stomach

stomachicus, a, um

pertaining to stomach

sub + Abl.

below

sub + Acc.

downwards

subitus, a, um

sudden

substantia, ae, f.

substance

successus, us, m.

success

sudor, is, m.

sweat

sufficiens, ntis

sufficient

sulcus, i, m.

a groove or furrow, esp. one on the surface of the brain

summa, ae, f.

total, sum

super (+Acc. or Abl.)

over, on (the top)

superficies, ei, f.

surface

superior, ius

higher, superior

suppositorium, i, n.

a solid medical preparation designed to be inserted into the rectum or vagina to dissolve

supra (+ Acc.)

over, above

suspectus, a, um

suspicious, suspect

suspicio, onis, f. (is used with genitive case)

suspicion



suspicion of fracture

suspicio fracturae

symphysis, is, f.

fusion between two bones, type of cartilaginous joint

syn-, sym-, sy-, syl-

together

synthesis, is, f.

integration, merging, synthesis

syphilis, idis, f.

syphilis

198

systole, es, f. (also systola, ae, f.)

contraction of hear muscle

tabes, bis, f.

result of untreated syphilis in some cases; a symptom of tertiary form of syphilis

tabula, ae, f.

table

tabuleta, ae, f.

pill

tactus, us, m.

touch

taenia, ae, f.

strip

tachy-

fast

tachypnoe, es, f.

quick respiration

tardus, a, um

slow, slowgoing

tempus, oris, n.

time, temple (anatomy)

terra, ae, f.

earth

tertius, a, um

3rd

testis, is, m.

testicle

tetanus, i, m.

a bacterial disease marked by rigidity and spasms of the voluntary muscles, caused by Clostridium tetani

tetra-

four

thanat(o)-

death

thorax, acis, m.

thorax

thymus, i, m.

thymus – a lymphoid organ situated in the neck of vertebrates that produces T cells for the immune system

tibia, ae, f.

shin bone

tinctura, ae, f.

tincture

tocolytica (remedy)

suppress premature labour thus delay the birth

-tome, es, f.

cut

-tomia, ae, f. (vena)

cut, section

tonsilla, ae, f.

tonsil

toxic(o)-

poison

tractus, us, m. (tractus opticus, t. respiratorius)

tract, apparatus, system (optical tract, respiratory tract)

trachea, ae, f.

windpipe

trans (+ Acc.)

across, over, beyond

transversus, a, um

transverse, crossverse, x-like

tri-

three

triplex, triplicis

triple

troph(o)-

nutrition

tuber, is, n.

tuber, abscess

199

general vocabulary

tuberculosis, is, f.

TB, tuberculosis

tuberculosus, a, um

tubercular, tuberculous (related to TB)

tuberculum, i, n.

small swelling, bump, protuberance, excrescence, tumor

tumor, is, m.

tumour, swelling

tussis, is, f.

cough

ulcus, eris, n.

ulcer

ulterior, ius

beyond

undecimus, a, um

11th

unguentum, i, n.

ointment

unguis, is, m.

nail

ur(o)-

urine

urinarius, a, um

urinary, uretic

urolithiasis, is, f.

stones in urinary tract

urologicus, a, um

urological

usus, us, m.

usage, practice

uterus, i, m.

womb

uvula, ae, f.

a fleshy extension at the back of the soft palate that hangs above the throat

vacuus, a, um; vanus, a, um

empty

vagus, a, um

erratic, wandering (wandering kidney)

valgus, a, um

turned inward (i.e. knock-kneed)

varius, a, um

various

varus, a, um

turned outward (i. e. calfknee)

vasoconstringentia (remedy)

cause contraction of vessels

vasodilatantia (remedy)

cause relaxation and widening of diameter of vessels (opposite to previous one)

venenum, i, n.

venom, poison

venosus, a, um

related to vein

venter, ventris, m.

belly

ventralis, e

oriented toward abdomen or another such structure90

ventriculus, i, m.

literally “small belly”; in medical terminology a hollow part or cavity in an organ esp. brain or heart

versus

towards

verus, a, um

true

90

For example, ventral or frontal surface of scapula superficies ventralis scapulae.

200

vestibulum, i, n.

literally “entrance hall”; central part of osseous labyrinth

via, ae, f.

way

vinum, i, n.

wine

vir, viri, m.

man

virgo, inis, f.

virgin

virostatica (remedy)

limit replication of viruses

virus, i, n.

virus

91

visus, us, m.

eyesight

vitium, i, n.

defect

vitrum, i, n.

glass

vivus, a, um

alive

vomitus, us, m.

to be sick

vulgaris, e

folk, plebeian, popular, widespread

vulnerabilis, e

vulnerable

vulnus, eris, n.

wound, trauma



vulnus lacertum

laceration



vulnus morsum93

bite



vulnus punctum94

puncture wound



vulnus scissum95

incision, incised wound



vulnus sectum96

incision, cut

92

xeno-

foreign

xer(o)-

dry

91 92 93 94 95 96

This word exists only in Sg. It follows the musculus paradigm but has neutral gender; not to be confused with vir, i, m. Lacertus, a, um is an adjective. Morsus, a, um is an adjective. Punctus, a, um is an adjective. Scissus, a, um is in adjective. Sectus, secta, sectum is an adjective.