Group guidance in the intermediate grades of the elementary school

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QROUP GUIDANCE IN THE INTERMEDIATE GRADES OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

A P ro je c t P re s e n te d t o t h e 'F a c u l t y of th e School of E du catio n The U n iv e r s ity o f S outh ern C a l i f o r n i a

In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R equirem ents f o r th e Degree M aster of s c ie n c e i n E ducation

by Paul M ichael Olson August 1950

UMI Number: EP46504

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‘s I

O' i f I

Th is p r o je c t report, w rit ten un der the direction of the candidate’s ad v is e r a n d a p p r o v e d by him, has been p res en ted to and a c c e p t e d by the F acu lty of the S c h o o l of E du c a ti o n in p a r ti a l fulfill me nt of the requirements f o r the de gre e of M a s t e r of Science in Education.

Adviser

Dean

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. II.

PAGE

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................

1

GROUP DYNAMICS IN GUIDANCE..............................

9

...........................

15

Guiding th e group as a g r o u p ...............................

16

The l e a d e r s h i p of th e g r o u p ...............................

17

..............................

18

O rg an izin g f o r group g uidance

What makes a le a d e r? ' . . . .

The group o b s e r v e r ................................... .... . .

20

Know th e i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e group

20

Soeiom etry III.

GROUPING PUPILS

. . . . .

.....................................................

21

............................................

25

Advantages of i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u c t i o n . . . .

27

Advantages o f group i n s t r u c t i o n

28

......................

The Winnetka P l a n ..................... The D alto n P lan

28 ..............................

The M orrison P l a n .......................... IV.

GROUP TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS

29 29

......................

34

S e le c tin g th e t e s t .....................................................

34

Giving th e t e s t ...........................................

35

S co rin g th e p a p e r s ..........................

35

T a b u la tin g r e s u l t s .....................................................

36

S t a t i s t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s and g ra p h ic re p re se n ta tio n s

.....................

36

ii

CHAPTER

PAGE In te rp re ta tio n of re s u lts Applying rem edies

V.

. . . . . . . . .

36

.....................................................

36

C o o p e r a t i o n .......................................

37

The mode .

40

...........................................

The m e d i a n ......................

40

The m e a n ...........................................

40

The rang e

40

...........................................

The q u a r t i l e d e v i a t i o n ............................................

41

The s ta n d a rd d e v i a t i o n ..................................

41

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES AS APPLIED TO THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

...........................................

Core c u rric u lu m and guidance c l a s s e s . . . .

43 44

Core c u rric u lu m c o u r s e s .....................

44

Homerooms

45

.....................

O r i e n ta ti o n c o u r s e s .......................................

.

46

E l e c t i v e and s p e c i a l c l a s s e s ...............................

46

L eadership c l a s s e s . ............................................

46

P r a c t i c a l a r t s c o u rse s ........................................

47

E x p lo ra to ry c o u rs e s

...............................

47

.....................................................

48

S p e c ia l c l a s s e s

. . .

E x tra -c u rric u la r a c ti v i t i e s

...............................

A t h l e t i c o r g a n iz a tio n s

. . . . .

48 48

Club a c t i v i t i e s ......................

.

49

S tu d en t body g o v e r n m e n t

.

49

iii

CHAPTER

PAGE S p e c ia l guidance e v e n ts

..........................................

F ie ld t r i p s ...........................................

49 50

D ram atic, sp eech, m u s ic a l, and a r t f e s t i v a l s ........................................... E x h i b i t s .......................................................................

50

.................. .

50

School a s s e m b lie s VI.

50

. . . . . .

SUMMARY.................................................................

52

BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................

56

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION I n t e l l i g e n t g uidance should be a p a r t o f t h e sch o o l program o f every t e a c h e r .

By i n t e l l i g e n t g uidance i s meant

t h e a b i l i t y and knowledge t o guide th e c h i l d so he may de­ v elo p i n t o an i n d i v i d u a l who knows how to l i v e i n t h e f u l l e s t and most e f f e c t i v e manner.

Guidance s t r e s s e s th e f a c t t h a t

te a c h in g i s an i n d i v i d u a l and p e r s o n a l p ro c e s s , fo c u s in g a t ­ t e n t i o n on th e needs o f i n d i v i d u a l p e o p le .

The aim o f g u id ­

an ce i s th e same as t h a t of e d u c a tio n ; t h a t th e p u p i l s may le a r n to l i v e b e tte r l i v e s . Guidance in c lu d e s h e lp in g th e c h ild in a l l o f h is a c t ­ i v i t i e s , n o t only e d u c a tio n a l ones, b u t a l s o th o s e o f a s o c i a l , em o tio n al, p h y s i c a l , and r e c r e a t i o n a l t y p e . t r u e t h a t guidance i s a co n tin u o u s p r o c e s s .

I t is

I t b e g in s e a r l y

i n l i f e and proceeds beyond t h e l i m i t s of t h e high school* Todayswe_are f a i l i n g t o p la c e emphasis i n our g uid ance p ro ­ gram a t th e _ l e v e l where emphasis i s most needed.

The guidance

o f any s c h o o l system sho uld be p la n te d and allow ed t o r o o t f ir m ly i n th e elem entary sc h o o l i f a w orth w h ile and e f f e c t i v e guidance program i s t o be f u l l y developed i n t h e secondary s c h o o l. C h ild re n i n th e elem en tary grades need new and c o r r e c t h a b i t s t o s tr e n g th e n t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s .

E v e ry th in g cannot be

l e f t to th e c h ild .

I t i s r e a l i z e d t h a t th e home needs th e

h e lp o f th e t e a c h e r s to e n r ic h and t r a i n th e c h i l d ’s p e rso n ­ a lity .

The p e rio d when th e c h i l d i s i n t h e elem en tary sch o o l

i s th e tim e when powers o f r e a s o n , l o g i c , and c o n t r o l should be developed and s tr e n g th e n e d .

This i s th e tim e t o c o r r e c t

th o s e i d i o s y n c r a s i e s which may le a d th e c h i l d i n t o d i s t r e s s and sorrow l a t e r i n l i f e .

The most r e c e p t i v e p e rio d i n a

c h i l d ’s l i f e f o r f o s t e r i n g th e growth o f c r i t i c a l th in k in g ab o u t b eh av io r and e s t a b l i s h i n g c o r r e c t measurement and s ta n d a rd s of conduct i s j u s t b e f o r e , or j u s t a f t e r , th e be­ g in n in g of p u b e r ty .

The tim e t o do t h i s im p o rta n t and v i t a l

t r a i n i n g i s n o t a f t e r new em otions have developed and a r e growing due t o th e numerous p h y s i c a l changes t h a t have o c c u r­ red .

The c h i l d , i n th e elem en tary sc h o o l, i s a b le t o u n d e r­

s ta n d h im s e lf a s an i n d i v i d u a l and a s a member o f s o c i e t y . He i s c a p a b le o f u n d e rsta n d in g t h a t he i s a sm all c o r n e r s to n e i n th e democracy whose r e i n s he w i l l soon hold i n h is own hands.

To be a b le t o assume h i s s h a re o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n

t h i s democracy o f o u rs , he musi be a b le t o g e t alo n g w e ll w ith o t h e r s .

The r o o t s o f b e in g m a la d ju ste d s o c i a l l y a r e

o f t e n s t a r t e d i n th e elem entary s c h o o l.

C h i l d r e n 's a t t i t u d e s

toward o th e r peo p le a r e b ein g formed when th e y a r e between th e ages o f s i x and tw e lv e .

U nless t h e s e a t t i t u d e s a r e w o rth ­

w h ile , a r e f a i r , and a r e j u s t , no peace can be l a s t i n g , and our democracy i s i n c o n s ta n t danger of d e t e r i o r a t i o n .

Few

3

c h i l d r e n i n th e e lem en tary sch o o l a r e c a p a b le , w ith o u t g u id ­ a n c e , of d e v e lo p in g c r i t i c a l i n s i g h t i n t o t h e i r own s t r e n g t h s and w eaknesses. 1 7

I t i s most e s s e n t i a l t h a t t e a c h e r s know how

c h i l d r e n f e e l abou t th e m se lv e s.

Teachers should know, a l s o ,

how c h ild r e n f e e l ab o u t th e s ta n d a r d s and measurements of conduct t h a t a r e s e t up f o r them and which a r e used a s c r i ­ te ria .

With g u id an ce , t h e a t t i t u d e o f th e elem entary g rade

c h i l d toward h is own l i m i t a t i o n s and a b i l i t i e s w i l l develop i n t o one o f s i n c e r e s e l f - c r i t i c i s m and s e l f - a n a l y s i s .

This

i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of c h i l d r e n i n th e upper elem en tary g ra d e s. I t i s w e ll known t h a t c h i l d r e n who have had th e bene­ f i t o f guidance i n th e elem en tary grades do n o t have th e ad­ ju stm en t d i f f i c u l t i e s when e n t e r i n g th e secon dary s c h o o ls ; t h a t th e c h i l d r e n do who have n o t been so f o r t u n a t e .

They

have a b e t t e r id e a o f th e purpose and o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e new schoo l th ey have e n te r e d .

They a r e w e ll aware of th e c h a l ­

le n g e and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t h a t a r e t h e i r s .

No tim e needs to

be l o s t i n o r i e n t a t i o n f o r th e s e boys and g i r l s .

They a r e

a b le to s t a r t th e second s t e p o f t h e i r e d u c a tio n a l t r a i n i n g w ith an i n t e l l i g e n t , u n d e r s ta n d a b le background.

Guidance i n

t h e elem en tary grades l e a d s t o fewer m i s f i t s i n th e secondary sch o o ls and few er problem c a s e s among th e s t u d e n t s . I t i s n o t too e a r l y i n th e elem entary s c h o o l t o make a t l e a s t a s t a r t i n v o c a ti o n a l gu idance.

Of c o u r s e , t h i s

guidance w i l l be very sim p le i n n a tu r e ; b u t th e forw ard

lo o k in g te a c h e r w i l l see t h a t h i s p u p i l s a r e a c q u a in te d w ith th e elem en tary re q u ire m e n ts o f v a r io u s ty p e s of work which th ey may encou nter i n t h e i r f u t u r e l i f e . Thus, i n th e elem en tary sch o o l, th e fo u n d a tio n of guidance w i l l be l a i d , and th e guidance i n th e secondary sch ools w i l l have i t s p ro p er developm ent. A ll te a c h in g i s g u id an ce, and classroom t e a c h in g may be group guidance a t i t s b e s t .

Group dynamics, group guidance

and classro o m t e a c h in g , i n t h e elem en tary g ra d e s , a r e synonomous i n th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n giv en t o them i n t h i s m a t e r i a l . Each has a d e f i n i t i o n of i t s own, b u t, ta k e n i n th e broad s e n se , th e y cannot be s e p a ra te d and l e f t t o sta n d a lo n e . Each one, i n o rd e r t o f u l f i l l i t s o b j e c t i v e t o th e f u l l e s t , must be t i e d w ith , and be a p a r t o f , t h e o t h e r s .

I f group

guidance and good te a c h in g a r e th e same, and group guidance and th e p r i n c i p l e s of group dynamics a r e r e l a t e d , how can any o f t h e t h r e e be l e f t to sta n d by i t s e l f ? When you have te a c h in g i n th e s c h o o ls , you have g u id ­ an ce,

The good elem en tary s c h o o l te a c h e r does n o t s to p a t

sh arp l i n e s when th e q u e s tio n o f s u b j e c t m a tte r i s concerned. I f th e a r i t h m e t i c le s s o n in v o lv e s a d i s c u s s io n of some t o p i c i n th e everyday l i f e o f th e community, i t i s th e w ise te a c h e r who w i l l u se t h i s d i s c u s s i o n t o a i d th e c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r l i v e s when t h i s ty p e o f s i t u a t i o n may p r e s e n t i t s e l f t o them. Even i n t h e m a tte r of s u b j e c t c o n te n t i t s e l f , i t would be

im p o s sib le to s e p a r a t e t h i s te a c h in g from g u id a n c e .

Again i t

must be s a i d , you cannot s e p a r a t e good te a c h in g and g uidance. To give knowledge t o th e p u p ils through a l e s s o n i n a rith m e ­ t i c , you a r e a c t u a l l y g u id in g them i n t h e i r f u t u r e l i f e when th e need may a r i s e to u se t h a t in fo rm a tio n .

I f a te a c h e r i g ­

n o re s th e nervous c h i l d , or t h e c h ild who has no f r i e n d s i n th e c l a s s , or any o th e r d e v i a t e from th e normal s i t u a t i o n , she i s ig n o rin g her du ty a s a te a c h e r by n o t doing e v e ry th in g p o s s i b le t o d is c o v e r th e r e a s o n f o r th e d i f f i c u l t y and t r y i n g to remedy th e s i t u a t i o n .

The e n t i r e f u t u r e of a c h i l d may be

t o t a l l y d i s f i g u r e d by th e c a r e l e s s n e g le c t of a te a c h e r over some i n c i d e n t t h a t she may c o n s id e r u n im p o rta n t or too much t r o u b l e to i n v e s t i g a t e ,

when a te a c h e r has a group of c h i l ­

d re n i n h e r c l a s s , she i s r e s p o n s i b l e to them, and t o s o c i e t y , to t r y to te a c h t h a t group o f c h ild r e n how t o g e t along a s a group, how to l i v e i n a s o c i e t y t h a t needs l e a d e r s and f o llo w ­ e r s , not. j u s t p u p p e ts . The classroom te a c h e r i s th e key p erso n i n gu id an ce. C ounselors should be a v a i l a b l e t o th e te a c h e r a s r e s o u r c e s p e c i a l i s t s , b u t th e te a c h e r i s th e p erso n who i s i n d a i l y c o n ta c t w ith t h e c h i l d r e n and upon whose guidance th e y depend i n re g a rd t o many im p o rta n t phases o f developm ent.

The m ental

hygiene o f th e sch o o l i s as good or a s bad a s t h a t o f th e t e a c h e r s ' , and i t r e q u i r e s a w e l l - a d ju s te d te a c h e r who u n d e r­ s ta n d s th e m ental hyg iene o f childhood t o h e lp p u p i l s develo p

w e ll-a d ju ste d p e r s o n a litie s .

The f u n c t i o n of a guidance p r o ­

gram should be th e s a t i s f a c t o r y , mutual a d ju stm en t of th e sch o o l and th e i n d i v i d u a l .

While s p e c i a l i s t s have an im p o rt­

a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o make t o t h i s p ro c e s s , i t s su ec ess r e s t s u l t i m a t e l y w ith th e i n d i v i d u a l classroom t e a c h e r . The p u p i l h im s e lf b e g in s to ta k e on r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n h is own g u idance.

The u l t i m a t e purpose of w ise guidance

i s t o develop an i n d i v i d u a l c a p a b le of g u id in g h im s e lf .

In

*\

th e guidance of even a v ery young c h i l d , we assume some c a ­ p a c ity f o r s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g and s e l f - d i r e c t i o n .

We assume

t h a t h is powers o f s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g and s e l f - d i r e c t i o n w i l l i n c r e a s e as we h elp him t o d is c o v e r h is own n ee d s, d e s i r e s , and c a p a c i t i e s ; and to l e a r n to d e c id e what he wants t o do and how b e s t to accom plish h i s p u rp o se s .

From th e k i n d e r ­

g a r te n throug h th e e ig h th g ra d e , th e guidance program should be org an ized to h e lp th e i n d i v i d u a l make ch o ice s and a d j u s t ­ ments f o r h im s e lf .

C h ild re n i n th e i n t e r m e d ia te and upper

grades o f te n p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r t e a c h e r 's e v a lu a tio n s o f t h e i r p ro g re s s and ac h ie v em en ts.

I n th e se v e n th and e ig h t h

grades th e y have a c t i v e d i s c u s s i o n groups i n many sch o o ls in which they b e g in to e v a lu a te t h e i r own g o a ls o f p e r s o n a l i t y development and t o e v a lu a te t h e i r own p ro g re s s toward th o s e g o a ls. Dr. John M. Brewer, o f Harvard U n i v e r s i t y , makes t h i s s ta te m e n t abo ut t h e s u b j e c t .

"Guidance and E du catio n cannot

be s e p a r a t e d , ”® and co ntends t h a t th e u l t i m a t e g o a l o f edu­ c a tio n fo r l i f e i s s e lf-d ire c tio n .The te a c h e r must guide n o t only t h e l e a r n i n g o f sub­ j e c t m a tte r b u t she m ust, a s a t e a c h e r , endeavor t o make w e l l - a d ju s te d a d u l t s out of th e p u p i ls she i s g iv e n t o te a c h . The te a c h e r should g u id e her p u p ils s o c i a l l y , a s w e ll a s i n s u b je c t m a t t e r , so t h a t t h e p u p i l s w i l l know how t o g e t a lo n g i n a group and how t o l i v e i n a d em o cratic s o c i e t y .

As an

example o f th e n e g l e c t o f many t e a c h e r s ' t o r e l a t e t h e i r sub­ j e c t s to each o t h e r , and t o th e world i n g e n e r a l , I o f f e r t h i s q u o ta tio n from th e handbook, " F r o n t i e r Thinking i n Edu­ c a tio n . ” I n one J u n io r High School m a in ta in in g e x p lo ra to r y work i n g e n e ra l shop and ju n io r b u s i n e s s , and c l a s s e s i n o c c u p a tio n a l in fo rm a tio n , th e p r i n c i p a l in te rv ie w e d 50 boys and g i r l s who were on th e ragged edge of s c h o o ll e a v i n g . To h is enormous s u r p r i s e , he found t h a t alm o st none o f them had t h e s l i g h t e s t n o tio n t h a t t h e s e s t u d i e s had any r e l a t i o n t o each o th e r and even l e s s n o tio n t h a t th ey r e l a t e d i n any way w hatever to t h e i r own f u t u r e c a r e e r s . The t e a c h e r s had been busy i n s t r u c t i n g and f a i l e d t o see t h a t th e y should have been g u id in g . When th e i n d i v i d u a l i s born i n t o t h i s m a t e r i a l world o f t h i n g s , he i s a l s o born i n t o a s o c i a l world o f p erso n s and groups of p e o p le .

I t i s a n a t u r a l p ro c e ss f o r people to

work i n groups and t o so lv e problems a s a group.

When th e

t e a c h e r ta k e s a group o f c h i l d r e n i n t o her c l a s s , she has them a s one of th e s e groups i n our s o c i e t y which, i n order t o l i v e a s a democracy, must be a b le t o l i v e t o g e t h e r .

When

t h e te a c h e r proceeds w ith her te a c h in g p r o c e s s e s , she does so on a group b a s i s .

She g iv e s l e s s o n s and i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e

group, t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n th e workings o f group dynam­ i c s to g e t th e most out o f th e group o f c h i l d r e n b e fo re h e r . I t i s w ith th e s e p o in ts i n mind t h a t th e c h a p te r s which f o l ­ low have been chosen.

CHAPTER II

GROUP DYNAMICS IN GUIDANCE The problem a r i s e s h e re a s t o th e methods and t e c h ­ n iq u e s we must u s e t o ta k e ad v an tag e o f th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l n a t u r e o f th e human b ein g when he i s a c t i n g w h ile i n a group. I t must be k e p t i n mind t h a t each group o f s tu d e n ts i s n o t j u s t th e sum o f d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s b u t has a d i s t i n c t •'group p e r s o n a l i t y . "

Grace Coyle s t a t e s t h i s i n th e f o llo w ­

in g m anner: " C o l le c t i v e b eh a v io r i s som ething more th a n and d i f ­ f e r e n t from th e sum of th e i n d i v i d u a l s who produce i t . As th e members g a t h e r , o rg a n iz e , d e c id e on program s, th ey i n t e r a c t t o c r e a t a new e n t i t y . Every group of t h i s ty p e , a s i t d e f in e s i t s e l f from i t s su rro u n d in g community, ta k e s t h r e e s t e p s : i t dev elo p s a bond which u n i t e s th e members i n t o one; i t s e l e c t s and a c c e p ts th o se whom i t w i l l i n c lu d e ; i t a d o p ts a p a t t e r n o f s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n ­ s h ip i n term s o f c lu b , c l a s s , team, i n l i n e w ith th e -fu n c tio n c o n ta in e d i n th e bond i t has fo rm e d ."10 Because t h e w orkings of group dynamics and t h e methods and p ro c ed u res o f group guidance a r e so s i m i l a r i n n a t u r e , t h e r e w i l l n o t be any g r e a t a tte m p t to d i f f e r e n t i a t e between th e two to any l a r g e d egree i n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n .

In o rd e r t h a t

we have p ro p e r group g u id an ce , we should a l s o have proper group p ro c e d u re .

I f c o o p e ra tiv e e n t e r p r i s e s a r e t o be c a r r i e d

out s u c c e s s f u l l y i n t h e s c h o o l, they must be guided by an un­ d e r s ta n d in g o f group dynamics and o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f emotion upon s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s .

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The growing stu d y of group dynamics i s a f i e l d o f f e r ­ in g p o s s i b i l i t y o f g r e a t h e lp t o a l l e d u c a to rs .

B efo re t h e

p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of t h i s f i e l d o f r e s e a r c h can be d eterm in ed , t h e r e i s need f o r a l l o f us i n e d u c a tio n to a s s e s s i t and t o a n a ly z e th e a r e a s i n which i t s a p p l i c a t i o n to our problems i s p ra c tic a l. Group dynamics endeavors t o stu d y th e "why” o f what happens i n gro ups.

I t i s an a r e a o f r e s e a r c h in th e p ro c e s s

by which groups work, d i s c u s s , r e a c h d e c i s i o n s , p la n a c t i o n , and c a rry t h e s e a c t i o n s i n t o e f f e c t .

I t i s an a r e a o f r e ­

s e a rc h i n th e group a s p e c ts o f s o c i a l change.

I t i s th e

a p p l i c a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s i n s t i m u l a t i n g g r e a te r group p r o d u c t i v i t y , i n d ev elo p in g th e growth of g ro u p s, and i n im­ p ro v in g i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e i r s e n s i t i v i t y to what i s happening i n th e group and in t h e i r a b i l i t y t o assume more e f f i c i e n t l y group l e a d e r s h i p and membership r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . In a democracy, groups need t o grow i n t h e i r e f f i c i ­ ency and i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o improve th e power of t h e i r a b i l i t y ; t o improve more and more p o t e n t i a l r e s o u r c e s w i t h i n th e group.

There i s need t o a n a ly z e th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f

l e a d e r s h i p i n h e lp in g groups to grow, t o a c h ie v e g r e a t e r p r o ­ d u c t i v i t y , and to make b e t t e r u se o f t h e i r own r e s o u r c e s . These a r e some o f th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h i s new f i e l d of group dynamics.

While i t s r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s a r e n o t y e t

volum inous, i t p o i n t s t h e way toward th e development o f

11

p r a c t i c a l s k i l l s o f dem o cratic thought and a c t i o n .

This

p o in ts to an im p o rta n t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e t e a c h e r . L earning and p e r s o n a l i t y development a r e n o t th e a u t o ­ m atic consequences o f any given p a r t i a l e x p e rie n c e .

A p ar­

t i c u l a r le s s o n o r book w i l l n o t only a f f e c t d i f f e r e n t persons d i f f e r e n t l y , b u t i t s in f lu e n c e on th e same i n d i v i d u a l w i l l vary w ith th e c irc u m s ta n c e s under which i t was e x p e rie n c e d . The a t t i t u d e s or s e n tim e n ts of th e l e a r n e r a t any g iv en tim e w i l l p o w erfu lly a f f e c t h i s powers o f r e c e p t i o n .

Such a t t i ­

tu d e s r e f l e c t , n o t m erely th e p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y o f t h e i n d i ­ v i d u a l , but a l s o th e s o e i a l s i t u a t i o n i n which he f i n d s him­ se lf.

S p e c i f i c a l l y , w hether or n o t he f e e l s t h a t he "b e­

l o n g s , ” i s l i k e l y to make a c o n s id e r a b le d i f f e r e n c e so f a r a s h is l e a r n i n g c a p a c ity i s concerned.

I t i s up to t h e te a c h e r

t o s e t t h e s ta g e f o r d e v e lo p in g f e e l i n g s o f b elo n g in g among t h e s tu d e n ts i n her c l a s s ..

Probably th e e a s i e s t and most

obvious s te p i s t o p ro v id e t h e o p p o rtu n ity f o r i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s i n t h e 'c l a s s r o o m .

I f a te a c h e r i n s i s t s on a b s o l u t e

s i l e n c e , on c h i l d r e n s t a l k i n g only when c a l l e d upon by th e t e a c h e r , no w h is p e rin g , e t c . , t h e r e i s l i t t l e chance f o r th e group to l e a r n t o know t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n any p a r t i c u l a r p u p i l m ight make t o group l i v i n g .

I f , on th e o th e r hand, t h e r e i s

o p p o rtu n ity f o r communication among group members, t h e r e i s more chance t h a t th e p a r t i c u l a r p u p i l i n q u e s tio n , or any o th e r group members, may l e a r n t o r e s p e c t each o t h e r .

12

The c h i l d who i s t o belong must be aware o f th e c u l ­ t u r e of th e group o f which he i s a member.

For example, a

p u p il was n o t aware t h a t t h e re a s o n he d id n o t belong t o t h e group was t h a t he d id n o t know how t o p la y m a rb le s.

The

te a c h e r asked a n o th e r boy to te a c h him how t o p la y and an e n t i r e l y new world opened up t o th e new boy.

There a r e o f t e n

members in th e group who can h e lp th e l e f t - o u t c h ild t o f i n d h i s p la c e i n th e group.

I t has been found t h a t i t i s not

p r a c t i c a l t o p a i r two r e j e c t e d c h i l d r e n to g e th e r or th e most popular c h i l d w ith th e l e f t - o u t c h i l d .

The two r e j e c t e d

c h i l d r e n w i l l u s u a l l y m erely be a p a i r o f r e j e c t e d c h i l d r e n , and m atching th e po p u lar w ith th e unpopular w i l l make both c h i l d r e n f e e l u nco m fo rtab le d u rin g th e tim e of en forced com­ p a n io n sh ip .

The b e s t was i s to p a i r th e r e j e c t e d c h i l d w ith

someone who has n o t a l t o g e t h e r l e f t him o u t.

I t has been

found t h a t no one i s e i t h e r e n t i r e l y l e f t out or e n t i r e l y p opu lar w ith a l l th e o th e r s i n t h e c l a s s .

I t i s up to th e

te a c h e r t o f i n d two w e l l - s u i t e d c h i l d r e n and t o p a i r them to g e th e r• Ho m a tte r how th e immediate problem i s approached, th e m a tte r o f b e lo n g in g must be see n a s a group problem .

Re­

j e c t i o n i s a group a f f a i r , even i f i t i s only one p u p il who is re je c te d .

A t e a c h e r who f i n d s r e j e c t i o n i n th e group

w i l l need t o examine th e group i n her classro o m .

The e x p e r i ­

ences o f f e r e d , th e o p p o rtu n ity a f f o r d e d , th e c o n t r o l d e v ic e s

13

and i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s employed, a l l w i l l be d e te rm in in g f a c t o r s in whether b e lo n g in g can be developed f o r every group member. Through u n d e rsta n d in g o f i n d i v i d u a l c h i l d r e n and p a t ­ t e r n s of i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , th e te a c h e r must s k i l l ­ f u l l y promote th e a c c e p ta n c e of each c h i l d by th e group and th e re b y s tr e n g th e n i n each a sen se of p e r s o n a l w orth and so­ c ia l re sp o n sib ility .

The te a c h e r must a l s o c o n tin u o u s ly p r o ­

v id e o p p o r t u n i t ie s f o r th e e x p e rie n c in g of e f f e c t i v e co o p er­ a tio n .

C o o p era tio n m ust, i n o th e r words, be t a u g h t .

'• I t should be u n d e rsto o d t h a t th e emphasis on groups a s u n i t s o f c e n t r a l im portance f o r th e scho ol does n o t imply a l a c k o f a p p r e c i a t i o n o f th e v a lu e s of i n d i v i d u a l e f f o r t . The sc h o o l m ust, a s a m a tte r o f f a c t , se e t o i t t h a t i n d i v id u a ls a r e o f te n l e t a lo n e , p e r s o n a l growth i s , i n some ways, an i n t e n s e l y p r i v a t e a f f a i r ; r e s p e c t f o r p e r s o n a l i t y r e q u i r e s t h a t some m a tte r s be l e f t sa c re d and u n to u c h e d .”^ At th e p r e s e n t s ta g e o f development i n e d u c a tio n a l th o u g h t, most e d u c a to rs a r e i n f a i r l y com plete agreem ent on some fundam ental f a c t s .

C e r ta in of th e s e w id ely a c cep ted

t r u t h s f u r n i s h th e j u s t i f i c a t i o n and fo u n d a tio n of th e g u id ­ ance c o n c e p t.

They are;:

” (1) t h a t young p e o p le vary w id ely

i n m e n ta l, p h y s i c a l and p e r s o n a l i t y c a p a c i t i e s and a t t r i b u t e s , r e g a r d l e s s o f economic and ev n iro n m en tal f a c t o r s ;

(2) t h a t

th e demands o f s o c i e t y a r e dynamic and i n c r e a s i n g l y complex; and (3) t h a t p u b lic e d u c a tio n must p ro v id e f o r a l l th e c h i l ­ d re n o f a l l th e p e o p l e .”13

14

The o b j e c t i v e s o f group a c t i v i t y a r e numerous and v a r ie d .

On th e elem en tary l e v e l p u p ils can be ta u g h t to

p r a c t i c e good h e a l t h h a b i t s ; to a i d i n t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f p u p il s ; t o improve t h e a b i l i t y o f th e p u p i l s t o work t o g e t h e r am icably; and t o g iv e in fo rm a tio n on o c c u p a tio n s found i n th e community.

Other o b j e c t i v e s a r e to stu d y o cc u p atio n s p ursu ed

by p u p i l s ; t o b eg in th e p ro c e ss of d e v e lo p in g good c i t i z e n ­ s h ip ; to f o s t e r sch o o l l o y a l t y ; to a id i n th e growth of c h a r ­ a c t e r ; t o d evelo p good h a b i t s o f s tu d y .

T his l i s t i s f a r

from co m plete, but i s s u f f i c i e n t to g iv e an id ea of th e va­ r i e t y o f a c t i v i t i e s open to th e t e a c h e r . As has been s t a t e d b e f o re i n th e stu d y of group g u id ­ a n ce, i t i s an im p o s sib le t a s k to d iv o rc e th e p r i n c i p l e s of group dynamics from th o s e of group g u id ance.

Whenever you

work w ith a group of people f o r any ty p e of o b j e c t i v e you must co n sid e r t h e workings of t h a t group a s a group.

With

t h i n i n mind, I have gone f u r t h e r i n t o th e study o f group dynamics so t h a t we w i l l be a b l e to b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d th e re a s o n s why a group o f peo p le a c t as th e y do.

There have

been many s t u d i e s made on th e psychology o f group dynamics. One g e n e r a l i z a t i o n which can be drawn i s t h a t i t cannot be assumed t h a t by m erely p u t t i n g a group of c h i l d r e n , or a d u l t s t o g e t h e r , t h a t they w i l l c a r r y on from t h e r e .

From t h i s i t

may seem t h a t th e p ro c e s s o f group g u id an ce , or group in s tru C ' t i o n , i s very d i f f i c u l t .

On th e c o n t r a r y , i t i s a sim ple

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p ro c e s s , e s p e c i a l l y i n a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty such a s t h i s i n which we l i v e . O rganizing f o r group g u id an ce.

I t has been found b e s t

t o keep p u p ils i n th e same group, w ith th e same homeroom or common-learnings t e a c h e r , a s lo n g a s p o s s i b l e .

T h is i s a

c o m p arativ e ly easy t a s k i n th e elem en tary l e v e l , b u t on t h e secondary l e v e l , a t tim e s , i t i s more d i f f i c u l t t o o b ta in . The re a s o n f o r k e e p in g s tu d e n ts to g e t h e r i s t o h e lp them g e t t o know each o th e r w e ll and to know th e t a s k s o f t h e group and become a member of th e group.

U nless t h e r e i s a d e f i ­

n i t e group u n i t y , t h e a c t i o n s of group dynamics w i l l n o t op­ e ra te e ffic ie n tly .

The te a c h e r should endeavor t o i n s t i l i n

th e p u p i l s a sen se o f b e lo n g in g which comes because th e y a r e a t ease w ith someone t h a t th ey f e e l they belong w i t h .

In

such a s i t u a t i o n , p u p i l s can more r e a d i l y g a in from t h e group a c tio n s.

The te a c h e r should t r y t o o rg a n iz e th e sc h o o l in

such a way t h a t th e c lu b assig n m en t, e t c . , i s p a r t o f th e s tu d e n t* s lo a d and n o t an e x t r a assig n m en t.

This w i l l p r e ­

v e n t th e p u p ils from f e e l i n g overworked. A ll group guidance s e s s i o n s should be geared to th e fundam ental concerns o f th e age l e v e l in t h e groups and c a re should be ta k e n so t h a t th e group i s n o t t r y i n g to do th in g s beyond i t s c a p a c i t y .

The te a c h e r should encourage a l l o f th e

p u p ils t o ta k e a s l a r g e a p a r t a s p o s s ib le i n th e p la n n in g

16

o f th e a c t i v i t i e s f o r th e group.

There i s a l s o a d i f f e r e n c e

between boys and g i r l s i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n to th e group.

Coycle

says: The c a p a c ity f o r d e v e lo p in g s tro n g group l o y a l t i e s seems t o vary somewhat between boys and g i r l s . There i s some evidence t h a t boys belong to such groups more f r e q u e n t l y th a n g i r l s . The boys a r e more w i l l i n g t o be a s s o c i a te d w ith , and a id i n , th e group p r o c e s s . 11 Guiding t h e group as a g ro u p .

When t h e te a c h e r i s

a tte m p tin g t o guide any group, she must keep i n mind t h a t any group has a d i s t i n c t p e r s o n a l i t y , and i t i s n o t j u s t a number of i n d i v id u a l s a l l t h in k in g and a c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l l y .

A con­

s i d e r a b l e p a r t of her a t t e n t i o n should be devoted t o th e guidance o f th e group i t s e l f w ith t h i s f a c t i n mind.

To g a in

t h i s d i s t i n c t group p e r s o n a l i t y , t h e t e a c h e r should a s s i s t i n f u s i n g th e i n d i v i d u a l members i n t o th e group and w h ile d o in g t h i s , manage to draw h im s e lf i n t o th e group and be a c c e p te d a s a member, n o t j u s t th e l e a d e r .

To g a in ac c e p ta n c e i n a

group, i t must be remembered t h a t no p erso n i s r e a l l y a c c e p t ­ ed u n t i l he has c o n t r i b u t e d som ething t o t h e w e lf a r e of th e group; t h e r e f o r e , aim to h e lp every member o f a c l a s s , c lu b , e t c . , to do som ething f o r th e group.

Any l i t t l e a d d i t i o n to

t h e a c t i o n of th e group would be s u f f i c i e n t to make th e mem­ b er a c c e p te d ; sometimes a t a s k so sim ple t h a t i t seems alm o st ab su rd t o th e a d u l t would be enough f o r th e av e rag e c h i l d r e n s ’ g ro u p .

Again i t must be remembered t h a t th e group should

17

e x i s t f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l , never sh ould th e i n d i v i d u a l be t h e t o o l o f th e group.

Any group accom plishm ent i s sim ply t h e

c o n c e rte d a c t i o n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l s .

The te a c h e r or l e a d e r

should ta k e th e i n i t i a t i v e i n prom oting or g iv in g p r e s t i g e t o new a c t i v i t i e s and, wherever p o s s i b l e , encourage t h e group t o do something f o r o th e r groups o u t s i d e o f i t s own sm all membership,

when t h e r e a r e i n d i v i d u a l b ehavior d i f f i c u l t i e s

i n th e group, u se group p r e s s u r e whenever p o s s i b l e t o modify t h a t b eh av io rism .

H ere, a g a in , i t must be remembered, t h a t

t h e te a c h e r o r guide must n o t l e t h e r s e l f become to o s tr o n g a f o r c e i n th e group. The l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e group.

In th e classroom s i t u a ­

t i o n th e te a c h e r must be re g a rd e d a s t h e le a d e r so t h a t t h e c u rric u lu m may be fo llo w ed and th e g o a ls o f th e te a c h in g be re a c h e d .

Yet i n every c l a s s t h e r e a r e l e a d e r s o th e r th a n th e

te a c h e r who must be c o n s id e r e d . t o th e c l a s s and to th e t e a c h e r .

These l e a d e r s a r e im p o rta n t The te a c h e r should ta k e a d ­

v antage o f them t o develop group r e l a t i o n s . We a r e b e g in n in g to u n d e r s ta n d , now, t h a t l e a d e r s h i p i s n o t a m y stic som ething t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l has or does n o t have.

The le a d e r i s one who can move th e group t o a c t i o n ,

and th e group has th e power to c o n fe r or w ith h o ld l e a d e r s h i p , depending on w hether or n o t i t d e c id e s t o a c t . many l e a d e r s h i p needs and so needs many l e a d e r s .

A group has

18

What makes a l e a d e r ?

The le a d e r i s a b le t o a c h ie v e

i n an a r e a which has p r e s t i g e f o r th e group.

A ll o f us have

h e ro e s , and i t seems to be human n a tu r e t o want t o em ulate and fo llo w them.

As we grow more m ature, we d i s c r i m i n a t e

more between h eroes and l e a d e r s , and become more e x a c t i n our q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r each.

Boys and g i r l s , u n l e s s g u ided , tend

to.m ake l i t t l e d i s t i n c t i o n between th e r o l e o f hero and l e a d ­ er.

That which makes a hero i n th e eyes o f th e group may be

b a f f l i n g to th e a d u l t .

In one f i r s t - g r a d e , th e h ero and,

t h e r e f o r e , th e l e a d e r , was th e boy who could s p i t th e f a r t h ­ e st.

In a f o u r t h - g r a d e group, where t h e r e was l i t t l e r a p p o r t

between te a c h e r and p u p i l s , th e one who d ared to ''s a s s 1' th e te a c h e r was hero and l e a d e r . The le a d e r i s t o be f e a r e d .

Among young c h i l d r e n and

g a n g s te r s , an i n d i v i d u a l may e x p l o i t t h e i r f e a r o f p h y s ic a l harm t o f o r c e h im se lf on th e group.

Prim ary t e a c h e r s a r e

c o n s ta n tly w a tc h fu l f o r such l e a d e r s h i p .

By th e tim e c h i l ­

d re n a r e n in e or t e n , most o f them know te c h n iq u e s f o r d e a l ­ in g w ith t h e b u lly th ro u g h group s t r e n g t h .

Such te c h n iq u e s

a r e n o t i n th e p r e s c r i b e d c u rric u lu m , but a r e le a r n e d by b i t t e r e x p e r i e n c e . . T h is ty p e of l e a d e r s h i p i s s h o r t l i v e d u n le s s th e b u l l y , to o , l e a r n s th e s t r e n g t h o f numbers and forms a gang, which i s th e n met by counter gangs. S u b tly b u t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from th e l e a d e r who r u l e s by f e a r i s th e one who has a b i l i t y , re c o g n iz e d by

19

t h e group a s u n iq u e ly r e q u i r e d , t o h e lp th e group move toward i t s g o a l.

Any one group holds many g o a ls , depending upon i t s

cu rren t s itu a tio n .

A d i s c r i m i n a t i n g group w i l l u se a ran g e

o f l e a d e r s h i p p o t e n t i a l s i n th e group.' i z i n g games.

Tom i s good i n organ­

Mary i s an e x p e rt d i s c u s s i o n l e a d e r .

Susan can

guide th e e x e c u tio n of a m u ral. B axter has l i s t e d s e v e r a l a t t r i b u t e s t h a t th e l e a d e r must have b e f o re he becomes a t r u e le a d e r i n a d em ocratic group:; The l e a d e r must have a b e l i e f i n d em o cratic p r i n c i p l e s . The l e a d e r w i l l be w i l l i n g t o ta k e h i s cues and d i r e c ­ t i o n s from t h e i n t e r e s t s and needs of th e i n d i v i d u a ls composing t h e group. L ea d ersh ip r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a s needed guidance i s hig h i n th e ,b e g in n in g o f th e elem entary sch o o l and g r a d u a lly d em in ish es as t h e c h i l d grows i n t o an a d u l t . The i n d i v id u a l perso n should have an a c t i v e p a r t in th e making o f group d e c i s i o n s . 3 B axter has a l s o s t a t e d th e l e a d e r 's r o l e i n th e guidance o f a group:

The l e a d e r must c o n t i n u a l l y study th e i n d i v id u a l and

t h e t o t a l p a t t e r n of i n t e r a c t i v e b e h a v io r; he must c r e a t e a "Clim ate" conducive t o a t r u s t i n g f e e l i n g on th e p a r t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s ; he must h e lp th e members d e f i n e shared purpose i n which each f e e l s a r e s p o n s i b l e p a r t and d e s i r e f o r accomp­ l i s h ; he should h e lp each see h is b e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n and th e b e s t way of making i t ; he should d evelop s e l f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and s e l f d i r e c t e d a c t i o n ; and he should encourage th e

20

development of l e a d e r s h i p by group members i n t h e v a rio u s g o a ls u n d e rta k e n .^ The groups should be l e f t f r e e to p la n t h e i r own a c ­ t i v i t i e s and to work o u t t h e i r own programs t o th e e x t e n t t h a t i t would be p r a c t i c a b l e or p o s s i b l e .

T his ty p e o f a c t ­

io n should be w ith t h e guid ance of th e te a c h e r and, i n t h i s way, th e cou rse of, a c t i v i t i e s could be c o r r e c t l y e s t a b l i s h e d . The te a c h e r should compare t h e a c t i v i t i e s c a r r i e d on by t h e group w ith th e purposes f o r which th e group i s e s t a b l i s h e d . The group o b s e r v e r .

One way f o r a group to c o l l e c t

in fo rm a tio n a b o u t i t s e l f i s throug h th e u se of an o b serv er who i s a member o f th e group.

I t i s th e r e s p o n s ib ility of

t h i s o b serv e r to watch th e group p r o c e s s .

A ctin g a s an o u t ­

s i d e r i n t h i s way, he n o te s t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s en co u n tered w h ile th e group i s working o u t a problem.

Then, u s u a l l y n e a r

th e end of th e m eeting , he p o i n t s out th e d i f f i c u l t i e s which th e members were too busy to i d e n t i f y d u rin g th e d i s c u s s i o n , a lth o u g h they p erhaps f e l t t h a t som ething was wrong.

When th e

o b se rv e r makes h i s comments, h is t a s k i s t o remind th e group of what happened, t o encourage group members t o a n a ly z e why i t happened as i t d i d , and t o su g g e st ways which the. group m ight a c t d i f f e r e n t l y and more e f f e c t i v e l y .

He does n o t s i t

i n judgment. Know th e i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e g roup .- The prim ary purpose

21

o f group guidance i s f o r t h e improvement o f th e i n d i v i d u a l . This must be k e p t i n mind a t a l l tim e s ; i n d i v id u a l c a p a c i t i e s must n o t be s u b o rd in a te d to th e group b u t should be en co u r­ aged.

so t h a t t h i s may be acco m p lished , t h e f i r s t s te p should

be d i r e c t e d toward g e t t i n g a c q u a in te d w ith t h e p u p ils and h e lp in g them to g e t a c q u a in te d w ith each o t h e r .

I t may be

asked h e re j u s t how much a te a c h e r can be expected to know abo ut an i n d i v i d u a l p u p i l i n her c l a s s .

The te a c h e r should

t r y to g a th e r in fo rm a tio n ab out h e a l t h , s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n ts , p a s t sc h o o l h i s t o r y , home environm ent, a b i l i t i e s , t a l e n t s , i n t e r e s t s , p u sp o ses, a s p i r a t i o n s and l i f e v a lu e s .

For c o l ­

l e c t i n g t h i s in fo rm a tio n t h e te a c h e r may c o n s u lt th e sch o o l r e c o r d s , she may make u s e o f s ta n d a r d iz e d t e s t s , she may g e t in fo rm a tio n from th e c h i l d ' s form er t e a c h e r s , and she may co n fer w ith th e p a r e n t s .

Much can be le a r n e d about a p u p i l 's

c h a r a c te r and p e r s o n a l i t y by o b se rv in g th e c h i l d i n th e h a l l s , on th e p la y grounds, and, when p o s s i b l e , around th e town. S ociom etry.

A f a i r l y r e c e n t and pro m isin g approach

t o th e stu d y of s o c i a l development i s t h a t o f d e te rm in in g p a t t e r n s o f f r i e n d s h i p w ith in a group o f c h i l d r e n .

An a n a l y ­

s i s o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , by Moreno i n 1934, i s based on t h e h y p o th e sis t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l c h i l d can be u n d ersto o d only i n term s of h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith th e group o f which he i s a member, and t h a t such a group can, in t u r n , be u n d ersto o d

22

o n ly i n th e l i g h t o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l c h i l d r e n com prising i t .

This ty p e o f stu d y has been c a l l e d

th e s c ie n c e o f S ociom etry, and i s f a s t becoming po p u lar w i t h - ' t h e te a c h e r who d e s i r e s t o a id her c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r s o c i a l developm ent.

T his ty p e o f stu d y i s an a c c u r a t e means o f

a c q u a in tin g th e te a c h e r w ith sp h e re s o f i n f l u e n c e and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f her classro om .

The te a c h e r ean u n d e rsta n d th e

r e p u t a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l c h i l d r e n among t h e i r play m ates and can g a in knowledge o f th e s o c i a l p r e s t i g e , s o c i a l a s p i r a t i o n s and p a t t e r n s of f r i e n d s h i p i n th e classro o m .

By t h e u s e of

so ciom etry can be d e te c te d th e p re s e n c e , " I s o l a t e s , " c h i l d r e n w ith which no one a p p a r e n tl y w ish es to a s s o c i a t e ; ’’Mutual p a i r s , " p a i r s o f c h i l d r e n who p r e f e F each o th e r a s f r i e n d s ; "C h ain s," i n s t a n c e s i n which c h i l d A i s f r i e n d l y w ith c h i ld B, B i s f r i e n d l y w ith c h i l d C, and c h ild C i s f r i e n d l y w ith c h i l d D, and so on, w ith v a rio u s o f th e s e c h i l d r e n having f r i e n d s o u t s i d e o f th e c h a in ; " T r ia n g le s ," a s i t u a t i o n i n which c h i l d A i s f r i e n d l y w ith c h i l d B, B i s f r i e n d l y w ith c h i l d C, and C i s f r i e n d l y w ith c h ild A; and " S t a r s , " i n ­ s ta n c e s in which a number o f c h i l d r e n p r e f e r a given popular Op

c h i l d a s t h e i r f r i e n d . W i t h t h i s ty pe o f in fo rm a tio n a t hand, a te a c h e r can do much i n th e way of im proving t h e so ­ c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e c h i l d r e n in her c l a s s e s .

I f , f o r ex­

ample, an i s o l a t e i s found i n a c l a s s , th e t e a c h e r can f o s t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t h e developm ent of f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w ith

23

o th e r s t u d e n t s , or she may b u ild a se n se o f b elo n g in g t o t h e group by g iv in g th e i s o l a t e t a s k s t o accom plish which draw fa v o r from t h e group a s a whole and b r in g t h i s c h i l d i n t o th e p a t t e r n o f th e s o c i a l f r i e n d s h i p s t r u c t u r e . The f i g u r e fo llo w in g i s a sample sociogram ta k e n from Merle H. E l l i o t t ' s a r t i c l e , " P a t t e r n s of F r ie n d s h ip i n t h e C lassroom ."

The d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e sociogram i s so w e ll d e­

f in e d i t w i l l be quoted a s - t a k e n from t h i s a r t i c l e .

R e f e r r in g

t o th e f o llo w in g f i g u r e : The g i r l s in t h i s room f a l l i n t o two d i s t i n c t c l i q u e s . Lois (L ), Mary (M), and Nancy (N) a r e c lo s e f r i e n d s . O live ( 0 ), who i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h i s group only th ro u g h Nancy, claim ed Mary as a f r i e n d but i s n o t re c o g n iz e d a s such. One s u s p e c ts t h a t O live i s n o t too s e c u re i n t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s in c e any tem porary q u a r r e l w ith Nancy may le a v e her on th e o u t s i d e . T his l i t t l e group of fo u r g i r l s i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h a t i t i s so i s o l a t e d from th e r e s t o f th e c l a s s . These g i r l s do n o t claim f r i e n d s h i p s w ith any g i r l s o u t s id e th e group nor a r e they m entioned by any of th e o th e r g i r l s . From th e l a t t e r f a c t i t ap p e ars t h a t th e y a r e n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y envied or adm ired. The r e s t of th e g i r l s a r e dominated by A lic e (A) and B arbara (B ). These two g i r l s a r e g r e a t l y admired by b o th th e boys and th e g i r l s . A lic e i s mentioned by s i x boys and B arbara by f i v e b oys. (Those mentioned by th e o th e r sex a r e not shown- i n t h e f i g u r e ) . Each o f t h i s p a i r , i n a d d i t i o n to t h e i r m utual f r i e n d s h i p , has a n o th er re c o g n iz e d f r i e n d . B a r b a r a 's f r i e n d , E liz a b e th (E ), w ishes t o be a f r i e n d o f A l i c e . The r e s t of t h e g i r l s seem t o form an adm iring c i r c l e around A lic e and B a rb a ra . Helen (H) and Isuko ( I ) have formed an a l l i a n c e . The o th e r t h r e e g i r l s , Joan ( J ) , K a th e rin e (K ), and Gladys (G), a r e d e f i n i t e l y i s o l a t e d , n o t b ein g mentioned by any members o f th e c l a s s a s b e s t frien d s.d 3

FIGURE 1 FRIENDSHIP STRUCTURE OF GIRLS'

CHAPTER III

GROUPING PUPILS In th e grouping o f th e i n d i v i d u a ls i n th e e lem en tary s c h o o l, we must keep i n mind t h a t th e way th e s e young c h i l ­ d re n grow e m o tio n a lly i s an extrem ely im p o rta n t f a c t o r i n th e c o n t i n u a t i o n of our c o u n try a s a democracy.

I n th e g e n e ra ­

t i o n both o f th e p a s t and of th e p r e s e n t , we have o f t e n p o in te d w ith p r i d e to our p r i n c i p l e s of democracy i n p r a c t i c e , & y e t have we accom plished t h i s democracy t h a t we ta k e p r id e i n ■

showing?

We need m erely t o r e f e r t o th e s e p a r a t e sch o o ls or

groups s e g re g a te d because of r a c e , c o lo r or c re e d to show th e many cases of i s o l a t i o n of groups which appear u n n e c e ssa ry and h o t t o th e b e s t i n t e r e s t s of th e c h ild or th e g roup.

Another

example i s th e emphasis which has been p laced on s p e c i a l sc h o o ls and rooms f o r th e b r i g h t and f o r th e d u l l p u p i l s . Even th e s e g r e g a tio n o f th e p h y s i c a l l y handicapped has been overdone i n many c a se s to th e b e s t i n t e r e s t s of th e c h i l d and th e development of th e whole p e r s o n a l i t y .

The manner i n which

we group and c l a s s i f y our p u p i l s i s of v i t a l im p ortance so t h a t th e p u p ils may r e a l i z e th e g r e a t e s t growth, a c a d e m ic a lly and s o c i a l l y , t h a t comes from th e i n t e r a c t i o n of one group upon th e o t h e r . There has been much c o n tro v e rs y i n th e f i r s t h a l f of t h i s tw e n t i e t h c e n tu ry a s t o th e v alu e of group i n s t r u c t i o n

There have been, and s t i l l a r e , many peo p le who f e e l t h a t i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u c t i o n i s th e only t r u e and p r o f i t a b l e ty p e , b u t i t i s th e o p in io n o f t h e a u th o r t h a t t h e r e a r e ad v an tag es of th e group p ro c e s s t h a t a r e many tim es more po w erful th a n th o s e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ty p e i n s t r u c t i o n .

In our modern

sch o o ls we have come to u n d e rsta n d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u c ­ t i o n i s n o t p r a c t i c a l f o r s e v e r a l re a s o n s .

As a m a tte r of

economy t h e sc h o o ls cannot p ro v id e one te a c h e r f o r each pu­ p il.

Even i f t h e r e were s u f f i c i e n t funds t o e s t a b l i s h such

a sch o o l system , i t would n o t be p r a c t i c a l or j u s t i f i e d b e ­ cause we now re c o g n iz e t h a t th e most im p o rta n t h a b i t s , a t t i ­ tu d e s , a p p r e c i a t i o n s , and i d e a l s a r e le a r n e d a s c h i l d r e n l i v e and work t o g e t h e r .

By n a t u r e , p eople a c t i n groups; human

r e l a t i o n s h i p s and u n d e rs ta n d in g a r e simply outgrow ths o f ex­ p e r ie n c e s w ith o th e r p e o p le .

Good group i n s t r u c t i o n can ta k e

advantage o f a l l of th e i d e a l s of i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u c t i o n throug h p ro p er su b -g ro u p in g o f th e i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e group, y e t n o t s e p a r a t e any from t h e main group. I t would be a f u t i l e e f f o r t to a tte m p t to make a l l

th e

groups com pletely homogeneous because o f th e problem of i n d i ­ v id u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . a lik e .

There a r e no two peop le who a r e j u s t

I n f a c t , i t would p ro b a b ly be s a f e i n assuming t h a t

t h e r e a r e no two p e rso n s i n th e e n t i r e u n iv e r s e who a r e en­ t i r e l y th e same.

The b e s t we can do i n group ing

er t o g e th e r th o s e who a r e c lo s e to each o th e r

i s to g a th ­

in th e ir

27

t a l e n t s , a b i l i t i e s , and i n t e r e s t s and group th e s e p u p i l s i n t o sub-groups w i t h i n th e c l a s s or group.

This i s done i n most

classroom s by th e u se of r e a d in g , a r i t h m e t i c , s p e l l i n g , and s o c i a l s t u d i e s g ro u p s.

These homogeneous groups should n o t

be a permanent grouping f o r t h e l i f e a t t h e c l a s s or p r o j e c t , b u t should change c o n t i n u a l l y a s th e a b i l i t i e s o f th e i n d i ­ v id u a ls i n each group m ature and change.

These homogeneous

groups a r e n o t a permanent grouping f o r th e l i f e of t h a t c l a s s or p r o j e c t because people change c o n t i n u a l l y . The e a r l i e s t sc h o o ls i n t h i s co u n try used i n d i v i d u a l in s t e a d o f group i n s t r u c t i o n .

This method o f i n s t r u c t i o n had

th e ad v an tag es of i n d i v i d u a l guidance supplem enting i n d i v i d u a l in stru c tio n .

U n t i l th e end o f th e 1 8 th c e n tu r y , t h i s i n d i ­

v id u a l method o f i n s t r u c t i o n was th e vogue; b u t a t ab out t h i s tim e th e group methods c a m e .in to b ein g and have s in c e grown to be re c o g n iz e d a s th e most b e n e f i c i a l . There have been many p rop onents o f both ty p e s o f i n ­ s t r u c t i o n , group and i n d i v i d u a l .

B r i e f l y , th e ad v an tag es of

b o th have been summarized by Clapp, Chase and Merriman i n th e fo llo w in g w o rd s:: A.

Advantages of i n d i v id u a l i n s t r u c t i o n . 1. 2. 3. 4.

I t p e rm its th e slow c h i l d t o go a t h i s own r a t e . I t p re v e n ts th e c h ild from o v e r e s tim a tin g h i s p ro g ress. I t c o n c e n tr a te s t h e a t t e n t i o n upon th e work o f i n d i v i d u a l s r a th e r , th a n upon th e averag e work of th e c l a s s . I t allo w s th e more g i f t e d t o go ahead and u se h i s e x t r a a b i l i t y upon th e work of h i s own c h o ic e .

28

5. 6.

B.

I t p e rm its th e te a c h e r t o become b e t t e r a c q u a i n t ­ ed w ith th e c h i l d ' s i n t e r e s t s and p o s s i b l e voca­ t i o n a l te n d e n c ie s . I t g iv es th e te a c h e r b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r d i ­ agnosing and a n a ly z in g th e problem o f t h e i n d i ­ v id u a l c h i l d •

Advantages of group i n s t r u c t i o n . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

I t makes b e t t e r p r o v is io n s f o r t h e s o c i a l a s p e c ts of e d u c a tio n . I t a s s i s t s i n m o tiv a tio n i n l e a r n i n g . I t i s economical because i t saves d u p l i c a t e p re p ­ a r a t i o n and e x p la n a tio n . I t p e rm its th e slow l e a r n e r t o g e t som ething from th e more r a p i d l e a r n e r . I t re d u ces th e amount of p r e p a r a t i o n t h a t th e te a c h e r must make f o r her d a i l y work and s i m p li ­ f i e s th e problem o f management and d i s c i p l i n e , 8

For many y e a rs a f t e r th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f th e group method, e d u c a tio n was conducted on a mass b a s i s and th e n th e pendulum began to swing back to th e i n d i v i d u a l ty p e of i n ­ stru c tio n .

There were s e v e r a l a tte m p ts to i n d i v i d u a l i z e i n ­

s t r u c t i o n y e t s t i l l u se th e advantage of group or mass i n ­ stru c tio n .

The most w id ely used of th e s e p la n s a r e as f o l l ­

ows : A,

The Winnetka P lan 1. 2.

The c u rric u lu m i s org an ized i n t o two p a r t s . a . Knowledges and s k i l l s u b j e c t s . b. Group, s o c i a l i z e d , or c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s . The work i n th e knowledges and s k i l l s i s com­ p le te ly in d iv id u a liz e d . a . The work i s d iv id e d i n t o u n i t s . b. Each p u p i l works a t h i s own r a t e on each u n i t . c . The p u p i l must se c u re a p e r f e c t s c o re on every t e s t b e fo re he can advance to th e n e x t u n i t . d . The amount o f work a ss ig n e d f o r a y e a r i s th e amount which a normal p u p i l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t i e n t 95 or above can do i n th e s p e c i f i e d tim e .

29

e,

Prom otion i s based upon achievem ent i n th e knowledges and s k i l l s . 3 . The group, s o c i a l i z e d , c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s . a. No marks a r e given f o r t h e s e . b. The a c t i v i t i e s a r e c a lc u la te d to develop s o c i a l c o n s c io u s n e s s . 4 . No d e f i n i t e c o r r e l a t i o n has been planned between th e knowledges and s k i l l s and th e group a c t i v i t ­ ie s. 5. Homogeneous grouping on th e b a s i s of s o c i a l age i s p ra c tic e d . B.

The D a lto n Plan 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

C.

p la n i s based on t h r e e fundam ental c o n c e p ts, a . Freedom ,b. C o o p era tio n c . B udgeting of tim e . The sch o o l i s o rganized i n t o houses. Classroom s have been tra n sfo rm e d i n t o s u b j e c t m a tte r l a b o r a t o r i e s . The b u l l e t i n board i s th e c h i e f medium o f announ­ cements a f f e c t i n g th e p u p il* s p la n s f o r th e day. The d a i l y tim e sched u le a . The p u p i l f r e e l y fo llo w s h i s p la n d u rin g most o f th e morning s e s s i o n . b . A "c o n fe re n c e time'? i s scheduled a t th e end o f each morning s e s s i o n . c . The a f te r n o o n s e s s i o n i s g iven over to a r t , m usic, p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n , i n d u s t r i a l and household a r t s . The assign m ent a . Each u n i t of work i s d e s ig n a te d a s a jo b . b . For each 20 day p e rio d a job i s o u t l in e d . c . The p u p i l must f i n i s h a l l p a r t s o f h i s job b e f o re b eing p e r m itte d to ta k e up th e n e x t one. P u p il p ro g re s s a . Measured by exam ination fo llo w in g each jo b . b . Recorded by means of g ra p h s.

The M orrison P lan 1. 2. 3.

S t r e s s e s th e u n i t assig n m en t a l s o . Uses fo llo w in g te c h n iq u e s : P r e - t e s t , te a c h , t e s t t h e r e s u l t s , ad a p t p ro c e d u re , te a c h and t e s t a g a in to th e p o i n t o f a c t u a l l e a r n i n g . P lan i s b u i l t around group i n s t r u c t i o n r a t h e r th a n in d iv id u a l in s tr u c tio n .

30

a.

P ro v is io n s f o r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e made th ro u g h s p e c i a l coachin g f o r th e d u l l e r p u p ils and supplem entary work f o r th e b r i g h t ­ er o nes.

In r e c e n t y e a rs we have come to b e l i e v e , however, t h a t com plete i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u c t i o n or guidance i s no t only un­ sound econom ically but a c t u a l l y does n o t have th e m o tiv a tio n f o r l e a r n i n g or f o r guidance t h a t ta k e s p la c e i n th e group. The tr e n d , t h e r e f o r e , has been t o meet th e i n d i v id u a l d i f f e r ­ ences i n c h i l d r e n th ro ugh a tte m p ts a t homogeneous g ro u p in g s. Of c o u rs e , com plete homogenity would be im p o s s ib le t o a t t a i n because o f th e wide d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t e x i s t between even two p eo p le. A n a tio n -w id e stu d y of th e c r i t e r i a u sed i n sc h o o ls f o r homogeneous groupings was made by R. 0. B i l l e t t and t h e f i n d i n g s were a s f o l l o w s : 4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Group i n t e l l i g e n c e - t e s t s c o re or m ental ag e. I n t e l l i g e n c e q u o tie n t from a group m ental t e s t . Average s c h o la r s h ip marks i n a l l s u b j e c t s . E d u c a tio n a l or achievem ent q u o t i e n t . E d u c a tio n a l or achievem ent t e s t age or s c o re . T e a c h e r 's r a t i n g of p u p i l 's academic a b i l i t y or in te llig e n c e . Average of s e v e r a l t e a c h e r 's r a t i n g s o f p u p i l 's academic a b i l i t y or i n t e l l i g e n c e . I n d i v i d u a l i n t e l l i g e n c e - t e s t sc o re or m ental ag e. I n t e l l i g e n c e q u o tie n t from i n d i v id u a l t e s t . H e a lth . I n d u s t r y , a p p l i c a t i o n , or e f f o r t . S o c i a l m a t u r i ty . Type of home environm ent. P h y s ic a l m a t u r i t y . s c o re from a p r o g n o s tic t e s t .

There i s c o n s id e r a b le d i f f e r e n c e o f o p in io n among

31

e d u c a to rs a s to th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f homogeneous grouping. One o f th e c h i e f c r i t i c i s m s made o f homogeneous grouping i s t h a t i t i s u n d em o cratic .

Some claim t h a t i t w i l l le a d t o

s o c i a l c le a v a g e s i n a d em o cratic s o c i e t y .

I n o p p o s itio n t o

t h i s , however, th o s e who fa v o r homogeneous g ro uping claim t h a t th e p la n i s d em ocratic b ecause i t a tte m p ts to meet th e n ee d s, i n t e r e s t s , and a b i l i t i e s of th e i n d i v id u a l c h i l d . I t seems to me t h a t th e b e s t way t o p r e s e n t th e c u r ­ r e n t o p in io n s ab out g rou ping c h i l d r e n i n th e elem en tary sch o o l i s to s t a t e d i r e c t q u o ta tio n s of o p in io n s from peo ple i n th e f i e l d .

The fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n s have been ta k e n from

se v e ra l d iffe re n t a u th o rs. 1.

Board of S u p e rin te n d e n ts o f P h ila d e lp h ia P u b lic S chools, A S tatem ent on P u p il P lacem ent, F ebruary 6, 1947. The p la n most g e n e r a l l y used to d ay , b o th i n th e P h ila ­ d e lp h ia P u b lic Schools and elsew h ere, i s t o p la c e boys and g i r l s to g e th e r on th e t o t a l group b a s i s who a r e ro u g h ly homogeneous from a c h ro n o lo g ic a l age s ta n d p o in t. This has been found t o be most d e s i r a b l e from th e s ta n d ­ p o in t o f te a c h in g and l e a r n i n g th o se i n t a n g i b l e s i n ­ volved i n human u n d e rs ta n d in g and l i v i n g t o g e t h e r . I t ought t o be p o s s i b l e a t any tim e t o a d j u s t th e grouping or c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f a p u p i l whose p r e s e n t placem ent i s o b v io u sly t o h i s d is a d v a n ta g e or t o th e d is a d v a n ta g e o f h i s group.

E.

C asw ell, H o l l i s . E d u catio n i n th e Elem entary S c h o o l, New York, The American'Book Co., 194E. S tu d ie s have shown t h a t i n any s t r i c t sen se a b i l i t y grouping on a common base i s im p o s s ib le due t o t h e w ide­ l y d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of achievem ents a s i n g l e in d i v id u a l a t t a i n s i n v a r io u s a b i l i t i e s . These d i f f e r e n c e s make i t . im p o ssib le t o group c h i l d r e n on any common f a c t o r s . )

3.

G erlach, D orothy, ’’T r e a tin g I n d i v i d u a l D if f e r e n c e s i n Texas S c h o o ls ,” S o c ia l E d u c a tio n , 10:898-300, November, 1946 .

32

The a u th o r d i s c u s s e s th e r e s u l t s of a q u e s t i o n n a ir e s e n t to tw elve system s i n T exas. The m a jo r ity d id n o t want homogeneous grouping i n c l a s s e s . I t was p o in te d o u t t h a t l i f e i s h etero g en eo u s i n a democracy and t h a t a hetero g en eo u s c l a s s i s a c ro ss s e c t i o n of young Ameri­ ca. 4.

Hefferman, Helen, " C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and Promotion of P o l i c i e s i n Some C ity System s," C a l i f o r n i a J o u r n a l o f Elem entary E d u c a tio n , 5:299, May," 1937. Grouping should be f l e x i b l e and c h i l d r e n should be moved from group to group a c c o rd in g to t h e i r n e e d s. The only c r i t e r i o n f o r placem ent should be th e s e l e c t i o n of t h a t group i n which t h e c h i l d may f i n d h i s b e s t op­ p o r t u n i t y t o work e f f e c t i v e l y and harm oniously.

5.

O tto , Henry J . , "Use o f S o c ia l C r i t e r i a i n Grouping C h il­ d re n a t S ch o o l," C h ild h o o d -E d u catio n , 22:326-329, March, 1949. Each c h i l d must f i n d h im s e lf i n a c l a s s group or groups i n which he i s wanted and f e e l s t h a t he i s w an t­ ed . The c h ild must f e e l t h a t he has some c o n t r i b u t i o n to make, must have th e o p p o rtu n ity t o e x c e l and t o be e x c e l le d , must e x p e rie n c e a f a i r b a la n c e between s u c c e ss and f a i l u r e , and must have an o p p o rtu n ity to be a l e a d e r a s w e ll a s a f o llo w e r .

6.

S a u c ie r , W. A ., Theory and P r a c t i c e i n t h e Elem entary S c h o o l. Hew York, The M acmillan Company, l 9 4 l . In a d em o cratic s o c i e t y p eo p le of a l l l e v e l s or ty p e s o f a b i l i t y a r e expected t o work to g e th e r w ith a d eg ree o f e f f i e h c y and harmony. Any system of grou pin g p u p i l s t h a t te n d s to s e t up any k in d o f b a r r i e r between th e groups i s u n s u i t a b l e , t h e r e f o r e , f o r th e elem entary sch o o l i n th e U h ited S t a t e s . From th e many o p in io n s o f f e r e d and th e many o b j e c t i o n s

t o g rou ping, i t i s th e c o n c lu sio n o f th e w r i t e r t h a t t h e most d e s i r a b l e method of grouping c l a s s e s w ith in a sch o o l i s on th e b a s i s o f c h r o n o lo g ic a l age a l o n e .

C h ro n o lo g ical age i s

th e b e s t s i n g l e index o f a v a r i e t y o f im p o rtan t c o n d itio n s

such as s o c i a l m a tu r ity and p h y s ic a l s i z e and s t r e n g t h . Grouping on t h i s b a s i s te n d s to give b o th s o c i a l and educa­ t i o n a l a c t i v i t y in th e classroom th e g r e a t e s t s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r th e g r e a t e s t number of p u p i l s . To p re p a re c h i l d r e n i n our modern sc h o o ls to b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d th e meaning of democracy we must giv e them every o p p o rtu n ity t o l i v e w ith each o th e r and so lv e problems t o ­ g e th e r i n o rd e r t h a t th ey may l e a r n t o u n d e rsta n d and a p p re ­ c i a t e th e problems t h a t a r e common to a l l l e v e l s o f s o c i e t y . Human u n d e rs ta n d in g s can only evolve th ro u g h e x p e rie n c e w ith o th e r p eo p le i n th e s o c i e t y .

Except f o r purpose o f n e c e s s i t y ,

s e g r e g a tio n p la y s no p a r t i n th e d em ocratic way o f l i f e . People a c t most e f f e c t i v e l y i n groups b u t i n one g r e a t u n i t r a t h e r th a n i n i s o l a t e d p a r t s .

CHAPTER IV

GROUP TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS In th e stud y o f group gu id ance, w ith th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as has been used i n t h i s p a p e r, i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t we i n ­ c lu d e some m ention o f th e t e s t s and measurements o f th e edu­ c a t i o n a l endeavors t h a t we have u s e d ,

when we t i e group

g u id an ce, group dynam ics, and e d u c a tio n i n t o one b u n d le , we must be a lb e t o t e s t th e r e s u l t s o f . t h i s te a c h in g p r o c e s s . The only f i n a l t e s t o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f methods o f te a c h in g i s found i n th e changes which a r e brou ght abo ut i n th e knowledge, h a b i t s , t h i n k in g , and a t t i t u d e s o f pu­ p ils. In l i k e manner, th e p a r t i c u l a r form s o f sch o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n and t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p ro c ed u res which a r e fo llo w e d , mu5 t be judged by th e r e s u l t s which a r e se c u re d . The development o f th e te c h n iq u e of measurement i n th e s e f i e l d s c o n s t i t u t e s one of th e most im p o rtan t c o n t r i b u ­ t i o n s i n e d u c a tio n d u rin g th e p a s t few y e a r s . T eachers have always sought t o m easure th e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r work. I n th e r e g u la r c l a s s p e r io d s and a t s t a t e d tim e s t e s t s and exam in atio ns have been given In o rd e r t o d eterm in e th e p ro g re s s which p u p i l s a r e making. The t r a ­ d i t i o n a l ex am ination , a t i t s b e s t , was a very im p e rfe c t in s tru m e n t, w ith th e development o f th e te c h n iq u e of measurement i n th e f i e l d of e d u c a tio n , i t has been p o s­ s i b l e n o t only to d eterm in e more a c c u r a t e l y th e a c h ie v e ­ ments of p u p ils b u t a l s o to d iag n o se t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r d iffic u ltie s. B efore i t i s p o s s i b l e to measure w ith any ty p e of;, t e s t , te a c h e r made or a s ta n d a rd t e s t , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l p o in ts to fo llo w .

G. M. W ilson l i s t s e i g h t p ro ced u res i n t h i s

p ro c e s s t h a t bear r e p e a t i n g . 23 S e l e c t i n g th e t e s t .

These are;:

In s e l e c t i n g th e t e s t to u s e ,

35

t h e te a c h e r must f i r s t he guided by th e p a r t i c u l a r purpose t h a t she has i n m ind.

Two b a se s which th e te a c h e r can use

i n her s e l e c t i o n o f t h e proper t e s t , a f t e r she has her p u r­ pose i n mind, i s t o s e l e c t t e s t s t h a t have been used most o f t e n and a t e s t t h a t i s economical and easy t o a d m i n i s te r . To choose a t e s t t h a t i s o f te n used i s n o t a s u re s ig n o f a good t e s t , b u t i t i s very o f te n a good g u id e .

The f i n a l

judgment o f th e e f f i c i e n c y of any t e s t l i e s w ith th e c l a s s ­ room te a c h e r who must d e c id e i f i t w i l l g iv e th e p u p i ls more b e e n f i t than some o th e r t e s t or some o th e r form of m easure. Giving th e t e s t ..

In g iv in g any standardized t e s t , o r

i n f a c t any t e s t t h a t i s n o t of her own making, i t i s most n e c e ss a ry t h a t she fo llo w a l l o f th e d i r e c t i o n s which may accompany th e t e s t ,

s ta n d a r iz e d t e s t s a r e so p re p ared t h a t

a s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n i n t h e g iv in g of th e d i r e c t i o n s t o th e p u p ils can change th e s c o re c o n s id e r a b ly and, th e re b y , lower or r a i s e t h e l e v e l o f t h e c l a s s .

In most c a s e s , th e sc o re

w i l l be lo w e re d to a p o i n t where th e g iv in g of th e t e s t i s a com plete w aste of tim e t o th e p u p ils and th e te a c h e r . S coring th e p a p e r s .

Every t e s t p ro v id e s p r i n t e d d i ­

r e c t i o n s f o r s c o r in g th e p a p e rs i n order to a i d t e a c h e r s i n s e c u r in g u n if o r m ity of r e s u l t s . should be fo llo w ed t o th e l e t t e r .

These p r i n t e d d i r e c t i o n s I f th e te a c h e r has o p in io n s

a s t o what should be done, and th e s e o p in io n s a r e d i f f e r e n t

36

from t h e d i r e c t i o n s , such o p in io n s should be abandoned i f th e r e s u l t s o f th e t e s t s a r e t o be used f o r com parative p u rp o se s . T a b u la tin g r e s u l t s .

D ir e c tio n s f o r t a b u l a t i n g r e s u l t s

or d i s t r i b u t i n g th e s c o re s a r e pro v id ed i n co n n e c tio n w ith most t e s t s .

An easy method o f making a d i s t r i b u t i o n i s t o

a r ra n g e th e p ap ers i n order o f s c o r e s .

The te a c h e r can th e n

draw o f f th e s c o r e s , n o tin g th e number o f papers f a l l i n g a t each p o i n t .

T his i s th e d i s t r i b u t i o n .

S t a t i s t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s and g ra p h ic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . The s t a t i s t i c a l p o i n t s to be determ ined a f t e r th e r e s u l t s o f a t e s t have been t a b u l a t e d a r e u s u a l l y th e m edian, t h e q u a r t i l e s and, sometimes, th e s ta n d a rd d e v i a t i o n . In te rp re ta tio n of r e s u l t s -

Care should be ta k e n n o t

to draw f a r - r e a c h i n g g e n e ra l c o n c lu s io n s from a t e s t . i s u s u a l l y d e v ise d f o r a s p e c i f i c p u rp o se .

A te st

The s i g n i f i c a n c e

of th e t e s t i n o th e r f i e l d s can be known only th ro u g h th e f i g u r i n g o f c o e f f i c i e n t s of c o r r e l a t i o n a f t e r a l a r g e number o f c a s e s has accum u lated. Applying re m e d ie s .

The u l t i m a t e purpose o f a t e s t ,

so f a r as th e i n d i v i d u a l te a c h e r i s con cern ed , i s t o e n a b le her t o see th e needs o f h er p u p i l s and to s e a rc h out th e a p ­ p r o p r i a t e re m e d ie s.

To u s e a t e s t f o r measurement o n ly ,

w ith o u t c a r r y i n g th e work forw ard t o a p o i n t o f u se and

37

a p p l i c a t i o n i n b e t t e r t e a c h i n g , i s to ig n o re t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of a s i t u a t i o n a f t e r i t has been r e v e a le d . C o o p e ra tio n ..

C o o p era tio n , u n d e rs ta n d in g , and m utual

c o n fid e n c e a r e alw ays v a lu a b le a s s e t s , and e s p e c i a l l y so i n th e u se of th e t e s t s which may r e v e a l te a c h e r weaknesses a s w e l l a s p u p il w eakn esses. Thus f a r , th e d i s c u s s i o n has been dev oted p r i m a r i l y to t h e u se of t h e s ta n d a rd t e s t s f o r th e measurement o f th e classroom as a group, b u t th e s e s ta n d a r d iz e d t e s t s a r e not always com pletely n e c e s s a r y .

I f th e te a c h e r d e s i r e s , she may

make her own t e s t s f o r d i a g n o s is and f o r t e s t i n g of accomp­ lis h m e n ts i n th e classro o m .

While th e s e t e s t s a r e sometimes

very w e ll done and can be used t o g r e a t a d v a n ta g e , i t i s n o t recommended t o put to o much w eig ht on them a s f a r a s th e r e ­ s u l t s may e f f e c t th e l i f e o f a p a r t i c u l a r s t u d e n t .

By t h i s i s

meant t h a t w h ile one t e s t may show t h a t th e s tu d e n t i s com­ p l e t e l y la c k in g i n t h e knowledge t e s t e d , i t would be much s a f e r to g iv e s e v e r a l t e s t s , p r e f e r a b ly s ta n d a r d iz e d t e s t s , b e f o re any c o n c lu sio n s a r e re a c h e d .

Teacher-made t e s t s a r e

u s u a l l y easy t o o b ta i n and economical and easy to a d m i n i s te r . For t h e s e r e a s o n s , th e teacher-m ade t e s t i s w id ely u s e d , where a s ta n d a r d iz e d t e s t would give more c o r r e c t c o n c lu s io n s . I t may appear from t h i s b u ild up of th e s ta n d a r d iz e d t e s t t h a t th ey a r e a c u r e - a l l f o r any and a l l e v i l s o f th e classro o m .

38

But even th e c a r e f u l l y made t e s t can prove f a l s e i n many c a se s and even among them i t i s w e ll to g iv e s e v e r a l t e s t s to a p a r ­ t i c u l a r c h i l d b e fo re t h i s c h i l d ' s l i f e i s t o be changed by a demotion or a h o ld in g i n grad e, e t c . The v a s t m a jo r ity o f t e s t s i n u s e by classroom t e a c h e r s i s made up by th e te a c h e r and, f o r t h i s re a s o n , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t th e te a c h e r know th e p r i n c i p l e s of p ro p er t e s t c o n s tr u c ­ tio n .

The t e s t must be v a l i d , r e l i a b l e , and u s a b l e .

To be

v a l i d , th e t e s t must measure what i t i s designed t o m easure. To be r e l i a b l e , th e t e s t must measure c o n s i s t e n t l y w hatever i t i s d esig n ed t o m easure.

That i s , i t must g et th e same answer

tim e a f t e r tim e from th e same t e s t .

To be u s a b le , th e t e s t

must be econom ically and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y sound,

p r o v is io n

should be made i n th e t e s t to measure a l l of th e im p o rta n t outcomes of t h e i n s t r u c t i o n .

The t e s t should p la c e th e p ro p e r

amount of emphasis on th e item s t h a t a r e of prim ary concern in th e u n i t s t u d i e d .

The n a t u r e of th e t e s t should a l s o ta k e

i n t o c o n s id e r a t io n th e purpose t h a t th e t e s t i s t o s e rv e . C.

C. Ross su g g e sts tw elve item s t h a t a r e n e c e s s a ry in

th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f th e t e s t :

(1) The f i r s t d r a f t o f th e t e s t

should be p re p a re d a s f a r ahead a s p o s s i b l e .

(2) As a r u l e , :

th e t e s t should in c lu d e more th a n one ty p e o f o b j e c t i v e meas­ urem ent.

(3) The c o n te n t of th e t e s t should in c lu d e m a t e r i a l

t h a t i s b o th d i f f i c u l t and e a sy .

(4) I n c lu d e i n th e p r e li m i n ­

a r y d r a f t many more item s th a n w i l l be needed i n th e f i n a l

d ra ft,

(5) A fte r some tim e has e la p s e d , th e t e s t sho uld be

review ed and m o dified where needed.

(6) The t e s t item s should

be worded so t h a t th e c o n te n t r a t h e r th a n th e form w i l l d e ­ term in e th e answ er. ded. sib le .

" Catch questions'* should never be i n c l u ­

(7) The t e s t ite m s should be worded a s sim ply a s po s­ (8 ) A ll s i m i l a r ty p e s of item s should be p la c e d t o ­

g e th e r in th e t e s t .

(9 ) The item s should be a rra n g e d i n th e

t e s t w ith th e easy ones f i r s t and grow p r o g r e s s iv e l y h a r d e r . (10) Avoid any r e g u l a r p a t t e r n of re sp o n se s to th e ite m s . (11) I t i s d e s i r a b l e to keep a w r i t t e n re c o rd o f th e p u p i l 's responses.

(12) A ll d i r e c t i o n s co n cern in g th e t e s t should be

made as c l e a r , com plete, and c o n c is e as p o s s i b l e . From th e ty p e s and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t e s t s we must proceed t o t h e measurements o f th e t e s t s and th e d e f i n i t i o n s and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e v a r io u s s t a t i s t i c a l methods and m easurem ents.

F i r s t , l e t u s in c lu d e t h e m easures o f Average

and C e n tr a l Tendency.

When th e r e s u l t s a r e t a b u l a t e d i n a

freq u en cy t a b l e , we f i n d t h a t most of th e s c o re s seem to group them selves somewhere i n t h e c e n te r o f th e t a b l e .

The

f i r s t and most im p o rta n t m easure i n s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s i s , t h e r e f o r e , th e l o c a t i o n o f t h e p o i n t on th e s c a l e where th e s c o re s tend to group th e m se lv e s.

This measure i s known a s

t h e a v e ra g e , or c e n t r a l ten d en cy .

I t i s t h a t v a lu e which

b e s t r e p r e s e n t s th e whole d i s t r i b u t i o n .

V

40

The mode. sco res.

T h is i s th e most eommon sc o re i n a group of

I t i s t h e s c o r e t h a t has been re c e iv e d by t h e most

number of p u p i l s .

I t can be e a s i l y o b ta in e d by m erely lo o k ­

in g a t th e fre q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n .

The mode i s n o t a very

tr u s tw o r th y a v e ra g e , e s p e c i a l l y w ith sm all groups because th e chance elem ent i s p r e s e n t t o a g r e a t d e g re e . The m edian.

This measurement i s p ro b a b ly th e most

commonly used av e ra g e i n e d u c a tio n a l m easurem ents. ia n i s th e m id -p o in t of th e d i s t r i b u t i o n .

The med­

T his i s th e p o in t

which d iv id e s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t o h a lv e s . The mean.

The av e ra g e which i s most w idely known and

used by a l l p eo p le i s t h e a r i t h m e t i c mean.

T his i s th e meas­

urement t h a t most peo p le r e f e r t o when th ey r e f e r to an a v e r ­ ag e .

I t i s sim ply th e t o t a l o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n d iv id e d by

th e number in th e d i s t r i b u t i o n to g e t t h e a r i t h m e t i c a v e ra g e . The n e x t group o f m easures t h a t must be in c lu d e d a r e th o s e measures o f v a r i a b i l i t y or s c a t t e r .

V a r i a b i l i t y i s th e

e x t e n t to which t h e s c o re s te n d t o s c a t t e r above and below th e av e ra g e .

No two groups a r e e x a c tly a l i k e and, t h e r e f o r e ,

we have t h i s v a r i a b i l i t y from th e a v e ra g e . The r a n g e .

The ra n g e i s th e d i s t a n c e between th e

lo w est and th e h ig h e s t s c o r e s .

This i s n o t a very tr u s tw o r th y

measure because th e r e may be some g r e a t d e v i a t e from th e

41

av e ra g e t h a t w i l l ten d t o draw th e ra n g e out much more th a n would he norm al.

I f , f o r example, most o f th e s tu d e n t s i n a

c l a s s grouped around th e f i f t y per c e n t mark and one c h ild dropped to t e n , th e ra n g e would go a s f a r down a s t e n , y e t t h i s would g iv e a wrong im p re ssio n o f th e range of s c o r e s i n th is p a rtic u la r c la s s . The q u a r t i l e d e v i a t i o n .

This measure of v a r i a b i l i t y

i s n o t s tr o n g ly in flu e n c e d by extrem es i n th e ra n g e .

This

measurement i s one h a l f th e d i s t a n c e between th e f i r s t and t h i r d q u a r t i l e s , s in c e 25 per c e n t o f th e s c o re s f a l l below t h e f i r s t q u a r t i l e and 25 per c e n t of th e s c o re s exceed th e th ird q u a rtile .

The i n t e r q u a r t i l e ra n g e i s th e ra n g e o f th e

m iddle 50 per c e n t o f t h e s c o r e s . The s ta n d a rd d e v i a t i o n .

This measurement i s d e fin e d

a s th e squ are r o o t o f th e mean o f th e sq u a re s o f t h e d e v ia ­ t i o n s of th e s c o re s from t h e i r mean.

I t may a l s o be d e fin e d

a s t h a t d i s t a n c e above and below th e mean t h a t i n a normal d i s t r i b u t i o n in c lu d e s 68.26 per c e n t of th e s c o r e s , or ap ­ p ro x im a te ly t w o - t h i r d s . Also in c lu d e d i n e d u c a tio n a l measurement a r e th e meas­ u r e s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s , th e c o e f f i c i e n t of c o r r e l a t i o n and m easure of e r r o r .

These measurements a r e n o t commonly used

by th e everyday classro om te a c h e r b u t a r e of g r e a t v a lu e to

42

t h e makers o f s ta n d a r d iz e d t e s t s i n d e te rm in in g th e norms to s e t up f o r t h e i r t e s t s . Although t h i s c h a p te r does n o t in c lu d e d e t a i l e d de­ s c r i p t i o n s o f th e v a r io u s ty p e s of t e s t s t h a t th e te a c h e r may p re p a re or which th e te a c h e r may o b ta in to g iv e to her p u p i l s , i t does g iv e th e g e n e r a l id e a s behind p ro p e r t e s t c o n s t r u c t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

There a r e a l s o o th e r m easures t o be used

th a n th o s e which a r e l i s t e d above, but th e most common ty p e s of measures a r e d e s c r ib e d .

I t would be w e l l to keep i n mind

when g iv in g , p r e p a r in g , or e v a lu a ti n g any t e s t , t h a t each c h ild i s an i n d i v i d u a l and each has h i s i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s which must be tak en i n t o c o n s i d e r a t io n .

CHAPTER V

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES AS APPLIED TO THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL In th e s e l e c t i o n o f guidance t o p i c s t o be emphasized i n th e d i f f e r e n t g ra d e s , t h e r e a r e many f a c t o r s t h a t must be c o n s id e re d , th e prim ary ones b ein g th e needs of th e s tu d e n ts a t th e changing l e v e l s of developm ent.

A t o p i c of major i n ­

t e r e s t should be in tro d u c e d a t th e grade l e v e l where i t f i r s t becomes p e r t i n e n t and c o n tin u e d throug h su cceed in g school y e a rs w ith v a ry in g d e g rees o f em phasis.

The most im p o rta n t o th e r

f a c t o r i s th e n a tu r e o f th e l o c a l s i t u a t i o n or sc h o o l s e t- u p ; t h a t i s , w hether th e s c h o o l system u ses t h e 6 -3 -3 or th e 8-4 p la n of o r g a n iz a tio n .

A f u r t h e r elem ent i n sc h o o l o r g a n iz a ­

t i o n t h a t w i l l e f f e c t th e s e l e c t i o n of g uidance t o p i c s i s th e d eg ree t o which th e sch o o l i s a d e q u a te ly s t a f f e d f o r guidance work and th e com pleteness o f th e program o f f e r e d .

The t o p i c s

u sed , i n any p la n , must be r e v is e d from tim e t o tim e to meet c u r r e n t s tu d e n t needs and changing community c o n d i t i o n s . In s e a rc h in g f o r a c t u a l te c h n iq u e s t o be s t a t e d f o r u se on th e elem entary l e v e l t h e r e d evelopes a d i f f i c u l t p rob ­ lem .

In endeavoring t o p u t i n t o a te c h n iq u e th e workings of

group dynamics and t h e te a c h in g of c h i l d r e n i n th e elem en tary g ra d e s , th e problem o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a g a in a r i s e s ; b u t t h i s tim e i t i s th e i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s of th e t e a c h e r s

44

th e m se lv e s.

Because of t h i s problem , t h i s c h a p te r on th e

te c h n iq u e s o f group guidance w i l l be s t a t e d i n term s used on th e secondary l e v e l s (b u t w ith d e s c r i p t i o n s of how th e s e same ty p e s o f programs apply t o th e elem entary g r a d e s .) Using th e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a s s t a t e d , th e te c h n iq u e s f o r u t i l i z i n g group guidance f a l l i n t o fo u r g e n e ra l c l a s s i f i c a ­ tio n s :

(1) co re c u rric u lu m or g uidance c l a s s e s ; (2) e l e c t i v e

and s p e c i a l c l a s s e s ;

(3) e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s ;

s p e c i a l guidance e v e n ts .

(4)

The s e v e r a l group guidance te c h n iq u e s

under th e fo u r g e n e r a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s w i l l be p re s e n te d in d e t a i l i n th e fo llo w in g pages. Core c u rric u lu m and guidance c l a s s e s .

In c o u rse s o f

t h i s ty p e , i t i s th e p urpo se to ta k e i n t o acco u n t com plete d i s c u s s i o n or m astery of a problem w ith o u t h o ld in g t h e d i s c u s s ­ io n w ith in s e t b o u n d arie s which l i m i t s u b j e c t m a tte r c o u r s e s . 1.

Core c u rricu lu m c o u r s e s .

I n t h i s ty p e o f co u rse

t h e r e i s an i n t e g r a t i o n o f s u b j e c t m a tte r a s a means of d e ­ v e lo p in g p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l competency.

In th e elem entary

grades every c l a s s i s i n i t s e l f a co re c u rric u lu m c l a s s i n t h a t i t i s a c l o s e l y k n i t u n i t which can d is c u s s and s o lv e any problem which may become im p o rta n t to th e c l a s s as a w hole.

In t h i s typ e of c l a s s i n t e r e s t can be c r e a te d i n

community problems very e f f e c t i v e l y and to good ad v an tag e to t h e s tu d e n ts and t o th e community.

I n t h i s ty p e of c o u rse ,

45

th e s tu d e n t h im s e lf has an o p p o rtu n ity to d is c o v e r h is own a s s e t s and l i a b i l i t i e s and can f i n d ways o f u s in g b oth to a d ­ v a n ta g e .

There i s t h e o p p o rtu n ity f o r s t i m u l a t i o n and d e v e l­

opment of i n t e r e s t s , a p t i t u d e s and achievem ent, and e d u c a tio n ­ a l and v o c a tio n a l p la n n in g alo n g th e s e l i n e s .

(V o c a tio n a l

p la n n in g in th e elem en tary g rad es may seem somewhat advanced, b u t i t i s n o t to o soon f o r th e c h i l d r e n t o b eg in lo o k in g i n t o th e f i e l d s of t h e i r i n t e r e s t s . )

A djustm ent to sc h o o l p e rso n ­

n e l and sch ool f a c i l i t i e s i s very w e ll adap ted t o t h i s ty p e of c o u rse a s w e ll a s th e p r o v is io n f o r b e t t e r i n d i v i d u a l a d j u s t ­ ment in s o c i a l and e d u c a tio n a l l i v i n g . 2.

Homerooms.

T his i s s t r i c t l y a secondary schoo l

program i n most minds; y e t , i s i t ?

What i s t h e elem entary

classroom i f i t i s n o t a co n tin u o u s homeroom w ith a l l o f th e problems which a secondary school homeroom may develop?

In

th e fo rm a l homeroom, t h e r e i s th e o p p o rtu n ity f o r o r g a n iz a tio n to promote d em ocratic r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n a l l ty p e s o f endeavor. T his i s t r u e o f a lcw er g rad e classro o m .

There i s p r o v is io n

f o r a p p r a i s a l of p e r s o n a l a s s e t s and l i a b i l i t i e s , procurem ent of in fo rm a tio n ab out o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n th e community and i n sch o o l, such a s e d u c a tio n a l o b j e c t i v e s , v o c a ti o n s , p e r s o n a l, s o c i a l , and c i v i c .

This i s a good c l a s s f o r in tr o d u c in g and

encouraging e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s and c o n s i d e r a t io n of ways of im proving th e sch o o l and th e community.

3.

O r i e n ta t i o n c o u r s e s .

Here a g a in i s a secondary

cou rse which i s in c lu d e d i n th e everyday c u rricu lu m of th e elem en tary s c h o o l.

This course can in c lu d e a survey o f th e

scho ol p l a n t f a c i l i t i e s and a stu d y of th e r u l e s and r e g u l a ­ t i o n s o f th e s c h o o l.

A cquaintance w ith school customs and

t r a d i t i o n s , knowledge of th e s c h o o l 's p la c e in th e community and an a c q u a in ta n c e w ith th e school p e r s o n n e l.

The co u rse

could in c lu d e in fo rm a tio n about th e schoo l s e r v i c e s a v a i l a b l e through th e l i b r a r y , s tu d e n t s t o r e , c a f e t e r i a and o th e r o f f e r ­ in g s o f th e scho ol p l a n t .

I n s t r u c t i o n i n how t o stu dy could

be p re s e n te d h e re t o g r e a t advantage to most o f th e p u p i ls and a l s o i n s t r u c t i o n on how t o g et a lo n g w ith peo ple and become a c c e p te d by th e sch o o l and th e o th e r p u p i l s . E l e c t i v e and s p e c i a l c l a s s e s .

U sing th e term " e l e c t ­

iv e " on th e elem en tary l e v e l i s n o t i n l i n e w ith p r a c t i c e b u t th e word i s in c lu d e d h ere so t h a t th e vocab u lary of th e secondary sch o o ls w i l l be c a r r i e d th ro u g h t h i s d i s c u s s i o n and th e a p p l i c a t i o n to th e elem entary s c h o o l.

I n th e s e s p e c i a l

c l a s s e s can be in c lu d e d any number of "odd job" type o f ma­ te ria l.

Follow ing a r e some of th e s p e c i a l co u rse s t h a t a r e

a p p lie d to th e s c h o o ls .

The elem en tary te a c h e r co v ers most

o f t h i s m a t e r i a l i n her everyday te a c h in g , 1.

L ea d ersh ip c l a s s e s .

The e lem en tary te a c h e r i s

c o n s ta n tly t r y i n g t o f o s t e r l e a d e r s h i p i n her p u p i l s .

In

47

t h i s ty p e o f c l a s s a l l o f th e q u a l i t i e s o f a le a d e r can be brough t i n t o l i g h t .

C o n s id e ra tio n f o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f

t h e le a d e r and i n s t r u c t i o n i n how t o fo llo w a s w e ll a s how to le a d .

There can be in c lu d e d a survey of th e l e a d e r s h i p oppor­

t u n i t i e s i n th e sch o o l and th e r e l a t i o n of school su cc ess and l e a d e r s h i p so t h a t th e p u p ils may b e t t e r develop t h e i r own p o te n tia litie s. 2.

P ra c tic a l a r t s courses.

Here i s where t h e elem en­

t a r y te a c h e r a p p l i e s th e s o c i a l s t u d i e s c o n s t r u c t i o n work to th e l e a r n in g p ro c e s s ,

what i s t h i s c o n s t r u c ti o n b u t p r a c t i ­

c a l a r t s i n o p e r a tio n i n th e elem entary schoo l?

This ty p e of

work g iv es t r a i n i n g i n common s k i l l s , a p p r e c i a t i o n of th e im­ p o rta n c e o f m echanical o c c u p a tio n s , survey o f jo b s r e q u i r i n g t r a i n i n g p ro v id ed by th e s c h o o l.

There can be a s t i m u l a t i o n

f o r i n t e r e s t i n p r a c t i c a l a r t s developed i n th e s e c l a s s e s and t h e r e can be an a p p r a i s a l o f a p t i t u d e s and m echanical and household a c t i v i t i e s , a l l o f which can a id i n th e development of a w e ll a d j u s t e d p e r s o n a l i t y .

I f p r a c t i c a l a r t s co u rse s

w ere used more in th e above i n t e r e s t s , they would be much more u s e f u l i n th e modern s c h o o l; b u t i t i s u s u a l l y a f a c t t h a t th e s e co u rses a r e j u s t c a tc h b a s in s f o r boys who want to p la y and n o t work. 3.

E x p lo ra to ry c o u r s e s .

This co u rse can be used f o r

many and v a r ie d item s o f g u id an ce .

I t can develop v o c a tio n a l

48

and a v o c a tio n a l i n t e r e s t s by i n v e s t i g a t i o n of any f i e l d s t h a t a r e o f i n t e r e s t to t h e p u p i l s .

There can be in fo rm a tio n p r e ­

se n te d co n c ern in g f u r t h e r t r a i n i n g i n th e f i e l d s o f i n t e r e s t s . There can be t r a i n i n g i n s k i l l s and d is c o v e r y of and d e v e lo p ­ ment of a p t i t u d e s . 4.

S p e c ia l c l a s s e s .

Here can be in c lu d e d c l a s s e s such

as speech, drama, jo u rn a lis m , m usic, a r t and many o t h e r s .

The

p u p ils can a c q u ir e w orthw hile hobbies from t h i s c l a s s and can e n r ic h t h e i r own p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s i n c u l t u r e .

There can be

developed a d i v e r s i f i e d i n t e r e s t p a t t e r n i n t h e i n d i v id u a ls t h a t would g iv e th e p u p i ls much knowledge o f h o b b ie s, e t c . The p u p ils could d evelop a r t i s t i c and communicative a b i l i t i e s . C ooperation w ith o t h e r s th ro u g h p a r t i c i p a t i o n w ith programs o f a r t and communication.

T ra in in g f o r worthy u s e o f l e i s u r e

tim e i s an im p o rta n t ite m to be developed i n t h i s ty pe o f c la ss.

In t h i s c l a s s , a l s o , could be an en largem ent upon th e

ty p e o f s t u d i e s done i n th e e x p lo r a to r y c l a s s e s by f u r t h e r e x p lo r a tio n of e d u c a t io n a l and v o c a tio n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s . E x tra -c u rric u la r a c t i v i t i e s .

T his means any ty p e o f

group, c lu b , s p o r t s e v e n t, e t c . t h a t i s n o t a d i r e c t p a r t o f sch o o l c u rric u lu m b u t has t h e sch o o l a s i t s b a s i s f o r form a­ tio n . 1.

A th le tic o rg a n iz a tio n s .

These o r g a n iz a t io n s a r e

49

e x c e l l e n t f o r th e developm ent o f a t t i t u d e s o f f a i r p la y and f o r th e s t i m u l a t i o n o f team l o y a l t y .

This ty p e o f o r g a n iz a ­

t i o n can a l s o dev elo p c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r team members and f o r s u p p o r te r s o f th e opposing team s.

I t g iv e s p r a c t i c e i n t a k i n g

"hard knocks" w ith o u t com plaining.

Developing quick th i n k in g

and i n i t i a t i v e along w ith t r a i n i n g i n f o llo w in g d i r e c t i o n s a r e v a lu a b le t r a i n i n g d e v ic e s o f t h i s type of o r g a n i z a t io n . 2.

Club a c t i v i t i e s .

Clubs make p r o v i s i o n f o r c h i l ­

d re n i n t e r e s t e d in group p a r t i c i p a t i o n and g iv es an o u t l e t f o r p u p il en th u siasm s.

They s tim u l a t e i n t e r e s t i n sc h o o l and com­

m unity a c t i v i t i e s a s w e ll a s c o n s t r u c t i v e u se o f s p a re tim e of th e p u p i l s .

Clubs a r e e x c e l l e n t to keep c h i l d r e n o f f th e

s t r e e t s and o u t of t r o u b l e .

I f th ey a r e o rg a n iz e d and s u p e r­

v is e d by th e s c h o o ls , th ey can become a g r e a t f a c t o r i n th e e d u c a tio n o f th e p u p i l s i n th e a r t o f s o c i a l l i v i n g . 3.

s tu d e n t body government.

I n s tu d e n t body govern­

ment, th e s tu d e n ts l e a r n t o p a r t i c i p a t e in th e d em o cratic form o f government and th e y develop th e a b i l i t i e s o f l e a d e r s h i p and f o l l o w e r s h ip .

T his i s a l s o a method o f c r e a t i n g seh o o l l o y a l ­

t y and b u ild s f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s toward d em o cratic p r o c e s s e s . S p e c ia l guidance e v e n t s .

Here, a g a in , can be in c lu d e d

any e v e n ts d esig n ed f o r guidance and i n s t r u c t i o n o u t s i d e of th e classro o m .

50

1.

F ie ld t r i p s .

F ie ld t r i p s a r e i d e a l f o r f i r s t hand

in fo rm a tio n t o th e p u p i l s .

The f i e l d t r i p prom otes c o r r e c t

a t t i t u d e s toward i n d u s t r y and i t a l s o broadens th e c h i l d ' s knowledge and a p p r e c i a t i o n o f th e community's i n d u s t r i e s , r e s o u r c e s , and l o c a l e n t e r p r i s e s . 2.

D ram atic, speech, m u s ic a l, and a r t f e s t i v a l s .

In

t h i s ty p e of program t h e r e can be developm ent of a r t i s t i c t a l e n t s , advancement of a r t i s t i c a p p r e c i a t i o n , s e l e c t i o n of an a r t i s t i c v o c a tio n .

This program can a l s o d evelop s e l f - c o n f i ­

dence and f e e l i n g s of su c c e ss f o r t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g members. Here, a l s o , can be p re s e n te d in fo rm a tio n c o n c ern in g a r t i s t i c p r e f e r e n c e s of th e community. 3.

E x h i b its .

I n e x h i b i t s , t h e r e i s much p r a c t i c e i n

a r r a n g in g models and o b j e c t s , a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r p u b lic l i k e s and d i s l i k e s , c o o p e ra tio n w ith c la ss m a te s i n s e l e c t i n g mech­ a n i c a l or household a r t o b j e c t s f o r d i s p l a y , c o o p e ra tio n on c l a s s p ro d u c tio n s , a p p r e c i a t i o n o f p r e c i s e workmanship, and development of i n t e r e s t s i n t e c h n i c a l p r o c e s s e s ’. 4.

School a s s e m b lie s .

In sch o o l a s s e m b lie s can be

developed an a p p r e c i a t i o n of th e im portance o f au d ien ce i n ­ t e r e s t s , c e l e b r a t i o n of sch o o l triu m p h s, a r o u s a l of school s p i r i t and en th u siasm , a p p r e c i a t i o n of th e f u n c ti o n s o f th e s ch o o l, developm ent of au d ie n c e b e h a v io r, s t i m u l a t i o n toward

51

Improved s tu d e n t m orale and p r a c t i c e i n l e a r n i n g t o l i s t e n . This l i s t o f e v e n ts and methods i s by no means an a l l i n c l u s i v e one.

There a r e many d i f f e r e n t ty p e s and a r r a n g e ­

ments o f a c t i v i t i e s t h a t can be very u s e f u l i n group guidance and any one may be used f o r a v a r i e t y o f guidance f u n c t i o n s o th e r th a n th e ones in c lu d e d h e r e . As has been shown i n th e samples given, t h e elem en tary sch o o l perform s a l l of th e f u n c ti o n s o f guidance which th e secondary s c h o o ls have been c la im in g f o r them selv es f o r some tim e .

I t i s n e c e s s a ry t h a t th e secondary sc h o o ls c o n tin u e to

perform t h e s e f u n c ti o n s th o ro u g h ly , but i t i s t h e purpose of t h i s c h a p te r to f o s t e r in th e minds o f th e peop le t h a t g u id ­ ance b e g in s , i n th e s c h o o ls , th e f i r s t day th e c h i l d b eg in s h i s school c a r e e r .

Guidance and e d u c a tio n can not be s e p a ra te d

and ta u g h t a s two d i f f e r e n t ite m s . one.

Guidance and e d u c a tio n a r e

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY T his p r o j e c t i s p re s e n te d w ith a p h ilo so p h y t h a t i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t i n i t s r e l a t i o n to te a c h in g th a n i s u s u a l l y c o n s id e re d .

Y et, when t h e r e i s a r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n , i t i s gen­

e r a l l y ag reed by t e a c h e r s in th e f i e l d t h a t a l l te a c h in g i s g u idan ce, and classroom te a c h in g i s group guidance a t i t s b e st.

Group dynam ics, group guidance and classroom te a c h in g ,

i n th e elem entary g r a d e s , a r e synonomous i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n g iv en to them i n t h i s m a t e r i a l .

Each has a d i s t i n c t d e f i n i ­

t i o n ; y e t , ta k e n i n th e broad s e n s e , th e y can n o t be s e p a r a te d . The guidance of any sch o o l system should be p la n te d and a llo w ­ ed to r o o t f ir m l y i n t h e elem entary sch o o l i f a w o rth w hile and e f f e c t i v e guidance program i s to be f u l l y developed i n th e secondary sch o o l. The classro o m te a c h e r i s th e key p e rso n i n guidance. C ounselors should be a v a i l a b l e t o th e te a c h e r a s r e s o u r c e s p e c i a l i s t s , b u t th e te a c h e r i s th e p e rso n who i s i n d a i l y c o n ta c t w ith th e c h i l d r e n and upon whose guid ance th ey depend i n re g a rd to many im p o rta n t phases of developm ent. When we ta k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t io n th e working o f group dynamics i n th e c lassro o m , i t must be k e p t i n mind t h a t each group o f s tu d e n ts i s n o t j u s t th e sum o f d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u ­ a l s , b u t has a d i s t i n c t "group p e r s o n a l i t y . ”

The m a tte r of

53

b e lo n g in g to a group i s a l s o a v i t a l problem i n t h i s stu d y o f th e a c t i o n s o f groups o f p e o p le .

R e j e c t i o n i s a group a f f a i r ,

even i f i t i s only one p u p i l who i s r e j e c t e d .

A te a c h e r who

f i n d s r e j e c t i o n i n th e group w i l l need to .ex am in e th e group i n her classroom so t h a t she may u n d e rsta n d th e d i f f i c u l t y t h a t p e r s i s t s and draw t h a t r e j e c t e d p u p i l i n t o th e group. The use of th e sociogram i s an e x c e l l e n t t o o l f o r d is c o v e r in g any of th e s e i s o l a t e s which may be i n th e c l a s s .

The s o c io ­

gram w i l l a l s o g ive t h e te a c h e r a key to t h e s o l u t i o n of th e problem by p o in tin g o u t to her th e p o p u lar p u p ils who can be used to draw th e i s o l a t e i n t o t h e group. C o n s id e ra tio n should be g iv e n t o th e pro per o r g a n iz in g f o r group g u id an ce .

I t i s b e s t to keep th e p u p i l s i n th e same

group as lo n g a s p o s s i b l e so t h a t they w i l l become a t ea se w ith th e group and, th e re b y , g a in from th e a s s o c i a t i o n s de­ v elo p ed .

Care should be used in th e g u id in g o f th e group as

a group.

I t must be k e p t i n mind t h a t each group has i t s own

e n t i t y and n o t j u s t a sum o f i n d i v i d u a l s th in k in g independ­ e n tly .

The le a d e r in th e group should a s s i s t i n m olding th e

group i n t o a com plete and compact u n i t , and i n th e p ro c e s s , t h e le a d e r should t r y t o be a c c e p te d as a member h im s e lf, and n o t th e l e a d e r . The te a c h e r i n a classro om i s i n an e x c e l l e n t p o s i t i o n t o a c t as t h e group o b s e rv e r.

In t h i s p o s i t i o n , th e te a c h e r

can n o t i c e any i r r e g u l a r i t i e s which may be d e v e lo p in g and ten d

54

to keep th e group on i t s c o u rs e .

With o u t s i d e o b s e r v a tio n ,

i t i s much e a s i e r to c o n t r o l th e a c t i o n s o f th e group i n i t s s o lv in g of th e o b j e c t i v e s .

The te a c h e r a l s o must know th e

i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e group and, th e re b y , see t h a t none a r e l e f t to become r e j e c t e d or t o become too d om ineering. There has been d i s c u s s i o n i n th e p a s t y e a r s ab out th e grouping of p u p i l s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n our s c h o o ls , b u t i t seems t h a t th e concensus o f o p in io n f a v o r s th e homogeneous ty p e of group.

For t h e ty p e of e d u c a tio n which we have i n

t h e u n i t e d S t a t e s , e d u c a tio n f o r ’’a l l ” th e p e o p le , t h i s homo­ geneous grouping i s a m ust.

I f we d e s i r e our p eo p le t o gpow

i n t o good c i t i z e n s , we must n o t s e p a r a te them i n th e p ro c e s s . A c r o s s s e c ti o n o f p u p i l s i n t h e c l a s s w i l l te n d to a i d th e s tu d e n ts i n t h e i r developm ent o f d em ocratic id e a s toward t h e i r fe llo w men. A fte r we have i n s t r u c t e d our p u p ils in t h e fundam entals of th e c u rric u lu m , t h e r e must be an ad equ ate manner of t e s t i n g th e r e s u l t s .

The teach er-m ad e t e s t i s th e most commonly used

ty p e o f t e s t , even though i t may be th e most i n a c c u r a t e t e s t i n a good many c a s e s .

The t e a c h e r , when p r e p a r in g a t e s t ,

shou ld p re p a re th e f i r s t d r a f t a s f a r ahead o f tim e a s i s p o s s i b l e ; a s a r u l e , th e t e s t should in c lu d e more th a n one ty p e of o b j e c t i v e measurement; th e c o n te n t of th e t e s t should in c lu d e easy as w e ll a s d i f f i c u l t m a t e r i a l so a s t o cover th e e n t i r e group; in c lu d e i n t h e p re lim in a ry d r a f t many more item s

55

th a n w i l l be needed i n th e f i n a l t e s t ; a f t e r some tim e has e la p s e d , th e t e s t sho uld be review ed and m odified where need­ ed; th e t e s t item s should be worded so t h a t th e c o n te n t r a t h e r th a n th e form w i l l d eterm in e th e answer; th e t e s t item s should be worded as sim ply as p o s s i b l e so t h a t a l l of th e item i s needed to d e te rm in e t h e answer and n o t j u s t a p a r t o f i t ; a l l s i m i l a r ty p e s o f item s should be p la c e d to g e th e r i n t h e t e s t ; t h e item s shou ld be a rra n g e d i n th e t e s t w ith th e easy ones f i r s t and grow p r o g r e s s iv e l y h a r d e r; av oid any r e g u l a r p a t ­ t e r n of re sp o n s e s t o th e ite m s ; i t i s d e s i r a b l e to keep a w r i t t e n re c o rd o f th e p u p i l 's re s p o n s e s ; a l l d i r e c t i o n s con­ c e rn in g th e t e s t should be made a s c l e a r , co m p lete, and con­ c i s e as p o s s i b l e . The methods and te c h n iq u e s o f group guidance, r e l a t i v e to ty p e s of co u rse s and a c t i v i t i e s , i n th e elem entary sc h o o ls a r e as v a r ie d as i n t h e secondary s c h o o l.

Almost a l l methods

o f group guidance which a r e w e ll known on th e secondary l e v e l can be a p p lie d very e f f e c t i v e l y i n th e elem entary s c h o o ls and be j u s t a s u s e f u l and e n jo y a b le to th e younger c h i l d r e n .

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