Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications [1 ed.] 9781774913888, 9781774913895, 9781003398578

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
About the Editors
About the Book
Table of Contents
Contributors
Abbreviations
Preface
1. An Introduction to Nanomaterials in Energy Applications
2. Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications
3. Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage
4. Energy Conversion and Storage Devices
5. MOF-Based Nanomaterials as Electrocatalysts for Energy Applications
6. Cellulose-Based Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion/Storage Devices
7. Recent Advances in Nanomaterials for Energy Conversion and Storage
8. Thermal Conductivity of Green Nanomaterials: A Special Reference to Nanofluids
9. Green Nanotechnology for a Sustainable Future
10. Green Nanomaterials for a Sustainable Future Environment
Index

Citation preview

GREEN NANOMATERIALS IN ENERGY CONVERSION AND STORAGE APPLICATIONS

GREEN NANOMATERIALS IN ENERGY CONVERSION AND STORAGE APPLICATIONS

Edited by

Ishani Chakrabartty, PhD Khalid Rehman Hakeem, PhD, FRSB

First edition published 2024 Apple Academic Press Inc. 1265 Goldenrod Circle, NE, Palm Bay, FL 32905 USA 760 Laurentian Drive, Unit 19, Burlington, ON L7N 0A4, CANADA

CRC Press 2385 NW Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton FL 33431 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN UK

© 2024 by Apple Academic Press, Inc. Apple Academic Press exclusively co-publishes with CRC Press, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors, editors, and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors, editors, and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged, please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected] Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

CIP data on file with Canada Library and Archives

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

CIP data on file with US Library of Congress

ISBN: 978-1-77491-388-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-77491-389-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-00339-857-8 (ebk)

Dedication Dedicated to our parents and siblings

About the Editors Ishani Chakrabartty, PhD Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Science and Technology, Meghalaya (USTM), India Ishani Chakrabartty, PhD, is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Department of Applied Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Science and Technology, Meghalaya (USTM), India (accredited “A” grade by NAAC). She completed her PhD at the Dept. of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Guwahati, in 2019. She has specialization in biotechnology, particularly in natural products, microbiology, and nanotechnology. She has been teaching graduate and postgraduate students for the past 2.5 years. She has published around seven papers in international journals (all Scopus and WOS indexed) of repute and more than three book chapters with national and international publishers such as Springer, Elsevier, Taylor and Francis, Frontiers, and others. She is a budding young researcher who cares immensely for science and its associated implications. At 28, she was appointed as the Head of the Department in P.A First Grade College, Mangalore University, where she served for a year (2019–2020). She has a number of national awards to her credit and holds life memberships in several national organizations, including BRSI, ECPFO, and the Indian Science Congress. She was awarded Best Science Story in 2018 by AWSAR-DST, Government of India. Currently, she collaborates with many scientists all over the world for fruitful knowledge sharing and learning experience. Apart from being a researcher, Dr. Chakrabartty is also an avid writer on social issues in newspapers, magazines, and different online forums. Khalid Rehman Hakeem, PhD, FRSB Professor, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Khalid Rehman Hakeem, PhD, FRSB, is presently working as Professor at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. After completing

viii

About the Editors

his PhD (Botany; specialization in Plant Ecophysiology and Molecular Biology) from Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India, in 2011, he worked as an assistant professor at the University of Kashmir, Srinagar, for a short period. Later, he joined Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia, and worked there as Post-Doctorate Fellow in 2012 and Fellow Researcher (Associate Prof.) from 2013–2016, respectively. He joined King Abdulaziz University in August 2016 and was promoted to professorship in 2019. Dr. Hakeem has more than 12 years of teaching and research experience in plant ecophysiology, biotechnology and molecular biology, medicinal plant research, plant-microbe-soil interactions as well as in environmental studies. He is the recipient of several fellowships at both national and international levels. He has recently been elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology, London. Prof. Hakeem has served as a Visiting Scientist at Fatih Universiti, Istanbul, Turkey, as well as at Jinan University, Guangzhou, China. Currently, he is involved with a number of international research projects with different government organizations. To date, Dr. Hakeem has authored and edited more than 80 books with international publishers, including Springer Nature, Academic Press (Elsevier), CRC Press, etc. He has also to his credit 160 research publications in peer-reviewed international journals and 65 book chapters in edited volumes with international publishers. At present, Dr. Hakeem serves as an editorial board member and reviewer of several high-impact international scientific journals from Elsevier, Springer Nature, Taylor, Cambridge and Francis, and John Wiley Publishers.

About the Book This publication is designed to introduce doctoral and graduate students to a specialized application of nanomaterials and how “green” nanomaterials can be designed and utilized in energy conversion and storage devices. Energy crisis is a matter of serious global concern, and all the major nations of the world are investing huge capital in the quest for sustainable energy sources. Fossil fuels are very limited, and their utilization comes with a number of harmful effects on human health and environment. As such, designing nanomaterials, particularly biosynthesized nanomaterials, can serve as a possible solution to this ongoing search. The book will emphasize on the importance and different modes of synthesis of nanomaterials, with detailed emphasis on green nanomaterials. It will, then, present the picture of energy crisis and how nanomaterials can be utilized as energy conversion and storage devices. Details of the energy efficiency and environmental impact of the utilization of green nanomaterials as energy conversion devices will be the major focus of the book, and hence, will be appropriately highlighted. The target audience for this book includes the industrial and educational units/societies/ authorities/operators/agencies who are engaged in finding solutions or replacements for the traditional sources of energy as well as M.Phil/Ph.D scholars and graduate students, junior researchers, and professors teaching courses on mechanical/electrical/chemical engineering, nanotechnology and green chemistry, although senior researchers can also use this book as a handy and compact reference. This edited book will bring the information available on all the applications of nanomaterials in the energy sector. Energy crisis is very real and this book highlights that and makes an attempt to bring it to the notice of young minds. Different kinds of research are being carried out for designing energy efficient devices; hence, the book highlights the role of green nanomaterials in dealing with this challenging problem. This book also focuses on the different areas of the energy sector where green nanomaterials are playing a pivotal role. It will give focus toward gaining knowledge and understanding the concepts of thermal conductivity,

x

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

energy efficiency, energy consumption, and the new emergence of green nanomaterials in this important sector. Furthermore, this book will recognize the innovate measures taken by different countries to overcome the existing limitations in the energy sector and the application of green nanomaterials for the sustainable growth, environment, and a futuristic bio-based economy.

Contents Contributors....................................................................................................... xiii Abbreviations .................................................................................................... xvii Preface ............................................................................................................... xxi 1.

An Introduction to Nanomaterials in Energy Applications .................... 1 Kabari Krishna Borah, Yashodhara Goswami, Ishani Chakrabartty, and Khalid Rehman Hakeem

2.

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications............................ 17 Mohd Ishfaq Bhat, Shikhangi Singh, Utpreksha Thapliyal, and Asfaq

3.

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage ........ 45 P. Periasamy and Yugal Kishore Mohanta

4.

Energy Conversion and Storage Devices ................................................ 75 Madhusudan B. Kulkarni and N. H. Ayachit

5.

MOF-Based Nanomaterials as Electrocatalysts for Energy Applications.................................................................................. 95 Naseem Ahmad Khan, Tayyaba Najam, and Syed Shoaib Ahmad Shah

6.

Cellulose-Based Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion/Storage Devices...................................................................................................... 119 Adil Majeed Rather, Arif Hassan Dar, Umair Hussain Shah, Arpita Shome, and Angana Borbora

7.

Recent Advances in Nanomaterials for Energy Conversion and Storage ......................................................................... 145 Ruqiya Bhat and Wakeel Ahmed Dar

8.

Thermal Conductivity of Green Nanomaterials: A Special Reference to Nanofluids.......................................................................... 169 Qudsiya Y. Tamboli, Kranti R. Zakde, Mehboobali Pannipara, and Yugal Kishore Mohanta

xii

Contents

9.

Green Nanotechnology for a Sustainable Future................................. 189 Roheela Ahmad, Nasir Bashir Naikoo, and Shafat Ahmad Ahanger

10. Green Nanomaterials for a Sustainable Future Environment............ 215 Anandkumar Naorem, A. Patel, A. Bhaguna, S. Sharma, A. Singh, N. Priya, P. H. Chanu, R. Patel, P. Singh, M. Jaison, B. Sahu, G. Sahu, and S. K. Udayana

Index ................................................................................................................. 239

Contributors Shafat Ahmad Ahanger

Division of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Wadura, Sopore, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Roheela Ahmad

Division of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Wadura, Sopore, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Asfaq

Department of Agriculture, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

N. H. Ayachit

School of Advanced Sciences, KLE Technological University, Vidyanagar, Hubballi, Karnataka, India

A. Bhaguna

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IAS, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

Mohd Ishfaq Bhat

Department of Post Harvest Process and Food Engineering, GBPUAT, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India

Ruqiya Bhat

Department of Physics, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Kabari Krishna Borah

Department of Applied Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Science and Technology Meghalaya (USTM), Ri-Bhoi, Baridua, Meghalaya, India Department of Biotechnology, Dolphin PG Institute of Biomedical and Natural Sciences, HNB Garhwal Central University, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Angana Borbora

Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, Assam, India

Ishani Chakrabartty

Department of Applied Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Science and Technology Meghalaya (USTM), Ri-Bhoi, Baridua, Meghalaya, India

P. H. Chanu

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IAS, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

Arif Hassan Dar

Energy Unit, Institute of Nano Science and Technology, Mohali, India

Wakeel Ahmed Dar

International Centre for Clean Water (ICCW), an Initiative of IIT Madras, IIT Madras Research Park, Taramani, Chennai, India

xiv

Contributors

Yashodhara Goswami

Department of Applied Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Science and Technology Meghalaya (USTM), Ri-Bhoi, Baridua, Meghalaya, India

Khalid Rehman Hakeem

Department of Biological Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Princess Dr Najla Bint Saud Al-Saud Center for Excellence Research in Biotechnology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

M. Jaison

Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

Naseem Ahmad Khan

Institute of Chemistry, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan

Madhusudan B. Kulkarni

School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, KLE Technological University, Vidyanagar, Hubballi, Karnataka, India

Yugal Kishore Mohanta

Department of Applied Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Science and Technology Meghalaya, Baridua, Ri-Bhoi, Meghalaya, India

Nasir Bashir Naikoo

Division of Soil Science Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Wadura, Sopore, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Tayyaba Najam

Institute for Advanced Study and Institute of Microscale Optoelectronics, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China

Anandkumar Naorem

ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, RRS-Bhuj, Gujarat, India

Mehboobali Pannipara

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia

A. Patel

ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute, RRS-Bhuj, Gujarat, India

R. Patel

Forest Ecology and Climate Change Division, Institute of Forest Biodiversity, Hyderabad, Telengana, India

P. Periasamy

Department of Physics, Nehru Institute of Engineering and Technology, T.M. Palayam, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

N. Priya

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IAS, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

Adil Majeed Rather

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA

B. Sahu

Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

Contributors G. Sahu

xv

Centurion University of Technology and Management, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

Syed Shoaib Ahmad Shah

Institute of Chemistry, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, CAS Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Materials Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China

Umair Hussain Shah

Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Ohio State University, Ohio, USA

S. Sharma

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IAS, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

Arpita Shome

Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, Assam, India

A. Singh

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IAS, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

P. Singh

Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

Shikhangi Singh

Department of Post Harvest Process and Food Engineering, GBPUAT, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India

Qudsiya Y. Tamboli

Department of Basic and Applied Science, MGM University, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India

Utpreksha Thapliyal

Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Allahabad, India

Kranti R. Zakde

Department of Basic and Applied Science, MGM University, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India

S. K. Udayana

Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University, Venkataramannagudem, Andhra Pradesh, India

Abbreviations AFM BC BET BGA CA CAES CBM CBN CBNF CCIP CCS CDC CDU CEC CEO CNTs COD CSP CVD DLC DLS DOE DSC DSSCs DTA EDLC EELS ESR ETP EXAFS FMR GCC GMC

atomic force microscopy black carbon Brunauer–Emmett–Teller blue-green algae cardanol compressed air energy storage carbon-based materials cellulose-based nanomaterials cellulose-based nanofibers Climate Change Intergovernmental Panel carbon capture and storage carbide-derived carbon carbon dioxide utilization cation exchange capacity clove essential oil carbon nanotubes chemical oxygen demand concentrated solar power chemical vapor deposition double-layer capacitors dynamic light scattering Department of Energy differential scanning calorimetry dye-sensitized solar cells differential thermal analysis electric double-layer capacitors electron energy loss spectroscopy enhancement of surface Raman effluent treatment plants extended X-ray absorption fine structure ferromagnetic resonance Gulf Cooperation Council graphitized mesoporous carbon

xviii

GO GO HAS HAWT HRP HRTEM ICP-MS ICP-OES IEA KOH LEIS Li+ LIB LLNs LNPs LPNs MALDI MB MFM MO MOFs MRI MWCNT NaOH NC NG NMR NPP PANI PC PCE PD PEC PEN PET PL PMM PV

Abbreviations

graphene oxide graphite oxide human serum albumin horizontal axis wind turbine horseradish peroxidase high-resolution transmission electron microscopy inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry International Energy Agency potassium hydroxide low-energy ion scattering spectroscopy lithium lithium-ion batteries lipid-like nanoparticles lipid nanoparticles lipid–polymer hybrid nanoparticles matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization methylthioninium chloride magnetic force microscopy methyl orange metal-organic frameworks magnetic resonance imaging smart multiwalled carbon nanotube sodium hydroxide nanocellulose natural gas nuclear magnetic resonance nuclear power plants polyaniline pseudocapacitors power conversion efficiency power density photoelectrochemical polyethylene naphthalate polyethylene terephthalate photoluminescence porous matrix membrane photovoltaic

Abbreviations

PVA PVP RDE RGO SAXS SCS SDGs SEM SEM-EDX SMES SPE SQUID STEM TEM TFE TOF TRPS TWh TWW UV-Vis VAWT VSM WHC XMCD XPS XRD ZnO 3D

xix

polyvinyl alcohol polyvinyl pyrrolidone rotating disk electrode reduced graphene oxide small-angle X-ray scattering supercapacitors sustainable development goals scanning electron microscope scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray superconducting magnetic energy storage solid polymer electrolyte superconducting quantum interference device scanning transmission electron microscope transmission electron microscopes tetrafluoroethylene turnover frequency tunable resistive pulse sensing terawatt-hours tannery wastewater ultraviolet-visible vertical axis wind turbine vibrating-sample magnetometer water-holding capacity X-ray magnetic circular dichroism X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy X-ray powder diffraction green zinc oxide three dimensional

Preface With the advent of nanotechnology, materials possessing extraordinary superconductivity and unbelievable/amazing photonics that seemed miraculous and were considered to be the imagination of a “research” mind was within the reach of hardworking scientists, in reality. The idea for nanotechnology appeared for the first time in a talk given by physicist, Richard Feyman, when he had said, “There is plenty of room at the bottom.” However, the first scientific report on nanomaterials was of gold nanomaterials, synthesized by Michael Faraday, in a period as early as 1857. It is very interesting to realize that objects or materials measured in nanoscale always existed in nature (e.g., ash from volcanoes, sea breeze, etc.), but techniques to manipulate and model objects to this miniature level were developed only in the last 20–30 years. In other words, nanomaterials are not something made in a laboratory, but rather nanotechnology has made it possible for human beings to create materials that have nanoforms. The advent of nanotechnology occurred way back in 1980s, with the development of modeling and characterization techniques like computation, scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), etc. A new-age term in the field of nanotechnology is “green nanotechnology” which is defined as the use of nanotechnology to enhance environmental sustainability by reducing potential risks and hazards associated with environment and human health in the production of nanoparticles and nano products. It is usually perceived that “green” and “clean” nanotechnologies will come with a huge baggage of environmental benefits. Green nanotechnology finds its use in waste water treatment, hydrogen applications, etc. A white paper, Green Nanotechnology Challenges and Opportunities, by the ACS Green Chemistry Institute, in collaboration with the Oregon Nanoscience and Microtechnologies Institute, highlights the critical challenges to the advancement of green nanotechnology; a similar study was also made recently in 2017. Energy crisis is a broad and complex topic, and is a matter of serious global concern. Several factors such as enhanced living standard of the

xxii

Preface

society, industrial revolution, urbanization, and technological advancements have led to excessive consumption of energy. The excessive energy consumption has greatly contributed to escalated environmental pollution and depletion on fossil fuel resources. Along with this, the energy crisis has a dramatic impact on the global economy, which may lead to tremendous sociopolitical issues. Hence, there is an urgent need to address this global threat. Increased use of renewable sources of energy has marked a paradigm shift in the global scenario of energy crisis. Apart from this, energyefficient products and technologies, energy management practices, and sustainable and hybrid technologies, are among the various effective methods to deal with the energy crisis. Though the energy consumption of the world is globally dominated by fossil sources, the share of renewable sources has drastically increased, while coal, gas, and oil have steadily decreased. At present, great emphasis is laid on the utilization of solar and hydroenergy sources, in line with the growing awareness for a clean, green, and sustainable environment. Phase change materials (PCMs) have revolutionized this field and have provided direction to solve both energy and environmental issues in the near future. The demand for “clean” has also led to the development of thermoelectric devices that can perform easy conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy; an innovative proposal of the utilization of integrated H-type method can effectively measure the thermoelectric properties of 2D materials. Also, a high-efficient and low-cost reaction system for H2 production by solar-driven photo-thermo-reforming of methanol can solve the problem of low efficiency of energy conversion with noblemetal-free catalyst of CuO supported on SiO2 filter. In the search for green and clean energy, an important role is played by nanomaterials synthesized by green techniques. They have a high tensile strength, resistance, and durability, especially when the nanocomposities are mixed with C fiber, CO, graphene, and others. Most importantly, being nontoxic, green nanomaterials are highly advantageous, and can possibly provide a solution to the ever-increasing global energy crisis. —Editors

CHAPTER 1

An Introduction to Nanomaterials in Energy Applications KABARI KRISHNA BORAH1,2, YASHODHARA GOSWAMI1, ISHANI CHAKRABARTTY1, and KHALID REHMAN HAKEEM3,4 1Department

of Applied Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Science and Technology Meghalaya (USTM), Baridua, Ri Bhoi, Meghalaya, India 2Department

of Biotechnology, Dolphin PG Institute of Biomedical and Natural Sciences, HNB Garhwal Central University, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India 3Department

Saudi Arabia

of Biological Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah,

4Princess

Dr Najla Bint Saud Al Saud Center for Excellence Research in Biotechnology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACT In recent years, the rapid advancement in science and technology has increased the applications of nanotechnology in various fields. The nonrenewability and high cost of appropriate energy resources and uncontrollable population growth have enhanced the demand for low-cost and efficient energy sources all over the world. To fulfill that emerging global energy crisis, scientists have implemented nanotechnology in our day-to-day lives by finding applications of different nanomaterials and nanoparticles. This chapter focuses on synthesis of nanoparticles by two Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications. Ishani Chakrabartty & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, (Eds.) © 2024 Apple Academic Press, Inc. Co-published with CRC Press (Taylor & Francis)

2

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

basic methods, namely constructive and destructive methods, potential applications of nanoparticles, and most importantly on the energy-based applications of nanomaterials. The high surface-area-to-volume ratio, greater ability of heat conduction, and electrical conductivity, along with the relevant size and shape, lead to their utilization in eco-friendly, thermally stable, cost-effective energy generation and storage devices in a sustainable manner. 1.1 INTRODUCTION With the lack of worldwide fossil energy assets and the rise of natural emergencies, worries about energy issues have ascended to an uncommon level. Individuals have started to look for potential and economical answers for energy issues, creating energy materials with green squares to offer specialized help for the unwavering quality and headway of future living climate. As an elective strategy for developing supportable materials by gathering dissipated nanocellulose building blocks utilizing base innovation, the coordinated nanoarchitectonic from wood has drawn in increasingly more consideration in energy regions. In light of the current focal points of superior execution batteries, sun-based steam age, and building energy effectiveness, this part depicts the meaning of wood nanotechnology for practical energy advancement. This section chiefly centers around the current accomplishments in this field, the improvement pattern, and what is to come.1,3,6,11 With the increasing cost of energy, nanotechnology is being widely used to develop new and more efficient ways to generate energy. Some of these new energy-producing techniques involve the use of nanotechnology. Researchers have found that sunlight can generate steam with high energy efficiency through the use of nanoparticles. This technology is ideal for areas where electricity is not available. A research group is working on nanoparticles that can be used to generate steam from sunlight. They are also trying to find ways to convert hydrogen from sea water into electricity. A new type of high efficiency light bulb made of nanoengineered polymers is being developed. It is said to be shatterproof and twice as efficient as standard light bulbs. A new type of incandescent light bulb that uses a material made up of crystals is also being developed. This type of bulb could be used to replace the incandescent light bulb.

An Introduction to Nanomaterials in Energy Applications

3

Stronger and lower weight blades can be made from nanotube-filled epoxy. These components can increase the amount of electricity that can be generated by each windmill. These sheets could be used to generate electricity from the heat that is usually wasted in a car exhaust pipe. Other researchers have also shown that sodium borosilicate nanoparticles can help store hydrogen. They can also reduce the energy used for heating and cooling buildings. The idea is to use these materials to reduce the energy needed to heat and cool buildings. The fibers can turn your ordinary motion into electricity to power electronic devices such as mobile phones, reducing friction to decrease energy utilization. Specialists have created oils utilizing inorganic buckyballs that essentially diminished grating. To reduce power loss in electric transmission wires, specialists at Rice College are creating wires containing carbon nanotubes that would fundamentally bring down power loss, than the wires right now utilized in the electric transmission framework. Richard Smalley imagined the utilization of nanotechnology to fundamentally change the power appropriation lattice. Smalley’s idea was that these updated transmission wires, which could communicate power great many miles with unimportant force misfortunes, with neighborhood power stockpiling limit as batteries in each building that could store influence for 24 hrs use.25,29 For lessening the expense of sun-powered cells, organizations have created nanotech sun-based cells that can be made at an essentially lower cost than ordinary sun-based cells. Working on the presentation of batteries, organizations are creating batteries utilizing nanomaterials. One such battery can sustain for long durations without replacement. Another battery can be reenergized fundamentally quicker than the customary batteries.9,30,32 Working on the effectiveness and decreasing the expense of power modules, nanotechnology is being utilized to lessen the expenses of impetuses utilized in energy units. These impetuses produce hydrogen particles from fuel such as methanol. Nanotechnology is additionally being utilized to work on the effectiveness of layers used in power modules to isolate hydrogen particles from different gases, like oxygen,9 making creation fills from unrefined substances more effective. Nanotechnology can address the lack of petroleum derivatives, like diesel and gas, by creating fills from secondrate unrefined components conservative. Nanotechnology can likewise be used to expand the mileage of motors and create energies from ordinary natural substances more effective.32

4

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

Nanotechnology is further developing on how we tackle the sun’s energy. Nanotechnology could convey world-modifying changes in the ways we make, communicate, store, and use energy. Nanotechnologyempowered energy creation and circulation can possibly address various squeezing energy issues.5,19 1.2 SYNTHESIS The nanoparticles can be synthesized by varieties of physical, chemical, and biological methods. Basically, it involves two types of approaches: either by breaking bulk materials to smaller required sized fragments (destructive methods) or combining atoms and molecules into clusters to form accurate sized nanoparticles (constructive methods). Therefore, the process of nanomaterial synthesis can be categorized into two broad classes: (1) top-down synthesis and (2) bottom-up synthesis.14 1) Top-down synthesis: In these methods, bulk material is broken down into smaller particles, in turn transforming them to accurate nanoscale particles. The destructive techniques are employed here and they exhibit a general characteristic that the size of nanoparticles and the time duration of the process applied, both are interrelated and inversely proportional to each other; X-ray patterns and SEM results have proved that the particle size decreases as time increases. Top-down syntheses involve milling, numerous decomposition methods, lithographic methods, and others.13,14 a) Ball-milling process: The simplest mechanical method based on transfer of kinetic energy for several physicochemical changes is the ball-milling process. It is an inexpensive process, but has the disadvantage of forming crystallites with irregular shapes, contaminated particles, and so on. This can be used for preparing metal alloys. Coconut shell nanoparticles are synthesized using ceramic balls and a planetary mill.13,14 b) Thermal decomposition method: It is a heat energy utilizing process for synthesizing nanoparticles, where the compound gets chemically decomposed at a specific temperature and results in monodispersed and stable nanoscale particles.13

An Introduction to Nanomaterials in Energy Applications

5

c) Lithographic methods: In these methods, a large amount of energy is required. A specific type of lithography known as nanoimprint lithography involves template material synthesis at first, followed by fabrication of nanopatterns by stamping soft polymers. Photolithography, focused ion lithography, and electron beam lithography are some other examples of lithographic methods used in manufacturing nanoparticles.13 Nanosphere lithography is a kind of lithographic method that is a combination of both top-down and bottom-up processes. It produces regular and homogeneous arrays of nanoparticles and possesses so many advantages.7 Laser ablation is a technique that synthesizes stable nanoparticles from different solvents. It is different from other conventional chemical reduction methods which use hazardous chemicals. Highly oxidative metals like zinc and copper are preferred to be manufactured in aqueous media with controlled shapes and sizes. Resizing and reshaping can be done through fragmentation and melting techniques. Recently popularized PLAAM is widely used for the synthesis of colloidal zinc (mostly) and other metal nanoparticles too.23 A simple top-down technique based on continuous chemical adsorption is used to manufacture colloidal carbon particles with proper controlled size. Also, some transition metal nanodots are synthesized by grinding as well as using the sonication techniques. The micrograph has also revealed the inverse-proportional relation between sonication time and the particle size.14 2) Bottom-up synthesis: These are called building up or constructive approaches where smaller atoms and molecules are clustered to form the nanoparticles. They are less costly and therefore economically more favorable. Some mostly used methods of bottom-up syntheses are as follows: a) CVD (chemical vapor deposition): It is a process where a solid material is deposited from a vapor by the occurrence of chemical reactions on the substrate surface or its vicinity,

6

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

maintained by heat. This technique is capable of producing coatings with uniform thickness as well as selective deposition with low porosity properties, even on complicated surface patterns. A big advantage of this method is that strong, uniform, and highly pure nanoparticles can be recovered by this approach. Semiconductor nanoparticles, for example, titanium dioxide was synthesized by CVD technique using titanium tetra isoperoxide precursors. Other applications of CVD are the production of solar cells, passivation layers, heat-resistant and high temperature fiber composites, and others.4 b) Pyrolysis: This method is cost-effective, efficient, and high yielding with a number of industrial applications. In this method, liquid or gaseous precursor is burnt with flame or laser at high temperature to make them evaporate easily and recover the nanoparticles.13 The versatile process of spray pyrolysis, operating at ambient pressure provides chemical flexibility and is utilized for the production of uniform zirconia and titania nanoparticles possessing applications in gas sensing, photocatalysis, solid oxide fuel cells, and others. Uniform dense nanoparticles of 90 nm diameter have been manufactured using spray pyrolysis method.27 c) Sol-gel technique: It is the simplest type of bottom-up process. Sol is the colloid formed with the help of suspended solid particles in a liquid phase. Conversion of monomers into sol takes place. This sol acts as the precursor for the gel, and transformation takes place with the help of hydrolysis and condensation reactions. For the dispersion of precursor in the host liquid, sonication, stirring, and shaking are performed.13 Cubic-shaped magnesium oxide nanoparticles having high thermal stability, good crystallinity, and high surface reactivity are produced by this technique. Magnesium nitrate and sodium hydroxide are used at room temperature to synthesize MgO nanoparticles.28

Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles: This green synthesis technique is eco-friendly, economically and energetically efficient, resulting into safe and industrially applicable products. Here, plants and microorganisms are used to synthesize nanoparticles. Phytonanotechnology uses

An Introduction to Nanomaterials in Energy Applications

7

plant extracts or the plant body parts like roots, leaves, fruits, and stems for the synthesis of various nanoparticles with advantages of biocompatibility, flexibility, and applicability. Biomolecules like polysaccharides, vitamins, and secondary metabolites act as stabilizers and help in the synthesis process.13 Some examples: Gardenia jasminoides and Lawsonia inermis plants’ leaves have been used to synthesize iron nanoparticles with antibacterial properties.22 ii) Gingko biloba leaves are utilized to synthesize spherical copper nanoparticles with catalytic activity.22 iii) Silver and gold nanoparticles have been successfully manufactured using leaf and root extract of medicinal plant Panax ginseng.22

i)

In recent times, actinomycetes have been able to attract the field of nanotechnology by proving to be an efficient resource for the production of nanoparticles. The metal nanoparticles produced using actinomycetes contain greater stability and polydispersity, acting against pathogenic agents. Actinomycetes synthesis takes longer time as compared to extracellular silver nanoparticles synthesis with the help of fungi such as Aspergillus fumigatus.16 The biological system of microorganisms is rich in reductase enzymes that can help in reduction of metal salts to metal nanoparticles as well as detoxification of heavy metals.13 Many methods have been developed, among which the most preferable one is the extracellular processes. In case of intracellular approach, it becomes more complicated due to the involvement of downstream processing. In case of silver nanoparticles, synthesized using Bacillus licheniformis, the responsible enzyme is the nitrate reductase. Some other genera used are Streptomyces, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, Trichoderma, and others.22 Fungi produce more amount of nanoparticles than other microorganisms like bacteria and viruses. This mechanism is called mycosynthesis. Hexagonal and spherical zinc oxide nanoparticles have been manufactured using Candida albicans and Aspergillus strain, respectively. Yeasts play a major role in the mycosynthesis of nanoparticles.13 Though the processes are comparatively slower than the chemical and mechanical ones, yet the nanoparticles synthesized by green/biological methods own finer quality in context of stability, dispersivity, catalytic, and antimicrobial activities.22

8

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

1.3 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF NANOPARTICLES Nanoparticles possess different useful properties due to their size, varieties of shape, and chemical compositions; they in turn put forward a huge number of applications in the fields of biomedical and life sciences as well as in several practical industrial fields. The important attribute for the application of nanomaterials in biological systems is that the nanoparticles resemble biomolecules, basically proteins in context of their size. They interact by recognizing surface receptors and that provides the tool to control biochemical reactions, both inside and outside the cell. Their mutual attachment can be determined mostly by direct covalent bonds and sometimes by noncovalent interactions. Chemisorption is the process for this conjugation of proteins onto the surface of silver or metal-sulfide core containing nanoparticles, which occurs through cysteine residues. Electrostatic interactions, intercalation, and groove binding are some kind of noncovalent interactions which affect binding of DNA to other nanoparticles. For the enhancement of carbohydrate–protein interactions and other low-affinity conjugations, multivalent receptors can be used and in this case, nanoparticles can play the role of a multivalent receptor.8 For the advancement of drug delivery system, nanotechnology has been utilized by the scientists, depending on the physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles. The successful drug delivery aims at two main goals: (1) Drug should reach directly at the target site; (2) Controlled drug release at therapeutically optimum amount and condition.14 For drug targeting, two approaches are there: (1) Passive, as in case of tumors, based on size, duration of circulation of drug nanocarriers, and tumor cell biology; (2) This method is responsible for the enhancement of therapeutic efficiency, and performed by using peptide or other small molecules as ligands for decorating drug vehicle surfaces which can be recognized by cell surface receptors.2 PEO and PLA nanoparticles are effective materials for the synthesis of intravenous drug delivery system. While it has been a challenge to develop drug delivery systems from hydrophilic nanoparticles; on the other hand, liposomes have become a promising vehicle for drug delivery systems due to their ability to reduce many harmful side effects and protect drugs from degradation. Some advantages of targeted drug delivery systems may be the reduction of both dose-related harmful effects and cytotoxic activity on healthy cells.14 Some drugs with low water solubility when delivered inside the body through appropriate nanoparticles,

An Introduction to Nanomaterials in Energy Applications

9

they easily get solubilized in the bloodstream and adsorption rate becomes faster.24 Other applications of nanoparticles in biological systems include: CN-tube and silver nanoparticle-based drugs, pharmaceuticals, and other daily use essentials like mats, towels, and So on, having the ability to prevent illness; for cancer, laser thermal therapy is performed with the usage of gold nanoparticles, etc.14 These nanoparticles are commonly used in several consumer products like foods, clothing and other day-to-day life requirements. Because of this widespread uses, they can easily come in direct contact with terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric environment. Those nanoparticles interact with biotic components such as microorganisms, higher animals, and plants, and transform into other particles using various mechanisms. Higher plants can show strong interaction with those engineered particles present in their surrounding environment. The engineered nanoparticles can directly affect the metabolic activities of higher plants. Experiments done on Spinacea oleracea evidenced that the titanium dioxide nanoparticles help in acceleration of chloroplast activities. They can enter this photosynthetic organelle, speed up the electron transport system, redox reactions, and oxygen evolution. Again, in the same plant, Rubisco (carboxylase) activity increased when treated with the anatase titanium dioxide nanoparticles.15 Titanium dioxide nanoparticles can also induce seedling growth, seed germination, and make the plants resistant to abiotic stresses like drought, extreme temperatures, etc. They play a major role in nitrogen metabolism by controlling activities of different enzymes related to the process. Different concentrations of several nanoparticles exert influence on seed germination of different species in different manners. Zinc oxide nanoparticles have great impact on shoot formation from germinated seeds, synthesis of proline, replacement of damaged tissues or cells, and many other plant growth-related events. They also stimulate the improvement in biotic and abiotic stress tolerance through their antimicrobial activity. Both single-walled and multiwalled CNTs can be used as DNA and chemical carrier into the plant cells or tissues, can stimulate root cell elongation as well as plant growth and development, and enhance the water–nutrients uptake ability. Treatment with silicon dioxide nanoparticles, exogenously of Larix olgensis, helps in the achievement of high-quality growing seedlings with more amounts of chlorophyll, and of tomatoes, resists salinity stress by inducing antioxidants.21

10

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

1.4 NANOPARTICLES IN ENERGY APPLICATIONS The unstoppable and continuous population growth has been leading to the enhancement of energy consumption on a daily basis, which has worsened the situation of global energy crisis. Along with the developing nanotechnology, the nanoparticles have come into notice due to their good physical properties like large surface-to-volume ratio and greater ability to conduct heat through the material, integrating a number of applications in energy storage and conversion processes. One of the best solutions offered for the problem of global energy crisis is thermal energy storage (TES). The most popular latent heat storage technique is the PCM (phase change material). It involves the advantages of high TES density, specific energy storage ratio, and constant charge–discharge temperature. With the help of mono or hybrid nanoparticles, thermal properties of PCM can be enhanced. Current researches have been focusing on the evaluation of increased thermal performance of pure and nanoenhanced paraffin wax. They are characterized by analyses like electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and even real solar experiments too. In this process, the commonly utilized nanoparticles are copper–cobalt nanocomposites, aluminum oxide, and aluminum nitride.20 Physics, chemistry, and biology unite at the nanoscale level. By manipulating substances with atomic dimensions, morphologies and quantum scale performance can be altered, which can directly imply the generation of energy conversion devices.18 We are utilizing and generating the energy in the ways that threaten our surrounding environment as well as the whole biosphere. The events like the haze in China, nuclear plant leak at Fukushima, and crude oil spills in Gulf of Mexico remind us of environmental degradation and global energy crisis.12 To solve the problem of global energy crisis, we need to reduce the consumption of nonrenewable resources like fossil fuels, along with the conversion of wasted heat into electricity.18 Nanoparticles with core–shell structures can offer an effective solution to the current global energy crisis. Synthetic strategies to fabricate those core–shell materials include CVD, solvothermal method, atomic layer deposition, etc. These core–shell nanomaterials contain several unique properties such as the ligand effect resulting from adsorption capacity, the ensemble effect due to changes in charge transfer between core and shell, and the structure effect leading to surface atomic activity variations.

An Introduction to Nanomaterials in Energy Applications

11

Though earlier, the single component nanomaterials were utilized extensively, nowadays, the multicomponent core–shell materials have gained attention due to their extensive applicability in diverse fields.10 The energy storage systems include supercapacitors, hydrogen storage, and Li-ion batteries. Supercapacitors are effective energy storage devices. Some researchers have developed core–shell nanoscale particles to avoid the obstacles of low stability, low energy density, and slow charging– discharging rate. The shell structure protects the core from aggregation and enhances the activity of the core material. The shell is also responsible for producing new properties and maintaining structural integrity.10 Supercapacitors possess charge storage capacity, not limited by the diffusion of ions within electrodes. Three-dimensional graphene-based nanomaterials have appropriate surface area for ion access, increased porosity, proper intersheet resistance, and unique sensing properties resulting in the applications in fuel cells as electrocatalysts, as electrodes for some kind of batteries, as sensors, from electronics to vehicles, and many more.26 Again, hydrogen gas is used as an energy source or a carrier in some electric vehicles. The core–shell structured nanomaterials containing carbon can improve the hydrogen storage capacity. But it also has a disadvantage, as it is difficult to restore the readsorption capacity of carbon materials. The usage of core–shell metal hybrids in electrochemical hydrogen storage has been started recently. With a molar ratio of Cd to Pd as 1:2, the manufactured metal hybrid core–shell nanostructure has shown the highest hydrogen storage capacity.10 On the other hand, numerous efforts have been made for the advancement of thermally stable, environment-friendly, and cheap electrode material for rechargeable Li-ion batteries. Core–shell nanomaterials provide conductivity and improved reactivity to Li+ ions, accelerate the charge across the interface, and lessen the insertion pathway length.10 Sodium resources are abundantly distributed on the earth. Therefore, transition from lithium to sodium will reduce the remarkable costs and the energy density and capacity primarily based on nanostructured electrodes.17 In photovoltaic cells, the core–shell nanomaterials are used, as they decrease probability of charge recombination and improve the optical pathway. An effective approach of protecting transition metal core with a single layer noble metal shell can potentially upgrade the electrode activity, for example, Pd@Co, Co3O4@CoNi sulfides nanowire, etc.10

12

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

Energy harvesting from environmental components like wind, waves, and human movements, and converting it to electricity emerge a great impact on the increasing energy crisis. To increase the portability of electronic devices with sustainable power sources, nanogenerator technologies have been developed, which exploit piezoelectric or triboelectric effect to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electrospinning is a simple, accessible, and cost-effective technique that produces engineered fibrous nanomaterials with outstanding physicochemical properties and applications in several electronic devices like nanogenerators, water desalination reactors, and redox flow batteries, contributing to the global energy demand. Recently, an approach has been made to manufacture a wearable TENG with a capacity for converting human biomechanical energy into electricity. To optimize its porosity and mechanical robustness, electrospun PVDF membranes have been used for the fabrication process. In the sodium batteries, mentioned above, electrospun iron (III) oxide fibers doped with silicon or electrospun carbon containing anatase nanoparticles are used in anodes for greater stability. Redox flow batteries show excellent efficiency, life cyclability, eco-friendliness, low toxicity, and convert chemical energy of oxidation–reduction reactions into electricity. For the use in electrodes, mesoporous Ni nanoparticles are preferred as they favor vanadium ion accessibility and electron transfer.17 An indispensable energy application of nanomaterials is the production of biofuel. The natural photosynthesis process makes use of solar energy for the conversion of water to electrons, oxygen, and hydrogen ions. An alternative method of artificial photosynthesis has been evolved. Graphite petals are availing unique nanostructures with characteristics of broader energy spectrum adsorption capacity and increased surface area to volume ratio. In oxidizing and reducing centers, when iron oxide nanoparticles are combined with water, nanotube arrays are made to hand.18 Thus, nanoparticles and their related technological developments have helped a lot to achieve a substantial success in meeting the energy needs of overgrowing population and solving the complications based on worldwide energy catastrophe. 1.5 CONCLUSION Development of nanoparticles is an emerging field with various potential outcomes and applications. Regardless of the beneficial characteristics

An Introduction to Nanomaterials in Energy Applications

13

of nanoparticles in relation to their singular portions, they may present extraordinary harmful profiles. Regardless of nanoparticles have reliably been accessible in the encompassing, the concern on their destructiveness has recently emerged during the last 10 years, with the extension of nanoparticles industry and various applications. Very few assessments are open and most are revolved around microorganisms and animals/human cells. Then again, putative poisonousness in plants is by a long shot less contemplated. Studies reveal that not all nanoparticles are harmful. From the couple of accessible information, some stay disputable, as certain NPs appear to be nontoxic and others seem to have valuable well-being impacts. Unexpectedly, others appear to be cytotoxic for various living beings, and even genotoxicity was at that point depicted for plants. Along these lines, a few nations perceived the need to examine nanoparticles harmfulness and thought about them as arising toxins. More data are required in regard to the potential effects that nanoparticles delivery might have on natural and creatures well-being. The take-up, bioaccumulation, biotransformation, and risks of nanomaterials for food crops are at this point not doubtlessly new. Not very nanomaterials and established species have been thought of, essentially at the early improvement periods of the plants. By far, most of the assessments, beside one with multiwalled carbon nanotubes performed on the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and one more with ZnO NPs on ryegrass, reported the effect of nanomaterials on seed germination or 15-day-old seedlings. Relatively few references depict the biotransformation of nanomaterials in food crops, and its transmission to the upcoming period of plants introduced to nanomaterials is dark. The possible biomagnification of nanoparticles in the normal lifestyle is also dark. KEYWORDS • • • • •

energy fossil fuel nanotechnology sunlight nanoparticles

14

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

REFERENCES 1. Acerce, M.; Voiry, D.; Chhowalla, M. Metallic 1T Phase MoS2 Nanosheets as Supercapacitor Electrode Materials. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2015, 313–318. 2. Attia, M. F.; Anton, N.; Wallyn, J.; Omran, Z.; Vandamme, T. F. An Overeview of Active and Passive Targeting Strategies to Improve the Nanocarriers Efficiency to Tumour Sites. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2019, 1185–1198. 3. Bae, K.; Kang, G.; Cho, S. K.; Park, W.; Kim, K.; Padilla, W. J. Flexible Thin-film Black Gold Membranes with Ultrabroadband Plasmonic Nanofocusing for Efficient Solar Vapour Generation. Nat. Commun. 2015, 1–9. 4. Carlsson, J.-O.; Martin, P. M. Chemical Vapor Deposition. In Handbook of Deposition Technologies for Films and Coatings(Third Edition) Science, Applications and Technology; Elsevier Inc., 2010; pp 314–363. 5. Chen, M. Q.; Wu, L. X.; Wang, W. K.; Fan, M. Y.; Zhang, Y. X.; Tang, H. T. A Catalytic Cracking Method and Device for Double-Riser. CN 104513673. Patent. Apr 15, 2015. 6. Chen, W.; Rakhi, R. B.; Hu, L.; Xie, X.; Cui, Y.; Alshareef, H. N. High-Performance Nanostructured Supercapacitors on a Sponge. Nano Lett. 2011, 5165–5172. 7. Colson, P.; Henrist, C.; Cloots, R. Nanosphere Lithography: A Powerful Method for the Controlled Manufacturing of Nanomaterials. J. Nanomater. 2013, 21. 8. De, M.; Ghosh, P. S.; Rotello, V. M. Applications of Nanoparticles in Biology. Adv. Mater. 2008, 4225–4241. 9. Dutta, D. K.; Borah, B. J.; Sarmah, P. P. Recent Advances in Metal Nanoparticles Stabilization into Nanopores of Monmorillonite and Their Catalytic applications for Fine Chemicals Synthesis. Catal. Rev. 2015, 257–305. 10. Feng, H.-P.; Tang, L.; Zeng, G.-M.; Zhou, Y.; Deng, Y.-C.; Ren, X., et al. Coreshell Nanomaterials: Applications in Energy Storage and Conversion. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 2019, 57. 11. Goodenough, J. B.; Kim, Y. Challenges for Rechargeable Li Batteries. Chem. Mater. 2010, 587–603. 12. Huang, X.; Xing, G.; Li, Y.; Nannen, E. Nanomaterials for Energy-Efficient Applications (Editorial). J. Nanomater. 2015, 2. 13. Ijaz, I.; Gilani, E.; Nazir, A.; Bukhari, A. Detail Review on Chemical, Physical and Green Synthesis, Classification, Characterizations and Applications of Nanoparticles. Green Chem. Lett. Rev. 2020, 13, 223–245. 14. Khan, I.; Saeed, K.; Khan, I. Nanoparticles: Properties, Applications and Toxicities. Arab. J. Chem. 2019, 908–931. 15. Monica, R. C.; Cremonini, R. Nanoparticles and Higher Plants. Caryologia 2009, 161–165. 16. Sahayaraj, K.; Rajesh, S. Bionanoparticles: Synthesis and Antimicrobial Applications. Science Against Microbial Pathogens: Comm. Curt. Res. Technol. Adv. 2011, 228–244. 17. Santangelo, S. Electrospun Nanomaterials for Energy Applications: Recent Advances. Appl. Sci. 2019, 45.

An Introduction to Nanomaterials in Energy Applications

15

18. Shakouri, A.; Norton, B.; Mcnally, H. Solar Power and the Enabling Role of Nanotechnology. In Understanding the Global Energy Crisis; West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue Studies in Public Policy (Purdue Universityt Press), 2014; pp 125–150. 19. Sharifzadeh, M.; Wang, L.; Shah, N. Decarbonisation of Olefin Processes using Biomass Pyrolysis Oil. Appl. Energy 2015, 149, 404–414. 20. Sharshir, S. W.; El-Shafai, N. M.; Ibrahim, M. M.; Kandeal, A. W.; El-Sheshtawy, H. S.; Ramadan, M. S., et al. Effect of Copper Oxide/cobalt Oxide Nanocomposite on Phase Change Material for Direct/indirect Solar Energy Applications: Experimental Investigation. J. Energy Storage 2021, 9. 21. Shoala, T. Positive Impacts of Nanoparticles in Plant Resistance against Different Stimuli. In Nanobiotechnology Applications in Plant Protection; Springer Nature, 2018; pp 267–279. 22. Singh, P.; Kim, Y.-J.; Zhang, D.; Yang, D.-C. Biological Synthesis of Nanoparticles from Plants and Microorganisms. Trends Biotechnol. 2016, 34, 588–599. 23. Singh, S. C.; Gopal, R. Zinc Nanoparticles in Solution by Laser Ablation Technique. Indian Acad. Sci. 2007, 30, 291–293. 24. Sivasankar, M.; Kumar, B. P. Role of Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery System. Int. J. Res. Pharm. Biomed. Sci. 2010, 41–66. 25. Tanaka, K.-I. Unsolved Problems in Catalysis. Catal. Today 2010, 105–112. 26. Thiruppathi, A. R.; Sidhureddy, B.; Boateng, E.; Soldatov, D. V.; Chen, A. Synthesis and Electrochemical Study of Three-Dimensional Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Energy Applications. Nanomaterials 2020, 25. 27. Tsai, S. C.; Song, Y. L.; Tsai, C. S.; Yang, C. C.; Chiu, W. Y.; Lin, H. M. Ultrasonic Spray Pyrolysis for Nanoparticles Synthesis. J. Mater. Sci. 2004, 39, 3647–3657. 28. Wahab, R.; Ansari, S. G.; Dar, M. A.; Kim, Y. S.; Shin, H. S. Synthesis of Magnesium Oxide Nanoparticles by Sol-gel Process. Mater. Sci. Forum 2007, 983–986. 29. Wolczanski, P. T.; Chirik, P. J. A Career in Catalysis: John E. Bercaw. ACS Catal. 2015, 1747–1757. 30. Yasukawa, T.; Suzuki, A.; Miyamura, H.; Nishino, K.; Kobayashi, S. Chiral Metal Nanoparticle Systems as Heterogeneous Catalysts beyond Homogeneous Metal Complex Catalysts for Asymmetric Addition of Arylboronic Acids to alpha,betaUnsaturated Carbonyl Compounds. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2015, 6616–6623. 31. Zhang, S.; Li, J.; Gao, W.; Qu, Y. Insights into the Effects of Surface Properties of Oxides on the Catalytic Activity of Pd for C-C Coupling Reactions. Nanoscale 2015, 3016–3021. 32. Zhang, S.; Shen, X.; Zheng, Z.; Ma, Y.; Qu, Y. 3D Graphene/nylon Rope as a Skeleton for Noble Metal Nanocatalysts for Highly Efficient Heterogeneous Continuous-flow Reactions. J. Mater. Chem. A 2015, 10504–10511.

CHAPTER 2

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications MOHD ISHFAQ BHAT1, SHIKHANGI SINGH1, UTPREKSHA THAPLIYAL2, and ASFAQ3

1Department

of Post Harvest Process and Food Engineering, GBPUAT, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India 2Department

of Biotechnology, National Institute of Technology, Allahabad, India 3Department

of Agriculture, Integral University, Lucknow, India

ABSTRACT Nanomaterials (in nanoscale range), in the contemporary world, have acted as a magic wand for miniaturization of process hardware and development of functionally enhanced and engineered materials. However, both the source and method of production of nanomaterials involve synthetic approach which tends to increase the human health and environmental risk. Green nanotechnology (principally relying on the concepts of green chemistry), which involves the use of green nanoproducts or the use of nanoproducts in enhancing the environmental stability, has been a promising concept for reducing negative externalities of synthetic nanomaterials. Green nanomaterials include the nanomaterials which are synthesized either using environmental-friendly technologies (microwave or ultrasound) or from a natural sustainable raw material (biowastes, etc). These nanomaterials are advantageous from the conventional ones in terms of biocompatibility, biodegradability, renewability, lower toxicity, cost, reduced effluents, Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications. Ishani Chakrabartty & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, (Eds.) © 2024 Apple Academic Press, Inc. Co-published with CRC Press (Taylor & Francis)

18

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

etc., besides other numerous advantages. The conventional applications of nano or green nanomaterials have been limited to electronics, material manufacturing, and information technology industries. However, the recent past has seen an upward trend in the use of green nanomaterials in nonconventional fields like agriculture, food processing, biomedicine, energy conversion, and storage. This chapter aims to provide a comprehensive insight on green nanomaterials and their importance, besides highlighting their applications especially in nonconventional fields. 2.1 INTRODUCTION Nanotechnology is the practical manifestation of nanoscience in which there is a manipulation of matter at the nanoscale level, thereby exploiting its surface-dependent properties and extending them subsequently into innovative products with applications impossible through their bulk counterparts.37 It is the most remarkable scientific and industrial advancement of 21st century, which has applications ranging from but not limited to electronics, medicine, energy, and cosmetic industry, and is often called as second industrial revolution.45 Owing to environmental implications of conventional nanotechnology and associated human health risks, the concept of green nanotechnology has come to being. Green nanomaterials, as products of green nanotechnology, have been successfully used in agriculture sector,10 biomedical,33 and cosmetic industry,32 and have got immense potential of infusion in the nanotechnology industry. This chapter aims to provide a brief idea of nanotechnology and nanomaterials and an insight into green nanomaterials with an understanding of its importance, synthesis, and applications, along with the challenges faced and future prospects of these environmentally-friendly materials. 2.2 CONVENTIONAL AND GREEN NANOTECHNOLOGY 2.2.1 NANOTECHNOLOGY AND NANOMATERIALS “Nano” is analogous to “dwarf or very small” in Latin and Greek language.79 Nanoscience refers to the study and manipulation of molecular structures at the nanoscale (1–100 nm), and its practical technological applications are collectively referred to as nanotechnology.43 Nanotechnology has acted

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

19

as magic wand, revolutionizing every field of science, it has touched upon. It has broad spectrum applications enveloping physics, biology, chemistry, medicine, electronics, agriculture, biotechnology, and allied branches and subbranches, which manifest in fulfillment of our day-to-day needs, besides having the potential of catering to the environmental and sustainability challenges in the contemporary world.17 Besides the established applications of nanotechnology, it provides a multifaceted platform that can provide practical and economic solutions to the present environmental and sustainability challenges. The history of nanotechnology dates back to fourth century AD, with the famous nanotechnology product known as “Lycurgus Cup,” a dichroic glass known for changing color with light intensity due to presence of silver–gold alloy nanoparticles (50–100 nm), analyzed through transmission electron microscope in 19909 and X-ray analysis in 2007.18 A timeline of the nanotechnology history, its development, and associated aspects has been summarized in Figure 2.1.27 The premodern examples of nanostructured materials are based on empirical evidence and material manipulation, while the modern era nanotechnology relies on an ever-increasing level of scientific knowledge, accompanied by sophisticated instrumentation and experimental results. Nanomaterials, the exciting products of nanotechnology, include the materials having one dimension ranging between 1–100 nm and offer numerous advantages over their bulk counterparts in terms of enhanced mechanical, thermal, electrical, chemical, and optical properties.63 Any material produced with the aid of nanotechnology and having any component of nanoscience in it is referred to as a nanomaterial, for example, nanoparticles, nanofibers, nanorods, nanotubes, nanoemulsions, nanodispersions, nanocomposites, etc. The classification of nanomaterials can be done based on a number of factors including dimension (0-D, 1-D 2-D, and 3-D), chemistry (organic and inorganic), morphological characteristics, magnetic properties, etc.; an extensive classification along with examples is found in the literature.3 Conventionally, nanomaterials (synthetic) are synthesized either through top-down or bottom-up procedure. The top-down procedure (energy intensive) entails use of destructive methods to reduce the size of a material to nanoscale, while the bottom-up involves the constructive assembly of constituent components to a nanoscale material. The techniques used for synthesis of nanomaterials through the aforementioned procedures8 are shown in Figure 2.2.

20

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

FIGURE 2.1 Timeline of premodern and modern developments in nanotechnology.

2.2.2 DRAWBACKS OF CONVENTIONAL NANOTECHNOLOGY Despite the bright outputs of conventional nanotechnology and synthetic nanomaterials for mankind, its environmental impacts and the risks (on

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

FIGURE 2.2

21

Conventional approaches in nanomaterial production.

human health) associated with it cannot and must not be underestimated.45 As the nanomaterials (natural or engineered) get disposed of (intentionally or unintentionally), they interact with the environment (air and water) through a variety of routes (biouptake, aggregation, deposition, and adsorption) and find their final destination inside the human body producing catastrophic effects.46,76 As per Ref. [88], carbon nanotubes have been found to have the toxicity similar to that of asbestos fiber, while some studies have found it more toxic than carbon black and quartz, once it reaches our lungs.39 Moreover, multifocal granulomas were produced in rats when exposed to single-walled carbon nanotubes.83 The environmental risk becomes manifold due to the obscured inability to exactly characterize the nanomaterial, knowledge of its exact chemical structure, map its mobility in the environment, interaction with the dynamic environment, and very limited knowledge about its impact on human health.88 The environmental impacts of nanotechnology and nanomaterials along with risk assessment, safety, and management have been reviewed extensively in the literature.13,31,65,73,88,89

22

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

2.2.3 GREEN NANOTECHNOLOGY AND GREEN NANOMATERIALS In order to mitigate the effects of conventional nanotechnology and nanomaterials, the concept of “green nanotechnology” has come into being. Green technology, albeit lacking a standardized definition, is an intersection of green chemistry, green engineering, and nanotechnology with a directed focus on reducing the stress on the environment.72 The principles of green chemistry, along with the concepts of green engineering and nanotechnology,43,72 are illustrated in Figure 2.3. Green nanotechnology is a comprehensive approach involving either production of green nanoproducts or using nanoproducts for ensuring sustainability by reducing toxicity and environmental wastes.64 Analogous to nanotechnology, the outproducts of green nanotechnology may be called as “green nanomaterials.” Practically, none of the nanomaterials can be absolutely green. However, application of green routes for nanomaterial synthesis, along with the use of renewable sources, can significantly enhance the ideality of green nanomaterials. As of now, no standardized definition is followed for green nanomaterials in literature, but most often of nanomaterials synthesized employing green synthesis or use of renewable sources for synthesizing nanomaterials are often termed as “green nanomaterials.” Green nanomaterials have a peculiar importance in achieving some of the 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs), directly or indirectly, as designated by the United Nations.80 The synthesis and use of green nanomaterials are directly related to the fulfillment of SDGs 7, 11, and 12, while indirectly responsible for achieving SDGs 3, 13, 14, and 15 shown in Figure 2.4. The fulfillment of these goals can thus mitigate the negative extremities caused by the conventional production of nanomaterials (as well as other materials), besides continued advancement of technological development. 2.2.3.1 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF GREEN NANOMATERIALS The green approach to nanomaterial synthesis is advantageous over the conventional methods in various aspects. It helps in considerable reduction of toxic residues harmful to our environment by inculcating various approaches as use of renewable sources and green solvents, biotransformations, etc.49 As per Kumar,38 a reduction of 7% noxious waste (viz., HCL,

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

23

FIGURE 2.3 Green nanotechnology as an intersection of principles of green chemistry, green engineering, and nanotechnology.

trichloroethylene, and methyl isobutyl ketone) has been reported due to the use of green nanotechnology approach in a span of 9 years (from 2004 to 2013). This amount objectively looks miniscule, but when viewed from a global perspective, adds to huge amount of toxic waste reduction.

24

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

FIGURE 2.4 Green nanomaterials and sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the United Nations. Source: Adapted from Ref. [80]

Whilst realizing the beneficial aspects of green nanotechnology, its success on a practical platform needs intense research efforts to overcome the limitations existing with the green technologies. Green nanomaterials involve dynamic interactions at the material interfaces, which have consequences in its applications including in drug delivery, membrane processing, and improved and functionalized materials.55 Furthermore, the successful scale-up of green nanomaterial synthesis and its coherence with the available manufacturing modes have so far not been established.

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

25

2.2.3.2 GLOBAL MARKET OF NANOMATERIALS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR GREEN NANOMATERIALS As per research,66 the global market for nanomaterials was valued 8.5 billion USD (2019) with an expected rise at a CAGR of 13.1% from 2020 to 2027, with carbon nanotubes accounting for a massive 26.9% market share. The report further envisages a significant increase in demand of titanium dioxide, graphene, and aluminum oxide nanoparticles owing to their critical applications in biomedicine, energy conversion and storage, supercapacitor electrodes, etc. During the forecast period, the market is anticipated to be driven mostly by aerospace industry, supplemented by biomedical and energy application industries. The earlier market of nanomaterials was reported to be 4.1 billion USD in 2015 and was expected to reach 11.3 billion USD at a CAGR of 22%.28 The decline in CAGR in the former and latter aforementioned figures may be attributed to the steady decline in global market due to the COVID-19 pandemic. With such a huge global expanding market, the nanomaterial production is going to directly as well as indirectly affect the environment, increasing the carbon footprint. This is reduced significantly by developing green nanotechnology and intensifying research efforts to make it a commercial success. The nanomaterials in high demand globally have been successfully synthesized through the green nanotechnology (on lab scale), and hence find immense potential as alternatives to the conventional nanomaterials. 2.3 SYNTHESIS OF GREEN NANOMATERIAL In the last few decades, various techniques like physical, chemical, and biological methods have emerged to generate nanomaterial. The former methods, that is, physical and chemical methods face significant environmental challenges, as they use nonrenewable resources and generate toxic wastes and non-eco-friendly byproducts. However, the latter method which is the biological method is gaining a lot of attention as it is biologically safe, cost-effective, and environment-friendly. Therefore, it is often known as green synthesis technology or green nanotechnology.42 The green nanotechnology works on the principles and applications of green chemistry, with the aim to advance the novel chemical

26

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

technologies that lessen or eradicate the use or production of hazardous material in the design, fabrication, and application of chemical products.56 Green nanotechnology uses plants and microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, and algae to synthesize green nanomaterial, and employs various biotechnological techniques. Green nanomaterials synthesized from green nanotechnology are biocompatible, reproducible, and are 1–100 nm in size. Metallic nanomaterials like silver and gold, and ferromagnetic nanomaterials like cobalt oxide are common green nanomaterials, as they are synthesized by using various strains of bacteria like Pseudomonas stutzeri and Brevibacterium casei.54 The green nanomaterials, with higher enzymatic activity and higher surface area to volume ratio, are formed when the microorganisms secrete enzymes and convert the Fe2+ ions into their elemental form. Based on the location of their formation, biosynthesis of green nanomaterial can be classified into two categories: intracellular synthesis and extracellular synthesis. In intracellular method, the metal ions are delivered inside the microbial cells and converted into elemental form in presence of enzymes; whereas, the extracellular method involves enmeshment of Fe2+ ions on the exterior of microbial cells and further reduction of ions in presence of enzymes. Overall, it has been observed that the use of extracellular method is more prevalent among scientists as in extracellular method, the lengthy and tedious steps of harvesting the nanoparticles are eliminated.48 The green nanomaterials have applications in cancer treatment, gene therapy, biosensors, DNA analysis, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and antibacterial agents. We will now discuss various biological methods for the synthesis of green nanomaterials in detail. 2.3.1 BACTERIA-MEDIATED GREEN NANOPARTICLE SYNTHESIS Bacteria, a prokaryotic microorganism of kingdom monera, are a promising biogenic agent which has the potential to synthesize metal nanoparticles by reducing heavy metal ions. Despite the fact that nearly all metallic ions are harmful to bacterial species, bacteria have developed a defense mechanism by which they reduce the salts of metals and form insoluble metal complexes. Commonly studied examples of bacteria-based biofactory

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

27

of green nanoparticles are magnetotactic bacteria, diatoms, and S-layer bacteria responsible for synthesis of magnetite nanoparticles, siliceous nanoparticles, and gypsum and calcium carbonate-based nanoparticles, respectively.1 The detailed mechanism of the synthesis of nanoparticles by bacteria can be understood by considering the gold (I) thiosulfate as an example. The precipitation of gold (I) thiosulfate complex by sulfurreducing bacteria and formation of gold (Au) nanoparticle can be seen by three different mechanisms. The first mechanism is extracellular precipitation of metal, where formation of iron sulfide by sulfur-reducing bacteria leads to adsorption of the gold (I) thiosulfate complex onto the newly formed surface. This results in precipitation of elemental Au. The second mechanism is creation of localized reducing conditions. Sulphurreducing bacteria reduce the thiosulfate ion of gold (I) thiosulfate into hydrogen sulfide and create a reducing environment around the cell that causes precipitation of elemental Au. The third mechanism is settlement of elemental Au through metabolic process. Under this mechanism, the gold (I) thiosulfate complex which enters the bacterial cell is reduced to thiosulfate ion and Au (I). The Au (I) is reduced to elemental gold and thiosulfate is used as an energy source.29 Scientists have demonstrated the procedure for the formation of gold nanoparticles in Rhodococcus species of bacteria under extremely high temperatures and alkaline conditions.1 Pseudomonas stutzeri, in presence of nitrate reductase enzyme, has been used as a biological agent for the formation of silver nanomaterial. Magnetotactic bacteria synthesize nanoparticles like iron oxide and iron sulfide intracellularly.5 Production of nanoparticles using bacteria has become a promising approach because of abundance of bacteria in nature, ease of performing bacterial culture, and their ability to adapt to different environmental conditions. 2.3.2 FUNGI-MEDIATED GREEN NANOPARTICLE SYNTHESIS Among the biological methods, fungi are widely used for synthesis of metallic nanoparticles and the process is commonly referred to as mycosynthesis. The fungi are preferred over other biological methods because they are highly tolerant to metal ions, exhibit high metal binding and metal bioaccumulation capacity, and are potential source of new antimicrobial agents and metabolites. The genus Fusarium is the highly studied genus

28

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

in kingdom fungi as it is easy to grow, maintain and locate, shows mass production of extracellular nanoparticles in colloidal form, easy scale-up, and simple downstream processing.85 Fungi are capable to produce the green nanoparticles by both intracellular and extracellular mechanism. The intracellular mechanism involves two steps. The first step is attachment of metal ions to the fungal cell wall by the electrostatic bond between metal ions and the lysine residue. This reaction is catalyzed by intracellular enzymes or proteins. The second step is reduction of metal ions, which advances to accumulation and synthesis of nanoparticles.61 On the contrary, the extracellular mechanism involves reduction of metal ions by extracellular reductase enzymes and metabolites such as naphthoquinones and anthraquinones. Aspergillus sp., Crysosporium sp., Penicillium sp., and Candida sp. are some examples of fungi which are used for the production of nanoparticles. As per research,20 it has been reported that during biosynthesis of nanoparticles, the fungal mycelium was kept in salt solution. The salt solution acted as an environmental threat to fungal colonies and induced fungi to secrete metabolites and hydrogenase enzymes as a defense mechanism. The catalytic effect of metabolites and enzymes converted toxic metal ions into nontoxic solid metal nanoparticles. Ref. [78] revealed the process of formation of Au NPs using F. oxysporum in 60 min, which proves the fast growth rate of fungi. The biosynthesis of green nanomaterial using fungi is a very significant approach as it does not generate toxic wastes or byproducts, easy to use, safe, and environment-friendly. It has application in biomedical industry because of its antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer activity. Its applications also include agriculture, food, veterinary, and environment sector industry. 2.3.3 ALGAE-MEDIATED GREEN NANOMATERIAL SYNTHESIS Most commonly known as bionanofactories, algae are single-celled and filamentous photosynthetic microorganisms. The recent time is witnessing a significant increase in demand for algae-mediated nanoparticle synthesis as it is a repository of secondary metabolites, proteins, peptides, and pigments; easy to grow, has fast growth, and is scalable. They also possess remarkable property of hyperaccumulating the metal ions and then transforming them into the green nanoparticles. Moreover, other properties

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

29

which make algae different from other microorganisms are fast growth rate, economical scale-up, very simple steps of harvesting, no requirement of external reducing or capping agents, and simple catalytic reactions. The most biocompatible algae used for biogenesis of NPs are red algae, brown algae, blue-green algae (BGA), microalgae, and macroalgae.11 The algae-mediated metal reduction occurs either via algal extract or algal biomass, since they do not secrete reducing enzymes such as reductase or dehydrogenase as seen in case of bacteria and fungi. The algal biomass constitutes components such as glutamic acid, andrographolide, oleic acid, hexadecanoic acid, gallic acid, stearic acid, epigallocatechin, catechin, 11-eicosenoic acid, etc. which act as electron donors as well as capping agents.35 The nanoparticle production occurs when the negatively charged algae act as a stabilizing agent or capping agent to limit the growth in order to give smaller-sized nanoparticles. The biosynthesis of algae-mediated nanoparticle is a three-step process which involves stimulation phase, germination phase, and termination phase. In stimulation phase, reduction and nucleation of metal ions are catalyzed by the enzymes secreted by algal cells. In the germination phase, nucleated metal ions merge with each other to form nanoparticles of different shapes and sizes. In the termination phase, the nanoparticles gain final shape, which make them thermodynamically stable.58 The application of algae-mediated nanoparticle synthesis varies from antibacterial, antifouling, antifungal, and anticancer agents to bioremediation and biofilm prevention. 2.3.4 PLANT-MEDIATED GREEN NANOPARTICLE SYNTHESIS Using flora for the synthesis of green nanoparticles is an attractive approach as it is efficient, environment-friendly, and economical technique. The secondary metabolites like terpenes, flavonoids, acetone, acetaldehyde, amino acids and amino acid polymers, vitamins, morphine, gallic acid, phenols, saponins, and polysaccharides produced by plant cells act as reducing agents and donate electrons to the metal ions, and convert them into insoluble nanoparticles. The donation of electrons and further synthesis of insoluble nanoparticles occur intracellularly. Plants like Oryza sativa, Helianthus annus, Saccharum officinarum, Sorghum bicolor, Aloe vera, Zea mays, Basella alba, and Capsicum annuum have been used to synthesize silver nanoparticles.15

30

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

Particular parts of the plant like cortex, tuber, trunk, fruit, ovary, callus, peel, leaflet, and flower have been used for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles.77 The plant-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles involves the collection of plant, followed by washing with detergents and double-distilled water. Cleansed plant material is dried up at room temperature. Their mass is calculated and then boiled with deionized distilled water at a suitable degree. Subsequently, solution is filtered with muslin cloth and held at 4°C for the nanoparticles synthesis to occur. The accumulated filtrate is added immediately to silver nitrate aqueous solution and preserved at room temperature. The alteration in the color of reaction mixture indicates formation of silver nanoparticles, due to the interaction of plant material extract with silver metal ions.62 2.4 APPLICATION OF NANOMATERIALS Nanotechnology involves bringing novel products to market, enriching people’s lives, and developing advanced procedures. Engineered nanomaterials produced by nanotechnology are smaller, sleeker, stronger, quicker, safer, and more efficient and stable. As the novel applications for nanomaterials with these unique characteristics are explored, the number of goods incorporating such nanoparticles is increasing and the scope of their potential uses is expanding (Fig. 2.5). There were various examinations done on the formation and extraction of metal-based NPs, yet not many have been centered on synthesis of nanostructures from natural sources. Green NPs have been utilized in a variety of fields, including medicine,

FIGURE 2.5

Uses of green nanomaterials.

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

31

agriculture, and associated industries, since they are nontoxic and ecologically friendly. They may be divided into three categories: cellulose-based, carbon-based, protein-based, lipid-based, and other applications. Nanomaterials are used as sorbent materials, as a component of sensors, and as part of sensors to detect various biological moieties; as well as biomedical uses such as antibacterial agents, antioxidant activity, antidiabetic activity, and biosensing applications. In the following sections, we have illustrated and discussed the various applications of green synthesized NPs. 2.4.1 CELLULOSE-BASED NANOMATERIALS The impact of nanocellulose (NC) morphology on impurity evaluation is vital for delivering a compelling adsorbent for different applications, for example, adsorption of hazardous metal particles from tests, elimination of anionic species, adsorbent for remaining anti-infection agents, development of superadsorbents by joining magnetic nanomaterials, and utilization of NC as an absorbent for leftover antitoxins. Nanocellulose, in general, has a significant attraction for itself as well as compounds containing hydroxyl groups. Because nanocellulose aggregated morphology reduces the fiber’s specific surface area, it has a detrimental impact on its adsorption capacity.26 When employed as an adsorbent, nanocellulose aerogels have proven more appealing to researchers as a solution to this problem.16 The terms “aerogel” and “nanocellulose-based porous materials” are frequently interchanged.40 Aerogels are the porous materials having low densities (0.01–0.4 g cm−3) and large total specific surface areas (30–600 m2 g−1). According to researchers,52 aerogels are made by lyophilizing (freezedrying) or by critical point drying of a liquid component for removal of solvent and to form a high porosity, lightweight, and networked material. Analytical applications of nanocellulose are the absorbent materials used as catalyst in various processes and pickering emulsifiers which are used in sensing and polymerization. A nitrooxidation technique with nitric acid and sodium nitrite was utilized to deliver nanocelluloses as carboxy cellulose nanofibers from untreated (crude) Australian spinifex grass for the expulsion of cadmium II from water.74 The resultant nanofibers were shown to be an effective medium at low concentrations, capable of removing Cd2+ ions from water over a wide concentration range in a short period of time. Results also showed

32

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

that interactions between carboxylate groups on the nanofiber surface and Cd2+ ions dominated this process, which also served as a cross-linking agent to form gel of nanofiber suspension. Another method for removing chromium compounds from water is developed by silylation of cellulose acetate attached with amine groups to create an innovative nanofibrous membrane sorbent. These nanofibers are utilized in the detection of trace metal elements using a solid-phase extraction method. Size, hydration degree, and binding constant all influenced the rate of adsorption.51 An amino-based magnetic bacterial cellulose/activated carbon composite was utilized to eliminate Pb2+ and methyl orange (MO) from water. According to researchers,84 the addition of amino groups to the composite helped the adsorption limit of both Pb2+ particles and MO color, increased by generally 2.14 times. The adsorption limit of Pb2+ particles and MO color was lower than in a single pollutant system, as compared to binary pollutant system. Another work was done on cellulose-based hydrogel that was made by adding graphene oxide into the cellulose network and treating it with NaOH/urea fluid arrangement. Investigation was mainly focused at how copper (II) ions might be removed from aqueous solution. The results revealed that when the GO/cellulose ratio increased, the adsorption of copper ions increased as well, owing to the oxygen groups included in the hydrogel. This increases the adsorbent’s surface complexation, electrostatic attraction, and ion exchange capacity. Results revealed that due to saturation of active sites, an increase in adsorbent dose resulted in a reduction in adsorption.12 2.4.2 CARBON-BASED NANOMATERIALS Carbon dots (C-dots) originated from sustainable or renewable sources can be used as chemical sensors and as catalysts for a variety of chemical reactions, including electrocatalysis, photocatalysis, and other forms of catalysis. N-C carbon dots made from Prunus persica were used as an active catalyst for the oxygen reduction process.22 Under a reversible hydrogen electrode, the catalyst had nearly 0.72 V and three electron pathways converted into hydrogen peroxide in a basic medium.7 In another work,82 nanocomposite TiO2/C dots were created and utilized as a photocatalyst in the water-splitting reaction to produce hydrogen. For the nanocomposite’s production, spinach was employed as a carbon source.

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

33

The amine functional group present in the CD allows TiO2 molecules to get associated with C-dots without the requirement of post-surface modification. This method could be used to create safe nanocomposites for a range of uses. The carbon nanodots and nano-zerovalent iron composites were made from waste date palm biochar, which were found effective in eliminating methylthioninium chloride (MB) from water.2 When it came to adsorption isotherm experiments, the carbon nanodots outperformed nano-zerovalent iron composites and had the greatest sorption capacity. The primary processes driving MB removal were because of electrostatic interactions owing to the surface functional group of anions and interaction between π-π electron donor–acceptor, which were related to adsorbate and adsorbent having aromatic structure, and formation of free hydroxyl radicals which led to degradation. Carbon dots produced from renewable sources have been used to develop a variety of chemical sensors that detect cations and anions.22,44,75 The C-dots could also be employed in multicolor cell imager for detection of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions. Fluorescent C-dots were created for the detection of Hg ions by utilizing an alternate procedure; they may be utilized as a test in ecological exploration and insightful science, later on. For the fast detection of thiamine, C-dots with blue and green LEDs were created. The C-dots were also utilized for fungal bioimaging. Fluazinam was detected using a fluorescence sensor based on molecular interactions such as electrostatic interaction, π-π stacking, and hydrogen bonding contact.59 Surface passivating agents with functional groups are no longer required due to the green carbon dots. The green C-dots are highly selective and sensitive to a variety of metal ions and tiny compounds. They are utilized for gene delivery on account of their negligible cytotoxicity and biodegradability. Researchers25 have used L-tyrosine methyl ester to make C-dots, which they used to detect methyl parathion in a variety of materials such as vegetables like cabbage, some of the fruit juices, and milk. The synthesized C-dots were used in sensitive and particular sensor as an enzyme inhibitor for detection of methyl parathion. Tyrosinase catalyzes the oxidation of tyrosine methyl ester on the surface of C-dots to the equivalent quinone product, which is utilized to extinguish C-dot fluorescence. This mechanism is activated when an organophosphorus pesticide is introduced into the system, which decreases enzyme activity and hence the quenching rate. To examine the sensing ability and stability of carbon nanotubes/ cellulose, researchers used a dip-coating technique to produce smart

34

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) coated with cellulose fibers to assess their detecting capacity and strength to other outside stimuli. The MWCNT-based cellulose fibers had strong conductivity and outstanding sensing ability of external stimuli. The fibers demonstrated consistency and repeatability during the sensing tests, indicating that the MWCNT coating on cellulose was stable until cyclic stress or exposure to dissolvable fluids or vapors.60 2.4.3 PROTEIN-BASED NANOMATERIALS Natural biomolecules, such as proteins, offer an appealing alternative to the synthesized polymers, usually utilized in nanoparticle manufacturing due to their safety. To date, a variety of proteins were used to create the protein nanoparticles, with a protein of choice being determined by the desired use. Casein is a water-loving protein that doesn’t clump in watery environments and has been widely used in hydrophilic applications. Some of the proteins that are utilized effectively in nanomaterials are milk proteins, plant proteins, fibrinogen, hemoglobin, protamine, lysozyme, collagen, keratin, gelatin, fibronectin, and recombinant proteins.71 Protein NPs can be microsphere-encapsulated in biodegradable polymers for controlled and sustained release. As a drug delivery technology, protein NPs offer a number of benefits, including biodegradability, stability, particle surface modification, and particle size management simplicity; as well as fewer toxicity concerns, such as immunogenicity.24 By shielding the medication against enzymatic breakdown and renal clearance, its stability, activity, and half-life can all be enhanced. Because of their nonantigenic properties, protein NPs can be utilized in a range of targeted treatments, including lung delivery,47 cancer therapy,67,69 tumor therapy,57 and vaccination.68 Protein nanoparticles have also been identified as a promising bioimaging agents. Using Bombyx mori silk fibers and silk solution as precursors, researchers have19 established a simple and speedy microwave-assisted synthesis of luminous carbonaceous nanoparticles. As a result, the carbonaceous nanoparticles produced have a photoluminescence quantum yield of 20%, are exceptionally stable, low in cytotoxicity, and biocompatible. These bright carbonaceous nanoparticles are used for live cell imaging. Luminescent protein nanoparticles with better quantum yields and higher biocompatibility, as compared to quantum dots, have

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

35

already been explained. Because of their high aspect ratios and the presence of particular functional groups, protein nanoparticles are ideal sensing devices. To monitor hydrogen peroxide levels, horseradish peroxidase (HRP) has been immobilized on an electrode modified with a collagenlike peptide nanowire. The resultant electrode exhibits repeatable amperometric responses with a linearity range for peroxides at an applied voltage of 0.1 V.86 The ability to present enzymes uniformly and in high concentrations on the surface over a long period of time proves the status of protein nanoparticles as biocatalysts.41 Furthermore, by enclosing enzymes in their inner cores, it has been shown that the enzyme activity is maintained against various environmental conditions such as pH and high temperature. By reducing the silver in the inner chamber, the ferritin protein was used as a tool for the production of silver nanoparticles.34 The field of bioenergy has also made use of protein nanoparticles, and their potential in electrical device (batteries) was investigated. The M13 bacteriophage coat protein was used to create photocatalytic water-splitting devices.36 Furthermore, a protein-based nanoscale colloidal structure was used in the food and nutrition industry for a variety of applications, including fillers, hydrogels, emulsions, and suspensions.14 According to a recent study, inclusion of zein nanoparticles in modified cellulose films improved the elasticity at low concentrations but decreased the elasticity at higher concentrations. This was attributed to zein’s poor compatibility with continuous film, in which zein nanoparticles could distribute uniformly all over the film at low concentrations but at higher concentrations, it was easy to adhere after drying.21 In order to make zein nanoparticles compatible with a whey protein film, sodium caseinate was used to interact with and stabilize the nanoparticles. Even with 50% filler content, the resultant composite film showed continuous improvements in tensile strength.53 The application of hydrogels with the incorporation of protein-based nanoparticles can develop in the presence of important cross-applications of biological research. Incorporating pH-related swelling behaviors into hydrogel network structures could be of great benefit in the future for controlled release applications or even hydration and service products. To satisfy the rising need for protein made from grains or vegetables, fats are derived from rapeseed that are saccharified and reacted with positively-charged chitosan to produce 200–500 nm particles with a 70% encapsulation rate for curcumin.81 Electrostatic repulsion between particles can limit the adsorption and deposition of these at interfaces because many particles,

36

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

especially those made of proteins, have excessive ionizing charges on their surfaces. When the ionic strength of the oil–water interface was increased to 500 mM, the adsorption rate and surface pressure of soybean-based glycine particles increased. To make a concentrated water–oil emulsion, the researchers used gliadin nanoparticles isolated in 70% aqueous ethanol coated with chitosan at neutral pH. As can be seen under the microscope, these emulsions are very resistant to coalescence as they form a stable and concentrated network of emulsions by cross-linking the interparticles between the droplets.87 2.4.4 LIPID-BASED NANOMATERIALS Lipid-based NPs are a versatile drug delivery technology that is a replacement to emulsions, liposomes, and polymer-based nanoparticles. Lipidbased NPs eliminate some of the significant disadvantages of existing conventional systems. Lipid nanoparticles and vesicular nanosystems, like liposomes, niosomes, and sphingosomes, are examples of drug nanocarriers. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) or lipid-like nanoparticles (LLNs) have been used to distribute mRNA in a variety of ways. Lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPNs) have recently emerged as a class of nanomaterials for RNA delivery, combining the complimentary features of lipid and polymeric nanomaterials.90 Cardanol (CA), a biobased natural lipid, is a good example of a renewable plant/crop resource that can be readily synthesized from cashew hull juice. CA is a rich combination of non-isoprenoic phenolics that can be used to make an assortment of delicate nanomaterials like nanotubes, nanofibers, surfactants, and gels that can then be used as templates to make other nanomaterials.19 Essential oils’ aromatic properties also led to a wide range of industrial and medical applications as therapeutic products.70 Essential oils can be extracted from a different source including fruits, tubers, barks, rhizomes, gums, and oleoresin exudates; however, the sources of environmental conditions and seasonal fluctuations have a significant impact on their phytochemical content and hence applicability. Nutrition, light, temperature, and water quality conditions are also decisive factors in determining the quality of essential oils. As a result, essential oil-based nanoparticle having antibacterial potential may have synergistic antimicrobial effects, suggesting a fresh solution to this problem. Natural antioxidant/antimicrobial compounds are one of the most current trends in the food sector. Clove essential oil (CEO) is

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

37

primarily composed of phenylpropanoids like eugenol and its derivatives, with minor amounts of α-caryophyllene and β-humulene chemical components. CEO’s biological qualities, which include antioxidant, antibacterial, antiseptic, pesticide, analgesic, and anticarcinogenic activity, are useful in the food, active packaging, pharmaceutical companies, and cosmetics industries. Researchers23 have developed chitosan NP, which is equipped with CEO and provides high retention and antioxidant activity. 2.4.5 OTHER APPLICATIONS For the identification of harmful organisms in various samples, various types of polymers were used. Polypyrrole and polyaniline polymers were explored6 for detection of food-derived microorganisms. The polymerbased biosensors were quick and sensitive, allowing infections to be identified in the food supply chain.50 Toxic substances produced during the degradation of food are monitored using gas indicators. The enzymatic process causes a change in hue, which may be quantified. Glycerin, methylene blue, and TiO2 nanoparticles were dispensed and rotated to prove the presence of oxygen.4 Biocomposite nanoparticles can be employed as a biodegradable polymer in the field of vascular skin adhesives for gene therapy, tissue engineering, and treatment of injuries. Biocomposites were used to create intelligent packaging material to monitor changes in food samples. Nanocomposites are used in a variety of commercial applications, including microelectronics disposable goods, non-invasive medical devices, and endurance structures.30 Green nanobiocomposites are also used as reinforcing materials in the automotive industry. KEYWORDS • • • • •

biocompatibility green energy conversion nanomaterials toxicity

38

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

REFERENCES 1. Ahmad, A.; Senapati, S.; Khan, M. I.; Kumar, R.; Sastry, M. Extracellular Biosynthesis of Monodisperse Gold Nanoparticles by a Novel Extremophilic Actinomycete, Thermomonospora sp. Langmuir 2003, 19 (8), 3550–3553. doi: 10.1021/la026772l 2. Ahmad, M.; Akanji, M. A.; Usman, A. R. A.; Al-Farraj, A. S. F.; Tsang, Y. F.; Al-Wabel, M. I. Turning Date Palm Waste Into Carbon Nanodots and Nano Zerovalent Iron Composites for Excellent Removal of Methylthioninium Chloride from Water. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10 (1), 16125. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-73097-x 3. Ahmad, S.; Munir, S.; Zeb, N.; Ullah, A.; Khan, B.; Ali, J.; Bilal, M.; Omer, M.; Alamzeb, M.; Salman, S. M.; Ali, S. Green Nanotechnology: A Review on Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles - An Ecofriendly Approach. Int. J. Nanomedicine 2019, 14, 5087–5107. doi: 10.2147/ijn.S200254 4. Amin, M. R.; Chowdhury, M. A.; Kowser, M. A. Characterization and Performance Analysis of Composite Bioplastics Synthesized using Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles with Corn Starch. Heliyon 2019, 5 (8), e02009. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. heliyon.2019.e02009 5. Arakaki, A.; Nakazawa, H.; Nemoto, M.; Mori, T.; Matsunaga, T. Formation of Magnetite by Bacteria and Its Application. J. R. Soc. Interface 2008, 5 (26), 977–999. doi: 10.1098/rsif.2008.0170 6. Arshak, K.; Velusamy, V.; Korostynska, O.; Oliwa-Stasiak, K.; Adley, C. Conducting Polymers and Their Applications to Biosensors: Emphasizing on Foodborne Pathogen Detection. IEEE Sens. J. 2009, 9 (12), 1942–1951. doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2009.2032052 7. Atchudan, R.; Edison, T.; Lee, Y. R. Nitrogen-Doped Carbon Dots Originating from Unripe Peach for Fluorescent Bioimaging and Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction Reaction. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2016, 482, 8–18. doi: 10.1016/j.jcis.2016.07.058 8. Baig, N.; Kammakakam, I.; Falath, W. Nanomaterials: A Review of Synthesis Methods, Properties, Recent Progress, and Challenges. Mater. Adv. 2021, 2 (6), 1821–1871. doi: 10.1039/D0MA00807A 9. Barber, D. J.; Freestone, I. C. An investigation of the Origin of the Colour of the Lycurgus Cup by Analytical Transmission Electron Microscopy. Archaeometry 1990, 32 (1), 33–45. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.1990.tb01079.x 10. Bartolucci, C.; Antonacci, A.; Arduini, F.; Moscone, D.; Fraceto, L.; Campos, E.; Attaallah, R.; Amine, A.; Zanardi, C.; Cubillana-Aguilera, L. M.; Palacios Santander, J. M.; Scognamiglio, V. Green Nanomaterials Fostering Agrifood Sustainability. TrAC, Trends Anal. Chem. 2020, 125, 115840. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. trac.2020.115840 11. Chaudhary, R.; Nawaz, K.; Khan, A. K.; Hano, C.; Abbasi, B. H.; Anjum, S. An Overview of the Algae-Mediated Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles and Their Biomedical Applications. Biomolecules 2020, 10 (11). doi: 10.3390/biom10111498 12. Chen, X.; Zhou, S.; Zhang, L.; You, T.; Xu, F. Adsorption of Heavy Metals by Graphene Oxide/Cellulose Hydrogel Prepared from NaOH/Urea Aqueous Solution. Materials (Basel, Switzerland) 2016, 9 (7), 582. doi: 10.3390/ma9070582

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

39

13. Chen, Z.; Yadghar, A. M.; Zhao, L.; Mi, Z. A Review of Environmental Effects and Management of Nanomaterials. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 2011, 93 (6), 1227–1250. doi: 10.1080/02772248.2011.580579 14. Cho, Y. H.; Jones, O. G. Assembled Protein Nanoparticles in Food or Nutrition Applications. Adv. Food Nutr. Res. 2019, 88, 47–84. doi: 10.1016/bs.afnr.2019.01.002 15. Das, R. K.; Brar, S. K. Plant Mediated Green Synthesis: Modified Approaches. Nanoscale 2013, 5 (21), 10155–10162. doi: 10.1039/c3nr02548a 16. De France, K. J.; Hoare, T.; Cranston, E. D. Review of Hydrogels and Aerogels Containing Nanocellulose. Chem. Mater. 2017, 29 (11), 4609–4631. doi: 10.1021/ acs.chemmater.7b00531 17. Diallo, M. S.; Fromer, N. A.; Jhon, M. S. Nanotechnology for Sustainable Development: Retrospective and Outlook. J. Nanopart. Res. 2013, 15 (11), 2044. doi: 10.1007/s11051-013-2044-0 18. Freestone, I.; Meeks, N.; Sax, M.; Higgitt, C. The Lycurgus Cup — A Roman Nanotechnology. Gold Bull. 2007, 40 (4), 270–277. doi: 10.1007/BF03215599 19. Gao, H.; Teng, C. P.; Huang, D.; Xu, W.; Zheng, C.; Chen, Y.; Liu, M.; Yang, D. P.; Lin, M.; Li, Z.; Ye, E. Microwave Assisted Synthesis of Luminescent Carbonaceous Nanoparticles from Silk Fibroin for Bioimaging. Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl. 2017, 80, 616–623. doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2017.07.007 20. Gilbert, B.; Zhang, H.; Huang, F.; Finnegan, M. P.; Waychunas, G. A.; Banfield, J. F. Special Phase Transformation and Crystal Growth Pathways Observed in Nanoparticles. Geochem. Trans. 2003, 4 (4), 20–27. doi: 10.1039/B309073F 21. Gilbert, J.; Cheng, C. J.; Jones, O. G. J. F. B. Vapor Barrier Properties and Mechanical Behaviors of Composite Hydroxypropyl Methylcelluose/Zein Nanoparticle Films. Food Biophys. 2017, 13, 25–36. 22. Gu, D.; Shang, S.; Yu, Q.; Shen, J. Green Synthesis of Nitrogen-doped Carbon Dots from Lotus Root for Hg(II) Ions Detection and Cell Imaging. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2016, 390, 38–42. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.08.012 23. Hadidi, M.; Pouramin, S.; Adinepour, F.; Haghani, S.; Jafari, S. M. Chitosan Nanoparticles Loaded with Clove Essential Oil: Characterization, Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activities. Carbohydr. Polym. 2020, 236, 116075. doi: https://doi. org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.116075 24. Hong, S.; Choi, D. W.; Kim, H. N.; Park, C. G.; Lee, W.; Park, H. H. Protein-Based Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems. Pharmaceutics 2020, 12 (7), 604. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12070604 25. Hou, J.; Dong, J.; Zhu, H.; Teng, X.; Ai, S.; Mang, M. A Simple and Sensitive Fluorescent Sensor for Methyl Parathion based on l-tyrosine Methyl Ester Functionalized Carbon Dots. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2015, 68, 20–26. doi: https://doi. org/10.1016/j.bios.2014.12.037 26. Ilyas, R. A.; Sapuan, S. M.; Atikah, M. S. N.; Asyraf, M. R. M.; Rafiqah, S. A.; Aisyah, H. A.; Nurazzi, N. M.; Norrrahim, M. N. F. Effect of Hydrolysis Time on the Morphological, Physical, Chemical, and Thermal Behavior of Sugar Palm Nanocrystalline Cellulose (Arenga Pinnata (Wurmb.) Merr). Text. Res. J. 2020, 91 (1–2), 152–167. doi: 10.1177/0040517520932393 27. Initiative, N. N. Nanotechnology Timeline. Retrieved from https://www.nano.gov/

40

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

28. Inshakova, E.; Inshakov, O. World Market for Nanomaterials: Structure and Trends. MATEC Web Conf. 2017, 129, Article number: 02013. doi: 10.1051/ matecconf/201712902013 29. Iravani, S. Bacteria in Nanoparticle Synthesis: Current Status and Future Prospects. Int. Sch. Res. Notices 2014, 2014, 359316. doi: 10.1155/2014/359316 30. Jayakumar, A.; Heera, K. V.; Sumi, T. S.; Joseph, M.; Radhakrishnan, E. K. Advances with Synthesis and Applications of Green Bionanomaterials. In Green Nanomaterials: Processing, Properties, and Applications; Ahmed S., Ali W., Eds.; Springer Singapore: Singapore, 2020; pp 209–226. 31. Jeevanandam, J.; Barhoum, A.; Chan, Y. S.; Dufresne, A.; Danquah, M. K. Review on Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Materials: History, Sources, Toxicity and Regulations. Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 2018, 9, 1050–1074. doi: 10.3762/bjnano.9.98 32. Jiménez, Z.; Kim, Y. J.; Mathiyalagan, R.; Seo, K. H.; Mohanan, P.; Ahn, J. C.; Kim, Y. J.; Yang, D. C. Assessment of Radical Scavenging, Whitening and Moisture Retention Activities of Panax Ginseng Berry Mediated Gold Nanoparticles as Safe and Efficient Novel Cosmetic Material. Artif. Cells Nanomed. Biotechnol. 2018, 46 (2), 333–340. doi: 10.1080/21691401.2017.1307216 33. Kalpana, V. N.; Devi Rajeswari, V. A Review on Green Synthesis, Biomedical Applications, and Toxicity Studies of ZnO NPs. Bioinorg. Chem. Appl. 2018, 2018, 3569758. doi: 10.1155/2018/3569758 34. Kasyutich, O.; Ilari, A.; Fiorillo, A.; Tatchev, D.; Hoell, A.; Ceci, P. Silver Ion Incorporation and Nanoparticle Formation inside the Cavity of Pyrococcus furiosus Ferritin: Structural and Size-Distribution Analyses. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132 (10), 3621–3627. doi: 10.1021/ja910918b 35. Khan, A. U.; Khan, M.; Malik, N.; Cho, M. H.; Khan, M. M. Recent Progress of Algae and Blue-green Algae-assisted Synthesis of Gold Nanoparticles for Various Applications. Bioprocess Biosyst. Eng. 2019, 42 (1), 1–15. doi: 10.1007/ s00449-018-2012-2 36. Kim, J. H.; Nam, D. H.; Park, C. B. Nanobiocatalytic Assemblies for Artificial Photosynthesis. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2014, 28, 1–9. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. copbio.2013.10.008 37. Kreyling, W.; Semmler-Behnke, M.; Chaudhry, Q. A Complementary Definition of Nanomaterial. Nano Today 2010, 5, 165–168. doi: 10.1016/j.nantod.2010.03.004 38. Kumar, A. Improving Secondary Metabolite Production in Tissue Cultures. In Plant Biology and Biotechnology: Volume II: Plant Genomics and Biotechnology; Bahadur B., Venkat Rajam M., Sahijram L., Krishnamurthy K. V., Eds.; Springer India: New Delhi, 2015, pp 397–406. 39. Lam, C. W.; James, J. T.; McCluskey, R.; Hunter, R. L. Pulmonary Toxicity of Single-wall Carbon Nanotubes in Mice 7 and 90 days After Intratracheal Instillation. Toxicol. Sci. 2004, 77 (1), 126–134. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kfg243 40. Lavoine, N.; Bergström, L. Nanocellulose-based Foams and Aerogels: Processing, Properties, and Applications. J. Mater. Chem. A 2017, 5 (31), 16105–16117. doi: 10.1039/C7TA02807E 41. Lee, E. Recent Advances in Protein-based Nanoparticles. Korean J. Chem. Eng. 2018, 35. doi: 10.1007/s11814-018-0102-0

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

41

42. Lu, Y.; Ozcan, S. Green Nanomaterials: On Track for a Sustainable Future. Nano Today 2015, 10 (4), 417–420. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nantod.2015.04.010 43. Luby, Š.; Lubyová, M.; Šiffalovič, P.; Jergel, M.; Majková, E. A Brief History of Nanoscience and Foresight in Nanotechnology; Dordrecht, 2015. 44. Ma, Y.; Zhang, Z.; Xu, Y.; Ma, M.; Chen, B.; Wei, L.; Xiao, L. A Bright Carbondot-based Fluorescent Probe for Selective and Sensitive Detection of Mercury Ions. Talanta 2016, 161, 476–481. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2016.08.082 45. Maksimović, M.; Omanović-Mikličanin, E. Towards Green Nanotechnology: Maximizing Benefits and Minimizing Harm; Singapore, 2017. 46. Malik, P.; Mukherjee, T.; Singh, M. J. J. M. B. T. S. Biomedical Nanotoxicology and Concerns with Environment: A Prospective Approach for Merger with Green Chemistry Enabled Physicochemical Characterization. J. Microbial. Biochem. Technol. 2014, 9, 2. 47. Mottaghitalab, F.; Kiani, M.; Farokhi, M.; Kundu, S. C.; Reis, R. L.; Gholami, M.; Bardania, H.; Dinarvand, R.; Geramifar, P.; Beiki, D.; Atyabi, F. Targeted Delivery System Based on Gemcitabine-Loaded Silk Fibroin Nanoparticles for Lung Cancer Therapy. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9 (37), 31600–31611. doi: 10.1021/ acsami.7b10408 48. Mughal, B.; Zaidi, S. Z. J.; Zhang, X.; Hassan, S. U. Biogenic Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Characterisation and Applications. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11 (6), 2598. 49. Nasrollahzadeh, M.; Sajjadi, M.; Sajadi, S. M.; Issaabadi, Z. Chapter 5 - Green Nanotechnology. In Interface Science and Technology; Nasrollahzadeh M., Sajadi S. M., Sajjadi M., Issaabadi Z., Atarod M., Eds., Vol. 28; Elsevier: 2019, pp 145–198. 50. Neethirajan, S.; Ragavan, V.; Weng, X.; Chand, R. Biosensors for Sustainable Food Engineering: Challenges and Perspectives. Biosensors (Basel) 2018, 8 (1). doi: 10.3390/bios8010023 51. Nomngongo, P. N.; Ngila, J. C.; Musyoka, S. M.; Msagati, T. A. M.; Moodley, B. A Solid Phase Extraction Procedure based on Electrospun Cellulose-g-oxolane-2,5dione Nanofibers for Trace Determination of Cd, Cu, Fe, Pb and Zn in Gasoline Samples by ICP-OES. Anal. Methods 2013, 5 (12), 3000–3008. doi: 10.1039/ C3AY26543A 52. Norrrahim, F.; Mohd Kasim, N. A.; Feizal, V.; Misenan, S.; Janudin, N.; Ahmad Shah, N. A.; Kasim, N.; Yusoff, W. Y. W.; Noor, A.; Jamal, S.; Khim, O.; Yunus, W. Nanocellulose: A Bioadsorbent for Chemical Contaminant Remediation. RSC Advances 2021, 11, 7347–7368. doi: 10.1039/D0RA08005E 53. Oymaci, P.; Altinkaya, S. A. Improvement of Barrier and Mechanical Properties of whey Protein Isolate based Food Packaging Films by Incorporation of Zein Nanoparticles as a Novel Bionanocomposite. Food Hydrocoll. 2016, 54, 1–9. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2015.08.030 54. Pal, G.; Rai, P.; Pandey, A. Chapter 1 - Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles: A Greener Approach for a Cleaner Future. In Green Synthesis, Characterization and Applications of Nanoparticles; Shukla A. K., Iravani S., Eds.; Elsevier: 2019, pp 1–26. 55. Pandit, P.; Gayatri, T. N. Introduction to Green Nanomaterials. In Green Nanomaterials: Processing, Properties, and Applications; Ahmed S., Ali W., Eds.; Springer Singapore: Singapore, 2020, pp. 1–21.

42

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

56. Patwardhan, S. V.; Staniland, S. S. Green Nanomaterials. In From Bioinspired Synthesis to Sustainable Manufacturing of Inorganic Nanomaterials, 2019. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/978-0-7503-1221-9 doi: 10.1088/978-0-7503-1221-9 57. Pham, D. T.; Saelim, N.; Tiyaboonchai, W. Alpha Mangostin Loaded Crosslinked Silk Fibroin-based Nanoparticles for Cancer Chemotherapy. Colloids Surf. B. Biointerfaces 2019, 181, 705–713. doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2019.06.011 58. Prasad, R.; Pandey, R.; Barman, I. Engineering Tailored Nanoparticles with Microbes: Quo Vadis? Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Nanomed. Nanobiotechnol., 2016, 8 (2), 316–330. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/wnan.1363 59. Purbia, R.; Paria, S. A Simple Turn on Fluorescent Sensor for the Selective Detection of Thiamine using Coconut Water Derived Luminescent Carbon Dots. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2016, 79, 467–475. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2015.12.087 60. Qi, H.; Liu, J.; Mäder, E. Smart Cellulose Fibers Coated with Carbon Nanotube Networks. J. Mater. Chem. A 2014, 2 (4), 295–307. 61. Rai, M.; Bonde, S.; Golinska, P.; Trzcińska-Wencel, J.; Gade, A.; Abd-Elsalam, K. A.; Shende, S.; Gaikwad, S.; Ingle, A. P. Fusarium as a Novel Fungus for the Synthesis of Nanoparticles: Mechanism and Applications. J. Fungi (Basel) 2021, 7 (2). doi: 10.3390/jof7020139 62. Rajeshkumar, S. Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles using Fresh Bark of Pongamia Pinnata and Characterization of Its Antibacterial Activity Against Gram Positive and Gram Negative Pathogens. Resource-Efficient Tech. 2016, 2 (1), 30–35. doi: https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.reffit.2016.06.003 63. Ravichandran, R. Nanotechnology Applications in Food and Food Processing: Innovative Green Approaches, Opportunities and Uncertainties for Global Market. Int. J. Green Nanotechnol. Biomed.: Phy. Chem. 2010, 1 (2), P72–P96. doi: 10.1080/19430871003684440 64. Rawtani, D.; Rao, P. K.; Hussain, C. M. Recent Advances in Analytical, Bioanalytical and Miscellaneous Applications of Green Nanomaterial. TrAC Trends Analyt. Chem. 2020, 133, 116109. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2020.116109 65. Ray, P. C.; Yu, H.; Fu, P. P. Toxicity and Environmental Risks of Nanomaterials: Challenges and Future Needs. J. Environ. Sci. Health C Environ. Carcinog. Ecotoxicol. Rev. 2009, 27 (1), 1–35. doi: 10.1080/10590500802708267 66. Research, G. V.. Nanomaterials Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By Product (Carbon Nanotubes, Titanium Dioxide), By Application (Medical, Electronics, Paints & Coatings), By Region, And Segment Forecasts, 2020-2027 (GVR-4-68038-565-6), 2020. Retrieved from https://www.grandviewresearch.com/ industry-analysis/nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-market 67. Sabra, S. A.; Elzoghby, A. O.; Sheweita, S. A.; Haroun, M.; Helmy, M. W.; Eldemellawy, M. A.; Xia, Y.; Goodale, D.; Allan, A. L.; Rohani, S. Self-assembled Amphiphilic Zein-lactoferrin Micelles for Tumor Targeted Co-delivery of Rapamycin and Wogonin to Breast Cancer. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2018, 128, 156–169. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2018.04.023 68. Sahoo, N.; Sahoo, R. K.; Biswas, N.; Guha, A.; Kuotsu, K. Recent Advancement of Gelatin Nanoparticles in Drug and Vaccine Delivery. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2015, 81, 317–331. doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.08.006

Green Nanomaterials: Importance and Applications

43

69. Saleh, T.; Soudi, T.; Shojaosadati, S. A. Aptamer Functionalized Curcumin-loaded Human Serum Albumin (has) Nanoparticles for Targeted Delivery to HER-2 Positive Breast Cancer Cells. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 130, 109–116. doi: 10.1016/j. ijbiomac.2019.02.129 70. Saporito, F.; Sandri, G.; Bonferoni, M. C.; Rossi, S.; Boselli, C.; Icaro Cornaglia, A.; Mannucci, B.; Grisoli, P.; Vigani, B.; Ferrari, F. Essential Oil-loaded Lipid Nanoparticles for Wound Healing. Int. J. Nanomedicine 2018, 13, 175–186. doi: 10.2147/ijn.S152529 71. Sarkar, S.; Gulati, K.; Mishra, A.; Poluri, K. M. Protein Nanocomposites: Special Inferences to Lysozyme based Nanomaterials. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 151, 467–482. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.02.179 72. Schmidt, K. Green Nanotechnology: It’s Easier Than You Think. 2007. 73. Sharifi, S.; Behzadi, S.; Laurent, S.; Forrest, M. L.; Stroeve, P.; Mahmoudi, M. Toxicity of Nanomaterials. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41 (6), 2323–2343. doi: 10.1039/ c1cs15188f 74. Sharma, P. R.; Chattopadhyay, A.; Sharma, S. K.; Geng, L.; Amiralian, N.; Martin, D.; Hsiao, B. S. Nanocellulose from Spinifex as an Effective Adsorbent to Remove Cadmium (II) from Water. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2018, 6 (3), 3279–3290. doi: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b03473 75. Shasha, P.; Kim, J. H.; Park, S. J. Celery Stalk-Derived Carbon Dots for Detection of Copper Ions. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2019, 19 (10), 6077–6082. doi: 10.1166/ jnn.2019.17022 76. Shavi, G. V.; Deshpande, P. B.; Nayak, U. Y.; Aravind, G. K.; Ranjith, A. K.; Reddy, M. S.; Udupa, N.; Rao, K. K. Applications of Nanotechnology in Health Care: Perspectives and Opportunities. Int. J. Green Nanotechnol. Biomed. 2010, 2 (2), B67–B81. 77. Singh, J.; Kaur, G.; Kaur, P.; Bajaj, R.; Rawat, M. A Review on Green Synthesis and Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Applicatiions: A Green Nanoworld. World. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 2016, 6, 730–762. doi: 10.20959/wjpps20167-7227 78. Slavin, Y. N.; Asnis, J.; Häfeli, U. O.; Bach, H. Metal Nanoparticles: Understanding the Mechanisms Behind Antibacterial Activity. J. Nanobiotechnology 2017, 15 (1), 65. doi: 10.1186/s12951-017-0308-z 79. Trotta, F.; Mele, A. Nanomaterials: Classification and Properties. In Nanosponges, 2019, pp. 1–26. 80. UN. Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 2015. Retrieved from https://sdgs.un.org/ 81. Wang, F.; Yang, Y.; Ju, X.; Udenigwe, C. C.; He, R. Polyelectrolyte Complex Nanoparticles from Chitosan and Acylated Rapeseed Cruciferin Protein for Curcumin Delivery. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2018, 66 (11), 2685–2693. doi: 10.1021/ acs.jafc.7b05083 82. Wang, J.; Ng, Y. H.; Lim, Y.-F.; Ho, G. W. Vegetable-Extracted Carbon Dots and their Nanocomposites for Enhanced Photocatalytic H2 Production. RSC Advances 2014, 4 (83), 44117–44123. doi: 10.1039/C4RA07290A 83. Warheit, D.; Laurence, B. R.; Reed, K. L.; Roach, D. H.; Reynolds, G. A. M.; Webb, T. R. Comparative Pulmonary Toxicity Assessment of Single Wall Carbon Nanotubes

44 84.

85.

86. 87.

88.

89. 90.

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications in Rats. Toxicol. Sci.: An Official J. Soc. Toxicol. 2004, 77, 117–125. doi: 10.1093/ toxsci/kfg228 Xiaogui Huang, X. Z.; Cuilian W., Lijin L. Amino-Functionalized Magnetic Bacterial Cellulose/Activated Carbon Composite for Pb2+ and Methyl Orange Sorption from Aqueous Solution. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2018, 34 (5), 855–863. doi: 10.1016/j. jmst.2017.03.013 Yadav, A.; Kon, K.; Kratosova, G.; Duran, N.; Ingle, A. P.; Rai, M. Fungi as an Efficient Mycosystem for the Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles: Progress and Key Aspects of Research. Biotechnol. Lett. 2015, 37 (11), 2099–2120. doi: 10.1007/ s10529-015-1901-6 Yemini, M.; Xu, P.; Kaplan, D. L.; Rishpon, J. Collagen-Like Peptide as a Matrix for Enzyme Immobilization in Electrochemical Biosensors. Electroanalysis 2006, 18 (21), 2049–2054. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/elan.200603597 Yuan, D. B.; Hu, Y. Q.; Zeng, T.; Yin, S. W.; Tang, C. H.; Yang, X. Q. Development of Stable Pickering Emulsions/Oil Powders and Pickering HIPEs Stabilized by Gliadin/ Chitosan Complex Particles. Food Funct. 2017, 8 (6), 2220–2230. doi: 10.1039/ C7FO00418D Zhang, B.; Misak, H.; Dhanasekaran, P. S.; Kalla, D.; Asmatulu, R. Environmental Impacts of Nanotechnology and Its Products. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 2011 Midwest Section Conference of the American Society for Engineering Education, Lake Point Conference Center, Arkansas Tech University, Russellville, Arkansas, 2011. Zhao, J.; Lin, M.; Wang, Z.; Cao, X.; Xing, B. Engineered Nanomaterials in the Environment: Are they Safe? Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 51 (14), 1443–1478. doi: 10.1080/10643389.2020.1764279 Zhao, W.; Zhang, C.; Li, B.; Zhang, X.; Luo, X.; Zeng, C.; Li, W.; Gao, M.; Dong, Y. Lipid Polymer Hybrid Nanomaterials for mRNA Delivery. Cell Mol. Bioeng. 2018, 11 (5), 397–406. doi: 10.1007/s12195-018-0536-9

CHAPTER 3

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage P. PERIASAMY1 and YUGAL KISHORE MOHANTA2

1Department

of Physics, Nehru Institute of Engineering and Technology, T.M. Palayam, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India 2Department

of Applied Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Science and Technology Meghalaya, Baridua, Ri-Bhoi, India

ABSTRACT Unpardonable consumption of fossil fuels not only drains the natural sources but also causes a constant rise in carbon dioxide discharges, which is responsible for the rising world average temperatures. The natural cyclic phenomenon is fluctuating across the regional and global climates that do exist now, which is agreed upon by scientific research. All nations’ governments now realize that the recent climate change is speeding up as a result of human influence. Therefore, drastic and immediate action will be necessary to mitigate negative consequences. 3.1 INTRODUCTION Everything is powered by energy, which is found everywhere across the globe. Our individual and societal life has become reliant on its availability, accessibility, and capacity. Besides, this is a driving force of physical appliances, propels our automobiles, and illuminates our surroundings. Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications. Ishani Chakrabartty & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, (Eds.) © 2024 Apple Academic Press, Inc. Co-published with CRC Press (Taylor & Francis)

46

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

Altogether, we live in an astonishing environment that is both buoyant and vulnerable. The energy is exuded from the environment and returns to the same point in different forms. This enables us to not only comprehend our world’s energy and climate context but also to begin addressing its difficulties. When scientific technology and governing policy are not associated or balanced, they fail to deliver on their mutual promises. However, they can be the catalyst for an upcoming new and far superior energy if they are combined in a planned, realistic, and synchronized. The present world has never had such a greater requirement of energy than it does now. Our planet is experiencing a remarkable energy crisis because of increased global energy consumption, continuous reliance on fossil for energy production, and an embryonic worldwide population. Greenhouse gases, particularly the CO2 gas ratio, have been gradually increasing and are presently higher than ever in the past decades. Major changes in the global climate may occur if the current concentration levels are not inverted.77. This will reflect implications on society, production units, and the universal economy. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has suggested vital initiatives that, if taken soon, can contribute to slowing down the rise in greenhouse emissions.6 Increasing efficiency of the energy storage and conservation, finding alternative energy technology, and taking continuous efforts to regulate future energy demand are all key responses to reducing conventional fuel consumption and CO2 discharges.7. In a special report released by IEA entitled “Golden Rules for a Golden Age of Gas,” it was discussed about the exploitation of alternative gas particularly shale gas, coalbed methane, and tight gas, and raised many interrogations whether natural gas is on the verge of entering a golden age. Few preservative ideas were floated by researchers to increase natural gas utilization in industries as a technique to boost energy sanctuary, whereas others are afraid of forthcoming environmental impairment from hydraulic rupturing.39 Major advancements in technological adaption, development, and application will be required. It is now necessary to spend more research on energy-efficient technologies, low-carbon technologies, renewable technologies, nuclear power, and carbon capture and storage technologies.60 An increase in vehicle efficiency that is coupled with a progressive shift away from traditional petroleum-fueled technology and moving toward hybrid vehicles and other modern vehicles, promised to prolong the fuel supply and enlarged the energy sources in the transportation sector. It is also critical to use biofuels

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

47

both for ground and air transport, which have significantly different fuel standards.90 Applied research with an emphasis on product-to-market sustainable energy sources such as solar photovoltaic, wind, oceanic, and geothermal energy is now gaining some interest.11,44 Nuclear energy’s sustainability, as well as the implementation of smart grids and hyperactive grids, are important research topics for today’s technologists and governments.55,59 National energy suppliers are becoming more interested in research on energy management and future integrated grid networks. Meanwhile, Lignite, gasoline, and natural gas continue to play an important role in the international energy mix today. Since scientists and researchers have pioneered clean coal techniques such as carbon capture and storage and it is now important to take into consideration whether such techniques will be able to effectively manage the intensified carbon footprint produced by the usage of hydrocarbon fuels.54 The perimeter of the worldwide global energy demand is mounting, as the scale of sources of funding required to adopt such technology, as well as the struggle against time to prevent further damage caused by prolonged usage of fossil energy.6 The world encountered both the desperation of nuclear energy’s devastating power and the substantial potential of an effective, reliable, clean sustainable source of energy from World Wars I and II and its subsequent inevitable consequences .76 The national conversation over the upcoming combination of nuclear power in worldwide energy requirements will have to overcome barriers like nuclear waste disposal, nuclear power plant disasters and their ecological and sustainability consequences, and the ongoing development and reliance on nuclear energy from a military weapons standpoint, is still going on today. Besides this, the underlying concept that environmental variables were not the only factors that affected the decisions of electric energy production also extends to so-called “green” or “clean” technology.81 Energy efficiency and conservation are two different scenarios but complementary ideas.62 Whenever the expansion of energy usage is limited in physical terms, conservation of energy is reached. As a culmination, energy conservation could be the ultimate result of a wide range of processes or advancements, such as productivity improvements or technological development. Energy conservation, on the contrary, is accomplished when the energy intensity of a certain prototype, technique, or area of production or energy usage is lowered while preserving productivity,

48

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

utilization, or comfort levels. Energy efficiency is typically considered a recourse, similarly to coal, petroleum products, or natural gas. It contributes significantly to the economy by maintaining the resource base as well as lowering pollution.8 Nature imposes certain basic constraints upon its amount of energy and may be used proficiently, yet most of our devices and manufacturing industry are still far from reaching this physical limit. The manufacturing industry consumes nearly 41% of worldwide primary energy and emits just about the same amount of CO2.8 Strategy in Energy conversion and storage32: The future energy plan can be divided into three categories: short-term, intermediate, and long-term. (a) Short-term Strategy ™ Having a clear understanding of diverse energy products. ™ Having the maximum use of existing assets. ™ Power generation system efficiency and less transportation limitations, specifically in conventional energy sources. ™ Strengthening research activities, as well as the transfer and application of technology and methods for environmentally sound energy systems, incorporating sustainable and renewable energy sources. (b) Intermediate Strategy ™ Demand management involves increased energy conservation, optimal fuel mix, economic structural changes, and an appropriate forecasting mix in the transportation sector. ™ It is necessary to switch to less energy-intensive methods of transportation. ™ It is necessary to shift away from non-renewable resources or toward renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and biogas energy. (c) Long-term Strategy ™ Efficient coal, gasoline, and liquefied natural gas production. ™ minimization of Oil and gas consumption. ™ Upgradation of the energy sector infrastructure. ™ Optimizing energy consumption to meet national, commercial, and sustainability objectives.

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

49

3.2 VARIOUS ENERGY STORAGE AND CONVERSION TECHNOLOGY 3.2.1 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION The speed of development of each country depends on the availability of renewable energy sources which triggers all parts of technology, human lifestyle and economy.63 To sustain the economy of the country upward, an uninterrupted, adequate, affordable and highly secured energy supply is required. In this scenario, it was expected that the available fossil fuels source is depleting very rapidly due to drastically increase in population. Unconditional usage of energy is put forward a high pressure on alternative energy source identification and became an environmental threat now. Conventional sources are enriched by carbon content and their continuous combustion emits an important greenhouse gas such as CO2 that lead to an increase in the earth’s temperature .71

FIGURE 3.1 Various hydrogen production routes.58 Source: Reprinted from Ref. [58]. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

50

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

The energy demand has imposed challenges and the threat of climate disruption, and the requirement of massive investments in energy production, which are problematic issues for developing and developed nations.9 As said by the report, there is a ridiculous ratio between developed and developing countries in terms of population and energy consumption. Saving the health of our planet is more important than simply looking at the past of conventional oil scarcity and planning to transform it into a renewable energy source. This switchover would offer benefits such as taking away the worries of fossil fuel cost and the creation of employability for young generations. Several renewable energy sources have been proposed and implemented such as solar, hydropower, biofuels, biomass and windmills that produce no greenhouse gases and abounded unlimitedly.13 All kinds of renewable energy materials pose some merit and demerit based on existing technologies and outcomes of economics. Hydrogen is a light element with a high energy density (142 kJ/kg) and enormous potential for renewable energy power as shown in Figures 3.1 3.2. This can be served as an energy carrier and green fuel.88 Further, it exists naturally in combination with some other elements, and to use it as fuel we need to be available as free hydrogen (H2). Besides, H2 has the highest energy-to-weight ratio compared to other fuels. H2 is the most abundant element in the atmosphere and offers the promise to provide renewable and clean energy which produce water as a by-product of combustion.

FIGURE 3.2 Schematic diagram of different processes which are associated with hydrogen production.58 Source: Reprinted from Ref. [58]. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

51

Though H2 fuels offer many advantages, it has some drawback, mainly storage size which requires more space than petroleum-based fuels. H2 fuels can be employed in various areas from prototypes such as ICEs, fuel cells, and gas turbine machines to military hardware. Owing to the low density, transportation, and storage issues, adaption of H2 fuel technology is delayed, and development in technology would be a help to conquer these problems.26,50 The incorporation of metallic compounds and metal hydrides with hydrogen makes the way for the storage of hydrogen.14 Here, hydrogen binds with metal and produce metal hydride which is much smaller than the actual H2 gas cylinder. At the ambient temperature, H2 is released from metal. With continuous research in hydrogen production through various experiments, solar and geothermal heating systems reached outstanding systems with diverse potential for hydrogen power resources. Hydrogen production by the electrolysis phenomenon would be the third renewable fuel in forthcoming years in the transport division that will replace the direct usage of electric energy and biofuels.55 There may be high energy loss in hydrogen generation. However, the scarce potential of biofuels and batteries makes it essential for hydrogen generation as the third option. Furthermore, we can convert this hydrogen into synthetic methane/liquid fuels based on economic benefits and market developments.42 Hydrogen was an invisible, non-poisonous, odorless, non-toxic, smoke-free, lighter than air, and easily diffused when it leaks. Reactions of hydrogen with air, oxygen, and oxidizers are flammable, and the addition of He, N2, CO2, H2O, and Ar is used to decrease the flammable range. Among these, H2O is the most efficient substance for reducing flammability, and He/Ar is significantly less effective. Compared to other fuels, H2 has a low autoignition temperature, superior octane rating to conventional gasoline and high heating value (52,000 Btu/lb).30 The flammability range permits us to estimate the mixture with better fuel economy and low combustion temperature than other gasoline. Therefore, hydrogen engines are expected to work more efficiently than gasoline engines. The peculiar properties strongly recommend hydrogen fuel as a candidate for clean and green fuel. This green fuel (H2) is used to produce heat energy or to do mechanical work. Besides, it can be used to produce electricity for heating, lighting, and for other work.40 If we apply solar energy to produce hydrogen from carbon-free molecules (water, hydrogen peroxide, and so on), as represented in Figure

52

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

3.3, it would be a big victorious scenario for both views, such that from the understanding of energy and the ecosystem.16 As a result, hydrogen is recognized as the cleanest and most environmentally friendly fuel accessible. It also has a dual function of serving both as an energy transmitter and a storage medium. Lawrence W. Jones from the University of Michigan created the phrase “hydrogen economy” in 1970 in response to the tremendous potential of hydrogen fuel for vehicles and industrial applications. The word was intended to counteract the detrimental impacts of hydrocarbon fuels on the environment.

FIGURE 3.3

Solar-driven catalytic processes.

Source: Reprinted with permission from Ref. [96]. Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc.

Developers of a global hydrogen economy have suggested that hydrogen may be a more ecologically friendly energy source for individual customers, especially in automobiles since it does not release significant contaminants or carbon dioxide (CO2) at the time of use.63 However, the

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

53

scale of such consequences will be determined by the frequency at which hydrogen drains throughout its production, preservation, and consumption. For instance, in contrast to traditional fossil fuels, which have been mined or collected from the ground, hydrogen’s peculiarity relies on the fact that it may be synthesized from a wide range of feedstocks such as oil (coal), natural gas (NG), biomass (including wood), water (including rainwater), and so on.24,93,94 Because of its excellent efficiency and moderate production cost, natural gas (NG) is now the most widely used feedstock for hydrogen production. Although not explicitly mentioned in this picture, hydrogen has been included as the third alternative energy, and it is expected to play the most significant role in the transportation industry by 2025.34 Using water-splitting technology,52,64 scientists were able to effectively production of oxygen and hydrogen since the 1950s. There have been several notable developments in the various types of catalysts, which have been made via the use of both biological (plant leaves, microalgae, and specialized bacteria) and physical structures (semiconductors).15,48 There are three methods of splitting water: photocatalytic photoelectrochemical utilizing a photoanode, photoelectrochemical using a photoanode, and photocathode; each of the three categories comprises three fundamental phases .64,83 ™ To create photoexcited electron-hole pairs, more photon energy (sunlight) must be absorbed by the photocatalyst than the energy bandgap of the photocatalyst (charge carrier). ™ Those photoexcited charges disperse and travel to other areas on the photocatalyst’s interface without conjugation, forming new charges. ™ Water is mitigated and oxidized at these locations by the photogenerated electrons, producing H2 and O2, separately. Both the physical and the electrical characteristics of the photocatalyst play a significant role in the first two processes. At the same time, the third step is facilitated by the introduction of a solid cocatalyst.70 When it is used in photocatalytic water splitting, the cocatalyst is whether virtuous metals or transition metal oxides, or a mixture of both (e.g., Pt, NiOx, RuOx, RhCr2O3, and IrO2),61,74 which is loaded over to the surface of a photocatalyst to generates active sites and minimize the activation energy for gas formation in photocatalytic water splitting.

54

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

A photoelectrochemical (PEC) system,64 which typically transforms sunlight into electrical energy, is an excellent tool for the water-splitting mechanism since it is affordable. The photoelectric effect, invented by Becquerel, inspired scientists and chemists to develop methods of attempting to convert sunlight into electrical energy or chemical fuels, respectively. Since the PEC splitting of water replicates the photosynthesis process (which involves water oxidation and the elimination of CO2 emissions), this method is often used as an artificial photosynthesis method.49 The production of hydrogen by PEC water splitting has been a long-standing goal of researchers and industry for many years. As ultraviolet (UV) light contributes to just 34% of the total solar radiation energy, even if the yield is relatively high, the outcomes are of limited real value for H2 synthesis in a laboratory setting. As a result, the potential of photocatalysts that are efficient in splitting water effectively under visible light is required for the widespread use of solar energy. 1D and 2D structural features with a high surface-to-volume ratio and welldefined morphological characteristics will be given significant importance since they facilitate charge and mass flow more efficiently .33 The precise structure of photocatalyst is thus obviously necessary in particular to host cocatalysts in analytically specified and optimized places. 3.2.1.1 APPLICATION OF HYDROGEN Owing to the high qualities of hydrogen, it has been recognized and recommended as a superior energy carrier with sufficient potential to reduce the energy crisis, liberate us from gasoline dependence, and help to reduce pollution. So, the development of hydrogen production technologies is in the pipeline. This hydrogen energy provides solutions to energy demands, such as emergency power backup; heating, and electricity for residential and commercial usage; and hybrid energy vehicles.41,82 ™ Hydrogen fuel is employed in portable electronics, electric machines, and other household appliances such as heaters, TV, air conditioner, refrigerator, fan, and so on. The hydrogen burner is a pioneering example of a portable hydrogen appliance that can be used indoors. The propane burners are replaced by hydrogen burners connected by series. In food processing, hydrogen-baked meat was similar to that roasted with propane.

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

55

™ Means of dynamic PEC cells for direct solar hydrogen production is newly invented, which is an easy and simplified version in plant design and operation. These PEC cells expose their potential in autonomous electricity supply for homes and industry. Further, it can provide both power and heat to a residential house. Hydrogen fuel with highly efficient and clean fuel is used for spacecraft. Now many manufacturers are producing electric cars based on hydrogen fuel. ™ Hydrogen fuels can be used as raw material in chemical industries, house warming, power production, energy for running vehicles, and high-temperature atomic welding.55 The prime aim of hydrogen is to produce clean water.44 Further, it can be used for metallic ore reduction, and the production of many chemicals such as ammonia, water, HCL, methanol, radioactive isotope tritium, and so on. Hydrogen can be used as coolant material in an electric generator. 3.2.2 CO2 REDUCTION TO FUEL Carbon capture and storage (CCS), as well as carbon dioxide utilization (CDU), seem to be two possible alternatives for reducing CO2 emissions in the environment, which are having shocking climate impacts.71 For any technique to be successful in reducing or trying to mitigate, three important requirements have to be accomplished. Appropriate volumes of CO2 should always be stored or transformed, otherwise protected from atmospheric discharge. Therefore, a better course of action to think about CO2 usage is not via the reduction potential of wastage, but instead in the exploitation of as a meaningful C-1 source of energy. The ensuing benefit from CO2 typically compensates partly or all the processing expenses. , However, this implies that CDU may only get moderate or limited influence on the overall emissions prevention and reduction when considering a theoretically sustainable approach for the synthesis of the most popular commercial chemicals from CO2.57,78 It can be acknowledged that apart from pervasive vehicle electrification, which is difficult to keep consistency for protracted haulage, shipping as well as air travel, or profound societal transformation, CDU fuels production symbolizes among the few alternative approaches able to mitigate road transport CO2 emissions within a short-term future.

56

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

Image Credit: VectorMine/Shutterstock.com

Catalysts are the driving force of many manufacturing applications because they accelerate chemical transformations. For instance, they are required heavy crude oil into petroleum or aviation fuel. Catalysts are now found in more than 80% of all industrial products. A research group administered by the Department of, Energy (DOE), Argonne National Laboratory and Northern Illinois University have developed an innovative electrocatalyst that directly converts CO280 and clean water into ethanol with high efficiency, high selectivity toward the satisfactory final product, and relatively inexpensive. Ethanol is a particularly anticipated resource since it is employed as an intermediate in the production of the chemical, pharmacological, and skin care sectors. This would be accomplished by electrochemically transforming CO2 produced by industrialized operations such as coal-fired power plants or alcoholic fermenting facilities into desirable products at a minimal price. The catalyst developed by the team comprises atomically disseminated copper on carbon–powder support.28,47,68,69 Under the influence of an external electric field, this catalyst starts to break down CO2 and hydroxyl groups and effectively integrates the fragmented molecules into ethanol. In this regard, the reduction of CO2 in the fuels is an excellent technique to regulate electricity needs and supply as growing capacities of renewable energy production are deployed globally.47 The high initial cost of extracting CO2 from industrial effluents is a fundamental barrier for both the CDU and CCS approaches. Notwithstanding the reaction kinetics de-mixing charges being modest in flue gas streaming channels, CO2 extraction, and filtration operations have much higher energy prices coming out from sorption/desorption practice. Other concerns linked with the capture techniques are the limitations of integrating existing plants and inadequate capture process facilities.

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

FIGURE 3.4

57

CO2 conversion cycle.2

Source: Reprinted from Ref. [2]. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Moreover, temperature swing mechanisms such as the standard aminebased operations require a significant quantity of waste heat to remove excess amount captured CO2 and may be accessible in adequate quantity for capture from specific point sources such as power generation plants, although at a high predatory energy cost.46 Furthermore, in certain wastes, such as those from industrial production, equivalent excess heat will not be present. The majority of thermodynamic catalytic reduction of CO2 occurs at ambient temperatures (523 K), leading to the production of viable fuels, including CO, methane, as well as methanol as a result of hydrogenation.74 The addition of different compounds with larger Gibbs free energies (such as H2) as coreactants would enable the thermodynamic process to be simpler to understand and manipulate. Considerable development has been achieved in the thermal catalysis for CO2 in recent decades, with a considerable deal of attention being dedicated to the process during the last several decades (Fig 3.5). In addition, different carbon components such as carbon nanofibers and carbon nanotubes, as well as biochar and carbon felt, were used as carriers for CO2 hydroformylation catalysts, owing to their high hydrogen storage capabilities, good thermal conductivity, and large specific surface area of carbon carriers. Solar-driven fuels or substances produced by photocatalysis from CO2 are an intriguing alternative energy source. In some mechanism derived from natural photosynthesis, electron-hole pairs are formed when

58

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

photocatalysts have been subjected to sunlight irradiation for an extended period.85 The photogenerated electrons allow CO2 to undertake a redox reaction, which results in the production of hydrocarbons as a byproduct. Recently, photocatalysts have been mainly composed of semiconducting, which is widespread on the planet and very simple to collect. Since it has been demonstrated that an electrical current may effectively suppress the charge recombination process. So, electrocatalytic degradation of CO2 has been intensively investigated by researchers.95

FIGURE 3.5

Strategies used in CO2 conversion.87

Source: Reprinted from Ref. [87]. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

The electrocatalytic reduction of CO2 into value-added chemicals is a promising option for lowering atmospheric CO2 concentration while storing energy in the form of chemicals. Various catalysts are used to facilitate the conversion of CO2 in the presence of external electric current as a source of energy and clean water as a proton supplier.28 Compared to thermocatalysis, electrocatalytic transformation is cost-effective process

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

59

since water is employed as the protons supplier instead of hydrogen gas. High-energy usage, simple equipment, and feasible conversion ratio have indeed contributed to increased interest in electrocatalytic CO2 conversion. This is due to the reasonably benign operational conditions (normal pressure and temperature), controllable response processing conditions and reaction rate, tunable catalyst, and electrolyte, and reproducible reaction process conditions and rate constants, which have all contributed to the increased interest in electrocatalytic CO2 reduction.87 Photoelectrocatalysis is the most efficient way to produce photoelectrons using solar energy to its full potential.67 In an external electric field, photogenerated electrons have been transported to the electrode interface and then acquired by CO2 for catalytic reduction. The supplied electric field can efficiently enhance charge segregation in the photocatalytic activity, accelerate electron transportation, and boost CO2 molecules’ inherent activity and power productivity. Photoelectrocatalysis, which makes effective and reliable use of solar energy, can substantially resolve the issue of excessive energy usage in CO2 catalytic performance. Enzymes are biological catalysts45 that are well-known for their efficiency and sensitivity. Multiple enzymes in living cells frequently function together in the same specified order to catalyze multi-step biochemical processes, performing critical roles in natural substance synthesis and secretion.79 In vitro, enzymes, including enzyme cascades, were investigated to accomplish the reduction of CO2 to particular compounds via single or multiple multi-step processes prompted by the biocatalytic reaction.23 Research has shown a growing trend, particularly in the last ten years, implying that much more attention has been devoted to the biocatalytic conversion of CO2. The use of solar energy to convert human-made greenhouse gas CO2 into commercial fuels/chemicals is often seen as a potential and intriguing method of utilization of solar energy since it promises to address global energy and climate concerns at the same time. Photoreaction with enzymes, in particular, is a highly efficient, selective, and energy-saving approach for CO2 reduction that has gotten of much interest in recent years. Moreover, although this system performs both photocatalytic and enzyme reactions in the same context, it would affect enzyme functional properties. The convergence of semiconductor photocatalysts and biocatalysis reduced CO2 more efficiently than photocatalytic activity alone. Interaction between photocatalysis and enzymology; conversely, is a significant issue, leading to photocatalyst deterioration and enzyme inactivation.10,41

60

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

3.2.3 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL Before entering into the atomic and molecular scale, let us take a moment to explore the sun from the reverse dimensions. The sun is not just the most magical thing in our planetary system and like its predecessor, but also the primary or secondary source of most of the energy we enjoy on the planet nowadays. To mitigate limitations and emission control vulnerabilities associated with the consumption of fossil fuels, power generation from photovoltaic (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP) systems have the potential to be introduced into the global energy demand of tomorrow, thereby introducing more environmentally friendly Watts.20.27,37 Solar PV rocked a significant benchmark in the later part of 2012, surpassing 100 gigawatts of operating capacity worldwide.22,31,84 The fundamental difference between photovoltaic and CSP is that photovoltaic devices convert sunlight into electrical energy. At the same time, CSP absorbs thermal energy from concentrated sun’s rays by a circulating fluid that then gives either heat or electricity (Fig. 3.6).

FIGURE 3.6

Solar PV system,

Source: Reprinted from Ref. [12]. Copyright © 2020 . Elsevier Ltd.

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

61

In the recent decade, substantial governmental subsidies in Europe have culminated in the region taking a leading position in solar Photovoltaic systems installation. Asia is next at 20% led by Japan (8%) and China (7%), world shareholders across the globe.73,86 Because of this, solar photovoltaics (PV) has achieved the status of being the fastest-growing energy resource in current history, as evaluated by the deployment of new capacity. The utilization of solar power represented below half of 1% of worldwide electricity consumption . However, one recent projection shows that the capacity of solar energy output in the United States might expand by 1000% from 2011 to 2040. One study showed that solar PV might contribute 11% of worldwide power output by 2050. Although recent developments have contributed directly to the reduction of carbon emissions and have encouraged many solar energy campaigners, three troubling truths must be acknowledged as we think about the future. The three issues, categorical topics of governance, technology, and economy are loosely connected. Some predictions indicate that the economy will remain stagnant for another five years, while other ambitious scenarios anticipate that steady growth will re-emerge by the latter part of the decade. Meanwhile, technological advancements have resulted in significant improvements in the effectiveness of both individual cells and solar resource focused. Striving to increase performance standards while reducing the cost of technology advancements, efforts are being made to support the industry’s intriguing potential for growth.3,38,43 Wind and solar power are alternative renewable energy sources, and electrical equipment has not always been developed to handle their easy transition into the electrical grid.19 Owing to differences in sun irradiation, spatial latitude, weather, and nighttime, the generating capacity of a PV system or CSP system is significantly lower than its nominal rating. Existing solar technology and assembly expenses potentially lead to net energy prices for PV-generated power that are typically more expensive than commercial rates but may range from nearly one more than 3 times commercial rates depending on the location. This is highly reliant on the current market prices, competitive sources of electricity production, benefits, and subsidies, as well as state and municipal legislation.36,51 Apart from solar PV, other substantial solar developments to cleaner fuels are provided by much established but constantly evolving geothermal inventions, including the rooftop solar water heating system

62

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

that is becoming popular. While long-term projections show that PV trends would eventually overtake defensive solar thermal hot water systems in terms of adoption, short-term term is still being determined. Due to the inevitable relatively high cost of the solar panel system, cost-cutting initiatives have been undertaken to lower the quantities of materials necessary or to replace less costly but still appropriate ingredient combinations. The major benefits of organic photovoltaic devices are their broad solar spectrum response, despite their poor current efficiency, and their inexpensive fabrication cost due to the use of high-throughput solution processing. It is possible to achieve broad absorption of the solar spectrum while optimizing the short circuit current provided by using an appropriate lower range polymeric organic compound and an electron-receptive inorganic material combination. According to the researchers, Organic-inorganic hybrid solar cells produced in solution might contribute to reduced and effective photovoltaic systems. For organic solar cells to achieve higher energy performances, a high electrical charge carrier generation rate via excitons separation in the organically active region must be achieved. Excitons are segregated at the junctions of materials with various electron binding affinities when traps are generated by introducing “particulates” to strengthen electric fields. Current polymer-fullerene systems are based on a mix known as P3HT:PCBM33, which has a power conversion efficiency of around 4.5%percent and is now the most widely used system.66 Across many locations, solar energy technologies are subjected to greater fluctuations in atmospheric temperature on a regular and continual basis, which may be detrimental to their performance.,1,22,29 3.2.4 WINDMILL Windmills, also known as wind turbines, have existed for at least three centuries.92 Classical machines were primarily used for drawing water or milling grain. The wind has been the most important energy source in voyages, even for longer periods. When wind turbines were first introduced into the energy-producing industry in the early twentieth century, they were mainly utilized to recharge the battery and simplify the distribution of electricity to distant places.18 Unfortunately, the popularity of these systems has diminished as a result of the expansion of the power grid. A noteworthy exception was a fifty-three-meter rotor-diameter steel windmill established in the United States in 1941. The 1.25 MW Smith-Putnam

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

63

machine featured a full-span pitch control, which was similar to that of existing machines, as well as flapping blades to adjust the load. When it was built in 1938, it was the world’s biggest wind turbine, and it ran for around four years until it experienced a catastrophic breakdown in 1945.75

FIGURE 3.7

Different sizes and capacities of wind turbines.17

Source: Reprinted from Ref. [17]. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Even though widespread anticipation and the accomplishment of several technological breakthroughs, the wind energy business did not gain speed until the significant increase in oil prices came in 1973. As a result, wind energy became efficient and profitable with conventional sources of energy. Then it provided the essential impetus for the future improvement of wind energy research and innovation, which would ultimately aid in the decrease in the cost of electricity (Fig. 3.7). A variety of large-scale government-sponsored investigation, development, and proof-of-concept programs were launched across the globe because of this windmill. Rather than employing a gyroscopic controller, the whole tower was oriented toward the wind. The appropriate number of blades to be taken into account was still an unanswered question at the time and windmills with varied numbers of wings were built to test the theoretical concepts (Fig. 3.8).4,25,89

64

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

A German scientist named Albert Betz made an elegant determination about the quantity of energy that can be recovered from the windmill. Betz’s Law, first reported in 1919, determines the maximum amount of energy that may be taken by the wind in accessible flow.65 According to the principle, the amount of energy produced is proportional to the cube of wind velocity: P = 0.5cρAV3. As stated by Betz’s Law, no wind farm can harvest more than 59.3% of the kinetic energy stored in the airflow. Contemporary windmills are intended to accomplish up to 80% of the Betz limit in terms of energy production. Since the amount of energy produced by wind is largely dependent on airspeed, it is critical to conduct a comprehensive study of the wind resource’s characteristics. Knowledge of the properties of the wind serves as the foundation for research into wind energy utilization, which includes selections on landscape design, structural analysis, and the optimal selection of blade for a specific environment, among other things.72

FIGURE 3.8 Common foundation types used in offshore wind turbine design: monopile (a), mono-pod (skirted caisson) (b), jacket structure (c), tripod (d) and floating wind turbine with anchors (e). Source: Reprinted from Ref. [97]. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Wind farms could be broadly classified into two kinds depending on the orientation of the drive shaft: the vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) and the horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT), which can often be seen today. Components of a typical wind turbine include the turbine blades, the turbine housing, the gearbox, a brake assembly, the low-speed shaft, a support tower, a generator, a cable drop to a converter and switchgear,

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

65

and a local transformer for linking to the power grid.18,21,56 Windmills in operation today may have either alternating current or direct current generators, as well as the power electronic devices that go with them. Windmills are now considered a widespread embodiment of producing electricity, particularly to the substantial integration of wind farms into the power grid in recent years. For a substantial period of time, windmill units with megawatt capacity that have been installed commercially were in operation without experiencing any complications. A few hundred windmills may be located on offshore wind power farms in several nations throughout the globe, with a few of the greatest onshore farms along with many hundred units.5 Onshore wind farms are becoming more popular as a source of renewable energy. On-shore wind farms are suited for flat landmass regions with average wind speeds higher than 6 m/s. The evolution of windmill energy has surged dramatically in consecutive years, and many nations have surpassed expectations for the proportion of wind energy capacity that can be possibly put on networking grids in their respective countries.35,53,91 In recent years, emphasis has been placed on power quality, the intermittent nature of renewable, and the resilience of transmission and distribution networks, allowing for the connection of renewable energy sources at proportions well enough more than what is being previously considered viable. The rationale for wind energy has now been extensively established for quite some time. 3.3 CONCLUSION Energy efficiency improvements, reduction of suspected Carbon footprints in the atmosphere, shifting from fossil fuels to natural gas with lower greenhouse gases, utilization of renewable energy, incorporation of nuclear energy, and CO2 gas capture and storage are the foremost remediation for the future energy sector. While the global technical capability of low-carbon innovations is necessary to reach significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, many technologies encounter regional and national restrictions. Toward the planning and execution of energy production strategies, comprehensive approach trends have to be identified. Government and private R&D centers can contribute new knowledge to various agencies about upcoming projects, and a complete socioeconomic

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

66

framework for the development can be formed to move the economic growth of the country forward to meet prospective demands. KEYWORDS • • • • •

global energy crisis renewable energy energy storage and conversion hydrogen production CO2 conversion

REFERENCES 1. International Renewable Energy Agency, I. Future of Solar Photovoltaic Deployment, Investment, Technology, Grid Integration and Socio-Economic Aspects a Global Energy Transformation Paper About IRENA. www.irena.org/publications. 2. Adamu, A.; Russo-Abegão, F.; Boodhoo, K. Process Intensification Technologies for CO2 Capture and Conversion—A Review. BMC Chem. Eng. 2020, 2 (1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/S42480-019-0026-4 3. Adeh, E. H.; Good, S. P.; Calaf, M.; Higgins, C. W. Solar PV Power Potential Is Greatest Over Croplands. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9 (1), 11442. https://doi.org/10.1038/ s41598-019-47803-3 4. Akhmatov, V.; Knudsen, H.; Nielsen, A. H. Advanced Simulation of Windmills in the Electric Power Supply. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2000, 22 (6), 421–434. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0142-0615 (00)00007-7 5. Akhmatov, V.; Knudsen, H. An Aggregate Model of a Grid-Connected, Large-Scale, Offshore Wind Farm for Power Stability Investigations—Importance of Windmill Mechanical System. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 2002, 24 (9), 709–717. https:// doi.org/10.1016/S0142-0615 (01)00089-8 6. Aktar, M. A.; Alam, M. M.; Al-Amin, A. Q. Global Economic Crisis, Energy Use, CO2 Emissions, and Policy Roadmap Amid COVID-19. Sustain. Product. Consump. 2021, 26, 770–781. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SPC.2020.12.029 7. Albero, J.; Peng, Y.; García, H. Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction to C2+ Products. ACS Catalysis 2020, 10 (10), 5734–5749. https://doi.org/10.1021/ACSCATAL.0C00478 8. Ali Bekhet, H.; Yasmin, T. Assessment of the Global Financial Crisis Effects on Energy Consumption and Economic Growth in Malaysia: An Input-Output Analysis. Int. Econ. 2014, 140, 49–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.INTECO.2014.07.003

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage 9. 10.

11.

12. 13. 14.

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

67

Andreoni, V. The Energy Metabolism of Countries: Energy Efficiency and Use in the Period That Followed the Global Financial Crisis. Energy Policy 2020, 139. https:// doi.org/10.1016/J.ENPOL.2020.111304 Artero, V.; Berggren, G.; Atta, M.; Caserta, G.; Roy, S.; Pecqueur, L.; Fontecave, M. From Enzyme Maturation to Synthetic Chemistry: The Case of Hydrogenases. Acc.Chem. Res. 2015, 48 (8), 2380–2387. https://doi.org/10.1021/ACS. ACCOUNTS.5B00157 Assareh, E.; Delpisheh, M.; Farhadi, E.; Peng, W.; Moghadasi, H. Optimization of Geothermal- and Solar-Driven Clean Electricity and Hydrogen Production MultiGeneration Systems to Address the Energy Nexus. Energy Nexus 2022, 5, 100043. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEXUS.2022.100043 Awasthi, A.; Shukla, A. K.; Murali Manohar, S. R.; Dondariya, C.; Shukla, K. N.; Porwal, D.; Richhariya, G. Review on Sun Tracking Technology in Solar PV System. Energy Rep. 2020, 6, 392–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2020.02.004 Aydin, M. I.; Dincer, I. An Assessment Study on Various Clean Hydrogen Production Methods. Energy 2022, 245. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENERGY.2021.123090 Bellosta von Colbe, J.; Ares, J. R.; Barale, J.; Baricco, M.; Buckley, C.; Capurso, G.; Gallandat, N.; Grant, D. M.; Guzik, M. N.; Jacob, I.; Jensen, E. H.; Jensen, T.; Jepsen, J.; Klassen, T.; Lototskyy, M. V.; Manickam, K.; Montone, A.; Puszkiel, J.; Sartori, S.; et al. Application of Hydrides in Hydrogen Storage and Compression: Achievements, Outlook and Perspectives. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2019, 44 (15), 7780–7808. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2019.01.104 Bhawna; Sharma, S. Metal Based Catalysts for Hydrogen Production Reactions. Mater. Today: Proc. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATPR.2021.04.380 Bossel, U.; Eliasson, B. Energy Hydrogen Economy, n.d. Calautit, K.; Aquino, A.; Calautit, J. K.; Nejat, P.; Jomehzadeh, F.; Hughes, B. R. A Review of Numerical Modelling of Multi-Scale Wind Turbines and Their Environment. Computation 2018, 6 (1), 24. https://doi.org/10.3390/COMPUTATION6010024 Chaudhuri, A.; Datta, R.; Kumar, M. P.; Davim, J. P.; Pramanik, S. Energy Conversion Strategies for Wind Energy System: Electrical, Mechanical and Material Aspects. Materials 2022, 15 (3), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031232 De Castro, C.; Mediavilla, M.; Miguel, L. J.; Frechoso, F. Global Solar Electric Potential: A Review of Their Technical and Sustainable Limits. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013, 28, 824–835. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.040 Devereux, L. R.; Cole, J. M. Data-Driven Materials Discovery for Solar Photovoltaics. Data Sci. Appl. Sustainability Anal. 2021, 129–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/ B978-0-12-817976-5.00008-5 Djurovic, M.; Joksimovic, G. Optimal Performance of Double Fed Induction Generator in Windmills. Renew. Energy 1996, 9 (1-4 SPEC. ISS.), 862–865. https:// doi.org/10.1016/0960-1481(96)88416-3 Dupont, E.; Koppelaar, R.; Jeanmart, H. Global Available Solar Energy Under Physical and Energy Return on Investment Constraints. Appl. Energy 2020, 257, 113968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113968 Esmieu, C.; Raleiras, P.; Berggren, G. From Protein Engineering to Artificial Enzymes—Biological and Biomimetic Approaches Towards Sustainable Hydrogen

68 24.

25. 26.

27. 28.

29.

30.

31. 32. 33.

34. 35.

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications Production. Sustain. Energy Fuels 2018, 2 (4), 724–750. https://doi.org/10.1039/ C7SE00582B Farobie, O.; Matsumura, Y.; Syaftika, N.; Amrullah, A.; Hartulistiyoso, E.; Bayu, A.; Moheimani, N. R.; Karnjanakom, S.; Saefurahman, G. Recent Advancement on Hydrogen Production from Macroalgae via Supercritical Water Gasification. Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 2021, 16. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BITEB.2021.100844 Ganjefar, S.; Ghasemi, A. A. A Novel-Strategy Controller Design for Maximum Power Extraction in Stand-Alone Windmill Systems. Energy 2014, 76, 326–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENERGY.2014.08.024 Gerloff, N. Comparative Life-Cycle-Assessment Analysis of Three Major Water Electrolysis Technologies While Applying Various Energy Scenarios for a Greener Hydrogen Production. J. Energy Stor. 2021, 43. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. EST.2021.102759 Gielen, D.; Boshell, F.; Saygin, D.; Bazilian, M. D.; Wagner, N.; Gorini, R. The Role of Renewable Energy in the Global Energy Transformation. Energy Strategy Rev. 2019, 24, 38–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESR.2019.01.006 Guo, K.; Hussain, I.; Jie, G.; Fu, Y.; Zhang, F.; Zhu, W. Strategies for Improving the Photocatalytic Performance of Metal-Organic Frameworks for CO2 Reduction: A Review. J. Environ. Sci. (China) 2023, 125, 290–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. JES.2022.01.005 Guo, Q.; Liu, Y.; Liu, M.; Zhang, H.; Qian, X.; Yang, J.; Wang, J.; Xue, W.; Zhao, Q.; Xu, X.; Ma, W.; Tang, Z.; Li, Y.; Bo, Z. Enhancing the Performance of Organic Solar Cells by Prolonging the Lifetime of Photogenerated Excitons. Adv. Mater. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/ADMA.202003164 He, S.; Gao, L.; Dong, R.; Li, S. A Novel Hydrogen Production System Based on the Three-Step Coal Gasification Technology Thermally Coupled with the Chemical Looping Combustion Process. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2022, 47 (11), 7100–7112. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2021.12.050 Hernandez, R. R.; Hoffacker, M. K.; Field, C. B. Efficient Use of Land to Meet Sustainable Energy Needs. Nat. Clim. Change 2015, 5 (4), 353–358. https://doi. org/10.1038/nclimate2556 Hong, Z.; Wei, Z.; Han, X. Optimization Scheduling Control Strategy of WindHydrogen System Considering Hydrogen Production Efficiency. J. Energy Stor. 2022, 47. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EST.2021.103609 Huang, J.; Tao, J.; Liu, G.; Lu, L.; Tang, H.; Qiao, G. In Situ Construction of 1D CdS/2D Nb2CTx MXene Schottky Heterojunction for Enhanced Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production Activity. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2022, 573. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. APSUSC.2021.151491 Ishaq, H.; Dincer, I.; Crawford, C. A Review On Hydrogen Production and Utilization: Challenges and Opportunities. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2021. https://doi. org/10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2021.11.149 Jacobson, M. Z.; Delucchi, M. A.; Bauer, Z. A. F.; Goodman, S. C.; Chapman, W. E.; Cameron, M. A.; Bozonnat, C.; Chobadi, L.; Clonts, H. A.; Enevoldsen, P.; Erwin, J. R.; Fobi, S. N.; Goldstrom, O. K.; Hennessy, E. M.; Liu, J.; Lo, J.; Meyer, C. B.; Morris, S. B.; Moy, K. R.; et al. 100% Clean and Renewable Wind, Water, and

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

36. 37.

38. 39. 40. 41.

42.

43. 44.

45.

46. 47. 48.

69

Sunlight All-Sector Energy Roadmaps for 139 Countries of the World. Joule 2017, 1 (1), 108–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2017.07.005 Jäger-Waldau, A. Overview of the Global PV Industry. Compreh. Renew. Energy 2022, 130–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819727-1.00054-6 Jahangiri, M.; Rezaei, M.; Mostafaeipour, A.; Goojani, A. R.; Saghaei, H.; Hosseini Dehshiri, S. J.; Hosseini Dehshiri, S. S. Prioritization of Solar Electricity and Hydrogen Co-Production Stations Considering PV Losses and Different Types of Solar Trackers: A TOPSIS Approach. Renew. Energy 2022, 186, 889–903. https://doi. org/10.1016/J.RENENE.2022.01.045 Jeslin Drusila Nesamalar, J.; Venkatesh, P.; Charles Raja, S. The Drive of Renewable Energy in Tamilnadu: Status, Barriers and Future Prospect. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 73, 115–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.01.123 Ji, M.; Wang, J. Review and Comparison of Various Hydrogen Production Methods Based on Costs and Life Cycle Impact Assessment Indicators. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2021, 46 (78), 38612–38635. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2021.09.142 Karayel, G. K.; Javani, N.; Dincer, I. Effective Use of Geothermal Energy for Hydrogen Production: A Comprehensive Application. Energy 2022, 249, 123597. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENERGY.2022.123597 Karyakin, A. A.; Morozov, S. V.; Karyakina, E. E.; Varfolomeyev, S. D.; Zorin, N. A.; Cosnier, S. Hydrogen Fuel Electrode Based on Bioelectrocatalysis by the Enzyme Hydrogenase. Electrochem. Commun. 2002, 4 (5), 417–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S1388-2481 (02)00335-1 Khor, S. C.; Jusoh, M.; Zakaria, Z. Y. Hydrogen Production from Steam and Dry Reforming of Methane-Ethane-Glycerol: A Thermodynamic Comparative Analysis. Chem. Eng. Res. Design 2022, 180, 178–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. CHERD.2022.02.015 Kumar, A.; Kumar, K.; Kaushik, N.; Sharma, S.; Mishra, S. Renewable Energy in India: Current Status and Future Potentials. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2010, 14 (8), 2434–2442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.04.003 Lakhera, S. K.; Rajan, A.; T.P.; R.; Bernaurdshaw, N. A Review on Particulate Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production System: Progress Made in Achieving High Energy Conversion Efficiency and Key Challenges Ahead. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 152. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111694 Le, J. M.; Bren, K. L. Engineered Enzymes and Bioinspired Catalysts for Energy Conversion. ACS Energy Lett. 2019, 4 (9), 2168–2180. https://doi.org/10.1021/ ACSENERGYLETT.9B01308/ASSET/IMAGES/ACSENERGYLETT.9B01308. SOCIAL.JPEG_V03 Leung, D. Y. C.; Caramanna, G.; Maroto-Valer, M. M. An Overview of Current Status of Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage Technologies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014, 39, 426–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2014.07.093 Li, L.; Zhang, Z. In-Situ Fabrication of Cu Doped Dual-Phase CsPbBr3–Cs4PbBr6 Inorganic Perovskite Nanocomposites for Efficient and Selective Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction. Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 434. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEJ.2022.134811 Li, S.; Jiang, J.; Zhai, N.; Liu, J.; Feng, K.; Chen, Y.; Wen, Z.; Sun, X.; Zhong, J. A Half-Wave Rectifying Triboelectric Nanogenerator for Self-Powered Water Splitting

70 49.

50.

51. 52.

53. 54. 55.

56.

57.

58.

59. 60. 61.

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications Towards Hydrogen Production. Nano Energy 2022, 93. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. NANOEN.2021.106870 Liu, X.; Chen, T.; Xue, Y.; Fan, J.; Shen, S.; Hossain, M. S. A.; Amin, M. A.; Pan, L.; Xu, X.; Yamauchi, Y. Nanoarchitectonics of MXene/Semiconductor Heterojunctions Toward Artificial Photosynthesis via Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction. Coordin. Chem. Rev. 2022, 459. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CCR.2022.214440 Manna, J.; Jha, P.; Sarkhel, R.; Banerjee, C.; Tripathi, A. K.; Nouni, M. R. Opportunities for Green Hydrogen Production in Petroleum Refining and Ammonia Synthesis Industries in India. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2021, 46 (77), 38212–38231. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2021.09.064 Martín-Chivelet, N. Photovoltaic Potential and Land-Use Estimation Methodology. Energy 2016, 94, 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.10.108 Meshram, A. A.; Aashish Moses, K.; Baral, S. S.; Sontakke, S. M. Hydrogen Production from Water Splitting of Real-Time Industry Effluent Using Novel Photocatalyst. Adv. Powder Technol. 2022, 33 (3), 103488. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. APT.2022.103488 Miller, L. M.; Keith, D. W. Climatic Impacts of Wind Power. Joule 2018, 2 (12), 2618–2632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2018.09.009 Nnabuife, S. G.; Ugbeh-Johnson, J.; Okeke, N. E.; Ogbonnaya, C. Present and Projected Developments in Hydrogen Production: A Technological Review. Carbon Capture Sci. Technol. 2022, 100042. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CCST.2022.100042 Norouzi, N. Hydrogen Production in the Light of Sustainability: A Comparative Study on the Hydrogen Production Technologies Using the Sustainability Index Assessment Method. Nucl. Eng. Technol. 2022, 54 (4), 1288–1294. https://doi. org/10.1016/J.NET.2021.09.035 Nurimbetov, A.; Bekbayev, A.; Orynbayev, S.; Baibutanov, B.; Tumanov, I.; Keikimanova, M. Optimization of Windmill’s Layered Composite Blades to Reduce Aerodynamic Noise and Use in Construction of “Green” Cities. Procedia Eng. 2015, 117 (1), 273–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PROENG.2015.08.162 Osinkin, D.; Tropin, E. Hydrogen Production from Methane and Carbon Dioxide Mixture Using All-Solid-State Electrochemical Cell Based on a Proton-Conducting Membrane and Redox-Robust Composite Electrodes. J. Energy Chem. 2022, 69, 576–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JECHEM.2022.02.019 Osman, A. I.; Mehta, N.; Elgarahy, A. M.; Hefny, M.; Al-Hinai, A.; Al-Muhtaseb, A. H.; Rooney, D. W. Hydrogen Production, Storage, Utilisation and Environmental Impacts: A Review. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2021, 20 (1), 153–188. https://doi. org/10.1007/S10311-021-01322-8 Ozgur, O.; Yilanci, V.; Kongkuah, M. Nuclear Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions in India: Evidence from Fourier ARDL Bounds Test Approach. Nucl. Eng. Technol. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NET.2021.11.001 Pal, D. B.; Singh, A.; Bhatnagar, A. A Review on Biomass Based Hydrogen Production Technologies. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2022, 47 (3), 1461–1480. https:// doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2021.10.124 Pan, X.; Ren, G.; Hoque, M. N. F.; Bayne, S.; Zhu, K.; Fan, Z. Fast Supercapacitors Based on Graphene-Bridged V2O3/VOx Core-Shell Nanostructure Electrodes with

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

62.

63.

64. 65. 66. 67.

68. 69.

70.

71.

72. 73.

74.

71

a Power Density of 1 MW kg−1. Adv. Mater. Interf. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1002/ admi.201400398 Periasamy, P.; Krishnakumar, T.; Devarajan, V. P.; Sandhiya, M.; Sathish, M.; Chavali, M. Investigation of Electrochemical Supercapacitor Performance of WO3-CdS Nanocomposites in 1 M H2SO4 Electrolyte Prepared by Microwave-Assisted Method. Mater. Lett. 2020, 274, 127998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2020.127998 Qiu, Z.; Martín-Yerga, D.; Lindén, P. A.; Henriksson, G.; Cornell, A. Green Hydrogen Production via Electrochemical Conversion of Components from Alkaline Carbohydrate Degradation. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2022, 47 (6), 3644–3654. https:// doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2021.11.046 Qureshy, A. M. M. I.; Dincer, I. A New Photoelectrochemical Reactor Designed for Solar Hydrogen Fuel Production: Experimental Study. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2022, 250. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CES.2021.117404 Ragheb, M.; Ragheb, A. M. Wind Turbines Theory—The Betz Equation and Optimal Rotor Tip Speed Ratio. Fundamental Adv. Topics Wind Power 2011. https://doi. org/10.5772/21398 Ramos, R.; Caldas, M. J. P3HT-Fullerene Blends: A Classical Molecular Dynamics Simulation 2018. https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.1805.10335 Ren, S.; Yang, H.; Zhang, D.; Gao, F.; Nan, C.; Li, Z.; Zhou, W.; Gao, N.; Liang, Z. Excellent Performance of the Photoelectrocatalytic CO2 Reduction to Formate by Bi2S3/ZIF-8 Composite. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2022, 579. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. APSUSC.2021.152206 Rocha, J. H. A.; Toledo Filho, R. D.; Cayo-Chileno, N. G. Sustainable Alternatives to CO2 Reduction in the Cement Industry: A Short Review. Mater. Today: Proc. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATPR.2021.12.565 Sabbah, A.; Shown, I.; Qorbani, M.; Fu, F. Y.; Lin, T. Y.; Wu, H. L.; Chung, P. W.; Wu, C. I.; Santiago, S. R. M.; Shen, J. L.; Chen, K. H.; Chen, L. C. Boosting Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction in a ZnS/ZnIn2S4 Heterostructure Through StrainInduced Direct Z-Scheme and a Mechanistic Study of Molecular CO2 Interaction Thereon. Nano Energy 2022, 93. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NANOEN.2021.106809 Saleh, M. R.; Ahmed, S. M.; Soliman, S. A.; El-Bery, H. M. Facile Construction of Self-Assembled Cu@polyaniline Nanocomposite as an Efficient Noble-Metal Free Cocatalyst for Boosting Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2022, 47 (9), 6011–6028. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2021.11.233 Santos, M. P. S.; Hanak, D. P. Techno-Economic Feasibility Assessment of Sorption Enhanced Gasification of Municipal Solid Waste for Hydrogen Production. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2022, 47 (10), 6586–6604. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. IJHYDENE.2021.12.037 Schubel, P. J.; Crossley, R. J. Wind Turbine Blade Design. Energies 2012, 5 (9), 3425–3449. https://doi.org/10.3390/en5093425 Shahbaz, M.; Trabelsi, N.; Tiwari, A. K.; Abakah, E. J. A.; Jiao, Z. Relationship Between Green Investments, Energy Markets, and Stock Markets in the Aftermath of the Global Financial Crisis. Energy Econ. 2021, 104. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. ENECO.2021.105655 Shao, Z.; Shen, Q.; Ding, H.; Jiang, Y.; Li, S.; Yang, G. Synthesis, Characterization, and Methanol Steam Reforming Performance for Hydrogen Production on

72 75. 76.

77. 78.

79. 80. 81. 82.

83.

84. 85. 86.

87.

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications Perovskite-Type Oxides SrCo1-xCuxO3-δ. Ceram. Int. 2022, 48 (8), 11836–11848. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CERAMINT.2022.01.054 Söder, L. Wind Power Systems. Encyclopedia Phys. Sci. Technol. 2003, 837–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-227410-5/00826-7 Sonnberger, M.; Ruddat, M.; Arnold, A.; Scheer, D.; Poortinga, W.; Böhm, G.; Bertoldo, R.; Mays, C.; Pidgeon, N.; Poumadère, M.; Steentjes, K.; Tvinnereim, E. Climate Concerned But Anti-Nuclear: Exploring (Dis)Approval of Nuclear Energy in Four European Countries. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2021, 75. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. ERSS.2021.102008 Stoupos, N.; Kiohos, A. Energy Commodities and Advanced Stock Markets: A Post-Crisis Approach. Resour. Policy 2021, 70. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. RESOURPOL.2020.101887 Sung, P.-H.; Huang, C.-Y.; Lin, C.-Y.; Chung, P.-W.; Chang, Y.-C.; Chen, L.-C.; Chen, H.-Y.; Liao, C.-N.; Chiu, E.-L.; Wang, C.-Y. Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction for C2–C3 Oxy-Compounds on ZIF-67 Derived Carbon with TiO2. J. CO2 Utilization 2022, 58, 101920. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCOU.2022.101920 The Central Role of Enzymes as Biological Catalysts—The Cell—NCBI Bookshelf. n.d. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9921/ (accessed 29 Mar 2022). Turning Carbon Dioxide Into Liquid Fuel | Argonne National Laboratory. n.d. https://www.anl.gov/article/turning-carbon-dioxide-into-liquid-fuel (accessed 28 Mar 2022). Umar, M.; Farid, S.; Naeem, M. A. Time-Frequency Connectedness Among CleanEnergy Stocks and Fossil Fuel Markets: Comparison Between Financial, Oil and Pandemic Crisis. Energy 2022, 240. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENERGY.2021.122702 Uysal, S.; Kaya, M. F.; Demir, N.; Hüner, B.; Özcan, R. U.; Erdem, Ö. N.; Yılmaz, M. Investigation of Hydrogen Production Potential from Different Natural Water Sources in Turkey. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2021, 46 (61), 31097–31107. https://doi. org/10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2021.07.017 Vattikuti, S. V. P.; Reddy, P. A. K.; NagaJyothi, P. C.; Shim, J.; Byon, C. Hydrothermally Synthesized Na2Ti3O7 Nanotube–V2O5 Heterostructures with Improved Visible Photocatalytic Degradation and Hydrogen Evolution—Its Photocorrosion Suppression. J. Alloys Compd. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.12.371 Vrînceanu, A.; Grigorescu, I.; Dumitraşcu, M.; Mocanu, I.; Dumitrica, C.; Micu, D.; Kucsicsa, G.; Mitrica, B. Impacts of Photovoltaic Farms on the Environment in the Romanian Plain. Energies 2019, 12 (13), 2533. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12132533 Wang, R.; Kou, L.; Zhang, C.; Zhang, X.; Wang, Y.; Fan, C. Single-Step Synthesis of Novel Bi2Fe4O9 Nanosheets for High-Efficient Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction to CO. Mater. Lett. 2022, 314. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATLET.2022.131932 Wesseling, J. H.; Lechtenböhmer, S.; Åhman, M.; Nilsson, L. J.; Worrell, E.; Coenen, L. The Transition of Energy Intensive Processing Industries Towards Deep Decarbonization: Characteristics and Implications for Future Research. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 79, 1303–1313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.156 Xu, L.; Xiu, Y.; Liu, F.; Liang, Y.; Wang, S. Research Progress in Conversion of CO2 to Valuable Fuels. Molecules 2020, 25 (16). https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25163653

Global Energy Crisis: Need for Energy Conversion and Storage

73

88. Yang, X.; Wang, S.; He, Y. Review of Catalytic Reforming for Hydrogen Production in a Membrane-Assisted Fluidized Bed Reactor. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 154. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111832 89. Yaramasu, V.; Wu, B. Power Electronics for High-Power Wind Energy Conversion Systems. Encyclopedia Sustain. Technol. 2017, 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/ B978-0-12-409548-9.10094-6 90. Younas, M.; Shafique, S.; Hafeez, A.; Javed, F.; Rehman, F. An Overview of Hydrogen Production: Current Status, Potential, and Challenges. Fuel 2022, 316. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FUEL.2022.123317 91. Yu, L-q, Huang, R-d, Chi, Y–n; Hu, C-w. Preparation, Structure and Properties of 3D Supramolecular Architecture, on the Basis of Hydrogen Bonds and π-π Stacking Between 2D Layers, with Windmill Building Blocks. Chem. Res. Chin. Univ. 2008, 24 (3), 251–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1005-9040 (08)60053-7 92. Zayats, I. The Historical Aspect of Windmills Architectural Forms Transformation. Procedia Eng. 2015, 117 (1), 685–695. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. PROENG.2015.08.234 93. Zeng, Z.; Luo, B.; Jing, D.; Guo, L. Hydrogen Production Versus Photocatalyst Dimension Under Concentrated Solar Light: A Case Over Titanium Dioxide. Solar Energy 2021, 230, 538–548. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOLENER.2021.10.034 94. Zhang, B.; Lu, Q.; Huang, W.; Chen, Y.; Yan, W.; Yu, B.; Yang, X.; Zhang, J. Hydrogen Production via In-Line Pyrolysis-Reforming of Organic Solid Waste Enhanced by Steel Slags. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2022, 47 (10), 6605–6619. https:// doi.org/10.1016/J.IJHYDENE.2021.12.065 95. Zhang, X.; Guo, S. X.; Gandionco, K. A.; Bond, A. M.; Zhang, J. Electrocatalytic Carbon Dioxide Reduction: From Fundamental Principles to Catalyst Design. Mater. Today Adv. 2020, 7, 100074. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MTADV.2020.100074 96. Zhao, Y.; Gao, W.; Li, S.; Williams, G. R.; Mahadi, A. H.; Ma, D. Solar- Versus Thermal-Driven Catalysis for Energy Conversion. Joule 2019, 3 (4), 920–937. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JOULE.2019.03.003 97. Kaynia, A. M. (2019). Seismic considerations in design of offshore wind turbines. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 124, 399 –407. https://doi.org/10.1016/J. SOILDYN.2018.04.038

CHAPTER 4

Energy Conversion and Storage Devices MADHUSUDAN B. KULKARNI1 and NH AYACHIT2

1School

of Electronics and Communication Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi, Karnataka, India 2School

of Advanced Sciences, KLE Technological University, Hubballi, Karnataka, India

ABSTRACT To meet the current emerging demands of the globe for sustainable progression in energy conversion and storage, there is a requirement for the expansion of advanced new materials that enhance efficacy in an indispensable manner. Materials are vital for fundamental improvements in energy sources to overcome the challenges of finite energy resources. The unique properties of nanomaterials, such as optical, electrical, mechanical, thermal, physical, and so on are widely used in energy devices to increase performance and boost the electrodes and electrolytes. Because of their extremely high superficial areas and enormous pore sizes, they can be used in energy transformation and storage applications. Further, these materials properties may enhance the execution of power, efficiency, stability, and life span in energy conservation and storage devices. This chapter discusses different energy forms such as chemical, electrical, mechanical, and thermal energies. Several materials used in energy devices, like flexible graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and nanoparticle composites are elaborated and discussed. The challenges and future prospects of several kinds of energy devices are also discussed. Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications. Ishani Chakrabartty & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, (Eds.) © 2024 Apple Academic Press, Inc. Co-published with CRC Press (Taylor & Francis)

76

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

4.1 INTRODUCTION In recent times, energy consumption has been growing rapidly across the globe in every field of science and technology. Nonrenewable and renewable sources are the two main kinds of energy resources.1 Nonrenewable energy resources such as natural gas, charcoal, crude oil, and nuclear resources have the benefit of allowing power plants to generate more power on demand. These were used to be a primary energy source earlier but are now available in limited supplies, as these are being depleted. Here, renewable resources like solar, geothermal, biomass, wind, and water (hydro) replenish themselves. These have the benefit of unlimited supply over a long period.2 However, renewable resources are subjected to their availability at any given time. This leads to the expansion of new methods for energy preservation and storage. These two are the key parameters for adequate consumption of energy in every field of application. It becomes significant to billet and apply these approaches wherever it is possible. The majority of global energy consumption comes from the combustion of fossil fuels.3 The traditional method, on the other hand, is neither sustainable nor environmentally friendly. Solar cells and thermoelectric devices are among the renewable energy generation devices being studied to replace fossil fuels.4 Energy conversion is the process of transforming one form of energy into another form. This phenomenon is also known as energy transformation. Usually, energy is an extent that offers the capacity to accomplish work, such as offering heat, wind, or light. Further, this is being translated according to the energy conservation law.5 Here, energy is transformed into a diverse object or location, but it cannot be created nor destroyed. Energy can be used in several forms in natural resources, such as lighting and heating. Here, in the energy conversion, the limitation is due to the low efficiency of the energy transformation from one form to another.6 Energy storage is the preservation technique for power generated earlier at some time that can be used for a later time. Energy storage plays a vital role in minimizing imbalances between energy production and energy demand. It maintains a uniform ratio between production and usage. Generally, a device that stores the charge or energy is known as a battery or accumulator. Energy is generated in numerous forms, comprising chemical, electrical potential, radiation, kinetic, and thermal.7,8. Transferring energy from difficult-to-store forms to more convenient or cost-effective forms is known as energy storage.

Energy Conversion and Storage Devices

Energy Efficiency % =

77

Energy Output *100 Energy Source

Figure 4.1 shows the schematic representation of energy transformation in a generic energy system. Further, nanomaterials have been crucial in the development and advancement of new-generation energy systems. The peculiar quantum effect at the nanoscale aids electron transport and bandwidth in nanomaterials, resulting in superior device performance and efficiency.9 Nanomaterial applications in energy areas are based on material synthesis. The synthesis of nanocomposite materials plays a crucial role that can be used as boosting element in energy devices. A few of the nanomaterials widely used in energy storage technology are flexible graphene,10 carbon nanotubes (CNTs),11 graphitized mesoporous carbon (GMC),12 nanoparticles such as ZnO,13 NiO,14 MnO2,15 and CuO,16 respectively.

FIGURE 4.1

Schematic of energy transformation in the generic energy system.

The variance between energy transformation and storage systems is that in the first case, it will be in a circular loop wherein generation of energy happens within the similar partition as in electrochemical, fuel cell, battery, and supercapacitor.17 In the second case, an energy transformation system will be an open loop where the anode (+) terminal and cathode (−) terminal execute as a charge transfer medium where the active energy mass will be distributed from an exterior cell. Energy storage also refers to a range of approaches for storing huge amounts of energy within a power

78

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

grid. For instance, fuel cells use an external source, for instance, hydrogen and oxygen, while solar cells use photons from sunlight.18 There are a variety of power storage alternatives that can be used in the energy transformation and energy storage industry, and more are on the way as technology suits a crucial component in future energy devices around the globe.19 Figure 4.2 shows the schematic representation of energy transformation and energy storage with their respective applications.

FIGURE 4.2

Schematic representation of energy transformation and energy storage.

In energy conversation, it is usually referred to as the fifth fuel, the remaining four being the primary or fossil fuels of oil (liquid), coal (solid), nuclear (hydroelectricity), and gas. This emphasizes the importance of reducing the amount of energy used, not only nationally but also internationally. The basic fact is that, depending on the rate of usage, the world’s supplies of fossil fuels will ultimately run out, and so, if consumption of these kinds of energy is reduced, existing reserves will last longer over decades. Experimentation and research could lead to the economic recovery and use of resources that are now available but uneconomic to recover and utilize, increasing the number of years before these nonrenewable energy sources run out.

Energy Conversion and Storage Devices

79

4.1.1 DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENERGY

FIGURE 4.3

Different forms of energy.

There are many diverse energy forms. A few examples of different energies are electrical light, mechanical, sound, gravitational, nuclear or atomic, heat, chemical, etc. Each energy form can be modified or transformed into another state depending on the source of energy.20 Figure 4.3 shows the different forms of energy. 4.1.1.1 CHEMICAL ENERGY In this system, energy is stored in the chemical bonds between molecules and atoms. In a chemical reaction, chemical energy, here heat is released as energy source.21 For instance, the use of chemical resources in fuels like charcoal and wood by burning them. 4.1.1.2 ELECTRICAL ENERGY Here, the resource will be transported by the movement of electrons in a conductor is known as electrical energy. It is one of the widely used and beneficial kinds of energy. Lightning is a good example.22 Power plants, for instance, transform chemical energy held in fuels like charcoal into electrical sources through a series of transformations. 4.1.1.3 MECHANICAL ENERGY Here, the energy generated from the substance or system that has resulted from its motion is known as mechanical energy. Mechanical energy, for instance, is used by machines to perform tasks.23

80

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

4.1.1.4 NUCLEAR ENERGY Here, the energy is stored in each atom. Fission and fusion are two approaches for generating nuclear energy.24 The most extensively utilized method is fission. Uranium is the most important raw material. Further, nuclear power generators emit a small quantity of CO2. As a result, nuclear power plants (NPP) have a negligible impact on global warming. 4.1.1.5 THERMAL ENERGY Here, the thermal source of a substance is in relation to its heat resource, that is, the energy of vibrating or moving particles.25 For example, sunlight for cooking food. 4.2 ENERGY CONVERSION AND STORAGE The conversion of natural resources into usable energy such as heat or electricity and the storage of that energy are essential parts of everyday life. While primary energy sources like nuclear, fossil, and hydro energy account for the most energy generated, numerous alternative ways are gaining prominence these days that can be used for several applications.26 The most imperative is the use of solar cells to convert sunlight into a power source. Solar power plants are now supplying electricity to local distribution networks. Further, solar collectors are the devices that capture the heat from the sun and utilize it to heat water or structures.27 For generating power in a range of applications, fuel cells are becoming a commercial reality. Magnetohydrodynamics, or the production of electrical energy from the influence of liquid metal, gas, or plasma moving via a magnetic field, has received much attention. The utilization of thermoelectric and thermionic conversion systems in spacecraft is being investigated.28 Table 4.1 shows the summary of the energy conversion and storage key parameters. Batteries are used for both altering and storing energy. Longer life span and higher performance are the outcomes of improved technology. Battery management plants are being employed for load leveling applications in power systems.29 Although hydrogen is a valuable energy source, its future uses are more likely to be in energy storage and transportation. Besides chemical methods, energy can also be stored and transferred.30–32

Energy Conversion and Storage Devices

81

It is vital to advance fundamental knowledge of electrochemical interfaces for the widespread deployment of dependable, inexpensive, and ecologically neutral electrochemical systems for energy transformation and storage, such as different batteries, electrolyzers, storage cells, supercapacitors, and fuel cells. As a result, our study covers a wide spectrum of materials and electrolytes, including metals, metal oxides, sulfur-based, and carbon-based compounds, as well as organic, aqueous, and solid electrolytes.33–35 TABLE 4.1

Few of the Energy Conversion and Storage Key Parameters

Energy transformation Thermoelectric conversion Electrochemical conversion Magnetohydrodynamic energy conversion Photoelectric conversion Fuel cells Chemical energy conversion

Energy storage Mechanical Hydrogen energy Capacitor storage Inductive energy storage Superconducting magnet energy storage Thermal

4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY STORAGE Figure 4.4 shows various energy storage devices, which are classified as electrical, electrochemical, thermal, and mechanical energy storage devices.

FIGURE 4.4

Classification of energy source.

82

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

4.3.1 ELECTROCHEMICAL 4.3.1.1 BATTERIES Batteries are electrochemical devices made up of one or more cells having a cathode (negative terminal) and an anode (positive terminal). These are the oldest, most popular, and most widely available storage options. Batteries come from the field of chemistry. The most well-known and widely used batteries for powering portable electronics and vehicles are Li-Ion and lead-acid. Other solid-state battery types include nickel (Ni)– cadmium (Cd) and sodium (Na)–sulfur (S), with zinc-air batteries gaining popularity. Further, other types of flow batteries include those that use liquid electrolyte solutions, such as iron-chromium and zinc-bromine.36 Batteries are essential for electric vehicles and will play a more significant role in regulating the energy grid’s diverse and unpredictable renewable sources. Currently, work is going on to improve the materials for redox flow batteries, lithium-ion batteries, and step-change battery technologies.37 4.3.1.2 FUEL CELL Fuel cells produce electricity and heat by converting fuels.38 The many varieties of fuel cells allow for a wide range of applications in long-range electric cars, electrical grid management, and even domestic heat and energy production. New materials for improved alkaline fuel cells are among the areas where effluent treatment plants (ETP) are conducting research.39 4.3.1.3 HYDROGEN Energy storage with hydrogen, which is still an emerging resource, involves transforming electricity via electrolysis for storage in tanks. From there, it can later endure either re-electrification or supply to developing applications like industry, transportation, or residential as a replacement/ supplement to the gas source.40 Further, hydrogen must be stored and delivered cost-effectively and securely if it is to be used as an energy vector. Sensors and medicine delivery are two more important applications for gas storage materials.41

Energy Conversion and Storage Devices

83

Table 4.2 summarizes the different types of electrochemical energy storage methods.

TABLE 4.2 A Comparison of Different Types of Electrochemical Energy Storage Methods Class

Efficiency

Battery42

Power rate (MW) 0–10

70–85

Life span (years) 2–3

Fuel cell43 Hydrogen44

0.5–0.6 1–2

80–85 90–95

0.5–1 5–6

Application Aviation, communication, transportation. defense Vehicles, residential building LEDs, semiconductors, automobiles, medical devices

4.3.2 ELECTRICAL 4.3.2.1 CAPACITOR A capacitor is an electronic component that stores electrical energy on its plates in the form of accumulated charge. It works similarly to the principle of batteries. When a capacitor is connected to an input voltage source, it begins to charge and store energy that can be released when the capacitor is disconnected from the power source, causing it to discharge.45 4.3.2.2 SUPERCAPACITORS Supercapacitors (SCS) are the energy storage devices that bridge the gap between batteries and traditional capacitors. Supercapacitors can store more energy than capacitors and deliver it at greater power ratings than batteries.46 4.3.2.3 SUPERCONDUCTIVE MAGNETIC ENERGY STORAGE In superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) devices, the magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in a superconducting coil that has been cryogenically cooled to a temperature below its superconducting critical temperature is used to store energy.47 Table 4.3 summarizes the different types of electrical energy storage methods.

84

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

TABLE 4.3 A Comparison of Different Types of Electrical Energy Storage Methods Class Capacitor48

Power rate (MW) 0.4–0.5

Supercapacitor49

0.5–1

Superconductive magnetic energy storage50

0.5–0.6

Efficiency Life span Application (years) 90–95 10–12 Radio and telecommunications 80–85 10 Wind power systems, automobiles, buildings 75–80 5–10 Hard drives, optical drives

4.3.3 MECHANICAL The most basic mechanical energy storage technologies rely on rotational or gravitational kinetic forces to store energy.51 However, in the current scenario of grid applications, the use of cutting-edge technologies is required for practicality. Energy storage via flywheels and compressed air systems are the most common solutions, while gravitational energy is a newer technology with various options in development. 4.3.3.1 FLYWHEELS It is a mechanical device that uses the conservation of angular velocity to store rotational energy. This is a sort of kinetic energy proportional to the product of the spinning speed and the moment of inertia. A flywheel is used to store mechanical energy using kinetic as a principle strategy.52 4.3.3.2 COMPRESSED-AIR ENERGY STORAGE (CAES) Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is a technique for storing energy in compressed air that can be used for later purposes. Further, it is regarded as a form of large-scale energy storage.53 Table 4.4 summarizes the different types of mechanical energy storage methods.

Energy Conversion and Storage Devices

85

TABLE 4.4 A Comparison of Different Types of Mechanical Energy Storage Methods Class Flywheels54

Compressed-air energy storage (CAES)55

Power rate (MW) 0–20

Efficiency

1.5–200

52–65

90–95

Life span Application (years) 20 Auxiliary frequency regulation, power quality, and enterprise UPS 30–50 Grid-connected renewable energy, peak load regulation

4.3.4 THERMAL 4.3.4.1 THERMAL FLUID STORAGE Thermal storage comprises storing and releasing heat or cold in a liquid, solid, or air, as well as possible changes in the storage medium state, such as solid to liquid or gas to liquid and conversely. Molten salt has emerged as a cost-effective heat storage solution because of concentrated solar power. However, the need for huge, deep storage caverns may limit the adoption of this and other heat storage technologies.56 4.3.4.2 CERAMIC THERMAL STORAGE Ceramics, which are commonly considered as inorganic and nonmetallic materials, have a variety of valuable qualities that allow them to be used in applications other than pottery. Further, ceramic-based energy storage devices have piqued the energy industry’s interest in recent years, owing to their capacity to endure the high temperatures that frequently accompany energy supply.57 4.3.4.3 HOT WATER STORAGE TANK It is a water storage tank with heating parameters used for space heating or home consumption. Because of its large specific heat capacity, water is a great way to store heat. Water is both inexpensive and nontoxic. This means it has a higher heat capacity per unit of weight than other materials.58

86

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

Table 4.5 summarizes the different types of thermal energy storage methods. TABLE 4.5 A Comparison of Different Types of Thermal Energy Storage Methods Class Thermal fluid storage59 Ceramic thermal storage60 Hot water storage tank61

Power rate (MW) 0.02–0.03 0.05–0.06 0.01–0.02

Efficiency Life span (years) 85–88 0.1–0.2 70–75 2–3 60–70 0.05

Application Heating or cooling Industrial heat waste Space heating or domestic use.

4.4 MATERIALS FOR ENERGY CONVERSION AND STORAGE Massive pore sizes, ultrahigh superficial areas, varied pore sizes and shapes, as well as nanoscale effects in graphitized mesoporous carbon and pore walls, distinguish materials.62 These key characteristics of materials are especially useful in energy transformation and storage applications. A few of the nanomaterials widely used in energy storage technology are graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphitized mesoporous carbon (GMC), nanoparticles such as ZnO, NiO, MnO2, and CuO, respectively. Nevertheless, a large superficial area does not always imply enhanced performance in applications. Furthermore, in the voids of homogenous nanoparticle structure and size, exciting nanoconfinement effects emerge, which are advantageous in storage and catalysis.63 Nanomaterials with remarkable electrical, mechanical, thermal, and optical properties can be created using 3D nanometer-sized frameworks that cause amazing nanoscale phenomena in the form of surface appearance and quantum effects.64 The small pore walls and short nanochannels of materials, for instance, can substantially shorten the electron and ion transport paths, which is advantageous for solar cells, storage cells, fuel cells, and battery devices.6566 4.5 CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS The technique of energy storage has a bright future in renewable energy generation. The terms used to describe grid integration, smart, micro,

Energy Conversion and Storage Devices

87

distributed grid generation, transmission and distribution. According to one estimate, China’s energy storage needs in 2050 will be in the range of 580 and 790 GW. However, the large-scale application of energy storage systems has both technological and economic challenges.67 i) ECONOMIC CHALLENGES For instance, in China, the energy storage industry is now besieged by challenges such as a lack of legislative maintenance, expensive, uncertain application chain, an unhealthy market mechanism, and others. Energy storage system solutions should be proposed with participation from electricity users, researchers, economic organizations, and social originations. It can be stimulated in a wide range of resource storage and applications established with a sustainable prototype development and commercialization. ii) TECHNOLOGY CHALLENGES Firstly, the advancement of energy storage technology necessitates breakthroughs in capacity, more life span, inexpensiveness, and security in electrochemical energy storage. High-efficiency and low-cost physical storage technology are also required. Secondly, research should focus on energy storage simulation, modeling, characterization, and optimization in multiple applications, which can aid in the development of comprehensive evaluations and demonstration projects to endorse the industrialization and commercialization of energy storage technology from a theoretical standpoint. 4.6 CONCLUSIONS It is a terrible trait of great scientific discoveries that they frequently suffer from hyperbole; perhaps this has always been the case, but the speed of communication nowadays aggravates the problem. To fulfill the current scenario and rising expectations for sustainable advancement in energy conversion and storage, new materials must be developed that can improve efficiency in a significant way. Fundamental breakthroughs in energy sources are dependent on materials to solve the challenges of finite energy resources. Nanomaterials are frequently utilized in energy devices to

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

88

increase the performance of electrodes and electrolytes due to their unique optical, electrical, and mechanical qualities. Because of their extremely high superficial areas and massive pore sizes, flexible nanomaterials can be used in energy transformation and storage applications. This chapter discusses energy conversion and storage devices covering different sectors of engineering such as electrical, mechanical, thermal, and chemical energy. Several materials utilized in energy devices, including flexible graphene material, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and nanoparticle composites, are discussed. Further, the challenges involved in energy devices and potential prospects are also explored. KEYWORDS • • • • •

energy conservation renewable energy energy storage application materials energy devices

REFERENCES 1. Adewuyi, O. A.; Awodumi, B. O. Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy-GrowthEmissions Linkages: Review of Emerging Trends with Policy Implications Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 69, 275–291. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.178. 2. Walmsley, G. T., Walmsley, M. R. W.; Varbanov, S. P.; Klemeš, J. J. Energy Ratio Analysis and Accounting for Renewable And Non-Renewable Electricity Generation: A Review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 98, 328–345. DOI: 10.1016/j. rser.2018.09.034. 3. Zahedi, A. A Review of Drivers, Benefits, and Challenges in Integrating Renewable Energy Sources Into Electricity Grid. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2011, 15 (9), 4775–4779. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.074. 4. Bansal, R. Handbook of Distributed Generation: Electric Power Technologies, Economics and Environmental Impacts, 2017. 5. Cullen, M. J.; Allwood, M. J. Theoretical Efficiency Limits for Energy Conversion Devices. Energy 2010, 35 (5), 2059–2069. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2010.01.024.

Energy Conversion and Storage Devices

89

6. Huang, L.; Lin, S.; Xu, Z.; Zhou, H.; Duan, J.; Hu, B.; Zhou, J. Fiber-Based Energy Conversion Devices for Human-Body Energy Harvesting. Adv. Mater. 2020, 32 (5), 1–20. DOI: 10.1002/adma.201902034. 7. Wang, X.; Lu, X.; Liu, B.; Chen, D.; Tong, Y.; Shen, G. Flexible Energy-Storage Devices: Design Consideration and Recent Progress. Adv. Mater. 2014, 26 (28), 4763–4782. DOI: 10.1002/adma.201400910. 8. Karden, E.; Ploumen, S.; Fricke, B.; Miller, T.; Snyder, K. Energy Storage Devices for Future Hybrid Electric Vehicles. J. Power Sources 2007, 168 (1 SPEC. ISS.), 2–11. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.10.090. 9. Zhao, X., Sánchez, B. M.; Dobson, J. P.; Grant, S. P. The Role of Nanomaterials in Redox-Based Supercapacitors for Next Generation Energy Storage Devices. Nanoscale 2011, 3 (3), 839–855. DOI: 10.1039/c0nr00594k. 10. Huang, L.; Santiago, D.; Loyselle, P.; Dai, L. Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Flexible and Wearable Supercapacitors. Small 2018, 14 (43), 1–11. DOI: 10.1002/ smll.201800879. 11. Chu, H.; Wei, L.; Cui, R.; Wang, J.; Li, Y. Carbon Nanotubes Combined with Inorganic Nanomaterials: Preparations and Applications Coord. Chem. Rev. 2010, 254 (9–10), 1117–1134. DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2010.02.009. 12. Amreen, K.; Nisha, S.; Senthil Kumar, A. Undiluted Human Whole Blood Uric Acid Detection Using a Graphitized Mesoporous Carbon Modified Electrode: A Potential Tool for Clinical Point-of-Care Uric Acid Diagnosis. Analyst 2018, 143 (7), 1560–1567. DOI: 10.1039/c8an00306h. 13. Kulkarni, B. M., Enaganti, K. P., Amreen, K.; Goel, S. Integrated Temperature Controlling Platform to Synthesize ZnO Nanoparticles and Its Deposition on Al-Foil for Biosensing. IEEE Sens. J. 2021, 21, 7, 9538–9545. DOI: 10.1109/ JSEN.2021.3053642. 14. Kulkarni, B. M.; Velmurugan, K.; Prasanth, E.; Amreen, K.; Nirmal, J.; Goel, S. Smartphone Enabled Miniaturized Temperature Controller Platform to Synthesize Nio/Cuo Nanoparticles for Electrochemical Sensing and Nanomicelles for Ocular Drug Delivery Applications. Biomed. Microdev. 2021, 23 (2), 1–13. DOI: 10.1007/ s10544-021-00567-y. 15. Kulkarni, B. M., Yashas, Enaganti, K. P.; Amreen, K.; Goel, S. Internet of Things Enabled Portable Thermal Management System with Microfluidic Platform to Synthesize MnO2 Nanoparticles for Electrochemical Sensing. Nanotechnology 2020, 31 (42). DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ab9ed8. 16. Article, R. A Brief Review on Synthesis and Characterization of Copper Oxide Nanoparticles and Its Applications. J. Bioelectron. Nanotechnol. 2016, 1 (1), 1–9. DOI: 10.13188/2475-224x.1000003. 17. Kakaei, K., Esrafili, D. M.; Ehsani, A. Graphene-Based Electrochemical Supercapacitors. Interface Sci. Technol. 2019, 27 (1), 339–386. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-12-814523-4.00009-5. 18. Ibrahim, H.; Ilinca, A.; Perron, J. Energy Storage Systems-Characteristics and Comparisons. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2008, 12 (5), 1221–1250. DOI: 10.1016/j. rser.2007.01.023.

90

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

19. Masaud, M. T.; Lee, K.; Sen, K. P. An Overview of Enrgy Storage Technologies in Electric Power Systems: What Is the Future? North Am. Power Symp. 2010, NAPS 2010 2010, 80401. DOI: 10.1109/NAPS.2010.5619595. 20. Falk, G.; Herrmann, F.; Schmid, B. G. Energy Forms or Energy Carriers? Am. J. Phys. 1983, 51 (12), 1074–1077. DOI: 10.1119/1.13340. 21. Goodenough, B. J. Electrochemical Energy Storage in a Sustainable Modern Society. Energy Environ. Sci. 2014, 7 (1), 14–18. DOI: 10.1039/c3ee42613k. 22. Chen, H., Cong, N. T.; Yang, W.; Tan, C.; Li, Y.; Ding, Y. Progress in Electrical Energy Storage System: A Critical Review. Prog. Nat. Sci. 2009, 19 (3), 291–312. DOI: 10.1016/j.pnsc.2008.07.014. 23. Mahmoud, M.; Ramadan, M., Olabi, G. A.; Pullen, K.; Naher, S. A Review of Mechanical Energy Storage Systems Combined with Wind and Solar Applications. Energy Convers. Manag. 2020, 210 (Dec 2019), 112670. DOI: 10.1016/j. enconman.2020.112670. 24. Maniyali, Y.; Almansoori, A.; Fowler, M.; Elkamel, A. Energy Hub Based on Nuclear Energy and Hydrogen Energy Storage. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2013, 52 (22), 7470–7481. DOI: 10.1021/ie302161n. 25. Alva, G.; Lin, Y.; Fang, G. An Overview of Thermal Energy Storage Systems. Energy 2018, 144, 341–378. DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2017.12.037. 26. Zhang, Q.; Uchaker, E.; Candelaria, L. S.; Cao, G. Nanomaterials for Energy Conversion and Storage. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2013, 42 (7), 3127–3171. DOI: 10.1039/ c3cs00009e. 27. Aricò, A. S.; Bruce, P.; Scrosati, B.; Tarascon, J.-M.; Van Schalkwijk, W. Nanostructured Materials for Advanced Energy Conversion and Storage Devices 2010, 4 (May), 148–159. www.nature.com/naturematerials 28. Dai, L.; Chang, W. D.; Baek, B. J.; Lu, W. Carbon Nanomaterials for Advanced Energy Conversion and Storage. Small 2012, 8 (8), 1130–1166. DOI: 10.1002/ smll.201101594. 29. Divya, C. K.; J. Østergaard. Battery Energy Storage Technology for Power Systems— An Overview. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2009, 79 (4), 511–520. DOI: 10.1016/j. epsr.2008.09.017. 30. Zhang, F.; Zhao, P.; Niu, M.; Maddy, J. The Survey of Key Technologies in Hydrogen Energy Storage. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2016, 41 (33), 14535–14552. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.05.293. 31. Zhang, R.; Wen, Q.; Qian, W.; Su, S. D.; Zhang, Q.; Wei, F. Superstrong Ultralong Carbon Nanotubes for Mechanical Energy Storage. Adv. Mater. 2011, 23 (30), 3387–3391. DOI: 10.1002/adma.201100344. 32. Mitani, Y.; Tsuji, K.; Murakami, Y. Application of Superconducting Magnet Energy Storage to Improve Power System Dynamic Performance. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 1988, 3 (4), 1418–1425. DOI: 10.1109/59.192948. 33. Masuda, M.; Shintomi, T. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage. Cryogenics (Guildf). 1977, 17 (11), 607–612. DOI: 10.1016/0011-2275(77)90114-X. 34. Aminu, D. M.; Nabavi, A. S.; Rochelle, A. C.; Manovic, V. A Review of Developments in Carbon Dioxide Storage. Appl. Energy 2017, 208 (Dec 2016), 1389–1419. DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.09.015.

Energy Conversion and Storage Devices

91

35. Ikechukwu, A. O.; Odukwe, O. A.; Enibe, O. S. Performance Simulation of a Natural Circulation Solar Air Heater with Phase Change Material Energy Storage. 30th ISES Bienn. Sol. World Congr. 2011, SWC 2011 2011, 6, 4815–4826. DOI: 10.4314/njt. v33i1.14. 36. Kundu, D.; Talaie, E.; Duffort, V.; Nazar, F. L. The Emerging Chemistry of Sodium Ion Batteries for Electrochemical Energy Storage. Angew. Chem—Int. Ed. 2015, 54 (11), 3432–3448. DOI: 10.1002/anie.201410376. 37. Li, Y.; Lu, J. Metal-Air Batteries: Will They Be the Future Electrochemical Energy Storage Device of Choice? ACS Energy Lett. 2017, 2 (6), 1370–1377. DOI: 10.1021/ acsenergylett.7b00119. 38. Carvela, M.; Lobato, J.; Rodrigo, A. M. Storage of Energy Using a Gas-Liquid H2/Cl2 Fuel Cell: A First Approach to Electrochemically-Assisted Absorbers. Chemosphere 2020, 254, 126795. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126795. 39. Pollet, G. B.; Staffell, I.; Shang, L. J. Current Status of Hybrid, Battery and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles: From Electrochemistry to Market Prospects. Electrochim. Acta 2012, 84, 235–249. DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.03.172. 40. Møller, K. T.; Sheppard, D.; Ravnsbæk, D. B.; Buckley, E. C.; Akiba, E.; Li, W. H.; Jensen, R. T. Complex Metal Hydrides for Hydrogen, Thermal and Electrochemical Energy Storage. Energies 2017, 10 (10). DOI: 10.3390/en10101645. 41. Jurewicz, K.; Frackowiak, E.; F. Béguin. Towards the Mechanism of Electrochemical Hydrogen Storage in Nanostructured Carbon Materials. Appl. Phys. A Mater. Sci. Process. 2004, 78 (7), 981–987. DOI: 10.1007/s00339-003-2418-8. 42. Beltrop, K.; Beuker, S.; Heckmann, A.; Winter, M.; Placke, T. Alternative Electrochemical Energy Storage: Potassium-Based Dual-Graphite Batteries. Energy Environ. Sci. 2017, 10 (10), 2090–2094. DOI: 10.1039/c7ee01535f. 43. Ellis, W. M.; Von Spakovsky, M. R.; Nelson, J. D. Fuel Cell Systems: Efficient, Flexible Energy Conversion for the 21st Century Proc. IEEE 2001, 89 (12), 1808–1817. DOI: 10.1109/5.975914. 44. Ashrafi, S.; Mousavi-Kamazani, M.; Zinatloo-Ajabshir, S.; Asghari, A. Novel Sonochemical Synthesis of Zn2V2O7 Nanostructures for Electrochemical Hydrogen Storage. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2020, 45 (41), 21611–21624. DOI: 10.1016/j. ijhydene.2020.05.166. 45. Miller, R. J. Perspective on Electrochemical Capacitor Energy Storage. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2018, 460, 3–7. DOI: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.10.018. 46. Abbey, C.; Joos, G. Supercapacitor Energy Storage for Wind Energy Applications. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2007, 43 (3), 769–776. DOI: 10.1109/TIA.2007.895768. 47. Muttaqi, M. K.; Islam, R. M.; Sutanto, D. Future Power Distribution Grids: Integration of Renewable Energy, Energy Storage, Electric Vehicles, Superconductor, and Magnetic Bus. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 2019, 29 (2), 1–5. DOI: 10.1109/ TASC.2019.2895528. 48. Wang, Y.; Wang, L.; Li, M.; Chen, Z. A Review of Key Issues for Control and Management in Battery and Ultra-Capacitor Hybrid Energy Storage Systems. eTransportation 2020, 4, 100064. DOI: 10.1016/j.etran.2020.100064. 49. Saikia, K. B.; Benoy, M. S.; Bora, M.; Tamuly, J.; Pandey, M.; Bhattacharya, D. A Brief Review on Supercapacitor Energy Storage Devices and Utilization of Natural

92 50. 51.

52.

53. 54. 55. 56.

57. 58.

59. 60. 61. 62.

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications Carbon Resources as Their Electrode Materials. Fuel 2020, 282 (April), 118796. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118796. Li, W.; Yang, T.; Xin, Y. Study on Enhancing the Interaction Capacity Between Permanent Magnets and a Superconductor Coil. Phys. C Supercond. Appl. 2021, 590 (July), 1353946. DOI 10.1016/j.physc.2021.1353946. Olympios, A. V.; Mctigue, D. J.; Farres-antunez, P.; Tafone, A. Progress and Prospects of Thermo-Mechanical Energy Storage—a Critical Review. Prog. Energy. OPEN ACCESS Progress and Prospects of Thermo-Mechanical Energy Storage—A Critical Review, 2021. Jones, R. C.; Hilpert, P.; Gaede, J.; Rowlands, H. I. Energy Research & Social Science Batteries, Compressed Air, Flywheels, or Pumped Hydro? Exploring Public Attitudes Towards Grid-Scale Energy Storage Technologies in Canada and the United Kingdom. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2021, 80 (July), 102228. DOI: 10.1016/j. erss.2021.102228. Hemmati, M.; Mohammadi, B.-i.; Abapour, M.; Shafiee, M. Thermodynamic Modeling of Compressed Air Energy Storage for Energy and Reserve Markets. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2021, 193 (Jan), 116948. DOI: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2021.116948. Li, X.; Palazzolo, A.; Wang, Z. A Combination 5-DOF Active Magnetic Bearing for Energy Storage Flywheels. 2021, 17782, 1–12. DOI: 10.1109/TTE.2021.3079402. Tong, Z.; Cheng, Z.; Tong, S. A Review on the Development of Compressed Air Energy Storage in China: Technical and Economic Challenges to Commercialization. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 135 (Sept), 110178. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2020.110178. Mesfin, E.; Nidal, S.; Hamdeh, A. H. Charging Process of Thermal Energy Storage System Under Varying Incident Heat Flux : Interaction the Fluid Neighbour Nodes and Particles in Order to Heat Transfer J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 2021 (0123456789). DOI: 10.1007/s10973-020-10539-8. Ji, S.; Jung, H.; Kim, M.; Lim, J.; Kim, J.; Ryu, J.; Jeong, D. Enhanced Energy Storage Performance of Polymer/Ceramic/Metal Composites by Increase of Thermal Conductivity and Coulomb- Blockade Effect 2021. DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c01177. V. Madadi Avargani, Norton, B.; Rahimi, A.; Karimi, H. Integrating Paraffin Phase Change Material in the Storage Tank of a Solar Water Heater to Maintain a Consistent Hot Water Output Temperature Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2021, 47 (June), 101350. DOI: 10.1016/j.seta.2021.101350. Advaith, S.; Ranjan, D.; Aswathi, T. K.; Dani, N.; Kumar, U.; Chattopadhyay, K.; Basu, S. Experimental Investigation on Single-Medium Stratified Thermal Energy Storage System. Renew. Energy 2021, 164, 146–155. DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2020.09.092. Chung, M. K.; Zeng, J.; Adapa, R. S.; Feng, T.; M. V Bagepalli. Measurement and Analysis of Thermal Conductivity of Ceramic Particle Beds for Solar Thermal Energy Storage 1, 1–26. Marini, D.; Buswell, A. R.; Hopfe, J. C. Development of a Dynamic Analytical Model for Estimating Waste Heat from Domestic Hot Water Systems. Energy Build. 2021, 247, 111119. DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111119. Aftab, S.; Nawaz, T.; Bilal Tahir, M. Recent Development in Shape Memory Based Perovskite Materials for Energy Conversion and Storage Applications. Int. J. Energy Res. 2021, May, 1–14. DOI: 10.1002/er.7151.

Energy Conversion and Storage Devices

93

63. Amiri, A.; R. Shahbazian-Yassar. Recent Progress of High-Entropy Materials for Energy Storage and Conversion. J. Mater. Chem. A 2021, 9 (2), 782–823. DOI: 10.1039/d0ta09578h. 64. Wang, X.; Zhou, Z.; Lin, X.; Pei, Z.; Liu, D.; Zhao, S. Nanostructured Hexaazatrinaphthalene Based Polymers for Advanced Energy Conversion and Storage Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 427 (March 2021), 130995. Doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2021.130995. 65. Abdel Maksoud, M. I. A.; Fahim, A. R.; Shalan, E. A.; Abd Elkodous, M.; Olojede, O. S.; Osman, I. A.; Farrell, C.; Al-Muhtaseb, A. H.; Awed, S. A.; Ashour, H. A.; Rooney, W. D. Advanced Materials and Technologies for Supercapacitors Used in Energy Conversion and Storage: A Review, Vol. 19 (1); Springer International Publishing, 2021. 66. Li, W.; Liu, J.; Zhao, D. Mesoporous Materials for Energy Conversion and Storage Devices. Nat. Rev. Mater. 2016, 1 (6). DOI: 10.1038/natrevmats.2016.23. 67. Yao, L.; Yang, B.; Cui, H.; Zhuang, J.; Ye, J.; Xue, J. Challenges and Progresses of Energy Storage Technology and Its Application in Power Systems. J. Mod. Power Syst. Clean Energy 2016, 4 (4), 519–528. DOI: 10.1007/s40565-016-0248-x.

CHAPTER 5

MOF-Based Nanomaterials as Electrocatalysts for Energy Applications NASEEM AHMAD KHAN1, TAYYABA NAJAM2, and SYED SHOAIB AHMAD SHAH1,3 1Institute

of Chemistry, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan 2Institute

for Advanced Study and Institute of Microscale Optoelectronics, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China 3Hefei

National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, CAS Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, School of Chemistry and Materials Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China

ABSTRACT The great exhaustion of fossil fuels, a source of greenhouse gases especially CO2, inspired the researchers to cultivate a proficient source of renewable and clean energy. The metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are getting potential attention due to their ordered porous structure and flexibility. In this chapter, we have discussed MOF-based nanomaterial for energy applications and special emphasis is on the structure–property relationship. First of all, the advantages of MOFs-based materials for energy applications over other types of nanomaterials are described. Further, recent developments of MOF-based electrocatalysts for energy applications like water splitting and Zn–air batteries will be summarized. Further, the recent strategy by Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications. Ishani Chakrabartty & Khalid Rehman Hakeem, (Eds.) © 2024 Apple Academic Press, Inc. Co-published with CRC Press (Taylor & Francis)

96

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

modifying their surface area, porosity, electrochemical active area, and current density by tailoring the metal centers and/or organic ligands will be directly translated into an enhancement of the catalytic performance and future perspectives will also be discussed. 5.1 INTRODUCTION The increasing demand for energy in the modern world is facing depletion of fossil fuel reservoirs. The great exhaustion of fossil fuels, a source of greenhouse gases, especially CO2, inspired researchers to cultivate a proficient source of renewable and clean energy. Energy shortage and climate change are distressing every country by upsetting economies dearly today and even more tomorrow. The Climate Change Intergovernmental Panel (CCIP) has anticipated that by the year 2100, the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere could reach 950 ppm, if any action regarding its prevention is not taken.1 Therefore, the prevention of CO2 emission is an urgent task and demand for a better environment. Hence, scientists are working for the establishment of sustainable sources of energy that are proven as excellent sources to replace fossil fuel.2 Among the alternative energy sources, HER, OER, and ORR are the green and environmentally friendly sources of energy. However, an efficient electrocatalyst must be needed for water splitting for driving the HER, OER, and ORR catalytic reactions. Noble metal (Pt, Ir, Ru)-based materials are proven as good candidates for water-splitting reactions but the limitation is due to their availability and high cost that is economically not feasible.3–5 A new porous types of material such as MOFs with variety of functional groups provided attractive platforms for various applications, including water-splitting reactions, like HER, OER, and ORR due to their high porosity (90% free volume) and high surface area (6000 m2g−1).6–18 The efficiency of catalysts can be improved by increasing the functional active sites that can be controlled through MOFs. Furthermore, morphologies, actives, and catalytic performance of the pristine MOFs can be improved by converting them into MOFs-derived materials.19 The electrochemical process faces three problems, such as thermodynamic limitation, the cost of catalyst problem, and short electrode’s life time. The active sites in MOFs are available at various sites, such as in the pores, organic linker, and at metal nodes from a structural point of view.

MOF-Based Nanomaterials as Electrocatalysts for Energy Applications

97

The various reactions can also be catalyzed through pristine MOFs but suitable reaction types and their availability are limited. (1) Pore surface engineering and pore encapsulation are confirmed to be effective ways to scheme and synthesize functional MOFs for catalysis by modifying the catalytic performances and making additional active sites. (2) The precise conversion of MOFs via thermal or electrochemical methods produced electrocatalysts with deliberate configurations and electronic structures for numerous electrocatalytic processes. In this chapter, we explain the pristine MOFs and MOFs-derived nanomaterials as vital electrocatalysts in energy-related catalytic reactions, including ORR, OER, and HER. 5.2 MOFS FOR ENERGY APPLICATIONS 5.2.1 PRISTINE MOFS FOR ELECTROCATALYSIS The important features of an ideal electrocatalyst are high efficacy, surface-exposed active sites, porosity, stability, highly dense active sites, and cost-effectiveness. However, the combined features in one electrocatalyst have been rarely explored in recent materials used for common energy-related electrochemical reactions. Therefore, electrocatalytic materials are classified into sub-categories based on their active sites: (1) precious metal electrocatalysts, (2) non-precious metal electrocatalysts, and (3) metal-free electrocatalysts. The electrocatalyst should be tailored consequently and all these classes have various problems. MOFs are considered potential catalysts in traditional chemical reactions due to their unlimited design facility and porous ordered structure. Mostly, first the row transition metals and organic linkers consisting of light elements (C, O, N, H) are used for the synthesis of MOFs, making them suitable for non-precious electrocatalysts. The selection of metallic nodes and organic linkers determines the intrinsic nature of MOFs for electrocatalysts design, but the addition of other functionality into the MOFs can attain the uniform distribution of active sites on the matrix level.16,20,21 MOF-based electrocatalysts have important featue like ordered porous structure and through “iso-reticular expansion” strategy, the pore size can be adjusted. Mesoporous MOFs are generally obtained by using long organic linkers, the length of the linker determines the pore

98

Green Nanomaterials in Energy Conversion and Storage Applications

size. The reticular chemistry achievements are outstanding in performing various functions. Secondly, at the atomic and molecular level control, framework chemistry in combination with molecular chemistry earns a name. Thirdly, the detection of extraordinary surface areas and ultrahigh porosity has controlled the actual opportunity of holding and compressing large amounts of gases in a limited space for a long duration. Fourth, the vital progress is the idea of “heterogeneity inside order,” whereby chemically and structurally altered constituents are transported together to job synergistically inside a framework. There are some basic factors which control/contribute to the structure of MOFs and enabled them for various applications including electrocatalysis. In the field of electrocatalysis, ordered pristine MOFs have achieved a milestone and become a hot topic in the field of electrocatalysis.22 The Co-ZIF-9 illustrated efficient activity for the OER process over a wide range of pH, and their feasibility was confirmed by DFT calculations. This catalyst has a Tafel slope value of 193 mV/decade and after 3 h of reaction, the catalyst produced 0.8 µmol of oxygen with a turnover frequency (TOF) of 1.76 × 10−3 s−1.23 Similarly, La-H4TCPP, Ce-H4TCPP, Mn2-H4TCPP, and Sr3-H4TCPP showed results for HER that are given in Table 5.1. The above-discussed H4TCPP mean is 2,3,5,6-(4-carboxyl tetraphenyl) pyrazine.24 However, some factors, such as low chemical stability in the electrolytic media, low conductivity, active metal sites blocked by ligands create hindrance to their performance in the field of electrocatalysis.25,26 Furthermore, these hindrances are overcome by lowering the overpotential, such as modulating electronic structure,27 mixed-metal active site,28 metal cluster unit,29 ultrathin nanosheet,30 and by special architectures. Various pristine MOFs have been reported for their application in various fields, such as HER, OER, and ORR. The pristine MOF has a low activity for HER due to instability in alkaline and acidic media and low conductivity, efficient results are achieved in new research works on pristine MOF for HER activity as a result of mixing with acetylene black or graphite or coating on electrode. Some examples are mentioned and these include the different ways adopted for applying pristine MOF to the electrode; acetylene black or graphite is added to MOF; catalyst ink. However, for the determination of catalytic performance, MOF remains unchanged. Currently, Chen et al. synthesized conductive MOF using hexaiminohexaatrinaphthalene (HAHATN) ligand. They produced 2D MOFs with

MOF-Based Nanomaterials as Electrocatalysts for Energy Applications

99

metals Ni, Co, and Cu. Among these synthesized MOF, Ni3(Ni3.HAHAT)2 showed efficient performance for HER in basic media with excellent stability, 10 mA cm−2 at low overpotential (114 mV) and small Tafel slope of 45.6 mV/dec. The metal ionic species; Cu-N2