Great Britain and the Continental Revolutions of 1848

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GREAT BRITAIN AMD THE COmiHEirTAL REVOLUTIONS OF 1848

by John Joseph Kameriok

A d is s e r ta ti o n subm itted in p a r t i a l f u lf illm e n t of th e requirem ents f o r the degree of Doctor of P hilosophy, in th e Department o f H isto ry in the G raduate Qollege o f the S ta te U n iv e rsity of Iowa August 1950 S ta te U niversity of lowU

U B ftA R Y

ProQuest N um ber: 10902175

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is d e p e n d e n t upon the quality of the copy subm itted. In the unlikely e v e n t that the a u thor did not send a c o m p le te m anuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if m aterial had to be rem oved, a n o te will ind ica te the deletion.

uest ProQuest 10902175 Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). C opyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C o d e M icroform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 - 1346

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The w r ite r w ishes to acknowledge h ie in d eb ted ness end exp ress h ie sin c e re g r a titu d e to many p eo p le.

Perhaps

most o f a l l , he has p r o f ite d from th e p a t ie n t guidance and h e lp fu l c r iti c is m o f Or. W illiam 0 . A y delotte, who in s p ire d th e in v e s tig a tio n d e ta ile d in th e se pages* Mmy o th e rs have a lso aided In th e p ro d u ctio n o f t h i s d is s e r ta tio n *

Mrs* Frank Sheed (M alsie Ward) c o n trib ­

u te d a most in fo rm ativ e l e t t e r as d id Mr* Reginald Jebb. Mr* Winston C h u rc h ill end Mr. Anthony Eden k in d ly answered queries*

Dr. Ooldwin Smith made a r a th e r sp o o la l e f f o r t

to p la ce in th e w rite r* s hands a copy o f th e address D r. Smith d e liv e re d to th e American H is to r ic a l A ssociation which tr e a te d o f t h i s to p ic •

The p u b lic a tio n o f flo e s of

the C o n serv ativ e, L ib e ra l, and Labor p a r t i e s gave f r e e ly , b o th o f pam phlets and advice*

At th e same tim e, th e

p a r ty s e c r e ta r ie s wrote p e rso n a l l e t t e r s o f in fo rm a tio n . To the lib r a r ia n s o f many i n s t i t u t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o se a t the U n iv ersity o f Xowa, Newberry L ib ra ry o f Chicago, and th e L ib rary o f Congress, th e w r ite r ex p resses h is a p p re c ia tio n o f t h e i r e f f o r ts to supply h is n eed s.

fommw E x p lo ra tio n o f B r itis h r« a c tio n to th e re v o lu tio n s o f 1048 le a th e e t l t e r In to area* o f in v e s tig a tio n n o t com pletely a n tic ip a te d when he undertook t h i s Inquiry* A eurvey o f p u b lic o p in io n In 1848 developed q u ite n a tu r a lly In to e tu d le e o f mld*-century p o l i t i c o and C h ris tia n e o c la l reform , bound up ae both were w ith the ev en ts o f th a t year*

The w r ite r does not p re te n d th a t he has d e sc rib e d

com pletely the e f f e c ts o f th e c o n tin e n ta l re v o lu tio n s on th e U nited Kingdom.

He has ignored ouch p ro v o cativ e and

f a s c in a tin g s u b je c ts o f in q u iry as th e in flu e n c e o f th e c o n tin e n ta l re v o lu tio n s upon Ire la n d , Marxian S o cialism , and i t s stim u la tin g e f f e c t on i n t e l l e c t u a l s . The o ld e r in te r p r e t a ti o n o f B r itis h re a c tio n to th e c o n tin e n ta l u p r is in g s , p a r tic u la r ly th e French, found i t s c h ie f exponent i n E lie Halevy who m aintained th a t the re a c tio n was one o f ♦'conscious h o s t i l i t y . ” While t h i s can be a s se rte d w ith a high degree o f c e r titu d e about c e r t a in segments o f p u b lic o p in io n , I t c e r ta in ly can n o t be m aintained o f the e n t ir e B r itis h p u b lic as & more ex ten siv e exam ination o f evidence e a s ily shows.

iii

R eference to memoirs, p e rio d ic a le , new spapers, b io g ra p h ic * , a u to b io g ra p h ie s, p a rlia m e n ta ry d e b a te s , quoted m a n u scrip ts, J o u rn a ls , p u b lic speech es, and p r iv a te l e t t e r s re v e a ls a c o n sid e ra b le s p l i t in p u b lic o p in io n , a s p l i t h e re to fo re ignored in p a r t . Acting as one o f s e v e ra l c a u ses, th e re v o lu tio n s o f 1843 ex e rted a c o n sid e ra b le In flu e n ce on the subsequent h is to r y o f Ore a t B r ita in through i t s s tim u la tin g e f f e c t on C hartism , C h ris tia n s o c ia l reform , th e reform o f th e fra n c h is e , and th e emergence of new p o l i t i c a l alignm ents. This in flu e n c e has been overlooked p re v io u sly and w hile th e re i s a danger o f o v s r e tr e s s ia g the importance o f m y n e g le c te d f a c e t o f h is to r y , i t can be shown t h a t the ro le of th e re v o lu tio n s o f 1343 has been u n d e rra te d . To say th a t B r itis h h is to r y was d i r e c t l y a lte r e d by ev e n ts on the c o n tin e n t would be to o v e rra te th e value of the evidence h ere p re se n te d .

The re v o lu tio n s ap p aren tly

ac ted as * s tim u la tin g , p ro v o cativ e agent s e ttin g on f o o t, in Great B r ita in , a c t i v i t i e s which were to have im portant consequences f o r th e f u tu r e .

As a sto n e dropped in a pool

may s e t up a d istu rb a n c e f e l t on a d is t a n t sh o re, so d id the re v o lu tio n s o f 1848 aid the p ro d u ctio n o f su b tle changes In V ic to ria n England. iv

TJHUE OF OOIOTTS

page

C hapter

1

IX

Ill

In tro d u c tio n . *......... . . . . . . . . .......... . ..................

1

» xeat B r ita in l a 1 8 4 © ..,............. ..

8

I n tr o d u c tio n . ................. ............ .. P o l i t i c a l Ferm ent ........... .. R e lig io u s S t r i f e ......................... © eelel U n re s t. ................... . S o cie ty and L e tte r s in 1 8 4 8 , , . . . . . . . . . . C onclusion............. ................ .............................

13 IT 30 28 87

B r itis h Opinion From th e Outbreak o f the 1848 R evolutions to th e June Days in France.

30

Europe in 1 8 4 8 . . . . . . . . . ............................... R evolutions a S u rp rise to B r ita in ........... The Whlge................. .................... ...................... The T o r i e s . . ................. ...................... .. The F e e l l t e e . .......................................... The T im es. ......... ........................................... .. A ris to c r a tic Alarm. D iso rd ers in th e U nited Kingdom.. . . . . . . The R ad io ale•• O ther R e a c tio n * ..• ......................... .. Summary

31 34 38 47 50 33 54 56 63 68 77

Second Thoughts on th e R ev o lu tio n st B r itis h A ttitu d e s A fter the June Days and th e Trans­ la tio n o f th e R evolutions in to Domestic ................... ...................... P o litic s

S3

The Counter R ev o lu tio n ............. .. B r itis h A ttitu d e s * . ................ • R a tio n a lis m . ............. ....................................... T ra n s la tio n o f th e R evolutions in to Domestic P o l i t i c s ................... .................. .. Summary. ................................... ................

v

8

83 84 93 98 118

Chapter IV

pag® C h a rtism . ......................... ................. P rev io u s Reform P r o p o s a l* ... . .................. C hartism O rganise* and p e t i t i o n * Foreign In flu e n ce P r io r to 1 8 4 8 . . . . . . . C hert tern S tim u lated toy th e Preach R e v o lu tio n ................. D ecline o f C hartism . • ................ Working Ola** F nergie* Absorbed Pleew her* ................ Conolueion. ....... Summary.........................

V th e B«*»Formation o f P o l i t i c a l P a r tie s in th e Tear* A fter 1846............. ................ .......... .. A M u ltip lic ity o f P a r t i e s . .............. Antagonism Between Working and Middle G la sse s. .............. « ... R ad ical Aim*........................... 1843 Opens P ath to Middle C la ssWorking Ola** C o a litio n . ........... R adical* Mpt Completely Agreed on F ranchise Reform . .............. Working C lass R elu ctan ce............................ The Crimean War Block* Reform................. The R adicals D efeated.................................. Reform Revived...................... Working C lass Franchise A c tiv ity .. . . . . The C o a litio n Develops. . . . . . . . . . ........... G ladstone S eises L eadership o f th e Reform P a rty . .............. Reform C a rrie d ................ Emergence o f Two P a r t i e s .......... Summary. .......... VI

F ranchise Reform in P a rlia m e n t .......... R evolution Raise* th e I s s u e ......... F ranchise Reform In tro d u ced ..................... F in a l P a s sa g e . ............................. Summary. .....................................

vl

182 187 138

128

139 146 184 156 164 166 166 170 174 176 184 191 198 BOB 205 209 212 217 321 236 329 232 332 245 357 263

Chapter

¥11

page

th e Emergence o f C h r is tia n S o c ia l R eform ...* P e c u lia r ly l i b e r a l P o e itio n o f R e lig io n . . . .......... O rig in s o f C h ris tia n S o c ia lis m .. . .............. a c t i v i t i e s o f C h ris tia n S o c i a l i s m . . . . . . F a ilu re o f C h ris tia n S o c ia lis m .. . . . . . . . C h ris tia n S o cialism B i f f u s e d .. C a th o lic S o c ia l Reform .............. Common E le m e n ts. ............. *........... Modem P a rty S o c ia l P h i l o s o p h i e s . • Summary. ............. .............. ......................

365

C o n c lu sio n ................ .............. ....................................

325

appendix I

338

.appendix I I .Appendix I I I

........... ................ ............................. ......................... ................ .. ......... .................................... ..

B ib lio g rap h y .................................

v ii

••••••

265 269 276 233 286 395 310 312 323

330 331 333

1

1HTH0DTJ0TI0M In 1837 a c y n ic a l o ld Prime M in is te r le d an in e x p e r ie n c e d German g i r l to the throne o f Great B r it a in , I r e la n d , S cotlan d and W ales,

A fter c a r e f u lly

in s u r in g th a t th e new monarch would e x e r c is e none o f th e powers claim ed by h er p r e d e c e sso r s the Prime M in is te r , Lord M elbourne, favored h er w ith some o f h i s b e s t Whig ad vice on the conduct o f a monarch. So s u c c e s s f u lly d id th e new Queen fo llo w h i s advice th a t she l iv e d out the c en tu ry as Queen o f a m a g n ifi­ c e n t empire and gave h er name to the e r a .

Upon h er

death in 1901 the empire had a tta in e d summits o f power and w ealth unknown to p rev io u s c i v i l i z a t i o n s , w h ile at the same tim e producing a h o st o f i n t e l l e c t u a l cla im a n ts to fame in l i t e r a t u r e , the a r ts and the s c ie n c e s . During h er r eig n the l a s t remnants o f m onarchical power slip p e d away to the p a r lia m e n t. Whether or n ot as a consequence the u n p o p u la rity w hich th e monarchy had fa c e d on her a sc en sio n was co m p lete ly d is s i p a t e d .

She d ied b elo v ed o f her countrymen and show­

e r e d w ith th e p r a is e th a t can be g iv e n s a f e l y when a monarchy no lo n g e r arouses apprehension.

3

The e a r ly years o f Queen V ic t o r ia 1a r e ig n seem t o ua in r e tr o s p e c t to have been a happy un com p licated tim e when f a i t h in p r o g r ess s o lv e d a l l d i f f i c u l t i e s .

The

g lo w in g id e a ls o f lib e r a lis m prom ised a r a tio n a l Utopia* a l l n o v e ls ended h a p p ily , and the spread o f the bene­ v o le n t B r it is h im p eria lism f o r e t o ld an e x te n s io n o f th e s p i r i t o f human r ig h t s to most o f the backward lan d s o f th e e a r th .

I t was reserv ed to l a t e r g e n e r a tio n s to

d is c o v e r hidden tr a p s in th e sim ple* and naive* f a i t h . For th e g r e a te r p a rt o f the V ic to r ia n Era the U t i l i t a r i a n t r a d i t io n , rea ch in g i t s apogee w ith John S tu a rt M ill* e n l is t e d th e most p r o g r e ss iv e o f th e V ic to r ia n s .

So g r e a t had been th e in flu e n c e o f th e

movement s t a r t e d by Jeremy Bentham th a t i t remained th e p h ilo so p h y in o f f i c e throughout the g r e a te r p art o f th e c e n tu r y .

In a c e r t a in sen se one can alm ost sa y th a t th e

U t i l i t a r i a n t r a d it io n was the V ic to r ia n I r a . Of cou rse i t did not go u n ch a llen g ed .

The

Oxford movement* the Romantic r e a c tio n le d by C a r ly le , th e r e v iv ed P ro te sta n tism o f K in gsley and Maurice* th e n o v e ls o f D ick en s, the a e s th e tic is m o f B uskin, the \ p o e tr y o f th e Brownings, th e c u ltu r e o f Arnold* the Pre—R a p h a e llte s; a l l th e se in one way ox anoth er, d e s p is in g th e iro n cogs o f S tu a rt Mill®® u n iv e r s e ,

a

attem p ted t o dethrone th e U t i l i t a r i a n s p i r i t . Yet U t ilit a r ia n is m h e ld th e c e n te r o f th e f i e l d d e s p ite a l l th e e# d i s s e n t e r s .

Let us tak e fo r example

th e V ic to r ia n h ie t o r ia n e , more p a r t ic u la r ly th e ' l i b e r a l 1 h is to r ia n s .

C e r ta in ly th e y shared th e o p t im is t ic f a i t h

i n p r o g r e ss o f th e U t i l i t a r i a n s as can e a s i l y be se en from the h is t o r y th ey w ro te.

They fr e q u e n tly ta lk e d about

th e fu tu r e as som ething d if f e r e n t from the p a st but th ey v ery seldom thought i t would be som ething d if f e r e n t from th e p r e s e n t.

Hot o n ly d id the V ic to r ia n s regard a n o v e l

as a s to r y th a t ended w e ll, th e y a lso regarded h is t o r y as a s t o r y th a t ended w e ll because i t ended w ith th e V ic to r ia n s .

H isto r y had ind eed reached a consummation and

th ey were not r e a l l y tro u b led about th e fu tu r e s in c e th ey v is u a liz e d i t as an e x te n s io n o f the p r e se n ts thus t h e i r doubts about the p a s t were e a s i l y r e s o lv e d .

Whatever had

le d to t h e ir C o n stitu tio n a lism and Commercialism was good and th ey d id n ot sto p to ask to what t h e i r C o n stitu tio n a lism and Commercialism would le a d . The V ic to r ia n age produced a h o s t o f g r e a t men and women.

Even though th e l i t e r a r y judgment o f p o s t e r it y

has been ra th er harsh on the V ic to r ia n n o v e l is t s (who are accused o f b e in g clumsy Brobdingnagiana) and a d isp u te s t i l l ra g es as to w hether or not a f i r s t r a te p oet was produced

4

d u rin g th e s e years* in many ways the V ic to r ia n s e x c e ll e d . The d e f t n e s s o f V ic to r ia n statesm an sh ip * the o r a to r y o f P le r a e li* G la d sto n e, and 0*C onnell w i l l perhaps always e x c i t e adm iration w h ile th e s u b tle judgm ents o f lewmsn and th e s c i e n t i f i c work o f Darwin seem to be enduring c o n tr ib ­ u t io n s t o the world*a know ledge. Where th e men o f th e French d e v o lu tio n f e l t th e y were l i t t l e men l i v i n g in a tim e o f g r e e t e v e n ts , one alm ost f e e l s th a t th e V io to r ia n s were too g r e a t f o r the age in which th e y l i v e d , th a t the e v e n ts o f th e e r a were to o p r o s a ic fo r th e proper d is p la y o f t h e i r enormous p o te n tia litie s . .And y et marring th e g r e a tn e s s o f alm ost everyone are remarks, in c id e n t s , and a t t it u d e s which b e l i e t h e i r g r e a tn e ss and make one doubt th a t they e v er liv e d up to t h e ir own prom ise:

Wewman h e s it a t in g to j o i n th e C a th o lic

Church because i t was th e s p i r i t u a l abode o f th a t v u lg a r demagogue, D a n iel O 'C onnell; Tennyson sp eak in g o f the French R e v o lu tio n , which had remade the face o f h i s s o c ie ty * as b e in g no g ra v er “than a sc h o o lb o y 's b a rrin g out#; C a r ly le ask ing th e I r is h why th e y do not r e f o r e s t t h e i r co u n try w ith o u t n o t ic in g I r is h lan d lord ism ; Arnold t r e a t in g th e Z e it g e is t as a l i v i n g th in g ; Ruekin remarking th a t b u ild in g in ir o n i s u g ly and un real b u t p rovin g i t by

6

r e fe r e n c e to th e f a c t th a t i t i s n ot m entioned in th e B ib le ; S i r Robert F e e l g iv in g h is name to a decade b ecau se he made a v ir tu e o f in c o n s is te n c y ; Palm erston* the p atron o f L ib e ra lism , h a ste n in g to b l e s s th e coup & *etat o f L ouis Napoleon a g a in s t th e R epublic and r a is in g th e war c r y to b lo ck e x te n s io n o f th e fr a n c h is e ; Swinburne sp eak in g o f Boer c h ild r e n in c o n c e n tr a tio n camps as w helps o f trea ch ero u s dams. Perhapsj as Mr. C h esterton s u g g e s t s , th e y were lame g ia n ts but few would d is p u te t h e ir r ig h t to be c a ll e d g i a n t s .

Some would sa y th a t a c e r t a in narrow

p r o v in c ia lism b lin d e d the V ic to r ia n s bu t i f so the attain m en ts o f th e age p rovid ed a p a r tia l, e x c u se . C e r ta in ly th e pre-dom inant ten dency was to compare B r ita in to a l l o th e r lan d s t o th e l a t t e r 1® d e trim e n t.

The V ic to r ia n s d id regard B r ita in as b e t t e r

th an , and se p a r a te from, Europe and t h e ir e stim a te has to a c e r t a in e x te n t in flu e n c e d subsequent judgm ents.

Yet

B r ita in remained more a p a r t o f Europe than i s g e n e r a lly r e a l is e d .

S tr ik in g p a r a l l e l s in th e h i s t o r i c a l d evelop ­

ment o f both can be p o in te d o u t. For example in n e it h e r Europe nor B r ita in d id the r e v o lu tio n s o f 1848 rearrange s o c ie t y bu t th ey d id r e s u lt in a g r ea t stim u lu s to a v a r ie ty o f movements

©

which had im portant eon seau en ces fo r th e fu tu r e . Most o f the g r e a t V ic to r ia n s were a l iv e when the c o n tin e n t eru p ted in 1848.

While a few* l i k e D an iel

0*C onnell* had a lre a d y d ie d and a few* l i k e Oscar Wilde* had n ot y e t been born* th e m a jo r ity liv e d through th e tu r b u len t y e a r .

The d i v i s i o n o f o p in io n among the

V ic to r ia n s w ith r e s p e c t to th e r e v o lu tio n s w i l l be the f i r s t concern o f t h i s t h e s i s w h ile th e second p a r t w i l l t r e a t o f the e f f e c t produced in B r ita in by th e r e v o lu t io n s . The o b j e c t iv e s o f t h i s d is s e r t a t io n can be s t a t e d s u c c i n c t ly .

F ir s t i t w i l l examine p u b lic o p in io n

in Great B r ita in in a somewhat more com plete manner than has h e r e to fo r e been attem pted in an e f f o r t to determ ine e x a c t ly what was th e B r it is h a ttitu d e toward th e c o n tin ­ e n t a l r e v o lu t io n s .

Secondly* i t w i l l attem pt to determ ine

whether the r e v o lu tio n s in flu e n c e d subsequent B r it is h h is t o r y . Two major th e s e s fo llo w from t h i s .

F ir s t o f a ll*

the v e r d ic t o f c o n sc io u s h o s t i l i t y (ex p re ssed c h i e f l y about th e French r e v o lu tio n — as y e t th ere are no s tu d ie s o f B r it is h r e a c tio n to a l l th e r e v o lu tio n s ) mu^t be q u a lif ie d in the l i g h t o f a d d itio n a l e v id e n c e .

Secondly* in c e r t a in

s u b t le ways the c o n tin e n ta l r e v o lu tio n s changed the h is t o r y o f B rita in * perhaps c h i e f l y through s tim u la tio n

7

o f c e r t a in movements end a c t i v i t i e s . To prove th e l a t t e r p o in t fo u r p r o p o s itio n s are p r e se n te d .

The f i r s t m ain tain s th a t th e a c t i v i t i e s

o f Chartism found in s p ir a t io n in c o n tin e n ta l in s u r r e c t io n . The s eeond i n s i s t s th a t reform o f the fr a n c h is e in 1367 r e s u lt e d in p a r t from a c tio n s at home and abroad in 1848.

The th ir d argues th a t the p o l i t i c a l se ttle m e n t o f

1868 in to Tory and l i b e r a l p a r t ie s ha® a c o n n e c tio n w ith th e c o n tin e n ta l r e v o lu t io n s .

The fo u rth concerns

C h r istia n S o c ia lism and seefcs t o fin d both P r o te sta n t and C a th o lic S o c ia l reform movements o r ig in a tin g in the r e v o lu tio n s o f 1848. From the d is s e r t a t io n th e g e n e r a l c o n c lu sio n seems t o fo llo w t h a t , j u s t as in Europe, when the ex citem en t o f th e memorable year had d ie d , n oth in g much had changed in s o c i e t y b u t, again as in Europe, the seed s o f fu tu re change had been p la n te d and would f r u c t i f y .

a

Chapter X

GREAT BRITAIN IN 1846 In tr o d u c tio n

Englishm en l i v i n g in m id -cen tu ry lea r n e d from w r ite r s o f th e day t o c a l l th e year 1848, »Mnu» M ir a b ilis ,* but the t i t l e d e sc r ib e d European e v e n ts more a c c u r a te ly than B r i t i s h .

Mot th a t th e U n ited Kingdom

escap ed c o m p le te ly th e tu rm oil and s t r i f e o f th a t year but th e cacophony o f d is s e n t from e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s so fte n e d to a low m utter in th e B r it is h I s l e s in c o n tr a s t t o th e f o r t i s e i a e o f th e c o n tin e n ta l o r c h e s t r a tio n . For B r it is h d is c o n te n t in th e 19th cen tu ry assumed more or l e s s p e a c e f u l, even c o n v e n tio n a l, modes o f e x p r ess­ io n , though the a g it a t io n p reced in g such e v e n ts as th e Reform B i l l o f 1832 might cause an in ex p erien ced ob server to e x p e ct v io le n t r e v o lu tio n a t any moment.

In deed , le a d in g

men o f th e day spoke a v ery r e v o lu tio n a r y language at tim es but when r e a l r e v o lu tio n th r e a te n e d , as in 1848, the l o y a lt y o f th e overwhelming m a jo rity t o e x is t in g i n s t i t u t i o n s wavered n o t a t a l l . Great changes did occu r and Englishmen thought th a t such th in g s as the Reform B i l l of 1832 and th e R epeal o f the Corn Laws in 1846 c o n s t i t u t e d r e v o l u t i o n , a l b e i t

p e a c e f u l, as f u l l y as any armed in s u r r e c tio n in I t a l y o r F ran ce.

I t was a p a r t o f th e V ic to r ia n credo to e f f e c t change

through a c o n tin u a l p a tc h in g up o f th a t anomalous th in g , th e B r it is h C o n s titu tio n .

C on sequ en tly, save f o r b r i e f

s c a r e s e a r ly in th e year when the C h a r tis ts menaced (o r appeared t o menace) the e x is t e n c e o f th e monarchy, l i f e in B r ita in d u rin g 1848, w ith few e x c e p tio n co n tin u ed to flo w i n rocky but f a m ilia r c h a n n e ls. 1848 found B r ita in alm ost a c en tu ry o ld in th e p r o c e ss during which the n a tio n develop ed from an a g r ic u lt ­ ural-com m ercial community in t o a c o m m e r c ia l-in d u str ia l agglozazseration.

I n d u s t r ia liz a t io n covered B r ita in w ith

m i l l s and f a c t o r i e s , uprooted th e o ld a g r ic u ltu r a l p o p u la tio n and r e lo c a te d i t in c i t i e s ( o f te n c i t y slu m s), and began to change t r a d it io n a l s o c ie t y w ith the f i r s t o f many te c h n o lo g ic a l ach ievem en ts.

.Among th e l a t t e r , th e

r a ilr o a d and th e e l e c t r i c te le g r a p h dominated in mid­ c e n tu r y . 1 Bo new as y e t

seemed the r a ilr o a d in 1848 th a t

le a d e r w r ite r s had n ot cea sed to w r ite o f th e m arvel o f 70 m ile an hour sp eed s or a jou rn ey from London to Glasgow 2 (4 7 2 .5 m ile s ) in te n and a h a lf h ou rs. The death o f

1.

However, Smith and Company t h i s year began th e p u b lic a t­ io n o f l i t e r a t u r e d ir e c te d to t r a v e le r s on suburban tr a in s .

10

r a ilr o a d in v e n to r George Stephenson d u rin g th e year fu r n ish ­ ed a fu r th e r e x cu se fo r lo n g e d i t o r i a l s e x p la in in g how t h i s g r e a t in v e n tio n dem onstrated a c le a r s u p e r io r it y o f the E n g lish (som etim es Anglo-Saxon) race over a l l o t h e r s . I f th e r a ilr o a d co n tin u ed to amage th e V ic to r ia n s , th e new e l e c t r i c te le g r a p h c o m p lete ly overwhelmed them. Two years b e fo r e , in 1846, a group b u i l t th e f i r s t t e l e ­ graph s t a t io n in London and r s p id ly stru n g w ir e s through­ o u t th e c o u n tr y s id e .

By 1848, many o f the la r g e r c i t i e s

o f th e % ite d kingdom communicated v i a th e new in v e n tio n and th e newspapers headed t h e i r most im portant news s t o r i e s ^R eceived by E le c t r ic Telegraph,® even though te le g r a p h ic communication may have been u sed o n ly th e l a s t te n th o f th e d is ta n c e fro® the o r ig in a t in g p o in t . The te le g r a p h , cou p led w ith l e s s e r in v e n tio n s a f f e c t in g the m echanical p rod u ction o f new spapers, gave the d a i l y p r e ss much w ider o p p o r tu n itie s f o r p r e se n tin g th e news o f the world and prominent p a p ers, such as The Times o f London, q u ic k ly a v a ile d th em selves o f the new f a c i l i t i e s

2.

The I l l u s t r a t e d London lew s g r ee te d w ith mixed sen tim en ts the appearance o f a new crim e, * tr a in robbery.® Q uite o b v io u sly e n th r a lle d w ith the n o v e lty o f the a c t , th e lew s s t i l l c lu ck ed d isa p p ro v in g ly at the c a r e le s s n e s s o f th e v ic tim and th e tu rp itu d e o f the c r im in a l. January 1 5 , 1848, p . 1 6 .

11

w h ile th e l e e e prom inent fo llo w e d s u i t as soon as th e y c o u ld a ffo r d th e ex p en siv e new medium,

Among th e s e

newspapers in m id -cen tu ry England, th e Times occu p ied a p o s it io n w ithou t p a r a l l e l in a l l h is t o r y .

Due to th e

p a ssage o f a newspaper stamp act th e cheap p r e ss o f th e e a r ly t h i r t i e s v i r t u a l l y d ie d out w h ile the c o s t o f th o se pap ers s t i l l p u b lis h in g guaranteed a r a th e r s e l e c t 3 rea d ersh ip a u d ien ce. Thus w h ile Times cou ld o n ly b o a s t o f a 4 0 ,0 0 0 c ir c u la t i o n , i t s n e a r e s t c o m p etito r, Morning A d v e r tise r , s o ld o n ly 7,0 0 0 c o p ie s d a ily and papers l ik e th e D a ily Hews and th e Morning P ost so ld 4 3 ,5 0 0 and 3 ,0 0 0 r e s p e c t iv e ly . C ir c u la tio n alone does n ot t e l l th e s t o r y fo r The Times became known as th e fo u rth power o f E n g lan d , c h i e f l y because o f th e g e n e r a l e x c e lle n c e o f i t s a r t i c l e s 5 and i t s p o s it io n as the c o n fid a n t o f governm ents. In

3.

The tax was reduced in 1855

4.

F igu res are taken from S ir Edward Cook, Pelane o f The Tim es, p . 2 , f n . 2

5.

When th e Whigs r ep la c ed th e government o f S ir Robert P e e l in o f f i c e in 1846, the Morning C hronicle exp ected t o be g iv e n p r e fe rr e d treatraen¥, paxticu'larl!y at the Foreign O f f ic e , in th e d is p e r s a l o f in fo rm a tio n . The C h ron icle had supported th e Whigs, p a r t ic u la r ly T*ord P alm erston, a g a in s t The Times when th a t j o u r n a l su p p o rte d the T o r ie s . H ow ever7fh e Times r e t a in e d i t s fa v o re d p o s it io n even in the fa c e o f i t s p a s t r e c o r d .

13

f o r e ig n c o u n tr ie s The Tlmee outw eighed In Importance a l l 6 th e r e s t o f th e B r it is h p r e s s t o g e t h e r . Xn appearance i t

7

c l o s e l y resem bled th e modern Tim es,

u s u a lly f i l l i n g e ig h t

p ages d a ily w ith the same s i s e ty p e , the same arrangement o f h e a d lin e s , s t o r i e s and ad vertisem en ts as does The Times

3

o f t h i s g e n e r a tio n .

Ms m ight be e x p ected from the lim it e d c l i e n t e l e o f the d a ily p r e s s , th e w eek ly , monthly and q u a rte rly p r e s s flo u r is h e d .

In a d d itio n to the u n s f f i l i a t e d p r e ss

alm ost every p o l i t i c a l f a c t io n and ev er y s o c i a l grouping p u b lish ed at l e a s t one jo u rn a l or newspaper.

The q u a lity

shaded from e x c e ll e n t to v ery poor w ith v a r io u s ones ad m itted ly e x c e l l i n g in one sp here or an oth er.

Punch,

the humor mag&slne, su rp assed a l l contem poraries in p o l i t i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y ; th e I l l u s t r a t e d London Mews,

S.

Emerson s a id ; wMo power in England i s more f e l t , more fe a r e d , o r more obeyed. What you read in the morning mes you s h a l l h ear in the even in g in a l l

7*

There were th o se who thought the str e n g th o f The Times came from c a te r in g to th e p r e ju d ic e s o f the b e s t s o c i e t y . "Strong on the s id e o f the s tr o n g , str o n g in a tta c k in g th e weak,® ex p ressed th e a tt itu d e o f it® c r i t i c s . Matthew Arnold saw i t as the paper o f the P h i l i s t i n e s , which ^re Hotundo p re a c h e d back to them t h e i r own P h i li s t i n is m .

13

combined a ccu rate rep o rta g e w ith b e a u t if u l lith o g r a p h s to p ro vid e the f i n e s t p i c t o r i a l jou rn alism ; Blackwood*s Edinburgh Magazine espoused a s t o u t Toryism b u t a ls o claim ed f i r s t honors f o r i t s l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . Most o f the le a d in g p o l i t i c a l f a c t io n s p u b lish ed an o f f i c i a l or a t l e a s t s e m i - o f f i c i a l jo u r n a l.

Whigs

r e fe r r e d t o the Edinburgh Review fo r p a r ty p o l i c y , T o ries t o th e Q uarterly Review, and the Economic R ad icals c o n su lte d th e W estm inster Review. P o l i t i c a l Ferment

P o l i t i c a l w r itin g i n t h i s age assumed a c o m p lex ity seldom © q u ailed in B r i t i s h h i s t o r y f o r f i v e d i s t i n c t p a r t i e s m aneuvered i n th e House o f Commons and some o f th e se showed s ig n s o f f u r t h e r s p l i t t i n g .

The

Whigs, le d by Lord John R u s s e l l , c o n s t i t u t e d th e go v ern ­ ment b u t d id n o t command a m a jo r ity In th e H ouse.

They

rem ained in o f f i c e b eca u se o f th e r e lu c ta n c e o f o t h e r

8*

During th e e d ito r s h ip s o f b o th Barnes and D elane, the e d it o r o f The Times was o f t e n r e fe r r e d to as th e most pow erful man in th e country*

14

f a c tio n s e i t h e r to assume th e burden of government or to perm it any o f th e o th e r non-government a l f a c t lone to do eo*

T orlee d iv id e d on th e issu e o f Free Trade; thoee

su p p o rtin g a p ro te c tiv e t a r i f f p o lic y f o r a g ric u ltu re (a n d they were the m a jo rity ) p laced themeelves under the le a d e r­ sh ip of Lord George B entinck. u n t i l t h i s tim e famed only f o r 9

h ie horse ra c in g a c t i v i t i e s .

Since 1846, th e T ories fav o r­

ing Free Trade had jo in e d to g e th e r under th e d e sig n a tio n # F e e llte a ,* from th e name of th e ir le a d e r, S ir Robert R eel. The P e e llte e in clu d ed most o f the men o f t a l e n t , inform­ a tio n , and ex perience in th e former Tory p a rty though fo r a p erio d o f years th e y numbered somewhat le s s than one hund­ red In the Gommons, u s u a lly n e a re r s ix t y .

They supported

the Whig government o f Lord John R u ssell and many over­ tu re s f i n a l l y le d to th e c o a litio n government o f the Crimean war.

However, in 1848, P e e llte e supported th e

Whigs in o rd er to prevent th e T ories of Lord George Bentinck from ta k in g o f fic e and re s to r in g th e p o lic y of a g r ic u ltu r a l p r o te c tio n . 9 . This year, S u rp lic e (owned by Bent inch) won both the S t. Leger and th e Derby, f i r s t time s in c e 1800 th e f e a r had been accom plished.. When Bentinck died d u rin g th e y ear, G re v ille duly rep o rted th a t th i s paragon o f v ir tu e (In the eyes o f th e p u b lic because o f h is a c t i v i t i e s a g a in st d ish o n e st ta c t i c s a t th e tra c k ) in r e a l i t y had been g u ilty o f the very w orst d ish o n esty , doping o f h o rse s, fa ls e ra c e s , and th e l i k e .

15

On somewhat s im ila r grounds the government c o u ld u s u a lly count on th© support o f the Economic Radical®, whose c h i e f spokesmen were Joseph Hume, Richard Cobden, and John B right*

S in ce Economic R ad icalism c o n s t it u t e d

a frame o f mind more than a p o l i t i c a l p a r ty th e number in t h i s group v a r ie d between f i f t y and one hundred*

For

d i f f e r e n t reason s th e Whigs c u sto m a r ily en joyed th e v o tin g support o f th e l e a s t I n f lu e n t i a l group in th e H ouse, the I r is h B rigad e, com p aratively le a d e r le s s at t h i s tim e due to the death o f D an iel O 'C onnell in 1847. Nor does t h i s t e l l th e com plete s to r y o f p o lit ic a l d iv is io n .

Many o f the Whig f a m ilie s accepted

w ith r e lu c ta n c e th© Free Trad© p o l i c i e s o f John R u s s e ll and t h e i r se n tim e n ta l h i s t o r i c attachm ent to th e Whig 10 p a r ty grew weaker under the im pact. On th e o th e r hand, Lord George Bentinck u n ex p ected ly d ied August 21 o f t h i s year and w ith him, in G la d sto n e's o p in io n , d ied p r o t e c t io n .

H is obviou s s u c c e s s o r , unwanted by o f f i c i a l

1 0 . Perhaps i t i s u n n ecessary to comment on the t r a d i t io n a l f a m i li a l a sp ec t o f p a r ty p o l i t i c s up to t h i s tim e . As an exam ple, we might sa y th a t i t would have been alm ost r e v o lu tio n a r y to c o n str u c t a Tory m in istr y w ith ou t a S ta n le y , or a S ta n ley c o n n e c tio n , in i t som eplace. 11* John M orley, L ife o f G ladstone v o l . 1 , p . 352.

10

12

Toryism ,

Benjamin D i s r a e l i , w a ited o n ly a r e s p e c ta b le

le n g th o f tim e to J e t t is o n th© p o lic y and th u s open th e way to a r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e Tory p a r ty on a w ider fo u n d a tio n w ith a more a t t r a c t iv e su p e r s tr u c tu r e . Th© P e e l i t e s had u n ite d around a mm and a p r i n c ip l e , S ir R obert P e e l and Free Trade w ith r e s p e c t to a g r ic u lt u r e .

P e e l ' s death in 1849 removed one o f th e

bonds o f c o h e sio n and a l l f a c t io n s g e n e r a lly ©greed on Free Trade by the e a r ly 1 8 5 0 's , le a v in g th e way open f o r the ab sorp tion o f th e P e e l l t e e in to o th e r p a r t i e s ,

inA

th e R a d ic a ls, once th e is s u e o f Free Trade had been won, found th a t t h e i r w e a lth ie r adherents grew s t e a d i l y more c o n s e r v a tiv e , p a r t ic u la r ly on m atters l ik e the e x te n s io n 13 o f th e fr a n c h is e . Th© I r i s h p r e sen ted a f a i r l y homo­ genous fr o n t in P arliam ent much as Irishm en d if f e r e d a t

1 2 . Leading Tory Journals co m p letely ig n o re d D is r a e li w h ile th e I l l u s t r a t e d London Hews commented on th e d eath on B entinck W a t th e r e d id n 't seem t o be any m a te r ia l a v a ila b le t o r e p la c e him among th e s n t i P e e l i t e C o n se r v a tiv e s. S e p t. 30, 1848, p . 198 Punch tr e a te d D is r a e li v e ry c o n te m p tu o u sly a t th is tim e . 1 3 . Cobden, n ever e n t h u s ia s t ic about f r a n c h is e re fo rm , commented in 1849 t h a t d i f f e r e n t support would have t o be e n l i s t e d than in th e f i g h t f o r r e p e a l o f th e Com Laws. In 1856 he remarked on th© a r i s t o c r a t i c and c o n se r v a tiv e sen tim en t grow ing up i n L an cash ire, a former R a d ica l str o n g h o ld . J . A. Hobson. R ic h a rd Cobden. The I n te r n a tio n a l Man. o . 180, p . 193.

17

hone about th e p o l i c y t o f o llo w w ith r e s p e c t to the E n g lish governm ent«

However, th e c o e r c iv e a c ts p a ssed

by th e Whig government t h i e year to g e th e r w ith the E c c l e s i a s t i c a l T i t l e s b i l l o f s e v e r a l year® l a t e r detached them from t h e i r t r a d it io n a l p o l i c y o f fa v o r in g the 14 W higs. R e lig io u s S t r i f e

Ferment in p o l i t i c s found i t s co u n terp a rt in r e lig io n .

February 11, 1848, th e Archbishop o f Canter­

b u ry, Dr. Howley, d ie d and h i s p a s sin g marked th e end 15 o f an e r a in r e l i g i o n , th e end o f the High Church as t h a t phrase might have been understood b e fo re th e advent o f th e T r a c ta r ia n s.

High in th e o ld meaning r e fe r r e d to

sumptuous l i v i n g and Dr. Howley liv e d as one o f the o u tsta n d in g exponents o f t h i s type o f c l e r i c a l l i f e . At h is open h o u se, once a week during th e se a so n , f o r t y

1 4 . D ating from C a th o lic Em ancipation. ^**e Tim es, hondon, February 12, 1848, p . 5 .

18

f i v e se r v a n ts atten d ed g u e s t s , a l l o f whom were req u ired t o be

in c o u rt d r e e s , the o n ly r u le f o r a tten d a n ce.

drove

to W estraluster from Lambeth p a la c e

He

i n a s t y l e be­

f i t t i n g one o f th e w e a lt h ie s t Lords o f th e realm , w ith o u tr id e r s and ap p rop riate coachmen. H is s u c c e s s o r , C h arles Sumner, eschewed such o s t e n t a t io n and l iv e d th e l i f e o f a country clergym an, w alkin g to th e House o f Lords, perform ing many o f th e hou sehold ta s k s h im s e lf , and in g e n e ra l actin g th e p a r t o f th e t y p ic a l Low church b ish op so dear to the h ea rt o f Lord S h a ftesb u ry . However, th e ferm ent arose not in a c la s h be­ tween th e Low and the o ld High ch u rch es, th e former emerging triumph ant ra th er a u ic k ly , but in th e c o n f l i c t between th e Low and the new H igh, the C a th o lic iz in g wing o f the E sta b lish m e n t.

W ell over 3 ,0 0 0 volumes

have been p u b lish ed on v a r io u s phases o f th e Oxford movement and i t can not be n e c e ssa r y or d e s ir a b le to e x p a tia te upon i t at le n g th .

Three years p r io r to

1848, John Henry Hew®an wrenched h im se lf away from h is n a tiv e church and en tered th e Homan C a th o lic Church, an a c t s p l i t t i n g th e movement (which d ated from 1833) in t o two stream s and b eg in n in g i t s seoond p h a se. U ltim a te ly t h i s l e d t o the Anglo-c a th o lic flo o d in th e n a tio n a l church and th e Homan r e s to r a tio n in an E n g lish

1®

backwater*

W ithin th e n a t io n a l church the movement p assed

through fo u r s t a g e s ; th e f i r s t ending w ith the s e c e s s io n o f Newman, th e second when Fueey dom inated, the t h ir d , or R i t u a l i s t s t a g e , when R itu a l was r e -in tr o d u c e d , and f i n a l l y the fo u r th in which i t remains to -d a y , the Anglo-

c a th o li c .

I n 1848 the movement had reached the second

o f th e s e end s u f f e r e d enormous u n p o p u la r ity , due in p a r t IS to th e s e c e s s io n o f many to th e Korean Church. O ffic ia l 17 d isa p p ro b a tio n co n tin u ed t o be i t s l o t fo r two d e c a d e s, 18 at th e hands o f both th e government and th e b is h o p s. hate in th e cen tu ry the C a th o lic is in g movement s t i l l 19 op erated under l e g a l d i f f i c u l t i e s .

16 . "P erverts t o Romanism* th e y were c a lle d by the most h ig h ly r e e p ec te d newspapers and j o u r n a ls . As such th e y w ere even d e sig n a te d by numbers. Of. I l l u s t r a t e d London News. November 35, 1848, p . 335. Reverend fib&erf Sconce i s noted as a p e r v e r t t© Romanism, •Oxford L is t Mo. 7 0 .• 1 7 . For the a t t it u d e o f Lord John R u s s e ll s e e h is Durham l e t t e r o f 1851 in which he s t i r s th e f i r e s o f "No Popery* and la s h e s as the F u s e y ite a , lo r d P alm erston, prem ier sa v e f o r a b r i e f in t e r v a l from 1 855-65, thought a l l such q u a r r e ls non sense but appointed b ish op s at th e s u g g e s tio n o f h i s E v a n g e lic a l b ro th er in law , hord S h a ftesb u ry . 18* Except during th e government o f lo r d Aberdeen. P e e l i t e s ten d ed to fa v o r th e "C atholic" s id e .

The

1 9 . Of th e e a r ly c o n v e r ts to Roman C a th o lic ism , shout 500 were from O xford, 200 from Cambridge. Shane L e s l ie , The Oxford Movement, p . 7 1 .

A v i s i b l e r e s u l t o f t h i s ferm ent can be se en in 1848 w ith th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e f i r s t im posing Roman Catholics Church s tr u c tu r e s sin c e th e R eform ation.

Though

Roman C a th o lic Churches had e x is t e d th e y co u ld not be c la s s e d as more than " m ass-h ou see,* s tr u c tu r e s fr e q u e n tly devoid o f even a c r o ss fo r m arking.

P ugin, an Oxford

c o n v e r t, d esig n ed the f i r s t la r g e church, S t . G eorge#s , Southwark and th e fu tu re C ardinal Wiseman d ed ic a ted i t on J u ly 4 , 1848 w ith many P r o te s ta n t churchmen in 20 a tten d a n ce. L ater in th e year d e d ic a tio n s o f Roman C a th o lic Churches took p la c e at M anchester, August 9 , 21 and L iv er p o o l, December 4 . S o c ia l P u rest

P o l i t i c a l and r e lig io u s s t r i f e found a cou n terp art in u n s e t t le d s o c i a l c o n d itio n s as the year 12 opened. D isc o n te n t w ith the fundamental arrangement

2 0 . The I l l u s t r a t e d London News noted th a t the lo c a t io n was th e same m th e scen e o f th e Gordon "No Pooery# r i o t s o f 1780. J u ly 1 1 , 1848, p . 7. Times o f London, u n fa m ilia r as y e t w ith C a th o lic term Tnology, recorded th a t two laymen took up the o f f e r t o r y a t the mass o f d e d ic a tio n fo r S t . G eorge’s . The same paper ex p ressed su r p r ise a t the a sto n is h in g numbeT o f u g ly fa c e s under monkish cow ls in the p r o c e s s io n p r io r to th e m ass. J u l y 5 , 1848, p . 4*

33 o f s o c i e t y inarched under th e banner o f Chart leas ,

so

c a lle d from th e s i x p o in ts o f th e c h a r te r advanced as the s o lu t io n f o r the problems brought about by the in d u s t r ia l r e v o lu t io n .

While th e C h a r tiste cou ld not agree on th e

remedy f o r d i f f i c u l t i e s under which working men la b o red , th e y cou ld u n ite in u rg in g a more dem ocratic arrangement in s o c i e t y as th e f i r s t s te p toward a l l e v i a t i n g th e se i l l s . Chartism had some te n years o f a g it a t io n behind i t in 184? when i t e l e c t e d , by an agreement w ith the T o r ie s , the f i r s t C h a r tist member o f P arliam ents Feargus O’ Connor, r eco g n ise d as th e le a d e r o f th e C h a r t is t s , p a r t ic u la r ly o f th a t s e c t io n o f Chartism known as the p h y s ic a l fo r c e 34 C h a r tis ts . Chartism s u ffe r e d a s e r i e s o f ups and downs p r io r t o 1848 but th a t year w itn e ssed a f i n a l c o n v u lsio n

2 2 . T his d ecad e, the 1840‘ s , has o fte n been r e fe r r e d to as “th e hungry F o rties" because o f th e recu rren t la r g e s c a le unemployment and the low s t a t e o f b u sin e ss a c tiv ity . 2 3 . Hot a lto g e th e r o f c o u r s e . E xcep tion s such as th e C o o p e r a tiv e s, O w enites, and l e s s e r known S o c i a l i s t groups should be n o te d . 3 4 . Contem poraries d iv id e d th e C h a r tists somewhat s p e c io u s ly in t o p h y s ic a l and moral fo r c e C h a r tis ts , d iv is io n s which sep a r a ted b e lie v e r s in v io le n c e and n o n -b e lie v e r s , The d i v i s i o n has been p erp etu ated by m ost o f the h is to r ia n s o f C hartism , p a r t ic u la r ly th o s e a n ta g o n is ti c to 0 #Connor, and th a t in c lu d e s alm ost a l l who have

22

which s p e lle d u ltim a te d i s a s t e r fo r th e C h a r t is t s ,

In

1839 and 1843 Chartism appeared to he doomed to an e a r ly d eath as a r e s u l t o f p o lic e a c tio n taken by the s t a t e and t h i s l a s t doldrums a f f e c t e d th e movement u n t i l 1848. However, in 1847, 0*Connor took h i s s e a t as the member from Nottingham and n in e o th e r s fa v o ra b le to Chartism a lso d e fe a te d t h e ir opp onents.

As th e year opened a th ir d

g ia n t p e t i t i o n u rg in g u n iv e r s a l manhood s u ffr a g e and th e rem aining C h a r tist reform s, c ir c u la t e d throughout th e U n ited kingdom. But b e fo r e the year ended, Chartism had 35 begun to d ie and a t the end o f the yea * m anonymous w r ite r s ta te d th a t "the dem ocrats o f Great B r ita in were 28 s c a r c e ly a b le to keep one (newspaper) g o in g ." S o c ie ty and L e tte r s in 1848

The tu rb u len ce o f the c o n tin e n t and u n s e t t le d

2 4 . (c o n * t) w r itte n on the s u b j e c t . On th e whole th e dichotom y s e r v e s f a i r l y w e ll to in d ic a te sep a ra te grou p s. I t i s not to o accu rate o th e r w is e . 2 5 . Mot a lto g e th e r due to th e f i a s c o o f A p ril 1 0 th . Probably th e p r iso n se n te n c e s meted out to C h a r tists a f t e r p o lic e r a id s in May, June, and Ju ly were o f g r e a te r im portance^ 2 6 . Power o f th e P ence. London, December 30, 1848, p . 2

23

c o n d itio n s at home f a i l e d t o hamper s e r i o u s l y th e s o c i a l l i f e o f London s o c i e t y , th e p ro d u ctio n s o f th e e n t e r t a in ­ ment w orld o r th e l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t i e s o f V ic to r ia n w r it e r s . N a tu r a lly , a l l th e "beat* p e o p le rushed to toe sworn in as d e p u tie s when the C h a r tis ts seemed to menace e x is t in g 2? s o c i e t y on th a t famous A p ril 10, tout the weekend1s d isco m fo rt p a ssed q u ic k ly and th e le is u r e d went back to the c u l t iv a t i o n o f th e more en jo y a b le l i f e . S h o r tly a f t e r th e C h a r tist annoyance p a sse d , M adem oiselle Jenny Lind a rriv ed in London (A p r il 24) fo r her second se a so n and alm ost im m ediately began a lo n g engagement at Her M ajesty** T heatre which la s t e d u n t i l th e th e a tr e c lo s e d August 24.

London c r i t i c s

unanim ously proclaim ed h er the o u tsta n d in g a t tr a c t io n 38 o f th e y e a r , but th e se a so n o ffe r e d many o th e r accom plished perform an ces.

In one week Mr. aid Mrs.

27.

Henry T aylor in h is Autobiography v o l . I I , p . 35, r e la t e s th a t when he""arrived a v t h e C o lo n ia l o f f i c e on A pril 10 th e Sergeant is s u in g arms s a id , "These arms w i l l do a d e a l o f harm to somebody b efo re the day i s o v e r .1* From th e Se rge ant *s at t i tude Henry in te r p r e te d t h i s t o mean the u se r s o f the arms r a th e r than th e C h a r tis ts would toe harmed.

28.

Jenny Lind had reason to com plain o f E n g lish h o s p it­ a l i t y however f o r even b e fo re she a r r iv e d , the manager o f the T heatre R oyal, Drury Lane, won a judgment o f 2500 pounds a g a in s t h er fo r f a i l u r e to f u l f i l l a c o n tr a c t to sin g during 1845.

24

Kean appeared in The M ife 'e S e c r e t a t th e Haym&rket; t h e Royal I t a l i a n Opera was at Covent Gardens; The B a t t le o f th e Amagonn showed at A s t le y 's ; Mr. MoReady p layed Macbeth a t the P r in c e s s ; a t th e Olympic I t was S ir John 0I d e a s t ie : S a d le r 's W ells produced The B r id a l: a t the Lyceum th e re was Lav ate r : Drury Lane fe a tu r e d the Cirque N a tion al*

Perhaps I t was c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f the year

th a t th e Queen and P rin ce Consort watched V erdi9s Eraanl a t th e same hour th e rap p el was b ein g b eaten in P a r is fo r 20 th e n a tio n a l guard to put down r e v o lt* Hot d id a l l en tertain m en t o r ig in a t e on th e sta g e .

March 1 4 , th e C hinese junk Keying put in a t

J e rse y and th en ce proceeded to London, ty in g up at Brunswick p i e r , B la e k w a ll.

The f i r s t such sh ip to

appear In B r it is h w a te r s, th e Keying had departed frora Hong Kong in December, 1846.

A fter tu rn in g th e Cape o f

Good Hope i t had been blown to Boston by adverse w ind s, f i l i a l l y reach in g London in 1848.

Londoners, le d by the

Queen and A lb e r t, trooped down fo r a v i s i t to the stra n g e c r a f t and a le c t u r e by a Mandarin on Chinese h is to r y 20 and c u lt u r e .

29.

I l l u s t r a t e d London Hews. February 26, 1848, p . 110.

30.

I b id . .

March 25, May 13, 1848, p . 185, p . 310.

PS

Though Queen V ic to r ia gave b ir th to a p r in c e s s March 1 8 9 an e v en t which sometime® d u lle d th e s o c i a l se a so n , London s o c i e t y enjoyed an i n t e r e s t in g i f somewhat unusual year.

Never had so many fo r e ig n n o ta b le s been in England

t o grace s o c i e t y fu n c tio n s , most o f them r e fu g e e s from the L ib e r a l r e v o lu t io n s , sn o c c a s io n a l one because o f s o c i a l i s t i c o p in io n s but the m a jo rity because o f monarch­ i c a l sym p ath ies.

The flo o d from Franc® began on February

37 w ith th e a r r iv a l o f th e Due de Nemours arid many o th e r s o f the O rleans d y n a sty .

Somewhat l a t e r , Louis P h ilip p e

and the Queen a rriv ed a t Croydon and proceeded to C lare­ mont to s e t t l e down.

G u izo t, th e e x ile d m in is te r o f

Louis P h ilip p e , landed e a r ly in March and began to d e liv e r e x p la n a tio n s to a l l l i s t e n e r s .

Others fo llo w e d .

P rin ce

M e tte m ic h , who a n tic ip a te d some such h o lo c a u st m 1848,

32

but ap p aren tly d id not e x p e ct i t at t h i s tim e,

s a ile d

3 1 . Lord Houghton quotes an a r t i c l e by Baron Usedom in which th e Baron says M etternioh spoke to him, ®ai much len g th o f the p o l i t i c a l ru in which th reaten ed to f a l l on Europe soon , perhaps very soon , and o f th e ev er d eep er growth and ever w ider rang© o f r a d ic a l and com m unistic id e a s a g a in st which a l l mease o f r e p r e s s io n have proved in n s f f e o t u a l. am no prophet and I know not what w i l l happen; bu t I m an o ld p r a c t it io n e r and 2 know how to d is c r im in a te between cu rab le and f a t a l d is e a s e s . T h is one i s f a t a l ; here we h old f a s t as lon g as we c m b u t I d e sp a ir o f the i s s u e 1 H A pparently the c o n v e r sa tio n took p la c e between 1845 and 1847. Edinburgh B eview . A p r il, 1849

31

38

from Rotterdam bound f o r London on A p ril 1 0 .

Sobs©time

l a t e r th e fu tu re emperor o f Germany jo in e d th e t i t l e d e x ile s . R efugees o f a d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l stan d in g a lso thronged London.

Louis B1ane f l e d France in August a f t e r

th e cou n ter r e v o lu tio n began.

F red eric Chopin found a

haven in Soho where he dreamt o f P o lis h independence. And a swarm o f I t a l i a n s le d by M azzln i, s e t t l e d down to an a c tiv e (and s u c c e s s f u l) a g it a t io n fo r I t a l i a n S3 independence. L ite r a r y p rod u ction slack en ed not at a l l during

32.

When th e news o f Louis P h ilip p e 8a f a l l reached him h© commented, "What le s s o n s f o r th e w o r ld ,s meaning the overthrow o f i l l e g i t i m a t e monarchy, an op in io n shared by th e Tsar and B lackw ood^ Edinburgh M agazine. M ettem ic h was" no't corm let el'y 'o o iiv io u s o f any ih r e a t at t h i s tim e however fo r he im m ediately attem pted to r e c o n str u c t th e Grand A llia n c e and was p rev en ted from doin g so by P alm erston.

33*

One o f th e most in t e r e s t in g o f th e se r efu g e es from th e c o n tin e n ta l r e v o lu tio n s , Father Alessandro G avazzi, an ex-B arn ab lte monk, tou red th e Anglo— 3 axon w orld le c tu r in g on th e e v i l s o f the papacy. He founded a church (E v a n g e lic a l) in London fo r th e exp ress puroose o f le c t u r in g on th e S c a r le t Woman o f Rome. H is l i s t e n e r s in clu d ed P alm erston, R u s s e ll, K uskin, C a r ly le , and S h a ftesb u ry . When G arib ald i retu rn ed to I t a l y In 1859, Gavazzi accom­ pan ied him as h is p e r so n a l c h a p la in . Among the o th e r I t a l i a n r e fu g e e s , a c e r ta in O rein i l a t e r d is tin g u is h e d h im se lf by throwing a bomb a t Louis Napoleon, u lt im a t e ly provoking in te r v e n tio n in Piedm ont.

27

th e y ea r and among a h o st o f l e s s e r works th r ee ach ieved th e s t a tu e o f c l a s s i c s w ith in t h e ir r e s p e c t iv e f i e l d s . Thomas Babington Macaulay p u b lish ed the f i r s t two volumes o f h i s famous h is t o r y and was rewarded b y in sta n ta n e o u s a c cla im .

John S tu a r t M ill brought out the f i r s t e d it io n

P o l i t i c a l Economy» the b e s t th in g w r itte n on th a t s u b je c t s in c e Mam Smith*s Wealth o f N a tio n s.

W illiam

Makepeace Thackeray gave a w a itin g p u b lic V anity F a ir . C onelueion

From a l l t h i s one could e a s i l y conclude th a t the r e v o lu tio n s o f 1848 l e f t Great B r ita in v ir t u a lly un scathed and unchanged.

Such acute p o l i t i c a l o b serv ers

as A le x is de T occfu eville remarked on th e com parative freedom o f England from c o n tin e n ta l i n f e c t i o n .

Mrs.

B ancroft* w ife o f the American m in is te r to th e cou rt o f S^. James, wrote on A p ril IDs 8There i s n ot the s l i g h t e s t danger o f r e v o lu tio n in England.

The upper

m iddle c la s s * which on th e c o n tin e n t i s e n t i r e ly w ith the people* the p r o f e s s io n a l and m er ca n tile c la s s* I s here e n t i r e l y c o n se r v a tiv e and w ithout th a t c la s s no 34 g r e a t ehanges can ev er be made.* Quite f r e q u e n tly

3 4 , Mrs. George B a n cro ft, l e t t e r s From England» p . 176

28

men commented th a t th e Heform B i l l o f 1882 and the r e p e a l o f th e Com Lears saved England fro® c o n tin e n ta l s t r u g g le s , and th a t th e wisdom o f Englishm en and E n g lish i n s t i t u t i o n s Saved the® fro® th e mean maneuvers o f th e c o n tin e n ta l p e o p le s whose r e v o lu tio n s dem onstrated both the Europeanw ide d e s ir e fo r B r it is h freedom (and s u c c e s s ) and t h e i r 35 I n c a p a b ility o f r e a l i s i n g t h e s e . But th e revolu tion © o f 1848 d id n o t le a v e B r it a in untouched.

In v a riou s s u b tle but d e f i n i t e ways

new elem en ts were added to the com p lex ity o f V ic to r ia n l i f e , a lt e r in g o ld alignm ents and p r e se n tin g new, v i t a l is s u e s * The Englishman m ight a f f e c t to d e sp ise and sn e e r at h is c o n tin e n ta l n eigh b ou rs, the u n sta b le Gaul, th e ign oran t Spaniard, and the p overty s tr ic k e n I t a lia n ; he might lam ent t h e i r 1 ask o f r a ilr o a d s , freedom s, and modern plumbing; he might (cop yin g from h is ^nerlcan co u sin ? ) lo u d ly p roclaim th a t one Englishman could pummel a h a lf dozen L a tin s; n o n e th e le ss he did not c a re to ign ore w hatever le s s o n s he cou ld le a r n from

35* For e d i t o r i a l s in t h i s v e in n o tic e th e i l l u s t r a t e d London News» December 30, 1848, p . 418 and The Tim es, London, Match 3 , 1848, p . 5*

29

e v e n ts a cro ss th e channel and th e North S ea , nor was he so in s u la r as to assume t h e s e e v e n ts had no s ig n if ic a n c e f o r B r ita in *

30

Chapter I I BRITISH OPINION FROM THE OUTBREAK OF THE X848 REVOLUTIONS TO THE JUNE DAYS IN FRANC! D e liv e r in g judgments on p u b lic o p in io n at any tim e r e q u ir e s a c e r ta in c o n fid en ce u n j u s t if ie d perhaps by the ty p e o f m a te r ia l from which judgments must be fa sh io n e d , th e tech n iq u es #h ich must be u sed , or the a b i l i t y to in te r p r e t c o r r e c t ly the in form ation g a th ered . I t may be compared to sim o n isin g an e lep h a n t fo r the ta sk in both c a s e s i s d i f f i c u l t , o b s ta c le s numerous, and the f in is h e d product an o b je c t o f dubious v a lu e . Even though tech n iq u es fo r determ ining op in io n have undergone a refin em en t and a winnowing such as to im­ prove enormously t h e ir accu racy, n oth in g approaching c e r titu d e can be claim ed w ith c o n fid e n c e .

R e s t r ic t io n s

on the e x p r e ssio n o f p u b lic op in io n in Great B r ita in in 1848 add fu r th e r c o m p lic a tio n s t o the problem . Yet some attem pt sh ou ld be made to arrive a t a j u s t e stim a te o f p u b lic o p in io n fo r the narrow base 3© o f p arliam en tary r e p r e se n ta tio n in the U nited Kingdom

3 6 . S t a t i s t i c s seemed to prove th a t n ot o n ly had the p o p u la tio n in c re a se d f a s t e r than the p rop ortion o f voter© bu t in some c a s e s the number o f v o ter s a c tu a lly seemed to d im in ish . Annual R e g is te r , 1848 p . XS>3 1 ' ’ ***' Y., 1913.

18.

SoSaV b .a d , and d o .,

19. C o l., 0 . D. H ., S u lld B o o lall.ai R e -3 ta tc d . P a rso n ., London, 1980. 2 0 * ■r-att-aa- ».»■., | ^ S | £ S j s i s n s l SM M M S & 22lMS&

C lass Movement. 3 voisT , The lab o u r Pm bliahlng co. S if MSfa , W f i a , C o., tendon. 1936

21, Cook, S ir fdw ard, Delane o f the Times. Henry H olt and C o., Hew York, h . ? T , T f l f T 38. Cooper, T hoaa., pj> M 2S. S i 2)230. 932222* dodder and Stoughton, London; 1897. 33. Correspondence o f P r in c e .. L iev.it and Lord Aberdeen. s i: m m y? London, 1938-39. 24. Dan.on. B. H.. OoMen and Foreign P o lic y . Allen and Unwin, London, 1927. st-

ssss

V t A - f t s . * - J-

2 6 . D olleans, P ro fe sso r B . , Le C hartism s. ^83Q^1848 . 2 v o le ., F lo u ry , P a r is , 1912. 2 7 . Duncombe, Thomas S ., l i f e and Correspondenoe o f Thomas s lin g s b y OuaboSBS; 9, BaMrtH ■* griM r, SISSm S i & £k V flW " . Longmans, London, 1980.

**•

;u:siV^.r,su?as*1******■^

94. W ilson, David Alee, g a r ly ls at Hie jSsftith. 4 v o le ., Kegffii, P a u l, Treaoh, frOTltxT^fiM c“ t f d . , London, ®S. W ilton, John Maxine, L ife o f W ellington. 8 v o le ., •Fullerton and Go., L o a iS ,“ 9 l f . a e jia g , 96. “About P ro p erty Owning Democracy,1* David ic c l e s , G oneervative p o l i t i c a l c e n tr e , London, June, 1949. 97. "Address and B iles o f the Working Men’ s A ssociation f o r B e n e fittln g S o o la lly and M orally the U seful C la sse s," P riv a te P rin tin g , London, 1836.

340

9 8 . "The A g ric u ltu ra l Charter** a statem en t o f C onservative

a g r ic u ltu r a l p o lic y . C onservative and U n io n ist C e n tral O ffic e , June, 1948.

9®.

A n & 'J M iA ttl

1 0 0 . "Common Purpose in In d u s try ," C onservative P o l i t i c a l

c e n tr e , London, Marsh, 194®.

.

101

"Co-Ownership in In d u stry ," a & iberal p a r ty pam phlet, L ib e r a l P u b lic a tio n Department, W estm inster,

O ctober, 194®. 102

. b"The F a ith o f a C o n serv ativ e," a p a r ty p o l i t i c a l ro a d c a st by th e Marquees of S alisb u ry on the BBC

home s e rv ic e , May 33, 194®. p u b lish ed by C onservative and U n io n ist C en tral O ffic e , London, May, 194®.

103. f

r f p l * STf

X f 3|f * 9IL‘ abbreviate