Great books of the Western world, vol. 25

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GREAT BOOKS OF THE WESTERN WORLD ROBERT MAYNARD HUTCHINS, EDITOR IN CHIEF HUM tUtttttttttttHttrtttttf"

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Members of the Advisory Board: Stringfellow Barr, Scott Buchanan, John Erskinb,

Clarence H. Faust, Alexander Meiklejohn, Joseph J. Schwab, Editorial Consultants: A. F. B.

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Wallace Brockway,

Lucas,

Mark Van Doren.

Walter Murdoch.

Executive Editor

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The Essays of Michel

Eyquem de Montaigne

Translated by Charles Cotton, Edited by

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.

•

INC. TOKYO

MANILA

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By arrangement with

g.

bell & sons,

ltd.,

london

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO The Great Books is

published with the editorial advice of the faculties of

The

University of Chicago

No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

© I

95 2

by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Twenty-seventh Printing, 1984

Copyright under International Copyright Union

All Rights Reserved under Pan American and Universal Copyright Conventions by Encyclopedia Britannica,

Inc.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 55 -I0 3.33 International Standard Book Number: 0-85229-163-9

25412

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE Michel de Montaigne, i 533-1 592 Montaigne was born February Eyquem, was

father, Pierre

28, 1533.

His

of merchant: stock

and had acquired the title of "lord and squire of Montaigne" by bearing arms for Francis I in Italy. His mother was descended from a family of Spanish Jews. Montaigne was their third son, but by the death of his elder brothers he be-

came heir to the estate. Although his father claimed "no knowledge of letters," he had mastered Latin, Spanish, and Italian, and like many other men of the time he made a hobby of education. He had his son awakened each morning by "the sound of a musical instrument." Servants who could speak no French were assigned to teach him Latin orally before he had learned his native tongue.

At the age of six he was sent to the College of Guienne at Bordeaux, where he remained for seven years. In 1 546 Montaigne was put to the study of law. His interest in jurisprudence and his success as a counsellor appear to have been small; he seldom attended the Parliament at Bordeaux, where his father had secured a magistrate's seat for visits

in 1 554. He made frequent the city "which makes me

him

Paris,

to

He

witnessed at Bordeaux one of the caused by the salt-tax, and was present at both the siege of Thionville in 1 559 and the siege of Rouen in 1562. He spent much time about the court, and there gave himself French." frequent

riots

"over to the desires that rule, as freely

and

reck-

"a tolerable life that self

nor anyone

is

a

burden neither

to

my-

else."

During his father's lifetime, and at his reMontaigne had translated the Theologia Naturalis of Raymond of Sabunde, a Spanish schoolman. Upon first coming to live at Montaigne, he prepared for publication the works of quest,

Etienne de

la Bo£tie, a friend of his

whose death, in 1563, he

youth,

felt as a great loss.

The remaining years of his seclusion were spent first two volumes of the Essays, which were published in 1 580 at Bordeaux. He noted that his work found favor "the further

in writing the

off* I

am

addition to

own

country of Gasin print." In his writing, he maintained a rela-

read," that in his

cony "they think

it

droll to see

me

he was awarded the order of Saint-Michel in 1 571 and served as gentlemanin-ordinary to both Henry III and his successor, Henry of Navarre. In the year following the publication of the tion to the court;

Essays, travel.

Montaigne

left his estate for

extensive

He was determined to obtain relief from

internal disorders that

had been troubling him.

Distrusting physicians, he sought cure by the

use of mineral waters. He journeyed through Lorraine, Switzerland, Bavaria, and Italy. From the baths of Lucca he traveled to Rome, where he had an audience with the Pope and was made a

Roman While

citizen. at

Lucca, Montaigne was informed of

mayor of Bordeaux and of a royal endorsement enjoining residence. After some time he journeyed homewards. His reluctance to hold public office was tempered only by the

lessly as

anyone else." In 1 565 Montaigne married Francoise de la Chassaigne, whose father was also a member of the Bordeaux Parliament. Montaigne said that

his election as

"spoiled natures such as mine, that hate every

memory of his father, who had held various mu-

bond and obligation" are not fit for marriage; yet he lived on excellent terms with his wife and bestowed some pains on the education

Although Montaigne was not satisfied with his administration, he felt that he "nearly accomplished what I expected to do and far surpassed what I promised." He was re-elected for a second period, which terminated in 1585. He again retired to Montaigne but, in a short time, was driven from his estate by the plague and forced to seek refuge else-

sort of

of his daughter, L£onore, the only one of six children to survive infancy. In 1568, upon the

death of his family estate. public duties he retired to the

name

of

father,

Montaigne inherited the

"Being long out of patience with

and the servitude of the court," abandoned Eyquem, and determined to live his chateau in 1571,

nicipal posts in Bordeaux.

where.

Montaigne had begun

to revise the Essays

Michel de Montaigne

VI

almost immediately after their publication in 1580; he perfected their form and added new ones which average fully four times the length of the earlier ones. By 1 588 he completed the

work and

re-issued a revised version of the

two books together with a essays written since 1580.

final

first

volume of the

While

in Paris to

superintend their publication he became involved in the civil strife between Henry III and Henry of Navarre, and was committed to the Bastille as a kind of hostage. But he was well known to and favored by both Catherine de Medici and the Guises and was soon released. In Paris at this time he met Marie de Jars de Gournay, one of the most learned ladies of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, who had conceived such veneration for the author of the Essays that she traveled to the capital to make his acquaintance. A whimsical but pleasant

friendship resulted, and Montaigne gave her the

title

ter), life.

of his "fille d'alliance" (adopted daugh-

which she bore

Upon

for the rest of her long

his death, with the approval of his

widow, she became

his literary executor and,

together with Pierre de Brach, a poet of some note, published

one, which

an edition, now the standard of Montaigne's final an-

made use

notations.

Montaigne did not long survive the publicahe returned he was stricken with quinsy, which brought about paralysis of the tongue. He remained in possession of his other faculties and, on the evening of September 13, 1592, tion of his third book. Shortly after

to his chateau,

call together some he might bid them farewell. He requested mass to be said in his room, and died while it was being celebrated.

asked his wife, in writing, to

of his neighbors so

7

5

2

1

5

..

Contents Biographical Note, v

BOOK THE FIRST That men by various ways

arrive at the

same

end, 3 Of sorrow, 5

That our us,

affections carry themselves

beyond

Of Cato

37.

That we laugh and cry

38.

Of

39. 40.

That the

6 41.

42. 43. 44.

45. 46.

47.

1

48. 1

49. 50. 5

The ceremony of the interview of princes, 22 That men are justly punished for being obsti-

53. 54. 55. 56.

A

57.

are not to judge of our happiness

26 study philosophy

to

to learn to die,

Of

21.

That the profit of one man is the damage of another, 42 Of custom, and that we should not easily change

22,

the force of imagination, 36

25

Of Of

26.

That

24,

27.

28.

29.

31

it is

folly to

Of

friendship,

82 Nine-and-twenty sonnets of Estienne de tie, 88 Of moderation, 89

12

depends in a of

Not to communicate a man's honour, 125 Of the inequality amongst us, 126 Of sumptuary laws, 131 Of sleep, 132 Of the battle of Dreux, 133 Of names, 133 Of the uncertainty of our judgment, 136 Of war-horses, Or destriers, 139 Of ancient customs, 143 Of Democritus and Heraclitus, 145 Of the vanity of words, 1 47 Of the parsimony of the ancients, 149 Of a saying of Caesar, 149 Of vain subtleties, 1 50 Of smells, 151 Of prayers, 152 Of age, 156

A custom of the Isle of Cea, To-morrow's a

5.

Of

6.

Use makes

new

1

59

167

day, 173

conscience, 174 perfect,

1

76

14. 15.

That our

9.

1 1 1

2.

13.

Boe-

actions,

3.

10.

la

1

evil

upon the opinion we have

4.

8.

measure truth and error by

own capacity, 80

Cicero,

2.

7.

pedantry, 5 5 the education of children, 62

our

upon

of good and

Of recompenses of honour, 181 Of the affection of fathers to their children, 183 Of the arms of the Parthians, 193 Of books, 194 Of cruelty, 200 Apology for Raimond de Sebonde, 208 Of judging of the death of another, 294 That the mind hinders itself, 297

law received, 42 Various events from the same counsel, 51

a 23'

thing, 105

BOOK THE SECOND

28

20,

relish

Of the inconstancy of our Of drunkenness, 162

1

is

same

1 1

till

after death,

That

for the

107

consideration

25

That men 19.

1

52.

nate in the defence of a fort that is not in reason to be defended, 22 Of the punishment of cowardice, 23 proceeding of some ambassadors, 24 fear,

solitude,

them,

himself to go out to parley, 1 That the hour of parley is dangerous, 1 That the intention is judge of our actions, 13 Of idleness, 14

Of liars, Of quick or slow speech, Of prognostications, 18 Of constancy, 20

A

the Younger, 103

great measure

That the soul discharges her passions upon false objects, where the true are wanting, 10 Whether the governor of a place besieged ought

Of

36.

desires are

augmented by

difficulty,

297

Of

16.

That

17.

cannibals, 91 a man is soberly to judge of the divine ordinances, 98

18.

32 That we are to avoid pleasures, even at the expense of life, 99 33 That fortune is oftentimes observed to act by the rules of reason, 100 34 Of one defect in our government, 1 o 1 35 Of the custom of wearing clothes, 102

19.

20.

Of glory, 300 Of presumption, 307 Of giving the lie, 322 Of liberty of conscience, 324 That we taste nothing pure, 326

21. Against idleness,

22. 23. 24. Vll

Of Of Of

327 329 means employed

posting, ill

the

to a

good end, 330

Roman grandeur, 332

1

.

Contents

Vlll 25.

Not

26.

Of thumbs, 333

27.

to counterfeit

being

sick,

BOOK THE THIRD

332

Cowardice the mother of cruelty, 334 have their season, 339 Of virtue, 340 Of a monstrous child, 343 Of anger, 344 Defence of Seneca and Plutarch, 347 The story of Spurina, 350 Observation on the means to carry on a war

1.

2.

28. All things

29.

30. 31. 32.

33. 34.

3.

4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

ac-

cording to Julius Caesar, 3 54 35.

36. 37.

Of three good women, 358 Of the most excellent men, 362 Of the resemblance of children to 365

9.

10. 1 1

their fathers,

12. 1

3.

Of profit and honesty, 381 Of repentance, 388 Of three commerces, 395 Of diversion, 40

Upon some

verses of Virgil,

406

Of coaches, 434 Of the inconvenience of greatness, 443 Of the art of conference, 446 Of vanity, 457 Of managing the will, 486 Of cripples, 497 Of physiognomy, 502 Of experience, 516

The Author

to the

Reader, thou hast here an honest book;

it

Reader

doth

at the outset fore-

warn thee that, in contriving the same, I have proposed to myself no other than a domestic and private end I have had no consider:

ation at all either to thy service or to

capable of any such design.

I

my glory. My powers are not

have dedicated

it

to the particular

commodity of my kinsfolk and friends, so that, having lost me (which they must do shortly), they may therein recover some traits of my conditions and humours, and by that means preserve more whole, and more life-like, the knowledge they had of me. Had my intention been to seek the world's favour, I should surely have adorned myself with borrowed beauties I desire therein to be viewed as I appear in mine own genuine, simple, and ordinary manner, without study and artifice for it is myself I paint. My defects are therein to be read to the life, and my imperfections and my natural form, so far as public reverence hath permitted me. If I had lived among those nations, which (they say) yet dwell under the sweet liberty of nature's primitive laws, I assure thee I would most willingly have painted myself quite fully and quite naked. Thus, reader, myself am the matter of my book: there's no reason thou shouldst employ thy leisure about so frivolous and vain a subject. Therefore, farewell. From Montaigne, ]une 12, 1580 :

:

Book the First *Jp *?Jw

i.

That men by various ways arrive at THE SAME END

THE

most usual way of appeasing the indigwe have any way offend-

nation of such as

ed, when we see them in possession of the power of revenge, and find that we absolutely lie at their mercy, is by submission, to move them to commiseration and pity; and yet bravery, constancy, and resolution, however quite contrary means, have sometimes served to produce the same effect. Edward, Prince of Wales (the same who so long governed our Guienne, a personage whose condition and fortune have in them a great deal of the most notable and most considerable parts of grandeur), having been highly incensed by the Limousins, and taking their city by assault, was not, either by the cries of the people, or the prayers and tears of the women and children, abandoned to slaughter and prostrate at his feet for mercy, to be stayed from prosecuting his revenge; till, penetrating further into the town, he at last took notice of three French gentlemen,

who with incredible bravery, alone sustained the whole power of his victorious army. Then it was that consideration

and respect unto

so remark-

able a valour first stopped the torrent of his fury,

and that his clemency, beginning with these three cavaliers, was afterwards extended to all the remaining inhabitants of the city. Scanderbeg, Prince of Epirus, pursuing one of his soldiers with purpose to kill him, the soldier, having in vain tried by all the ways of humility and supplication to appease him, resolved, as his last refuge, to face about and await him sword in hand; which behaviour of his gave a sudden stop to his captain's fury, who, for seeing him assume so notable a resolution, received him into grace; an example, however, that might suffer another interpretation with such as have not read of the prodigious force and valour of that prince.

The Emperor Conrad

III

having besieged

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Guelph, Duke of Bavaria, would not be prevailed upon, what mean and unmanly satisfactions soever were tendered to him, to condescend to milder conditions than that the ladies and gentlewomen only who were in the town with the duke might go out without violation of their honour, on foot, and with so much only as they could carry about them. Whereupon they, out of magnanimity of heart, presently contrived to carry out, upon their shoulders, their husbands and children, and the duke himself; a sight at which the emperor was so pleased, that, ravished with the generosity of the action, he wept for joy, and immediately extinguishing in his heart the mortal and capital hatred he had conceived against this duke, he from that time forward treated him and his with all humanity. The one and the other of these two ways would with great facility work upon my nature; for I have a marvellous propensity to mercy and mildness, and to such a degree that I fancy of the two I should sooner surrender my anger to compassion than to esteem. And yet pity is reputed a vice amongst

we succour the afflictshould be so affected with their sufferings as to suffer with them. I conceived these examples not ill suited to the question in hand, and the rather because therein we observe these great souls assaulted and tried by these two several ways, to resist the one without relenting, and to be shook and subjected by the other. It may be true that to suffer a man's heart to be totally subdued by compassion may be the Stoics,

who

will that

we

ed, but not that

imputed ness;

facility,

whence

natures, as of

mon

it

effeminacy, and over-tenderto pass that the weaker

comes

women,

and the commost subject to it;

children,

sort of people, are the

but after having resisted and disdained the power of groans and tears, to yield to the sole reverence of the sacred image of Valour, this can be no other than the effect of a strong and inflexible soul enamoured of and honouring masculine and obstinate courage. Nevertheless, astonishment and admiration may, in less generous minds, be-

Montaigne get a like effect: witness the people of Thebes,

who, having put two of their generals upon trial for their lives for having continued in arms beyond the precise term of their commission, very hardly pardoned Pelopidas, who, bowing under the weight of so dangerous an accusation, made no manner of defence for himself, nor produced other arguments than prayers and supplications; whereas, on the contrary, Epaminondas, falling to recount magniloquently the exploits he had performed in their service, and, after a haughty and arrogant manner reproaching them with ingratitude and injustice, they had not the heart to proceed any further in his trial, but broke up the court and departed, the whole assembly highly commending the high courage of this personage.

Dionysius the elder, after having, by a tedious siege and through exceeding great difficulties, taken the city of Reggio, and in it the governor Phyton, a very gallant man, who had made so obstinate a defence, was resolved to

make him

a tragical example of his revenge: in order where-

unto he first told him, "That he had the day before caused his son and all his kindred to be drowned/' To which Phyton returned no other answer but this: "That they were then by one day happier than he." After which, causing him to be stripped, and delivering him into the hands of the tormentors, he was by them not only dragged through the streets of the town, and most ignominiously and cruelly whipped, but moreover villified with most bitter and contumelious language: yet still he maintained his courage entire all the way, with a strong voice and undaunted countenance proclaiming the honourable and glorious cause of his death; namely, for that he would not deliver up his country into the hands of a tyrant; at the same time denouncing against him a speedy chastisement from the offended gods. At which Dionysius, reading in his soldiers' looks, that instead of being incensed at the haughty language of this conquered enemy, to the contempt of their captain and his triumph, they were not only struck with admiration of so rare a virtue, but moreover inclined to mutiny, and were even ready to rescue the prisoner out of the hangman's hands, he caused the torturing to cease, and afterwards privately caused him to be thrown into the sea.

Man

(in good earnest) is a marvellous vain, and unstable subject, and on whom it is very hard to form any certain and uniform judgment. For Pompey could pardon the whole city of the Mamertines, though furiously incensed fickle,

it, upon the single account of the virtue and magnanimity of one citizen, Zeno, who took the fault of the public wholly upon himself;

against

neither entreated other favour, but alone to undergo the punishment for all: and yet Sylla's

having in the city of Perugia manifested the same virtue, obtained nothing by it, either host,

for himself or his fellow-citizens.

And,

directly contrary to

the bravest of

gracious to

all

having, after city of

my

first

examples,

men, and who was reputed so those he overcame, Alexander,

all

many

great difficulties, forced the

Gaza, and, entering, found Betis,

commanded

there,

him, nettled

at so

who

and of whose valour in the time of this siege he had most marvellous manifest proof, alone, forsaken by all his soldiers, his armour hacked and hewed to pieces, covered all over with blood and wounds, and yet still fighting in the crowd of a number of Macedonians, who were laying on him on all sides, he said to dear-bought a victory (for, in

addition to the other damage, he had two wounds in his own person), "Thou shalt not die, Betis, as thou dost intend; be sure thou shalt suffer all the torments that can be inflicted on a captive." To which menace the other returning no other answer, but only a fierce and disdainful look; "What," says Alexander, ob-

newly received

serving his haughty and obstinate silence,

"is he he too proud to utter one suppliant word! Truly, I will conquer this silence; and if I cannot force a word from his mouth, I will, at least, extract a groan from his heart." And thereupon converting his anger into fury, presently commanded his heels to be bored through, causing him, alive, to be dragged, mangled, and dismembered at a cart's tail. Was it that the height of courage was so natural and familiar to this conqueror, that because he could not admire, he respected it the less? Or was it that he conceived valour to be a virtue so peculiar to himself, that his pride could not, without envy, endure it in another? Or was it that the

too

stiff to

bend

a knee! Is

natural impetuosity of his fury

was incapable

opposition? Certainly, had

been capable of

moderation,

it is

to

it

of

be believed that in the sack

and desolation of Thebes, to see so many valiant men, lost and totally destitute of any further defence, cruelly massacred before his eyes, would have appeased it: where there were above six thousand put to the sword, of whom not one was seen to fly, or heard to cry out for quarter; but, on the contrary, every one running here and there to seek out and to provoke the victorious enemy to help them to an honourable end. Not one was seen who, however weakened with

Essays wounds, did not in his last gasp yet endeavour to revenge himself, and with all the arms of a brave despair, to sweeten his own death in the death of an enemy. Yet did their valour create no pity, and the length of one day was not enough conqueror's revenge, but the slaughter continued to the last drop of blood that was capable of being shed, and stopto satiate the thirst of the

met with none but unarmed permen, women, and children, of them to away to the number of thirty thousand

ped not

till it

sons, old

carry

slaves.

Of sorrow No man living 11.

than mire

is

I,

who yet

it

in others,

a settled thing,

more

free

neither like

it

from

and yet generally the world,

is

pleased to grace

ticular esteem, clothing therewith tue,

this passion

in myself nor adas

with a parwisdom, vir-

it

and conscience. Foolish and sordid

guise!

The Italians have more fitly baptized by this name malignity; for 'tis a quality always hurtful, always idle and vain; and as being cowardly, mean, and base, it is by the Stoics expressly and particularly forbidden to their sages.

But the

x

King and taken prisoner by Cambyses, King of Persia, seeing his own daughter pass by him as prisoner, and in a wretched habit, with a bucket to draw water, though his friends about him were so concerned as to break out into tears and lamentations, yet he himself remained unmoved, without uttering a word, his eyes fixed upon the ground; and seeing, morestory

says that Psammenitus,

of Egypt, being defeated

immediately after led to execution, still maintained the same countenance; till spying at last one of his domestic and familiar friends dragged away amongst the captives, he fell to tearing his hair and beating his breast, with all the other extravagances of extreme sorrow. A story that may very fitly be coupled with another of the same kind, of recent date, of a prince of our own nation, who being at Trent, and having news there brought him of the death of his elder brother, a brother on whom depended the whole support and honour of his house, and soon after of that of a younger brother, the second hope of his family, and having withstood these two assaults with an exemplary reso lution; one of his servants happening a few days after to die, he suffered his constancy to be overcome by this last accident; and, parting with his courage, so abandoned himself to sorrow and mourning, that some from thence were forward over, his son

I.

5

who having,

Herodotus,

iii.

14.

in the sacrifice of Iphigenia, to rep-

resent the sorrow of the assistants proportionably to the several degrees of interest every

one had and

in the death of this fair innocent virgin,

having, in the other figures, lain out to the ut-

most power of his

art,

when he came

to that of

her father, he drew him with a veil over his face, meaning thereby that no kind of countenance was capable of expressing such a degree of sorrow. Which is also the reason why the poets feign the miserable mother, Niobe, having first lost seven sons, and then afterwards as many daughters (overwhelmed with her losses), to be at last transformed into a rock, Diriguisse malis, 2

thereby to express that melancholic, dumb and deaf stupefaction, which benumbs all our faculties,

er than

when oppressed with accidents greatwe are able to bear. And, indeed, the

violence and impression of an excessive grief must of necessity astonish the soul, and wholly

deprive her of her ordinary functions: as

it

hap-

pens to every one of us, who, upon any sudden alarm of very ill news, find ourselves surprised, •stupefied, and in a manner deprived of all power of motion, so that the soul, beginning to vent itself in tears and lamentations, seems to free and disengage itself from the sudden oppression, and to have obtained some room to work itself out at greater liberty. Et via vix tandem voci laxata dolore est*

In the war that Ferdinand

widow of King John

made upon

the

Hungary, about Buda, a man-at-arms was particularly taken notice of by every one for his singular gallant behaviour in 2

Petrified

of

with her misfortunes.— Ovid, Met.,

vi.

3°43

1

2

conclude that he was only touched to the quick by this last stroke of fortune; but, in truth, it was, that being before brimful of grief, the least addition overflowed the bounds of all patience. Which, I think, might also be said of the former example, did not the story proceed to tell us that Cambyses asking Psammenitus, "Why, not being moved at the calamity of his son and daughter, he should with so great impatience bear the misfortune of his friend; " "It is," answered he, "because only this last affliction was to be manifested by tears, the two first far exceeding all manner of expression." And, peradventure, something like this might be working in the fancy of the ancient painter, to

And

at length

opened by

grief for

and with difficulty is a passage words.— ALneid, xi. 151.

Montaigne unknown, highly commended, and lamented, being left dead upon the place but by none so much as by Raisciac, a German lord, who was infinitely enamoured of so rare a valour. The body being brought off, and the count, with the common curiosity coming to view it, the armour was no sooner taken off but he immediately knew him to be his own son, a thing that added a second blow to the a certain encounter; and,

:

compassion of

all the beholders; only he, without uttering a word, or turning away his eyes from the woeful object, stood fixedly contemplating the body of his son, till the vehemency of sorrow having overcome his vital spirits, made

him

sink

down

Chi puo

dir

stone-dead to the ground.

com'

egli arde, e in picciol fuoco,

1

say the Innamoratos, when they would represent

an insupportable passion, Misero quod omnes Eripit sensus mihi. Nam simul te, Lesbia, aspexi, nihil est super mi, Quod loquar amens. Lingua sed torpet: tenuis suh artus Flamma dimanat; sonitu suopte Tinniunt aures; gemina teguntur

Lumina Neither of the

fit

is it

that

nocte.

in the height

we

2

and

greatest fury

are in a condition to pour out

erate.

Curse leves loquuntur, ingentes stupent. 8 surprise of unexpected joy does likewise

often produce the same effect:

Ut me 1

conspexit venientem, et Troja circum

He who

love, has

vidit, magnis exterrita monstris, Diriguit visu in medio, color ossa reliquit, Lahitur, et longo vix tandem tempore fatur.*

Besides the examples of the Roman lady, who died for joy to see her son safe returned from the defeat of Cannae; and of Sophocles and of Dionysius the Tyrant, who died of joy; and of Thalna,

who died in Corsica, reading news of the honours the Roman Senate had decreed in his favour,

we

have, moreover, one in our time, of

Pope Leo X, who, upon news of the taking of Milan, a thing he had so ardently desired, was rapt with so sudden an excess of joy that he immediately fell into a fever and died. And for a more notable testimony of the imbecility of human nature it is recorded by the ancients that Diodorus the dialectician died upon the spot, out of an extreme passion of shame, for not having been able in his own school, and in the pres-

ence of a great auditory, to disengage himself from a nice argument that was propounded to him. I, for my part, am very little subject to these violent passions;

I

am

naturally of a stub-

born apprehension, which also, by reasoning, every day harden and fortify.

That our affections carry THEMSELVES EEYOND US Such as accuse mankind of the folly

I

in.

our complaints or our amorous persuasions, the soul being at that time overburdened, and labouring with profound thoughts; and the body dejected and languishing with desire; and thence it is that sometimes proceed those accidental impotencies that so unseasonably surprise the lover, and that frigidity which by the force of an immoderate ardour seizes him even in the very lap of fruition. For all passions that suffer themselves to be relished and digested are but mod-

A

Arma amens

can express in words the ardour of his but little love to express.— Petrarch, Son.,

of gaping

and advise us to make our benefit of those which are present, and to set up our rest upon them, as having no grasp upon that which is to come, even less than that which we have upon what is past, have hit upon the most universal of human errors, if that may be called an error to which nature herself after future things,

has disposed us, in order to the continuation of her own work, prepossessing us, amongst several others, with this deceiving imagination, as being more jealous of our action than afraid of our knowledge. are never present with, but always beyond ourselves: fear, desire, hope, still push us on towards the future, depriving us, in the mean-

We

and consideration of that amuse us with the thought of what shall be, even when we shall be no more. Ca6 lamitosus est animus futuri anxius. time, of the sense

which

is

to

1372

Love deprives

when once in er to tell

comes veins;

my

me

of

all

thy presence,

I

my

faculties: Lesbia,

have not

distracting passion:

left

the pow-

my

torpid; a subtle flame creeps

tongue bethrough my

my ears tingle in deafness; my eyes are veiled

with darkness.— Catullus, Epig., li. 5. 3 Light griefs can speak: deep sorrows are dumb. —Seneca, Hippol., ii. 3. 607.

*

When she beheld me advancing, and saw, with

stupefaction, the Trojan arms around me, terrified

with so great a prodigy, she fainted away

at the very sight: vital warmth forsook her limbs: she sinks down, and, after a long interval, with difficulty speaks.— JEneid, iii. 306. 5 Mind anxious about the future is unhappy.— Seneca, Epist., 98.

Essays

We find this great precept often repeated in

I-

7

3

own

magnifying his

master,

and stretching

his

Plato, "Do thine own work, and know thyself." Of which two parts, both the one and the other

commendation

comprehend our whole duty, and do each of them in like manner involve the other; for who will do his own work aright will find

freedom of those answered Nero to his beard; the one being asked by him why he bore him ill-will? "I loved thee," answered he, "whilst thou wert worthy of it, but since thou art become a parricide, an incendiary, a player, and a coachman, I hate thee as thou dost deserve." And the other, why he should attempt to kill him? "Because," said he, "I could think of no other remedy against thy perpetual mischiefs." * But the public and universal testimonies that were given of him after his death (and so will be to all posterity, both of him and all other wicked princes like him), of his tyrannies and abominable deportment, who, of a sound judgment, can reprove them?

generally

that his

first

lesson

know what he

is to

is,

and

proper to himself; and who rightly understands himself will never mistake another man's work for his own, but will love and improve himself above all other things, will refuse superfluous employments, and reject all unprofthat

which

is

thoughts and propositions. As folly, on it should enjoy all it desire, would notwithstanding never be content, so, on the other, wisdom, acquiescing in the present, is never dissatisfied with itself. Epicurus disitable

the one side, though

penses his sages from

all

foresight

and care of

decease.

I

They

are equals with,

the laws, and, therefore,

what

if

not masters of

justice could not

inflict upon their persons, 'tis but reason should be executed upon their reputations and the estates of their successors— things that we often value above life itself. 'Tis a custom of singular advantage to those countries where it is in use, and by all good princes to be desired, who have

memories of the wicked should be used with the same reverence and respect with their own. We owe subjection and obedience to all our kings, whether good or bad, alike, for that has respect unto their office; but as to esteem and affection, these are only due reason to take

it ill,

that the

Let us grant to political governendure them with patience, however unworthy; to conceal their vices; and to assist them with our recommendation in their indifto their virtue.

ment

to

ferent actions, whilst their authority stands in

need of our support. But, the relation of prince and subject being once at an end, there is no reason we should deny the expression of our real opinions to our own liberty and common justice, and especially to interdict to good subjects the glory of having reverently and faithfully served a prince, whose imperfections were to them so well known; this were to deprive posterity of a useful example.

And

such

out of respect to some private obligation, unjustly espouse and vindicate the memory of a faulty prince, do private right at the expense of public justice. Livy does very truly say, "That the language of men bred up in courts is always full of vain ostentation

as,

and false testimony, every one

indifferently

and

Some may condemn the two soldiers who so roundly

the future.

Amongst those laws that relate to the dead, I look upon that to be very sound, by which the actions of princes are to be examined after their

to the utmost extent of virtue

sovereign grandeur."

am

scandalized, that in so sacred a govern-

ment as that of the Lacedaemonians there should be mixed so hypocritical a ceremony at the interment of their kings; where all their confederates and neighbours, and all sorts and degrees of men and women, as well as their slaves, cut and slashed their foreheads in token of sorrow, repeating in their cries and lamentations that that king (let him have been as wicked as the devil) was 2

the best that ever they had; by this means attrib-

uting to his quality the praise that only belongs

and that of right is due to supreme though lodged in the lowest and most

to merit,

desert,

inferior subject.

who will still have a hand in everymakes a quaere upon the saying of Solon, that none can be said to be happy until he be dead: "whether, then, he who has lived and died according to his heart's desire, if he have left an ill repute behind him, and that his posterity be miserable, can be said to be happy?" Whilst we have life and motion, we convey ourselves by fancy and pre-occupation, whither and to what we please; but once out of being, we have no more any manner of communication with that which is, and it had therefore been better said Aristotle,

thing,

by Solon that man is neverhappy, because never till after he is no more.

so

Quisquam Vix radicitus e vita se tollit, et eicit Sed facit esse sui quiddam super inscius

Nee removet

satis

ipse,

a projecto corpore sese, et

Vindicat* 1

Tacitus,

2

Herodotus,

3

Scarcely one

Annah, vi.

xv. 67.

68.

man

can, even in dying, wholly

detach himself from the idea of

life;

in his igno-

Montaigne

8

Bertrand de Glesquin, dying at the siege of the Castle of Randon, near unto Puy, in Auvergne, the besieged were afterwards, upon surrender, en j oined to lay down the keys of the place

upon the corpse of the dead

general. Bartholo-

mew d' Alviano,

the Venetian general, happening to die in the service of the Republic in Brescia, and his corpse being to be carried through the territory of Verona, an enemy's country,

most of the army were of opinion to demand safe-conduct from the Veronese; but Theodoro Trivulsio opposed the motion, rather choosing to make his way by force of arms, and to run the hazard of a battle, saying it was by no means fit that he who in his life was never afraid of his enemies should seem to apprehend them when he was dead. In truth, in affairs of the same nature, by the Greek laws, he who made suit to an enemy for a body to give it burial renounced his victory,

and he

and had no more

to

right to erect a trophy,

whom such suit was made was reputed

By this means it was that Nicias lost the advantage he had visibly obtained over the Co-

victor.

rinthians,

and that Agesilaus, on the contrary,

assured that he had before very doubtfully gain1

ed over the Boeotians. These things might appear strange, had it not been a general practice in all ages not only to extend the concern of ourselves beyond this life, but, moreover, to fancy that the favour of Heaven does not only very often accompany us to the grave, but has also, even after life, a concern for our ashes. Of which there are so many ancient examples (to say nothing of those of our own observation) that it is not necessary I should longer insist upon it. Edward I, King of England, having in the long wars betwixt him and Robert,

King

of Scotland,

importance his

had experience

own immediate

of

how

great

presence was to

the success of his affairs, having ever been victorious in

person,

whatever he undertook in his

when he came

to die,

bound

own

his son, in

a solemn oath, that so soon as he should be dead he should boil his body till the flesh parted from the bones, and bury the flesh, reserving the bones to carry continually with him in his army, so often as he should be obliged to go against the

had inevitably attached vicremains. John Zisca, the same

Scots, as if destiny

tory

even to his

who, in vindication of Wicliffe's

heresies, trou-

bled the Bohemian state, left order that they should flay him after his death, and of his skin

make

a

drum

to carry in the

war against

his

enemies, fancying it would contribute to the continuation of the successes he had always obtained in the wars against them. In like manner certain of the Indians, in their battles with the Spaniards, carried with them the bones of one of their captains, in consideration of the victories

they had formerly obtained under his con-

duct.

And other people of the same New World

carry about with them, in their wars, the relics of valiant

men who have died in battle,

to incite

and advance their fortune. Of which examples the first reserve nothing for the tomb but the reputation they have acquired by

their courage

their former achievements, but these attribute

them

a certain present and active power. proceeding of Captain Bayard is of a better composition, who, finding himself wounded to death with a harquebuse shot, and being importuned to retire out of the fight, made answer that he would not begin at the last gasp to turn his back to the enemy; and, accordingly, still fought on, till feeling himself too faint and no longer able to sit his horse, he commanded his steward to set him down at the foot of a tree, but so that he might die with his face towards to

The

the enemy, which he did. I must yet add another example, equally remarkable for the present consideration with any of the former. The Emperor Maximilian, great-

grandfather to the now King Philip, was a prince endowed throughout with great and extraordinary qualities, and amongst the rest with a singular beauty of person, but had withal a humour very contrary to that of other princes, who for the despatch of their most important affairs convert their close-stool into a chair of State,

which

was, that he would never permit any of his bed-

chamber, posture,

how familiar soever,

and would

him in that make water as

to see

steal aside to

religiously as a virgin, shy to discover either to his physician or

parts that self,

we

any other whomsoever those

are accustomed to conceal.

I

my-

who have so impudent a way of talking, am,

nevertheless, naturally so modest this way, that

unless at the importunity of necessity or pleasI scarcely ever communicate to the sight of

ure,

any, either those parts or actions that custom I suffer more con-

orders us to conceal, wherein rance he must needs imagine that there

is

in

him

straint

than

I

conceive

my

is

very well becoming a But he nour-

something that survives him, and cannot sufficiently separate or emancipate himself from his prostrate

man,

carcase.— Lucretius,

superstition as to give express orders in his last

1

890. Plutarch, Nicias; Agesilaus. iii.

especially of

ished this modest

profession.

humour

will that they should

to

such a degree of

put on him drawers so soon

Essays 1-3 he should be dead; to which, methinks, he would have done well to have added that he should be blindfolded, too, that put them on. The charge that Cyrus left with his children, that neither they, nor any other, should either see or touch his body after the soul was departed from it, I attribute to some superstitious devotion of his; for both his historian and himself, amongst their great qualities, strewed the whole course of their lives with a singular respect and as

9

do me contemnendus in nobis, non negligendus in nostris; * and it was a holy saying of a saint, Cuthat last office. Totus hie locus

shall fall to est

ratio funeris, conditio s&pulturae,

fom'paexsequi-

arum, magis sunt vivorum solatia, quam sub2 sidia mortuorum. Which made Socrates answer Crito, who, at the hour of his death, asked him how he would be buried "How you will," said 3 he. If I were to concern myself beyond the present about this affair, I should be most tempted, :

reverence to religion.

as the greatest satisfaction of this kind, to imi-

was by no means pleased with a story, told by a man of very great quality, of a relation me of mine, and one who had given a very good account of himself both in peace and war, that, coming to die in a very old age, of excessive pain of the stone, he spent the last hours of his life in an extraordinary solicitude about ordering the honour and ceremony of his funeral, pressing all the men of condition who came to see him to engage their word to attend him to

tate those

I

his grave;

came

importuning

to visit

him

this very prince,

at his last gasp,

earnest supplication that

who

with a most

he would order his

family to be there, and presenting before him several reasons and examples to prove that it was a respect

seemed

due

to a

man

to die content,

of his condition;

promise, and appointed the his funeral parade. I

and

having obtained this

method and order of

have seldom heard of so

persistent a vanity.

Another, though contrary curiosity (of which singularity, also, I do not want domestic example), seems to be somewhat akin to this, that a man shall cudgel his brains at the last moments of his life, to contrive his obsequies to so particular and unusual a parsimony as of one servant with a lantern. I see this humour commended, and the appointment of Marcus Emilius Lepidus, who forbade his heirs to bestow upon his hearse even the common ceremonies in use upon such occasions. Is it yet temperance and frugality to avoid expense and pleasure of which the use and knowledge are imperceptible to us? See, here, an easy struction

were

and cheap reformation.

If in-

at all necessary in this case, I

should be of opinion that in this, as in all other actions of life, each person should regulate the matter according to his fortune; and the philosopher Lycon prudently ordered his friends to dispose of his body where they should think most fit, and as to his funeral, to order it neither too superfluous nor too mean. For my part, I should wholly refer the ordering of this ceremony to custom, and shall, when the time comes, accordingly leave

it

to their discretion, to

whose

lot it

who

in their lifetime entertain them-

ceremony and honours

selves with the

of their

own obsequies beforehand, and are pleased with beholding their own dead countenance in marble. Happy are they who can gratify their senses by

insensibility,

and

live

by

their death!

am

ready to conceive an implacable hatred against all popular domination, though I think it the most natural and equitable of all, so oft as I call to mind the inhuman injustice of the peoI

who, without remission, or once vouchsafing to hear what they had to say for themselves, put to death their brave captains newly returned triumphant from a naval victory they had obtained over the Lacedaemonians near the Arginusian Isles, the most bloody and obstinate engagement that ever the Greeks fought at sea; because (after the victory) they followed up the blow and pursued the advantages preple of Athens,

sented to them by the rule of war, rather than stay to gather up and bury their dead. And the execution is yet rendered more odious by the behaviour of Diomedon, who, being one of the

condemned, and a man of most eminent virtue, and military, after having heard the sentence, advancing to speak, no audience till then having been allowed, instead of laying before them his own cause, or the impiety of so cruel a

political

sentence, only expressed a solicitude for his judges' preservation, beseeching the gods to con-

and praying vows which he and his companions had made (with which he also acquainted them) in acknowledgment of so glorious a success, they might not draw down the indignation of the gods upon them; and so

vert this sentence to their good, that, for neglecting to fulfil the

1

The

place of our sepulture is wholly to be conto be neglected by our friends.

temned by us, but not

—Cicero, Tusc. Quaes., 2

pomps

45. the place of sepulture, the

of obsequies, are rather consolations to the

living than

any benefit

City of God, 8

i.

The care of funerals,

Plato,

i.

1

to the

2.

Phxdo, 115.

dead.— St. Augustine,

M ONTAIGNE

10 without more words went courageously

Ventus ut amittit vires, nisi robore densm Occurrant Sylvae, spatio diffusus inani. s

to his

death.

Fortune, a few years after, punished them in the same kind; for Chabrias, captain-general of their naval forces, having got the better of Pollis,

Admiral of Sparta,

Naxos,

at the Isle of

totally

the fruits of his victory, one of very great importance to their affairs, in order not to incur lost

the danger of this example, and so that he should

So it seems that the soul, being transported and discomposed, turns its violence upon itself, if not supplied with something to oppose it, and therefore always requires an object at which to aim and whereon to act. Plutarch says of those who are delighted with little dogs and monkeys, that the amorous part that is in us, for want of

not lose a few bodies of his dead friends that were floating in the sea, gave opportunity to a world of living enemies to sail away in safety, who afterwards made them pay dear for this un-

a legitimate object, ratherthan lie idle, does aftei

seasonable superstition.

false

quo jaceas, 'post obitum, Quo non nata jacent. 1

Quaeris,

that

manner

olous.

forge and create one false and friv-

And we

see that the soul, in

inclines rather to deceive

and

itself,

its

passions,

by creating

a

even contrary to its have something to work

fantastical subject,

own

belief, than not to upon. After this manner brute beasts direct their

loco?

fall upon the stone or weapon that has hurt them, and with their teeth even execute revenge upon themselves for the injury they

fury to

This other restores the sense of repose to a body without a soul Neque sepulcrum, quo recipiatur, habeat: portum corporis, ubi, remissa :

humana

vita,

corpus requiescat a malis.

2

As

na-

ture demonstrates to us that several dead things

an occult relation to life wine changes and complexion in cellars, according to the changes and seasons of the vine from whence it came; and the flesh of venison alters its condition in the powdering-tub, and its taste

retain yet

:

flavour

its

have received from another: Pannonis baud aliter post ictum saevior ursa, Cut jaculum parva Lybis amentavit habena,

Se

telumque secum fugientem

rotat in vulnus,

Impetit, et

irata

receptum

circuit hastam.

4.

What causes of the misadventures that befall

A gentleman of my country, marvellously tor-

us do we not invent: what is it that we do not lay the fault to, right or wrong, that we may have something to quarrel with? It is not those beautiful tresses you tear, nor is it the white bosom that in your anger you so unmercifully beat, that with an unlucky bullet have slain your beloved brother; quarrel with something else. Livy, speaking of the Roman army in Spain, says that for the loss of the two brothers, their

mented with the

great captains, Flere

according to the laws of the living flesh of kind, as

it is

its

said.

That the soul discharges her UPON FALSE OBJECTS, WHERE

iv.

PASSIONS

THE TRUE ARE WANTING gout, being importuned by his

physicians totally to abstain from salt

all

manner

of

meats, was wont pleasantly to reply, that in

he must needs have and that railing at and cursing, one while the Bologna sausages, and another the dried tongues and the hams, was some mitigation to his pain. But, in good earnest, as the arm when it is advanced to strike, if it miss the blow, and goes by the wind, it pains us; and as also that, to make a pleasant prospect, the sight should not be lost and dilated in vague air, but have some bound and object to limit and circumscribe it at a reasonable disthe extremity of his

something

fits

to quarrel with,

Dost ask where thou shalt lie when dead? Where lie, that never being had.— Seneca,

things not born Troa., 2

omnes repente,

et offensare

5

common practice. And the philosopher Bion said, pleasantly, of the king, who by

capita. 'Tis a

handfuls pulled his hair off his head for sorrow, "Does this man think that baldness is a remedy for grief?" Who has not seen peevish gamesters chew and swallow the cards and swallow the dice in revenge for the loss of their money? Xerxes whipped the sea, and wrote a challenge to Mount Athos; Cyrus employed a whole army, several days at work, to revenge himself of the river Gyndas, for the fright it had put him into in passing over it; and Caligula demolished a 3 As winds lose their force, and are dispersed in empty space, when not confined by dense woods.—

tance, 1

1

ii.

30.

Nor let him have a sepulchre wherein he may be received, a haven for his body; where, being gone, that body may rest freed from its woes.— Ennius, in Cicero, Tusc. Quaes., i. 44.

Lucan, 4

362.

iii.

As the

bear,

made

fiercer

by the wound from

the Libyan's thong-hurled dart, turns round upon the wound, and attacking the received spear, contorts 6

it,

as she flies.— Ibid., vi. 220.

They

all at

Livy, xxv. 37.

once wept, and

tore their hair.—

:

Essays very beautiful palace for the pleasure his mother

had once enjoyed

there.

was a story current, when I one of our neighbouring kings having received a blow from the hand of God, swore he would be revenged, and, in order to it, I

remember

was

there

a boy, that

made proclamation

that for ten years to

come

no one should pray to Him, or so much as mention Him throughout his dominions, or, so far as his authority went, believe in Him; by which they meant to paint not so much the folly as the vainglory of the nation of

was

told.

which

this tale

They are vices that always go together,

but in truth such actions as these have in them still more of presumption than want of wit. Augustus Caesar, having been tossed with a tempest at sea, fell to defying Neptune, and, in the pomp of the Circensian games, to be revenged, deposed his statue from the place it had amongst the other deities.

Wherein he was

still less

ex-

cusable than the former, and less than he was

afterwards when, having

under Quintilius Varus in Germany, in rage and despair he went running his head against the wall, crying out, "O Varus! give me back my legions!" for these exceed all folly, forasmuch as impiety is

lost

joined therewith, invading

when

Fortune, as

God

Himself, or

if

thunders or lightens, fall to shooting against heaven with Titanian vengeance, as if by flights of arrows they intended to bring God to reason. Though the ancient poet in Plutarch tells

Point ne se faut couroucer aux affaires, ne leur chault de toutes nos choleres. 1

But we can never enough decry the disorderly sallies of

our minds.

Whether the governor of a place BESIEGED OUGHT HIMSELF TO GO OUT

TO PARLEY Quintus Marcius,

their forefathers'

We

them

Dolus, an virtus, quis in hoste requirat?

2

The

Achaians, says Polybius, abhorred all of double-dealing in war, not reputing it a victory unless where the courage of the enemy was fairly subdued. Earn vir sanctus et sapiens sciet veram esse victoriam, qum, salva fide et

manner

integra dignitate, parabitur,

Vosne

velit,

fors virtute

3

an me, regnare

says another. hera, quidve ferat,

experiamur .*

In the kingdom of Ternate, amongst those na-

which we so broadly call barbarians, they custom never to commence war till it be first proclaimed; adding withal an ample declaration of what means they have to do it with, with what and how many men, what ammunitions, and what, both offensive and defensive, tions

a

arms; but also that being done, if their enemies do not yield and come to an agreement, they conceive it lawful to employ without reproach in their wars any means which may help them

conquer. The ancient Florentines were so far from seeking to obtain any advantage over their enemies by surprise, that they always gave them a to

the

Roman

legate in the

war against Persius, King of Macedon, to gain time wherein to reinforce his army, set on foot some overtures of accommodation, with which the king being lulled asleep, concluded a truce for some days, by this means giving his enemy opportunity and leisure to recruit his forces, which was afterwards the occasion of the king's final ruin. Yet the elder senators, mindful of 1

received amongst

have

II

v.

ceeding as degenerating from their ancient practice, which, they said, was to fight by valour, and not by artifice, surprises, and night-encounters; neither by pretended flight nor unexpected rallies to overcome their enemies; never making war till having first proclaimed it, and very often assigned both the hour and place of battle. Out of this generous principle it was that they delivered up to Pyrrhus his treacherous physician, and to the Etrurians their disloyal schoolmaster. This was, indeed, a procedure truly Roman, and nothing allied to the Grecian subtlety, nor to the Punic cunning, where it was reputed a victory of less glory to overcome by force than by fraud. Deceit may serve for a need, but he only confesses himself overcome who knows he is neither subdued by policy nor misadventure, but by dint of valour, man to man, in a fair and just war. It very well appears, by the discourse of these good old senators, that this fine sentence was not yet

it

us:

11

5

a battle

she had ears that were subject to our batteries; like the Thracians, who

at least

I.

manners, condemned

this pro-

must not trouble the gods with our affairs; they take no heed of our angers and disputes.— Plutarch, On the Tranquillity of the Soul.

month's warning before they drew their army 2

What

matters whether by valour or by stratathe enemy?— JEneid, ii. 390.

gem we overcome 3

An

honest and prudent

man

that only to be a true victory

without violation of his

will acknowledge which is obtained

own good

faith, or

blemish

upon his own honour.— Florus, i. 12. 4 Whether you or I shall rule, or what shall happen, let us determine by valour.— Ennius, in Cicero,

De

Officii. 12.

Montaigne

12 into the field,

by the continual

tolling of a bell

they called Martinella. For what concerns ourselves, who are not so scrupulous in this affair, and who attribute the honour of the war to him who has the profit of 1 say, "Where the it, and who after Lysander lion's skin is too short, we must eke it out with a bit from that of the fox"; the most usual occasions of surprise are derived from this practice, and we hold that there are no moments wherein a chief ought to be more circumspect, and to have his eye so much at watch, as those of parleys and treaties of accommodation; and it is, therefore, become a general rule amongst the

martial

men

of these latter times, that a gover-

nor of a place never ought, in a time of siege, to go out to parley. It was for this that in our fathers' days the Seigneurs de Montmord and de l'Assigni, defending Mouson against the Count de Nassau, were so highly censured. But yet, as to this, it would be excusable in that governor who, going out, should, notwithstanding, do it in such manner that the safety and advantage should be on his side; as Count Guido di Rangone did at Reggio (if we are to believe Bellay, for Guicciardini says it was he himself) when the Seigneur de l'Escut approached to parley, who stepped so little away from his fort, that a disorder happening in the interim of parley, not only Monsieur de l'Escut and his party who were advanced with him, found themselves by much the weaker, insomuch that Alessandro de Trivulcio was there slain, but he himself was constrained, as the safest way, to follow the count, and, relying upon his honour, to secure himself from the danger of the shot within the walls of the town. Eumenes, being shut up in the city of Nora by Antigonus, and by him importuned to come out to speak with him, as he sent him word it was fit he should to a greater man than himself, and one who had now an advantage over him, returned this noble answer. "Tell him," said he, "that I shall never think any man greater than myself whilst I have my sword in my hand," and would not consent to come out to him till first according to his own demand, Antigonus had delivered him his own nephew Ptolomeus in hostage.

2

And yet some have done very well in going out in person to parley, on the word of the assailant: witness Henry de Vaux, a cavalier of Champagne, who being besieged by the English

in the Castle of

whose dishe and his garrison surrendered themselves; and fire being presently applied to the mine, the props no sooner began to fail, but the castle was immediately blown up from its foundations, no one stone being left upon another. I could, and do, with great facility, rely upon singularly obliged to his enemy, to

cretion

the faith of another; but

should very unwillit should thereby be judged that it was rather an effect of my despair and want of courage than voluntarily and out of confidence and security in the faith of him with whom I had to do.

ingly do

vi. I

1

Plutarch, Lysander. Idem, Eumenes.

it

I

in such a case, as

That the hour of parley is dangerous

saw, notwithstanding,

place not far from

my

lately at

Mussidan, a

house, that those

who

were driven out thence by our army, and others of their party, highly complained of treachery, for that during a treaty of accommodation, and in the very interim that their deputies were treating, they were surprised and cut to pieces: a thing that, peradventure, in another age, might have had some colour of foul play; but, as I have just said, the practice of arms in these days is quite another thing, and there is now no confidence in an enemy excusable till the treaty is finally sealed; and even then the conqueror has enough to do to keep his word so hazardous a :

thing

it is

to intrust the observation of the faith

a man has engaged to a town that surrenders upon easy and favourable conditions, to the licence of a victorious army, and to give the sol-

dier free entrance into

it

in the heat of blood.

Lucius /Emilius Regillus, the Roman praetor, having lost his time in attempting to take the city of Phocaea by force, by reason of the singular valour wherewith the inhabitants defended themselves, conditioned, at as friends to the people of

last, to

receive

Rome, and

them

to enter

the town, as into a confederate city, without any of hostility, of which he gave them all assurance; but having, for the greater pomp,

manner

brought his whole army in with him, it was no in his power, with all the endeavour he could use, to restrain his people: so that, avarice and revenge trampling under foot both his au-

more

2

Commercy, and Bartholomew

de Brunes, who commanded at the leaguer, having so sapped the greatest part of the castle without, that nothing remained but setting fire to the props to bury the besieged under the ruins, he requested the said Henry to come out to speak with him for his own good, which he did with three more in company; and his ruin being made apparent to him, he conceived himself

Essay s thority

and

military discipline, he there

all

a considerable part of the city

saw

Cleomenes was wont

Roman

military discipline; for

not lawful for us, in time advantage of our enemies'

it is

and place, to make want of understanding,

as well as their

want

of

And, doubtless, war has naturally many dice of reason.

Neminem

said count's lieutenant, going out to parley,

whilst he was capitulating, the town was taken.

Fu

And

even

privi-

to the preju-

therefore here the rule

fails,

id agere ut ex alterius praedeiur in-

But I am astonished at the great liberty allowed by Xenophon in such cases, and that both by precept and by the example of several J

scitia.

say they. But the philosopher Chrysippus of another opinion, wherein

I

confess, in those affairs,

him

being in his own person both a great captain a philosopher of the first form of Socrates' disciples; and yet I cannot consent to such a measure of licence as he dispenses in all things

and places. Monsieur d'Aubigny, besieging Capua, and it, Signor FabColonna, governor of the town, having

playing a furious battery against ricio

from a bastion begun to parley, and his soldiers in the meantime being a little more remiss in their guard, our people entered the place at unawares, and put them all to the sword. And of later memory, at Yvoy, Signor Juliano Romero having played that part of a novice to go out to parley with the constable, at his return found his place taken. But, that we might not escape scot-free the Marquess of Pescara having laid siege to Genoa, where Duke Octaviano Fregosa commanded under our protection, and the articles betwixt them being so far advanced that it was looked upon as a done thing, and upon the point to be concluded, the Spaniards in the 1

ero,

No one De

to take the

"it is

should prey upon another's folly.— Cic-

Offic,

iii.

17.

was

also concur; for

tory,

advantage of the night's obscu-

upon Darius. "By no means,"

man

not for such a

Malo me

pudeat."

as I

am

fortunae poeniteat,

said he;

to steal a vic-

quam victoriae

3

Atque idem fugientem haud

est

dignatus Oroden

Sternere, nee jacta caecum dare cuspide vulnus:

Obvius, adversoque occurrit, seque viro vir Contulit,

hand

furto melior, sed fortibus armis.

That the intention of our actions

vii.

as

and

I

he was used to say that those who run a race ought to employ all the force they have in what they are about, and to run as fast as they can; but that it is by no means fair in them to lay any hand upon their adversary to stop him, nor to set a leg before him to throw him down. And yet more generous was the answer of that great Alexander to Polypercon, who was persuading

exploits of his complete emperor; an author of

very great authority,

vincer sempre mai laudabil cosa, 2 per fortuna, o per ingegno,

il

Vincasi

rity to fall

courage. leges that appear reasonable

use of this

commanded, the emperor having in his own person beleaguered that place, and Bertheville, the

gods punished this subtle perfidy. In a time of parley also, and while the citizens were relying upon their safety warrant, the city of Casilinum was taken by surprise, and that even in the age of the justest captains and not said that

made

what mis-

to say, "that

could do his enemy in time of war was above justice, and nothing accountable to it in the sight of gods and men." And so having concluded a truce with those of Argos for seven days, the third night after, he fell upon them when they were all buried in sleep, and put them to the sword, alleging that there had no nights been mentioned in the truce; but the

it is

13 in,

treachery as an absolute victory. And since, at Ligny, in Barrois, where the Count de Brienne

man

the most perfect

7 meantime having slipped

sacked and ruined

before his face. chief soever a

I.

is

4,

judge

'Tis a saying, "That death discharges us of all our obligations." I know some who have taken it in another sense. Henry VII, King of England, articled with Don Philip, son to Maximilian the Emperor, or (to place him more honourably) father to the Emperor Charles V, that the said Philip should deliver up the Duke of

Suffolk of the

White

fled into the

Low

Rose, his enemy,

who was

Countries, into his hands; did, but upon condiHenry should attempt

which Philip accordingly tion, nevertheless, that

life of the said duke; but king in his last will commanded his son to put him to death immediately after his decease. And, lately, in the tragedy

nothing against the

coming

2

to die, the

Victory

is

ever worthy of praise, whether ob-

wisdom.— Ariosto, xv. 1. had rather complain of ill-fortune than be ashamed of victory.— Quintus Curtius, iv. 13. 4 He deigned not to cut off Orodes as he fled, or tained by valour or by 3

1

with the darted spear to give him a wound unseen; but overtaking him, he confronted him, face to face, and encountered man to man superior, not in stratagem, but in valiant arms.— Aineul, x. 732. :

Montaigne

14

that the Duke of Alva presented to us in the persons of the Counts Horn and Egmont at Brussels, there were very remarkable passages,

and one amongst the rest, that Count Egmont (upon the security of whose word and faith Count Horn had come and surrendered himself to the Duke of Alva) earnestly entreated that he might first mount the scaffold, to the end that death might disengage him from the obligation he had passed to the other. In which methinks, death did not acquit the former and that the second was discannot be charged from it without dying. bound beyond what we are able to perform, by reason that effect and performance are not at all in our power, and that, indeed, we are masters of nothing but the will, in which, by necessity, all the rules and whole duty of mankind are founded and established: therefore Count Egmont, conceiving his soul and will indebted to his promise, although he had not the power to make it good, had doubtless been absolved of case,

of his promise,

We

though he had outlived the other; but the King of England wilfully and premeditately breaking his faith, was no more to be excused for deferring the execution of his infidelity till after his death than Herodotus's mason, who having inviolably, during the time of his life, kept the secret of the treasure of the King of Egypt, his master, at his death discovered it

his duty, even

to his children.

time wherein they can have no knowledge

to a

of the cause! For

life

if I

mv

as either in taking so

much

time in so pressing

an affair, or in going about to remedy a wrong with so little dissatisfaction or injury to themselves. They owe, over and above, something of their own; and by how much their payment is

and incommodious to themselves, by much is their restitution more just and meristrict

Penitency requires penalty; but they yet do worse than these, who reserve the declaration of a mortal animosity against their neighbour to the last gasp, having concealed it during their life, wherein they manifest little regard of their torious.

own

honour,

offended in their memory; and less to their conscience, not having the power, even out of respect to death itself, to make their malice die with them, but extending the life of their hatred even beyond their 1

irritating the party

own. Unjust judges, who defer judgment

Herodotus,

I

Of idleness As we see some grounds that have long lain idle viii.

when grown rich and fertile by abound with and spend their virtue in the product of innumerable sorts of weeds and wild herbs that are unprofitable, and that to make them perform their true office, we are to cultivate and prepare them for such seeds as are proper for our service; and as we see women that, without knowledge of man, do sometimes of themselves bring forth inanimate and formless lumps of flesh, but that to cause a natural and perfect generation they are to be husbanded and

unfilled,

rest, to

with another kind of seed; even so it is with minds, which if not applied to some certain study that may fix and restrain them, run into a thousand extravagances, eternally roving here and there in the vague expanse of the imagination— Sicut aquae tremulum hhris ubi

lumen

ahenis,

Sole repercussum, aut radiantis imagine lunae,

Omnia

pervolitat late loca;

Erigitur,

summique

—in which wild idle fancy they

ferit

jamque sub auras

laquearia tecti

agitation there

do not

light

is

no

2

folly,

nor

upon,

1

have taken notice of several in my time, who, convicted by their consciences of unjustly detaining the goods of another, have endeavoured to make amends by their will, and after their decease; but they had as good do nothing,

so

part,

shall take care,

Velut aegri somnia, vanae Finguntur species*

I

more

my

death discover nothing that has not first and openly declared.

my

can, that

ii.

121.

The

soul that has

no established aim

loses

it-

self, for, as it is said,

Quisquis ubique habitat, Maxime, nusquam habitat.*

When

I

lately retired to

a resolution, as

much

my own house,

as possibly

I

with

could, to

avoid all manner of concern in affairs, and to spend in privacy and repose the little remainder of time I have to live, I fancied I could not more oblige my mind than to suffer it at full leisure to entertain and divert itself, which I now hoped it might henceforth do, as being by time become

As when on brazen vats of water the trembling beams of light, reflected from the sun, or from the image of the radiant moon, swiftly float over ever)' place around, and now are darted up on high, and 2

strike the ceilings of the lofty roof.— ALneid, viii.

22. 3

As

sick

men's dreams, creating vain phantasms.

De Art. Poet., 7. 4 He who lives everywhere, lives nowhere.— Mar-

—Horace, tial, vii.

73.

Essays more

and mature; but

settled

Variam semper dant

I

otia

I.

firmity

mentem, 1

cipally

that, quite contrary,

a

much more

it is like

who

violent career than

would put him

to,

and

a horse that has

voluntarily runs into

creates

any horseman

me

so

many

chi-

maeras and fantastic monsters, one upon another, without order or design, that, the better at leisure to contemplate their strangeness

and ab-

have begun to commit them to writing, hoping in time to make it ashamed of itself. surdity,

I

it is

an

evil

from which prin-

I

who take upon them public affairs. That, as several like examples in the progress of nature demonstrate to us, she has fortified me in my other faculties proportionably as she has left me unfurnished in this; I should otherwise have been apt implicitly to have reposed my mind and judgment upon the bare report of other men, without ever setting them to work upon in those

own

had the inventions and opinme by the benefit of memory. That by this means I am not so talkative, for the magazine of the memory is force,

ions of others been ever present with

is not a man living whom it would so become to speak from memory as myself, for have scarcely any at all, and do not think that

There little I

that

would

their

Of liars

ix.

first,

:

have found reason to correct a worse, easily enough have grown upon me, namely, ambition; the defect being intolerable that

broke from his rider,

15

9

find—

the world has another so marvellously treacherother faculties are all sufficientous as mine.

My

ever better furnished with matter than that of the invention. Had mine been faithful to me, I

had

my

ere this deafened all

friends with

my

ly ordinary

babble, the subjects themselves arousing and

very rare

stirring up the little faculty I have of handling and employing them, heating and extending my discourse, which were a pity: as I have observed in several of my intimate friends, who, as their memories supply them with an entire and full view of things, begin their narrative so far back, and crowd it with so many impertinent circumstances, that though the story be good in itself, they make a shift to spoil it; and if otherwise, you

and mean; but in this I think myself and singular, and deserving to be

thought famous. Besides the natural inconvenience I suffer by it (for, certes, the necessary use

had reason when and powerful goddess), in my country, when they would say a man has no sense, they say, such a one has no memory; and when I complain of the defect of mine, they do not believe me, and reprove me, as though I acof

memory

he called

it

considered, Plato a great

cused myself for a fool: not discerning the difference betwixt memory and understanding, which is to make matters still worse for me. But they do me wrong; for experience, rather, daily shows us, on the contrary, that a strong memory is commonly coupled with infirm judgment. They do me, moreover (who am so perfect in nothing as in friendship), a great wrong in this, that they make the same words which accuse my infir-

mity, represent me for an ungrateful person; they

bring

my affections into question upon the acmy memory, and from a natural imper-

count of

fection, make out a defect of conscience. "He has forgot," says one, "this request, or that prom-

he no more remembers his friends; he has forgot to say or do, or conceal such and such a thing, for my sake." And, truly, I am apt enough to forget many things, but to neglect anything my friend has given me in charge, I never do it. And it should be enough, methinks, that I feel the misery and inconvenience of it, without branding me with malice, a vice so contrary to my humour. However, I derive these comforts from my inise;

1

Leisure ever creates varied thought.— Lucan,

704.

iv.

are either to curse the strength of their

memory

and it is a discourse, and to cut it

or the weakness of their judgment:

hard thing

to close

up

a

when you have once started; there is nothing wherein the force of a horse is so much seen

short,

as in a

round and sudden

stop. I see

even those

who are pertinent enough, who would, but cannot stop short in their career; for whilst they are seeking out a handsome period to conclude with, they go on at random, straggling about upon impertinent trivialities, as men staggering upon weak legs. But, above all, old men who retain the memory of things past, and forget how often

they have told them, are dangerous company; I have known stories from the mouth of a man of very great quality, otherwise very pleas-

and

ant in themselves, become very wearisome by being repeated a hundred times over and over again to the same people. Secondly, that, by this means, I the less re-

member

have received; insomuch should have a register of injuries, or a prompter, as Darius, who, that he might not forget the offence he had received from those of Athens, so oft as he sat down to dinner, ordered one of his pages three the injuries

I

that, as the ancient said, I

times to repeat in his ear, "Sir, remember the

.

Montaigne

i6 1

Athenians"; and then, again, the places which I revisit, and the books I read over again, still smile upon me with a fresh novelty. It is not without good reason said "that he who has not a good memory should never take upon him the trade of lying." I know very well that the grammarians distinguish betwixt an untruth and a lie, and say that to tell an untruth is to tell a thing that is false, but that we ourselves believe to be true; and that the definition of the

word

French

is

from which our which we know be untrue; and it is of this

to lie in Latin,

taken, is to tell a thing

in our conscience to last sort of liars

only that

I

now

these do either wholly contrive

speak.

Now,

and invent the and disguise a

untruths they utter, or so alter true story that it ends in a lie. When they disguise and often alter the same story, according to their own fancy, 'tis very hard for them, at one time or another, to escape being trapped, by reason that the real truth of the thing, having first taken possession of the memory, and being there lodged and impressed by the medium of knowledge and science, it will be difficult that it should not represent itself to the imagination, and shoulder out falsehood, which cannot there

have so sure and

and true knowledge

settled footing as the other;

the circumstances of the

first

evermore running in their minds, will be apt

make them

forget those that are illegitimate,

to

and

only forged by their own fancy. In what they wholly invent, forasmuch as there is no contrary impression to jostle their invention, there

seems

to

be less danger of tripping; and yet even by reason it is a vain body, and with-

this also,

out any hold, is very apt to escape the memory, if it be not well assured. Of which I have had very pleasant experience, at the expense of such as profess only to

speech to the

humour

form and accommodate their they have in hand, or to the

affair

of the great folks to

whom

they are

speaking; for the circumstances to which these

men

not to enslave their faith and conscience being subject to several changes, their language must vary accordingly: whence it happens that of the same thing they tell one man that it is this, and another that it is that, giving it several colours; which men, if they once come to confer notes, and find out the cheat, what becomes of this fine art? To which may be added, that they must of necessity very often ridiculously trap themselves; for what memory can be sufficient to retain so many different shapes as they have forged upon one and the same sub1

stick

Herodotus, v. 105.

ject?

I

have known

many

in

my

time very am-

bitious of the repute of this fine wit; but they

do not see that if they have the reputation of it, the effect can no longer be. In plain truth, lying is an accursed vice. We are not men, nor have other tie upon one another, but by our word. If we did but discover the horror and gravity of it, we should pursue it with fire and sword, and more justly than other crimes. I see that parents commonly, and with indiscretion enough, correct their children for little innocent faults, and torment them for wanton tricks, that have neither impression nor consequence; whereas, in

and which

is

stinacy, are the faults

whipped out

my

opinion, lying only,

of something a lower form, ob-

which

are to be severely

in their progress, otherwise they

increase with them;

and

tongue has once not to be imagined to reclaim it: whence it

got the knack of lying,

how

and grow up and

of them, both in their infancy

impossible

is

it

after a

'tis

see some, who are otherwise very honest men, so subject and enslaved to this vice. I have an honest lad to my tailor, whom I never knew guilty of one truth, no, not

comes

to pass that

we

when it had been to his advantage. If falsehood had, like truth, but one face only, we should be upon better terms; for

we

should then take

what the liar says: but the reverse of truth has a hundred thousand forms, and a field indefinite, without bound or for certain the contrary to

The Pythagoreans make good to be cerand finite, and evil, infinite and uncertain. There are a thousand ways to miss the white, there is only one to hit it. For my own part, I

limit.

tain

have

this vice in so great horror, that I

am

not

could prevail with my conscience to secure myself from the most manifest and extreme danger by an impudent and solemn lie. An ansure

I

dog we know is better man whose language we do

cient father says "that a

company than

a

Ut externus alieno non sit 2 hominis vice. And how much less sociable is false speaking than silence? King Francis I bragged that he had, by this means, nonplussed Francisco Taverna, ambassador of Francisco Sforza, Duke of Milan, a man not understand."

very famous for his science in talking in those days. This gentleman had been sent to excuse his master to his majesty about a thing of very great consequence,

which was

this:

the king,

maintain some intelligence with Italy, out of which he had lately been driven, and parstill

to

2 As a foreigner cannot be said to supply to us the place of a man.— Pliny, Nat. Hist., vii. 1

Essays ticularly with the duchy of Milan, had thought it convenient to have a gentleman on his behalf to be with that duke: an ambassador in effect, but in outward appearance a private person who pretended to reside there upon his own particular affairs; for the duke, much more depending upon the emperor, especially at a time when he was in a treaty of a marriage with his niece,

daughter to the King of Denmark, and now dowager of Lorraine, could not manifest any practice and conference with us, but very much to his own prejudice. For this commission one Merveille, a Milanese gentleman, and an equerry to the king, being thought very

fit,

was

accordingly despatched thither with private credentials, and instructions as ambassador, and with other letters of recommendation to the duke about his own private concerns, the better to mask and colour the business; and was so long

had some inkling of his real employment there; which was the occasion of what followed after, as we suppose; which was, that under pretence of some murder, his trial was in two days despatched, and his head in the night struck off in prison. Messire Francisco being come, and prepared in that court, that the

emperor

neither

had he ever

any other aspect; had ever heard he

lived after

absolutely disowning that he

17

had his audience, and the king, before he would give an answer, insisting upon the difficulties he should find in setting on foot so great a preparation as would be necessary to attack so potent a king, and urging some reasons to that effect, the ambassador, very unseasonably, replied that he had also himself considered the same difficulties, and had represented them to the Pope. From which Francis, the ambassador having

saying of his, so directly opposite to the thing

propounded, and the business he came about, which was immediately to incite him to war, the king first derived argument (which also he afterwards found to be true), that this ambassador, in his own mind, was on the side of the French; of which having advertised the Pope, his estate at his return home was confiscated, and he himself very narrowly escaped the losing

of his head.

at last

with a long counterfeit history of the affair (for the king had applied himself to all the princes of Christendom, as well as to the duke himself, to demand satisfaction), had his audience at the morning council; where, after he had for the support of his cause laid open several plausible justifications of the fact, that his master never looked upon this Merveille for other than a private gentleman, and his own subject, who was there only in order to his own business,

10

I.

King

x.

Of quick or slow speech

so

we

One ne

furent a touts toutes graces donnees;

1

wherein some and promptness, and that

see in the gift of eloquence,

have such a

which we

facility

call a 'present

upon

wit so easy, that they

and never to be surprised; and others more heavy and slow, never venture to utter anything but what they have long premeditated, and taken great care are ever ready

and pains

all

occasions,

and prepare. teach young ladies those sports and exercises which are most proper to set out the grace and beauty of those parts wherein their chiefest ornament and perfection lie, so it should be in these two advantages of eloquence, to which the lawyers and preachers of our age seem principally to pretend. If I were worthy to

Now,

to

as

fit

we

advise, the slow speaker, methinks, should

be

was one of the king's household, or that his majesty so much as knew him, so far was he from taking him for an ambassador: the king, in his turn, pressing him with several objections and demands, and sifting him on all hands, gravelled him at last by asking, why, then, the execution was performed by night, and as it were by stealth? At which the poor confounded ambassador, the more handsomely to disengage himself, made answer, that the duke would have been very loath, out of respect to his majesty, that such an execution should have been performed by day. Any one may guess if he was not well rated when he came home, for having so

more proper for the pulpit, and the other for the bar: and that because the employment of the first does naturally allow him all the leisure he can desire to prepare himself, and besides, his career is performed in an even and uninter-

grossly tripped in the presence of a prince of so

sieur Poyet, a

King Francis. Pope Julius II having sent an ambassador to the King of England to animate him against

mitted line, without stop or interruption; whereas the pleaders business and interest compels

him

to enter the lists

upon

all

unexpected objections and party jostle

him out

occasions,

of his course,

pump

and the

replies of his adverse

and put him,

new and

upon the

instant, to

seilles, it

happened, quite contrary, that Monman bred up all his life at the bar,

extempore answers and defences. Yet, at the interview betwixt Pope Clement and King Francis at Marfor

delicate a nostril as

1

All graces were never yet given to any one man. -A verse in one of La Boetie's Sonnets.

— Montaigne

i8

and

in the highest repute for eloquence, having

making the harangue to the Pope committed to him, and having so long meditated on it beforehand, as, so they said, to have the charge of

brought

it

ready

made along with him from

Paris; the very day it was to have been pronounced, the Pope, fearing something might be said that might give offence to the other prince's ambassadors who were there attending on him, sent to acquaint the king with the argument which he conceived most suiting to the time and place, but, by chance, quite another thing to that Monsieur de Poyet had taken so much pains about: so that the fine speech he had prepared

was

of

and he was upon the instant to which finding himself unable Cardinal du Bellay was constrained to no

use,

contrive another; to do,

perform that office. The pleader's part is, doubtless, much harder than that of the preacher,

my opinion, we see more passable lawyers than preachers, at all events in France. It should seem that the nature of wit is to have and, yet, in

its operation prompt and sudden, and that of judgment, to have it more deliberate and more slow. But he who remains totally silent, for want of leisure to prepare himself to speak well, and he also whom leisure does noways benefit to better speaking, are equally unhappy. Tis said of Severus Cassius that he spoke best extempore, that he stood more obliged to fortune than to his own diligence; that it was an advantage to him to be interrupted in speaking, and that his adversaries were afraid to nettle him, lest his anger should redouble his eloquence. I know, experimentally, the disposition

and elaborate do not go frankly and gaily to work, it can perform nothing to purpose. We say of some compositions that they stink of oil and of the lamp, by reason of a certain rough harshness that laborious handling imprints upon those where it has been employed. But besides this, the solicitude of doing well, and a certain striving and contending of a mind too far strained and overbent upon its undertaking, breaks and hinders itself like water, that by force of its own pressing violence and abundance, cannot find a ready issue through the neck of a bottle or a narrow sluice. In this condition of nature, of which I am now speaking, there is this also, that it would not be disordered and stimulated with such passions as the fury of Cassius (for such a motion would be too violent and rude); it would not be jostled, but solicited; it would be roused and heated by unexpected, sudden, and accidental occasions. If it be left to

of nature so impatient of a tedious

premeditation, that

if it

itself,

gives

flags and languishes; agitation, only, grace and vigour. I am always worst in

it it

my own possession, and when wholly at my own more title to anything comes from me than I; occasion, company, and even the very rising and falling of my own voice, extract more from my fancy than I can find when I sound and employ it by myself. By which means, the things I say are better than those I write, if either were to be preferred, where neither is worth anything. This, also, befalls me, that I do not find myself where I seek myself, and I light upon things more by chance than by any inquisition of my own judgment. I perhaps sometimes hit upon something when I write, that seems quaint and sprightly to me, though it will appear dull and heavy to another. disposition: accident has

that

—But let us leave these fine compliments:

every

one talks thus of himself according to his talent. But when I come to speak, I am already so lost that I know not what I was about to say, and in such cases a stranger often finds it out before me. If I should make erasure so often as this inconvenience befalls me, I should make clean work; occasion will, at some other time, lay it as visible to me as the light, and make me wonder what xi.

Of

I

should stick

at.

prognostications

For what concerns

oracles,

it is

certain that a

good while before the coming of Jesus Christ, they had begun to lose their credit; for we see that Cicero is troubled to find out the cause of their decay, and he has these words: Cur isto modo jam Oracula Delphis non eduntur, non modo nostra setate, sed jam diu; ut nihil possit x esse contemptius? But as to the other prognostics, calculated from the anatomy of beasts at sacrifices (to which purpose Plato does, in part, attribute the natural constitution of the intestines of the beasts themselves), the scraping of poultry, the flight of birds— Aves quasdam rerum augurandarum causa natas esseputamus 2 —claps of thunder, the overflowing of rivers Multa cernunt Aruspices, multa Augures provident, multa oraculis declarantur, multa vatici.

nationihus, multa somniis, multa portentis 1

are

What

is

.

s

.

—

the reason that the oracles at Delphos uttered: not merely in this age of

no longer

ours, but for a long time past nothing is more in contempt?— Cicero, De Divin., ii. 57. 2 We think some sorts of birds are purposely created to serve the purposes of augury.— Idem, De

Nat. Deor., ii. 64. 3 The Aruspices discern foresee

many

things,

many things, the Augurs many things are announced

Essays and others of the like nature, upon which antiquity founded most of their public and private enterprises, our religion has totally abolished

them. And although there yet remain amongst us some practices of divination from the stars, from spirits, from the shapes and complexions of men, from dreams and the like (a notable example of the wild curiosity of our nature to

n

I.

19

towns and forces in enemy's army under Antonio de Leyva close by him, and we not at all suspecting his design, it had been in his power to have done more than he did; for we lost no men by this infidelity of his, nor any town, but Fossano only, and that after a long siege and a brave de-

passions; for having both his hands, the

fence.

grasp at and anticipate future things, as if we had not enough to do to digest the present)— tibi, rector Olympi, visum mortalibus addere curam, Noscant venturas ut dira per omina clades?

Prudens futuri temporis exitum Caliginosa nocte premit Deus, Ridetque, si mortalis ultra Fas trepidat. z

Cur hanc

Sollicitis

Sit subitum,

quodcumque

paras;

sit

.

.

llle potens sui Laetusque deget, cui licet in diem

.

caeca futuri 1

Mens hominum fati, liceat sperare timenti. (Ne utile quidem est scire quid futurum miserum est enim,

nihil proficientem angi

Dixisse, vixil eras vel atra

Nube polum

sit:

much less authority now than Which makes the example of Francis, Marquis of Saluzzo, so much more remarkable; who being lieutenant to King Francis I in

pater occupato,

Vel sole puro.*

2 ")

yet are they of

Laetus in praesens animus;

heretofore.

Oderit curare. 6

army beyond the mountains, infinitely favoured and esteemed in our court, and obliged to the king's bounty for the marquisate itself, which had been forfeited by his brother; and as to the rest, having no manner of provocation given him to do it, and even his own affection opposing any such disloyalty, suffered himself to be so terrified, as it was confidently reported, with the fine prognostics that were spread abroad everywhere in favour of the Emperor Charles V, and to our disadvantage (especially in Italy, where these foolish prophecies were so far believed, that at Rome great sums of money were ventured out upon return of greater when the prognostics came to pass, so certain they made his

themselves of our ruin), that having often bewailed to those of his acquaintance who were most intimate with him, the mischiefs that he

saw would inevitably fall upon the crown of France, and the friends he had in that court, he revolted and turned to the other side; to his own misfortune, nevertheless, what constellation soever governed at that time. But he carried himself in this affair like a man agitated with divers

And

those

who

sint,

si

it

amiss: Ista sic recipro-

divinatio

divinatio.

sit

ultra est,

take this sentence in a con-

trary sense interpret

cantur, ut et

quod

6

sit,

dii sint; et si dii

Much more

wisely Pacu-

vius—

Nam istis,

qui linguam avium intelligunt, Plusque ex alieno jecore sapiunt, quam ex suo, Magis audiendum, quam auscultandum, censeo. 7

The

so celebrated art of divination

the Tuscans took striking

its

beginning thus:

amongst

A labourer

deep with his culter into the earth, saw

the demigod Tages ascend, with an infantine aspect, but endued with a mature and senile wisdom. Upon the rumour of which, all the people ran to see the sight, by whom his words and science, containing the principles and means to attain to this art, were recorded, and kept for

many

A

ages.

my

birth suitable to

its

progress!

I,

should sooner regulate my affairs by the chance of a die than by such idle and vain for

part,

8

A

4

He lives happy and master of himself, who can

wise God covers with thick night the path of the future, and laughs at the man who alarms himself without reason.— Horace, Od., iii. 29.

each day passes on, "I have lived"; no matwhether to-morrow the great Father shall give us a clouded sky or a clear day.— Ibid., iii. 29. 6 A mind happy, cheerful in the present state, will take good care not to think of what is beyond say, as

ter

by

oracles, vaticinations,

Ibid., 1

ii.

dreams, and portents.—

65.

Why,

ruler of

Olympus, hast thou

careworn mortals added

to anxious,

they should know by omens future slaughter? Send, unlooked for, the ills thou hast in store for them. Let human minds be blind to future things. Let hope, amidst our fears, have some place.— Lucan, ii. 14. this care, that .

a

is

It is useless to

know what

a miserable thing to

—Cicero,

De

shall

iii.

6.

.

come to pass; it to no purpose.

be tormented

Nat. Deor.,

.

it.— Ibid.,

ii.

25.

6

These things have that reciprocate, that if there be divination, there must be deities; and if deities, divination.— Cicero, De Divin., i. 6. 7 As to those who understand the language of birds, and who rather consult the livers of animals than their own, I had rather hear them than attend to them.— Ibid., 57, from Pacuvius.

Montaigne

20

dreams. And, indeed, in all republics, a good share of the government has ever been referred to chance. Plato, in the civil regimen that he models according to his own fancy, leaves to it the decision of several things of very great im-

brian abbot, which foretold

all

the future Popes,

names and forms; and that of the Emperor Leo, which prophesied all the emperors and their

patriarchs of Greece. This

I

have been an eye-

portance, and will, amongst other things, that

confusions, men astonished at their fortune, have abandoned

marriages should be appointed by lot, attributing so great importance to this accidental choice

in the stars the ancient causes

as to ordain that the children begotten in

such

wedlock be brought up in the country, and those begotten in any other be thrust out as spurious and base; yet so, that if any of those exiles,

notwithstanding, should, peradventure,

growing up give any good hope of himself, he might be recalled, as, also, that such as had been retained, should be exiled, in case they in

gave

little

expectation of themselves in their

early growth. I see some who are mightily given to study and comment upon their almanacs, and produce them for authority when anything has fallen

out pat; and, for that matter, it is hardly possible but that these alleged authorities sometimes stumble upon a truth amongst an infinite number of lies. Quis est enim, qui totum diem jacu-

witness

their

of,

own

that

in public

reason, superstitiously to seek out

of their present mishaps,

and

in

and menaces time have

my

been so strangely successful in it, as to make me believe that this being an amusement of sharp and volatile wits, those who have been versed in this knack of unfolding and untying riddles, are capable, in any sort of writing, to find out what they desire. But above all, that which gives them the greatest room to play in, is the obscure, ambiguous, and fantastic gibberish of their prophetic canting, where their authors deliver nothing of clear sense, but shroud all in riddle, to the end that posterity may interpret and apply it according to its own fancy.

lans

Socrates' demon might, perhaps, be no other but a certain impulsion of the will, which obtruded itself upon him without the advice or consent of his judgment; and in a soul so en-

better of

lightened as his was, and so prepared by a con-

non aliquando collineet? * I think never the them for some such accidental hit. There would be more certainty in it if there were a rule and a truth of always lying. Besides, nobody records their flimflams and false prognostics, forasmuch as they are infinite and common; but if they chop upon one truth, that carmighty report, as being rare, incredible, and prodigious. So Diogenes, surnamed the Atheist, answered him in Samothrace, who, showing him in the temple the several offerings and stories in painting of those who had escaped shipwreck, said to him, "Look, you who think the gods have no care of human things, what do you say to so many persons preserved from death by their especial favour?" "Why, I say," answered he, "that their pictures are not here who were cast away, who are by much the greater number." ries a

Cicero observes that of

who have acknowledged

all

the philosophers

a deity,

Xenophanes

the Colophonian only has endeavoured to eradicate

all

manner of divination; which makes it wonder if we have now and then seen

the less a

some of our

princes, sometimes to their

cost, rely too

much upon

given anything with

these fopperies.

my own

own I

had

eyes to see those

two great marvels, the book of Joachim the Cala1 For who shoots all day at butts that does not sometimes hit the white?— Cicero, De Divin., ii. 59.

tinual exercise of

wisdom and

virtue,

'tis

to

be

supposed, those inclinations of his, though sudden and undigested, were very important and

worthy

to

be followed. Every one finds in him-

some image of such agitations, of a prompt, vehement, and fortuitous opinion; and I may well allow them some authority, who attribute so little to our prudence, and who also myself have had some, weak in reason, but violent in persuasion and dissuasion, which were most frequent with Socrates, by which I have suffered myself to be carried away so fortunately, and so much to my own advantage, that they might have been judged to have had something in them self

of a divine inspiration. xii.

Of constancy

The

law of resolution and constancy does not imply that we ought not, as much as in us lies, to decline and secure ourselves from the mischiefs and inconveniences that threaten us; nor,

we shall not fear lest they should surprise us: on the contrary, all decent and honest ways and means of securing ourselves from harms, are not only permitted, but, moreover, commendable, and the business of constancy chiefly is, bravely to stand to, and stoutly to suffer those inconveniences which are consequently, that

not possibly to be avoided. So that there

is

no

Essays supple motion of body, nor any movement in

now irregular or ungracewe need condemn, if they serve from the blow that is made against

the handling of arms, ful soever, that to protect

us

us.

Several very warlike nations have of a retreating

and

flying

way of

made use

fight as a thing

by so doing, have more dangerous to their enefaces. Of which kind of fight-

of singular advantage, and,

made

their backs

mies than their ing the

Turks

still

practice of arms;

Laches,

at

retain

and

who had

something in their

Socrates, in Plato, laughs

defined fortitude to be a

standing firm in the ranks against the enemy. "What!" says he, "would it, then, be a reputed cowardice to overcome them by giving ground?" urging, at the same time, the authority of Homer, who commends in /Eneas the science of flight. And whereas Laches, considering better o' it,

admits the practice as to the Scythians, and, in all cavalry whatever, he again attacks him with the example of the Lacedaemonian foot— a nation of all others the most obstinate in

general,

maintaining their ground— who, in the battle of Plataea, not being able to break into the Per-

bethought themselves to disperse by the enemy supposing they fled, they might break and disunite that vast body of men in the pursuit, and by that stratsian phalanx,

and

retire,

that

agem obtained the victory. As for the Scythians, 'tis

when Darius

sent his expedition to subdue

Nevertheless, as to cannon-shot, when a body men are drawn up in the face of a train of artillery, as the occasion of war often requires,

it is unhandsome to quit their post to avoid the danger, forasmuch as by reason of its violence and swiftness we account it inevitable; and many

by ducking, stepping aside, and such other motions of fear, has been, at all events, sufficiently laughed at by his companions. And yet,

a one,

Herodotus,

he pointed a culverin so admirably well, and levelled it so exactly right against him, that had not the marquis, seeing fire given to it, slipped aside, it was certainly concluded the shot had taken him full in the body. And, in like manner, some years before, Lorenzo de Medici, Duke of Urbino, and father to the queen-mother, laying siege to Mondolpho, a place in the terri-

artillery,

tories of the vicariat in Italy, seeing the can-

noneer give fire to a piece that pointed directly against him, it was well for him that he ducked, for otherwise the shot, that only razed the top

had doubtless hit him full in the I do not think that these evasions are performed upon the account of judgment; for how can any man living judge of high or low aim on so sudden an occasion? And it is much more easy to believe that fortune favoured their apprehension, and that it might be as well at another time to make them face the of his head, breast.

To

say truth,

it. For my own part, cannot forbear starting when the rattle of a arquebuse thunders in my ears on a sudden, and in a place where I am not to expect it, which I have also observed in others, braver fellows than I. Neither do the Stoics pretend that the soul of their philosopher need be proof against the first visions and fantasies that surprise him; but, as to a natural subjection, consent thathe should tremble at the terrible noise of thunder, or the sudden clatter of some falling ruin, and be affrighted even to paleness and convulsion; and so in other passions, provided his judgment re-

I

confess

I

main sound and

entire,

and that the

seat of his

reason suffer no concussion nor alteration, and

fill.

of

1

21

Emperor Charles V made against us into Provence, the Marquis de Guast going to reconnoitre the city of Aries, and advancing out of the cover of a windmill, under favour of which he had made his approach, was perceived by the Seigneurs de Bonneval and the Seneschal of Agenois, who were walking upon the Theatre aux Arenes; who having shown him to the Sieur de Villiers, commissary of the

danger, as to seek to avoid

said of them, that

them, he sent, by a herald, highly to reproach their king, that he always retired before him, and declined a battle; to which Idanthyrses, 1 for that was his name, returned answer, that it was not for fear of him, or of any man living, that he did so, but that it was the way of marching in practice with his nation, who had neither tilled fields, cities, nor houses to defend, or to fear the enemy should make any advantage of: but that if he had such a stomach to fight, let him but come to view their ancient places of sepulture, and there he should have his

12

I.

in the expedition that the

iv.

1

27.

that

he yield no consent

composure.

To him who

to his fright

and

dis-

not a philosopher, a fright is the same thing in the first part of it, but quite another thing in the second; for the impression of passions does not remain superficially in him, but penetrates farther, even to the very seat of reason, infecting and corrupting it, so that he judges according to his fear, and conforms his behaviour to it. In this verse you may see the true state of the wise Stoic learnedly

and plainly expressed;

is

Montaigne

22 Mens immota manet;

lachrymae volvuntur inanes. 1

Peripatetic sage does not exempt himself from perturbations of mind, but he moderates them.

The

totally

xiii.

The

ceremony of the interview

of princes

There

is

so frivolous that does not

merit a place in this rhapsody. According to our common rule of civility, it would be a notable

and much more

to a superior,

being at home, when he has given you notice he will come to visit you. Nay, Queen Margaret of Navarre further adds, that it would be a rudeness in a gentleman to go out, as we to fail of

meet any that is coming to see him, let him be of what high condition soever; and that it is more respectful and more civil to so often do, to

stay at home to receive him, if only upon the account of missing him by the way, and that it is enough to receive him at the door, and to wait upon him. For my part, who as much as I can endeavour to reduce the ceremonies of my house, I very often forget both the one and the other of these vain offices. If, peradventure, some one may take offence at this, I can't help it; it is much better to offend him once than myself every day, for it would be a perpetual slavery. To what end do we avoid the servile attendance of courts, if we bring the same trouble home to our own private houses? It is also a common rule in all assemblies, that those of less quality are to be first upon the place, by reason that it is more due to the better sort to make others wait and expect them. Nevertheless, at the interview betwixt Pope Clement and King Francis at Marseilles, the king, after he had taken order for the necessary

preparations for his reception and entertain-

ment, withdrew out of the town, and gave the Pope two or three days respite for his entry, and to repose and refresh himself, before he came to him. And in like manner, at the assignation of the Pope and the emperor at Bologna, the emperor gave the Pope opportunity to come thither first, and came himself after; for which the reason given was this, that at all the interviews of such princes, the greater ought to be first at the appointed place, especially before the other in whose territories the interview is appointed to be, intimating thereby a kind of deference to the other, it appearing proper for the less to seek

1

Though

-JEneid,

iv.

tears flow, the

449.

There was care enough to this taken in my eduand I have lived in good company enough to know the formalities of our own nation, and

cation,

am

no subject

affront to an equal,

out and to apply themselves to the greater, and not the greater to them. Not every country only, but every city, and every society, has its particular forms of civility.

mind remains unmoved.

able to give lessons in

them, but not

it.

I

love to follow

be so servilely tied to their observation that my whole life should be enslaved to ceremonies, of which there are some so troublesome that, provided a man omits them out of discretion, and not for want of breeding, it will be every whit as handsome. I have seen some people rude, by being over-civil and trouble-

some

to

in their courtesy.

Still,

these excesses excepted, the knowledge

and good manners is a very necesis, like grace and beauty, that which begets liking and an inclination to love one another at the first sight, and in the very beof courtesy

sary study. It

ginning of acquaintance; and, consequently, that which first opens the door and intromits us to

by the example of others, and examples ourselves, if we have any worth taking notice of and communicating. instruct ourselves

to give

That men are justly punished FOR REING ORSTINATE IN THE DEFENCE OF A FORT THAT IS NOT IN REASON TO RE DEFENDED

xiv.

Valour has

its

bounds

as well as other virtues,

which, once transgressed, the next step is into the territories of vice; so that by having too large a proportion of this heroic virtue, unless a

man

be very perfect in its limits, which upon the confines are very hard to discern, he may very easily unawares run into temerity, obstinacy, and folly. From this consideration it is that we have derived the custom, in times of war, to punish, even with death, those who are obstinate to defend a place that by the rules of war is not tenable; otherwise men would be so confident upon the hope of impunity, that not a henroost but would resist and seek to stop an army. The Constable, Monsieur de Montmorency, having at the siege of Pavia been ordered to pass

up his quarters in the Antonio, being hindered by a

the Ticino, and to take

Faubourg

St.

end of the bridge, which was so hanged every man he found within it for their labour. And again, accompanying the Dauphin in his expedition beyond the Alps, and taking the Castle of Villano by assault, and all within it being put to the sword by the fury of the soldiers, the govtower

at the

obstinate as to endure a battery,

ESSAYS ernor and his ensign only excepted, he caused them both to be trussed up for the same reason; as also did

Captain Martin du Bellay, then gov-

ernor of Turin, with the governor of St. Bony, in the same country, all his people having been cut in pieces at the taking of the place.

But forasmuch

as the strength or

weakness of

always measured by the estimate and counterpoise of the forces that attack it— for a man might reasonably enough despise two culverins, that would be a madman to abide a bata fortress is

tery of thirty pieces of

cannon— where

greatness of the prince who his reputation,

is

also the master of the field,

and the respect

that

is

due unto

him, are also put into the balance, there is danger that the balance be pressed to much in that direction.

And it may happen

that a

man

is

pos-

an opinion of himself and his power, that thinking it unreasonable any place should dare to shut its gates against him, he puts all to the sword where he meets with any opposition, whilst his fortune continues; as is plain, in the fierce and arrogant forms of summoning towns and denouncing war, savouring so much of barbarian pride and insolence, in use amongst the Oriental princes, and which their successors to this day do yet retain and practise. And in that part of the world where the Portuguese subdued the Indians, they found some states where it was a universal and inviolable law amongst them that every enemy overcome by the king in person, or by his lieutenant, was out of composition, both of ransom and sessed with so great

mercy.

So that above all things a man should take if he can, of falling into the hands of a judge who is an enemy and victorious. heed,

xv.

Of the punishment of cowardice

I once heard of a prince, and a great captain, having a narration given him as he sat at table of the proceeding against Monsieur de Vervins, who was sentenced to death for having surrendered Boulogne to the English, openly maintaining that a soldier could not justly be put to death

want

And, in truth, 'tis reason should make a great difference betwixt faults that merely proceed from infirmity, for

that a

of courage.

man

and those that are visibly the effects of treachery and malice: for, in the last, we act against the rules of reason that nature has imprinted in us;

whereas, in the former, it seems as if we might produce the same nature, who left us in such a state of imperfection

23

thing but what science;

and

it is

we commit partly

upon

against our con-

this rule that those

ground their opinion who disapprove of capital and sanguinary punishments inflicted upon heretics and misbelievers; and theirs also who hold that an advocate or a judge is not accountable for having from mere ignorance failed in his administration.

But

as to cowardice,

way

usual

disgrace;

was

it is

and

it is

certain that the most

by ignominy and supposed that this practice

of chastising

it is

brought into use by the legislator Chaand that, before his time, the laws of Greece punished those with death who fled from a battle; whereas he ordained only that they first

rondas;

should be for three days exposed in the public

woman's attire, hoping yet for from them, having awakened their courage by this open shame: Suffundere malis hominis sanguinem, quam effundere. * It applace, dressed in

some

service

Roman laws did anciently punish those with death who had run away; for Ammianus Marcellinus says that the Emperor pears also that the

commanded

Julian

ten of his soldiers,

who had

turned their backs in an encounter against the Parthians, to be first degraded, and afterwards put to death, according, says he, to the ancient

and yet, elsewhere, for the like offence, he only condemned others to remain amongst the prisoners, under the baggage ensign. The severe punishment the people of Rome inflicted upon laws,

who fled from the battle of Cannae, and who ran away with Cneius Fulvius at his defeat, did not extend to death. And yet, methose those

'tis to be feared, lest disgrace should make such delinquents desperate, and not only faint friends, but enemies.

thinks,

Of

late

memory, the Seigneur de Franget,

lieutenant to the Marshal de Chattilion's com-

pany, having by the Marshal de Chabannes been put in government of Fuentarabia, in the place of Monsieur de Lude, and having surrendered it to the Spaniard, he was for that condemned to be degraded from all nobility, and both himself and his posterity declared ignoble, taxable, and for ever incapable of bearing arms, which severe sentence was afterwards accordingly executed at Lyons. And, since that, all the gentlemen who were in Guise when the Count of Nassau entered into it, underwent the same

punishment, as several others have done since for the like offence. Notwithstanding, in case of such a manifest ignorance or cowardice as ex-

and weakness of courage,

our justification. Insomuch that many have thought we are not fairly questionable for anyfor

15

I.

1

Rather bring the blood into a man's cheek than

let it

out of his body.— Tertullian, Apologetics.

Montaigne

*4 ceeds it

and

ordinary example, 'tis but reason to take

and malice,

for such to be punished.

A

XVI. I

all

for a sufficient proof of treachery

PROCEEDING OF SOME AMBASSADORS

observe

my

in

travels this custom, ever to

learn something from the information of those

whom

with of

all

I

confer (which

others),

and

to

put

is

the best school

my company upon

those subjects they are the best able to speak of: Basti al nocchiero ragionar de' venti,

Al bifolco dei tori; et le sue piaghe Conti 'I guerrier; conti 'I pastor gli armenti. 1

For it often falls out that, on the contrary, every one will rather choose to be prating of another man's province than his own, thinking it so

much new reputation acquired;

witness the jeer

Archidamus put upon Periander, "that he had quitted the glory of being an excellent physician ,,

bad poet. And do but observe how large and ample Caesar is to make us understand his inventions of building bridges and contriving engines of war, and how succinct and reserved in comparison, where he to gain the repute of a very

speaks of the offices of his profession, his valour,

and military conduct. His

ciently prove

him

own

exploits suffi-

a great captain,

and that he

knew well enough; but he would be thought an excellent engineer to boot; a quality something different,

him.

The

tain, as

it

and not necessary to be expected in was a very great capbefitted his fortune he should be; but elder Dionysius

he took very great pains to get a particular reputation by poetry, and yet he was never cut out for a poet. A gentleman of the long robe being not long since brought to see a study furnished with all sorts of books, both of his own and all other faculties, took no occasion at all to entertain himself with any of them, but fell very rudely and magisterially to descant upon a barricade placed on the winding stair before the study door, a thing that a hundred captains and common soldiers see every day without taking any notice or offence. Optat

ephi'p'pia

bos piger, oftat arare caballus. 2

By this course a man

shall never

improve him-

nor arrive at any perfection in anything. He must, therefore, make it his business always to put the architect, the painter, the statuary, self,

1

Let the sailor content himself with talking of the winds; the herd of his oxen; the soldier of his wounds; the shepherd of his flocks.— An Italian translation of Proper this, ii. i, 43. 2 The lazy ox desires a saddle and bridle; the horse wants to plough.— Horace, Epist., i. 14, 43.

every mechanic artisan, upon discourse of their

own

capacities.

And, to this purpose, in reading histories, which is everybody's subject, I use to consider what kind of men are the authors: if they be persons that profess nothing but mere letters, I, in and from them, principally observe and learn style and language; if physicians, I the rather incline to credit what they report of the temperature of the air, of the health and complexions of princes, of wounds and diseases; if lawyers, we are from them to take notice of the controversies of rights and wrongs, the establishment of laws and civil government, and the like; if divines, the affairs of the Church, ecclesiastical censures, marriages, and dispensations; if courtiers, manners and ceremonies; if soldiers, the things that properly belong to their trade, and, principally, the accounts of the actions and enterprises wherein they

gaged;

if

were personally enambassadors, we are to observe negotia-

tions, intelligences,

and

practices,

and the man-

how they are to be carried on. And this is the reason why (which

ner

perhaps should have lightly passed over in another) I dwelt upon and maturely considered one passage in the history written by Monsieur de Langey, a man of very great judgment in things of that nature: after having given a narrative of the fine oration Charles V had made in the Consistory at Rome, and in the presence of the Bishop of Mascon and Monsieur du Velly, our ambassaI

dors there, wherein he

had mixed

ous expressions

dishonour of our nation;

to the

several injuri-

and amongst the rest, "that if his captains and were not men of another kind of fidelity, resolution, and sufficiency in the knowledge of arms than those of the king, he would immediately go with a rope about his neck and sue to him for mercy" (and it should seem the emperor had really this, or a very little better opinion of our military men, for he afterwards, twice or thrice in his life, said the very same thing); as also, that he challenged the king to fight him in his shirt with rapier andpoignard in a boat. The soldiers

said Sieur de Langey, pursuing his history, adds

that the forenamed ambassadors, sending a despatch to the king of these things, concealed the

and particularly the two last pasAt which I could not but wonder that it should be in the power of an ambassador to dispense with anything which he ought to signify greatest part, sages.

importance from the mouth of such a person, and spoken in so great an assembly; and I should rather conceive it had been the servant's duty to his master, especially of so great

as this, coming

Essays have represented to him the whole end that the liberty of selecting, disposing, judging, and concluding might have remained in him for either to conceal or to disguise the truth for fear he should take it otherwise than he ought to do, and lest it should prompt him to some extravagant resolution, and, in the meantime, to leave him ignorant of his affairs, should seem, methinks, rather to belong to him who is to give the law than to faithfully to

thing as

it

passed, to the

:

him who

is

only to receive

it;

supreme command, and not

upon himself

to look

him who is in him who ought

to

to

but also in prudence and good counsel. for my part, would not be so served in my lit-

I,

tle

so willingly slip the collar of

command

upon any pretence whatever, and are so ready to usurp upon dominion, every one does so naturally aspire to liberty and power, that no utility whatever derived from the wit or valour of those he employs ought to be so dear to a superior as a downright and sincere obedience. To obey more upon the account of understanding than of subjection, is to corrupt the office of com-

mand;insomuch

that P. Crassus,the

Romans reputed five time when he was consul the

same whom

times happy, at the in Asia,

having sent

Greek engineer to cause the greater of two masts of ships that he had taken notice of at Athens to be brought to him, to be employed about some engine of battery he had a design to make; the other, presuming upon his own science and sufficiency in those affairs, thought fit to do otherwise than directed, and to bring the less, which, according to the rules of art, was really more proper for the use to which it was designed; but Crassus, though he gave eartohisreasons with great patience, would not, however, take them, how sound or convincing soever, for current pay, but caused him to be well whipped to a

for his pains, valuing the interest of discipline

much more than

that of the

Notwithstanding,

work

we may on

in hand.

the other side

consider that so precise and implicit an obedi-

ence as this is only due to positive and limited commands. The employment of ambassadors is never so confined, many things in their management of affairs being wholly referred to the absolute sovereignty of their own conduct; they do not simply execute, but also, to their cretion ter's

tenants and agents so

and wisdom, form and model

pleasure. I have, in

own

their

dis-

mas-

my time, known men of

little rein, that,

least arising difficulties,

recourse to their further

upon the

they must fain have

commands;

this delay,

in so vast an extent of dominion, having often

very much prejudiced their affairs; and Crassus, writing to a man whose profession it was best to understand those things, and pre-acquainting

him

to what use this mast was designed, did he not seem to consult his advice, and in a manner

him

invite

xvii.

to interpose his better

judgment?

Of fear

Obstwpui, steteruntque comae et vox faucibus h&sit.

concerns.

We

understanding do yet, to this day, condemn the custom of the kings of Persia to give their lieu-

as inferior, not only in au-

thority,

25

17

I.

I

am

1

not so good a naturalist (as they

as to discern

by what

call it)

secret springs fear has its

motion in us; but, be this as it may, 'tis a strange passion, and such a one that the physicians say there is no other whatever that sooner dethrones our judgment from its proper seat; which is so true, that I myself have seen very many become frantic through fear; and, even in those of the best settled temper, it is most certain that it begets a terrible astonishment and confusion during the fit. I omit the vulgar sort, to whom it one while represents their great-grandsires risen out of their graves in their shrouds, another while hobgoblins, spectres, and chimaeras; but even amongst soldiers, a sort of men over whom, of all others, it ought to have the least power, how often has it converted flocks of sheep into

armed squadrons, reeds and bullrushes into pikes and lances, friends into enemies, and the French white cross into the red cross of Spain! When Monsieur de Bourbon took Rome, an ensign who was upon guard at Borgo San Pietro was seized with such a fright upon the first alarm, that he threw himself out at a breach with his colours upon his shoulder, and ran directly upon the enemy, thinking he had retreated toward the inward defences of the city, and with much ado, seeing Monsieur de Bourbon's people, who thought it had been a sally upon them, draw up to receive him, at last came to himself, and saw his error; and then facing about, he retreated full speed through the same breach by which he had gone out, but not till he had first blindly advanced above three hundred paces into the open field. It did not, howwith Captain Julio's enSt. Paul was taken from

ever, fall out so well sign, at the time

when

command checked for having rather obeyed the express words of the king's letters, than the necessity of the affairs they

had

in hand.

Men

of

1

1

my hair stood on end, my throat.—JEneid, 774.

was amazed,

voice stuck in

ii.

and

my

Montaigne

26

us by the Count deBures and Monsieur deReu, for he, being so astonished with fear as to throw himself, colours and all, out at a porthole, was immediately cut to pieces by the enemy; and in the same siege, it was a very memorable fear that so seized, contracted,

and

froze

up the

heart of a gentleman, that he sank down, stonedead, in the breach, without any manner of wound or hurt at all. The like madness does

sometimes push on a whole multitude; for in one of the encounters that Germanicus had with the Germans, two great parties were so amazed with fear that they ran two opposite ways, the one to the same place from which the other had fled. Sometimes it adds wings to the heels, as in the two first: sometimes it nails them to the ground, and fetters them from moving; as we read of the Emperor Theophilus, who, in a battle he lost against the Agarenes, was so astonished and stupefied that he had no power to fly— 2 adeo favor etiam auxilia formidat — till such time as Manuel, one of the principal commanders of his army, having jogged and shaked him so as to rouse him out of his trance, said to him, "Sir, if you will not follow me, I will kill you; for it is better you should lose your life than, by being taken, lose your empire/' But fear does then manifest its utmost power when it throws us upon a valiant despair, having before deprived us of all sense both of duty and honour. 1

In the

first

Romans

pitched battle the

lost

Sempronthat had taken

against Hannibal, under the consul

body of ten thousand foot, no other escape for their cowardice, went and threw themselves headlong upon the great battalion of the enemies, which with marvellous force and fury they charged through and through, and routed with a very ius, a

fright, seeing

their thoughts to the loss of their captain,

and

vent to those tears and lamentations that the other more potent passion had till then suspended. to give

Turn favor sapientiam omnem mihi exanimo pectorat.

Such

ex-

3

have been well banged in some skiryet, all wounded and bloody as they are, be brought on again the next day to charge; but such as have once conceived a good sound fear of the enemy, will never be made so much mish,

as

may

as to look

him

in the face.

Such

as are in im-

mediate fear of losing their estates, of banishment, or of slavery, live in perpetual anguish,

and

lose all appetite

and

repose; whereas such

as are actually poor, slaves, or exiles, ofttimes live as merrily as other folk.

And the many peo-

who, impatient of the perpetual alarms of fear, have hanged or drowned themselves, or dashed themselves to pieces, give us sufficiently to understand that fear is more importunate and ple

insupportable than death

itself.

The Greeks acknowledge another kind of fear, differing from any we have spoken of yet, that surprises us without any visible cause, by an impulse from heaven, so that whole nations and whole armies have been struck with it. Such a one was that which brought so wonderful a desolation upon Carthage, where nothing was to be heard but affrighted voices and outcries; where the inhabitants were seen to sally out of their houses as to an alarm, and there to charge, wound, and kill one another, as if they had been enemies come to surprise their city. All things were in disorder and fury till, with prayers and sacrifices, they had appeased their gods; and this is that they call a panic terror.

great slaughter of the Carthaginians, thus pur-

chasing an ignominious flight at the same price they might have gained a glorious victory. The thing in the world I am most afraid of is fear, that passion alone, in the trouble of

it,

ex-

ceeding all other accidents. What affliction could be greater or more just than that of Pompey's

who, in his ship, were spectators of that horrible murder? Yet so it was, that the fear of the Egyptian vessels they saw coming to board them, possessed them with so great alarm that it friends,

is

observed they thought of nothing but calling

upon the mariners

to

make

haste,

and by force

That men are not to judge of our happiness till after death

xviii.

Scilicet ultima semper Exspectanda dies homini est; dicique beatus Ante obitum nemo swpremaque funera debet.

4.

The very children know the story of King Croesus to this purpose,

who

being taken prisoner

by Cyrus, and by him condemned to die, as he was going to execution cried out, "O Solon, Solon!" which being presently reported to Cyrus, and he sending to inquire of him what it meant, Croesus gave him to understand that he

of oars to escape away, till being arrived at Tyre, 3

and delivered from

fear,

they had leisure to turn

Then

fear drove out all intelligence

mind.— Ennius, 1 2

Tacitus, Annal.y

i.

4

63.

So much does fear dread even ty.— Quintus Curtius, ii. 11.

the means of safe-

in Cicero, Tusc. Quaes.,

from

We should all look forward to our last day:

one can be called happy —Ovid, Met., iii. 135.

till

he

is

my

iv. 8.

no

dead and buried.

:

Essays

18

I.

27

now found the teaching Solon had formerly given him true to his cost, which was, "That

may

men, however fortune may smile upon them, could never be said to be happy till they had been seen to pass over the last day of their lives, by reason of the uncertainty and mutability of human things, which, upon very light and trivial occasions, are subject to be totally changed into a quite contrary condition. And so it was that Agesilaus made answer to one who was saying what a happy young man the King of Persia was, to come so young to so mighty a kingdom " 'Tis true," said he, "but neither was Priam unhappy at his years." In a short time, kings of Macedon, successors to that mighty Alexander, became joiners and scriveners at Rome; a tyrant

and disgraces of Fortune stand for nothing, either to the making a man happy or unhappy, and with whom grandeurs and powers are acci-

,,

of Sicily, a pedant at Corinth; a conqueror of

one-half of the world and general of so

many

armies, a miserable suppliant to the rascally

offi-

Egypt so much did the prolonmonths of life cost the great Pompey; and, in our fathers' days, Ludovico cers of a king of

:

gation of five or six Sforza, the tenth

Duke of Milan, whom

The

fairest of all

queens,

1

widow to the greatest king in Europe, did she not come to die by the hand of an executioner? Unworthy and barbarous cruelty! And a thousand more examples there are of the same kind; seems, that as storms and tempests have a malice against the proud and overtowering heights of our lofty buildings, there are also spirits above that are envious of the grandeurs here below. for, it

Usque adeo

res

humanas

vis abdita

quaedam

Obterit, et pulchros fasces, saevasque secures

Proculcare, ac ludibrio sibi habere videtur. 2

And it

should seem, also, that Fortune somewait to surprise the last hour of our lives, to show the power she has, in a moment, to overthrow what she was so many years in building, making us cry out with Laberius, times

lies in

Una

'plus vixi

mihi,

dents of a quality almost indifferent) I am apt to think that he had some further aim, and that his meaning was, that the very felicity of life itself, which depends upon the tranquillity and contentment of a well-descended spirit, and the resolution and assurance of a well-ordered soul, ought never to be attributed to any man till he has first been seen to play the last, and, doubtless,

Nimirum hac die quam vivendum fuit. s

And, in

this sense, this

good advice of Solon

Mary, Queen of Scots. So true it is, that some occult power upsets human affairs, the glittering fasces and the cruel axes spurns under foot, and seems to make sport of them. 2

—Lucretius,

v.

quick, gives us leisure to maintain the same gravity of aspect; but, in this last scene of death,

there

is

no more counterfeiting: we must speak

out plain, and discover what there and clean in the bottom of the pot.

Nam

verse voces turn

is

of pure

de-mum pectore ab imo manet res.*

Ejiciuntur; et eripitur persona,

1

Wherefore, at this last, all the other actions of our life ought to be tried and sifted: 'tis the master-day, 'tis the day that is judge of all the rest, " 'tis the day," says one of the ancients, "that must be judge of all my foregoing years." To death do I refer the assay of the fruit of all my studies: we shall then see whether my discourses came only from my mouth or from my heart. I have seen many by their death give a good or an ill repute to their whole life. Scipio, the father-in-law of Pompey, in dying, well wiped away the ill opinion that till then every one had conceived of him. Epaminondas being asked which of the three he had in greatest esteem, Chabrias, Iphicrates, or himself, "You must first see us die," said he, "before that question can be resolved." And, in truth, he would infinitely wrong that man who would weigh him without the honour and grandeur of his end.

God pleased of the all

has ordered

all

Him; but I have,

things as in

it

has best

my time, seen three

most execrable persons that ever

I

knew

manner of abominable living, and the most

who all died a very regular circumstances composed, even to perfection. There are brave and fortunate deaths: I have seen death cut the thread of the progress of a prodigious advancement, and in infamous

to boot,

death, and in

all

1231.

3

have lived longer by this one day than have done.— Macrobius, ii. 7. 1

:

these fine philosophical discourses are only put on, and where accident, not touching us to the

in

1

the hardest act of his part. There may be and dissimulation in all the rest where

disguise

all Italy

had so long truckled under, was seen to die a wretched prisoner at Loches, but not till he had lived ten years in captivity, which was the worst part of his fortune.

reasonably be taken; but he, being a philosopher (with which sort of men the favours

I

should

*

or's

Then

at last truth issues

gone, the

from the

heart; the vis-

man remains.— Lucretius,

ill.

57.

Montaigne

28 the height and flower of

its

increase, of a cer-

an end that, in my opinion, his ambitious and generous designs had nothing in them so high and great as their interruption. He arrived, without completing his course, at the place to which his ambition aimed, with greater glory than he could either have hoped or desired, anticipating by his fall the name and power to which he aspired in pertain person, with so glorious

fecting his career. In the judgment I make of another man's life, I always observe how he carried himself at his death; and the principal concern I have for my own is that I may die

well— that xix.

is,

patiently

and

IS

says "that to study philosophy

is

The

noth-

reason

which is, because study and contemplation do in some sort withdraw from us our soul, and employ it separately from the body, which is a kind of apprenticeship and a resemblance of death; or else, because all the wisdom and reasoning in the world do in the end conclude in of

this point, to teach

us not to fear to

say the truth, either our reason

ought

And

to

us, or

it

die.

mocks

have no other aim but our contentment only, nor to endeavour anything but, in sum, to make us live well, and, as the Holy Scripture says, at our ease. All the opinions of the world agree in this, that pleasure is our end, though to

we make

use of divers means to attain it: they would, otherwise, be rejected at the first motion; for who would give ear to him that should propose affliction and misery for his end? The controversies

upon

and disputes of the philosophical sects

merely verbal— Transcurramus solertissimas nugas 1 — there is more in them of opposition and obstinacy than is consistthis point are

ent with so sacred a profession; but whatsoever personage a man takes upon himself to perform, he ever mixes his own part with it. Let the philosophers say what they will, the main thing at which we all aim, even in virtue It amuses me to rattle in their which they so nauseate to hear; and if it signify some supreme pleasure and excessive contentment, it is more due to the assistance of virtue than to any other assistance whatever. This pleasure, for being more gay, more sinewy, more robust, and more manly, is only the more seriously voluptuous, and we ought

itself, is

pleasure.

ears this word,

1

Let us skip over those subde

Epist., 117.

of pleasure, as that

gentle,

and, moreover, has particular to

and

itself so

and wounding

several sorts of sharp

so dull a satiety attending

many

passions,

as equal it to mistake if we

it,

And we

think that these incommodities serve it for a spur and a seasoning to its sweetness (as in nature one contrary is quickened by another), or

TO LEARN TO DIE

ing but to prepare one's self to die."

the

it

the severest penance.

tranquilly.

That to study philosophy

Cicero

name

which is and natural, and not that of vigour, from which we have denominated it. The other, and meaner pleasure, if it could deserve this fair name, it ought to be by way of competition, and not of privilege. I find it less exempt from traverses and inconveniences than virtue itself; and, besides that the enjoyment is more momentary, fluid, and frail, it has its watchings, fasts, and labours, its sweat and its blood; to give

more favourable,

trifles.— Seneca,

say,

when we come

quences and it

austere

to virtue, that like conse-

overwhelm and render and inaccessible; whereas, much more difficulties

aptly than in voluptuousness, they ennoble,

sharpen, and heighten the perfect and divine pleasure they procure us.

unworthy of

it

who

He

renders himself

will counterpoise

its

cost

with its fruit, and neither understands the blessing nor how to use it. Those who preach to us that the quest of ful,

but

its

by that but ing? For

it is

to tell

and painwhat do they mean

craggy, difficult,

fruition pleasant,

us that

it is

what human means

enjoyment?

always unpleas-

will ever attain

The most perfect have been

its

fain to

content themselves to aspire unto it, and to approach it only, without ever possessing it. But they are deceived, seeing that of all the pleasures we know, the very pursuit is pleasant. The attempt ever relishes of the quality of the thing to which it is directed, for it is a good part of, and consubstantial with, the effect.

The felicity and

beatitude that glitters in Virtue, shines through-

out the

all

her appurtenances and avenues, even to entry and utmost limits.

first

Now, upon

of all the benefits that virtue confers

contempt of death is one of the means that accommodates human life with a soft and easy tranquillity, and gives us a pure and pleasant taste of living, without which all other pleasure would be extinct. Which is the reason why all the rules centre and concur in this one article. And although they all in like manner, with common accord, teach us also to despise pain, poverty, and the other accidents to which human life is subject, it is not, nevertheless, with the same solicitude, as well by reason these accidents are not of so us, the

greatest, as the

great necessity, the greater part of

mankind pass-

ing over their whole lives without ever knowing

Essays what poverty is, and some without sorrow or Xenophilus the musician, who lived a hundred and six years in perfect and continual sickness, as

health; as also because, at the worst, death can,

whenever we to all is

please, cut short

and put an end

other inconveniences. But as to death,

it

no wonder

he be often trapped in the pitwith the very mention of death, and many cross themselves, as it were the name of the devil. And because the making a man's will is in reference to dying, not a man will be persuaded to take a pen in 'tis

fall.

They

hand

inevitable—

29

19

I.

if

affright people

to that

purpose

till

the physician has

passed sentence upon him, and totally given him eodetn cogimur; omnium Versatur urna serius ocius Sors exitura, et nos in aeternum Exilium impositura cymbae. 1

Omnes

-and, consequently,

if it

frights us,

and then betwixt grief and terror, God knows in how fit a condition of understanding

over,

he

'tis

a per-

which there is no sort of conno way by which it may not

petual torment, for

There

solation.

is

We may continually turn our heads way and that, as in a suspected country, 2 quae, quasi saxum Tantalo, semper impendet. Our courts of justice often send back condemned reach us. this

upon the place where the crime was committed; but, carry them to fine houses by the way, prepare for them the

criminals to be executed

best entertainment

you can,

Non

Siculae dopes

Dulcem elaborabunt saporem:

Non avium citharaeque cantus Somnum reducent. 3

Do you fatal

think they can relish it"? and that the their journey being continually be-

end of

would not alter and deprave from tasting these regalios?

fore their eyes, their palate

Audit

iter,

numeratque

dies, spatioque

Metitur vitam; torquetur peste futura.

viarum

4.

The end of our race is death; 'tis the necessary if it fright us, how is

object of our aim, which, it

possible to advance a step without a

ague? on't;

The remedy the vulgar use is not to

the ass

Qui

1

by the

of

They must

bridle

is

to

come out of the urn. away.— Horace, Od.,

Ever, like Tantalus' stone,

Cicero,

De

Finib.,

i.

it

All ii.

must

3,

to

25.

hangs over us.—

18.

3

Sicilian dainties will not tickle their palates, nor

the

melody of birds or harps bring back sleep.—

Horace, Od., 4

iii.

do

it.

that this poor syllable death sounded so harshly to their ears, and seemed so ominous, found out a way to soften and spin it out by a periphrasis, and instead of pronouncing such a one is dead, said, "Such a one has lived," or "Such a one has ceased to live"; ° for, provided there was any mention of

the case, though past, it carried yet some sound of consolation. And from them it is that we have borrowed our expression, "The late Monsieur such and such a one." Peradventure, as the saying is, the term we have lived is worth our money. I was born betwixt eleven and twelve o'clock in the forenoon the last day of life in

February, 1533, according to our computation, beginning the year the 1st of January, and it is now but just fifteen days since I was complete nine-and-thirty years old; I make account to live, at least, as many more. In the mean time, to trouble a man's self with the thought of a thing so far off, were folly. But what? Young and old die upon the same terms; no one departs out of life otherwise than if he had but just before entered into it; neither is any man so old and decrepit, who, having heard of Methuselah, does not think he has yet twenty years good to come. Fool that thou art, who has assured unto thee the term of life? Thou dependest upon physicians' tales: rather consult effects

perience. According to the

the ordinary term of

We are all bound one voyage; the lot of all, soon-

eternal exile sail

to

common

and

ex-

course of

things, 'tis long since that thou hast lived by extraordinary favour; thou hast already outlived

tail.

capite ipse suo instituit vestigia retro, 5

er or later, 2

fit

think

but from what brutish stupidity can they

derive so gross a blindness?

is

The Romans, by reason

1,18.

life.

And

that

it is so,

reck-

on up thy acquaintance, how many more have died before they arrived at thy age than have attained unto it; and of those who have ennobled their lives by their renown, take but an account, and I dare lay a wager thou wilt find more who have died before than after five-andthirty years of age. It is full both of reason and piety too, to take example by the humanity of

He

considers the route, computes the time of travelling, measuring his life by the length of the

journey, and torments himself by thinking of the blow to come.— Claudian, in Ruf., ii. 137.

5

Who

in his folly seeks to advance backwards.

—Lucretius, iv. 474. 6 Plutarch, Cicero.

Montaigne

30

Jesus Christ Himself; now, He ended His life at three-and-thirty years. The greatest man, that

provided a

was no more than a man, Alexander, died also at the same age. How many several ways has

and if a man could by any means avoid it, though by creeping under a calf's skin, I am one that should not be ashamed of the shift; all I aim at is, to pass my time at my ease, and the

death to surprise us?

Quid quisque, Cautum est in

vitet,

nunquam

horas.

hotnini satis

1

omit fevers and pleurisies, who would ever have imagined that a duke of Brittany should be pressed to death in a crowd as that duke was, at the entry of Pope Clement, my neighbour, into Lyons? Hast thou not seen one of our kings killed at a tilting, and did not one of his ancestors die by the jostle of a hog? JEschylus, threatened with the fall of a house, was to much purpose circumspect to avoid that dan-

he was knocked on the head out of an eagle's talons in the air. Another was choked with a grapestone; an emperor killed with the scratch of a comb in combing his head. /Emilius Lepidus with a stumble at his own threshold, and Aufidius with a jostle against the door as he entered the coun-

does not terrify himself with

my part, I am of this mind,

recreations that will most contribute to

hold

To

man

the expectation? For

of, as little glorious

take

it, I

and exemplary

as

you

will.

Prsetulerim

.

.

.

delirus inersque videri,

Dum mea delectent mala me, Quam sapere,

et ringi.

vel denique fallant,

2

But 'tis folly to think of doing anything that way. They go, they come, they gallop and dance,

and not

a

word

but withal,

of death. All this

when

it

comes either

is

very fine:

to themselves,

ger, seeing that

their wives, their children, or friends, surpris-

by a

ing them at unawares and unprepared, then, what torment, what outcries, what madness and

tortoise falling

And

betwixt the very thighs of women, Cornelius Gallus the praetor; Tigillinus, captain of the watch at Rome; Ludovico, son of cil-chamber.

Guido di Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua; and (of worse example) Speusippus, a Platonic philosopher, and one of our Popes. The poor judge Bebius gave adjournment in a case for eight days, but he himself, meanwhile, was condemned

by death, and his own stay of life expired. Whilst Caius Julius, the physician, was anointing the eyes of a patient, death closed his own; and, if I may bring in an example of my own blood, a brother of mine, Captain St. Martin, a young man, three-and-twenty years old, who had already given sufficient testimony of his valour, playing a match at tennis, received a blow of a ball a little above his right ear, which, as it gave no manner of sign of wound or contusion, he took no notice of it, nor so much as

down

sat

to repose himself, but, nevertheless,

died within five or six hours after, of an apoplexy occasioned by that blow.

These

so frequent

how is it pos-

man

should disengage himself from the thought of death, or avoid fancying that it has us, every moment, by the throat? What matter is it,

1

you

Be

will say,

as cautious as

the danger that ace, Od.,

ii.

may

13, 13.

this brutish negligence,

could

it

possibly lodge

any man of sense (which I think utterly impossible), sells us its merchandise too dear. Were it an enemy that could be avoided, I would then advise to borrow arms even of cowardice itself; but seeing it is not, and that it will catch you as well flying and playing the poltroon, as standing to't like an honest man— in the brain of

Nempe et fugacem persequitur virum, Nee parch

imbellis juventae

Poplitibus timidoque tergo. 3

-and seeing that no temper of arms proof to secure usIlle licet ferro

of

is

cautus se condat, et sere, protrahet inde caput *

Mors tamen inclusum

—let us learn bravely to stand our ground, and fight him. And to begin to deprive him of the greatest advantage he has over us, let us take a way quite contrary to the common course. Let us disarm him of his novelty and strangeness, let us converse and be familiar with him, and

and common examples

passing every day before our eyes, sible a

Did you ever see anything so subdued, and so confounded? A man must, therefore, make more early provision for it; and

despair!

so changed,

which way

it

comes

to pass,

he may, man can never foresee at any hour befall him.— Hor-

2

1

had rather seem mad or

a sluggard, so that

defects are agreeable to myself, or that

I

am

my not

painfully conscious of them, than be wise and captious.— Idem, Epist., ii. 2, 126. 8 He pursues the flying poltroon, nor spares the

hamstrings of the unwarlike youth

who

turns his

back.— Ibid., iii. 2, 14. * Let him hide beneath iron or brass in his fear, death will pull his head out of his armour.— Propertius,

iii.

18.

:

Essays have nothing so frequent in our thoughts as Upon all occasions represent him to our imagination in his every shape; at the stumbling death.

of a horse, at the falling of a tile, at the least prick with a pin, let us presently consider, and

say to ourselves, "Well,

and what

if it

death itself?" and, thereupon, let us encourage fortify ourselves. Let us evermore, amidst

our our

jollity frail

and

remembrance of

feasting, set the

condition before our eyes, never suf-

fering ourselves to be so far transported with our delights, but that we have some intervals of reflecting upon, and considering how many several ways this jollity of ours tends to death, and with how many dangers it threatens it. The Egyptians were wont to do after this manner, who in the height of their feasting and mirth, caused a dried skeleton of a man to be brought into the

room

to serve for a

memento

to their

guests.

Omnem

crede diem tibi diluxisse

swpremum:

Grata swperveniet, quae non sperabitur, hora. 1

Where death waits for us is uncertain; let us look for him everywhere. The premeditation of death is the premeditation of liberty; he who has learned to die, has unlearned to serve. There is

nothing of

evil in life, for

him who

rightly

comprehends that the privation of life is no evil to know how to die, delivers us from all subjection and constraint. Paulus y^milius answered him whom the miserable King of Macedon, his prisoner, sent to entreat him that he would not lead

him

him make

in his triumph, "Let

request to himself."

In truth, in

all

that

2

things,

if

nature do not help

very hard for art and industry to perform anything to purpose. I am in my own a

little, it is

nature not melancholic, but meditative; and there is nothing I have more continually entertained myself withal than imaginations of death,

even in the most wanton time of

Jucundum quum

my age,

aetas florida ver

company of ladies, and

ageret*

games, some have perhaps thought me possessed with some jealousy, or the uncertainty of some hope, whilst I was entertaining myself with the remembrance of some one, surprised, a few days before, with a burning fever of which he died, returning In the

1

Think each. day, when

past,

is

day, as unexpected, will be the

at

thy

from an entertainment

last:

like this,

full of idle fancies of love

and

was then, and that, for aught destiny was attending me.

Jam

had been

and

3i

19

I.

nee post

fuerit,

unquam

I

with his head

mine

jollity, as

knew, the same

revocare

licebit.

i

Yet did not this thought wrinkle my forehead any more than any other. It is impossible but we must feel a sting in such imaginations as these, at first; but with often turning and returning them in one's mind, they, at last, become so familiar as to be no trouble at all; otherwise, I, for my part, should be in a perpetual fright and frenzy; for never man was so distrustful of his life, never man so uncertain as to its duration. Neither health, which I have hitherto ever enjoyed very strong and vigorous, and very seldom interrupted, does prolong, nor sickness contract my hopes. Every minute, methinks, I am escaping, and it eternally runs in my mind, that what may be done tomorrow, may be done to-day. Hazards and dangers do, in truth, little or nothing hasten our end; and if we consider how many thousands more remain and hang over our heads, besides the accident that immediately threatens us, we shall

sound and the sick, those that are and those that sit by the fire, those who are engaged in battle, and those who sit idle at home, are the one as near it as the other.

find that the

abroad

at sea,

Nemo altero fragilior est: nemo in crastinum sui 5

I have to do before I die, would appear too short, were but an hour's business I had to do. A friend of mine the other day turning over

certior.

For anything

the longest leisure it

my

found therein a memorandum of would have done after my decease, whereupon I told him, as it was really true, that though I was no more than a league's distance only from my own house, and merry and well, yet when that thing came into my head, I made haste to write it down there, because I was not certain to live till I came home. As a man that tablets,

something

am

I

my own thoughts, my own particular con-

eternally brooding over

and confine them cerns, I am am ever like

to

at all

hours as well prepared as

to be,

and death, whenever he

I

shall

come, can bring nothing along with him I did not expect long before. should always, as near as we can, be booted and spurred, and

We

the next

more welcome.—

Horace, Epist., i. 4, 13. 2 Plutarch, yEmilius Paulus. 3 When my florid age rejoiced in pleasant spring. —Catullus, lxviii.

* Presendy the present will have gone, never to be recalled.— Lucretius, iii. 928. 5 No man is more fragile than another: no man more certain than another of to-morrow.— Seneca,

Epist., 91.

Mont AIGNE

32

ready to go, and, above all things, take care, at that time, to have no business with any one but one's

self.

Quid

we

brevi fortes jaculamur aevo

work enough

shall there find

to do,

fourth, the conversation of his son, as the prin-

and concern of his being. For my am, thanks be to God, at this instant in

cipal comfort

am

ready to dislodge, whenever it shall please Him, without regret for anything whatsoever. I disengage myself throughout from all worldly relations; my leave is soon taken of all but myself. Never did any one prepare to bid adieu to the world more absolutely and unreservedly, and to shake hands with all manner of interest in it, than I expect to do. The deadest deaths are the best.

such a condition, that

Una

I

O miser, aiunt, omnia aclemit

Miser,

dies infesta

mihi

tot iprdemia vitae.

2

And the builder, Manent, says he, opera

Murorum

interrupta,

minaeque

ingentes?

A man must design nothing that will require so much time to the finishing, or, at least, with no such passionate desire to see it brought to perfection. are born to action.

We

Quum

moriar

medium

solvar et inter opus.

1

would always have a man to be doing, and, as as in him lies, to extend and spin out the offices of life; and then let death take me planting my cabbages, indifferent to him, and still less of my garden's not being finished. I saw one die, who, at his last gasp, complained of nothing so much as that destiny was about to cut the thread of a chronicle history he was then compiling, when he was gone no farther than I

much

1

Why, for so short a life, tease ourselves with many projects'?— Horace, Od., ii. 16, 17. 2

"Wretch

has deprived tius, iii. 911. 3

me

I

of so

many

When

fatal

and

to the end, that the con-

and funeral

mind

of our frail

obsequies should put us in condition.

Quin etiam

Mos

exhilarare viris convivia caede

olim, et miscere epulis spectacula dira

Certantum

super ipsa cadentum non parco sanguine mensis. 7

ferro, saepe et

Pocula, respersis

And

as the Egyptians after their feasts

wont

to present the

company with

were image them, "Drink a great

by one that cried out to and be merry, for such shalt thou be when thou art dead"; so it is my custom to have death not of death,

only in my imagination, but continually in my mouth. Neither is there anything of which I am so inquisitive, and delight to inform myself, as the manner of men's deaths, their words, looks, and bearing; nor any places in history I am so intent upon; and it is manifest enough, by my crowding in examples of this kind, that I have a particular fancy for that subject. If I were a writer of books, I would compile a register, with a comment, of the various deaths of men: he who should teach men to die, would at the same time teach them to live. Dicearchus made one, to which he gave that title; but it was designed for another and less profitable end. Peradventure, some one may object, that the pain and terror of dying so infinitely exceed all

manner of imagination,

that the best fencer will

be quite out of his play when it comes to the push. Let them say what they will: to premeditate is doubtless a

very great advantage; and

nothing to go so

far, at least, without disturbance or alteration? Moreover, Nature

besides,

6

is it

They do

not add, that dying,

we have no longer

a desire to possess things.— Lucretius,

joys of life."— Lucre-

"one

first

tinual spectacle of bones, graves,

7

cry,

men

sight of a corpse,

6

iii.

913.

Plutarch, Lycurgus. It

was formerly the custom to enliven banquets to combine with the repast the

with slaughter, and

unmade.— JEneid,

I shall die, let it

signed.— Ovid, Amor.,

so

this purpose it was appointed the places of sepulture adjoining the churches, and in the most frequented places of the city, to accustom, says 6 Lycurgus, the common people, women, and children, that they should not be startled at the

that

day

am," they

The works remain incomplete,

of the walls 4

that

earum

una. 6

and hurtful humours. To

without any need of addition. One man commore than of death, that he is thereby prevented of a glorious victory; another, that he must die before he has married his daughter, or educated his children; a third seems only troubled that he must lose the society of his wife; a

I

tibi

insidit

We are to discharge ourselves from these vulgar

x

plains,

part,

non addunt, nee

lllud in his rebus

Jam desiderium rerum super

Multa? for

the fifteenth or sixteenth of our kings.

ii.

iv.

the

tall

be doing that

10, 36.

pinnacles

88. I

had de-

men contending with the sword, the dying in many cases falling upon the cups, and covering the tables with blood.— Silius Italicus, xi.

dire spectacle of

5i-

Essays and encourages us: if the death be sudden and violent, we have not leisure to herself assists

fear; if otherwise, I perceive that as I

further in

my

disease,

certain loathing

I

engage

naturally enter into a

and disdain of life.

I

find

I

have

much more ado to digest this resolution of dying, when I am well in health, than when languishing of a fever; and by how much I have less to do with the commodities of life, by reason that I begin to lose the use and pleasure of them, by so much I look upon death with less terror. Which makes me hope, that the further I remove from the first, and the nearer I ap-

proach to the

latter, I shall

the

more

change the one for the other. And,

as

easily exI

and declinations we daily suffer, how nature deprives us of the light and sense of our bodily decay. What remains to an old man of the vigour of his youth and better days? 1 lieu! senibus vitae portio quanta manet.

an old weather-beaten soldier of his to ask him leave that he might kill himself, taking notice of his withered body and decrepit motion, pleasantly answered, "Thou fanciest, then, that thou art yet alive." Should a man fall into this condition on the sudden, I do not think humanity capable of enduring such a change: but nature, leading us by the hand, an easy and, as it were, an insensible pace step by step conducts us to that miserable state, and by that means makes it familiar Caesar, to

who came

to us, so that

we

when our youth

are insensible of the stroke

dies in us,

though

it

be really a

harder death than the final dissolution of a languishing body, than the death of old age; forasmuch as the fall is not so great from an un-

33

easy being to none at all, as it is from a sprightly and flourishing being to one that is troublesome

and painful. The body, bent and bowed, has support a burden; and it is the same with the soul, and therefore it is, that we are to raise her up firm and erect against the power less force to

it is impossible she should ever be at rest, whilst she stands in fear of it; so, if she once can assure herself, she may boast (which is a thing as it were surpassing human condition) that it is impossible

of this adversary. For, as

that disquiet, anxiety, or fear, or

1

Alas, to old

men how

small a portion of i.

life is

16.

dis-

her.

Now

vultus instantis tyranni

Mente

She

is

quatit solida,

neque Auster

Dux

inquieti turbidus Adriaz,

Nee

fulminantis

magna

Jovis

then become sovereign of

manus. 2

her lusts and

all

passions, mistress of necessity, shame, poverty,

and

the other injuries of fortune. Let us,

all

therefore, as tage;

'tis

many

of us as can, get this advan-

the true and sovereign liberty here on

earth, that fortifies us

wherewithal

to

defy vio-

lence and injustice, and to contemn prisons and chains.

In manicis et

Compedibus

saevo te sub custode tenebo.

Ipse Deus, simul atque volant,

Hoc

sentit; mortar;

me

solvet.

Opinor,

mors ultima linea rerum

est.

s

Our very religion itself has no surer human foundation than the contempt of death. Not only the argument of reason invites us to it— for why should we fear to lose a thing, which being lost cannot be lamented?— but, also, seeing we are threatened by so many sorts of death, is it not infinitely worse eternally to fear them all, than once to undergo one of them? And what matters it, when it shall happen, since it is

inevitable?

To him

that told Socrates,

"The

have sentenced thee to death"; "And nature them," said he. What a ridiculous thing it is to trouble ourselves about taking the only step that is to deliver us from all trouble! As our birth brought us the birth of all things, thirty tyrants

2

Not the menacing look of a tyrant shakes her well-setded soul, nor turbulent Auster, the prince of the stormy Adriatic, nor yet the strong hand of thundering Jove, such a temper moves.— Horace, Od., 3

iii.

3, 3.

keep thee in

and chains,

in custody ask him, set me free. This god I think is death. Death is the term of all things.— Horace, Epist., i. 16, 76. 1 will

of a surly keeper.—

left!— Maximian, or Pseudo-Gallus, Elegies,

any other

turbance, should inhabit or have any place in

have ex-

perienced in other occurrences, that, as Caesar says, things often appear greater to us at a distance than near at hand, I have found, that being well, I have had maladies in much greater horror than when really afflicted with them. The vigour wherein I now am, the cheerfulness and delight wherein I now live, make the contrary estate appear in so great a disproportion to my present condition, that, by imagination, I magnify those inconveniences by one-half, and apprehend them to be much more troublesome, than I find them really to be, when they lie the most heavy upon me; I hope to find death the same. Let us but observe in the ordinary changes

guards,

19

I.

fetters

A god will, when

I

Montaigne

34 so in our death

the death of

is

all

things includ-

And therefore to lament that we shall not be

ed.

hundred years hence, is the same folly we were not alive a hundred years ago. Death is the beginning of another life. So did we weep, and so much it cost us to enter into this, and so did we put off our former veil in entering into it. Nothing can be a grievance alive a as to

that

be sorry

is

but once.

Is it

reasonable so long to fear

a thing that will so soon be despatched?

Long

and short, are by death made all one; for there is no long, nor short, to things that are no life,

us that there are certain little beasts upon the banks of the river Hypanis, that never live above a day: they which die at eight of the clock in the morning, die in their youth, and those that die at five in the evening, in their decrepitude: which of us would not laugh to see this moment of continuance put into the consideration of weal or woe? The most and the least, of ours, in comparison with eternity, or yet with the duration of mountains, riv-

more. Aristotle

ers, stars, trees,

and even of some animals,

is

no

passion or fear, the same, after the same manner, repeat from life to death. Your death is a part of the order of the universe,

'tis

a part of

the world.

you

live,

you purloin from

live at the

when you

are

no more

alive; or, if

you had

you are dead after life, but dying all the while you live; and death handles the dying much more rudely than the dead, rather have

it

so,

and more sensibly and

made your of

go your

it;

you have you have had enough

essentially. If

profit of life,

way

satisfied.

Cur non ut plenusvitcs conviva

recedis?

*

you have not known how to make the best it, if it was unprofitable to you, what need you care to lose it, to what end would you desire longer to keep it? "If

use of

Cur amplius addere quaeris, Rursum quod pereat male, et ingratum occidat omne? 5 "Life in

itself is

neither good nor

evil; it is

the

you make it. And, if you have lived a day, you have seen all: one day is equal and like to all other days. There is no other light, no other shade; this very sun, this moon, these very stars, this very order and disposition of things, is the same your ancestors enjoyed, and that shall also entertain your posscene of good or

But nature compels us to it. "Go out of this world/' says she, "as you entered into it; the same pass you made from death to life, without

life of

and

expense of life itself. The perpetual work of your life is but to lay the foundation of death. You are in death, whilst you are in life, because you still are after death,

tells

less ridiculous.

the

"All the whole time life,

evil, as

terity.

Inter se mortales

Non alium videre patres, aliumve neyotes

mutua vivunt

Aspicient.

lambada tradunt. 1

Et, quasi cursores, vital

"Shall

I

exchange for you

this beautiful con-

texture of things? 'Tis the condition of your is a part of you, and whilst you endeavour to evade it, you evade yourselves. This very being of yours that you now enjoy

creation; death

is

life and death. The one day's advance towards

equally divided betwixt

day of your birth

is

"And, come the worst that can come, the distribution and variety of all the acts of my comedy are performed in a year. If you have observed the revolution of my four seasons, they comprehend the infancy, the youth, the virility, and the old age of the world: the year has played his part, and knows no other art but to begin again; it will always be the same thing. Versamur ibidem, atque insumus usque. 7

the grave.

Atque

8 in se sua per vestigia volvitur annus.

Prima, quae vitam dedit, hora carpsit. 2

Nascentes morimur, finisque ah origine pendet*

Why

* not depart from life, as a sated guest from a feast?— Lucretius, iii. 951. 5 seek to add longer life, merely to renew ill-spent time, and be again tormented?— Ibid., iii.

Why

1

by turns, and, like the runners in the games, give up the lamp, when they have won the race, to the next comer.— Mortals, amongst themselves, live

Lucretius, 2

The

ii.

first

76, 79. hour that gave us

an hour.— Seneca, Her.

Fur.,

life,

took

away

also

874. 3 As we are born, we die, and the end commences with the beginning.— Manilius, Ast., iv. 16. iii.

914. 6

Your grandsires saw no other things; nor will your posterity.— Manilius, i. 522. 7 We are even turning in the same circle, ever therein confined.— Lucretius, iii. 1093. 8 The year is even turning round in the same footsteps.—Virgil, Georg.,

ii.

402.

:

Essays am not prepared

"I

to create for

you any new

35

Respice enim,

Temforis

recreations.

eadem sunt omnia semper. 1 others, as others have given

nihil est;

"Give place to

place to you. Equality

is

Who

the soul of equity.

can complain of being comprehended in the same destiny, wherein all are involved? Besides, live as long as you can, you shall by that nothing shorten the space you are to be dead; 'tis all to no purpose; you shall be every whit as long in the condition you so much fear, as if you had died at nurse. Licet quot vis vivendo vincere secla, aeterna

tamen nihilominus

ilia

manebit. 2

as

yet

you

I

shall

will place

you in such

have no reason

to

te,

perem ptum

/

/

)

Stansque jacentem. 3

"Nor

shall

are so

Nee

you

so

much

as

wish for the

life

you

concerned about.

enim quisquam

sibi

7

ends,

utility of living consists

it is all

days, but in the use of time; a lived long,

and yet

of time while

upon your

The

there.

not in the length of

lived but a

man may have Make use

little.

present with you. It depends and not upon the number of

it is

will,

days, to have a sufficient length of

life. Is it

pos-

you can imagine never to arrive at the place towards which you are continually going? and yet there is no journey but hath its end. And, if company will make it more pleasant or more easy to you, does not all the world go the self-same way? sible

te,

vita yerfuncta, sequentur. 8

"Does not all the world dance the same brawl that you do? Is there anything that does not grow old, as well as you? A thousand men, a thousand animals, a thousand other creatures, die at the same moment that you die

be displeased.

yossit vivus tibi te lugere

life

ad nos anteacta vetustas

a condition

In vera nescis nullum fore morte alium

Qui

nil

aeterni fuerit.

Omnia

"And

quam

"Wherever your

Nam tibi yraeterea quod machinery inveniamque Quod ylaceat,

Mors

19

I.

turn se vitamque requirit.*

1

Nam nox nulla diem, neque noctem aurora sequuta est, Quae non audierit mistos vagitibus

aegris

Ploratus, mortis comites et funeris atri. 9

Nee desiderium "Death

nostri nos afficit ullum.

5

be feared than nothing, there could be anything less than nothing. is less

to

"To what end should you endeavour if

Multo mortem minus ad nos esse putandum, Si minus esse potest, quam quod nihil esse vide.

.

.

mus. 6

"Neither can it any way concern you, whether you are living or dead: living, by reason that you are still in being; dead, because you are no more. Moreover, no one dies before his hour: the time you leave behind was no more yours, than that was lapsed and gone before you came into the world; nor does it any more concern you.

1

1

you:

can devise, nor find anything 'tis

else to please the same thing over and over again.— Lu-

cretius,

iii. 957. Live triumphing over as many ages as you will, death still will remain eternal.— Ibid., 1 103. 3 Know you not that, when dead, there can be no other living self to lament you dead, standing on your grave.— Ibid., 898. 4 No one then troubles himself about himself, or about life.— Ibid., 932. 5 Nor has any regret about himself.— Ibid., 935. Death would seem much less to us— if indeed there could be less in that which we see to be noth2

ing.-lbid., 939.

back,

if

there be

no

possibility to

evade

to

draw you

it?

have seen examples enough of those who have been well pleased to die, as thereby delivered from heavy miseries; but have you ever found any who have been dissatisfied with dying? It must, therefore, needs be very foolish to condemn a thing you have neither experimented in your own person, nor by that of any other. Why dost thou complain of me and of destiny? Do we do thee any wrong? Is it for thee to govern us, or for us to govern thee? Though, peradventure, thy age may not be accomplished, yet thy life is: a man of low stature is as much a man as a giant; neither men nor their lives are measured by the ell. Chiron refused to be immortal, when he was acquainted with the conditions under which he was to enjoy it, by the god of time itself and its duration, his father Saturn. Do but seriously consider

able

how much more

and painful an immortal

life

insupport-

would be

to

7

Consider, how as nothing to us is the old age of times past.— Ibid., 985. 8 All things, then, life over, must follow thee.— Ibid.,

981.

No night has followed day, no day has followed night, in

which there has not been heard sobs and cries, the companions of death and fu-

sorrowing

nerals.— Ibid., v. 579.

Montaigne

36

than what I have already given him. If you had not death, you would eternally curse me for having deprived you of it; I have mixed a little bitterness with it, to the end, that seeing of what convenience it is, you might not too

man

and indiscreetly seek and embrace it: and that you might be so established in this moderation, as neither to nauseate life, nor have an antipathy for dying, which I have decreed you shall once do, I have tempered the one and the other betwixt pleasure and pain. It was I that taught Thales, the most eminent of your sages, that to live and to die were indifferent; which made him, very wisely, answer him, Why then he did not die?' 'Because/ said he, 'it is indifferent.' Water, earth, air, and fire, and the other parts of this creation of mine, are no more instruments of thy life than they are of greedily

thy death.

Why

dost thou fear thy last day?

more

contributes no

to

it

thy dissolution, than

every one of the rest: the last step is not the cause of lassitude: it does but confess it. Every

day

travels towards death

:

the last only arrives

These are the good lessons our mother Nature teaches. I have often considered with myself whence it should proceed, that in war the image of death, whether we look upon it in ourselves or

at it."

in others, should, without comparison, appear less

(for

dreadful than at home in our own houses if it were not so, it would be an army of

doctors still

and whining milksops), and that being

in all places the same, there should be, not-

withstanding,

much more

assurance in peasants

and the meaner

sort of people,

better quality.

believe, in truth, that

I

than in others of it is

those

ceremonies and preparations wherewith it out, that more terrify us than the thing

terrible

we set

new, quite contrary way of living; the cries of mothers, wives, and children; the visits of astounded and afflicted friends; the attendance of pale and blubbering servants; a dark room, set round with burning tapers; our beds environed with physicians and divines; in sum, nothing but ghostliness and horror round about us; we seem dead and buried already. Children are afraid even of those they are best acquainted with, when disguised in a visor; and so 'tis with us; the visor must be removed as well from things as from persons; that being taken away, we shall find nothing underneath but the very same death that a mean servant, or a poor chambermaid, died a day or two ago, without any itself;

a

manner

of apprehension.

that leaves us all this

no

foppery.

Happy

is

xx.

Of the

force of imagination

"Fortis imaginatio generat casum,"

1

say the

schoolmen.

am

one of those who are most sensible of of imagination: every one is jostled by it, but some are overthrown by it. It has a very piercing impression upon me; and I make it my business to avoid, wanting force to resist it. I could live by the sole help of healthful and jolly company: the very sight of another's pain materially pains me, and I often usurp the sensations of another person. A perpetual cough in another tickles my lungs and throat. I more unwillingly visit the sick in whom by love and duty I am interested, than those I care not for, I

the

to

power

whom

disease

I

I less

look.

I

take possession of the

am concerned at, and

take

it

to myself.

do not at all wonder that fancy should give fevers and sometimes kill such as allow it too much scope, and are too willing to entertain it. I

Simon Thomas was

a great physician of his

remember, that happening one day at Toulouse to meet him at a rich old fellow's house, who was troubled with weak lungs, and discoursing with his patient about the method of his cure, he told him, that one thing which would be very conducive to it, was to give me such occasion to be pleased with his company, that I might come often to see him, by which means, and by fixing his eyes upon the freshness of my complexion, and his imagination upon the sprightliness and vigour that glowed in my youth, and possessing all his senses with the flourishing age wherein I then was, his habit of body might, peradventure, be amended; but he forgot to say that mine, at the same time, might time:

I

be made worse. Gallus Vibius so long cudgelled his brains to find out the essence and motions of madness, that, in the end, he himself went out of his wits, and to such a degree, that he could never after recover his judgment; and might brag that he was become a fool by too much wisdom. Some there are who through fear antici-

was the man, whose eyes being unbound to have his pardon read to him, was found stark dead upon the scaffold, by the stroke of imagination. We start, tremble, turn pale, and blush, as we are variously moved by imagination; and, being a-bed, feel our bodies agitated with its power to that pate the hangman; and there

degree, as even sometimes to expiring.

ing youth,

when

fast asleep,

And boilwarm

grows so

the death

leisure to prepare things for

1

A

strong imagination begets the event

Axiom. Scholast.

itself.

Essays with fancy, as in a dream to satisfy amorous desires:

17 t, quasi transactis s&pe omnibu rebu'profundant 1 Vluminis ingentes fluctus, vestemque cruentent.

Although it be no new thing to see horns grown in a night on the forehead of one that had none when he went to bed, notwithstanding, what befell Cippus, King of Italy, is memorable; who having one day been a very delighted spectator of a bull-fight, and having all the night dreamed that he had horns on his head, did, by the force of imagination, really cause them to grow there. Passion gave to the son of 2 Croesus the voice which nature had denied him. inflamed with imprinted deeply too Stratonice, of beauty the in his soul. Pliny pretends to have seen Lucius Cossitius, who from a woman was turned into

And Antiochus

fell into a fever,

man upon her very wedding-day. Pontanus and others report the like metamorphosis to have happened in these latter days in Italy. And, through the vehement desire of him and his a

mother, Vota fuer

solvit,

quae jozmina voverat, Iphis.

3

Myself passing by Vitry le Francois, saw a the Bishop of Soissons had, in confirmation, called Germain, whom all the inhabitants of the place had known to be a girl till two-andtwenty years of age, called Mary. He was, at the time of my being there, very full of beard, old, and not married. He told us, that by straining himself in a leap his male instruments came out; and the girls of that place have, to this day, a song, wherein they advise one another not to take too great strides, for fear of being turned into men, as Mary Germain was. It is no wonder if this sort of accident frequently happen; for if imagination have any power in such things, it is so continually and vigorously bent

man

upon

this subject, that to the

end

it

may

not so

often relapse into the same thought and vio-

lence of desire, it were better, once for

all,

to give

young wenches the things they long for. Some attribute the scars of King Dagobert and of St. Francis to the force of imagination. It is said, that by it bodies will sometimes be removed from their places; and Celsus tells us of these

1

with

all

they

pom

and 2

So

that, as

it

Herodotus,

i.

Lucretius,

breathing.

Tis very probable, ments, and

iv.

1029.

85.

3 Iphis, become a boy, paid the gifts which, as woman, he had promised.— Ovid, Met., ix. 793.

a

all

that visions, enchant-

extraordinary effects of that na-

from the working and making its chief est impression upon vulgar and more easy souls, whose belief is so strangely imposed upon, as to think they see what they do not see. I am not satisfied whether those pleasant liga5 tures with which this age of ours is so occupied that there is almost no other talk, are not mere voluntary impressions of apprehension and fear; for I know, by experience, in the case of a particular friend of mine, one for whom I can be as responsible as for myself, and a man that cannot possibly fall under any manner of suspicion of insufficiency, and as little of being enchanted who having heard a companion of his make a relation of an unusual frigidity that surprised ture, derive their credit principally

power

of imagination,

him

at a very unseasonable time; being afterwards himself engaged upon the same account, the horror of the former story on a sudden so strangely possessed his imagination, that he ran the same fortune the other had done; and from that time forward, the scurvy remembrance of his disaster running in his mind and tyrannising over him, he was subject to relapse into the same misfortune. He found some remedy, however, for this fancy in another fancy, by himself frankly confessing and declaring beforehand to the party with whom he was to have to do, this subjection of his, by which means, the agitation of his soul was, in some sort, appeased; and knowing that, now, some such misbehaviour was expected from him, the restraint upon

Restitutus; City of God, Bk. xiv. 24. Les nouements d' aiguillettes, as they were called, knots tied by some one, at a wedding, on a strip of leather, cotton, or silk, and which, especially when Eassed through the wedding-ring, were supposed to ave the magical effect of preventing a consummation of the marriage, until they were untied. 5

the billows of a potent stream

37

whose soul would be ravished into such an ecstasy that the body would, for a long time, remain without sense or respiration. St. Augus4 tine makes mention of another, who, upon the hearing of any lamentable or doleful cries, would presently fall into a swoon, and be so far out of himself, that it was in vain to call, bawl in his ears, pinch or burn him, till he voluntarily came to himself; and then he would say, that he had heard voices as it were afar off, and did feel when they pinched and burned him; and to prove that this was no obstinate dissimulation in defiance of his sense of feeling, it was manifest, that all the while he had neither pulse nor

a priest

4

were

the matter acted duly out,

stain their garment.

20

I.

.

Montaigne

38 his faculties

grew

less.

And

afterwards, at such

times as he was in no such apprehension, when setting about the act (his thoughts being then disengaged and free, and his body in its true

and natural estate) he was

at leisure to

cause

communicated to the other party, he was totally

the part to be handled and the knowledge of

freed from that vexatious infirmity. After a

woman

he

man

never after in danger of misbehaving himself with that person, unless upon the account of some excusable weakness. Neither is this disaster to be feared, but in adventures where the soul is over-extended with desire or respect, and, especially, where the opportunity is of an unforeseen and pressing nature; in those cases, there is no means for a man to defend himself from such a surprise, as shall put him altogether out of sorts. I have known some, who have secured themselves from this mischance, by coming half sated elsewhere, purposely to abate the ardour of the fury, and others, who, being grown old, find themselves less impotent by being less able; and one, who found an advantage in being assured by a friend of his, that he had a counter-charm has once done a

of enchantments that this disgrace.

The

right,

is

would secure him from

story itself

is

not

much amiss,

and therefore you

shall have it. count of a very great family, and with whom I was very intimate, being married to a fair lady, who had formerly been courted by one who was at the wedding, all his friends were in very great fear; but especially an old

A

lady his kinswoman,

who had

the ordering of

the solemnity, and in whose house

it

was

kept,

suspecting his rival would offer foul play by these sorceries.

Which

fear she

communicated

bade her rely upon me: I had, by chance, about me a certain flat plate of gold, whereon were graven some celestial figures, supposed good against sunstroke or pains in the head, being applied to the suture; where, that it might the better remain firm, it was sewed to a ribbon to be tied under the chin; a foppery cousin-german to this of which I am speaking. Jaques Pelletier, who lived in my house, had to

me.

I

presented this to me for a singular rarity. I had a fancy to make some use of this knack, and therefore privately told the count, that he might possibly run the same fortune other bridegrooms had sometimes done, especially some one being in the house, who, no doubt, would be glad to do him such a courtesy: but let him boldly go to bed. For I would do him the office of a friend, and, if need were, would not spare a miracle it was in my power to do, provided he would en-

gage to me, upon his honour, to keep it to himself; and only, when they came to bring him his caudle, if matters had not gone well with him, to give me such a sign, and leave the rest to

me.

Now he had had his ears so battered, and

mind

with the eternal tattle to't, he did really find himself tied with the trouble of his imagination, and, accordingly, at the time appointed, gave me the sign. Whereupon, I whispered him in the ear, that he should rise, und^r pretence of putting us out of the room, and after a jesting manner pull my nightgown from my shoulders— we were of much about the same height— throw it over his own, and there keep it till he had performed what I had appointed him to do, which was, that when we were all gone out of the chamber he should withdraw to make water, should three times repeat such and such words, and as often do such and such his

so prepossessed

of this business, that

when he came

actions; that at every of the three times,

he

should tie the ribbon I put into his hand about his middle, and be sure to place the medal that

was fastened to it, the figures in such a posture, exactly upon his reins, which being done, and having the last of the three times so well girt and fast tied the ribbon that it could neither untie nor slip from its place, let him confidently return to his business, to spread

and withal not forget

my gown upon

might be sure

to cover

the bed, so that

them both. These

it

ape's

tricks are the main of the effect, our fancy being so far seduced as to believe that such strange means must, of necessity, proceed from some

abstruse science

:

their very inanity gives

them

weight and reverence. And, certain it is, that my figures approved themselves more venerian than solar, more active than prohibitive. 'Twas a sudden whimsey, mixed with a little curiosity, that made me do a thing so contrary to my nature; for I am an enemy to all subtle and counterfeit actions, and abominate all manner of trickery, though it be for sport, and to an advantage; for though the action may not be vicious in

itself, its

mode

is

vicious. 1

Amasis, King of Egypt, having married Laodice, a very beautiful Greek virgin, though noted for his abilities elsewhere, found himself quite another man with his wife, and could by no means enjoy her; at which he was so enraged, that he threatened to kill her, suspecting her to be a witch. As 'tis usual in things that consist in fancy, she put him upon devotion, and having, accordingly, made his vows to Ve1

Herodotus,

ii.

J

81

Essays

20

I.

39

nus, he found himself divinely restored the very first night after his oblations and sacrifices. women are to blame to entertain us with that

whole world against him, by malevolently charg-

disdainful, coy,

and angry countenance, which vigour, as it kindles our deour extinguishes sire; which made the daughter-in-law of Py-

part of our bodies that does not often refuse to

thagoras say, "That the

perform its office at the precept of the will, and that does not often exercise its function in defiance of her command. They have every one of

Now

to a

woman who goes to bed

her modesty with her man, must put and put it on again with the same." off

petticoat,

The soul of the assailant, being disturbed with many several alarms, readily loses the power of performance; and whoever the imagination has once put this trick upon, and confounded with the shame of it (and she never does it but at the first acquaintance, by reason men are then more ardent and eager, and also, at this first account

he is much more timorous of miscarrying), having made an ill beginning, he enters into such fever and despite at the accident, as are apt to remain and continue a

man

gives of himself,

with him upon following occasions. Married people, having all their time before them, ought never to compel or so much as to offer at the feat, if they do not find themselves quite ready:

and

it is

less

unseemly

to fail of

handselling the nuptial sheets, when a man perceives himself full of agitation and trembling,

and to await another opportunity at more private and more composed leisure, than to make himself perpetually miserable, for having misbehaved himself and been baffled at the first assault. Till possession be taken, a man, that knows

ing let

him alone, with their common offence. For any one consider, whether there is any one

them passions of their own, that rouse and awaken, stupefy and benumb them, without our leave or consent. How often do the involuntary motions of the countenance discover our inward thoughts, and betray our most private secrets to the bystanders. The same cause that animates this member does also, without our knowledge, animate the lungs, pulse, and heart, the sight of a pleasing object imperceptibly diffusing a all our parts, with a feverish monothing but these veins and muscles that swell and flag without the consent, not only of the will, but even of our knowledge alsor do not command our hairs to stand on end, nor our skin to shiver either with fear or desire; the hands often convey themselves to parts to which we do not direct them; the tongue will be interdict, and the voice congealed, when we know not how to help it. When we have noth-

flame through tion. Is there

We

ing to eat, and would willingly forbid

it,

appetite does not, for

stir

all that,

forbear to

the

up

no more nor less than the other appetite we were speaking of, and in like manner, as unseasonably leaves us, the parts that are subject to

it,

without obstinately attempting, at once, to force an absolute conquest over his own mutinous and indisposed faculties. Such as know their members to be naturally obedient, need take no other care but only to counterplot

it thinks fit. The vessels that serve to discharge the belly have their own proper dilatations and compressions, without and beyond our concurrence, as well as those which are destined to purge the reins; and that which, to justify the 1 prerogative of the will, St. Augustine urges, of having seen a man who could command his rear to discharge as of ten together as he pleased,

their fantasies.

Vives, his commentator, yet further fortifies

himself subject to this infirmity, should leisurely

and by degrees make

and

several little trials

light offers,

The

indocile liberty of this

member

is

very

remarkable, so importunately unruly in its tumidity and impatience, when we do not require it,

and

so unseasonably disobedient

stand most in need of

it

when we

so imperiously contest-

:

ing in authority with the will, and with so much haughty obstinacy denying all solicitation, both of hand and mind. And yet, though his rebellion is so universally complained of, and that proof is thence deduced to condemn him, if he

had, nevertheless, feed

me

to

plead his cause,

I

should, peradventure, bring the rest of his fel-

low-members into suspicion of complotting

this

mischief against him, out of pure envy at the

importance and pleasure especial to his employment: and to have, by confederacy, armed the

when

with another example in his time, of one that could break wind in tune; but these cases do not suppose any more pure obedience in that part; for is anything commonly more tumultuary or indiscreet? To which let me add, that I myself knew one so rude and ungoverned, as for forty years together made his master vent with one continued and unintermitted outbursting, and 'tis like will do so till he die of it. And I could heartily wish that I only knew by reading how often a man's belly, by the denial of one single puff, brings him to the very door of an exceeding painful death; and that the emperor, who gave liberty to let fly in all places, had at the 1

City of God, xiv. 24.

Montaigne

4°

same time given us power to do it. But for our will, in whose behalf we prefer this accusation, with how much greater probability may we reproach herself with mutiny and sedition, for her irregularity and disobedience? Does she always will what we would have her to do? Does she not often will what we forbid her to will, and that to our manifest prejudice? Does she suffer herself, more than any of the rest, to be governed and directed by the results of our reason? To conclude, I should move, in the behalf of the gentleman, my client, it might be considered, that in this fact, his cause being inseparably and indistinctly conjoined with an accessory, yet he only is called in question, and

by arguments and accusations which canupon the other; whose business, indeed, it is sometimes inopportunely to invite, but never to refuse, and invite, moreover, after a tacit and quiet manner; and therefore is the malice and injustice of his accusers most manifestly apparent. But be it how it will, protesting against the proceedings of the advocates and judges, Nature will, in the meantime, proceed after her own way, who had done but well had she endowed this member with some particular privilege; the author of the sole immortal work that

not be charged

of mortals; a divine work, according to Socrates;

and love, the desire of immortality, and himself an immortal demon. Some one, perhaps, by such an effect of imagination may have had the good luck to leave behind him here, the scrofula, which his companion who has come after, has carried with him into Spain. And 'tis for this reason you may

why men in such cases require a mind prepared for the thing that is to be done. Why do the physicians possess, beforehand, their patients' credulity with so many false promises of cure, if not to the end, that the effect of imagination may supply the imposture of their decoctions? They know very well that a great master of their trade has given it under his hand, that he has known some with whom the very sight of physic would work. All which conceits come see

now story

of

my

head by the remembrance of a that was told me by a domestic apothecary

into

my father's, a blunt Swiss,

a nation not much

addicted to vanity and lying, of a merchant he had long known at Toulouse, who being a valetudinary, and much afflicted with the stone,

had often occasion

to take clysters, of

like,

commodated

as if he had really received a clyshe found the same operation and effect that those do who have taken one, indeed; and if at any time the physician did not find the operation sufficient, he would usually give him two or three more doses, after the same manner. And the fellow swore, that to save charges (for he paid as if he had really taken them) this sick man's wife, having sometimes made trial of warm water only, the effect discovered the cheat, and finding these would do no good, was fain to return to the old way. A woman fancying she had swallowed a pin in a piece of bread, cried and lamented as though she had an intolerable pain in her throat, where she thought she felt it stick; but an ingenious fellow that was brought to her, seeing no outward tumour nor alteration, supposing it to be only a conceit taken at some crust of bread that had hurt her as it went down, caused her to vomit, and, unseen, threw a crooked pin into the basin, which the woman no sooner saw, but believing she had cast it up, she presently found herself eased of her pain. I myself knewa gentleman, who having treated a large company at his house, three or four days after bragged in jest (for there was no such thing), that he had made them eat of a baked cat; at which a young gentlewoman, who had been at the feast, took such a horror, that falling into a violent vomiting and fever, there was no poster,

sible means to save her. Even brute beasts are subject to the force of imagination as well as we;

witness dogs,

who

their masters;

and bark and tremble and start so horses will kick and whinny

in their sleep;

die of grief for the loss of

in their sleep.

Now affinity

all this

and

may be

attributed to the close

'tis

and the

relation betwixt the soul

body intercommunicating quite another thing

their fortunes; but

when the imagination own particular body,

works not only upon one's

And as an

but upon that of others

also.

body communicates

malady

proach or live near

its it,

as

we

infected

to those that ap-

see in the plague,

and sore eyes, that run through whole families and cities— the smallpox,

which he

caused several sorts to be prescribed him by the physicians, according to the accidents of his disease: which, being brought him, and none of the usual forms, as feeling if it were not too

and the

being omitted, he lay down, and all ceremonies performed, injection alone excepted; after which, the apothecary being gone, and the patient achot,

the syringe advanced,

Dum spectant oculi lassos, Multaque 1

When we

own

eyes

laeduntur et

iysi;

cor-poribus transitione nocent

1

look at people with sore eyes, our sore. Many things are hurtful to

become

:

Essays —so the imagination, being vehemently

agitat-

ed, darts out infection capable of offending the

foreign object. certain

women

The

ancients

had an opinion of

of Scythia, that being animated

and enraged against any one, they killed him only with their looks. Tortoises and ostriches hatch their eggs with only looking on them, which infers, that their eyes have in them some ejaculative virtue. said to

And

the eyes of witches are

be assailant and hurtful

1 Nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos.

Magicians are no very good authority with me. But we experimentally see that women impart the marks of their fancy to the children they carry in the womb; witness her that was brought to bed of a Moor; and there was presented to Charles, the Emperor, and King of Bohemia, a girl from about Pisa, all over rough and covered with hair, whom her mother said to be so conceived by reason of a picture of St. John the Baptist that hung within the curtains of her bed. It is the same with beasts; witness Jacob's

and the hares and partridges that the snow turns white upon the mountains. There was at my house, a little while ago, a cat seen watching a bird upon the top of a tree: these, for some time, mutually fixing their eyes one upon another, the bird at last let herself fall dead into the cat's claws, either dazzled by the force of its own imagination, or drawn by some attractive power of the cat. Such as are addicted to the pleasures of the field have, I make no sheep,

question, heard the story of the falconer,

who

having earnestly fixed his eyes upon a kite in the air, laid a wager that he would bring her down with the sole power of his sight, and did so, as it was said, for the tales I borrow I charge upon the consciences of those from whom I have them. The discourses are my own, and found themselves upon the proofs of reason, not of which every one has liberty to add his own examples; and who has none, let him not forbear, the number and varieties of accidents considered, to believe that there are plenty of them: if I do not apply them well, let some other do it for me. And, also, in the subexperience; to

which I treat, our manners and motions, testimonies and instances, how fabulous soever,

ject of

provided they are possible, serve as well as the true; whether they have really happened or no, our bodies by this sort of transition.— Ovid, Rem. Amor., 615. 1 Some eye, I know not whose, is bewitching tender lambs.— Virgil, Eclog., iii. 103.

De

my

20

I.

41

Rome or Paris, to John or Peter, 'tis still within the verge of human capacity, which serves me to good use. I see, and make my advantage at

it, as well in shadow as in substance; and amongst the various readings thereof in history, I cull out the most rare and memorable to fit my own turn. There are authors whose only end and design it is, to give an account of things that have happened; mine, if I could arrive unto it, should be to deliver of what may happen. There is a just liberty allowed in the schools, of supposing similitudes, when they have none at hand. I do not, however, make any use of that privilege, and as to that matter, in superstitious

of

religion, surpass all historical authority. In the

examples which

I

in, of what I have have forbidden myeven the most light and in-

here bring

heard, read, done, or said, self to

dare to alter

different circumstances falsify

one

tittle;

what

I

my conscience does not my ignorance may do, I :

cannot say. in

And this it is that makes me sometimes doubt my own mind, whether a divine, or a philoso-

pher, and such

men

of exact

and tender pru-

dence and conscience, are fit to write history: for how can they stake their reputation upon a popular faith? how be responsible for the opinions of men they do not know? and with what assurance deliver their conjectures for current

pay? Of actions performed before their own eyes, wherein several persons were actors, they would be unwilling to give evidence upon oath before a judge; and there is

no man,

so familiarly known

them, for whose intentions they would become absolute caution. For my part, I think it less hazardous to write of things past, than present, by how much the writer is only to give an account of things every one knows he must of necessity borrow upon trust. to

I

am

time,

solicited to write the affairs of

by some who fancy

I

look

my own

upon them with

an eye less blinded with passion than another, and have a clearer insight into them by reason of the free access fortune has given

me

to the

heads of various factions; but they do not con sider, that to purchase the glory of Sallust, J would not give myself the trouble, sworn enemy as I

am to obligation,

that there

is

assiduity, or perseverance:

nothing so contrary

a continued narrative,

I

to

my

style as

so often interrupt,

and

cut myself short in my writing for want of breath; I have neither composition nor explanation worth anything, and am ignorant, beyond a child, of the phrases and even the very words proper to express the most common things; and for that reason it is, that I have undertaken to

Montaigne

42

and have accommodated should I take one to

invented the story of a country-woman who, having accustomed herself to play with and

I should not be able keep pace with him; and in the freedom of my liberty, might deliver judgments, which upon

carry a young calf in her arms, and daily continuing to do so as it grew up, obtained this by custom, that, when grown to be a great ox, she

say only

what I can

say,

my subject to my strength: be my guide, peradventure to

better thoughts, and according to reason, would be illegitimate and punishable. Plutarch would tell us, of what he has delivered to us, that it is the work of others: that his examples are all and everywhere exactly true that they are useful to posterity, and are presented with a lustre that will light us the way to virtue, is his own work. It is not of so dangerous consequence, as in a medicinal drug, whether an old story be so :

or no.

xxi.

That the

profit of one

man

whose trade

it

was

the

of his

to sell the necessaries

upon pretence that he demanded unreasonable profit, and that that profit could not accrue to him but by the death of a great number of people. A judgment that appears to be ill grounded, forasmuch as no profit whatever can possibly be made but at the for funeral ceremonies,

expense of another, and that by the same rule he should condemn all gain of what kind soever. The merchant only thrives by the debauchery of youth; the

husbandman by the dearness

of

by the ruin of buildings; lawyers, and officers of justice, by the suits and contentions of men; nay, even the honour and office of divines are derived from our death and vices. A physician takes no pleasure in the health even of his friends, says the ancient Greek comic grain; the architect

writer, nor a soldier in the peace of his country, so of the rest. And, which is yet worse, let every one but dive into his own bosom, and he will find his private wishes spring and his secret

and

hopes grow up at another's expense.

Upon which

my

head, that Nature does not in this swerve from her general polity; for physicians hold, that the birth, nour-

consideration

it

comes into

ishment, and increase of everything lution and corruption of another:

Nam

quodcumque

suis

Continue* hoc mors est

is

it. For, in truth, custom is and treacherous schoolmistress. She, by little and little, slily and unperceived, slips in the foot of her authority, but having by this gentle and humble beginning, with the benefit of time, fixed and established it, she then unmasks a furious and tyrannic countenance, against which we have no more the courage or the power so much as to lift up our eyes. We see her, at every turn, forcing and violating the rules of nature Usus efficacissimus rerum om-

still

the disso-

mutatum finibus exit, quod fuit ante. 1

illius,

nium

Of custom, and that we should not EASILY CHANGE A LAW RECEIVED He seems to me to have had a right and true

xxii.

who

first

his

magister.

stomach

to that pass, as to live

its

own

confines passes

by poison, and

the maid that Albertus reports to have lived up-

on

spiders. In that

new world

of the Indies,

and in very differing climates, who were of the same diet, made provision of them, and fed them for their tables; as also, they did grasshoppers, mice, lizards, and bats; and in a time of scarcity of such delicacies, a toad was sold for six crowns, all which they cook, and dish up with several sauces. There were also others found, to whom our diet, and the flesh we eat, were venomous and mortal. there were found great nations,

Consuetudinis magna vis est: pernoctant venatores in nive: in montibus uri se patiuntur: pu3 giles, caestibus contusi, ne ingemiscunt quidem. These strange examples will not appear so strange if we consider what we have ordinary experience of, how much custom stupefies our need not go to what is reported of senses. the people about the cataracts of the Nile; and what philosophers believe of the music of the spheres, that the bodies of those circles being solid and smooth, and coming to touch and rub upon one another, cannot fail of creating a marvellous harmony, the changes and cadences of which cause the revolutions and dances of the stars; but that the hearing sense of all creatures

We

changed, 2

it

this is at

Custom

is

ii. 752. the best master of

Nat. Hist., xxvi. 3

once the death of that which be-

was.— Lucretius,

The power

all

things.— Pliny,

2.

of custom

is

very great: huntsmen

will lie out all night in the snow, or suffer them-

be burned up by the sun on the mounhowever hurt by the ca?stus, never utter a groan.— Cicero, Tusc. Quaes., ii. 17. selves to

tains; boxers,

*For, whatever from

2

1 refer to her Plato's cave in his Republic, and the physicians, who so often submit the reasons of their art to her authority; as the story of that king, who by custom brought

fore

apprehension of the power of custom,

able to bear

a violent

:

is

DAMAGE OF ANOTHER Demades the Athenian condemned one city,

was

i

Essays here below, being universally, like that of the Egyptians, deafened, and stupefied with the

continual noise, cannot,

how

great soever, per-

Smiths, millers, pewterers, forgemen, and armourers could never be able to live in the perpetual noise of their own trades, did it strike ceive

it.

with the same violence that

their ears

it

does

fully be instructed to abhor vices for their

contexture; and the natural deformity of those

ought so to be represented to them, that they may not only avoid them in their actions, but especially so to abominate them in their vices

but after I have worn it three days together, 'tis only pleasing to the bystanders. This is yet more strange, that custom, notwithstanding long intermissions and intervals, should yet have the power to unite and establish the effect of its impressions upon our senses, as is manifest in such as live near unto steeples and the frequent noise of the bells. I myself lie at home in a tower, where every morning and evening a very great bell rings out the Ave Maria: the noise shakes my very tower, and at first seemed insupportable to me; but I am so used to it, that I hear it without any manner of offence, and often without awaking at it. Plato reprehending a boy for playing at nuts, "Thou reprovest me," says the boy, "for a very ing at

first;

to

thing."

I

noted, that the plays of children are not per-

my own eyes are sufficient to look to my fingers;

it as a notable mark of a martial they hear a son miscall, or see him domineer over a poor peasant, or a lackey, that dares not reply, nor turn again; and a great sign of wit, when they see him cheat and overreach his playfellow by some malicious treachery and deceit. Yet these are the true seeds and roots of cruelty, tyranny, and treason; they bud and put out there, and afterwards shoot up vigorously, and grow to prodigious bulk, cultivated by custom. And it is a very dangerous mistake to excuse these vile inclinations upon the tenderness of their age, and the triviality of the subject: first, it is nature that speaks, whose declaration is then more sincere, and inward thoughts more undisguised, as it is more weak and young; secondly, the deformity of cozenage does not consist nor depend upon the difference betwixt

upon

when

crowns and pins; but I rather hold it more just to conclude thus: why should he not cozen in crowns since he does it in pins, than as they do,

who say they only play for pins, it if it

very well, for what concerns myself,

from having been brought up in my childhood to a plain and straightforward way of dealing, and from having had an aversion to all manner of juggling and foul play in my childish sports and recreations (and, indeed, it is to be

no

from our most tender infancy, and that our principal education depends upon the nurse. Mothers are mightily pleased to see a child writhe off the neck of a chicken, or to please itself with hurting a dog or a cat; and such wise fathers there are in the world, look

know

find that our greatest vices derive

their first propensity

spirit,

I

that

formed in play, but are to be judged in them most serious actions), there is no game so small wherein from my own bosom naturally, and without study or endeavour, I have not an extreme aversion for deceit. I shuffle and cut and make as much clatter with the cards, and keep as strict account for farthings, as it were for double pistoles; when winning or losing against my wife and daughter, 'tis indifferent to me, as when I play in good earnest with others, for round sums. At all times, and in all places,

thing." "Custom," replied Plato, "is

little

do

thought should be hateful them, with what mask soever they may be

hearts, that the very

My perfumed doublet gratifies my own smell-

who

43 own

disguised.

ours.

little

22

I.

they would not

were for money? Children should care-

as their

I

am

not so narrowly watched by any other,

is there any I have more respect to. saw the other day, at my own house, a little

neither I

fellow, a native of Nantes, born without arms,

who

has so well taught his feet to perform the hands should have done him, that

services his

have half forgotten their natural and, indeed, the fellow calls them his hands; with them he cuts anything, charges and discharges a pistol, threads a needle, sews, writes, truly these office;

puts off his hat, combs his head, plays at cards

and dice, and all this with as much dexterity as any other could do who had more, and more proper, limbs to assist him.

him— for he

The money

I

gave

gains his living by showing these

feats— he took in his foot, as we do in our hand. I have seen another who, being yet a boy, flourished a two-handed sword, and, if I may so say, handled a halberd with the mere motions of his neck and shoulders for want of hands; tossed them into the air, and caught them again, darted a dagger, and cracked a whip as well as any coachman in France. But the effects of custom are much more manifest in the strange impressions she imprints in our minds, where she meets with less resistance. What has she not the power to impose upon our judgments and beliefs? Is there any so fantastic opinion (omitting the gross impos-

Montaigne

44

many many understanding men,

tures of religions, with

great nations,

and

so

which we

so strangely besotted; for this

reach of

see so

being beyond the

human reason, any error is more

excusa-

ble in such as are not endued, through the divine

bounty, with an extraordinary illumination from above), but, of other opinions, are there any so extravagant, that she has not planted and established for laws in those parts of the world upon which she has been pleased to exercise her power? And therefore that ancient exclamation was

exceeding

just:

Non

pudet physicum, id

est

speculator em venatoremque naturae, ab animis

consuetudineimbutisquaerere testimonium ver1

itatis?

do believe, that no so absurd or ridiculous fancy can enter into human imagination, that does not meet with some example of public practice, and that, consequently, our reason does not ground and back up. There are people, amongst whom it is the fashion to turn their backs upon him they salute, and never look upon the man they intend to honour. There is a place, where, whenever the king spits, the greatest ladies of his court put out their hands to receive it; and another nation, where the most eminent persons about him stoop to take up his ordure in a linen cloth. Let us here steal room I

to insert a story.

A French gentleman was always wont to blow his nose with his fingers (a thing very

much

and he justifying himself for so doing, and he was a man famous for pleasant repartees, he asked me, what privilege this filthy excrement had, that we must carry about us a fine handkerchief to receive it, and, which was more, afterwards to lap it carefully up, and carry it all day about in our pockets, which, he said, could not but be much more nauseous and offensive, than to see it thrown away, as we did all other evacuations. I found that what he said was not altogether without reason, and by being frequently in his company, that slovenly action of his was at last grown familiar to me; which against our fashion),

we make

when we

hear it reported of another country. Miracles appear to be so, according to our ignorance of nature, and not according to the essence of nature: the continually being accustomed to anything, blinds the eye of our judgment. Barbarians are no more a wonder to us, than we are to them; nor with any more reason, as every one would nevertheless

1

Is it

a face at,

not a shame for a natural philosopher, that

an observer and hunter of nature, to seek testimony of the truth from minds prepossessed with custom.— Cicero, De Nat. Deor., i. 30. is,

for

if after having travelled over those remote examples, men could settle themselves to reflect upon, and rightly to confer them with, their own. Human reason is a tincture almost equally infused into all our opinions and manners, of what form soever they are; infinite in matter, infinite in diversity. But I return to mv

confess,

subject.

There are peoples, where, his wife and chil dren excepted, no one speaks to the king but through a tube. In one and the same nation, the virgins discover those parts that modesty should persuade them to hide, and the married women carefully cover and conceal them. To which, this custom, in another place, has some relation, where chastity, but in marriage, is of no esteem, for unmarried women may prostitute themselves to as many as they please, and being got with child, may lawfully take physic, in the sight of every one, to destroy their fruit.

And,

in another place,

if

a

tradesman marry,

all

same condition, who are invited to the wedding, lie with the bride before him; and the greater number of them there is, the greater is her honour, and the opinion of her ability and strength: if an officer marry, 'tis the same, the same with a labourer, or one of mean condition, of the

but then, it belongs to the lord of the place to perform that office; and yet a severe loyalty during marriage is afterwards strictly enjoined.

There

are places

of young men women; where the

where brothels

are kept for the pleasure of

wives go to war as well as the husbands, and not only share in the dangers of battle, but, moreover, in the honours of command. Others, where they wear rings not only through their noses, lips, cheeks, and on their toes, but also weighty gimmals of gold thrust through their paps and buttocks; where, in eating, they wipe their fingers

upon

their thighs, genitories,

and

the soles of their feet: where children are excluded, and brothers and nephews only inherit; and elsewhere, nephews only, saving in the suc-

where, for the regulation and estates, observed in the country, certain sovereign magistrates have committed to them the universal charge and cession of the prince

of

community

:

in goods

overseeing of the agriculture, and distribution of the fruits, according to the necessity of every one: where they lament the death of children, and feast at the decease of old men; where they

men and their where women, whose husbands come to violent ends, may marry again, and others not: where the condition of women is lie

ten or twelve in a bed,

wives together:

looked upon with such contempt, that they

kill

:

ESSAYS and buy wives of their all neighbours to supply their use; where husbands may repudiate their wives without showing any cause, but wives cannot part from their husbands, for what cause soever; where husbands may sell their wives in case of sterility; where they boil the bodies of their dead, and afterwards pound them to a pulp, which they mix with their wine, and drink it; where the most coveted sepulture is to be eaten with dogs, and elsewhere by birds; where they believe the souls the native females,

of the blessed live in

all

manner

delightful fields, furnished with

of liberty, in

all sorts

of deli-

and that it is these souls, repeating the words we utter, which we call Echo; where they fight in the water, and shoot their arrows with the most mortal aim, swimming; where, for a

cacies,

\

|

sign of subjection, they

and hang down

up

their shoulders,

where they put off they enter the king's palace; where the eunuchs, who take charge of the sacred women, have, moreover, their lips and their shoes

!

lift

noses cut

their heads;

when

off,

that they

may not be loved; where own eyes, to be better

22

I.

45

ion of the mortality of the soul;

women

are delivered without pain or fear:

where the women wear copper leggings upon both legs, and if a louse bite them, are bound in magnanimity to bite them again, and dare not marry, till first they have made their king a tender of their virginity, if he please to accept it: where the ordinary way of salutation is by putting a finger down to the earth, and then pointing it up towards heaven: where men carry burdens upon their heads, and women on their shoulders; where the women make water standing, and the men squatting: where they send their blood in token of friendship, and offer incense to the men they would honour, like gods: where, not only to the fourth, but in any other remote degree, kindred are not permitted to marry: where the children are four years at nurse, and often twelve; in which place, also, it is

accounted mortal to give the child suck the day after it is born where the correction of

first

:

the male children

and

fathers,

to the

the priests put out their

ishment being

acquainted with their demons, and the better to receive their oracles; where every one makes to himself a deity of what he likes best; the hunter

the smoke

of a lion or a fox, the fisher of

some

fish; idols

of

every human action or passion; in which place, the sun, the moon, and the earth are the principal deities, and the form of taking an oath is, to touch the earth, looking up to heaven; where

both flesh and fish is eaten raw; where the greatest oath they take is, to swear by the name of some dead person of reputation, laying their hand upon his tomb; where the new year's gift the king sends every year to the princes, his vassals, is fire, which being brought, all the old fire is put out, and the neighbouring people are bound to fetch the new, every one for themselves, upon pain of high treason; where, when the king, to betake himself wholly to devotion,

from his administration (which often falls is obliged to do the same, and the right of the kingdom devolves to the third in succession; where they vary the form of government, according to the seeming neces-

retires

out), his next successor

sity of affairs;

depose the king

when

they think good, substituting certain elders to govern in his stead, and sometimes transferring it into the

hands of the commonalty; where men and women are both circumcised and also baptized; where the soldier, who in one or several engagements, has been so fortunate as to present seven of the enemies' heads to the king, is made noble: where they live in that rare and unsociable opin-

where the

:

to

is

peculiarly designed to the

mothers of the

girls;

the pun-

hang them by the heels

in

where they circumcise the women

where they eat all sorts of herbs, without other scruple than of the badness of the smell: where all things are open— the finest houses, furnished in the richest manner, without doors, windows, trunks, or chests to lock, a thief being there punished double

what they are in other where they crack lice with their teeth like monkeys, and abhor to see them killed with one's nails: where in all their lives they places:

neither cut their hair nor pare their nails; and, in another place, pare those of the right hand

grow for ornament and where they suffer the hair on the right side to grow as long as it will, and, shave the other; and in the neighbouring provinces, some let their hair grow long before, and some behind, shaving close the rest: where parents let out their children, and husbands their wives, to their guests to hire where a man may get his own mother with child, and fathers make only, letting the left

bravery:

:

use of their own daughters or sons, without scandal where at their solemn feasts they interchangeably lend their children to one another, without any consideration of nearness of blood. :

In one place, men feed upon hirnan flesh; in another, 'tis reputed a pious office for a man to kill

his father at a certain age; elsewhere, the

fathers dispose of their children, whilst yet in their mothers'

wombs, some to be preserved and and others to be abandon-

carefully brought up,

ed or made away. Elsewhere the old husbands

Montaigne

46

lend their wives to young men; and in another place they are in common, without offence; in

one place particularly, the women take it for a mark of honour to have as many gay fringed tassels at the bottom of their garment, as they have lain with several men. Moreover, has not custom made a republic of women separately by themselves? has it not put arms into their hands, and made them raise armies and fight battles: And does she not, by her own precept, instruct the most ignorant vulgar, and make them perfect in things which all the philosophy in the world could never beat into the heads of the wisest men? For we know entire nations, where death was not only despised, but entertained with the greatest triumph; where children of seven years old suffered themselves to be whipped to death, without changing countenance; where riches were in such contempt, that the meanest citizen would not have deigned to 1

up a purse of crowns. And we know manner of provisions,

stoop to take

regions, very fruitful in all

where, notwithstanding, the most ordinary diet, and that they are most pleased with, is only bread, cresses, and water. Did not custom, moreover, work that miracle in Chios that, in seven hundred years, it was never known that ever maid or wife committed any act to the prejudice of her honour? To conclude; there is nothing, in my opinion, that she does not, or may not do; and, therefore, with very good reason it is, that Pindar calls her the queen, and empress of the world. He that was seen to beat his father, and reproved for so doing, made answer, that it was the custom of

manner his

their family: that, in like

father

had

beaten his grandfather, his grandfather his great-grandfather, "And this/' says he, pointing to his son, "when he comes to my age, shall beat me And the father, whom the son dragged and hauled along the streets, commanded him to stop at a certain door, for

he himself, he

had dragged

farther, that

his father

no

said,

being

the utmost limit of the hereditary outrage the

sons used to practise family.

It is

as

says Aristotle, their nails,

1

upon the

fathers in their

much by custom as infirmity, that women tear their hair, bite

and

eat coals

and

earth, and,

more

by custom than nature, that men abuse themselves with one another. The laws of conscience, which we pretend to be derived from nature, proceed from custom; every one, having an inward veneration for the opinions and manners approved and received 1

Ethics, vii. 5.

amongst

his

own

people, cannot, without very

great reluctance, depart from them, nor apply

himself to them without applause. In times past, when those of Crete n ould curse anv one, they

prayed the gods

to

engage him in some

tom. But the principal effect of to seize and ensnare us, that it to

disengage ourselves from

come

its

its is

son that

it

enjoins.

we suck

it

To

gripe, or so to

in with our milk,

first sight, it

upon condition

common

weigh

and that

itself in this pos-

seems as if we were born on this track; and the

to follow

fancies that

where about

so

say the truth, by rea-

the face of the world presents ture to our

cus-

is,

hardly in us

to ourselves, as to consider of and to

the things

ill

power

us,

we

find in repute every-

and infused into our minds

with the seed of our fathers, appear to be the most universal and genuine: from whence it comes to pass, that whatever is off the hinges of custom, is believed to be also off the hinges of reason; how unreasonably for the most part, God knows. If, as we who study ourselves, have learned to do, every one who hears a good sentence, would immediately consider how it does any way touch his own private concern, every one would find that it was not so much a good saying, as a severe lash to the ordinary stupidity of

own judgment: but men receive the precepts and admonitions of truth, as directed to the common sort, and never to themselves; and instead of applying them to their own manners, do only very ignorantly and unprofitably commit them to memory. But let us return to the empire of

his

custom.

Such people as have been bred up to liberty, and subject to no other dominion but the authority of their own will, look upon all other form of government as monstrous and contrary to nature. Those who are inured to monarchy do the same; and what opportunity soever fortune presents them with to change, even then, when with the greatest difficulties they have disengaged themselves from one master, that was troublesome and grievous to them, they presently run, with the same difficulties, to create another; being unable to take into hatred subjection itself. 'Tis by the mediation of custom, that every one is content with the place where he is planted by nature; and the Highlanders of Scotland no more pant after Touraine, than the Scythians after Thessaly. Darius asking certain Greeks what they would take to assume the custom of the Indians, of eating the dead bodies of their fathers (for that was their use, believing they

Essays them

could not give

a better, nor

them

sepulture, than to bury

more noble

in their

own

bod-

they made answer, that nothing in the world should hire them to do it; but having also tried to persuade the Indians to leave their custom, and, after the Greek manner, to burn the bodies ies),

of their fathers, they conceived a

still

greater

1

horror at the notion. Every one does the same, for use veils from us the true aspect of things.

Nil adeo

tarn mirabile quidquam quod non minuant mirarier omnes

magnum, nee

Principio,

Paullatim.

2

Taking upon me once to justify something amongst us, and that was received with

I.

22

47

count he made of incestuous conjunctions, committed with how near relations soever. Whoever would disengage himself from this violent prejudice of custom, would find several things received with absolute and undoubting opinion, that have no other support than the hoary head and ri veiled face of ancient usage. But the mask taken off, and things being re-

and reason, he were altogether overthrown, and yet restored to a much more sure estate. For example, I shall ask him, what can be more strange than to see a people obliged to obey laws they never understood; bound in all ferred to the decision of truth

will find his judgment as

it

in use

their domestic affairs, as marriages, donations,

absolute authority for a great many leagues round about us, and not content, as men com-

possibly

monly do, to establish it only by force of law and example, but inquiring still farther into its origin, I found the foundation so weak, that I who made it my business to confirm others, was very near being dissatisfied myself. 'Tis by this 3

undertakes to cure the unnatural and preposterous loves of his time, as one which he esteemsof sovereign virtue; namely, that the public opinion condemns them; that receipt that Plato

the poets,

and

all

other sorts of writers, relate

by virtue of which the most beautiful daughters no more

horrible stories of them; a recipe,

allure their fathers' lust; nor brothers, of the finest

shape and fashion, their

sisters' desire;

the very fables of Thyestes, CEdipus, and careus, having with the

harmony

Ma-

of their song,

infused this wholesome opinion and belief into the tender brains of children. Chastity truth, a great

the utility it,

and

is

is,

in

and shining virtue, and of which sufficiently known; but to treat of

to set

it

to nature, is as

off in its true value,

hard as

'tis

according

easy to do so accord-

and precepts. The fundamental and universal reasons are of very obscure and difficult research, and our masters either lightly pass them over, or not daring so much as to touch them, precipitate themselves into the liberty and protection of custom, there puffing themselves out and triumphing to their heart's content: such as will not suffer themselves to be withdrawn from this original source, do yet commit a greater error, and subject themselves to wild opinions; witness Chrysippus who, in so many of his writings, has strewed the little acing to custom, laws,

1

Herodotus,

2

There

less 3

iii.

38.

first, so grand, so admiwhich, by degrees, people do not regard with admiration.— Lucretius, ii. 1027. Laws, viii. 836-840.

rable,

is

nothing, at

and purchases, to rules they cannot know, being neither written nor published in their own language, and of which they wills, sales,

are of necessity to purchase both the interpreta-

and the use? Not according to the ingenious opinion of Isocrates, who counselled his king to

tion

make

and negotiations of his suband of profit to them, and their quarrels and disputes burdensome, and laden with heavy impositions and penalties; but, by a prodigious opinion, to make sale of reason itself, and to give to laws a course of merchanthe

traffics

jects, free, frank,

dise. I think myself obliged to fortune that, as our historians report, it was a Gascon gentleman, a countryman of mine, who first opposed Charlemagne, when he attempted to impose upon us Latin and imperial laws. What can be more savage, than to see a nation where, by lawful custom, the office of a judge is bought and sold, where judgments are paid for with ready money, and where justice may legitimately be denied to him that has not wherewithal to pay; a merchandise in so great repute, as in a government to create a fourth estate of wrangling lawyers, to add to the three ancient ones of the church, nobility, and people; which fourth estate, having the laws in their own hands, and sovereign power over men's lives and fortunes, makes another body

separate from nobility:

whence it comes to pass, honour and

that there are double laws, those of

those of justice, in posite

one

many

things altogether op-

to another; the nobles as rigorously

condemning a lie taken, as the other do a lie revenged: by the law of arms, he shall be degraded from all nobility and honour who puts up with an affront; and by the civil law, he who vindicates his reputation by revenge incurs a capital punishment: he who applies himself to the law for reparation of an offence done to his honour, disgraces himself; and he who does not,

Montaigne

48 is

censured and punished by the law. Yet of

these two so different things, both of ferring to one head, the

them

re-

one has the charge of

peace, the other of war; those have the profit, these the honour; those the wisdom, these the virtue; those the

word, these the action; those

justice, these valour; those reason, these force;

those the long robe, these the short;— divided betwixt them.

For what concerns indifferent things, as clothes, who is there seeking to bring them back to their true use, which is the body's service and convenience, and upon which their original grace and fitness depend; for the most fantastic, in my opinion, that can be imagined, I will instance amongst others, our flat caps, that long tail of velvet that hangs down from our women's heads, with its party-coloured trappings; and that vain and futile model of a member we cannot in modesty so much as name, which nevertheless we make show and parade of in public. These considerations, notwithstanding, will not prevail upon any understanding man to decline

the

common mode;

thinks,

all

but,

on the contrary, me-

singular and particular fashions are

and vain affectation, than sound reason, and that a wise man ought, within, to withdraw and retire his soul from the crowd, and there keep it at liberty and in power to judge freely of things; but, as to externals, absolutely to follow and conform himself to the fashion of the time. Public society has nothing to do with our thoughts, but the rest, as our actions, our labours, our fortunes, and our lives, we are to lend and abandon them to its service, and to the common opinion; as did that good and great Socrates who refused to preserve his life by a disobedience to the magistrate, though a very wicked and unjust one: for it is the rule of rules, the general law of laws, that every one observe those of the place wherein he lives. rather marks of folly of

No/iois e-rreadaL Tolffiv iyx^P^ois icaXov.

1

And now to another point. It is a very great doubt, whether any so manifest benefit can accrue from the alteration of a law received, let it be what it will, as there is danger and inconvenit; forasmuch as government is composed of divers parts and members joined and united together, with so strict

ience in altering a structure

connection, that as

it is

impossible to

stir

so

much

one brick or stone, but the whole body will

be sensible of it. The legislator of the Thurians ordained, that whosoever would go about either to abolish an old law, or to establish a new, should present himself with a halter about his neck to the people to the end, that if the innovation he would introduce should not be approved by every one, he might immediately be hanged; and he of the Lacedaemonians employed his life, to obtain

from his

citizens a faithful promise,

none of his laws should be violated. 2 The Ephorus who so rudely cut the two strings that Phrynis had added to music, never stood to examine whether that addition made better harmony, or that by its means the instrument was more full and complete; it was enough for him to condemn the invention, that it was a novelty, and an alteration of the old fashion. Which also is the meaning of the old rusty sword carried that

before the magistracy of Marseilles.

For

my own part,

I

have a great aversion from

novelty, what face or what pretence soever it may it, and have reason, having been an eyewitness of the great evils it has produced. For those for which for so many years have lain so heavy upon us, it is not wholly accountable; but one may say, with colour enough, that it has accidentally produced and begotten the mischiefs and ruin that have since happened, both without and against it; it, principally,

carry along with

we

are to accuse for these disorders.

Heul

patior

telis

vulnera facta meis. s

They who give the first shock to a state, are almost naturally the first overwhelmed in its ruin; the fruits of public

commotion are seldom

who was the first motor; he beats the water for another's net. The

enjoyed by him

and disturbs unity and contexture of this monarchy, of this grand edifice, having been ripped and torn in her old age, by this thing called innovation, has since laid open a rent, and given sufficient admittance to such injuries: the royal majesty with greater difficulty declines from the summit to the middle, then it falls and tumbles headlong from the middle to the bottom. But if the inventors do the greater mischief, the imitators are more vicious, to follow examples of which they have felt and punished both the horror and the offence. And if there can be any degree of honour in ill-doing, these last must yield to the others the glory of contriving, and the courage of making the

first

attempt. All sorts of

1

It is good to obey the laws of one's country.— Verses from a lost Greek tragedy, possibly derived from an anthology of Greek quotations compiled

by Crispin.

2

Plutarch, Lycurgus, xxii.

wounds were made by ons.— Ovid, Heroides, ii. 48. 3

Alas! the

my own weap-

Essays new

disorders easily draw, from this primitive

and ever -flowing fountain, examples and precedents to trouble and discompose our government; we read in our very laws, made for the remedy of this first evil the beginning and pretences of all sorts of wicked enterprises; and that befalls us, which Thucydides said of the civil wars of his 1 time, that, in favour of public vices, they gave them new and more plausible names for their excuse, sweetening and disguising their true titles; which must be done, forsooth, to reform ,

2

our conscience and belief: honesta oratio est; but the best pretence for innovation is of very

dangerous consequence: adeo nihil motum ex 3 antiquo vrobabile est. And freely to speak my thoughts, it argues a strange self-love and great presumption to be so fond of one's own opinions, that a public peace must be overthrown to establish them, and to introduce so many inevitable mischiefs, and so dreadful a corruption of manners, as a civil war and the mutations of state consequent to it, always bring in their train, and to introduce them, in a thing of so high concern, into the bowels of one's own country. Can there be worse husbandry than to set up so

many

and knowing vices against errors that are only contested and disputable? And are there any worse sorts of vices than those committed against a man's own conscience, and certain

the natural light of his

upon

own

reason?

The

Sen-

and the people about the administration of their religion, was bold enough to return this evasion for current pay: Ad deos id magis, quam ad se, yertinere: ivsos visuros, ne sacra sua 'polluantur; * according to what the oracle answered to those of Delphos who, fearing to be invaded by the Perate,

the dispute betwixt

it

Median war, inquired of Apollo, they should dispose of the holy treasure of his temple; whether they should hide, or resians, in the

how

move

some other place?

He

returned them answer, that they should stir nothing from thence, and only take care of themselves, for he was sufficient to look to what belonged to him. 5 The Christian religion has all the marks of it

to

the utmost utility

and

justice:

but none more

manifest than the severe injunction 1

2 3

it

lays in-

Hi. 52.

Fine words truly.— Terence, And., i. 1. 114. are ever wrong in changing ancient ways.

We

— Livy, xxxiv.

54.

4

Those things more belong to the gods to determine than to them; let the gods, therefore, take care that their sacred mysteries were not profaned. —Livy, x. 6. 5 Herodotus,

22

I.

49

differently

upon

all to

yield absolute obedience

to the civil magistrate, and to maintain and defend the laws. Of which, what a wonderful example has the divine wisdom left us, that, to establish the salvation of mankind, and to conduct His glorious victory over death and sin, would do it after no other way, but at the mercy of our ordinary forms of justice, subjecting the progress and issue of so high and so salutiferous an effect, to the blindness and injustice of our customs and observances; sacrificing the innocent blood of so many of His elect, and so long a loss of so many years, to the maturing of this in-

estimable fruit? There

is

a vast difference be-

who follows the forms and and of another who will un-

twixt the case of one

laws of his country, dertake to regulate and change them; of whom the first pleads simplicity, obedience, and exam-

who, whatever he shall do, it cannot be imputed to malice; 'tis at the worst but misfortune: Quis est enim, quern non mo-

ple for his excuse,

monumentis testata consignataque antiquitas? 6 besides what Isocrates says,

veat clarissimis that defect

is

nearer allied to moderation than

excess: the other

is

a

much more

game-

about to introduce. This so vulgar consideration, is that which settled me in my station, and kept even my most extravagant and ungoverned youth under the rein, so as not to burden my shoulders with so great a weight, as to render myself responsible for a science of that importance, and in this to dare what in my better and more mature judgment I durst not do in the most easy and indifI had been instructed in, and wherein the temerity of judging is of no consequence at all; it seeming to me very unjust to go about to subject public and established customs and institutions to the weakness and instability of a private and particular fancy (for private reason has but a private jurisdiction), and to attempt that upon the divine, which no government will endure a man should do, upon the civil laws; with which, though human reason has much more commerce than with the other, yet are they sovereignly judged by their own proper judges, and the extreme sufficiency

ferent things

6

For

who

is

there that antiquity, sealed

and

at-

many glorious monuments, cannot move?— Cicero, De Divin., i. 40. tested with so

viii.

ruffling

upon him to choose and alter, usurps the authority of judging, and should look well about him, and make it his business to discern clearly the defect of what he would abolish, and the virtue of what he is

ster; for whosoever shall take

36.

ARCHBISHOP MITTY HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY San Jose,

California

Montaigne

50

expound and set forth the law and custom received, and neither to wrest it,

are lawful that

nor

but a dangerous obligation and an intolerable

serves only to

to introduce anything of innovation. If, sometimes, the divine providence has gone beyond the rules to which it has necessarily bound and obliged us men, it is not to give us any dispensation to do the same; those are masterstrokes of the divine hand, which we are not to imitate, but to admire, and extraordinary exam-

may any way serve to advance who have no other law nor rule what serves best to their own purpose, 'tis

their design,

in-

equality

Aditum nocendi

2 yerfido yrsestat fides,

-forasmuch as the ordinary discipline of a healthful state does not provide against these

marks of express and particular purposes, of the nature of miracles, presented before us for manifestations of its almightiness, equally

extraordinary accidents;

above both our rules and force, which it would be folly and impiety to attempt to represent and imitate; and that we ought not to follow, but to contemplate with the greatest reverence acts of His personage, and not for us. Cotta very opportunely declares: Quum de religione agitur, Ti. Coruncanium, P. Sciyionem, P. Scsevolam, fontifices maximos, non Zenonem, aut Cleanihem, aut Chrysifpum, sequor. 1 God knows, in the present quarrel of our civil war, where there are a hundred articles to dash out and to put in, great and very considerable, how many there are who can truly boast they have exactly and perfectly weighed and understood the grounds and reasons of the one and the other party; 'tis a number, if they make any number, that would be able to give us very

and observation. A legitimate proceeding is cold, heavy, and constrained, and not fit to make head against a headstrong and unbridled

ples,

:

disturbance. But what becomes of all the under what ensigns do they march, in what quarter do they lie? Theirs have the same effect with other weak and ill-applied medicines; they have only set the humours they would purge more violently in work, stirred and exasperated by the conflict, and left them still behind. The potion was too weak to purge, but strong enough to weaken us; so that it does not work, but we keep it still in our bodies, and reap nothing from the operation but intestine gripes and dolours. So it is, nevertheless, that Fortune, still reserving her authority in defiance of whatever we are able to do or say, sometimes presents us little

rest,

with a necessity so urgent, that 'tis requisite the laws should a little yield and give way; and when one opposes the increase of an innovation that thus intrudes itself by violence, to keep a man's self in so doing, in all places and in all things within bounds and rules against those who have the power, and to whom all things 1

When

matter of religion

is

in question, I

am

governed by T. Coruncanius, P. Scipio, P. Scaevola, the high priests, and not by Zeno, Cleanthes, or Chrysippus.— Cicero, De Nat. Deor., iii. 2.

it

presupposes a body

that supports itself in its principal offices,

and

a

common

consent to

members and its

obedience

proceeding. 'Tis known to be, to this day, cast in the dish of those two great men, Octavius and Cato, in the two civil wars of Sulla and

would rather suffer their counundergo the last extremities, than relieve

Caesar, that they try to

their fellow-citizens at the expense of

its

laws,

any innovation; for, in truth, in these last necessities, where there is no other remedy, it would, peradventure, be more discreetly done, to stoop and yield a little to receive the blow, than, by opposing without posor be guilty of

sibility of

doing good, to give occasion to vio-

under foot; and better to what they can when they cannot do what they would. After this manner did he who suspended them for four-andtwenty hours, and he who, for once, shifted a day in the calendar, and that other who of the month of June made a second of May. The Lacedaemonians themselves, who were so relence to trample

make

all

the laws do

ligious observers of the laws of their country,

being straitened by one of their own edicts, by which it was expressly forbidden to choose the same man twice to be admiral; and on the other Lysander should again take upon him that command, they made one Aratus admiral, 'tis true, but withal, Lysander went superintendent of the navy; and, by the same subtlety, one of their ambassadors being sent to the Athenians to obside, their affairs necessarily requiring that

tain the revocation of some decree, and Pericles remonstrating to him, that it was forbidden to take away the tablet wherein a law had once been engrossed, he advised him to turn it only, that being not forbidden; and Plutarch commends Philopcemen, that being born to command, he knew how to do it, not only according to the laws, but also to overrule even the 2

Putting faith in a treacherous person, opens the door to harm.— Seneca, CEdip., iii. 686.

Essays laws themselves,

when

the public necessity so

and

so powerful

an enemy

of their religion." "Well," said the prince, "I

required.

will

Various events from the same counsel

xxiii.

Jacques Amiot, grand almoner of France, one day related to me this story, much to the honour of a prince of ours (and ours he was upon several very good accounts, though originally of foreign extraction), that in the time of our first commotions, at the siege of Rouen, this prince, having been advertised by the queenmother of a conspiracy against his life, and in her letters particular notice being given him of the person

51

23

I.

to extirpate so great

who was

to

execute the business

(who was a gentleman of Anjou, or of Maine, and who to this effect ordinarily frequented this

now let you see, how much more charitable

is that I maintain, than that which you profess: yours has counselled you to kill me, without hearing me speak, and without ever having given you any cause of offence; and mine commands me to forgive you, convict as you are, by your own confession, of a design to kill me without reason. Get you gone: let me see you no more; and if you are wise, choose,

the religion

henceforward, honester lors in your designs."

men

The Emperor Augustus

for

your counsel-

being in Gaul, had

Cinna was contriving against him; he therefore recertain information of a conspiracy L.

solved to

make him an example;

summon

and, to that

meet the

prince's house), discovered not a syllable of this

end, sent to

any one whatever; but going, the next day, to St. Catherine's Mount, from which our battery played against the town (for it was during the time of the siege), and having in company with him the said lord almoner, and another bishop, he saw this gentleman, who had been denoted to him, and presently sent for him; to whom, being come before him, seeing him already pale and trembling with the conscience of his guilt, he thus said, "Monsieur," such a one, "you guess what I have to say to you; your countenance discovers it; 'tis in vain to disguise your practice, for I am so well informed of your business, that it will but

next morning in counsel. But the night between he passed in great unquietness of mind, considering that he was about to put to death

intelligence to

make worse

for you, to go

about

to

conceal or

you know very well such and such passages" (which were the most secret circumstances of his conspiracy), "and therefore be sure, as you tender your own life, to confess to me the whole truth of the design." The poor man seeing himself thus trapped and convicted (for the whole business had been discovered to the queen by one of the accomplices), was in such a taking, he knew not what to do; but, folding his hands, to beg and sue for mercy, he threw himself at his prince's feet, who taking him up, proceeded to say, "Come, sir; tell me, have I at any time done you offence? or have I, through private hatred or malice, offended any kinsman or friend of yours? It is not above three weeks that I have known you; what inducement, then, could move you to attempt my death?" To which the gentleman, with a trembling voice, replied, "That it was no particular grudge he had to his person, but the general interest and concern of his party, and that he had been put upon it by some who had persuaded him it would be a meritorious act, by any means,

deny

it:

his friends to

young man, of an illustrious family, and nephew to the great Pompey, and this made him break out into several passionate complainings. "What then," said he, "is it possible that

a

I

am to live in perpetual anxiety and alarm, and

my would-be assassin, meantime, to walk abroad at liberty? Shall he go unpunished, after having conspired against my life, a life that I have hitherto defended in so many civil wars, in so many battles by land and by sea? And after having settled the universal peace of the whole world, shall this man be pardoned, who has conspired not only to murder, but to sacrifice me?"— for the conspiracy was to kill him at sacrifice. After which, remaining for some time silent, he began again, in louder tones, and exclaimed against himself saying: "Why livest thou, if it be for the good of so many that thou shouldst die? must there be no end of thy revenges and cruelties? Is thy life of so great value that so many mischiefs must be done to preserve it?" His wife Livia, seeing him in this perplexity: "Will you take a woman's counsel?" said she. "Do as the physicians do, who, when the ordinary recipes will do no suffer

good,

make

trial

of the contrary.

By

severity

you have hitherto prevailed nothing; Lepidus has followed Salvidienus; Murena, Lepidus; Caepio, Murena; Egnatius, Caspio. Begin now, and try how sweetness and clemency will succeed. Cinna is convict; forgive him, he will never henceforth have the heart to hurt thee, and it will be an act to thy glory." Augustus was well pleased that he had met with an advocate of his own humour; wherefore, having

Mon TAIGNE

52

thanked his wife, and, in the morning, countermanded his friends he had before summoned to council, he commanded Cinna all alone to be brought to him; who being accordingly come, and a chair by his appointment set him, having ordered all the rest out of the room, he spake to him after this manner: "In the first place, Cinna, I demand of thee patient audience; do not interrupt I

me in what I am

about

will afterwards give thee time

to say,

and

and

leisure to

Thou knowest, Cinna, that having taken thee prisoner in the enemy's camp, and thou an enemy, not only so become, but born so, I answer.

gave thee thy life, restored to thee all thy goods, and, finally, put thee in so good a posture, by my bounty, of living well and at thy ease, that the victorious envied the conquered. The sacerdotal office which thou madest suit to me for, I conferred upon thee, after having denied it to others, whose fathers have ever borne arms in my service. After so many obligations, thou hast undertaken to kill me." At which Cinna crying out that he was very far from entertaining any so wicked a thought: "Thou dost not keep thy promise, Cinna," continued Augustus, "that thou wouldst not interrupt me. Yes, thou hast undertaken to murder me in such a place, on such a day, in such and such company, and in such a manner." At which words, seeing Cinna astounded and silent, not upon the account of his promise so to be, but interdict with the weight of his conscience: "Why," proceeded Augustus, "to what end wouldst thou do it? Is it to be emperor? Believe me, the Republic is in very ill condition, if I am the only man betwixt thee and the empire. Thou art not able so much as to defend thy own house, and but t'other day was baffled in a suit, by the opposed interest of a mere manumitted slave. What, hast thou neither means nor power in any other thing, but only to undertake Caesar? I quit the throne, if there be no other than I to obstruct thy hopes. Canst thou believe that Paulus, that Fabius, that the Cossii and the Servilii, and so many noble Romans, not only so in title, but who by their virtue, honour their nobility, would suffer or endure thee?" After

and a great deal more that he said to him was two long hours in speaking), "Now go, Cinna, go thy way: I give thee that life as traitor and parricide which I before gave thee in the quality of an enemy. Let friendship from this time forward begin betwixt us, and let us show whether I have given, or thou hast received thy life with the better faith"; and so departed from him. Some time after, he preferred this,

(for he

him to the consular dignity, complaining that he had not the confidence to demand it; had him ever after for his very great friend, and was, at last, made by him sole heir to all his estate.

Now, from

which

befell

the time of this accident

Augustus in the fortieth year of his age, he never had any conspiracy or attempt against him, and so reaped the due reward of this his so generous clemency. But it did not so happen with our prince, his moderation and mercy not so securing him, but that he after wards fell into the toils of the like treason, so vain and futile a thing is human prudence; throughout all our projects, counsels and precautions, Fortune will still be mistress of events.

We hit

repute physicians fortunate when they a lucky cure, as if there was no other

upon

but theirs that could not stand upon its own and whose foundations are too weak to support itself upon its own basis; as if no other art stood in need of Fortune's hand to help it. For my part, I think of physic as much good or ill as any one would have me for, thanks be to God, we have no traffic together. I am of a art

legs,

:

quite contrary

ways despise

humour to but when

it;

other men, for I

am

I al-

sick, instead of

recanting, or entering into composition with I

begin, moreover, to hate and fear

it,

it,

telling

them who importune me to take physic, that at all events they must give me time to recover my strength and health, that I may be the better able to support and encounter the violence and danger of their potions. I let Nature work, supposing her to be sufficiently armed with teeth and claws to defend herself from the assaults of infirmity, and to uphold that contexture, the dissolution of which she flies and abhors.

ease, I

her

am

I

when

afraid, lest, instead of assisting her

should

still

assist

more with work

Now,

I say,

The

to do.

that not in physic only, but in

other more certain part.

and struggling with disher adversary, and burden

close grappled

arts,

Fortune has a very great

poetic raptures, the flights of fancy,

and transport the author out of himwe not attribute them to his good fortune, since he himself confesses that they exceed his sufficiency and force, and acknowledges them to proceed from something else than himself, and that he has them no more in his power than the orators say they have those extraordinary motions and agitations that sometimes push them beyond their design. It is the same in painting, where touches shall sometimes slip from the hand of the painter, that ravish

self,

why

should

Essays so surpassing both his conception and his art, as to beget his own admiration and astonishment. But Fortune does yet more evidently

manifest the share she has in all things of this kind, by the graces and elegances we find in them, not only beyond the intention, but even without the knowledge of the workman: a competent reader often discovers in other men's writings other perfections than the author himself either

intended or perceived, a richer sense

and more quaint expression. As to military enterprises, every one

sees

how

hand Fortune has in them. Even in our counsels and deliberations there must, certainly, be something of chance and good-luck mixed with human prudence; for all that our wisdom can do alone is no great matter; the more piercing, quick, and apprehensive it is, the weaker it finds itself, and is by so much more apt to mistrust itself. I am of Sulla's opinion; and great a

when

I

ploits of

who

closely

war,

carry

I

examine the most glorious experceive, methinks, that those

them on make use

of counsel

and

debate only for custom's sake, and leave the best part of the enterprise to Fortune, and, relying upon her aid, transgress, at every turn, the

bounds of military conduct and the rules of war. There happen, sometimes, fortuitous alacrities and strange furies in their deliberations, that for the most part prompt them to follow the worst grounded counsels, and swell their courage beyond the limits of reason. Whence it happened that several of the great captains of old, to justify those rash resolutions, have been fain to tell their soldiers, that they were invited to such attempts by some inspiration, some sign and prognostic. Wherefore, in this doubt and uncertainty, that the shortsightedness of

human wisdom

to

and choose the best (by reason of the difthe various accidents and circumstances of things bring along with them) perplexes us withal, the surest way, in my opinion, did no other consideration invite us to it, is to pitch upon that wherein is the greatest appearance of honesty and justice; and, not being certain of the shortest, to keep the straightest and most direct way; as in the two examples I have just given, there is no question but it was more noble and generous in him who had received the offence to pardon it than to do otherwise. If the former miscarried in it, he is not, nevertheless, to be blamed for his good intention; neither does any one know, if he had proceeded otherwise, whether by that means he had avoided the end his destiny had appointed for see

ficulties that

i-

2.3

53

him; and he had, moreover, so humane an act.

lost the glory of

You will read in history of many who have been in such apprehension, that the most part have taken the course to meet and anticipate conspiracies against them by punishment and revenge; but I find very few who have reaped any advantage by this proceeding; witness so many Roman emperors. Whoever finds himself in this danger, ought not to expect much either from his vigilance or power; for how hard a thing is it for a man to secure himself from an enemy, who lies concealed under the countenance of the most assiduous friend we have, and to discover and know the wills and inward thoughts of those who are in our personal servnot to much purpose to have a guard of foreigners about one, and to be always fenced about with a pale of armed men; whosoever despises his own life is always master of that of another man. And moreover, this continual suspicion, that makes a prince jealous of all the world, must of necessity be a strange torment to him. Therefore it was that Dion, being advertised that Callippus watched all opportunities to take away his life, had never the heart to inquire more particularly into it, saying that he had rather die than live in that misery, that he must continually stand upon his guard, not only against his enemies, but his friends also; ice. 'Tis

which Alexander much more

vividly

and more

roundly manifested in effect, when, having notice by a letter from Parmenio that Philip, his most beloved physician, was by Darius' money corrupted to poison him, at the same time that he gave the letter to Philip to read, drank off the potion he had brought him. Was not this to express a resolution, that if his friends

a

mind

to

despatch

was willing This prince

to give is,

had

him out of the world, he them opportunity to do it?

indeed, the sovereign pattern of

hazardous actions; but I do not know whether there be another passage in his life wherein there is so much firm courage as in this, nor so illustrious an image of the beauty and greatness of his mind. Those who preach to princes so circumspect

and

vigilant a jealousy

and

distrust,

under

col-

our of security, preach to them ruin and dishonour; nothing noble can be performed without danger. I know a person, naturally of a very great daring and enterprising courage, whose good fortune is continually marred by such persuasions, that he keep himself close surrounded by his friends, that he must not hearken to any reconciliation with his ancient enemies, that he

Montaigne

54

must stand aloof, and not trust his person in hands stronger than his own, what promises or offers soever they may make him, or what advantages soever he may see before him. And I know another, who has unexpectedly advanced his fortunes by following a clear contrary advice.

Courage, the reputation and glory of which seek with so greedy an appetite, presents itself, when need requires, as magnificently in cuerpo as in full armour; in a closet, as in a camp; with arms pendant, as with arms raised. This over-circumspect and wary prudence is a mortal enemy to all high and generous exploits. Scipio, to sound Syphax's intention, leaving his army, abandoning Spain, not yet secure nor well settled in his new conquest, could pass

men

over into Africa in two small ships, to commit himself, in an enemy's country, to the of a barbarian king, to a faith untried

power and un-

known, without obligation, without hostage, under the sole security of the grandeur of his own courage, his good fortune, and the promise of his high hopes. Habita fides ipsam plerum1

que fidem

obligat.

glory,

necessary to hold a

it is

suspicion offence.

:

fear

and

The most

In a

life

and upon and draw on

of ambition stiff

distrust invite

rein

mistrustful of our kings es-

tablished his affairs principally

by voluntarily

committing his life and liberty into hisenemies' hands, by that action manifesting that he had absolute confidence in them, to the end they might repose as great an assurance in him. Caesar only opposed the authority of his countenance and the haughty sharpness of his rebukes to his mutinous legions in arms against him: Stetit

aggere fultus

Cespitis, intrepidus vultu:

meruitque timeri,

Nil metuens. 2

But

it is

surance

true, withal, that this

undaunted

as-

not to be represented in its simple and entire form, but by such whom the apprehension of death, and the worst that can happen, does not terrify and affright; for to repreis

sent a pretended resolution with a pale

and

doubtful countenance and trembling limbs, for the service of an important reconciliation, will effect nothing to purpose. 'Tis an excellent way to gain the heart and will of another, to submit 1

Trust often obliges fidelity.— Li vy,

2

He

stood on a

mound,

xxii. 22.

his face all intrepid,

and

merited to be feared, he fearing nothing.— Lucan, v. 316.

and

intrust one's self to him, provided it appear be freely done, and without the constraint of necessity, and in such a condition that a man manifestly does it out of a pure and entire confidence in the party, at least, with a countenance clear from any cloud of suspicion. I saw, when I was a boy, a gentleman, who was governor of a great city, upon occasion of a popular commotion and fury, not knowing what other course to take, go out of a place of very great strength and security, and commit himself to the mercy of the seditious rabble, in hopes by that means to appease the tumult before it grew to a more formidable head; but it was ill for him that he did so, for he was there miserably slain. But I am not, nevertheless, of opinion that he committed so great an error in going out as men commonly reproach his memory withal, as he did in choosing a gentle and submissive way for the effecting his purpose, and in endeavouring to quiet this storm, rather by obeying than commanding, and by entreaty rather than remonstrance; and I am inclined to believe that a gracious severity, with a soldier-like way of to

commanding,

and confidence, and the dignity of his command, would have succeeded better with him; at least, he had perished with greater decency and reputation. There is nothing so little to be expected or hoped for from this many-headed monster, in its fury, as humanity and good-nature; it is much more capable of reverence and fear. I should also refull of security

suitable to the quality of his person,

proach him, that having taken a resolution (in my judgment rather brave than rash) to expose himself, weak and naked, in this tempestuous sea of enraged madmen, he ought to have stuck to his text, and not for an instant to have abandoned the high part he had undertaken; whereas, coming to discover his danger nearer hand, and his nose happening to bleed, he again changed that demiss and fawning countenance he had at first put on, into another of fear and amazement, filling his voice with entreaties and his eyes with tears, and, endeavouring so to

withdraw and secure his person, that carriage more inflamed their fury, and soon brought the it upon him. was upon a time intended

effects of It

that there should

be a general muster of several troops in arms (and that is the most proper occasion of secret revenges, and there is no place where they can be executed with greater safety), and there were public and manifest appearances, that there was no safe coming for some, whose principal and necessary office it was to review them.

Essays Whereupon,

a consultation

was held, and

sev-

I.

24

55 was most notable, that having

this especially

eral counsels

received the

was very

the people were hatching against him, from

were proposed, as in a case that and of great difficulty; and, moreover, of grave consequence. Mine, amongst the rest, was, that they should by all means avoid giving anv sign of suspicion, but that the officers who were most in danger should boldly go, and with cheerful and erect countenances ride boldly and confidently through the ranks, and that instead of sparing fire (which the counsels of the major part tended to) they nice,

should entreat the captains to

command

the

round and full volleys in honour of the spectators, and not to spare their powder. This was accordingly done, and served so good use, as to please and gratify the suspected troops, and thenceforward to beget a mutual and wholesome confidence and intelligence amongst them. I look upon Julius Caesar's way of winning men to him as the best and finest that can be put in practice. First, he tried bv clemency to make himself beloved even by his very enemies, soldiers to give

contenting himself, in detected conspiracies, onlv publiclv to declare, that he was pre-acquainted with them; which being done, he took a noble resolution to await without solicitude

whatever might be the event, wholly

or fear,

resigning himself to the protection of the gods

and fortune: for, questionless, in this state he was at the time when he was killed. A stranger having publicly said, that he could teach Dionvsius, the tyrant of Syracuse, an infallible way to find out and discover all the conspiracies his subjects could contrive against if

he would give him

him,

good sum of money for it, caused the him, that he might learn

a

Matteo

di

first

intimation of the conspiracies

Moroso, one of the conspirators, he

him

presently put

rumour, that

to death,

7

them back, showed them his form, and voluntarily delivered himself up to their cruelty, by that means to free both himself and them from further trouble. To invite a man's enemies to come and cut his throat, seems a resolution a little extravagant and odd; and vet I think he did better to take that course, than to live in continual feverish fear of an accident for which there was no cure. But seeing all the seat, called

remedies a

man

can apply

are full of unquietness better with a self for the

man

not certain the thing

an

art so

to

necessary to his preservation.

The man

did a great

many foolish things in the estabnew tyranny over Florence but

lishment of his

:

to

'tis

prepare one's

we

this, that

fear will ever

we

are

come

to

pass.

made answer,

that all the art he knew, was, that he should give him a talent, and afterwards boast that he had obtained a singular secret from him. Dionvsius liked the invention, and accordingly caused six hundred crowns to be counted out to him. It was not likely he should give so great a sum to a person unknown, but upon the account of some extraordinary discovery, and the belief of this served to keep his enemies in awe. Princes, however, do wisely to publish the informations they receive of all the practices against their lives, to possess men with an opinion they have so good intelligence that nothing can be plotted against them, but they have present notice of it. The Duke of Athens

such a disease,

worst that can happen, and to ex-

some consolation from

tract

be brought

to

and uncertainty,

manly courage

his pains, Dionvsius, hearing of to

to suppress that

might not be thought any of the city disliked his government. I remember I have formerly read a story of some Roman of great quality who, flving the tyranny of the Triumvirate, had a thousand times by the subtlety of as manv inventions escaped from falling into the hands of those that pursued him. It happened one day that a troop of horse, which was sent out to take him, passed close by a brake where he was squat, and missed very narrowly of spying him; but he considering, at this point, the pains and difficulties wherein he had so long continued, to evade the strict and incessant searches that were even day made for him, the little pleasure he could hope for in such a kind of life, and how much better it was for him to die once for all, than to be perpetually at this pass, he started from his it

xxiv.

Of pedantry

I was often, when a boy, wonderfully concerned to see, n the Italian farces, a pedant always brought in for the fool of the play, and that the title of Magister was in no greater reverence amongst us: for being delivered up to their tuition, what could I do less than be jealous of

honour and reputation? I sought, indeed, them by the natural incompatibility betwixt the vulgar sort and men of a finer thread, both in judgment and knowledge, forasmuch as they go a quite contrary way to one another: but in this, the thing I most stumbled at was, that the finest gentlemen were those who most despised them; witness our famous their

to excuse

poet

Du

Bellay:

A

Montaigne

56

hay par sur tout un scavoir pedantesque. 1

Mais

je

And

'twas so in former times; for Plutarch says,

Greek and Scholar were terms of reproach and contempt amongst the Romans. But since, that

with the better experience of age,

find they

I

had very great reason so to do, and that magis magnos clericos non sunt magis magnos sapi2 entes. But whence it should come to pass, that a mind enriched with the knowledge of so many things should not become more quick and sprightly, and that a gross and vulgar understanding should lodge within

it,

without

and improving itself, all the discourses and judgments of the greatest minds

correcting

the world ever had,

many

so

I

am

yet to seek.

To

admit

foreign conceptions, so great and so

high fancies,

it is

necessary (as a young lady,

one of the greatest princesses of the kingdom,

me

said to

once, speaking of a certain person)

own brain must be crowded and squeezed together into a less compass, to make room for the others; I should be apt to conclude, that as plants are suffocated and drowned with too much nourishment, and lamps with too much oil, so with too much study and matter is the active part of the understanding which, being embarrassed, and confounded with a that a man's

great diversity of things, loses the force

power

and

disengage itself, and, by the pressure of this weight, is bowed, subjected and doubled up. But it is quite otherwise; for our soul stretches and dilates itself proportionably as it fills;

to

and in the examples of elder times, we

quite contrary,

see,

men very proper for public busi-

ness, great captains,

and great statesmen, very

learned withal. And, as to the philosophers, a sort of

men re-

all public affairs, they have been sometimes also despised by the comic liberty of

mote from

and manners makthem appear to men of another sort ridiculous. Would you make them judges of a lawtheir times; their opinions

ing

the actions of men? they are ready to upon them, and straight begin to exam-

suit, of

take

it

if there be life, if there be motion, if man be any other than an ox; what it is to do and

ine

what animals, law and justice are? they speak of the magistrate, or to him, 'tis with a rude, irreverent, and indecent liberty. Do they hear their prince, or a king commended, they make no more of him than of a shepto suffer?

Do

1

Of all

things

I

hate pedantic learning.— Du Bel-

herd, goatherd, or neatherd: a lazy

Condon,

occupied in milking and shearing his herds and flocks, but more rudely and harshly than the herd or shepherd himself. Do you repute any man the greater for being lord of two thousand acres of land? they laugh at such a pitiful pittance, as laying claim themselves to the whole world for their possession. Do you boast of your nobility, as being descended from seven rich successive ancestors? they look upon you with an eye of contempt, as men who have not a right idea of the universal image of nature, and that do not consider how many predecessors every one of us has had, rich, poor, kings, slaves, Greeks, and barbarians; and though you were the fiftieth descendant from Hercules, they look upon it as a great vanity, so highly to value this, which is only a gift of fortune. And 'twas so the vulgar sort contemned them, as men ignorant of the most elementary and ordinary things; as

But

presumptuous and

insolent.

from were envied for raising themselves above the common sort, for despising the ordinary actions and offices of life, for having assumed a particular and inimitable way of living, and for using a certain method of high-flight and obsolete language, quite different from the ordinary way of speaking: but these are contemned as being as much below the usual form, as incapable of public employment, as leading a life and conforming themselves to the mean and vile manthis Platonic picture

is

far different

that these pedants are presented by. Those

ners of the vulgar:

Odi homines ignava

opera, philosopha sentential

For what concerns the philosophers, as I have they were great in science, they were

said, if

yet

much

greater in action.

And,

of the geometrician of Syracuse,

as

it is

said

who having

been disturbed from his contemplation to put some of his skill in practice for the defence of his country, that he suddenly set on foot dreadful and prodigious engines, that wrought effects beyond all human expectation; himself, notwithstanding, disdaining all this handiwork, and thinking in this he had played the mere mechanic, and violated the dignity of his art, of which these performances of his he accounted but trivial experiments and playthings: so they, whenever they have been put upon the proof of action, have been seen to fly to so high

made

it

very well appear their souls

men who

jabber about philosophy, but

a pitch, as

lay. 2 The greatest clerks are not the wisest men.— proverb given in Rabelais' Gargantua, i. 39.

8

1

hate

do nothing.— Pacuvius,

in Gellius,

xiii. 8-

Essay S were marvellously elevated, and enriched by the knowledge of things. But some of them, seeing the reins of government in the hands of incapable men, have avoided all management of political affairs; and he who demanded of Crates, how long it was necessary to philosophise, received this answer: "Till our armies are

no more commanded by

fools." Heraclitus

resigned the royalty to his brother; and, to the

who

reproached him that he spent his time in playing with children before the temple: "Is it not better," said he, "to do so, than to sit at the helm of affairs in your company?" Others having their imagination advanced above the world and fortune, have looked upon the tribunals of justice, and even the thrones of kings, as paltry and contemptible; insomuch, that Empedocles refused the royalty that the Agrigentines offered to him. Thales, once inveighing in discourse against the pains and care men put themselves to to become rich, Ephesians,

was answered by one

in the

company, that he

did like the fox, who found fault with what he could not obtain. Whereupon, he had a mind, for the jest's sake, to

and having,

show them

for this occasion,

to the contrary;

made

a muster of

to employ them in the servand gain, he set a traffic on foot, which in one year brought him in so great riches, that the most experienced in that trade could hardly in their whole lives, with all their industry, have raked so much together. That which Aristotle reports of some who called both him and Anaxagoras, and others of their all

his wits,

wholly

ice of profit

profession, wise but not prudent, in not apply-

24

I.

57

their respect to the former.

be a third

crier,

We

than

who

is

letting this

first

reason alone,

I

think

from

it

their

applying themselves the wrong way to the study of the sciences; and that, after the manner we are instructed,

it is

no wonder

scholars nor the masters become,

learned, ever the wiser, or truth, the cares

more

if

neither the

though more able. In plain

and expense our parents are

at

in our education, point at nothing, but to fur-

nish our heads with knowledge; but not a word of judgment and virtue. Cry out, of one that passes by, to the people: "O,

what

a learned

man!" and of another, "O, what a good man!" they will not fail to turn their eyes, and address

more learned.

We

only labour to stuff the memory, and leave the conscience and the understanding unfurnished and void. Like birds who fly abroad to forage for grain, and bring it home in the beak, without tasting it themselves, to feed their young; so our pedants go picking knowledge here and there, out of books, and hold it at the tongue's end, only to spit it out and distribute it abroad. And here I cannot but smile to think how I have paid myself in showing the foppery of this kind of learning, who myself am so manifest an example; for, do I not the same thing throughout almost this whole composition? I go here and there, culling out of several books the sentences that best please me, not to keep

them

(for

I

have no memory

to retain

them

in),

but to transplant them into this; where, to say the truth, they are no more mine than in their first places. are, I conceive, knowing only in present knowledge, and not at all in what is past, no more than in that which is to come. But the worst on't is, their scholars and pupils are no better nourished by this kind of inspiration; and it makes no deeper impression upon them, but passes from hand to hand, only to make a show, to be tolerable company, and to

We

tell

But

are

pal concern, these are never thought of. should rather examine, who is better learned,

counters, of

better to say, that this evil proceeds

Men

stand Greek or Latin? Is he a poet? or does he write in prose? But whether he be grown better or more discreet, which are qualities of princi-

do not well digest this verbal distinction— that will not, however, serve to excuse my pedants, for to see the low and necessitous fortune wherewith they are content, we have rather reason to pronounce that they are neither wise nor prudent.

"O, the blockheads!"

apt presently to inquire, does such a one under-

ing their study to more profitable things— though I

There should then

pretty stories, like a counterfeit coin in

no other use or value but

with, or to set

up

at cards.

Apud

to

reckon

alios loqui

non ipsi secum. 1 Non est loquendum, sed gubernandum. 2 Nature, to show that there is nothing barbarous where she has the sole conduct, oftentimes, in nations where art didicerunt,

has the least to do, causes productions of wit, such as may rival the greatest effects of art whatever. In relation to what I am now speaking of, the Gascon proverb, derived from a cornpipe, is very quaint and subtle. Bouha prou bouha, mas a remuda lous dits qu'em. 3 can say, Cicero says thus; these were the manners of Plato; these are the very words of Aristotle;

We

a They have learned to speak from others, not from themselves.— Cicero, Tusc. Quaes., v. 36. 2 Speaking is not so necessary as governing.—

Seneca, Epist., 108. 8

You may blow

once you

your eyes your fingers,

till

offer to stir

start out; it is all

but

over.

if

Montaigne

58

but what do we say ourselves? What do we judge? A parrot would say as much as that. And this puts me in mind of that rich gentleman of Rome, who had been solicitous, with very great expense, to procure men that were excellent in

all sorts

whom

of science,

he had

always attending his person, to the end, that when amongst his friends any occasion fell out of speaking of any subject whatsoever, they might supply his place, and be ready to prompt him, one with a sentence of Seneca, another with a verse of Homer, and so forth, every one according to his talent; and he fancied this knowledge to be his own, because it was in the heads of those who lived upon his bounty; as they, also, do whose learning consists in having noble libraries. I know one, who, when I question him what he knows, he presently calls for a book to show me, and dares not venture to tell me so much as that he has piles in his posteriors, till first he has consulted his dictionary,

what

We

piles

and

posteriors are.

take other men's knowledge

and opinwhich is an idle and superficial learning. We must make it our own. We are in this very like him who, having need of fire, went to a neighbour's house to fetch it, and finding a very good one there, sat down to warm himself without remembering to carry any with him home. What good does it do us to have the stomach full of meat if it do not digest, if it be ions

upon

trust;

not incorporated with us, if it does not nourish and support us? Can we imagine that Lucullus, whom letters, without any manner of experience, made so great a captain, learned to be so after this perfunctory manner? suffer our-

We

selves to lean

and

rely so strongly

upon the arm

we destroy our own strength Would I fortify myself against the

of another, that

and vigour.

fear of death,

it

Seneca would

I

:

my

must be

at the

expense of

extract consolation for myself

from Cicero. I might had I been trained to make use of my own reason. I do not like this relative and mendicant understanding; for though we could become learned by other men's learning, a man can never be wise but by his own wisdom. or

friend,

have found

M.KTW

Whence

it

I

borrow

it

in myself,

bra militis esse dicunt ), but, moreover, fifteen days' provision, together with a certain number

wherewith to fortify their camp, sixty pounds in weight. And Marius* soldiers, laden at the same rate, were inured to march in order of battle five leagues in five hours, and sometimes, upon any urgent occasion, six. Their military discipline was much ruder than ours, and accordingly produced much greater effects. The younger Scipio, reforming his army in Spain, ordered his soldiers to eat standing, and nothing that was drest. The jeer that was given a Lacedaemonian soldier is marvellously pat to this of stakes,

5

Two

of the warriors, of

whom

I sing,

had on

each his helmet and cuirass, and never had night or day once laid them by, whilst here they were; those arms, by long practice, were so easy grown and light to bear.— Ariosto, xii. 30. 6 Cicero, Tusc. Quaes., ii. 16.

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94

purpose, who, in an expedition of war, was reproached for having been seen under the roof of a house: they were so inured to hardship that, let the weather be what it would, it was a shame to be seen under any other cover than the roof should not march our people very of heaven.

We

x.

Of books

make no doubt but that I of ten happen to speak of things that are much better and more truly handled by those who are masters of the trade.

I

You have here purely an

far at that rate.

parts,

As to what remains, Marcellinus, a man bred up in the Roman wars, curiously observes the manner of the Parthians arming themselves, and

any

the rather, for being so different from that of the Romans. "They had," says he, "armour so woven as to have all the scales fall over one another like so many little feathers; which did

nothing hinder the motion of the body, and yet were of such resistance, that our darts hitting upon them, would rebound" (these were the coats of mail our forefathers were so constantly

wont

to use).

And in another place;

says he, "strong

and able

"they had,"

horses, covered with

and were themarmed cay-a-fie with great plates of iron,

thick tanned hides of leather, selves

so artificially ordered, that in all parts of the

which required bending, they lent themOne would have said, that they had been men of iron; having armour for the head so neatly fitted, and so naturally representing the form of a face, that they were nowhere vulnerable, save at two little round holes, that gave them a little light, corresponding with their eyes, and certain small chinks about their nostrils, through which they, with great diffilimbs,

selves to the motion.

culty, breathed," Flexilis inductis

animatur lamina memhris,

Horribilis visu; credas simulacra moveri

Verrea, cognatoque viros spirare metallo.

Par vestitus equis: ferrata fronte minantur, Ferratosque movent, securi vulneris, armos. 1

-

'Tis a description very near resembling the equipage of the men-at-arms in France, with 2 their barded horses. Plutarch says, that Demetrius caused two complete suits of armour to be made for himself and for Alcimus, a captain of the greatest note and authority about him, of sixscore pounds weight each, whereas the ordinary suits weighed but half so much.

1

body so flexiyou would think these

Plates of steel are placed over the

ble that, dreadful to be seen,

not living men, but moving images. The horses, likearmed, wear spikes in front, and move secured from wounds by armour on their iron shoulders.— Claudian, In Ruf., ii. 358. 2 Demetrius.

and not

shall catch

essay of

of those acquired:

my

me tripping in ignorance, me;

sort get the better of

natural

and whoever will not in

should be very unwilling to become responsible to another for my writings, who am not so to myself, nor satisfied with them. Whoever goes in quest of for

I

knowledge, let him fish for it where it is to be found; there is nothing I so little profess. These are fancies of my own, by which I do not pretend to discover things but to lay open myself; they may, peradventure, one day be known to me, or have formerly been, according as fortune has been able to bring me in place where they have been explained; but I have utterly forgot-

and if I am a man of some reading, I am of no retention; so that I can promise no certainty, more than to make known to what point the knowledge I now have has risen. Therefore, let none lay stress upon the matter I write, but upon my method in writing it. Let them observe, in what I borrow, if I have known how to choose what is proper to raise or help the invention, which is always my own. For I make others say for me, not before but after me, what, either for want of language or want of sense, I cannot myself so well express. I do not number my borrowings, I weigh them; and had I designed to raise their value by number, I had made them twice as many; they are all, or within a very few, so famed and ancient authors, that ten

a

it;

man

they seem, methinks, themselves sufficiently to who they are, without givingme the trouble. In reasons, comparisons, and arguments, if I tell

transplant any into my own soil, and confound them amongst my own, I purposely conceal the author, to awe the temerity of those precipitate censors who fall upon all sorts of writings, particularly the late ones, of men yet living, and in the vulgar tongue which puts every one into a capacity of criticising and which seem to convict the conception and design as vulgar also. I will have them give Plutarch a fillip on my nose, and rail against Seneca when they think they rail at me. I must shelter my own weakness un-

any one by clearness of understanding and judgment, and by the sole distinction of the force and beauty of the discourse. For I who, for want of memory, am at every turn at a loss to pick them out of their national der these great reputations.

that can

unplume me,

that

I

is,

shall love

,

Essays livery,

am

ure of

my own abilities, that my soil is incapable

yet wise enough to

know, by the meas-

any of those rich flowers that I and that all the fruits of my own growth are not worth any one of them. For

of producing

there find growing;

I hold myself responsible; if I get way; if there be any vanity and dewritings which I do not of myself perceive nor can discern, when pointed out to me by another; for many faults escape our eye,

this,

indeed,

my own fect in my in

but the infirmity of judgment consists in not being able to discern them when, by another laid open to us. Knowledge and truth may be in us without judgment, and judgment also without them; but the confession of ignorance is one of

and surest testimonies of judgment know. I have no other officer to put my writings in rank and file, but only fortune. As things come into my head, I heap them one upon another; sometimes they advance in whole bodies, sometimes in single file. I would that every one should see my natural and ordinary pace, irregular as it is; I suffer myself to jog on at my own rate. Neither are these subjects which a the finest that

I

man is not permitted to be ignorant in, or casually

and

at a venture, to discourse of. I

could wish

more perfect knowledge of things, but I will not buy it so dear as it costs. My design is to pass over easily, and not laboriously, the remainder of my life; there is nothing that I will to

have

cudgel of

a

my brains about; no, not even knowledge,

what value I

soever.

myself, by an honest diversion; or,

if I

study,

'tis

no other science than what treats of the knowledge of myself, and instructs me how to die and how to live well. for

Has mens ad metas sudet

oyortet equus. 1

I do not bite my nails about the difficulties I meet with in my reading; after a charge or two, I give them over. Should I insist upon them, I should both lose myself and time; for I have an impatient understanding, that must be satisfied at first: what I do not discern at once, is by persistence rendered more obscure. I do nothing without gaiety; continuation and a too obstinate endeavour, darkens, stupefies, and tires my judgment. My sight is confounded and dissipated with poring; I must withdraw it, and refer my

new attempts; just as to judge rightwe are taught to pass

ly of the lustre of scarlet,

the eye lightly over 1

it,

and again

to

run

it

over

My horse must be trained to this course.— Prop-

ertius, iv. 1, 70.

10

195

sudden and reiterated glances. If one book do not please me, I take another; and never meddle with any, but at such times as I am weary of doing nothing. I care not much for new ones, because the old seem fuller and stronger; neither do I converse much with Greek authors, because my judgment cannot do its work with imperfect intelligence of the material.

Amongst books that are simply pleasant, of the moderns, Boccaccio's Decameron, Rabelais, and the Basia of Johannes Secundus (if those may be ranged under the title) are worth reading for amusement. As to Amadis, and such kind of stuff, they had not credit to take me, so much as in my childhood. And I will, moreover, say, whether boldly or rashly, that this old, heavy soul of mine is now no longer tickled with Ariosto no, nor with Ovid; his facility and inventions, with which I was formerly so ravished, are now of no more relish, and I can hardly have the patience to read them. I speak my opinion freely of all things, even of those that, perhaps, exceed my capacity, and that I do not conceive to be, in any wise, under my jurisdiction. And, accordjudgment I deliver, is to show the measure of my own sight, and not of the things ingly, the

I

make

so bold to criticise.

When

I

find myself

disgusted with Plato's Axiochus, as with a work,

with due respect to such an author be it spoken, without force, my judgment does not believe itself: it is not so arrogant as to oppose the authority of so

seek, in the reading of books, only to please

discovery to

II.

at several

many other famous judgments of antiq-

it considers as its tutors and masters, and with whom it is rather content to err; in such a case, it condemns itself either to stop at the outward bark, not being able to penetrate to the heart, or to consider it by some false light. It is content with only securing itself from trouble and disorder; as to its own weakness, it frankly acknowledges and confesses it. It thinks it gives a just interpretation to the appearances by its

uity, which

conceptions presented to

it;

but they are weak

and imperfect. Most of the fables of ^sop have diverse senses and meanings, of which the mythologists chose some one that quadrates well to the fable; but, for the most part, 'tis but the first face that presents itself and is superficial only; there yet remain others more vivid, essential, and profound, into which they have not been able to penetrate; and just so 'tis with me. But, to pursue the business of this essay, I have always thought that, in poesy, Virgil, Lucretius, Catullus, and Horace by many degrees excel the rest; and signally, Virgil in his Georgics, which I look upon as the most accomplished piece in poetry; and in comparison of which a

Montaigne

96

man may easily discern that there are some places which the author would have given a little more of the file, had he had leisure: and the fifth book of his /Eneids seems to me the most perfect. I also love Lucan, and willingly

Liquidus, puroque simillimus amni, 2

in his JEneids, to

and

so possesses the soul

with his graces that we This same considera-

forget those of his fable. tion carries

me

further:

I

observe that the best

read him, not so much for his style, as for his own worth, and the truth and solidity of his

of the ancient poets have avoided affectation and

opinions and judgments. As for Terence, that model of the refined elegancies and grace of the Latin tongue, I find him admirable in his vivid representation of our manners and the movements of the soul; our actions throw me at every turn, upon him; and I cannot read him so often

Petrarchal elevations, but even the softer and

judgment that will condemn this in the ancients, and that does not incomparably more admire the equal polish, and that perpetual sweetness and

some new grace and

flourishing beauty of Catullus's epigrams, than

that

do not

I

still

discover

were scandalised that some should compare him with Lucretius. I am, I confess, of opinion that the comparison is, in truth, very unequal; a belief that, nevertheless, I have much ado to assure myself in, when I come upon some excellent passage in Lucretius. But if they were so angry beauty.

at this

Such

as lived near Virgil's time

comparison, what would they say to the

brutish and barbarous stupidity of those who,

nowadays, compare him with Ariosto?

Would

not Ariosto himself say

O

seclum insipiens

et

inpcetuml

1

the hunting after, not only fantastic Spanish and

more gentle touches, which succeeding poesy.

all

Terence, though much nearer the mark, than Lucretius with Virgil. It makes much for the estimation and preference of Terence, that the father of Roman eloquence has him so often, and alone of his class, in his mouth; and the opinion that the best judge of Roman poets has passed upon his companion. I have often observed that those of our times, who take upon them to write comedies (in imitation of the Italians,

who are happy enough in that way of writ-

ing), take three or four plots of those of Plautus

or Terence to

make one of their own, and crowd

five or six of Boccaccio's novels into one single comedy. That which makes them so load themselves with matter is the diffidence they have of being able to support themselves with their own strength. They must find out something to lean to; and not having of their own stuff wherewith

they bring in the story to supply It is quite otherwise with my author; the elegance and perfection of his way of speaking makes us lose the appetite of his plot; his refined grace and elegance of diction everywhere occupy us: he is so pleasant throughto entertain us,

the defect of language.

out, 1

stupid and tasteless age.— Catullus,

xliii. 8.

are the

ornament of is no good

yet there

the stings with which Martial arms the

all

of his. This fore,

and

is

by the same reason

that

as Martial says of himself:

I

tails

gave be-

Minus Mi

ingenio laborandum fuit, in cujus locum materia successerat* The first, without being

moved, or without getting angry, make themselves sufficiently felt; they have matter enough of laughter throughout, they need not tickle themselves; the others have need of foreign assistance; as they have the less wit they must have the more body; they mount on horseback, because they are not able to stand on their own legs.

think the ancients had more reason to be angry with those who compared Plautus with I

And

As

in our balls, those

mean

fellows

who

teach to dance, not being able to represent the

presence and dignity of our noblesse, are fain to put themselves forward with dangerous jumping, and other strange motions and tumblers' tricks; and the ladies are less put to it in dances, where there are various coupees, changes, and quick motions of body, than in some other of a

more sedate kind, where they are only to move a natural pace, and to represent their ordinary grace and presence. And so I have seen good drolls, when in their own everyday clothes, and with the same face they always wear, give us all the pleasure of their

art,

when their apprentices,

not yet arrived at such a pitch of perfection, are fain to meal their faces, put themselves into ridiculous disguises, and make a hundred grotesque faces to give us whereat to laugh. This conception of mine is nowhere more demonstrable than in comparing the /Eneid with Orlando Furioso; of which we see the first, by dint of

wing, flying in a brave and lofty place, and always following his point; the latter, fluttering and hopping from tale to tale, as from branch to 2

Liquid, and like a crystal stream.— Horace, Ep120. 3 He had all the less for his wit to do that the subject itself supplied what was necessary.— Mar-

ist., ii. 2,

tial, viii. praef.

Essays

10

II.

197

the truth (for since one has passed the barriers

branch, not daring to trust his wings but in very short flights, and perching at every turn, lest his

of impudence, off with the bridle), his

breath and strength should

writing,

fail,

Excursusque breves

tentat.

and that of

way

of

other long-winded au-

me

very tedious: for his prefand etymologies take the greatest part of his work: whatever there

thors, appears to

1

all

aces, definitions, divisions,

These, then, as

to this sort of subjects, are the

authors that best please me. As to what concerns my other reading, that

mixes a

little

whence

I

more

profit

with the pleasure, and

how to marshal my opinions and the books that serve me to this pur-

learn

conditions,

pose are Plutarch, since he has been translated into French, and Seneca. Both of these have this notable convenience suited to my humour, that I there seek is discoursed in loose

the knowledge pieces, that

do not require from

am

me any

trouble

Such minor works of the first and the epistles of the latter, which are the best and most profiting of all their writings. 'Tis no great attempt to take one of them in hand, and I give over at pleasure; for they have no sequence or dependence upon one another. These authors, for the most part, concur in useful and true opinions; and there is this parallel betwixt them, that fortune brought them into the world about the same century they were both tutors to two Roman emperors: both sought out from foreign countries: both rich and both great men. Their instruction is the cream of philosophy, and delivered after a plain and pertinent manner. Plutarch is more uniform and constant; Seneca more various and waving: the last toiled and bent his whole strength to fortify virtue against weakness, fear, and vicious appetites; the other seems more to slight their power, and to disdain to alter his pace and to stand upon his guard. Plutarch's opinions are Platonic, gentle, and accommodated to civil society; those of the other are Stoical and Epicurean, more remote from the common use, but, in my opinion, more individually commodious and more firm. Seneca seems to lean a little to the tyranny of the emperors of his time, and only seems; for I take it for certain that he speaks against his judgment when he condemns the action of the generous murderers of Caesar. Plutarch is frank throughout: Seneca abounds with brisk touches and sallies; Plutarch with things that heat and move you more; this contents and pays you better: he guides us, the of reading long, of

which

I

incapable.

are the

:

to Cicero, those of his

useful to

works that are most

my design are they that treat of philos-

ophy, especially moral. But boldly to confess 1

Making

is

of life

and marrow

the long preparation.

is

smothered and lost in I have spent an

When

hour in reading him, which is a great deal for me, and try to recollect what I have thence extracted of juice and substance, for the most part I find nothing but wind; for he is not yet come to the arguments that serve to his purpose, and to the reasons that properly help to form the knot I seek. For me, who only desire to become more wise, not more learned or eloquent, these logical and Aristotelian dispositions of parts are of no use. I would have a man begin with the main proposition. I know well enough what death and pleasure are; let no man give himself the trouble to anatomise them to me. I look for good and solid reasons, at the first dash, to instruct me how to stand their shock, for which purpose neither grammatical subtleties nor the quaint contexture of words and argumentations are of

any use

at all. I

am

for discourses that give the

charge into the heart of the redoubt; his languish about the subject; they are proper for the schools, for the bar, and for the pulpit, where we have leisure to nod, and may awake, a quarter of an hour after, time enough to find again the thread of the discourse. It is necessary to speak after this manner to judges, whom a man has a design to gain over, right or wrong, to children and common people, to whom a man must first

say all, and see what will come of it. I would not have an author make it his business to render me attentive: or that he should cry out fifty times Oyez, as the heralds do. The Romans, in their religious exercises, began with Hoc age: as we in ours do with Sursum corda; these are so many words lost to me: I come already fully

prepared from my chamber. I need no allurement, no invitation, no sauce; I eat the meat raw, so that, instead of whetting my appetite by these preparatives, they tire and pall it. Will the license of the time excuse my sacrilegious boldness if I censure the dialogism of Plato himself as also dull and heavy, too much stifling the matter, and lament so much time lost by a man,

who had so many better things to say, in so many

other pushes us on.

As

up

short runs.—Virgil, Georg., iv. 194.

long and needless preliminary interlocutions? ignorance will better excuse me in that I understand not Greek so well as to discern the beauty of his language. I generally choose books that use sciences, not such as only lead to them.

My

i

Montaigne

98

The two

first, and Pliny, and their like, have nothing of this Hoc age; they will have to do with men already instructed; or if they have, 'tis a substantial Hoc age, and that has a body by itself. I also delight in reading the Epistles to Atticus, not only because they contain a great deal of the history and affairs of his time, but

much more because I therein discover much of his own private humours; for I have a singular curiosity, as I

the souls

have said elsewhere,

pry into

to

and the natural and true opinions of

the authors with whom I converse. A man may indeed judge of their parts, but not of their manners nor of themselves, by the writings they exhibit upon the theatre of the world. I have a thousand times lamented the loss of the treatise Brutus wrote upon virtue, for it is well to learn the theory from those

who

best

know

the prac-

But seeing the matter preached and the preacher are different things, I would as willingly see Brutus in Plutarch, as in a book of his own. I would rather choose to be certainly informed of the conference he had in his tent with some particular friends of his the night before a battle, than of the harangue he made the next day to his army; and of what he did in his closet and his chamber, than what he did in the public square and in the senate. As to Cicero, I am tice.

of the

common

opinion that, learning excepted,

he had no great natural excellence. He was a good citizen, of an affable nature, as all fat, heavy men, such as he was, usually are; but given to ease, and had, in truth, a mighty share of vanity and ambition. Neither do I know how to excuse him for thinking his poetry fit to be published; 'tis no great imperfection to make ill verses, but it is an imperfection not to be able to judge how unworthy his verses were of the glory of his name. For what concerns his eloquence, that is totally out of all comparison, and I believe it will never be equalled. The younger Cicero, who resembled his father in nothing but in name, whilst commanding in Asia, had several strangers one day at his table, and, amongst the rest, Cestius seated at the lower end, as men often intrude to the open tables of the great. Cicero asked one of his people who that man was, who presently told him his name; but he, as one who had his thoughts taken up with something else, and who had forgotten the an-

your father's eloquence in comparison of his own." At which Cicero, being suddenly nettled, commanded poor Cestius presently to be seized, and caused him to be very well whipped in his

own

presence; a very discourteous entertainer! Yet even amongst those, who, all things considered, have reputed his eloquence incomparable, there have been some, who have not stuck to observe some faults in it; as that great Brutus his friend, for example, who said 'twas a broken and feeble eloquence, fractam et elumbem. The orators also, nearest to the age wherein he lived, reprehended in him the care he had of a certain long cadence in his periods, and particularly took notice of these words, esse videatur, which he there so often makes use of. For my part, I more approve of a shorter style, and that comes more roundly off. He does, though, sometimes shuffle his parts more briskly together, but 'tis very seldom. I have myself taken notice of this one passage: Ego vero me minus diu senem mallem, 1

quam esse senem antequam essem. The historians are my right ball,

for they are

man, in general, the knowledge of whom I hunt after, appears more vividly and entire than anywhere else: the variety and truth of his internal qualities, in gross and piecemeal, the diversity of means by which he is united and knit, and the accidents pleasant and easy, and where

Now

that threaten him.

those that write lives,

by reason they insist more upon counsels than events, more upon what sallies from within, than upon what happens without, are the most proper for

my reading;

Plutarch

is

the

and, therefore, above all others, for me. I am very sorry we

man

have not a dozen

ther extended; for

the lives

2

Laertii, or that I

and fortunes of these

of the world, as to

he was not fur-

am equally curious to know

know

great instructors

the diversities of their

and opinions. In this kind of study of man must tumble over, without distinction, all sorts of authors, old and new, French or foreign, there to know the things of which they variously treat. But Caesar, in my opinion, doctrines

histories, a

particularly deserves to be studied, not for the

swer made him, asking three or four times, over

knowledge of the history only, but for himself, so great an excellence and perfection he has above all the rest, though Sallust be one of the number. In earnest, I read this author with more reverence and respect than is usually allowed to human writings; one while considering him

and over again, the same question, the fellow, to deliver himself from so many answers and to make him know him by some particular circum-

fore old age.— Cicero,

stance; "

was

'tis

that Cestius," said he, "of

told you, that

whom it

he makes no great account of

1

1

had rather be old

a brief time, than

De Senec, x. 2 Diogenes Laertius, who wrote the

philosophers.

be old be-

lives of the

Essays by his actions and miraculous and another in the purity and inimipolish of his language, wherein he not on-

II.

10

199 and judge according

own

in his person,

telligence,

greatness,

them, withal, leave us something to judge of after them, and neither alter nor disguise, by their abridgments and at their own choice, anything of the substance of the matter, but deliver it to us pure and entire in all its dimensions. For the most part, and especially in these latter ages, persons are culled out for this work from amongst the common people, upon the sole

table

ly excels all

other historians, as Cicero confesses,

but, peradventure,

even Cicero himself; speak-

ing of his enemies with so much sincerity in his judgment, that, the false colours with which he strives to palliate his evil cause,

and the ordure

of his pestilent ambition excepted, is

no

fault to be objected against

I

think there

him, saving

he speaks too sparingly of himself, seegreat things could not have been performed under his conduct, but that his own personal acts must necessarily have had a greater share in them than he attributes to them. I love historians, whether of the simple sort, or of the higher order. The simple, who have nothing of their own to mix with it, and who this,

that

ing so

only

many

make

it

their business to collect all that

knowledge, and faithfully to record all things, without choice or discrimination, leave to us the entire judgment of discerning the truth. Such, for example amongst others, is honest Froissart, who has proceeded in his undertaking with so frank a plainness that, having committed an error, he is not ashamed to confess, and correct it in the place where the finger has been laid, and who represents to us even the variety of rumours that were then spread abroad, and the different reports that were made to him; 'tis the naked and inform matter of history, and of which every one may make his profit, according to his understanding. The more excellent sort of historians have judgment to pick out what is most worthy to be known; and, of two reports, to examine which is the most likely to be true: from the condition of princes and their humours, they conclude their counsels, and attribute to them words proper for the occasion; such have title to assume the authority of regulating our belief to what they themselves believe; but certainly, this privilege belongs to very few. For the middle sort of historians, of which the most part are, they spoil all; they will chew our meat for us; they take upon them to judge of, and consequently, to incline the his-

comes

to their

tory to their to

one

own fancy; for if the judgment lean man cannot avoid wresting and

side, a

writhing his narrative to that bias; they undertake to select things worthy to be known, and yet often conceal from us such a word, such a private action, as would much better instruct us; omit, as incredible, such things as they do not

understand, and peradventure some, because they cannot express them well in good French or Latin. Let

them display

their

eloquence and in-

fancy: but

to their

let

consideration of well-speaking, as learn

if

we were

grammar from them; and the men

to

so cho-

sen have fair reason, being hired for no other end and pretending to nothing but babble, not to be very solicitous of any part but that, and so, with a fine jingle of words, prepare us a pretty

contexture of reports they pick up in the

The only good histories are

streets.

those that have been

written by the persons themselves who held command in the affairs whereof they write, or who participated in the conduct of them, or, at least, who have had the conduct of others of the

same nature. Such are almost

Roman

all

the Greek and

histories: for, several eye-witnesses hav-

ing written of the same subject, in the time when grandeur and learning commonly met in if there happen to be an error, must of necessity be a very slight one, and upon a very doubtful incident. What can a man expect from a physician who writes of war, or from a mere scholar, treating of the designs of

the same person,

it

we could take notice how scrupulous Romans were in this, there would need but

princes? If

the

example: Asinius Pollio found in the hissomething misreported, a mistake occasioned, either by reason he could not have his eye in all parts of his army at once and had given credit to some individual persons who had not delivered him a very true account; or else, for not having had too perfect notice given him by his lieutenants of what they had this

tories of Caesar himself,

done in his absence. By which we may see, whether the inquisition after truth be not very delicate,

when

a

man

cannot believe the report

knowledge of him who there commanded, nor from the soldiers who were engaged in it, unless, after the method of a judicial inquiry, the witnesses be confronted and

of a battle from the

objections considered upon the proof of the least

good earnest the knowledge we have of our own affairs, is much more obscure: but that has been sufficiently handled by Bodin, and according to my own sentiment. A little to aid the weakness of my memory (so extreme that it has happened to me more than once, to take books again into my detail of every incident. In

:

Montaigne

200 hand

as

new and

unseen, that

I

had

carefully

read over a few years before, and scribbled with

my

notes) I have adopted a custom of late, to note at the end of every book (that is, of those I never intend to read again) the time when I made an end on't, and the judgment I had made of

it,

to the

end

that this might, at least, repre-

sent to me the character and general idea I had conceived of the author in reading it; and I will here transcribe some of those annotations. I wrote this, some ten years ago, in my Guicciardini (of what language soever my books speak to me in, I always speak to them in my own): "He is a diligent historiographer,

pinion, a

man may

from whom, in

my

o-

learn the truth of the affairs

of his time, as exactly as from any other; in the most of which he was himself also a personal actor, and in honourable command. There is no appearance that he disguised anything, either

upon the account of hatred, favour, or vanity; of which the free censures he passes upon the great ones, and particularly, those by whom he was advanced and employed in commands of great trust and honour, as Pope Clement VII, give ample testimony. As to that part which he thinks himself the best

at,

namely, his digres-

and discourses, he has indeed some very good, and enriched with fine features; but he is too fond of them: for, to leave nothing unsaid, sions

ample, almost infinite, he degenerates into pedantry and smacks a little of scholastic prattle. I have also observed this in him, that of so many souls and so many effects, so many motives and so many counsels as he judges, he never attributes any one to virtue, re-

having a subject so

full,

ligion, or conscience, as if all these

were utterly

extinct in the world and of all the actions, how brave soever in outward show they appear in themselves, he always refers the cause and motive to some vicious occasion or some prospect of profit. It is impossible to imagine but that, :

amongst such an infinite number of actions as he makes mention of, there must be some one produced by the way of honest reason. No corruption could so universally have infected men that some one would not escape the contagion which makes me suspect, that his own taste was vicious, whence it might happen that he judged other men by himself." In my Philip de Comines, there is this written "You will here find the language sweet and :

delightful, of a natural simplicity, the narration

pure, with the good faith of the author conspicuous therein; free from vanity, when speaking of himself, and from affection or envy, when speak-

ing of others: his discourses and exhortations

rather accompanied with zeal and truth, than with any exquisite sufficiency; and, throughout, authority and gravity, which bespeak him a man of good extraction, and brought up in great affairs."

Upon the Memoirs of Monsieur du Bellay I find this: " 'Tis always pleasant to read things written by those that have experienced

how they

ought to be carried on; but withal, it cannot be denied but there is a manifest decadence in these two lords from the freedom and liberty of writing that shine in the elder historians, such as the Sire de Joinville, the familiar companion of St. Louis; Eginhard, chancellor to Charlemagne; and of later date, Philip de Comines. What we have here is rather an apology for King Francis, against the Emperor Charles V, than history. I will not believe that they have falsified anything, as to matter of fact; but they make a com-

mon practice of twisting the judgment of events, very often contrary to reason, to our advantage, and of omitting whatsoever is ticklish to be handled in the life of their master; witness the proceedings of Messieurs de Montmorency and de Biron, which are here omitted: nay, so much as the very name of Madame d'Estampes is not

here to be found. Secret actions an historian may conceal; but to pass over in silence what all

knows and things that have drawn them public and such high consequences, is an inexcusable defect. In fine, whoever has a mind to have a perfect knowledge of King Francis and the events of his reign, let him seek it the world

after

elsewhere, profit a

if

man

my

advice

may

prevail.

The

can reap from these Memoirs

only is

in

the special narrative of battles and other exploits of war wherein these gentlemen were personal-

some words and private actions and in the treaties and negotiations carried on by the Seigneur de Langey, where there are everywhere things v/orthy to be known, and discourses above the

ly engaged; in

of the princes of their time,

vulgar strain." xi. I

Of cruelty

fancy

virtue to be something else,

and some-

thing more noble, than good nature, and the mere propension to goodness, that we are born into the world withal. Well-disposed and welldescended souls pursue, indeed, the same methods, and represent in their actions the same face that virtue itself does: but the word virtue im-

more great and active than mereby a happy disposition, to be gently and quietly drawn to the rule of reason. He who, by a natural sweetness

ports something ly for a

man

to suffer himself,

Essays

II.

n

201 2

should despise injuries received, would, doubtless, do a very fine and laudable thing; but he who, provoked and nettled to the quick by an offence, should fortify himself with

one of the reasons why Epaminondas, who was yet of a

the arms of reason against the furious appetite of revenge, and, after a great conflict, master his

"I

and

facility,

own

would certainly do a great deal would do well; the latter virtuone action might be called goodness, and

passion,

more. ously:

The

first

turn sibi adjicit virtus lacessita. 'Tis

third sect, refused the riches fortune presented to

him by very lawful means; because, said am to contend with poverty," in which

ing for his exercise a confounded scolding wife,

which was fighting

Roman

at sharps.

Metellus having,

of all the

and cannot be exercised without an opponent. Tis for this reason, perhaps, that we call God good, mighty, liberal, and just; but we do not call Him virtuous, being that all His operations are natural and without endeavour. It has been

of Saturninus, tribune of the people at

many philosophers, not only Stobut Epicureans— (and this addition I borrow from the vulgar opinion, which is false, notwiththe opinion of

standing the witty conceit of Arcesilaus in anto one, who, being reproached that many scholars went from his school to the Epicurean, but never any from thence to his school, said in

swer

answer, "I believe it indeed; numbers of capons being made out of cocks, but never any cocks out of capons." For, in truth, the Epicurean sect is not at all inferior to the Stoic in steadiness, and the rigour of opinions and precepts. And a certain Stoic, showing more honesty than those disputants, who, in order to quarrel with Epicurus, and to throw the game into their hands, make him say what he never thought, putting a wrong construction upon his words, clothing his sentences by the strict rules of grammar, with another meaning, and a different opinion from that which they knew he entertained in his

ex-

treme he maintained himself to the last. Socrates put himself, methinks, upon a ruder trial, keep-

the other virtue; for, methinks, the very name of virtue presupposes difficulty and contention,

ics,

he,

the

power

Senators, alone attempted, by

of virtue, to withstand the violence

who would, by

Rome,

means, cause an unjust law to pass in favour of the commons, and, by so doing, having incurred the capital penalties that Saturninus had established against the dissentient, entertained those who, in this extremity, led him to execution with words to this effect: That it was a thing too easy and too base to do ill; and that to do well where there was no danger was a common thing; but that to do well where there was danger was the proper office of 3 a man of virtue. These words of Metellus very clearly represent to us what I would make out, viz., that virtue refuses facility for a companion; and that the easy, smooth, and descending way by which the regular steps of a sweet disposition of nature are conducted is not that of a true virtue; she requires a rough and stormy passage; she will have either exotic difficulties to wrestle with, like that of Metellus, by means whereof fortune delights to interrupt the speed of her all

career, or internal difficulties, that the inordi-

nate appetites and imperfections of our condition introduce to disturb her.

i\o8iKaLOL,

I am come thus far at my ease; but here it comes into my head that the soul of Socrates, the most perfect that ever came to my knowledge, should, by this rule, be of very little recommendation; for I cannot conceive in that person any the least motion of a vicious inclination: I cannot imagine there could be any difficulty or

tinent

constraint in the course of his virtue:

mind, and in his morals, the Stoic, I say, declared that he abandoned the Epicurean sect, upon this, among other considerations, that he thought their road too lofty and inaccessible; Et ii qui i\ri8ovoL vocantur sunt 0iAoKaAoi et

omnesque virtutes et colunt et re*)— these philosophers say that it is not enough to have the soul seated in a good place, of a good temper, and well disposed to virtue; it is not enough to have our resolutions and our reasoning fixed above all the power of fortune, but that wherein

we

are, moreover, to seek occasions put them to the proof: they would seek pain, necessity, and contempt, to contend with them and to keep the soul in breath Mul-

to

:

1

And

those

whom we

ing, in effect, lovers of

and i,

know his

petite so

much

as to spring in him.

To

a virtue

have nothing to oppose. Methinks I see him march, with a victorious and triumphant pace, in pomp and at his ease, without opposition or disturbance. If virtue cannot shine bright, but by the conflict of contrary appetites, shall we then say that she cannot subso elevated as his,

I

call lovers of pleasure, be-

honour and

justice, cultivate

practise all the virtues.— Cicero, Ep. Fam., xv.

19.

I

reason to be so powerful and sovereign over him that she would never have suffered a vicious ap-

2

Virtue

is

much

strengthened by combats.— Sen-

eca, Efist., 15. 8

Plutarch, Caius Marius.

.

Montaigne

202

sist without the assistance of vice, and that it is from her that she derives her reputation and honour? What then, also, would become of that brave and generous Epicurean pleasure, which makes account that it nourishes virtue tenderly in her lap, and there makes it play and wanton, giving it for toys to play withal, shame, fevers, poverty, death, and torments? If I presuppose

that a perfect virtue manifests itself in con-

tending, in patient enduring of pain, and undergoing the uttermost extremity of the gout, with-

out being moved in her

seat; if I give her trouher necessary objects: what will become of a virtue elevated to such a degree, as not only to despise pain, but, moreover, to rejoice in it, and to be tickled with the daggers of a sharp gout, such as the Epicureans have established, and of which many of them, by their actions, have given most manifest proofs? As have several others, who I find to have surpassed in effects even the very rules of their discipline; witness the younger Cato: when I see him die, and tearing out his own bowels, I am not satisfied simply to believe that he had then

and

bles

difficulty for

his soul totally ror: I

exempt from

all

trouble

and hor-

cannot think that he only maintained him-

self in the steadiness that the Stoical rules pre-

scribed him; temperate, without emotion

and

imperturbed. There was, methinks, something in the virtue of this

man

too sprightly

and fresh

without doubt, he felt a pleasure and delight in so noble an action, and was more pleased in it than in any other of his life Sic abiit e vita, ut causam moriendi nactum se esse gauderet. 1 1 believe it so thoroughly that I question whether he would have been content to have been deprived of the occasion of so brave an execution; and if the goodness that made him embrace the public concern more than his own, withheld me not, I should easily fall into an opinion that he thought himself obliged to fortune for having put his virtue upon so brave a trial, and for having favoured that thief in treading underfoot the ancient liberty of his to stop there; I believe that,

:

country. Methinks I read in this action I know not what exaltation in his soul, and an extraordinary and manly emotion of pleasure when he looked upon the generosity and height of his enterprise: 2 Deliberata morte ferocior,

not stimulated with any hope of glory, as the popular and effeminate judgments of some have concluded (for that consideration was too mean and low to possess so generous, so haughty, and so determined a heart as his), but for the very beauty of the thing in itself, which he who had the handling of the springs discerned more clearly and in its perfection than we are able to do. Philosophy has obliged me in determining that so brave an action had been indecently placed in any other life than that of Cato; and that it only appertained to his to end so; notwithstanding, and according to reason, he commanded his son and the senators who accompanied him to take another course in their affairs: Catoni, quutn incredibilem natura tribuisset gravitatem, edmque ipse perpetua constantia roboravisset,

semperque in proposito

moriendum

some feeble cause, and fore.

He

quitted life, rejoicing that a reason for dying had arisen.— Cicero, Tusc. Quxs., i. 30. 2

Bolder because he had determined to die.— Horace, Od., i. 37, 29.

The

suitable to the life be-

easiness then of this death

and the

dying he had acquired by the vigour of his soul; shall we say that it ought to abate anything of the lustre of his virtue? And who, that has his brain never so little tinctured with the true philosophy, can be content to imagine Socrates only free from fear and passion in the

facility of

accident of his prison, fetters and condemnation? and that will not discover in him not only firmness and constancy (which was his ordinary condition), but, moreover, I know not what new satisfaction, and a frolic cheerfulness in his last

words and actions? In the

start

he gave with the

pleasure of scratching his leg when his irons were taken off, does he not discover an equal serenity and joy in his soul for being freed from past inconveniences, and at the same time to enter into the knowledge of things to come? Cato

pardon me, if he please; his death indeed tragical and more lingering; but yet this is, I know not how, methinks, finer. Aristippus, to one that was lamenting this death "The gods grant me such a one," said he. A man discerns in the soul of these two great men and their shall is

more

:

3 1

consilio permansisset,

quam

tyranni vultus aspici3 endus, erat. Every death ought to hold proportion with the life before it; we do not become others for dying. I always interpret the death by the life preceding; and if any one tell me of a death strong and constant in appearance, annexed to a feeble life, I conclude it produced by potius,

Nature having endued Cato with an incredible which he had also fortified with a perpetual

gravity,

constancy, without ever flagging in his resolution, he must of necessity rather die than see the face of the tyrant.— Cicero, De Ofjic., i. 3 1

Essays very much doubt whether there were ever their equals) so perfect a habitude to virtue, that it was turned to a complexion. It is no longer a laborious virtue, nor the precepts of reason, to maintain which the soul is so racked, but the very essence of their soul, its natural and ordinary habit; they have rendered it such by a long practise of philosophical precepts having lit upon a rich and fine nature; the vicious passions that spring in us can find no entrance into them; the force and vigour of their soul stifle and extinguish irregular desires, so soon as they imitators (for

I

not more noble, by a high and divine resolution, to hinder the birth of temptathat

and

it is

be so formed

very seeds of vice are rooted out, than to hinder by main force their progress; and, having suffered ourselves to be surprised with the first motions

tions,

to

to virtue, that the

arm ourselves and to stand firm to oppose their progress, and overcome them; and that this second effect is not also much more generous than to be simply endowed with a facile and affable nature, of itself disaffected to debauchery and vice, I do not think can be doubted; for this third and last sort of virtue of the passions, to

render a man innocent, but not virtufrom doing ill, but not apt enough to do well: considering also, that this condition is so near neighbour to imperfection and coward-

seems

to

ous; free

ice, that I

know

how

not very well

to separate

and distinguish them: the very names of goodness and innocence are, for this reason, in some sort grown into contempt. I very the confines

well

know

that several virtues, as chastity, so-

and temperance, may come to a man through personal defects. Constancy in danger, if it must be so called, the contempt of death, and patience in misfortunes, may ofttimes be found in men for want of well judging of such accidents, and not apprehending them for such as they are. Want of apprehension and stupidity briety,

sometimes counterfeit virtuous effects: as I have often seen it happen, that men have been commended for what really merited blame. An Italian lord once said this, in my presence, to the disadvantage of his

own nation

:

that the subtle-

and the vivacity of their conceptions were so great, and they foresaw the dangers and accidents that might befall them so far off, that it was not to be thought strange, if they were often, in war, observed to provide for their safety, even before they had discovered the peril; that we French and the Spaniards, who were not so cunning, went on further, and that we must be made to see and feel the danger bety of the Italians,

fore we would take the alarm; but that even then

we

could not stick to

it.

more heavy and

Swiss,

But the Germans and had not

thick-skulled,

the sense to look about them, even when the blows were falling about their ears. Peradventure, he only talked so for mirth's sake; and yet it is most certain that in war raw soldiers rush into danger with more precipitancy than after they have been well cudgelled:

Haud ignarus .... quantum nova gloria inartnis, Et praedulce decus, primo certamine,

possit.

1

that, when we judge of a we are to consider the circumand the whole man by whom it is perbefore we give it a name.

For this reason

begin to move.

Now,

203

II

ll.

it is

particular action, stances,

formed,

To

instance in myself:

known my

I

have sometimes

friends call that prudence in me,

which was merely fortune; and repute that courage and patience, which was judgment and opin-

me one title for another, advantage and sometimes otherwise. As to the rest, I am so far from being arrived at the first and most perfect degree of excellence, where virtue is turned into habit, that even of the second I have made no great proofs. I have not been very solicitous to curb the desires by which I have been importuned. My virtue is a virtue, or rather an innocence, casual and accidental. If I had been born of a more irregular complexion, I am afraid I should have made scurvy work; for I never observed any and

ion;

attribute to

sometimes

to

my

great stability in

my

soul to resist passions,

if

they were never so little vehement I have not the knack of nourishing quarrels and debates in :

my own

bosom, and, consequently, owe myself am free from several vices.

no great thanks that I Si

vitiis

Mendosa

mediocribus et

mea

yaucis

est natura, alioqui recta; velut si

Egregio ins'persos reprehendas coryore naevos:

2

my

fortune than my reason. be descended of a race famous for integrity and of a very good father; I know not whether or no he has infused into me part of his humours, or whether domestic examples and the good education of my infancy have insensibly assisted in the work, or, if I was otherwise born so; I

owe

rather to

it

She has caused me

to

*Not ignorant, how hope of glory excites the young soldier in the first essay of arms.— ^Eneid,Bk. 154.

xi. 2

few

If

my nature be chargeable only with slight and and I am otherwise of rectitude, the venial

vices,

faults will

Horace,

be no more than moles on a

Sat.,

i.

6, 65.

fair

body.—

Montaigne

204 Seu

Libra, seu

me

Scorpius adspicit

Formidolosus, pars violentior, Natalis horse, seu tyrannus Hesperiae Capricornus undae:

balance, excepting that

1

but so it is, that I have naturally a horror for most vices. The answer of Antisthenes to him who asked him, which was the best apprenticeship "to unlearn evil," seems to point at this. I have them in horror, I say, with a detestation so

and so much my own, that the same inand impression I brought of them with me from my nurse, I yet retain, and no temptation whatever has had the power to make me

I moderate them, and prevent them from mixing with other vices, which, for the most part will cling together, if a man have not a care. I have contracted and curtailed mine, to make them as single and as simple as I can:

Nee For as

natural,

stinct

alter

Not

it.

which

much

so

as

my own

discourses,

some things lashing out of the common road might seem easily to license me to actions that my natural inclination makes me hate. I

in

but

will say a prodigious thing,

however:

I

find myself in

I

will say

it

many things more un-

my manners than by my opinmy concupiscence less debauched than

der reputation by ion,

and

my reason. Aristippus instituted opinions so bold in favour of pleasure

and

riches as set all the

philosophers against him: but as to his manners,

Dionysius the tyrant, having presented three beautiful women before him, to take his choice; he made answer, that he would choose them all, and that Paris got himself into trouble for having preferred one before the other two: but, having taken them home to his house, he sent them back untouched. His servant finding himself overladen upon the way, with the money he carried after him, he ordered him to pour out and throw away that which troubled him. And Epicurus, whose doctrines were so irreligious and effeminate, was in his life very laborious and devout; he wrote to a friend of his that he lived only upon biscuit and water, entreating him to send him a little cheese, to lie by him against

he had

a

mind

to

make

a feast.

Must

it

be true, that to be a perfect good man, we must be so by an occult, natural, and universal propriety, without law, reason, or example? The debauches wherein I have been engaged, have not been, I thank God, of the worst sort, and I have condemned them in myself, for my judgment was never infected by them; on the contrary, I accuse them more severely in myself than in any other; but that is all, for, as to the rest, I oppose too little resistance and suffer myself to incline too

1

much

to the other side of the

Whether I was born under the Balance, or under Scorpio, formidable at the natal hour, or under Capricorn, ruler of the occidental seas.— Horace, Od., ii. 117.

ultra

Error em foveo. 2 to the

opinion of the Stoics,

who

say,

"That the wise man when he works, works by all the virtues together, though one be most apparent, according to the nature of the action";

and herein the similitude of a human body might serve them somewhat, for the action of anger cannot work unless all the humours assist it, though choler predominate;— if they will thence draw a like consequence, that when the man does wickedly, he does it by all the vices together, I do not believe it to be so, or else I understand them not, for I by effect find the

wicked

contrary.

These

are sharp, unsubstantial subtle-

with which philosophy sometimes amuses itself. I follow some vices, but I fly others as ties,

much

would

as a saint

disown

do.

The

Peripatetics also

this indissoluble connection;

and

Aris-

opinion that a prudent and just man may be intemperate and inconsistent. Socrates confessed to some who had discovered a certain totle is of

inclination to vice in his physiognomy, that

it

was, in truth, his natural propension, but that

he had by discipline corrected it. And such as were familiar with the philosopher Stilpo said, that being born with addiction to wine and women, he had by study rendered himself very abstinent both from the one and the other.

What I have in me of good, I have, quite contrary,

either

by the chance of my birth; and hold it not by law, precept, or any other instruction:

is in me is a simple one; litvigour and no art. Amongst other vices, I mortally hate cruelty, both by nature and judgment, as the very extreme of all vices: nay, with so much tenderness that I cannot see a chicken's neck pulled off, without trouble, and cannot, without impatience, endure the cry of a hare in

the innocence that

tle

my

dog's teeth, though the chase be a violent

pleasure. freely it is

Such

as

make use

have sensuality

altogether "vicious

when

it is

to

of this argument, to

at the height,

encounter,

show

that

and unreasonable; that it

masters us to that de-

gree that a man's reason can have no access," and instance our own experience in the act of love,

Not

carry

wrong further.—Juvenal,

viii.

164.

'

:

Essays

II. ies

Quutn jam pr&sagit gaudia Atque

corpus,

in eo est Venus, ut muliebria conserat arva.

1

wherein they conceive that the pleasure so transports us, that our reason cannot perform its office, whilst we are in such ecstacy and rapture. I know very well it may be otherwise, and that a man may sometimes, if he will, gain this point over himself to sway his soul, even in the critical moment, to think of something else; but then

he must ply it to that bent. I know that a man may triumph over the utmost effort of this pleas-

have experienced it in myself, and have Venus so imperious a goddess, as many, and much more virtuous men than I, declare. I do not consider it a miracle, as the Queen of Navarre does in one of the tales of her Heytameron (which is a very pretty book of that kind) nor for a thing of extreme difficulty, to pass whole nights, where a man has all the convenience and liberty he can desire, with a longcoveted mistress, and yet be true to the pledge first given to satisfy himself with kisses and suchlike endearments, without pressing any further. I conceive that the example of the pleasure of the chase would be more proper; wherein though the pleasure be less, there is the higher excitement of unexpected joy, giving no time for the reason, taken by surprise, to prepare itself for the encounter, when after a long quest the beast starts up on a sudden in a place where, peradventure, we least expected it; the shock and the ardour of the shouts and cries of the hunters so strike us, that it would be hard for those who love this lesser chase, to turn their thoughts, upon the instant, another way; and the poets make Diana triumph over the torch and shafts of Cuure:

I

net found

Nay,

I

ples of cruelty practised

by the Roman

tyrants.

my part, even in justice itself, all that exceeds a simple death appears to me pure cruelty; For

especially in us

who

ought, having regard to

them

in a good and calm which cannot be, when we have agitated them by insufferable torments. Not long since, a soldier who was a prisoner, perceiving from a tower where he was shut up, that the people began to assemble to the place of execution, and that the carpenters were busy erecting a scaffold, he presently concluded that the preparation was for him; and therefore entered into a resolution to kill himself, but could find no instrument to assist him in his design except an their souls, to dismiss

condition;

old rusty cart-nail that fortune presented to him;

with this he first gave himself two great wounds about his throat, but finding these would not do, he presently afterwards gave himself a third in

return to

what

I

was saying

before,

I

am

should readily cry for company, if, upon any occasion whatever, I could cry at all. Nothing tempts my tears, but tears, and not only those that are real and true, but whatever they are, feigned or painted. I do not much lament the dead, and should envy them rather; but I very much lament the dying. The savages do not so much offend me, in roasting and eating the bodLucretius, iv. 1099. ing passage of the text.

The

sense

The

first

of his keepers

up

to

who came

in

but sunk wounds. To make use of time, therefore, before he should die, they made haste to read his sentence; which having done, and he hearing that he was only condemned to be beheaded, he seemed to take new courage, accepted wine which he had before refused, and thanked his judges for the unhopedfor mildness of their sentence; saying, that he had taken a resolution to despatch himself for fear of a more severe and insupportable death, having entertained an opinion, by the preparations he had seen in the place, that they were resolved to torment him with some horrible execution, and seemed to be delivered from death, in having it changed from what he apprehended. I should advise that those examples of sethis condition: yet alive,

down and exhausted by

tenderly compassionate of others afflictions, and

is

in the preced-

Who, amongst such delights, would not remove out of his thoughts the anxious cares of love?— Horace, Epod., ii. 37.

per-

cannot look so

having to give testimony of Julius Caesar's clemency; "he was," says he, "mild in his revenges. Having compelled the pirates to yield by whom he had before been taken prisoner and put to ransom; forasmuch as he had threatened them with the cross, he indeed condemned them to it, but it was after they had been first strangled. He punished his secretary Philemon, who had attempted to poison him, with no greater severity than mere death." Without naming that Latin author, who thus dares to allege as a testimony of mercy the killing only of those by whom we have been offended, it is easy to guess that he was struck with the horrid and inhuman exam-

found him in

H&c inter obliviscitur? 2

2

do who torment and

much as upon the ordinary executions of justice, how reasonable soever, with a steady eye. Some one secute the living.

the head.

Quis non malarum, auas amor euros habet,

1

205

of the dead, as they

the belly, where he left the nail sticking

pid:

To

n

his

Montaigne

2o6 by which

designed to retain the peo-

the utmost point to which cruelty can arrive:

upon the dead bodies of criminals; for to see them deprived of sepulture, to see them boiled and divided into quarters, would almost work as much upon the vulgar, as the pain they make the liv-

Ut homo hominem, non iratus, non timens, tantum spectaturus, occidat. 2 For my own part, I

verity,

'tis

ple in their duty, might be exercised

cannot without grief see so

much

as

an innocent

beast pursued and killed that has no defence, and

kill the body, and, after that, have no more that they can do"; and the poets singularly dwell upon

from which we have received no offence at all; and that which frequently happens, that the stag we hunt, finding himself weak and out of breath, and seeing no other remedy, surrenders himself to us who pursue him, imploring mercy by his

the horrors of this picture, as something worse

tears,

ing endure; though that in effect be nothing, as God himself says, "Who

little

or

than death:

Heul

Questuque cruentus, Atque imploranti similis, 3

reliquias semiussi regis, denudatis ossibus,

Per terram sanie delibutas fcede divexarier. 1

happened to come by one day, accidentally, at Rome, just as they were upon executing Catena, a notorious robber: he was strangled without any emotion of the spectators, but when they came to cut him in quarters, the hangman gave not a blow that the people did not follow with a doleful cry and exclamation, as if every one had I

has ever been to me a very unpleasing sight; and hardly ever take a beast alive that I do not presently turnout again. Pythagoras bought them of fishermen and fowlers to do the same: I

Primoque a caede ferorutn, maculatum sanguine ferrum. 1

Inccduisse puto

Those natures that are sanguinary towards beasts

lent his sense of feeling to the miserable carcase.

discover a natural propension to cruelty. After

Those inhuman excesses ought to be exercised upon the bark, and not upon the quick. Artaxer-

spectacles of the slaughter of animals, they pro-

xes, in almost a like case,

moderated the severity

of the ancient laws of Persia, ordaining that the nobility

who had committed

a fault, instead of

being whipped, as they were used to be, should be stripped only and their clothes whipped for them; and that whereas they were wont to tear off their hair, they should only take off their highcrowned tiara. The so devout Egyptians thought they sufficiently satisfied the divine justice by sacrificing hogs in effigy and representation; a bold invention to pay God, so essential a substance, in picture only and in show. I live in a time wherein we abound in incredible examples of this vice, through the licence of our civil wars; and we see nothing in ancient histories more extreme than what we have proof of every day, but I cannot, any the more, get used to it. I could hardly persuade myself, before I saw it with my eyes, that there could be found

and fell, who, for the sole pleasure would commit it; would hack and

they had accustomed themselves at

ceeded

to those of the slaughter of

Nature has herself,

Rome

men,

to

to the

imprinted in man a kind of instinct to inhumanity; nobody takes pleasure in seeing beasts play with and caress one another, but every one is delighted with seeing them dismember, and tear one another to pieces. And that I may not be laughed at for the sympathy I have with them, theology itself enjoins us some favour in their behalf; and considering that one and the same master has lodged us together in this palace for his service, and that they, as well as we, are of his family, it has reason to enjoin us some affection and regard to them. Pythagoras borrowed the metempsychosis from the Egyptians; but it has since gladiators.

I

fear,

been received by several nations, and particularly by our Druids: Morte carent animae; semperque, priore relicta 6 Sede, novis domibus vivunt, nabitantque receptae.

souls so cruel

of murder,

The

religion of our ancient

Gauls maintained

lop off the limbs of others; sharpen their wits to

new kindsof death, without hatred, without profit, and for no other end but only to enjoy the pleasant spectacle of the gestures and motions, the lamentable groans and cries of a man dying in anguish. For this is

invent unusual torments and

1

and

Alas! that the half-burnt remains of these kings, their bared bones, should be shamefully dragged

through the dirt.— Cicero, Tusc. Quaes.,

i.

44.

2 That a man should kill a man without being angry, or without fear, only for the pleasure of the

spectacle.— Seneca, Epist., 90. 3 Who, bleeding, by his tears seems to crave mer-

cy.— ALneid,

vii. 501. think 'twas slaughter of wild beasts that first stained the steel of man with blood.— Ovid, Met., *

I

xv. 106. 3

Souls never die, but, having left one seat, are new houses.— Ibid., xv. 158.

received into

:

Essays remove and shift their places from one body to another; mixing moreover with this fancy some consider-

that souls, being eternal, never ceased to

ation of divine justice; for according to the de-

portments of the soul, whilst it had been in Alexander, they said that God assigned it another body to inhabit, more or less painful, and proper for its condition

Muta ferarum Cogit vincla pati; truculentos ingerit ursis, Praedonesque lupis; fallaces vulpibus addit: Atque ubi per varios annos, per mille figuras Egit, Lethaeo purgatos flumine, tandem * Rursus ad humanae revocat primordia formae: if it

had been

of a lion;

if

valiant,

he lodged

it

in the

voluptuous, in that of a hog;

orous, in that of a hart or hare;

if

body

if

tim-

malicious, in

and so of the rest, till having puriby this chastisement, it again entered into the body of some other man: that of a fox,

fied

it

nam memini,

Trojani tempore 2 Panthoides Euphorbus eram. Ipse ego,

cient

to the relationship

and most noble, have

practised,

who have

not only received brutes into their society and companionship, but have given them a rank infinitely above themselves, esteeming them one while familiars and favourites of the gods, and having them in more than human reverence and respect; others acknowledged no other god or divinity than they. Belinda a barbaris propter beneficium consecratae:

3

ilia

Hie piscem

Oppida

fluminis,

illic

canem veneranturS

tota

1

He made them wear the silent chains of brutes, the bloodthirsty souls he enclosed in bears; the thieves in wolves; the sly in foxes;

where

after having,

through successive years and a thousand forms, finished these careers, purging them well in Lethe's flood, at last he replaces them in human bodies.— Claudian, In Ruf., ii. 482. 2 For I myself remember that in the days of the Trojan war, I was Euphorbus, son of Pantheus.— Ovid, Met., xv. 160. 3 The barbarians consecrated beasts, out of opinion of

some benefit received by them.— Cicero, De

Nat. Deor.,

i.

And

the very interpretation that Plutarch gives

207

to this error,

which

is

very well conceived,

is

ad-

them: for he says that it was not the cat or the ox, for example, that the Egyptians adored: but that they, in those beasts, adored some image of the divine faculties; in this, patience and utility; in that vivacity, or, as with our neighbours the Burgundiansand all the Germans, impatience to see themselves shut up; by vantageous

to

which they represented liberty, which they loved and adored above all other godlike attributes, and so of the rest. But when, amongst the more moderate opinions, I meet with arguments that endeavour to demonstrate the near resemblance betwixt us and animals, how large a share they have in our greatest privileges, and with how much probability they compare us together, truly 1 abate a great deal of our presumption, and willingly resign that imaginary sovereignty that is attributed to us over other creatures. all this

were not

true, there

is,

nevertheless, a certain respect, a general duty of

humanity, not only to beasts that have life and sense, but even to trees and plants. We owe justice to

men, and graciousness and benignity

other creatures that are capable of certain commerce and

it;

there

to

is

a

mutual obligation betwixt

them and us. Nor shall

I be afraid to confess the nature so childish, that I cannot well refuse to play with my dog, when he the most unseasonably importunes me so to do. The Turks have alms and hospitals for beasts. The Romans had public care to the nourishment of

tenderness of

my

by whose vigilance their Capitol had been The Athenians made a decree that the mules and moyls which had served at the

geese,

preserved.

Crocodilon adorat pavet saturam serpentibus ibin: Effigies sacri hie nitet aurea cercopitheci; Pars haec;

n

But supposing belli

betwixt us and beasts, I do not much admit of it; nor of that which several nations, and those among the most an-

As

II.

building of the temple called Hecatompedon should be free and suffered to pasture at their own choice, without hindrance. 5 The Agrigentines had a common use solemnly to inter the beasts they had a kindness for, as horses of some

and useful birds, and even had only been kept to divert their children; and the magnificence that was ordinary with them in all other things, also particularly appeared in the sumptuosity and numbers of monuments erected to this end, and which remained in their beauty several ages after. The rare quality, dogs,

those that

Egyptians buried wolves, bears, crocodiles, dogs,

and cats in sacred places, embalmed their bodies, and put on mourning at their death. Cimongave an honourable sepulture to the mares with which

36.

4

This place adores the crocodile; another dreads the ibis, feeder on serpents; here you may behold the statue of a

monkey

shining in gold: here

men

venerate a river fish; there whole towns worship a dog.— Juvenal, xv. 2. 5 Plutarch, Marcus Cato.

Montaigne

208

he had three times gained the prize of the course 1 at the Olympic Games. The ancient Xantippus caused his dog to be interred on an eminence near the sea, which has ever since retained the 2 name, and Plutarch says, that he had a scruple about selling for a small profit to the slaughterer 3 an ox that had been long in his service.

Apology for raimond de sebonde

xii.

Learning

in truth, a very useful

is,

and a very

I

it merely do not prize

some others

do; as Heril-

considerable quality; such as despise

own

discover their it

folly:

at the excessive rate

but yet

lus the philosopher for one,

who

therein places

the sovereign good, and maintained that it was merely in her to render us wise and contented, which I do not believe; no more than I do what others have said, that learning is the mother of all virtue, and that all vice proceeds from ignorance. If this be true, it is subject to a very long interpretation. My house has long been open to

men

of knowledge and is very well known to them; for my father, who governed it fifty years and more, inflamed with the new ardour with which Francis I embraced letters and brought them into esteem, with great diligence and expense hunted after the acquaintance of learned men, receiving them at his house as persons sa-

and who had some

cred,

of divine

particular inspiration

wisdom; collecting

sentences as so

their sayings

many oracles, and with

so

and

much

the greater reverence and religion, as he was the

he had no knowledge of no more than his predecessors. For my love them well, but I do not adore them.

less able to judge; for letters,

part

I

Amongst

the

rest,

Peter Bunel, a

man

of great

reputation for knowledge in his time, having,

with others of his

sort,

stayed some days at

Mon-

taigne in my father's company, he presented him, at hisdeparture, with a book intituled Theologia naturalis; sive Liber creaturarum magistri Raimondi de Sebonde; and knowing that the Italian and Spanish tongues were familiar to my father, and this book being written in Spanish worked up with Latin terminations, he hoped that with little help he might be able to make it

turn to account, and therefore recommended it him as a very useful piece and proper for the

to

time wherein he gave it to him, which was when the novel doctrines of Martin Luther began to be in vogue, and in many places to stagger our ancient belief: wherein he was very well advised,

justly, in his

own reason,

yoke,

Nam

cwpide conculcatur nimis ante metutum:

Herodotus,

2

Plutarch,

8

Ibid.

4

resolving to admit nothing for the future to

which they had not first interposed their own decrees, and given their special consent.

Now, my father, a little before his death, having accidentally found this book under a heap of other neglected papers, commanded me to him into French. It is all very well such authors as this, where is little but the matter itself to express; but those wherein ornament of language and elegance of style are a main endeavour, are dangerous to attempt, translate it for to translate

especially

when

a

man

is to

turn them into a

weaker idiom. It was a strange and a new occupation for me, but having by chance, at that time, little else to do, and not being able to rethe command of the best father that ever was, did it as well as I could; and he was so well pleased with it as to order it to be printed, which after his death, was done. I found the imaginations of this author exceedingly fine, the contexture of his work well followed up, and his design full of piety. And because many people take a delight in reading it, and particularly the sist I

ladies, to

whom we owe the most service,

I

have

often been called upon to assist them to clear the book of two principal objections. His design

hardy and bold; for he undertakes, by human and natural reasons, to establish and make good

is

against the atheists

all

the articles of the Chris-

he do not think

tian religion: wherein, to speak the truth,

so firm

and

so successful that

possible to do better 1

foreseeing that the be-

ginning of this distemper would easily run into an execrable atheism; for the vulgar not having the faculty of judging of things themselves, suffering themselves to be carried away by fortune and appearance, after having once been inspired with the boldness to despise and question those opinions they had before had in extremest reverence, such as are those wherein their salvation is concerned, and that some of the articles of their religion have been brought into doubt and dispute, they very soon throw all other parts of their belief into the same uncertainty, they having in them no other authority or foundation than the others that had already been discomposed, and shake off all the impressions they had received from the authority of the laws or the reverence of ancient custom as a tyrannical

upon

I

that subject

and

is it

be-

ii.

Marcus Cato.

4

For people eagerly spurn that of which they

were before most in awe.— Lucretius,

v.

1 1

39.

Essays

II.

12

209

lieve that

he has been equalled by none. This work seeming to me to be too beautiful and too rich for an author whose name is so little known, and of whom all that we know is that he was a Spaniard, who professed physic at Toulouse about two hundred years ago, I inquired of Adrian Turnebus, who knew all things, what he thought of the book. He made answer, that he fancied it was some abstract drawn from St. Thomas Aquinas, for that, in truth, his mind, full of infinite learning and admirable subtlety, was alone capable of those thoughts. Be this as it may, and whoever was the author and inventor (and 'tis not reasonable, without greater occasion, to deprive Sebonde of that title), he was a man of great sufficiency and most admirable

honour; we must here do the same, and accompany our faith with all the reason we have, but always with this reservation, not to fancy that it is upon us that it depends, nor that our arguments and endeavours can arrive at so supernatural and divine a knowledge. If it enter not into us by an extraordinary infusion; if it only enter, not only by arguments of reason, but, moreover, by human ways, it is not in us in its true dignity and splendour, and yet I am afraid we only have it by this way. If we held upon God by the mediation of a lively faith; if we held upon God by Him and not by us: if we had a divine basis and foundation, human accidents would not have the power to shake us as they do; our fortress would not surrender to so weak a battery; the

parts.

love of novelty, the constraint of princes, the

The first thing they reprehend in his work is, blame to repose upon hubelief, which is only con-

that Christians are to

man

reasons their

ceived by faith and the particular inspiration of divine grace. In which objection there appears

be something of over-zeal of piety, and thereendeavour to satisfy those who put it forth with the greater mildness and respect. This were a task more proper for a man well read in divinity than for me, who know nothing of it;

success of one party, the rash and fortuitous change of our opinions, would not have the power to stagger and alter our belief. We should not then leave it to the mercy of every novel argument, nor abandon it to the persuasions of all

we

to

the rhetoric in the world;

fore we are to

the fury of these waves with an

I

and

intelligence as

is

this

Truth with which

pleased the goodness of Almighty

God

it

has

to en-

lighten us, it is very necessary that He should, moreover, lend us His assistance, by extraordinary privilege and favour, to conceive and imprint

it

and

in our understandings;

lieve that

means purely human

are,

do not bein any sort,

I

they were, so many rare and excellent souls, so abundantly furnished with natural power, in former ages, had not capable of doing

failed,

by

it:

for, if

their reason, to arrive at this

edge. 'Tis faith alone that vividly

and

knowl-

certainly

comprehends the deep mysteries of our religion; but withal, I do not say that it is not a brave and a very laudable attempt to accommodate the natural and human capabilities that God has en-

dowed us with

to the service of our faith. It is not to be doubted but that it is the most noble use we can put them to, and that there is no design or occupation more worthy of a Christian

man

than to make it the aim and end of all his thoughts and studies to embellish, extend, and amplify the truth of his belief. do not satisfy ourselves with serving God with our souls and understanding only; we, moreover, owe and render Him a corporal reverence, and apply our limbs, motions, and external things to do Him

unmoved and

unyielding constancy, lllisos {luctus rwpes ut vasta refundit, Et varias circum latrantes dissi-pat undas

conceive that in a thing so diso far transcending all human

nevertheless, vine, so high,

should withstand

Mole

sua.

1

we were but touched with this ray of divinity,

If

would appear throughout; not only our words, but our works also, would carry its brightness and lustre; whatever proceeded from us would

it

We

be seen illuminated with this noble light. ought to be ashamed that in all the human sects there never was sectary, what difficulty and strange novelty soever his doctrine imposed upon him, who did not, in some measure, conform his life and deportment to it; whereas so divine and heavenly an institution as ours only distinguishes Christians by the name. Will you see the proof of this? compare our manners with those of a Mohammedan or Pagan; you will still find that we fall very short, whereas, having regard to the advantage of our religion, we ought to shine in excellence at an extreme, an incomparable distance, and it should be said of us, "Are they so just, so charitable, so good? Then they are Christians." All other signs are all

common

to

religions; hope, trust, events, ceremonies,

penance, martyrs; the peculiar mark of our Truth

We

1

As

a vast rock repels the rolling waves, and disabout her by its mass.

sipates the waters raging

Verses by an anonymous author in the praise of Ronsard, imitating the JEneid, vii. 587.

Montaigne

210

ought to be our virtue, as it is also the most heavenly and difficult mark, and the most worthy product of Truth. And therefore our good St. Louis was in the right, who when the king of the Tartars,

signed to

who had become

visit

Lyons

to kiss the

a Christian, de-

Pope's feet, and

there to be an eye-witness of the sanctity he hoped

our manners, immediately diverted him from his purpose, for fear lest our disorderly way of living should, on the contrary, put him out of conceit with so holy a belief. Yet it hapto find in

pened quite otherwise, since, to him who going to Rome to the same end, and there seeing the dissoluteness of the prelates and people of that time, settled himself all the more firmly in our religion, considering how great the forceand divinity of it must necessarily be that could maintain its dignity and splendour amongst so much corruption and in so vicious hands. If we had but one single grain of faith we should move

mountains from their places, says the sacred Word; our actions would then be directed and accompanied by the divinity, would not be merely human; they would have in them something of miraculous as well as our belief Brevis est in:

stitutio vitae honestae beataeque, si credas.

1

Some

impose upon the world that they believe that which they do not believe; others, more in number,

make themselves

believe that they believe,

not being able to penetrate into what it is to beand we think it strange if, in the civil

lieve;

state, we see common and ordinary manner, which is because we bring nothing there but our own. The justice which is in one

wars which

at this

time disorder our

events float and vary after a

is only there for ornament and indeed alleged, but 'tis not there received, settled, or espoused: it is there as in the mouth of an advocate, not as in the heart and af-

of the parties, cloak;

it is

fection of the party. assistance to faith

men

God owes His extraordinary

and

religion, not to

our pas-

and herein make use for their own purposes of religion; it ought to be quite contrary. Observe if it be not by our own hands that we guide and train it, and draw it, like wax, into so many figures, at variance with a rule in itself so direct and firm. When has this been more manifest than in France in our days? They who have taken it on the left hand, they who have taken it on the right, they who call it black, they who call it white, alike employ it to their violent and ambitious designs, and conduct it with a progress so conform in riot and sions:

are the conductors

injustice that they render the diversity they pre-

tend in their opinions, in a thing whereon the conduct and rule of our life depends, doubtful and hard to believe. Could one see manners more exactly the same, more uniform, issue from the same school and discipline? Do but observe with

what horrid impudence we toss divine arguments to and fro, and how irreligiously we have rejected and retaken them, according as fortune has shifted our places in these intestine storms. so solemn proposition, "Whether it be law-

This

and take up arms against do you remember in whose mouths last year, the affirmative of it was the prop of one party; of what other party the negative was the pillar? and hearken now from what quarter come the voice and instruction of both the one and the other; and if arms make less noise and rattle for this ful for a subject to rebel

his prince for the defence of his religion":

cause than for that.

who

We condemn

say that

does France than say it? Let usconfess the truth; whoever should draw out from the army, aye,

from that raised by the king's authority, those who take up arms out of pure zeal and affection to religion, and also those who only do it to prolaws of their country, or for the service would hardly be able, out of all these put together, to muster one complete company. Whence does it proceed that there are so few to be found who have maintained the same will and the same progress in our public movements, and that we see them one while go but a foot pace, and another run full speed, and the same men, one while damaging our affairs by their violent heat and acrimony, and another tect the

of their prince,

while by their coldness, indifference and slowness, but that they are impelled

is

and the way to virtuous and happy a short one.— Quintilian, xii. 1 1. Believe,

life

by

and

special

casual considerations, according to the diversity of circumstances? I

evidently perceive that

we do

not willingly

afford to devotion any other offices but those that

best suit with our tility

own

passions; there

is

no hos-

so admirable as the Christian; our zeal per-

forms wonders

when

it

seconds our inclinations

to hatred, cruelty, ambition, avarice, detraction,

rebellion: but moved against the hair towards goodness, benignity, moderation, unless by miracle some rare and virtuous disposition prompt

us to gion

it,

is

we

stir

neither

intended

hand nor

foot.

to extirpate vices;

screens, nourishes, incites them.

Our

say (and

I

speak

it

to

reli-

whereas

it

We

must not Him, I do not

If we did believe in say by faith, but with a simple belief, that

mock God. 1

those to the

Truth must be made to bear the yoke of our necessity; and how much worse

fire

our great shame),

is

if

to

we

Essays did believe Him, tory, or as

knew Him

any other hisone of our companions, we should or

as

Him above all other things, for the infinite goodness and beauty that shine in Him: at least, He would go equal in our affections with riches, pleasures, glory, and our friends. The best of us is not so much afraid to offend Him, as he is afraid to offend his neighbour, his kinsman, his master. Is there any so weak understanding that having, on one side, the object of one of our vicious pleasures, and on the other, in equal knowledge and persuasion, the state of an immortal love

glory, would

exchange the one against the other?

And

ofttimes renounce this out of pure

we

yet

contempt: for what tempts us

to

blaspheme,

not, peradventure, the very desire to offend?

if

The

philosopher Antisthenes, as the priest was initihim in the mysteries of Orpheus, telling

ating

him

that those

religion

who professed themselves of that

were certain

to receive perfect

and

eter-

211

12

II.

we bear a reverence to its antiquity, or to the authority of the men who have maintained it, or we fear the menaces it where

it is

in practice, or

fulminates against unbelievers, or are allured by its promises. These considerations ought, 'tis true, to be applied to our belief, but as subsidiaries only, for they are human obligations; another religion, other testimonies, the like promises and threats, might in the same way imprint are Christians by the a quite contrary belief. same title that we are Perigordins or Germans. And what Plato says, 2 that there are few men so obstinate in their atheism whom a pressing danger will not reduce to an acknowledgment of the divine power, does not concern a true Christian; 'tis for mortal and human religions to be received

We

What kind of faith can we expect that should be, that cowardice and feebleness of heart plant and establish in us?

by human recommendation.

A

pleasant faith, that does not believe

nal felicity after death; "If thou believest that,"

believes, but for

answered he, "why dost not thou die thyself?"

it.

Diogenes, more rudely, according to his manner, and more remote from our purpose, to the priest that in like manner preached to him to become of his religion that he might obtain the happiness of the other world: "What," said he, "thou wouldst have me believe that Agesilaus

and Epaminondas, those so great men, shall be and that thou, who art but a calf, and canst do nothing to purpose, shalt be happy because thou art a priest?" Did we receive these great promises of eternal beatitude with the same reverence and respect that we do a philosophical lecture, we should not have death in so great

miserable,

horror:

Now jam

moriens dissolvi conquer eretur; vestemque relinquere, ut anguis Gauderet, praelonga senex aut cornua cervus. 1

Sed magis

se

ire foras,

am willing to be dissolved," we should say, "and to be with Jesus Christ." The force of Plato's arguments concerning the immortality of the soul sent some of his disciples to untimely graves, that they might the sooner enjoy the things he had made them hope for. All this is a most evident sign that we only receive our religion after our own fashion, by our own hands, and no otherwise than other reli-

"I

gions are received. Either

1

We

we

are in the country

should not, then, dying, repine to be

dis-

solved, but rather step out of doors cheerfully, and,

with the snake, be glad to cast our old slough; or, with the old stag, to get clear of the old horns. Lucretius, iii. 612.

Can

want

what

it

of courage to disbelieve

a vicious passion, such as inconstancy

and astonishment, cause any regular product in our souls? They are confident in their own judg3 ment, says he, that what is said of hell and future torments is all feigned: but the occasion of making the experiment presenting itself when old age or diseases bring them to the brink of the grave, the terror of death by the horror of their future condition, inspires them with a new belief. And by reason that such impressions render them timorous, he forbids in his laws all such threatening doctrines, and all persuasion that anything of ill can befal a man from the gods, excepting for his greater good, when they happen to him, and for a medicinal effect. They say of Bion that, infected with the atheism of Theodorus, he had long had religious men in great scorn and contempt, but that, death surprising him, he gave himself up to the most extreme superstition; as if the gods withdrew and returned according to the necessities of Bion. Plato and these examples would conclude that we are brought to a belief of God either by reason or by force. Atheism being a proposition, unnatural and monstrous, difficult also and very hard to sink into human understanding, how arrogant

and irregular soever that may be, there are enough seen, out of vanity and pride, to be the authors of extraordinary and reforming opinions, and to outwardly affect their profession, who, if they are such fools, have nevertheless not had the power to plant them in their conscience; they 2

Laws,

8

Republic.

x.

Montaigne

212

will not fail to lift up their hands towards heaven if you

give

them a good

thrust with a sword in the

and when fear or sickness has abated and deadened the licentious fervour of this giddy humour, they will readily return, and very discreetly suffer themselves to be reconciled to the public faith and examples. A doctrine seriously digested is one thing; quite another thing are those superficial impressions which, springing from the disorder of an unhinged understanding, float at random and uncertainly in the fancy. Miserable and senseless men, who strive to be worse than they can! The error of paganism and the ignorance of

breast;

our sacred truth made the great soul of Plato, but great only in human greatness, fall yet into this other vicious mistake, "that children

old

and

men are most susceptible of religion," as if it

sprang and derived its reputation from our weakness. The knot that ought to bind the judgment and the will, that ought to restrain the soul and join it to the creator, should be a knot that derives its foldings and strength, not from our considerations, from our reasons and passions, but from a divine and supernatural constraint, having but one form, one face, and one lustre, which is the authority of God and His divine grace. Now, our heart and soul being governed and commanded by faith, 'tis but reason that they should muster all our other faculties, for as much as they are able to perform, to the service and assistance of their design. Neither is it to be imagined that all this machine has not some marks imprinted upon it by the hand of the mighty architect, and that there is not in the things of this world, some image, that in some measure resembles the workman who has built and formed them. He has in His stupendous works left the character of His divinity, and 'tis our own weakness only that hinders us from discerning it. 'Tis what He Himself is pleased to tell us, that He manifests His invisible operations to us, by those that are visible;

Sebonde apand dem-

plied himself to this laudable study,

not any part or member of the world that disclaims or derogates from its maker. It were to do a wrong to the divine goodness, did not the universe consent to our belief; the heavens, the earth, the elements, our bodies, and our souls, all these concur to this, if we can but find out the way to use them. They instruct us if we are capable of instruction; for this world is a most sacred temple, into which man is introduced, there to contemplate statues, not the works of a mortal hand, but such as the divine purpose has made the objects of sense, onstrates to us that there

the sun, the stars, the waters, and the earth, to represent those that are intelligible to us. "The

God," says St. Paul, "from the creation of the world, His eternal power and

invisible things of

Godhead," are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made. Atque adeo jaciem

coeli non invidet orbi Ipse Deus, vultusque suos, corpusque recludit

Semper volvendo; seque

if sum inculcat, et offert;

Ut bene

cognosci possit, doceatque videndo Qualis eat, doceatque suas attendere leges. 1

Now our human reasons and discourses are but and undigested matter: the grace of God 'tis that which gives to it fashion and value. As the virtuous actions of Socrates and Cato remain vain and fruitless, for not having had the love and obedience of the true creator of all things for their end and object, and for not having known God, so is it with our imaginationsand discourses; they have a kind of body, but it is an inform mass, without fashion and without light, if faith and God's grace be not added to it. Faith coming to tint and illustrate Sebonde's arguments, renders them firm and sterile

form;

is its

solid, so that

rection and

they are capable of serving for diguide to a learner to put him into

first

way

of this knowledge they, in some measform him to and render him capable of the grace of God, by means whereof he afterwards completes and perfects himself in the truth of

the

:

ure,

know a man of authority, bred up to letwho has confessed to me that he had been

belief. I ters,

reclaimed from the errors of misbelief by Sebonde's arguments. And should they be stripped of this

ornament and of the

assistance

probation of the faith, and be looked

mere human fancies only,

who

to

contend with those

are precipitated into the dreadful

rible darkness of irreligion, they will

that

and hor-

even then

and firm, as any others of the can be opposed against them; so shall be ready to say to our opponents,

be found as

same

and apupon as

solid

class that

we

Si melius quid babes, arcesse; vel

imperium

2

fer.

is

Let them admit the force of our proofs, or let them show us others, and upon some other sub-

1 And God Himself does not envy to men the seeing heaven's face; but ever revolving, He still renews its face and body to our view; and Himself so inculcates into our minds that we may well know Him, instructing us by seeing Him what He is, how He moves, and to obey His laws.— Manilius, iv. 907. 2 If you have anything better to say, say it; other-

wise, yield.— Horace, Epist.,

i.

5, 6.

:

Essays

II.

am, un-

parts of our belief to be false that our reason

awares, half engaged in the second objection, to which I proposed to make answer in the behalf

cannot establish; and, to show that a great many things may be and may have been, of which our nature could not found the reason and causes,

ject, better

woven and

of finer thread.

I

of Sebonde.

fit

Some say that his arguments are weak and unto make good what he proposes, and under-

take with great ease to confute them.

These

are

213

he proposes

to

them

certain

known and

indubi-

table experiences wherein men confess they have

no

insight;

and

this

he does,

as all other things,

We must

be a little more roughly handled; for they are more dangerous and malicious than the first.

with a close and ingenious inquisition. do more than this, and make them know

Men

convict the weakness of their reason, there

to

I

12

willingly wrest the sayings of others to fa-

vour their own prejudicated opinions; to an atheist all writings tend to atheism; he corrupts the most innocent matter with his own venom. These have their judgments so prepossessed that they cannot relish Sebonde's reasons. As to the rest, they think we give them very fair play in putting them into the liberty of fighting our religion with weapons merely human, which, in its majesty full of authority and command, they durst not attack. The means that I use, and that I think most proper, to subdue this frenzy, is to crush and spurn under foot pride and human

make them sensible of the inanity, and nothingness of man; to wrest the wretched arms of their reason out of their hands; to make them bow down and bite the ground, under the authority and reverence of the divine majesty. 'Tis to this alone that knowledge and wisdom appertain; 'tis this alone that can make a true estimate of itself, and from which we purloin whatever we value ourselves upon arrogance; to vanity,

Ou

7a/) id (ppovieiv b

Qebs fieya fiXXoy

that, to

is no and that there is no so

necessity of culling out rare examples

:

and so blind, that enough for it: that to it the easy and the hard is all one; that all subjects equally, and nature in general, disclaims its authority, and rejects its mediation. What does Truth mean, when she preaches it is

so defective

clear facility clear

to

us

to fly

worldly philosophy,

ten inculcates to us, that our

when

wisdom

she so ofis

but

fol-

God; that the vainest of all vanities is man; that the man who presumes upon his wisdom, does not yet know what wisdom is; and that man, who is nothing, if he thinks himself to be anything, but seduces and deceives himself? These sentences of the Holy Ghost so clearly and vividly express that which I would maintain, that I should need no other proof against men who would, with all humility and obedience, submit to its authority; but these will be whipped at their own expense, and will not suffer a man to oppose their reason, but by itly in the sight of

self. rj

iavrop.*-

Let us subdue this presumption, the first foundation of the tyranny of the evil spirit. Deus su-

Let us then now consider a man alone, without foreign assistance, armed only with his own proper arms, and unfurnished of the divine grace

resistit: humilibus autem dat gratiam* Understanding is in all the gods, says Plato, 8 and not at all, or very little, in men. Now it is, in the meantime, a great consolation to a Christian man, to see our frail and mortal parts so fitly suited to our holy and divine faith, that when we employ them on the subjects of their own mortal and frail nature, they are not, even there, more equally or more firmly applied. Let us see,

and wisdom, which is all his honour, strength, and the foundation of his being; let us see what certainty he has in this fine equipment. Let him make me understand by the force of his reason, upon what foundations he has built those great advantages he thinkshe has over other creatures: what has made him believe, that this admirable

man has in his power other reasons more

over his head, the fearful motions of that infinite ocean, were established, and continue so many

perbis

then,

if

forcible than those of it

be in him

ment and

Sebonde; that

to arrive at

is to say, if

any certainty by argu-

reason. For St. Augustine,* disputing

against these people, has

them with

good cause

injustice, in that they

1

to reproach maintain the

God will not permit that anyone shall be wiser He.— Herodotus, vii. 10. 2 God resists the proud; but gives grace to the

than

humble.— I 3 4

Peter, 5. 5.

Timaeus. City of God, xxi.

5.

movement

of the celestial arch, the eternal light

of those planets

and

stars that roll so

proudly

and convenience? Can anything be imagined to be so ridiculous that this miserable and wretched creature, who is not so much as master of himself, but subject to the injuries of all things, should call himself master and emperor of the world, of which he has not ages, for his service

power

mand

to it.

know the least part, much less to comAnd this privilege which he attributes

to himself, of being the only creature in grand fabric that has the understanding to

this dis-

.

Montaigne

214

beauty and its parts, the only one who can return thanks to the architect, and keep account of the revenues and disbursements of the world; who, I wonder, sealed for him this privilege:' Let us see his letters-patent for this great and noble charge; were they granted in favour of the wise only? few people would be concerned in that: are fools and wicked persons worthy so extraordinary a favour, and, being the worst part of the world, to be preferred before tinguish

its

we

the rest? Shall

believe this

igitur causa qui dixerit

Eorum

scilicet

man? quorum

effectum esse

sunt

Quantaque quam parvifaciant discriminamotus Tantum est hoc regnum, quod regihus imperat .

ipsis;

if

animantium, quae ratione utun-

dii et

istence of the celestial bodies, their beauty, grandeur, their continual revolution, by so exact a rule;

suspicimus magni coelestia mundi Templa super, stellisque micantibus sethera fixum, Et venit in mentem lunae solisque viarum; 2

and

means and

Furit alter amore,

astris,

but even over our inclinations, our thoughts which they govern, incite, and agitate the mercy of their influences, as our reason

and at

3

wills,

finds

and

tells us;

Speculataque longe,Deprendit tacitis dominantia legihus astra, Et totum alterna mundum ratione moveri,

Fatorumque

vices certis discurrere signis;

-

*

not merely a man, not merely a king, but that monarchies, empires, and all this lower to see that

1

For whose sake shall we, therefore, conclude that the world was made? For theirs who have the use of reason: these are gods and men, than whom certainly nothing can be better.— Cicero, De Nat. Deor., 2

ii.

54.

When we behold the heavenly arch above,

the vast ether studded with glittering serve the courses of the sun

Bk. 3

v.

stars,

and and ob-

and moon.— Lucretius,

N

Hoc quoque

we derive

this little portion of reason

subject

its

make

to 5

we

is

8

Have we

the

moon

this

it

of soul, of

discovered in

life,

it

a celestial earth? there to

kingdom i.

that

it

:

so

governs kings them-

55; iv. 93.

One mad with

love

may

cross the sea,

and

over-

Sons kill their fathers, fathers kill their sons; one armed brother wounds another armed brother. These wars are not ours; 'tis fate that compels men to punish turn Troy; another's fate

is

to write laws.

themselves thus, and thus to lacerate themselves

tain signs the turns of destiny.— Void.,

3i-

60.

see in these bodies aston-

molitio, quae ferramenta, qui

Why do we deprive

selves.— Ibid.,

7

i.

how

How great changes each litde motion brings

great

engines,

stars,

possible

to it?

any immovable and insensible stupidity, we who have no commerce with the heavens but by obedience? Shall we say that we have discovered in no other creature but man the use of a reasonable soul! What! have we seen anything like the sun? does he cease to be, because we have seen nothing like him? and do his motions cease, because there are no others like them? If what we have not seen is not, our knowledge is wonderfully contracted: Quae sunt tantae animi an8 gustiae? Are they not dreams of human vanity,

hi. 58.

Contemplating the distant

we have

vectes, quae machinae, qui ministri tanti operis

he finds that they rule by silent laws; that the world is regulated by alternate causes, and that he can discern by cer*

and actions depend on the

is it

essence and conditions to our knowl-

Quae

ishes us:

how

make us equal

that reason should ever

79, 118.

lives

ipsam expendere fatum*

fatale est, sic

from the bounty of heaven,

stars.—

Men's

Trojam:

Ecce patrem nati perimunt, natosque parentes; Mutuaque armati coeunt in vulnera fratres. on nostrum hocbellumest;coguntur tantamovere, Inque suas ferri poenas, lacerandaque membra.

'Tis fate that compels

1203.

Manilius,

potest, et vertere

Alterius sors est scrihendis legihus apta.

fuerunt? and reason?

Facta etenim et vitas hominutn suspendit ah

this

favour;

Et pontum tranare

7

tunes

pow-

comparison betwixt them and us, proceed, as our reason supposes, by their

er of the stars,

edge? Whatever

dominion and influence those bodies have, not only over our lives and for-

to consider the

.

our virtue, our vices, our knowledge and

science, this very discourse we frame of the

If

Quum

.

5

mundum?

homines, quihus profecto nihil l est melius: we can never sufficiently decry the impudence of this conjunction. But, wretched creature, what has he in himself worthy of such an advantage? To consider the incorruptible extur; hi

world, follow the least dance of these celestial motions,

.

.

me to write of fate.— Ibid., iv.

What contrivance, what tools, what levers, what

what workmen, were employed about so stupendous a work?— Cicero, De Nat. Deor., i. 8. 8 How narrow are our understandings?— 1 bid., i.

Essays fancy mountains and vales, as Anaxagoras did? there to fix habitations and human abodes, and plant colonies for our convenience, as Plato and Plutarch have done, and of our earth to make a beautiful and luminous star? Inter eastern mortalitatis incommoda et hoc est, caligo mentium; nee tantum necessitas errandi, sed errorum 1 amor. Corruptible corpus aggravat animam, et deprimit terrena inhabitatio sensum multa

cogitantem.

2

Presumption is our natural and original disease. The most wretched and frail of all creatures

and

is

man, and withal the proudest.

Sees himself lodged here in the dirt

He

feels

and filth

and rivetted to the worst and deadest part of the universe, in the lowest story of the house, and most remote from the

of the world, nailed

heavenly arch, with animals of the worst condition of the three, and yet in his imagination will be placing himself above the circle of the moon, and bringing heaven under his feet. Tis by the vanity of the same imagination that he equals himself to God, attributes to himself divine qualities, withdraws and separates himself from the crowd of other creatures, cuts out the shares of animals his fellows and companions, and dis-

them portions

and force as himself thinks fit. How does he know, by the strength of his understanding, the secret and internal motions of animals? and from what comparison betwixt them and us does he conclude the stupidity he attributes to them? When I play with my cat, who knows whether I do not make her more sport than she makes me? we mutually divert one another with our monkey tricks: if I have my hour to begin or to refuse, she also has hers. Plato, in his picture of the Golden Age 3 under Saturn, reckons, amongst the chief advantages that a man then had, his communication with beasts, of whom inquiring and informing himself, he knew the true qualities and differences of them all, by which he acquired a very perfect intelligence and prudence, and led his life far more happily than we could do need we a better proof to condemn human impudence in the concern of beasts? This great author was of opinion that nature, for the most part, in the corporal form she gave them had only regard to tributes to

thence derived. The defect that hinders communication betwixt them and us, why may it not be on our part as well as theirs? 'Tis yet to determine where the fault lies that we understand not one another; for we understand them no more than they do us; by the same reason they may think us to be beasts aswe think them. 'Tis no great wonder if we understand not them when we do not understand a Basque or the Troglodytes; and yet some have boasted that they understood these, as Apollonius Tyaneus, Melampus, Tiresias, Thales, and others. And seeing that, as cosmographers report, there are nations that receive a dog for their king, they must of necessity be able to give some interpretation

and motions. We must observe the we have some tolerable apprehension of their sense, and so have beasts of ours, and much in the same proportion. They caress us, they threaten us, and they beg of us, and we do the same to them. As to the rest, we manifestly discover that they have a full and absolute communication amongst themselves, and that they perfectly understand one another, of his voice

parity betwixt us:

not only those of the same, but of divers kinds. Et mutae pecudes, et denique secla ferarum Dissimiles suerunt voces variasque ciere, Cum metus out dolor est, aut quum jam gaudia gliscunt.*

By one kind of barking the horse knows a dog is angry; of another sort of a bark he

Even

Amongst

in the very beasts that

we easily conclude, from serve amongst them,

is

not afraid.

have no voice

at all,

the social offices we ob-

some other

sort of

nication; their very motions converse

commu-

and con-

sult:

Non

alia longe ratione, atque ipsa videtur Protrahere ad gestum pueros infantia linguae. 5

And why not, as well as our mutes, dispute, contest,

and

tell stories

by

signs? of

whom

I

have

seen some, by practice, so supple and active in that way that, in earnest, they wanted nothing of the perfection of making themselves understood. Lovers are angry, reconciled, intreat, thank, appoint, and, in short, speak

by 1

215

the use of prognostics that were in his time

of faculties

:

this is one, to

12

II.

all

things

their eyes;

the other inconveniences of mortality have the understanding clouded, and

not only a necessity of erring, but a love of error.— Seneca, De Ira, ii. 9. 2

The corruptible body stupefies the soul, and the earthly habitation dulls the faculties of the imagination.— St. Augustine, City of God, 3 Statesman.

xii.

15.

The tame

and the wilder sorts of brutes, and various sounds, as fear, or pain, or pleasure influences them.— Lucretius, v. 1058. 5 By the like reason the want of language in children renders it necessary for them to have recourse *

herds,

utter dissonant

to gestures.— lbid.,v, 1029.

Montaigne

2l6

The swallows E'l silentio

ancor suole

Aver prieghi e

parole.

1

that

we

see at the return of the

spring, searching all the corners of our houses

most commodious places wherein to build judgment, and, amongst a thousand, choose out the most proper for their purpose, without discretion? In that elegant and admirable contexture of their buildings, can birds rather make choice of a square figure than a round, of an obtuse than of a right angle, without knowing their properties and effects? Do they bring water and then clay without knowing that the hardness of the latter grows softer by being wet? Do they mat their palaces with moss or down, without foreseeing that their for the

What

of the hands?

We require, promise, call,

dismiss, threaten, pray, supplicate, deny, refuse, interrogate, admire,

number, confess, repent,

confound, blush, doubt, instruct, command, incite, encourage, swear, testify, accuse, condemn, absolve, abuse, despise, defy, despite, flatter, ap-

plaud, bless, humiliate, mock, reconcile, recomexalt, entertain, congratulate, complain,

mend,

wonder, exclaim, and what not, with a variation and multiplication to the emu-

grieve, despair,

lation of speech. With the head we invite, demur, confess, deny, give the lie, welcome, honour, reverence, disdain, demand, turn out, rejoice,

lament, reject, caress, rebuke, submit,

huff, encourage, threaten, assure, inquire. What

of the eyebrows? is

What of the shoulders? There

not a motion that does not speak, and in an inlanguage without discipline, and a

their nests, do they seek without

tender young will

lie

more

safe

and easy? Do

they secure themselves from the rainy winds, and place their lodgings towards the east, without knowing the different qualities of those winds, and considering that one is more wholesome than the other? does the spider make

Why

web

one place and slacker in anmake one sort of knot and then

telligible

her

public language that every one understands: whence it should follow, the variety and use dis-

other?

tinguished from those of others, that this should rather be judged the special property of human nature. I omit what particular necessity on the

and conclusion? We sufficiently discover in most of their works how much animals excel us, and

sudden suggests

to those

who

are in need; the

alphabets upon the fingers, grammars in gesture, and the sciences which are only by them exercised and expressed, and the nations that Pliny

have no other language. An ambassador of the city of Abdera, after a long harangue to Agis, king of Sparta, demanded of him, "Well, Sir, what answer must I return to my fellow citizens?" "That I have given thee leave," said he, "to say what thou wouldst, and as much as thou reports to

wouldst, without ever speaking a word." Is not this a silent speaking, and very easy to be understood?

As

to the rest, what is there in

our intelligence not see in the operations of animals? Is there a polity better ordered, the offices better distributed, and more inviolably observed and that

we do

maintained, than that of bees?

Can we imagine

employments can be carried on without reason and and

that such

so regular a distribution of

prudence? His quidam

signis atque haec exempla sequuti, Esse apihus 'partem divinae mentis, et haustus Aiihereos dixere. 2

1

Even

silence in a lover

Tasso, Aminta, 2

From which

that there

is

can express entreaty.—

34. signs and examples

tighter in

Why now

another,

she has not deliberation, thought,

if

how weak

our

art is to imitate

them.

We

see,

nevertheless, in our ruder performances that

we

employ all our faculties, and apply the utmost power of our souls; why do we not conclude the same of them? Why should we attribute to I know not what natural and servile inclination the works that surpass all we can do by nature and art? Wherein, before we are aware, we give them a mighty advantage over us, in making nature, with a maternal sweetness, to accompany and lead them, as it were, by the hand, to all the actions and commodities of their life, whilst she leaves us to chance and fortune, and to seek out, by art, the things that are necessary to our conservation; at the same time denying us the means of being able, by any instructhere

tion or contention of understanding, to arrive at

the natural sufficiency of beasts; so that their brutish stupidity surpasses in all

all

conveniences

that our divine intelligence can do. Really,

we might with great reason call her an unjust stepmother: but it is nothing so: our polity is not so irregular and deformed. Nature has been universally kind to all her creatures, and there is not one she has not amply furnished with all means necessary for the conservation of its being; for the common comat this rate,

plaints that

I

hear

men make

(as the license of

ii.

some have held

in bees a portion of the divine intelli-

gence and a heavenly emanation.— Virgil, Georg., iv.

219.

Essays them up and then again depresses them one while

their opinions

clouds,

Antipodes), that

we

to the

lifts

to the

are the only animal aban-

doned, naked upon the bare earth, tied and bound, not having wherewithal to arm and clothe us, but by the spoil of others; whereas nature has covered all other creatures with shells, husks, bark, hair, wool, prickles, leather, ers, scales, silk,

down,

feath-

according to the necessities of

has armed them with talons, teeth, and defend, and has herself taught them that which is most proper for them, to swim, to run, to fly, and to sing, whereas man neither knows how to walk, speak, eat, or do anything but weep, without teaching. their being;

horns, wherewith to assault

Turn porro puer, ut saevis projectus ab undis Navita, nudus humi jacet, infans, indigus omni

II.

217

12

should be the stomach where the digestion is, and yet our fathers had this always open, and our ladies, tender and delicate as they are, go sometimes half bare as low as the navel. Nor is the binding and swathing of infants any more necessary; and the Lacedaemonian mothers brought up theirs in all liberty of motion of members, without any ligature at all. 2 Our crying is common to us, with most other animals, and there are but few creatures that are not observed to groan and bemoan themselves a long time after they come into the world, forasmuch as it is a behaviour suitable to the weakness wherein they find themselves. As to the usage of eating, it is in us, as in them, natural, and without instruction;

danger of cold,

it

/

Vitali auxilio,

quum primum

Nixibus ex alvo matris natura profudit, Vagituque locum lugubri complet; ut aequum est Cui tantutn in vita restet transire malorum. At variae crescunt pecudes, armenta, feraeque, Neccrepitaculaeis opus est, nee cuiquamadhibenda est

Almae

Nee

nutricis blanda atque infracta loquela:

varias quaerunt vestes pro

tempore

altis,

large

Tellus ipsa parit, naturaque dsedala rerum. 1

Those complaints form

are false; there

is

in the polity

world a greater equality and more uni-

relation.

Our

skins are as sufficient to de-

fend us from the injuries of the weather, as theirs from them: witness several nations that still know not the use of clothes. Our ancient Gauls were but slenderly clad, no more than the Irish, our neighbours, in so cold a climate. But we may better judge of this by ourselves: for all those parts that we are pleased to expose to the wind and the air, the face, the hands, the lips, the shoulders, the head, according to various custom, are found very able to endure it: if there be a tender part about us, and that seems to be in

Then

the infant, like a mariner tossed by raging seas upon the shore, lies naked on the earth, destitute at his very birth, of all supports of life,

the time

when, nature

from

presenting him to the with doleful cries, as foreseeing

day, he

first

fills the air future miseries; but beasts, wild and tame, of themselves grow up: they need no ratde, no nurse with soothing words to teach them to talk; they do not look out for different robes according to the sea-

life's

and need no arms nor walls to protect them earth and nature in all abundance produce all things whereof they have need.— Lucresons;

and

their goods

tius, v.

223.

:

possit abuti:

3

who doubts but an infant, arrived to the strength of feeding himself, may shift to seek his food? and the earth produces and

offers

him where-

withal to supply his necessity without other culture and art, and if not at all times, no more does she do it to beasts; witness the provision we

and other creatures hoard up against the dead seasons of the year. The late discovered nations, so abundantly furnished with meat and natural drink, without trouble or preparation, give us to understand that bread is not our only food, and that without tillage our mother nature has provided us abundantly with all we stand in need of; nay, it would appear, still more fully and plentifully than she does at present, when we have mixed up these with our own industry: Et tellus nitidas fruges, vinetaque laeta Sponte sua primum mortalibus ipsa creavit; Ipsa dedit dulces foetus et pabula laeta; Quae nunc vix nostro grandescunt aucta labore, Conterimusque boves, et vires agricolarum: 4 the depravity and irregularity of our appetite outstrip all the inventions satisfy

As 1

enim vim quisque suam quam

see ants

caeli:

Denique non armis opus est, non moenibus Queis sua tutentur, quando omnibus omnia

of the

Sentit

in luminis oras

we

can contrive

to

it.

to arms,

we have more

that are natural

than most other animals, more various motions of the limbs, and naturally and without lessons, extract more service from them: those that are trained up to fight naked, are seen to throw them2

Plutarch, Lycurgus. For every one soon finds out his natural force, to use or abuse.— Lucretius, v. 1032. * The earth at first spontaneously afforded choice fruits and wines to mankind; gave them prolific herds, and glowing harvests, which now scarcely by art more abundandy yield, though men and oxen strive to improve the soil.— Ibid., ii. 11 57. 3

Montaigne

8 selves

upon hazard

like

our own;

if

and protecting it by acquired means we have by instinct and natural precept; as, for examples: the elephant sharpens and whets the teeth he makes use of in war (for he has particular ones for that service which he spares and never employs at all to any other use); when bulls go to fight, they toss and throw the dust about them; boars whet their tusks; and the ichneumon, when he is about to engage with the crocodile, fortifies his body by covering and encrusting it all

over with close-wrought, well-kneaded slime, why shall we not say, that it is

as with a cuirass: also natural for

us to arm ourselves with wood

and iron?

As ural,

it is certain that, if it be not natnot necessary. Nevertheless, I believe

to speech, it is

that a child

Et partim mutant cum tempestatibus una Raucisonos cantus. 3

some beasts

surpass us in this advantage, we surpass several others. And the industry of fortifying the body

who had been brought up

in abso-

remote from all society of men (which would be a trial very hard to make) would have some kind of speech to express his meaning: and 'tis not to be supposed that nature would have denied that to us which she has given to several other animals: for what other than speech is the faculty we observe in them of complaining, rejoicing, calling to one another

is yet to be known what language this would speak; and of this what is said by guess has no great weight. If any one should al-

But

it

child

lege to

those

and the softer murmurings of love, which they perform with the voice? And why should they not speak to one another? they speak very well to us, and we to them; in how many several ways do we speak to our dogs, and they answer us? We converse with them in another sort of language and other appellations than we do with birds, hogs, oxen, and horses; and alter the idiom according to the kind. Cosi per entro loro schiera bruna

S'amusa I'uno con

I'altra formica, Forse a spiar lor via et lor fortuna. 1

Lactantius seems to attribute to beasts not only speech, but laughter also. And the difference of

language which is manifest amongst us, according to the variety of countries, is also observed 2 in animals of the same kind Aristotle, in proof :

of this, instances the various calls of partridges,

according to the situation of places: Variaeque volucres

Longe

alias alio faciunt in

.

.

Indwpedita suis fatalibus omnia

1

2

is

Hist. Animal, iv. 9.

an-

vinclis.*

There is indeed some difference; there are orand degrees; but 'tis under the aspect of one same nature: quaeque suo ritu procedit; et omnes Res Vozdere naturae certo discrimina servant. 5 .

.

.

Man

must be compelled and restrained within Wretched being, he is really not in a condition to step over the rail; he is fettered and circumscribed, he is subjected to the bounds of this polity.

a co-ordinate obligation with the other creatures

and of a very humble condition, without any prerogative or preeminence true and real; that which he attributes to himself, by vain fancy and opinion, has neither body nor taste. And if it be so, that he only of all the animals has this privilege of the imagination, and this irregularity of thoughts representing to him that which is, that which is not, and that he would have, the false and the true; 'tis an advantage dearly bought, and of which he has very little reason to be proud; for from that springs the principal fountain of all the evils that befall him, sin, sickness, irresolution, affliction, despair. I say then (to return to my subject) that there is no probability to induce a man to believe, that beasts by natural and compulsory of his class,

.

tempore voces

.

.

.

their sable bands, one ant with anseen to communicate: observe, perhaps, each other's ways and ask what prizes they have brought home.— Dante, Purg., xxvi. 34.

So amongst

I

ders

3

Various birds

their hoarse songs

other

to this opinion, that

are naturally deaf, speak not:

swer that this follows not only because they could not receive the instruction of speaking by the ear, but because the sense of hearing, of which they are deprived, has relation to that of speaking, holding together by a natural tie; in such manner, that what we speak we must first speak to ourselves within, and make it first sound in our own ears, before we can utter it to others. All this I have said to prove the resemblance there is in human things, and to bring us back and join us to the crowd: we are neither above or below the rest. All that is under heaven, says the wise man, runs one law and one fortune:

lute solitude,

for succour,

me, in opposition

who

tius, v. 4

quite different notes; some change with the seasons.— Lucre-

make

1077, 1080,

2, 3.

bound

in the

same

All things proceed by their

own

All things are

fatal

chains.—

Ibid., v. 874. 5

serve the limits of nature's

rules,

law.— Ibid., 921.

and ob-

Essays tendency, do the same things that we do by our choice and industry; we ought from like effects, to conclude like faculties, and from greater effects greater faculties, and consequently confess, that the

we

same reason, the same method by which

common with

them, or that they have others that are better. Why should we imoperate, are

who exourselves"? Add to

agine in them this natural constraint,

perience no such effect in

more honourable to be guided by a natural and irresistible condition, and nearer allied to the Divinity, than to act regularly by a licentious and fortuitous liberty, and more safe to intrust the reins of our conduct in the hands of nature than in our own. The vanity of our presumption is the cause that we had rather owe our sufficiency to our own strength than to her bounty, and which, that

it is

and obliged

to act regularly

that

we

enrich the other animals with natural

II.

219

not women in Syria who, being on all fours, served for a stepladder, by which the iadies the coach? And the majority of free persons surrender, for very trivial advantages,

mounted their life

and being

into the

power

of another;

the wives and concubines of the Thracians con-

tended who should be chosen to be slain upon 1 their husband's tomb. Have tyrants ever failed of finding men enough devoted to their service; some of them moreover, adding this necessity of accompanying them in death as in life? whole armies have so bound themselves to their captains. The form of the oath in that rude school of fencers, who were to fight it out to the last, was in these words: "We swear to suffer ourselves to be chained, burned, beaten, killed with the sword, and to endure all that true gladiators suffer from their master, religiously engaging both bodies and souls in his service";

and renounce them in their favour, to honour and ennoble ourselves with goods ac-

goods,

my opinion; for I should naturally and purely my

12

Ure meum,

si vis,

flamma caput,

et pete ferro

Corpus, et in torto verbere terga seca:

2

quired; very foolishly in as

much

value parts

had begged and obtained from education: it is not in our power to obtain a nobler reputation, than to be favoured of God and nature. For this reason, consider the fox, of which the people of Thrace make use when they desire to pass over the ice of some frozen river, turning him out before them to that purpose; should we see him lay his ear upon the bank of the river, down to the ice, to listen if from a more remote or nearer distance he can hear the noise of the water's current, and according as he finds by that own,

as those

I

the ice to be of a less or greater thickness, retire

we not have reason thence he had the same thoughts in his should have upon the like occa-

or advance: should to believe that

head that we sion, and that it is a ratiocination and consequence drawn from natural sense: "that which makes a noise, runs; that which runs, is not frozen: what is not frozen is liquid; and that which is liquid yields to impression?" For to attribute this to a vivacity of the sense of hearing without meditation and consequence, is a chimera that cannot enter into the imagination. We may suppose the same of the many subtleties and inventions with which beasts protect themselves from enterprises we plot against them. And if we would make an advantage of this that it is in our power to seize them, to employ them in our service, and to use them at our pleasure, 'tis but still the same advantage we have over one another. We have our slaves upon these terms; and the Climacidae: were they

this was an obligation indeed, and yet there were, in some years, ten thousand who entered into it and lost themselves in it. When the Scy-

thians interred their king, they strangled

upon

body the most beloved of his concubines, his cup-bearer, the master of his horse, his chamberlain, the usher of his chamber, and his cook; and his

upon his anniversary they killed fifty horses, mounted by fifty pages, whom they had impaled up the spine of the back to the throat, and there 3 left them planted in parade about his tomb. The men that serve us do it more cheaply, and for a less careful and favourable usage than that we entertain our hawks, horses, and dogs with. To what solicitude do we not submit for the convenience of these? I do not think that servants of the most abject condition would willingly do that for their masters, that princes think it an honour to do for these beasts. Diogenes seeing

redeem him from servi"They are fools," said he, " 'tis he that keeps and feeds me is my servant, not I his." And they, who make so much of beasts, ought his relations solicitous to

tude:

rather to be said to serve them, than to be served

And withal they have this more generous quality, that one lion never submitted to another lion, nor one horse to another, for want by them.

of courage.

As we go

1

Herodotus,

2

Burn

my

to the chase of beasts, so

v. 5.

head with and scourge

fire if

you

will,

wound me

with steel, my shoulders with twisted wire.— Tibullus, i. 90, 21. 3 Herodotus, iv. 71.

MONTAIGNE

220

do tigers and lions to the chase of men, and they do the same execution one upon another, dogs upon hares, pikes upon tench, swallows upon flies, sparrowhawks upon blackbirds and larks:

ions, but out of the bodies of their masters too (witness the elephant of King Poms, whom Alexander defeated) the dart and javelins thrown at

them

in battle,

and that

ourselves could not do

Serpente ciconia fullos Nutrit, et inventa per devia rura lacerta,

Et leporem aut capream famulae Jovis 1 In saltu venantur aves.

.

.

.

et generosae

hawks and hounds; and above Amphipolis in Thrace, the hawkers and wild falcons equally divide the prey; as al-

labour of the chase, with our

so, along the lake Maeotis, if the fisherman does not honestly leave the wolves an equal share of what he has caught, they presently go and tear

his nets in pieces. And as we have a way of hunting that is carried on more by subtlety than force, as angling with line and hook, there is also the like amongst animals. Aristotle says, that the cuttle-fish casts a gut out of her throat as long as a line, which she extends and drawsback at pleasure;

and

approach, she

it

nibble

upon

gut, lying herself concealed in

and by

surprise

As

and

draws

the

little

near her, that at one spring she

may

little

fish is so

some little fish the end of this the sand or mud,

as she perceives

lets

little

it

in,

till

it.

strength, there

is

no

creature in the world exposed to so many injuries as man: we need not a whale, an elephant or a crocodile, nor

alone

men,

is

to

any such animals, of which one

sufficient to defeat a great

do our business:

number

of

lice are sufficient to va-

and the heart and life and triumphant emperor is the breakfast of a little worm. Why should we say that it is only for man by knowledge, improved by art and meditation, to distinguish the things commodious for his being and proper for the cure of his diseases from those which are not so; to know the virtues of rhubarb and fern: when we see the goats of Candia, when wounded with an arrow, amongst a milcate Sulla's dictatorship; of a great

lion of plants choose out dittany for their cure, tortoise, when she has eaten of a viper, immediately go to look out for marjoram to purge her; the dragon rubs and clears his eyes with fennel; the storks give themselves clysters of sea-water; the elephants draw out, not only

and the

of their

1

The

own

little

pain;

know

all this, is

not to take

from them the dignity of knowledge and prudence, but with greater reason to attribute it to them than to us, for the honour of so infallible a mistress. Chrysippus, though in all other things as scornful a judge of the condition of animals as any other philosopher whatever, considering the motions of a dog who, coming to a place where three ways meet, either to hunt after his master he has lost, or in pursuit of some game that flies before him, goes snuffing first in one of the ways and then in another, and after having made himself sure of two, without finding the trace of what he seeks, throws himself into the third without examination, is forced to confess that this reasoning is in the dog: "I have followed my master by foot to this place; he must, of necessity, be gone by one of these three ways; he is not gone this way nor that; he must then infallibly be gone this other" and that assuring himself by such reasoning and conclusion, he makes no use of his nose in the third way nor ever lays it to the ground, but suffers himself to be carried on by the force of reason. This mode, which is purely logical, and this method of propositions divided and conjoined, and the right enumeration of parts, is it not every whit as good that the dog knows all this of himself as if he had learnt it of Trapezuntius? :

what concerns

to

we why

so dexterously that

with so

do not we say here also that this is knowledge and prudence? For to allege to their disparagement that 'tis by the sole instruction and dictate of nature that they

We divide the quarry, as well as the pains and

it

bodies and those of their compan-

stork feeds her

young with snakes and

liz-

ards found in bye-places. Jove's eagle hunts in the woods for hares and kids, and so the nobler birds of

prey.— Juvenal,

xiv. 74, 81.

Nor are animals incapable of being instructed our method. We teach blackbirds, ravens, and parrots to speak; and the facility wherewith we see them render their voices and breath so supple and pliant to be formed and confined within a certain number of letters and syllables, evinces that they have a reasoning examination of things within that makes them so docile and

after pies,

willing to learn.

Everybody,

I

believe,

is

glutted with the sev-

tumblers teach their dogs; the dances where they do not miss any one cadence of the sound they hear; the many various motions and leaps they make them perform by the command of a word. But I observe with more

eral sorts of tricks that

admiration this effect, which, nevertheless, is very common, in the dogs that lead the blind both in the country and in cities: I have taken notice how they stop at certain doors, where

Essays they are wont to receive alms; how they avoid the encounter of coaches and carts, even where they have sufficient room to pass; I have seen

II.

221

12

much of the grace of their we may judge by this that they im-

of their parents, lose

singing:

man have made this dog understand that it was his office to look to his master's safety only, and to despise his own convenience to serve him? And how had he the knowledge that a way was large enough for him that was not so for a blind man? Can all this be apprehended with-

prove by discipline and study and even amongst the wild birds they are not all one and alike; every one has learnt to do better or worse, according to its capacity; and so jealous are they of one another whilst learning, that they contend with emulation, and with so vigorous a contention that sometimes the vanquished fall dead upon the spot, the breath rather failing than the voice. The younger ruminate pensive, and begin to imitate some broken notes; the disciple

out ratiocination?

listens to the master's lesson,

must not omit what Plutarch says he saw of a dog at Rome with the Emperor Vespasian, the father, at the theatre of Marcellus: this dog

account it is able; they are silent by turns; one may hear faults corrected and observe reprehensions of the teacher. "I have formerly seen/' says Arrian, " an elephant having a cymbal hung at each leg, and another fastened to his trunk, at

them, along the trench of a town, forsake a plain and even path, and take a worse, only to keep their masters further from the ditch. How could a

I

served a player tures

and

who

acted a farce of several gesand had therein

several personages,

He had, amongst other things, to counhimself for some time dead, by reason of a certain drug he was supposed to have eaten: after he had swallowed a piece of bread, which

:

which

and gives the best

the others danced round

his part.

the sound of

terfeit

about him, rising and falling at certain cadences, as they were guided by the instrument, and it was delightful to hear this harmony." In the spectacles of Rome, there were ordinarily seen elephants taught to move and dance to the sound of the voice, dances wherein were several changes and steps, and cadences very hard to learn. And some have been seen, in private, so intent upon

passed for the drug, he began after a while to

tremble and stagger, as if he was astounded at stretching himself out stiff, as if he had been dead, he suffered himself to be drawn and drag:

last,

to place, as it was his part to do; and afterward, when he knew it to be time, he began first gently to stir, as if newly awakened out of profound sleep, and lifting up his head,

ged from place

looked about him after such a manner as astonished all the spectators. The oxen that served in the royal gardens of Susa to water them and turn certain great wheels to

draw water for

that purpose, to

which buckets

were fastened (such as there are many in Languedoc), being ordered every one to draw a hundred turns a day, they were so accustomed to

number that it was impossible by force to make them draw one turn more, but, their task being performed, they would suddenly stop and this

stand

still.

We

are almost

men

before

we can

count a hundred, and have lately discovered nations that have no knowledge of numbers at all. There is still more understanding required in the teaching of others than in being taught;

now, setting aside what Democritus held, and proved, that most of the arts we have were taught us by other animals, as the spider has taught us

weave and sew, the swallow to build, the swan and nightingale music, and several animals, in

to

imitating them, to take medicines: Aristotle

is

of

opinion that the nightingales teach their young ones to sing and spend a great deal of time and care in it, whence it happens that those we bring up in cages and that have not had time to learn

all

their lesson as to practise it by themselves, that they might not be chidden nor beaten by their

masters.

But

magpie, of which Plutarch himself for warrant, is very

this other story of the

we have

strange; she was in a barber's shop at Rome, and did wonders in imitating with her voice what-

happened one day that cergood while sounding before the shop. After that, and all the next day, the magpie was pensive, dumb, and melancholy, which everybody wondered at and thought that the noise of the trumpets had thus stupefied and dazed her and that her voice was gone with her hearing; but they found at last that it was a profound meditation and a retiring into herself, her thoughts exercising and preparing her voice to imitate the sound of those trumpets; so that the first voice she uttered was perfectly to imitate their strains, stops, and changes: having for this new lesson, quitted and disdained all she had learned before. I will not omit this other example of a dog, which the same Plutarch (I can't tell them in order, as to which I get confused; nor do I observe it here any more than elsewhere in my work) says he saw on shipboard: this dog being puzzled how to get at the oil that was in the bottom of a jar and which he could not reach with ever she heard.

It

tain trumpeters stood a

r

MONTAIGNE

222

his tongue, by reason of the narrow mouth of the vessel, went and fetched stones, and let them fall into the jar, till he made the oil rise so high, that he could reach it. What is this but an effect

of a very subtle capacity? 'Tis said that the ra-

vens of Barbary do the same, when the water they would drink is too low. This action is something akin to what Juba, a king of their nation,

when by the craft them is trapped in certain prepared for them and covered over

relates of the elephants: that,

of the hunter, one of

deep

pits

with brush

to deceive

ly bring a great to raise the

them,

many

all

stones

bottom so that he

the rest diligent-

and

may

logs of

wood But

get out.

animal in several other features comes so near to human capacity, that should I particularly relate all that experience has delivered to us, I should easily have granted me what I ordinarily maintain, namely, that there is more difference betwixt such and such a man, than betwixt such a man and such a beast. The keeper of an elephant, in a private house of Syria, robbed him every meal of the half of his allowance one day his master would himself feed him and poured the full measure of barley he had ordered for his allowance into his manger; at which the elephant, casting an angry look at his keeper, with his trunk separated the one half from the this

:

and thrust it aside, thus declaring the wrong that was done him. And another, having a keeper that mixed stones with his corn to make up the measure, came to the pot where he was boiling flesh for his own dinner, and filled it with ashes. These are particular facts: but that which all the world has seen, and all the world knows, is that in all the armies of the East one of their greatest elements of strength was elephants, with whom they did without comparison far more execution, than we do now with our artillery, which is, as it were, in their stead in a day of battle (as may easily be judged by such as are other,

read in ancient history);

Siquidem Tyrio

servire solebant

Annibali, et nostris ducibus, regique Molosso Horum majores, et dorso ferre cohortes, 1 Partem aliquant belli, et euntem in vraelia turritn.

They must of necessity very confidently have relied

upon

beasts,

and understanding of these they entrusted them with the van-

fidelity

when

1 The ancestors of these served in the armies of Carthaginian Hannibal, and of our own captains, and of the Molossian king (Pyrrhus); upon their backs they used to bear whole cohorts when they

went

to

war.— Juvenal,

xii.

107.

guard of a battle, where the least stop they should have made, by reason of the bulk and heaviness of their bodies, and the least fright that should have made them face about upon their own people, had been enough to spoil all. And there are but few examples where it has happened that they have fallen foul upon their own troops, whereas we ourselves break into our own battalions and rout one another. They had the commission, not of one simple movement only, but of many several things they were to perform in the battle; as the Spaniards did to their dogs in their new conquest of the Indies, to whom they gave pay and allowed them a share in the spoil; and those animals showed as much dexterity and judgment in pursuing the victory and stopping the pursuit, in charging and retiring as occasion required,

from

and

in distinguishing their friends

their enemies, as they did ardour and fierce-

ness.

We more admire and value things that are unusual and strange than those of ordinary obserI had not else so long insisted upon these examples: for I believe, whoever shall strictly observe what we ordinarily see in those animals

vation;

we have amongst

may there find as wonderwe fetch from remote coun-

us,

ful effects as those

tries and ages. 'Tis one same nature that rolls her course, and whoever has sufficiently considered the present state of things, might certainly conclude as to both the future and the past. I have formerly seen men brought hither by sea, from very distant countries, whose language not being understood by us, and, moreover, their mien, countenance, and dress, being quite different from ours, which of us did not repute them savages and brutes? Who did not

attribute

it

sense, to see

and want of common them mute, ignorant of the French

to stupidity

tongue, ignorant of our salutations, cringes, our and behaviour, from which, of course, all human nature must take its pattern and examport

ple. All that seems strange to us, and what we do not understand we condemn. The same thing happens also in the judgment we make of beasts. They have several conditions like to ours; from those we may by comparison draw some conjecture: but of those qualities that are particular to them, how know we what to make of them? The horses, dogs, oxen, sheep, birds, and most of the animals that live amongst us, know our voices, and suffer themselves to be governed by them: so did Crassus' lamprey, that came when he called it; as also do the eels that are in the lake Arethusa; and I have seen ponds where the fishes run to eat at a certain call

:

Essays of those

who used

to feed

Nomen

them:

habent, et ad magistri 1 sui venit citatus;

We

as, after several

washings and purifica-

they are observed to lift up their trunks like arms, and fixing their eyes towards the rising sun, continue long in meditation and contemplation, at certain hours of the day of their tions,

own motion without instruction or precept. But because we do not see any such signs in other animals, we cannot thence conclude that they are without religion, nor

form any judgment of

we discern something in this action which the philosopher Cleanthes took notice of because it something reis

concealed from us; as

sembles our own; he saw, he says, ants go from their ant-hill carrying the dead body of an ant towards another ant-hill, from which several came out to meet them, as if to speak with them; whither, after having been some while together, the last returned, to consult, you may suppose, with their fellow-citizens, and so made two or three journeys, by reason of the difficulty of capitulation: in the conclusion, the last comers brought the first worm out of their burrow, as it were for the ransom of the defunct, which the first laid upon their backs and carried other ants

home, leaving the dead body to the others. This was the interpretation that Cleanthes gave of manifesting that those creatures that have no voice are not nevertheless without mutual communication and dealings, whereof 'tis through our own defect that we do not participate, and for that reason foolishly take upon us to pass our judgment upon it. But they yet produce other effects much beyond our capacity, to which we are so far from being able to arrive by imitation, that we cannot so much as by imagination conceive them. Many are of opinion that in the great and last naval engagement that Antony lost to Augustus, his admiral galley was stayed in the middle of her course by the little fish the Latins call Remora, by reason of the property she has of staying all sorts of vessels to which she fastens herself. And the Emperor Caligula, sailing with a great navy upon the coast of Romania, his galley alone was suddenly stayed by the same fish; which he caused to be taken, fastened as it was to the keel of his ship, very angry that such a little animal could this transaction, as

1

Each has

ter's

its

resist at

once the sea, the wind and the force of by being merely fastened by the

own name, and comes

call.— Martial, iv. 29, 6.

at the

his oars,

beak

may also say that we may judge from that. elephants have some share of religion, foras-

what

223

all

Vocem quisque

much

12

II.

mas-

to his galley (for

it is

a shell-fish);

and was

moreover, not without great reason, astonished that being brought to him in the long-boat it had no longer the strength it had in the water. A citizen of Cyzicus formerly acquired the reputation of a

good mathematician from having

learned the ways of the hedgehog: he has his burrow open in divers places and to several

winds, and foreseeing the wind that is to come stops the hole on that side, which the citizen observing, gave the city certain prediction of the wind which was presently to blow. The cameleon takes his colour from the place upon which he is laid; but the polypus gives himself what colour he pleases, according to occasion, either to conceal himself from what he fears, or from what he has a design to seize: in the cameleon 'tis a passive, but in the polypus 'tis an active change. have some changes of colour, as in fear, anger, shame, and other passions, that alter our complexion; but it is by the effect of suffering, as with the cameleon. It is in the power of the jaundice, indeed, to make us turn yellow, but 'tis not in the power of our own will. Now these effects that we discern in other animals, much greater than our own, imply some more excellent faculty in them, unknown to us; as, 'tis to be presumed, are several other qualities and capacities of theirs of which no appearance

We

reaches us.

Amongst

all

the predictions of elder times,

the most ancient and the most certain were those

taken from the flights of birds; we have nothing it, not anything so much to be admired. That rule and order of moving the wing, from which were prognosticated the consequences of future things, must of necessity be guided by some excellent means to so noble an operation like

for to attribute this great effect to disposition,

any natural

without the intelligence, consent

and reason of the creature by which it is produced, is an opinion evidently false. And, in proof, the torpedo has this quality, not only to benumb all the members that touch her, but even through the nets to transmit a heavy dulness into the hands of those that move and handle them; nay, it is further said that, if one pour water upon her, he will feel this numbness mount up the water to the hand and stupefy the feeling through the water. This is a miraculous force; but 'tis not useless to the torpedo; she knows it and makes use of it; for to catch the prey she desires she will bury herself in the mud that other fishes, swimming over her, struck and

:

224 benumbed with

Montaigne

birds of passage,

may

this coldness of hers,

by shifting

fall

and other

into her power. Cranes, swallows,

their abodes accord-

be justice to render

If it

to

every one his due,

the beasts that serve, love, and defend their

and that pursue and fall upon stranand those who offend them, do in this rep-

benefactors,

ing to the seasons, sufficiently manifest the knowledge they have of their divining faculty,

gers

and put it in use. Huntsmen assure us that to cull out from amongst a great many puppies, that which ought to be preserved for the best, the simple way is to refer the choice to the dam, as thus: take them and carry them out of the kennel, and the first she brings back, will certainly be the best; or if you make a show as if you would environ the kennel with fire, the one she first catches up to save by which it appears they have a sort of prognostic that we have not; or that they have some capacity in judging of their whelps other and clearer than we have. The manner of coming into the world, of en-

observing a very equitable equality in the distribution of what they have to their young. As to

:

gendering, nourishing, acting, moving, living and dying of beasts, is so near to ours, that whatever

we

retrench from their moving causes and

add to our own condition above theirs, can by no means proceed from any meditation of our own reason. For the regimen of our health, physicians propose to us the example of the beasts'

way

of living; for this saying has in all times

been in the mouth of the people

Tenez chaulds

Au

les

heste.

1

We

More ferarum, ritu,

plerutnque putantur

sic loca sumere possunt, Pectoribus positis, sublatis semina lumbis; 2

Concipere uxores: quia

and condemn

as hurtful those indecent

discreet motions the

the work; recalling

and

in-

women have superadded to them

example and

to the

practice of the beasts of their

own

sex,

more

so-

ber and modest:

Nam

mulier prohibet se conci'pere atque repugnat,

Clunibus ipsa

Venerem

viri

si Iseta retractet,

Atque exossato ciet omni pectore fluctus. Ejicit enim sulci recta regione viaque

Vomerem, atque 1

locis avertit

Keep warm your

feet

vivid

it,

without comparison,

and constant than men have. King

Lysimachus' dog, Hyrcanus, his master being dead, lay

upon

his bed, obstinately refusing ei-

ther to eat or drink, and the day that his body

wasburnt,he took a run and leaped into the fire, where he was consumed. As also did the dog of one Pyrrhus, for he would not stir from off his master's bed from the time that he died; and

when

him away

let himself be carleaped into the pile where they burnt his master's body. There are

they carried

ried with him,

and

at last

certain inclinations of affection which sometimes

spring in us without the consultation of reason

and by

which others

a fortuitous temerity,

call

capable as we. see horses form an acquaintance with one another, that we have much ado to make them eat or travel when separated; we observe them

sympathy: of

this beasts are as

We

fancy a particular colour in those of their own it, run to it with great joy and demonstrations of good-will, and to have a dislike and hatred for some other colour. Animals have choice, as well as we, in their amours, and cull out their mistresses; neither are they exempt from our extreme and implacable jeal-

to

Generation is the principle of natural action. have a certain disposition of members most proper and convenient for us in that affair: nevertheless, some order us to conform to the posture of brutes, as the most effectual:

Quadrupedumque magis

friendship, they have

more

kind, and where they meet

pieds et la teste;

demourant vivez en

resent a certain air of our justice: as also in

seminis ictum.

and head;

3

ousies

envies.

the coupling with females; or neither natural nor necessary: of which last sort are almost all the desires of men; they are all superfluous and artificial; for 'tis not to be believed how little will satisfy nature, how little she has left us to desire; our ragouts and kickshaws are not of her reputation; the Stoics say that a

man may

live

on an olive a day; our delicacy in our wines is no part of her instruction, nor the over-charging the appetites of love:

Numquid ego a te Magno prognatum deposco consule cunnum.

4.

These irregular desires, that ignorance of good and a false opinion have infused into us, are so

many as to the rest,

and

Desires are either natural and necessary, as to eat and drink; or natural and not necessary, as

that they almost exclude all the natural,

just as if there

were

so great a

number

of stran-

live like a beast. 2

Lucretius,

iv.

1

26 1

.

The

sense

is

given in the

text. 3

Ibid., iv.

1

266.

The sense is given in

the text.

* Horace, Sat., i., 2, 69, as maid's as good as the mistress.

much

as to say the

Essays

225

12

II.

though they never make any use

gers in a city as to thrust out the natural inhabitants and, usurping their ancient rights and privi-

ing great care,

leges, extinguish their authority and

in the foresight

power. Animals are much more regular than we, and keep themselves with greater moderation within the limits nature has prescribed; but yet not so exactly, that they have not some analogy with our debauches: and as there have been known furious desires that have compelled men to the love of beasts, so there have been examples of beasts that have fallen in love with us, and admit monstrous affections betwixt different kinds: wit-

ness the elephant, who was the grammarian in the love of a

rival to Aristophanes

girl in

the city of Alexandria,

ing behind

him

young flowerwhich was noth-

in all the offices of a very pas-

sionate suitor: for going through the market

where they sold fruit, he would take some in his trunk and carry it to her: he would as much as possible keep her always in his sight, and would sometimes put his trunk under her neck kerchief into her bosom to feel her breasts. They tell also of a dragon in love with a maid; and of a goose enamoured of a child in the town of Asopus: of a ram that was a lover of the minstreless Glaucia; and there are every day baboons furiously in love with

We see also certain

women.

male animals that are fond of the males of their own kind. Oppianus and others give us some examples of the reverence that beasts have to their kindred in their copulation, but experience often shows us the contrary:

of

at all.

it

the time to

As

to thrift,

they surpass us not only

and laying up and saving for come, but they have moreover a great

deal of the science necessary thereto.

The

ants

bring abroad into the sun their grain and seeds to air, refresh, and dry them, when they perceive them to mould and grow musty, lest they should decay and rot. But the caution and foresight they exhibit in

gnawing

their grains of

wheat, surpass all imagination of human prudence for by reason that the wheat does not always continue sound and dry, but grows soft, thaws and dissolves, as if it were steeped in milk, whilst hastening to germination, for fear lest it should shoot and lose the nature and property of a magazine for their subsistence, they nibble off the end by which it should shoot and sprout. As to what concerns war, which is the greatest and most pompous of human actions, I would very fain know, whether we would use that for :

an argument of some prerogative, or, on the contrary, for a testimony of our weakness and imperfection; for, in truth, the science of undoing and killing one another, and of ruining and destroying our own kind, has nothing in it so tempting as to make it coveted by beasts who have it not:

Quando Fortior eripuit vitam leo?

leoni

quo nemore unquam

Expiravit apex majoris dentibus apri?

2

yet are they not universally exempt; witness the

Nee habetur Ferre pattern tergo;

Quasque

turpe juvencae

equo sua

fit

furious encounters of bees, and the enterprises

plia conjux;

ipsaque cujus concepit ales. 1

creavit, init pedicles caper,

Setnine concepta

est,

ex

Mo

For malicious subtlety, can there be a more pregnant example than in the philosopher Thales' mule? He, laden with salt and fording a river, and by accident stumbling there, so that the sacks he carried were

all

wet, perceiving that by

the melting of the salt his burthen was somewhat lighter, never failed, so often as he came to any river to lie down with his load; till his master, discovering the knavery, ordered that he

should be laden with wool, wherein finding himself mistaken he ceased to practice that device. There are several that are the very image of our avarice, for we see them infinitely solicitous to catch all they can and hide it with exceed1

The

heifer thinks

it

no shame

to take

her

sire

upon her back; the horse his daughter leaps; goats increase the herd by those they have begot; birds of all sorts live in common, and by the seed they were conceived conceive.— Ovid, Met.,

x.

325.

of the princes of the two opposite armies: Saepe duobus

Regibus

incessit

magno

discordia tnotu;

Continuoque animos vidgi et trepidantia Cor da licet longe praesciscere. 3

bello

never read this divine description but that,meI there see human folly and vanity represented in their true and lively colours: for these preparations for war that so frighten and astound us with their noise and tumult, this rattle of guns, drums, and confused voices, I

thinks,

Fulgur ibi ad caelum se tollit, totaque circum JEre renidescit tellus, subterque virum vi 2

What

stronger lion ever took the life from a it ever known that a

weaker? or in what forest was

small boar fell by the teeth of a larger boar.— Juvenal, xv. 160. 3 Often, betwixt two kings, animosities arise with great commotion; then, straight, the

common

are heard from afar, preparing for the

war.— Virgil,

Georg.,

iv.

67.

sort

Montaigne

226

Excitur pedibus sonitus, clamoreque montes * Icti rejectant voces ad sidera mundi; in this dreadful embattling of so

many

(I use

thou-

sands of armed men, and so great fury, ardour, and courage, 'tis pleasant to consider by what idle occasions they are excited,

my

Latin with the liberty of conscience to allow me.) Now this great

you are pleased

and by how light

body, with so many fronts and motions as seem to threaten heaven and earth;

Quam multi Lybico volvuntur marmore fluctus, Orion hybernis conditur undis,

Saevis ubi

ones appeased;

Vel

Paridis propter narratur

densae torrentur

Aut Hermi campo, aut

amorem

Graecia Barbariae diro collisa duello;

cum sole novo

2

Scuta sonant, pulsuque tellus:

aristae,

Lyciae flaventibus arvis;

pedum

tremit excita

*

Asia was ruined and destroyed for the un-

all

governed

man,

lust of

one

Paris: the

envy of one

sin-

a despite, a pleasure or a domestic jeal-

with so many heads and man, feeble, calamitous, and miserbut an ant-hill of ants disturbed and

this furious monster,

arms,

is

ousy, causes that ought not to set two oyster

able;

'tis

wenches by the ears, is the soul and mover of all this mighty bustle. Shall we believe those who

provoked;

gle

yet

It

nigrum campis agmen:

B

are themselves the principal authors of these

mischiefs? Let us then hear the greatest and most victorious emperor that ever was making sport of, and with marvellous ingenuity turning into a jest, the many battles fought both by sea and land, the blood and lives of five hundred thousand men that followed his fortune, and the power and riches of two parts of the

mist, are

world, drained for the service of his expeditions;

bees,

Quod

futuit

Glaphyran Antonius, hanc mihi

poenam Fulvia constituit, se quoque uti futuam. Fulvicin* ego ut

futuam? Quid,

si

me Manius

oret

Paedicem, faciam? Non puto, si sapiam. futue, aut pugnemus, ait. Quid, si mihi vita Charior est ipsa mentula? Signa canant. 3

Aut

a contrary

wind, the croaking of a

flight of ra-

vens, the stumble of a horse, the casual passage

morning any one of them sufficient to beat down and overturn him. Dart but a sunbeam in his face, he is melted and vanished: blow but a

of an eagle, a dream, a voice, a sign, a

dust in his eyes, as our poet says of the and all our standards and legions, with the great Pompey himself at the head of them,

little

are routed

he, as

I

and crushed

take

6

it,

to pieces: for

it

was

that Sertorius beat in Spain

with those brave arms, which also served Eumenes against Antigonus, and Surena against Crassus:

Hi motus animorum, atque

haec certamina

tanta,

When the glancing ray of arms rises heavenward, and the earth glows with beams of shining brass, and is trampled by horses and by men, and 1

the rocks struck by the various cries reverberate the sounds to the skies.— Lucretius, ii. 325. 2

Pulveris exigui jactu compressa quiescent. 1

Let us but slip our flies after them, and even these will have the force and the courage to disperse them. Within recent memory, the Portu-

By reason

of Paris' love, Greece and the Barbarengaged in dire warfare.— Horace, Epist., i. 2, 6. 3 Martial, x. 21. This epigram was composed by Augustus, but the luscious Latin conveys such gross and licentious ideas that there would be no excuse for translating the lines without softening them. The following French version of Fontenelle, in his Dialogues of the Dead, lets us entirely into Augustus's meaning: Farce qu Antoine est charme de Glaphire, Fulvie a ses beaux yeux me veut assujettir. Antoine est infidele: Eh bien done? Est-ce a dire Que des fautes d' Antoine on me fera path? Qui? moy? que je serve Fulvie? A ce compte on verroit se retirer vers moy Mille Epouses mal satisfaites. Aime moi, me dit elle, ou combattons. Mais quoy? Elle est bien laide? Allons, sonnez trompettes. — Coste.

ians

4 As the innumerable waves that roll on the Lybian shore, when stormy Orion, winter returning, plunges into the waters; or as the golden ears, scorched by the summer's ray, on Hermus banks or fruitful Lycia, the bright shields dreadfully resound, and as the soldiers march, their footing shakes the ground.— JEneid, vii. 718. 5 The black troop marches to the held.— Ibid., iv.

404.

Here Montaigne had reason to be a litde dismemory; for it was not against

trustful of his

Pompey

that Sertorius

made use

of this stratagem,

but against the Caracitanians, a people of Spain, who lived in deep caves dug in a rock, where it was impossible to force them.— See Plutarch, Sertorius. 7 These commotions of their minds, and this so mighty fray, quashed by the throw of a little dust,

will cease.— Virgil, Georg.,

iv.

86.

Essays I

1

\

guese besieging the city of Tamly, in the territory of Xiatine, the inhabitants of the place

brought a number of hives, of which are great plenty in that place, upon the wall, and with fire drove the bees so furiously upon the enemy that they gave over the enterprise and trussed

up

their baggage, not

being able to stand their

so the city, by this new was freed from the danger with so wonderful a fortune, that at their return it was found that the bees had not lost so much as one combatant. The souls of emperors and cobblers are cast in the same mould; the weight and im-

attacks

and

stings;

and

sort of relief,

portance of the actions of princes considered, we persuade ourselves that they must be produced by some as weighty and important causes:

but we are deceived; for they are pushed on and pulled back in their movements by the same springs that we are in our little matters: the same reason that makes us wrangle with a neighbour, causes a war betwixt princes; the same reason that makes us whip a lacquey, falling into the hands of a king makes him ruin a whole province. They are as prompt and as easily moved as we, but they are able to do more mischief; in a gnat and an elephant the passion is the same.

As mal

to

what concerns

no animan. Our his-

fidelity, there is

in the world so treacherous as

tories have recorded the eager pursuit that dogs have made after the murderers of their masters. King Pyrrhus, observing a dog that watched a dead man's body, and understanding that he had for three days together performed that office, commanded that the body should be buried, and took the dog along with him. One day, as he was at a general muster of his army, this dog saw his master's murderers, and with great barking and extreme signs of anger flew upon them, by this first accusation awaking the revenge of this murder, which was soon after perfected by form of justice. As much was done by the dog of the sage Hesiod, which convicted the sons of Ganyctor of Naupactus of the murder committed on the person of his master. Another dog, put to guard a temple at Athens, having spied a sacri-

legious thief

who carried away the finest jewels,

barking at him with all the force he had; but, the warders not awaking at the noise, he followed him, and, day being broken, kept off at a short distance, without losing sight of him; if he offered him anything to eat, he would not take it, but would wag his tail at all the passengers he met, and took whatever they gave him at their hands; and if the thief laid down to sleep, he likewise stayed upon the spot. The news of fell to

12

II.

this

227

dog having come

ple, they

to the warders of the temput themselves upon the pursuit, in-

quiring as to the colour of the dog, and at last found him in the city of Cromyon, and the thief also, whom they brought back to Athens, where he had his reward: and the judges taking cognizance of this good office, ordered a certain meas-

ure of corn for the dog's daily sustenance, at the public charge, and the priests to take care to it. Plutarch delivers this story for a most certain truth,

in

he

and as one that happened in the age wherelived.

As to gratitude (for it seems to me, we had need bring this word into a little greater repute) this one example, which Apion reports himself to have been an eyewitness of, shall suffice. "One day," says he, "that at

Rome

they entertained

the people with the fighting of several strange

and principally of lions of an unusual was one amongst the rest who, by his furious deportment, by the strength and largeness of his limbs, and by his loud and dreadful beasts, size,

there

roaring, attracted the eyes of all the spectators.

Amongst the other

slaves, that were presented people in this combat of beasts, there was one Androclus, of Dacia, belonging to a Roman lord of consular dignity. This lion* having seen

to the

him

at a distance, first

made

a

sudden

stop, as

it

were, in a wondering posture, and then softly approached nearer in a gentle and peaceable manner, as if it were to enter into acquaintance with him; this being done, and being now as-

sured of what he sought, he began to wag his tail, as dogs do when they flatter their masters, and to kiss and lick the hands and thighs of the poor wretch, who was beside himself and almost dead with fear. Androclus having, by this kindlittle come to himself, and having taken so much heart as to consider and recognize him, it was a singular pleasure to see the joy and caresses that passed betwixt them. At

ness of the lion, a

which the people breaking into loud acclamations of joy, the emperor caused the slave to be called, to know from him the cause of so strange an event. He thereupon told him a new and a very wonderful story:

my master, said he, being

proconsul in Africa,

was constrained by

I

his se-

and cruel usage being daily beaten to steal from him and to run away. And to hide myself securely from a person of so great authority in

verity

,

the province,

I

thought

,

it

my best way

to fly to

the solitudes, sands, and uninhabitable parts of that country, resolved, in case the

means

of sup-

me, to make some shift or other to kill myself. The sun being excessively hot at noon, and the heat intolerable, I found a

porting

life

should

fail

Montaigne

228

and almost inaccessible cave, and went Soon after there came in to me this lion with one foot wounded and bloody, complaining and groaning with the pain he endured: at his coming I was exceedingly afraid, but he having espied me hid in a corner of his den, came gently to me, holding out and showingme his wound-

same evident amongst beasts, and marriages better kept than ours? As to the society and confederation they make amongst themselves, to league themselves together, and to give one another mutual assistance, is it not manifest that oxen, hogs, and other animals, at the cry of any

he demanded my assistance in his distress. I then drew out a great splinter he had got there, and growing a little more familiar with him, squeezing the wound, thrust out the dirt and gravel that he had got into it, wiped and cleansed it as well as I could. He, finding himself something better and much eased of his pain, lay down to repose, and presently fell asleep with his foot in my hand. From that time forward, he and I lived together in this cave three whole years, upon the same diet; for of the beasts that he killed in hunting he always brought me the best pieces, which I roasted in the sun for want of fire, and so ate them. At last growing weary of this wild and brutish life, the lion being one day gone abroad to hunt for our ordinary provision, I escaped from thence, and the third day after was taken by the soldiers, who brought me from

and embody for his defence? When the fish scarus has swallowed the angler's hook, his fellows all crowd about him, and gnaw the line in pieces; and if by chance one be got into the net, the others present him their tails on the outside, which he holding fast with his teeth, they after that manner disengage and draw him out. Mullets, when one of their companions is engaged, cross the line over their back, and with a fin they have there, indented like a saw, cut and saw it asunder. As to the particular offices that we receive from one another for the service of life, there are several like examples amongst them. 'Tis said that the whale never moves that he has not always before him a little fish, like the

retired

into

ed

it.

foot, as if

Africa to this city to

my master, who

presently

condemned me

to die, and to be exposed to the wild beasts. Now, by what I see, this lion was also taken soon after, who would now recompense me for the benefit and cure that he had received at my hands." This is the story that Androclustold the emperor, which he also conveyed from hand to hand to the people: wherefore at the universal request, he was absolved from his sentence and set at liberty; and the lion was, by afterorder of the people, presented to him. wards saw, says Apion, Androclus leading this lion, in nothing but a small leash, from tavern

We

Rome, and receiving what money everybody would give him, the lion being so gento tavern at

tle,

as to suffer himself to

be covered with the upon him, every-

of their kind that

we

offend,

all

the herd run to

his aid,

sea gudgeon, for this reason called the guide-fish,

whom the whale follows, suffering himself to be led

and turned with

as great facility as the

that enter into the dreadful gulf of this ster's mouth, are

up, this

little fish retires

and there never

into

it

in great security,

during which time the whale but as soon as it goes out, he immedi-

sleeps,

stirs;

ately follows:

and if by accident he lose sight of he goes wandering here and

his little guide, there,

and

strikes his sides against the rocks, like

a ship that has lost her rudder; testifies to

There

is

have seen

which Plutarch

off the Island of Anticyra.

a like society betwixt the

wren and the

surprise

We love,

and

so

do they the

JEthon

lacrymans, guttisque humectat grandibus ora.

As some nations have wives some others have every man 1

we

loss of us:

Post, hellator equus, positis insignihus, It

Next,

^thon

of his trappings,

ALneid,

xi.

89.

rouses

1

common, and own: is not the

in

his

his warhorse came, without any and weeping with heavy tears.—

he should

him asleep, both with his voice and bill him and gives him notice of his danger:

he feeds on

often lament the loss of the beasts

bird

crocodile; the

to fight him,thislittle bird, for fear lest

man, there goes the man

little

wren serves for a sentinel over this great animal; and if the ichneumon, his mortal enemy, approach called the

one that met him: saying There goes the lion that cured the lion.

mon-

immediately lost and swallowed

flowers that the people threw that entertained the

helm

guides the ship: in recompense of which service, whereas all other things, whether beast or vessel,

this monster's leavings,

who receives

peck into his

mouth, suffering him to jaws and betwixt his teeth, and

thence

out the bits of flesh that remain;

him

familiarly into his to take

and when he has a mind to shut his mouth he gives the bird warning to go out, by closing it by little and little, without bruising or doing it any harm at all. The shellfish called naker lives also in the same intelligence with the shrimp, a little animal of the lobster kind, serving him in the nature of usher and porter, sitting at the opening of the shell which the naker keeps always

Essays gaping and open, till the shrimp sees some little fish proper for their prey within the hollow of the shell, and then it enters too, and pinches the naker to the quick, so that she is forced to close her shell, where they two together devour the prey they have trapped into their fort. In the manner of living of the Tunnies, we observe a singular knowledge of the three parts of mathematics: as to astrology, they teach it to men, for they stay in the place where they are surprised by the Brumal Solstice, and never stir thence till the next Equinox; for which reason Aristotle himself attributes to them this science; as to geometry and arithmetic, they always form their array in the figure of a cube, every way square,

and make up the body of a battalion, solid, close, and environed with six equal sides; so that swimming in this square order, as large behind as before, whoever in seeing them can count one rank, may easily number the whole troop, by reason that the depth is equal to the breadth, and the breadth to the length.

As

to

magnanimity,

it

will be hard to give a

better instance of this than in the

example of

the great dog, sent to Alexander the Great from

They first brought him a stag to encounter, next a boar, and after that a bear; all these he slighted, and disdained to stir from his place; but when he saw a lion he immediately roused himself, evidently manifesting that he declared that alone worthy to enter the lists with him. As to what concerns repentance and the acknowledgment of faults, 'tis reported of an elephant, that having, in the impetuosity of hisrage, killed his keeper, he fell into so extreme a sorrow that India.

he would never death.

after eat,

but starved himself

And as to clemency, 'tis said of a tiger,

to

the

most inhuman of all beasts, that a kid having been put into him, he suffered two days' hunger rather than hurt it, and on the third broke the cage he was shut up in, to go seek elsewhere for prey, not choosing to fall

friend and guest. arity and

And

upon

the kid, his

as to the laws of famili-

agreement, formed by converse, it comthat we bring up cats, dogs, and

monly occurs

hares tame together.

But that which seamen experimentally know, and particularly in the Sicilian sea, of the quality of

of

the halcyons, surpasses all

what kind

human thought:

of animal has nature so highly hon-

oured the hatching, birth, and production? poets, indeed, say that the Island of Delos,

before was a floating island,

was

The

which

II.

229

12

wind or rain, whilst the halcyon lays her eggs, which is just about the Solstice, the shortest day of the year, so that, by this halcyon's privilege, we have seven days and seven nights in the very heart of winter, wherein

we may

sail

without

danger. Their females never have to do with any other male but their own, whom they al-

ways accompany (without ever forsaking him) all their lives; if he happen to be weak and broken with age, they take him upon their shoulders, carry him from place to place, and serve him till death. But the most inquisitive into the secrets of nature could never yet arrive at a knowledge of the marvellous fabric wherewith the halcyon builds the nest for her little ones, nor guess at the matter. Plutarch, who had seen and handled many of them, thinks it is the bones of some fish which she joins and binds together, interlacing them some lengthwise and others across, and adding ribs and hoops in such manner that she last, a round vessel fit to launch, which being done, and the building finished, she carries it to the wash of the beach, where the sea beating gently against it, shows her where she is to mend what is not well jointed and knit, and where better to fortify the seams that are leaky and that open at the waves; and, on the contrary, what is well built and has had the due finishing, the beating of the waves so closes and binds together that it is not to be broken or cracked by blows, either of stone or iron, without very much ado.

forms, at

And

that

which

is still

more

to

be admired

is

the proportion and figure of the cavity within,

which is composed and proportioned after such a manner as not possibly to receive or admit any other thing than the bird that built

thing else

it is

it;

for to any-

so impenetrable, close

and shut,

that nothing can enter, not so of the sea.

This

is

much as the water

a very clear description of this

building, and borrowed from a very good hand;

and yet methinks

it

does not give us sufficient

light into the difficulty of this architecture.

Now,

from what vanity can it proceed to place lower than ourselves, and disdainfully to interpret effects that we can neither imitate nor comprehend? To pursue a little further this equality and correspondence betwixt us and beasts: the privilege our soul so much glorifies herself upon of bringing all things she conceives to her own con-

dition, of stripping all things that

their mortal

and corporal

come

to

her of

qualities, of ordering

that the

and placing the things she conceives worthy her them of their corruptible qualities, and making them lay aside length,

stable

breadth, depth, weight, colour, smell, rough-

fixed for the

service of Latona's lying-in; but the gods ordered

whole ocean should be stayed, made and smoothed, without waves, without

taking notice of, divesting

Montaigne

230 ness, smoothness, hardness, softness, sible incidents, as

mean and

and

all

sen-

superfluous vest-

agreed about the description. Tis likely we do not well know what beauty is in nature and in

human and our own beauty we many diverse forms, of which were there any natural rule and prescription we should know it in common, as we do the heat of the fire. But we fancy its forms according to our own ap-

ments, to accommodate them to her

own immorand spiritual condition: the Paris, just as Rome and Paris, that I have in my soul, the Paris that I imagine, I imagine and conceive it without greatness and without place, without stone, without plaster, without wood: this very same privilege, I say, seems to be evidently in beasts: for a horse, accustomed to trumpets, the rattle of musket-shot and the bustle of battles, whom we see start and tremble in his sleep stretched upon his litter, as if he were in fight, it is certain that

general, since to

tal

give so

he conceives in his soul the beat of drum without an army without arms, and without body:

make

noise,

Quippe

videbis equos fortes,

cum membra jacebunt

summas contendere

vires.

and

liking:

Romano

Turpis

Belgicus ore color.*

Indians paint it black and tawny, with great swollen lips, big flat noses, and load the cartilage betwixt the nostrils with great rings of gold tc it

nether els,

hang down

lip

to the mouth; as also the with great hoops, enriched with jew-

them down

that weigh

to fall

upon the

chin,

being with them a special grace to show theii teeth even below the roots. In Peru, the greatest ears are the most beautiful, and they stretch them out as far as they can by art; and a man, now living, says that he has seen in an eastern

it

In somnis, sudare tamen, spirareque saepe,

Et quasi de palma

petite

1

The hare that a greyhound imagines in his sleep, after which we see him so pant whilst he sleeps, shake his legs, and perfectmotions of a course, is a hare without skin and without bones:

so stretch out his tail,

nation this care of enlarging them in so great

ly represent all the

and the ear laden with such ponderous jewels, that he did with great ease put his aim, sleeve and all, through the bore of an ear. Then

Venantumque canes Jactant crura

tamen

in molli saepe quiete subito, vocesque repente

Mittunt, et crebras reducunt naribus auras, Ut vestigia si teneant invenia ferarum: Expergefactique sequuntur inania saepe Cervorum simulacra, fugae quasi dedita cernant; Donee discussis redeant erroribus ad se. 2

We often observe the bandogs snarl in their dreams and afterwards bark out, and start up on a sudden, as if they perceived some stranger at hand: this stranger, that their soul discerns, is a spiritual and imperceptible man, without dimension, without colour, and without being: Consueta domi catulorum blanda propago Degere, saepe levem ex oculis volucremque soporem Discutere, et corpus de terra corripere instant,

Proinde quasi ignotas fades atque ora tuantur*

As to beauty of the body, before I proceed any I would know whether or not we are

further, 1

You

sweat and snort, and seem as if, with all their force, they were striving to win the race.— Lucretius, iv. 988. 2 Hounds often in their quiet rest suddenly throw out their legs and bark, and breathe quick and short, as if they were in full chase upon a burning scent: nay, being waked, pursue imagined stags, as if they had them in real view, till at last, discovering the mistake, they return to themselves.— Ibid., shall see strong horses in their sleep,

re-

pute,

are, elsewhere, nations that take great care tc

blacken their teeth, and hate to see them white: elsewhere, people that paint them red. Not onl) in Biscay, but in other places, the women are re puted more beautiful for having their head; shaved, and, this, moreover, in certain frozer countries, as Pliny reports. The Mexicans es teem a low forehead a great beauty, and though they shave all other parts they nourish hair or the forehead and increase it by art; and have great breasts in such reputation, that they make boast to give their children suck over their shoul ders: we should paint deformity so. The Ital ians fashion beauty gross and massive; the Span iards, gaunt and slender; and among us, one makes it white, another brown; one soft and del icate, another strong and vigorous; one will have his mistress soft and gentle, another haught) and majestic. Just as the preference in beaut) is

given by Plato to the spherical figure, the Ep it to the pyramidal or the square

icureans give

and cannot swallow But, be

it

how

it

a

will,

god in the form of a ball. nature has no more priv

common laws in

this than ir judge ourselves aright we shall find that if there be some animals les; favoured in this than we, there are others, anc

ileged us above her

the

rest;

and

if

we

will

992. 8

Often our caressing house-dogs, shaking slumber from their eyes, will rise up suddenly, as if they saw strange faces.— Ibid., 999.

*

The

comes 5

a

Belgic complexion of a German lass ill be face.— Propertius, ii. 17, 26.

Roman

Plato, Timaeus.

:

Essays

II.

12

a multis ani-

the

body

malibus decor e vincimur; even of our terrestrial compatriots; for, as to those of the sea, setting

see

in great

number,

more

that are

so,

1

the figure aside, which cannot fall into

we

sufficiently give place to

And

this

make such a mighty our erect stature, looking towards heaven, our original, prerogative that the poets

matter

of,

Pronaque cum spectent animalia caetera terram, dedit, coelumque tueri 2 Jussit, et erectos ad sidera tollere vultus,

Os homini sublime

merely poetical; for there are several little have their sight absolutely turned towards heaven; and I find the countenance of camels and ostriches much higher raised, and more erect than ours. What animals have not their faces forward and in front, and do not look just as we do, and do not in their natural posture is

beasts that

discover as

much

And what

qualities of our bodily constitution,

in Plato

of

heaven and earth as man?

and Cicero, may not indifferently serve

thousand sorts of beasts? Those that most resemble us, are the ugliest and most abject of all the herd; for, as to outward appearance and form of visage, such are the baboons and monkeys: a

Simia

quam

similis, turpissima bestia, nobis?

and, for the internal earnest,

and

vital parts, the hog.

3

llle

I imagine man stark naked, even seems to have the greatest share of

when

that sex that

and im-

beauty, his defects, natural subjections,

we have more

reason than any other animal to cover ourselves.

perfections,

I

find that

We

be excused for borrowing of those creatures to which nature has in this been kinder than to us, to trick ourselves with their beauties and hide ourselves under their spoils— their wool, feathers, hair, silk. Let us observe, as to the rest, that man is the sole animal whose nudities offend his own companions, and the only one who, in his natural actions, withdraws and hides himself from his own kind. And really, 'tis also an effect worth consideration, that they, who are readily to

are masters in the trade, prescribe as a for 1

amorous passions the

Many

full

and

free

remedy view of

animals surpass us in beauty.— Seneca,

Epist., 124. 2

Whereas other animals bow

their prone looks he gave it to men to look erect, to behold the heavenly arch.— Ovid, Met., i. 84. 3 How like to man is that most beastly of all beasts, the ape?— Ennius, in Cicero, De Nat. Deor., i. to the earth,

quod obscoznas

liberty to

in aperto corpore partes

Viderat, in cursu qui fuit, haesit amor:

*

and although this recipe may, peradventure, proceed from a refined and cold humour, it is, notwithstanding, a very great sign of our weakness, that use and acquaintance should disgust us with one another. It is not modesty so much as cunning and prudence, that makes our ladies so circumspect in lefusing us admittance to their closets, before they are painted and tricked up for public view:

Nee Veneres nostras hoc fallit; quo magis ipsae Omnia summopere hos vitae postscenia celant, Quos

retinere volunt, adstrictoque esse in amore:

5

whereas in several animals there is nothing that we do not love, and that does not please our senses; so that from their very excrements we not only extract wherewith to heighten our sauces, but also our richest ornaments and perfumes. This discourse reflects upon none but the ordinary sort of women, and is not so sacrilegious as

comprehend those divine, supernatand extraordinary beauties, whom we occasionally see shining amongst us like stars under a corporeal and terrestrial veil. to seek to

ural,

As to In

desires; so that, to cool his ar-

no more but at full and contemplate what he loves:

any man-

them; and

less in all qualities, to the aerial.

no

man

dour, there needs

ner of comparison, being so wholly another thing, in colour, cleanness, smoothness, and disposition,

231 a

the rest, the very share that

beasts of the

we allow to

bounty of nature, by our own con-

fession, is very

much

to their advantage;

we

at-

and fantastic goods, future and absent goods, for which human capacity cannot, of herself, be responsible tribute to ourselves imaginary

or goods that

we

falsely attribute to ourselves

by the licence of opinion, as reason, knowledge and honour; and leave to them, for their share, essential, manageable and palpable goods, as peace, repose, security, innocence and health; health, I say, the fairest and richest present that nature can make us. Insomuch that philosophy, even the Stoic, is so bold as to say that Heraclitus and Pherecides could they have exchanged their wisdom for health, and have delivered themselves, the one of his dropsy and the other of the lice disease that tormented him, by the bargain, they had done well. By which they set 4

He

that in full ardour has disclosed to

him the

open view, flags in his hot career.— Ovid, De Rem. Amor., v. 429. 5 Of this our ladies are well aware; and it makes them with such care behind the scenes remove all those defects that may check the flame of their secret parts of his mistress in

lovers.— Lucretius,

iv.

1182.

Mon TAIGNE

232

still greater value upon wisdom, comparing and putting it in the balance with health, than they do in this other proposition, which is also theirs: they say that if Circe had presented to Ulysses two potions, the one to make a fool become a wise man, and the other to make a wise man become a fool, Ulysses ought rather to have

a

chosen the last than to consent that Circe should change his human figure into that of a beast; and say that wisdom itself would have spoken to him after thismanner "Forsake me, let mealone, rather than lodge me under the body and figure of an ass/' How, then, will the philosophers :

this great and divine wisdom for this and terrestrial covering? it is then not by reason, by discourse, by the soul, that we excel beasts: 'tis by our beauty, our fair complexion, our fine symmetry of parts, for which we must quit our intelligence, our prudence and all the rest. Well, I accept this frank and free con-

abandon

corporal

fession: certainly, they

upon which we

knew

that those parts value ourselves are no beasts, then, had all the

much

so

other than vain fancy. If

knowledge, wisdom, and Stoical perfecstill be beasts, and would not be comparable to man, miserable, wicked, insensate man. For, in fine, whatever is not as we are is nothing worth; and God Himself to procure esteem amongst us must put Himself into that shape, as we shall show anon: by which it apvirtue,

tion,

they would

pears that

it is

by

not

upon any

true

ground of

turn celerum cogitationis,

1

that lie heavy

Did they

mour

we

have for our part inconstancy, irresolution,

in-

was upon

certitude, sorrow, superstition, solicitude about

things to

come even

after

we

shall

lodged in the

joints,

did they feel

it

the

Did they enter into composition with deatr by knowing that some nations rejoice at his ap proach? or with cuckoldry, by knowing that ir some part of the world wives are in common? Or the contrary, having been reputed the greatest

men

knowledge, the one amongst the Ro the other amongst the Greeks, and ir a time when learning most flourished, we have not heard, nevertheless, that they had any par ticular excellence in their lives: nay, the Greel had enough to do to clear himself from some notable blemishes in his. Have we observed thai pleasure and health have had a better relish with him who understands astrology and grammar than with others? for

mans and

llliterati

num minus

and shame and poverty

nervi rigent?

less

2

troublesome?

Scilicet et morbis, et debilitate carebis,

be no more,

ambition, avarice, jealousy, envy, irregular, fran-

and untamable appetites, war, lying, disloyalty, detraction, and curiosity. Doubtless, we have strangely overpaid this fine reason upon which we so much glorify ourselves, and this capacity of judging and knowing, if we have brought it

curam

Et luctum

et

Longa

post base fato meliore dabuntur*

tibi

have known in

effugies, et

tempora

vitae

my time

a hundred artizans, a and more happy than the rectors of the university, and whom I had much rather have resembled. Learning, methinks, hasits place amongst the necessary things I

before,

I

any consola from knowing that this hu

rea-

ciety.

what

is

the shoulders of a porter!

less?

a foolish pride

But, to return to

upon

extract from their logic

tion for the gout? or,

and vain opinion that we prefer ourselves before other animals, and separate ourselves from their condition and so-

son, but

acumen, solertiam

quam rationem vocamus, quoniam pestifera sin: multis, admodum paucis salutaria, non dari om nino, quam tarn munifice et tarn large dari. Ol what advantage can we conceive the knowledge of so many things was to Varro and Aristotle! Did it exempt them from human inconven iences? Were they by it freed from the accident

hundred

of

life,

labourers, wiser

as glory, nobility, dignity, or, at the most,

tic

at the price of this infinite

which we

number of passions to we shall

are eternally subject: unless

add this notable prerogative above beasts, that whereas nature has prescribed to them certain seasons and limits for the delights of Venus, she has given us the reins at all hours, and all seasons. Ut vinum ae

yet think

fit,

as Socrates does, to

quia prodest raro, nocet saepissime, melius est non adhibere omnino, quam, spe dubise salutis,in appertain perniciemincurrere: sic haud scio, an melius fuerit humane- generi motum isgrotis,

1

As it falls out that wine often hurts the sick, and very rarely does them good, it is better not to give them any at all than to run into a manifest danger, out of hope of an uncertain benefit: so I know not whether it had not been better for mankind that

this

quick motion,

agination, this subtlety, that

been given

to

man

this penetration of im-

we

call reason,

at all; considering

how

had not pestifer-

ous it is to many, and healthful but to few, than to have been conferred in so abundant manner, and with so liberal a hand.— Cicero, De Nat. Deor., iii. 27. 2

The ploughman

is

as

fit

his master.— Horace, Epod.,

for

Venus' service

viii, v.

as

17.

3 Thou shall be free from disease and infirmity, and avoid care and sorrow; and thy life shall be prolonged, and with better days.— Juvenal, xiv. 156.

Essays and such other qualities, which, indeed are useful to it; but remotely, and more by fantasy than by nature. We need scarcely more offices, rules, and laws of living in our society than cranes and emmets do in theirs; and as beauty, riches,

we

see that these carry themselves very regwithout erudition. If man were wise, he would take the true value of everything according as it was most useful and proper to his life. Whoever will number us by our actions and deyet

12

II.

233

general consent amongst all sects of philosophers, that the sovereign good consists in thetranquilitv of the soul

and body: but where

shall

we

find

it?

Ad summam,

sapiens uno minor est Jove, dives, Liber, honoratus, pulcher, rex denique regum;

Praecipue sanus, nisi

cum

pituita molesta est.*

ularly

portments, will find many more excellent men amongst the ignorant than among the learned:

The old Rome seems to me to have been of much greater value, both for peace and war, than that learned Rome that ruay, in all sorts of virtue.

ined

itself;

and though all the rest should be and innocence would re-

equal, yet integrity

main

to the ancients, for

they inhabit singularly

well with simplicity. But

I

will leave this dis-

course that would lead me farther than

I

am will-

and shall only say this farther: 'tis only humility and submission that can make a complete good man. We are not to leave to each man's own judgment the knowledge of his duty; we are to prescribe it to him, and not suffer him ing to follow;

to

choose

it

at his

own

discretion

:

otherwise, ac-

cording to the imbecility and infinite variety of our reasons and opinions, we should at last forge for ourselves duties that

says) enjoin us to eat

would (as Epicurus

It

seems, in truth, that nature, for the consola-

and wretched state, has only given us presumption for our inheritance; 'tis, as Epictetus says, "that man has nothing properly his own, but the use of his opinions"; we have nothing but wind and smoke for our portion. The gods have health in essence, says philosophy, and sickness in intelligence; man, on the contrary, possesses his goods by fancy, his ills in essence. have had reason to magnify the power of our imagination, for all our goods are only in dream. Hear this poor calamitous animal huff: "there is nothing," says Cicero, "so charming as the occupation of letters; of those tion of our miserable

We

by means whereof the infinity of immense grandeur of nature, the heavens, even in this world, the earth, and the letters, I say,

things, the

seas are discovered to us. 'Tis they that

obscurity, to

The first law that ever God gave to man was a law of pure obedience it was a commandment naked and simple, wherein man had nothing to inquire after or to dispute, forasmuch as to obey is the proper office of a rational soul, acknowledging a heavenly superior and benefactor. From obedience and submission spring all other vir:

to

human

nature,

its first

:

malum. 1 And the Syrens, in Homer, 2 to allure Ulysses and draw him within the danger of their snares offered to give him

scientes

bonum

et

knowledge. The plague of man is the opinion of wisdom; and for this reason it is that ignorance is so recommended to us by our religion, as proper to faith and obedience: Cavete, ne quis vos decipiat per philosophiam et inanes seductiones, secundum elementa mundi. s There is in this a

as to the effect, a

Ye

shall

Genesis, 3.

be

as gods,

knowing good and

evil.—

5.

2

Odyssey,

3

Take heed

xii.

188.

any man'deceive you by philosophy and vain deceit, after the tradition of men, lest

his.

Deus ille fuit, deus, inclute Memmi, Qui princeps vitae rationem invenit earn, quae

Nunc

appellatur sapientia; quique per artem Fluctibus e tantis vitam, tantisque tenebris, In tarn tranquilla et tarn clara luce locavit: 5

Here

are very fine, very brave words; but a very

put this same man's understanding in a worse condition than that of the meanest shepherd, notwithstanding this instructing light accident

and the rudiments of the world.— St. Paul, Colossians, 2. 8. 4

He

that

is

wise

is

inferior to

none but Jove

alone: honoured, rich, free, fair, in short, a king of kings; and in capital health, unless when he has a

cold.— Horace, Epist., 1

thousand

lived lives more equal,

more sweet and constant than

poison,

itself by the promises that were made us of knowledge and wisdom Eritis sicut dii,

to live

mighty God? Yet,

insinuated to

last,

little country-women have

does from self-opinion. And, on the contrary, the first temptation that by the dev-

was offered

see all things, high, low,

and

'tis they that furnish us happily and well, and conduct us to pass over our lives without displeasure and without offence." Does not this man seem to speak of the condition of the ever-living and al-

tues, as all sin

il

make her

middle,

first,

wherewith

one another.

have

taught us religion, moderation, the grandeur of courage, and that have rescued our souls from

5

That god,

life

i.

1,

106.

Memmus, was

a god indeed, found out that rationale of life which is called wisdom; and who by such art removed from its tempests and darkness into so calm and

who now

great

first

clear a light.— Lucretius, v. 8.

Montaigne

34

God, this divine wisdom. Of the same stamp of impudence is the promise of Democritus's book, "I am going to speak of all things"; and that foolish title that Aristotle prefixes to one of his, "of the mortal gods," and the judgment of Chrysippus, "that Dion was as virtuous as God"; and my friend Seneca does, indeed, acknowledge that

God

has given him

life,

but that

own; conformably with

his

vere gloriamur;

quod non

to live well is

this other, In virtute

contingeret,

num a Deo, non a nobis, haberemus; Seneca's saying, "That the wise

1

si

id do-

this is also

man has fortihuman frailty,

tude equal with God; but in wherein he surpasses Him." There is nothing so ordinary as to meet with sallies of the like temerity; there

is

none of us who takes

so

much of-

fence to see himself equalled to God, as he does to see himself undervalued by being ranked with other animals; so

much more

are

we

jealous of

our own interest, than of that of our Creator. But we must trample under foot this foolish vanity, and briskly and boldly shake the ridiculous foundations upon which these false opinions are based. So long as man shall believe he has any means and power of himself, he will never acknowledge what he owes to his Master, his eggs shall always be chickens, as the saying is: we must therefore strip him to his shirt. Let us see some notable example of the effect of his philosophy: Posidonius, being tormented with a disease so painful as made him writhe his arms and gnash his teeth, thought he sufficiently baffled the pain by crying out against it: "Thou dost exercise thy malice to much purpose; I will not confess that thou art an evil." He is as sensible of the pain as my footman, but he mightily values himself upon bridling his tongue, at least, and restraining it within the laws of his sect: re 2 succumbere non oportebat, verbis gloriantem. ill of the gout, and Carneades coming to see him, was returning, troubled at his condition; the other calling back and showing him his feet and then his breast "There is nothing come from these hither," said he. This has somewhat a better grace, for he feels himself in pain and would be disengaged from it; but his heart, notwithstanding, is not conquered or enfeebled by it; the other stands more

Arcesilaus, being

:

obstinately to his work, but, ly than really. 1

be

We

if it

And

I

fear, rather verbal-

Dionysius Heracleotes,

af-

which would not was given us of God and not by ourselves.— truly glory in our virtue,

De Nat. Deor., iii. 36. did not become him that spoke so big, to confess his frailty when he came to the test.— Cicero, Tusc. Quaes., ii. 13. Cicero, 2

It

with a vehement smarting in hiseyes, was reduced to quit these stoical resolutions. But, though knowledge could in effect do, as they say, and could blunt the point and dull the edge of the misfortunes that attend us, what does she more than what ignorance does more simply and evidently? The philosopher Pyrrho, being at sea in very great danger by reason of a mighty storm, presented nothing to those who were with him to imitate in this extremity but the security of a flicted

hog they had on board, that was looking

at the

tempest quite unconcerned. Philosophy, when she has said all she can, refers us at last to the example of a wrestler or a muleteer, in which sort of people we commonly observe much less apprehension of death or sense of pain and other infirmities, and more endurance, than ever knowledge furnished any one with who was not born to those infirmities, and of himself prepared for them by a natural habit. What is the cause that we make incisions and cut the tender limbs of an infant, and those of a horse, more easily than our own, but ignorance only? How many has mere force of imagination made ill often see men cause themselves to be let blood, purged, and physicked, to be cured of diseases they only feel in opinion. When real infirmities fail us, knowledge lends us hers: that colour, this complexion, portends some catarrhous defluxion; this hot season threatens us with a fever: this breach in the lifeline of your left hand gives you notice of some near and notable indisposition: and at last it roundly attacks health itself, saying, this sprightliness and vigour of youth cannot continue in this posture, there must be blood taken, and the fever abated, lest it turn to .

We

your prejudice. Compare the life of a man subject to such imaginations with that of a labourer who suffers himself to be led by his natural appetite, measuring things only by the present sense, without knowledge and without prognostics—who is only ill when he is ill; whereas the other has the stone in his soul before he has it in his bladder; as if it were not time enough to suffer evil when it shall come, he must anticipate it by fancy and run to meet it. What I say of physic may generally serve as example in other sciences: and hence is derived that ancient opin-

who placed the sovereign good, in discerning the weakness of our ignorance affords me as much judgment. occasion of hope as of fear; and having no other ion of the philosophers,

My

rule of

my

others,

and of events

health than that of the examples of I see elsewhere upon the

like occasion, I find of all sorts,

and

rely

upon

the comparisons that are most favourable to me.

Essays open arms, free, full, and entire, and by so much the more whet my appetite to enjoy it, by how much it is at present less ordinary and more rare: so far am I from troubling its repose and sweetness, with the bitterness of a new and constrained manner of living. I

receive health with

show us how much the agitation of the soul brings infirmities and diseases upon us. That which is told us of the people of Beasts sufficiently

Brazil that they never die

tributed to the serenity air

they live in; but

I

but of old age,

and

is at-

tranquillity of the

attribute

it

to the serenity

and tranquillity of their soul, free from all pasemployments, continuous or

sion, thought, or

unpleasing, as people that pass over their lives in an admirable simplicity and ignorance, with|

out

without law, without king, or any

letters,

Whence comes

which we find by experience, that the coarsest and most rough-hewn clowns are the most able and the most to be desired in amorous performances,

manner

of religion.

this

and that the love of a muleteer often renders itmore acceptable than that of a gentleman, if it be not, that the agitation of the soul in the latself

ter disturbs his corporal ability, dissolves tires it, as it also

troubles

and

tires itself?

more usually puts the soul beside

and

12

II.

of the soul, that has rendered cise

herself,

and

is

the most subtle folly made,

but of the most subtle wisdom? As great friendships spring from great enmities, and vigorous healths from mortal diseases: so from the rare

and quick agitations of our souls, proceed the most wonderful and wildest frenzies; 'tis but a half turn of the toe from the one to the other. In the actions of

madmen, we

see

how

nearly

madness resembles the most vigorous operations of the soul.

him without exer-

was more angry,

I

if

pos-

in so pitiful a condition surviving himself, for-

and his works which, without his knowledge, though before his face, have been published, deformed and incorrect.

getting both himself

Would you have a man sound, would you have him regular, and in a steady and secure posture? muffle

him up

in the shades of stupidi-

and sloth. We must be made beasts to be made wise, and hoodwinked before we can govern ourselves. And if one shall tell me that the advantage of having a cold and blunted sense of pain and other evils, brings this disadvantage along ty

with

it,

to render us, consequently, less eager

and sensible

goods and but the misery of our such that we have not so much to also in the fruition of

pleasures; this

condition

is

is

true:

enjoy as to avoid, and that the extremest pleasure does not affect us to the degree that a light grief does: segnius homines bona quam mala sentiunt.^^We are not so sensible of the most perfect health, as

Quando juvat

we are

of the least sickness;

Pungit violatum plagula corpus; valere nihil quemquam movet. Hoc

In cute vix

summa

unum

Quod me non

torquet latus, aut pes: caetera

quisquam Vix queat aut sanum

Our

well-being

is

sese,

aut sentire valentem. 2

nothing but the privation of

and this is the reason why that sect of philosophers which sets the greatest value upon pleasure, has fixed it chiefly in insensibility of pain. To be free from ill, is the greatest good that man can hope for, as Ennius says, ill-being:

Who does not know how indiscern-

betwixt madness and the gay flights of a sprightly soul, and the effects of a supreme and extraordinary virtue? Plato says, that melancholic persons are the most capable of discipline and the most excellent; nor, indeed, is there in any so great a propension to madness. Infinite wits are ruined by their own proper force

soul?

than compassionate, to see him at Ferrara

What

throws her into madness, than her own promptand agility— in short, her own prop-

Of what

and without

sible,

ness, vigour,

er force?

*35

stupidity? to that rare aptitude to the exercises

Nimium

honi

est,

cui nihil est mali;

3

ible the difference is

and vivacity what a condition, through his own agitation and promptness of fancy, is one of the most judicious, ingenious, and best formed to the ancient and true poesy, of any of the Italian poets lately fallen into! Has he not great obliga:

tion to this vivacity that has destroyed

him, to

has blinded him? To this exact and subtle apprehension of reason, that has put him beside his reason? To his close and laborious this light that

search after science, that has reduced

him

to

and sting which are in cerand that seem to raise us above simple health and insensibility: that active, moving, and, I know not how, itching and biting for that very tickling

tain pleasures,

pleasure, even that very pleasure itself aims at

nothing but insensibility as its mark. The lust, that carries us headlong to women's embraces, 1

Men

— Livy, 2

are less sensitive to pleasure than to pain.

xxx. 21.

The body is vexed with a litde sting

that scarce-

most perfect health is not perceived. This only pleases me, that neither side nor foot is plagued; except these, scarce any one can tell, whether he's in health or no.— La Boetie, Poemata.

ly penetrates the skin, while the

3

Ennius, in Cicero,

De

Finih.,

ii.

13.

Montaigne

236

directed to no other end but only to cure the torment of our ardent and furious desires, and only requires to be glutted and laid at rest and delivered from that fever; and so of the rest. I say then that, if simplicity conducts us to a state free from evil, it leads us to a very happy one, according to our condition. And yet we are not to imagine it so leaden an insensibility as to be totally without sense: for Grantor had very good reason to controvert the insensibility of Epicurus, if founded so deep that the very first attack and birth of evils were not to be perceived. "I do not approve such an insensibility as is neither possible nor to be desired: I am well content not to be sick; but, if I am, I would know

Che

is

am

and if a caustic be applied or inciany part, I would feel them." In truth, whoever would take away the knowledge and sense of evil, would, at the same time, eradthat

I

sions

so;

made

in

icate the sense of pleasure, and, in short, an-

nihilate

sine

man

himself: Istud nihil dolere,

magna mercede

non

contingit immanitatis in

animo, stuporis in corded Evil appertains toman in its turn; neither is pain always to be avoided, nor pleasure always pursued. 'Tis a great advantage to the honour of ignorance that knowledge itself throws us into its arms when she finds herself puzzled to fortify us against the weight of evils; she is constrained to come to this composition, to give us the reins, and permit us to fly into the lap of the other, and to shelter ourselves under her protection from the strokes and injuries of fortune. For what else is her meaning when she instructs us to divert our thoughts from the ills that press upon us, and entertain them with the meditation of pleasures past and gone; to comfort ourselves in present afflictions with the remembrance of fled delights, and to call to our succour a vanished satisfaction, to oppose it to what lies heavy upon us? Levationes aegritudinum in avocatione a cogitanda molestia, et revocatione ad contemplandas voluptates ponit: 2 if it be not that where power fails her she will supply it with policy, and make use of a supple trip, when force of limbs will not serve the turn? For not only to a philosopher, but to any man in his right wits, when he has upon him the thirst of a burning fever, what satisfaction can it be to remember the pleasure of drinking Greek wine? it would rather be to make matters worse:

ricordarsi

The way

to dissipate present grief is to recall to

contemplation past pleasures.— Void.,

iii.

15.

la

noja*

Suavis laborum est praeteritorum tnemoria.*

How? Is philosophy, that should arm me to contend with fortune, and steel my courage to trample

all

human

adversities

under

foot, arrived at

degree of cowardice, to make me hide my head and save myself by these pitiful and ridiculous shifts? For the memory represents to us not what we choose but what it pleases; nay, there is nothing that so much imprints anything in our memory as a desire to forget it: and 'tis a sure way to retain and keep anything safe in the soul, to solicit her to lose it. This is false: Est situm in nobis, ut et adversa quasi perpetua ohthis

ohruamus, et secunda jucunde et suavimeminerimus; 5 and this is true, Memini etiam quae nolo: ohlivisci non possum quae volo.* And whose counsel is this? his, qui se unus sapientem profited sit ausus; 7 livione ter

Qui genus humanum ingenio

superavit, et

Praestinxit, Stellas exortus uti cetherius sol.

To empty and Iners

disfurnish the

and proper way

this the true

malorum remedium

to

omnes

s

memory,

is

not

ignorance?

ignorantia

est.

9

We find several other like precepts whereby we borrow from the vulgar frivowhere reason, in all her vivacity and vigour, cannot do the feat, provided they administer satisfaction and comfort; where they are permitted to

lous appearances

cannot cure the wound, they are content

to pal-

3

The remembrance of pleasure doubles the sense of present pain. Cf. Dante, Inferno, v. 121. 4 The memory of past evils is sweet.— Euripides, in Cicero, 5

And

De

Finih.,

ii.

32.

power

to bury, as it were, in a adverse accidents, and to retain a pleasant and delightful memory of our successes.— Cicero, Ibid., i. 17. it is

in our

perpetual oblivion

6

7

all

remember what I would what I would.— Ibid., i. 32.

1 also

forget

8

1

2

hen doppia

Of the same stamp is the other counsel that philosophy gives; only to remember past happiness and to forget the troubles we have undergone; as if we had the science of oblivion in our power: 'tis a counsel for which we are never a straw the better:

Who

not;

but

ii.

cannot

as the rising

man

3.

Who all mankind surpassed in genius,

them

I

alone durst profess himself a wise

(Epicurus).— Ibid.,

An insensibility, that is not to be purchased but at the price of the humanity of the soul and of stupidity in the body.— Cicero, Tusc. Quaes., vi.

il

effacing

sun puts out the stars. —Lucretius,

1056.

iii.

9

Ignorance

neca, CEdip.,

is iii.

but a dull remedy for evils.— Se7.

Essays liate

me

and benumb

this, that if

it. I

deny order and

believe they will not

they could establish

constancy in a state of life that could maintain itself in ease and pleasure by some debility of

judgment, they would accept

vel

.

.

.

tus armis Vulcaniis, id est fortitudine, resiste;

and these words

4

used in the Greek festivals, that sound better upon the tongue of a Gascon, who naturally changes the b into v than upon that of Cicero: Vivere

There would be a great many philosophers of Lycas' mind: this man being otherwise of very regular manners, living quietly and contentedly in his family, and not failing in any office of towards his

237

quacunque vis, exi. Pungit dolor? fodiat sane: si nudus es, da jugulum: sin tec-

placet?

so

Aut bibat,aut abeat 5

it:

Potare, et spargere {lores 1 Incipiam, patiarque vel inconsultus haberi.

his duty, either

12

II.

own people or stran-

and very carefully preserving himself from hurtful things, was nevertheless, by some distemper in his brain, possessed with a conceit that he was perpetually in the theatre, viewing the several entertainments, and enjoying the amusements and the shows and the best comedies in the world and being cured by the physicians of his frenzy, had much ado to forbear endeavouring by process of law to compel them gers,

si

recte nescis, decede peritis.

Lusisti satis, edisti satis, atque bibisti;

Tempus

abire tibi

est,

ne potum largius aequo

Rideat, et pulset lasciva decentius

what

is it

tency,

and

aetas:

°

other than a confession of his impoa retreating not only to ignorance, to

be there in safety, but even to stupidity, insensiand nonentity?

bility,

Democritum postquam matura vetustas Admonuit memorem, motus languescere Sponte sua letho caput obvius obtulit

mentis:

ipse.

7

:

to restore

him again to hispleasing imaginations: Poll

Non

me occidistis, amid, error:

2

with a madness like that of Thrasylaus, the son of Pythodorus,

who had grown

to believe that

the ships that weighed anchor from the port

of Pyraeus

made

what Antisthenes

either

said,

"That a man must

make provision of sense

and that came into the haven, only

their voyages for his profit, congratulating

having applied himself

(all other things set

throw himself into the

sea, finding the prog-

and slow. He ran he could not overtake knowledge. These are the words of the law upon this subject: "If, peradventure, some great inconvenience happen, for which there is no remedy, the haven is near, and a man may save himself by swimming out of his body, as out of a leaky skiff; for 'tis the fear of dying, and not the love ress of his studies too tedious

them with the greatest joy. His brother Crito having caused him to be restored to his better understanding, he infinitely regretted that sort of condition wherein he had lived with so much delight and free from all anxiety. 'Tis according to the old Greek verse, "that there is a great deal

to find death, since

ing

convenience in not being over wise."

Ev t«

(ppovelv

yap

/xrjdev,

ydurros

of

8 jSt'os.

And

Ecclesiastes, "In

and he that increaseth knowledge increas-

much wisdom

is

much

eth sorrow."

Even

which philosophy consents in general, that last remedy which she applies to all sorts of necessities, to put an end to the life that to

are not able to endure. Placet? fare.

1

Non

1 will drink and strew flowers, though the world should think me mad.— Horace, Epist., i. 5, 14. 2 By heaven! he said, you have killed me, my friends, and not saved me; my dear delights and pleasing error by my returning sense are taken from

me.— Ibid., 8

ii. 2, 138. Sophocles, Ajax, 552.

life,

that ties the fool to his body."

As life renders itself by simplicity more pleas-

grief;

we

understand, or

aside) to the study of philosophy, resolved to

himself on their happy navigation, and receiv-

of

to

hang himself: and what Chrysippus alleged upon this saying of the poet Tyrtaeus, "Or to arrive at virtue or at death" and Crates said, "That love could be cured by hunger, if not by time; and if a man disliked these two remedies, by a rope." That Sextius of whom both Seneca and Plutarch speak with so high an encomium, of a halter to

:

servastis, ait; cui sic extorta voluntas,

Et demptus per vim mentis gratissimus

all

'Tis

4

Does

thou

it

wilt.

please? bear

Does

it.

Not

please? go out,

grief prick thee? nay, if

it

how

stab thee

too: if thou art weaponless, present thy throat: if covered with the arms of Vulcan, that is fortitude, resist it.— Adapted from Seneca, Epist., 70, and Cicero, Tusc. Quaes., ii. 14. 5 Let him drink or go.— Cicero, ubi supra, v. 41. 6 If thou canst not live right, give place to those that can; thou hast eaten, drunk, amused thyself to thy content; 'tis time to make departure, lest, being overdosed, the young ones first laugh at thee, and then turn thee out.— Horace, Epist., ii. 2, 213. 7 So soon as, through age, Democritus found a manifest decadence in his mind, he himself went to meet death.— Lucretius, iii. 1052.

Montaigne

238

nor by

and maintain human society, reempty and docile soul, and little presuming upon itself. Christians have a special knowledge how natural and original an evil curiosity is in man: the thirst of knowledge, and the desire to become more wise, was the first ruin of human kind, and the way by which it

Roman emperors, who called them

precipitated itself into eternal damnation. Pride

more innocent and better, as I was The simple and ignorant, says St. Paul, raise themselves up to heaven, and take possession of it; and we, with all our knowlant, so, also,

saying before.

edge, plunge ourselves into the infernal abyss.

am

I

neither swayed by Valentinian, a professed

enemy

knowledge and

to all

Licinus, both

and pest of all nor by Mahomet, who, as the poison

dicted

all

manner

literature;

politic I

government:

have heard,

inter-

of learning to his followers;

but the example of the great Lycurgus and his authority, with the reverence of the divine Lacedaemonian policy, so great, so admirable, and so long flourishing in virtue and happiness without any institution or practice of letters, ought, certainly to be of very great weight. Such as return from the new world discovered by the Spaniards in our fathers' days can testify to us how much more honestly and regularly those nations live, without magistrate and without laws, than ours do, where there are more officers and laws than there are other sorts of men, or than there are law suits:

that support

quire an

is

his ruin

him from

and corruption the

:

'tis

pride that diverts

common path, and makes him em-

brace novelties, and rather choose to be head of a troop, lost and wandering in the path of perdi-

be tutor and teacher of error and lies, be a disciple in the school of truth, suffering himself to be led and guided by the hand of another, in the right and beaten road. 'Tis, peradventure, the meaning of this old Greek saytion, to

than

ing:

to

H

8eio~i8aLfjLOVLa 2

7rei0£Tai.

KaOdnep

irarpi

tw

rv(f>u

O presumption, how much dost thou

hinder us! After that Socrates was told that the god of

wisdom had attributed to him the title of sage, 3 he was astonished at it, and searching and ex-

abounded with learning and eloquence, but were very defective in

amining himself throughout, could find no foundation for this divine decree he knew others as just, temperate, valiant, and learned as himself, and more eloquent, handsome, and more profitable to their country than he. At last, he concluded that he was not distinguished from others nor wise but only because he did not think himself so, and that his god considered the selfopinion of knowledge and wisdom as a singular stupidity of man; and that his best doctrine was the doctrine of ignorance, and simplicity his best wisdom. The sacred word declares those miserable who have an opinion of themselves: "Dust and ashes," says it to such, "what hast thou wherein to glorify thyself?" And in another place, "God has made man like unto a shadow," of which who can judge, when by the removing of the light it shall be vanished? It is nothing but

moral honesty.

of us.

:

Di D'

cittatore piene, e di libelli,

esatnine, e di carte di procure,

Hanno Di

mani

le

et

il

seno, e gran fastelli

chiose, di consigli, e di letture;

Per cui

Non

Hanno

faculta de' poverelli

le

sino

mai

nelle citta sicure;

dietro e dinanzi, e

d'ambi

i lati,

Notai, procuratori, e avvocati. 1

It

was what

a

Roman

senator said of the later

ages, that their predecessors' breath stank of garlic, but their stomachs were perfumed with a good conscience; and that on the contrary, those of his time were all sweet odour without, but

stank within of as I interpret

it,

all sorts

of vices; that

is to

say,

that they

Incivility, ignorance, simplicity,

roughness, are the natural companions of innocence; curiosity, subtlety and knowledge bring

malice in their train: humility, fear, obedience, and affability, which are the principal things 1

Her lap was full of writs and of citations, Of process of actions and arrest, Of bills, of answers, and of replications,

In Courts of Delegates and of Requests, grieve the simple with great vexations: She had resorting to her as her guests, Attending on her circuits and her journeys, Scriveners and clerks, and lawyers and attorneys. Ariosto, xiv. 84. Sir John Harrington's transla-

To

tion.

Our strength is so far from being able to comprehend the divine height, that of the works of our Creator those best bear His mark and are best His, which we the least understand. To meet with an incredible thing, is an occasion with Christians to believe.* It is all the more reason that it is against human reason; if it were according to reason, it would no longer be a miracle; if it had an example, it would be no longer 2

if it

That were

superstition follows pride

and obeys

a father.

3

Plato, Apology.

4

Credo quia impossibile.— St. Augustine.

it

as

.

Essays Deus nesciendo, 1

Melius and Tacitus, Sanctius est ac 2 reverentius de actisDeorum credere quam scire; and Plato thinks there is something of impiety in inquiring too curiously into God, the world, scitur

a singular thing.

says St. Augustine;

and the

causes of things: atque ilium qui-

first

dem parentem hujus universitatis invenire, difficile; et quam jam inveneris, indicare in vulgus, 3

nefas, says Cicero.

We pronounce, indeed, pow-

which

are words that signify some great thing; but that thing we neither see

er, truth, justice,

We say that God fears,

nor conceive. is

angry, that

that

God

God loves,

lmmortalia mortali sermone notantes:

*

which are all agitations and emotions that cannot be in God, according to our form, nor can we according to His. It only belongs to God to know Himself, and to interpret His own works; and He does it in our language, to stoop and descend to us who grovel upon the earth. How can Prudence, which is the choice betwixt

imagine

it,

be properly attributed to Him, whom no evil can touch? How the reason and intelligence, which we make use of, so as by obscure to arrive at apparent things, seeing that nothing is obscure to Him? and justice, which distributes to every one what appertains to him,

good and

evil,

a thing created

men: how

society and communitv of God? how temperance? how

by the

that in

is

the moderation of corporal pleasures, that have no place in the divinity? Fortitude to support pain, labour,

Him

and dangers,

as little appertains to

having no acwhich reason Aristotle holds Him 5 equally exempt from virtue and vice: neque gratia neque ira teneri potest; quod quae as the rest, these three things

cess to

Him:

talia essent,

The

for

imbecilla essent omnia.

participation

we have

9

in the

knowledge

not acquired by our own force: God has sufficiently given us to understand that by the testimony He has chosen out

of truth, such as

1

it is, is

known by not knowing.— St. AuOrdine, ii. 16. 2 It is more holy and reverend to believe the works of God, than to know them.— Tacitus, De Mor. Germ., xxxiv. 3 To find out the parent of the world is very hard: God

gustine,

better

is

De

and when found

out, to reveal him to the vulgar, sin.— Cicero, translation from the Timaeus. 4

Giving

cretius, v. 5 c

Ethics,

He

1

to things

is

immortal mortal names.— Lu-

22. vii. 1

can be affected neither with favour nor indignation, because both those are the effects'of frailty.— Cicero, De Nat. Deor., i. 17.

II.

12

of the

239 common people, simple and ignorant men,

whom He has been pleased to employ to instruct us in His admirable secrets. Our faith is not of our own acquiring, 'tis purely the gift of another's bounty; 'tis not by meditation or by virtue of our own understanding that we have acquired our religion, but by foreign authority and command; the weakness of our judgment more assists us than force, and our blindness more than our clearness of sight; 'tis rather by the mediation of our ignorance than of our knowledge that we know anything of the divine Wisdom. 'Tis no wonder if our natural and earthly means cannot conceive that supernatural and heavenly knowledge: let us bring nothing of our own, but obedience and subjection; for, as it is written, "I will destroy the

wisdom

of the wise,

and

will

bring to nothing the understanding of the prudent. Where is the wise? Where is the scribe?

Where is the disputer of this world? Hath God made foolish the wisdom of this world?

not For

wisdom of God, the world by wisdom knew not God, it pleased God by the foolishness of preaching to save them that beafter that in the

lieve."

Should I examine, finally, whether it be in power of man to find out that which he seeks, and if that quest wherein he has busied himself so many ages has enriched him with any new force or any solid truth: I believe he will confess, if he speaks from his conscience, that all he has got by so long an inquisition is only to have learned to know his own weakness. We have only by long study confirmed and verified the natural ignorance we were in before. The same has fallen out to men truly wise which befall ears of corn; they shoot and raise their heads high and pert, whilst empty; but when full and swollen with grain in maturity, begin to flag and droop; so, men having tried and sounded all things, and having found in that accumulation of knowledge and provision of so many various things, nothing massive and firm, nothing but vanity, have quitted their presumption and acknowledged their natural condition. 'Tis what Velleius reproaches Cotta with and Cicero, that what they had learned of Philo, was that they had learned nothing. Pherecydes, one of the seven sages, writing to Thales upon his the

deathbed: "I have," said he, "given order to my people, after my interment to carry my writings to thee. If they please thee and the other sages, publish them; if not, suppress them. They contain no certainty with which I myself am satisfied. I pretend not to know the truth or to attain unto it; I rather open than discover things." The

Mon TAIGNE

240

man

what he knew, made answer; he knew this, that he knew nothing. By which he verified what has been said, that the greatest part of what we know is the least of what we do not know, that is to say, that even what we think we know, is but a piece, and a very little one, of our ignorance. We know things in dreams, says Plato, and are ignorant of them in reality. Omnes pene veteres, nihil cogwisest

that ever was, being asked

nosci, nihil percipi, nihil sciri posse dixerunt: angustos sensus, imhecilles animos, hrevia cur1 ricula vitiB. And of Cicero himself, who stood indebted to his learning for all he was, Valerius

he began to disrelish letand when most occupied with them, it was in independence of any party: following what he thought probable, now in one sect and then in another, evermore wavering under the doubts of the Academy: Dicendum est, sed ita, ut nihil affirmem, quaeram omnia, dubitans plerumque, 2 et mihi diffidens. I should have too fine a game, should I consider man in his common way of living and in gross: and yet I might do it by his own rule, who judges truth, not by the weight but by the says, that in his old age ters,

number

of votes. Let us leave the people alone,

Qui Mortua cui

vita est

vigilans stertit,

pwpe

jam, vrto atque videnti;

8

who neither feel nor judge themselves, and let most of their natural faculties lie idle. I will

man

take

him

in his highest state. Let us consider

number of men,

in that small

culled out from the rest,

dowed with

excellent

and

who having been

en-

grand and special natural force, have, moreover, hardened and whetted it by care, study, and art, and raised it to the highest pitch of wisdom to which it can possibly arrive. They have adjusted their souls in all senses and all biases; have propped and supported them with all foreign helps proper for them, and enriched and adorned them with all they could borrow for their advantage, both within and without the a

world: these are they in

whom

is

placed the su-

premest height to which human nature can attain. They have regulated the world with polities and laws; they have instructed it with arts

and sciences, and further instructed it by the example of their admirable conduct. I shall make account of none but such men as these, their testimony and experience; let us examine how far they have proceeded, and on what they reposed their surest hold; the maladies and defects that we shall find amongst these men, the rest of the world may very boldly also declare to be their own. WTioever goes in search of anything, must come to this, either to say that he has found it, or that it is not to be found, or that he is yet upon the quest. All philosophy is divided into these three kinds her design is to seek out truth, knowl:

edge, and certainty.

The

Peripatetics, Epicure-

and others, have thought they had found it: these have established the sciences that we have, and have treated of them as of certainties. Clitomachus, Carneades, and the Academics, have despaired in their quest, and concluded that truth could not be conceived by our capacity; the result with these is all weakness and human ignorance; this sect has had the most and most noble followers. Pyrrho and other sceptics or epichists, whose dogmas were held by many of the ancients to have been taken from Homer, ans, Stoics,

the seven sages, Archilocus, Euripides, Zeno, Democritus, and Xenophanes, say, that they are yet upon the search of truth: these conclude that the others who think they have found it out are infinitely deceived; and that it is too daring a vanity in the second sort to determine that human reason is not able to attain unto it; for to establish the standard of our power, to know and judge the difficulty of things, is a great and extreme knowledge, of which they doubt whether

man

is

capable:

Nil

An

sciri si

quis yutat, id quoque nescit

sciri possit

quo

se nil scire fatetur.*

The

ignorance that knows itself, judges, and itself, is not an absolute ignorance: to be this, it must be ignorant of itself; so that the profession of the Pyrrhonians is to waver, doubt, and inquire, not to make themselves sure of or responsible to themselves for anything. Of

condemns

1

Almost all the ancients have declared, that there nothing can be known, nothing can be understood: the senses are too weak; men's minds too weak, and the course of life too short.— Cicero, Acad., is

i.

12. 2

1

am

to speak,

but so

as to affirm nothing: I

shall inquire into all things,

in doubt,

Divin., 3

ii.

Who

and

but for the most part

distrustful of myself.— Cicero,

De

the three actions of the soul, the imaginative, the appetitive, and the consenting, they receive the two first; the last they hold ambiguous, with-

3.

waking

snore;

whose

life is little better

than death; though living and awake.— Lucretius, iii. 1048, 1046.

*

He

that says nothing can be

known, does not

know whether anything can be known, when he confesses that he

knows nothing.— Ibid.,

iv.

469.

Essays out inclination or approbation, one other,

however

tion his

slight.

way

or the

Zeno represented by mo-

imagination of these divisions of the fac-

an open and expanded hand Appearance: a hand half shut and the fingers a little bent, Consent: a clutched fist, Comprehension; when with the left hand he yet pressed the fist closer, Knowledge. Now this situation of their judgment, upright and inflexible, receiving all objects without application or con-

12

24I

cumque

disciplinam, velut tempestate, delati, ad

II.

tanquam ad saxum, adhaerescunt;

earn,

shall not these likewise

and

to consider things

ulties of the soul;

their liberty

signified

ligation or slavery?

which is a condition of life, peaceable, temperate, and exempt from the agitations we receive by the impression of the opinion and knowledge that we think we have of things; from which spring fear, avarice, envy, immoderate desires, ambition, pride, susent, led

them

to their Ataraxy,

perstition, love of novelty, rebellion, disobedi-

and the greatest part of bodily nay, by this they exempt themselves from

ence, obstinacy, ills;

the jealousy of their discipline: for they debate after a

very gentle manner; they fear no rejoin-

der in their disputes:

when

they affirm that

heavy things descend, they would be sorry to be believed, and love to be contradicted, to engender doubt and suspense of judgment, which is their end. They only put out their propositions to contend with those they think we have in our belief. If you take their arguments, they will as readily maintain the contrary; 'tis all one to them; they have no choice. If you maintain that snow is black, they will argue, on the contrary, that it is white; if you say it is neither the one nor the other, they willmaintain that 'tis both. If you hold, as of certain judgment, that you know nothing of it, they will maintain that you do: yes, and if, by an affirmative axiom, you assure them that you doubt, they will argue against you that you doubt not, or that you cannot judge and determine that you doubt. And by this extremity of doubt, which jostles itself, they separate and divide themselves from many opinions, even of those that have several ways maintained doubt and ignorance. Why shall not they be allowed, say they, as well as the dogmatists, one to say green, another yellow; why may not they also doubt? Can anything be proposed to us to grant or deny which it shall not be permitted to consider as ambiguous? And where others are carried away, either by the custom of their country or by the instruction of parents, or by accident, as by a tempest, without judging and without choice, nay, and for the most part before the age of discretion, to such or such an opinion, to the sect of the Stoics or Epicureans, to which they are enslaved and fast bound, as to a thing they cannot shake off, ad quam-

be permitted

Hoc

*

why

to maintain

without ob-

liberiores et solutiores,

quod Integra illis est judicandi yotestas. 2 \s it not of some advantage to be disengaged from the necessity that curbs others?

main

is it

not better to re-

in suspense than to entangle one's self in

the innumerable errors that human fancy has produced? is it not much better to suspend one's persuasion than to intermeddle with these wrangling and seditious divisions?

choose?

"What you

choose."

A very foolish

What

please, provided

shall

I

you do

answer, but one, never-

theless, to which all the dogmatists seem to point;

by which we are not permitted to be ignorant of that of which we are ignorant. Take the most eminent side, that of the greatest reputation; it will never be so sure, that to defend it you will not be forced to attack and contend with a hundred and a hundred adversaries; is it not better to keep out of this hurly-burly? You are permitted to embrace, with as much zeal as honour and life, Aristotle's opinion of the immortality of the soul, and to give the lie to Plato thereupon, and shall they be interdicted from doubting it? If it be lawful for Panaetius to maintain his opinion about augury, dreams, oracles, vaticina-

tions, of

which things the

why may

Stoics

make no doubt

man dare to do the same in all things which this man dared to do in at all,

not a wise

had learned of his masters, and estabby the common consent of the school whereof he is a professor and a member? If it be a child that judges, he knows not what it is: if a sage, he is prepossessed. They have reserved those he

lished

for themselves a marvellous advantage in battle,

having eased themselves of the care of defence; if you strike them, 'tis no matter, provided they strike too;

purpose;

lame;

if

and they make everything serve their they overcome, your argument is

if

you, theirs:

if

they

fail,

they verify igno-

you fail, you do it: if they prove that nothing is known, it is well; if they cannot prove rance;

it, 'tis

if

equally well

:

Ut quum in eadem re yaria momenta inveniuntur, fa-

contrariis in yartibus cilius 1

ab utraque yarte assertio sustineatur:

To whatever discipline

tempest, they cleave to Acad., ii. 3.

it

3

they are carried, as by a as to a rock.— Cicero,

2 In this more unconstrained and free, because they have the greater power of judging.— Ibid. 3 So that, when equal reasons happen pro and con in the same matter, the judgment may, on both

sides,

be more easily suspended.— Ibid.,

i.

1 2.

Montaigne

242 and they pretend

why

facility

out with much greater than why 'tis true;

to find

a thing

is

false

which is not, than that which is; and what they do not believe, than what they do. Their way of speaking is, "I affirm nothing; it is no more so than so, or than either one nor t'other: that

I

understand

it

not.

Appearances are everywhere

equal: the law of speaking, pro or con,

is

the

same: nothing seems true that may not seem false." Their sacramental word is cttcxcd, that is to say "I hold on, I do not budge." This is the

burden of

their song,

and others

The effect of it is a pure,

of like stuff.

entire, perfect,

and ab-

judgment: they make use of their reason to inquire and debate, but not to fix and determine. Whoever shall imagine solute suspension of the

a perpetual confession of ignorance, a

judgment

without bias or inclination, upon any occasion whatever, conceives a true idea of Pyrrhonism. I express this fancy as well as I can, by reason that many find it hard to conceive; and the authors themselves represent it somewhat variously

and obscurely. As to what concerns the actions of are in this of the

common

life,

they

fashion; they yield

and lend themselves to the natural inclinations, power and impulse of passions, to the constitutions of laws and customs, and to the tradition of arts: Now enim nos Deus ista scire, sed

to the

tantummodo

uti, voluit.

1

They suffer their ordi-

nary actions to be guided by these things without any dispute or judgment; for which reason, I cannot well reconcile with this argument what is said of Pyrrho; they represent him stupid and immovable, leading a kind of savage and unsociable

life,

getting in the

way

of the jostle of

going upon the edge of precipices, and refusing to accommodate himself to the laws. This is to exaggerate his discipline; he would never make himself a stock or a stone, he would show himself a living man, discoursing, reasoning, enjoying all natural conveniences and pleasures, employing and making use of all his corporal carts,

and

spiritual faculties, in rule

and reason; the

imaginary and false privileges that man has usurped of lording it, of ordaining and establishing, he utterly quitted and renounced. There is no sect but is constrained to permit its sage to follow many things not comprehended, perceived, or consented to in its rules, if he means to live: and if he goes to sea he follows that design, not knowing whether it will be sucfantastic,

cessful to

1

For

him

or no,

God would

and

relies

upon the

tight-

not have us know, but only use

those things.— Idem.,

De Divin.,

i.

78.

ness of the vessel, the experience of the pilot, the fitness of the season; probable circumstances only, according to which he is bound to go, and suffer himself to be governed by appearances, provided there be no express and manifest contrariety in them. He has a body, he has a soul; the senses push him, the mind spurs him on; and although he does not find in himself this proper and singular mark of judging, nor perceive that

he ought not

to

engage his consent, considering

may be some false,

equal to these true appearances, yet does he not for all that fail of carrying on the offices of his life fully, freely that there

and conveniently.

How many arts are there that

more in conjecture than in knowledge, that decide not upon true and false, and only follow that which seems true? There is, say they, true and false, and we have in us wherewith to seek it, but not to fix it when we touch it. are much more prudent in letting ourselves be carried away by the swing of the world without inquisition; a soul clear from prejudice has a marvellous advance towards tranquillity and repose. Men who judge and control their judges never duly submit to them. How much more docile and easy to be governed, both in the laws of religion and civil polity, are simple and incurious minds, than those over-vigilant and pedagoguish wits that will still be prating of divine and human causes? There is nothing in human invention that carries so profess to consist

We

show of likelihood and utility as this; man, naked and empty, confessing his natural weakness, fit to receive some foreign force from above; unfurnished of human, and therefore more apt to receive divine knowledge; setting aside his own judgment to make more room for faith; not misbelieving, nor establishing any doctrine against the laws and common great a

this presents

observances; humble, obedient, disciplinable,

sworn enemy of heresy, and conse-

studious, a

quently freeing himself from vain and irreligious opinions introduced by false sects; 'tis a blank paper prepared to receive from the finger of God such forms as He shall please to write

upon

The more we

resign and commit ourGod, and the more we renounce ourof the greater value are we. Take in good

it.

selves to selves,

part, says Ecclesiastes, the things that present

themselves to thee, as they seem and taste from to mouth: the rest is out of thy knowledge.

hand

De-minus novit cogitationes hominum, quoniam vanae. sunt.

2

2 The Lord knoweth the thoughts of men, that they are but vanity.— Psalms, 94. 11.

.

.

Essays Thus we

see that, of the three general sects

two make open profession of doubt and ignorance; and in that of the Dogmatists, which is the third, it is easy to discover that the greatest part of them only assume a face of assurance that they may have the better air; they have not so much thought to establish any certainty for us, as to show us how far they have of philosophy,

proceeded in their search of truth, Quam docti 1 fingunt magis quam norunt. Timaeus, having to instruct

the world a

man

to

Socrates in what he knew of the gods, and men, proposes to speak to him as a man, and that it is sufficient if his

reasons are as probable as those of another; for that exact reasons were neither in his nor in any other mortal hand. Which one of his followers has thus imitated: Ut potero, explicabo; nee tamen ut Pythius Apollo, certa ut sint et fixa, quae dixero; sed ut homunculus, probabilia conjectura sequens;

2

and

this

upon

the natural and

common

subject of the contempt of death: he has elsewhere translated from the very words of Plato: Si forte, de deorum natura ortuque mundi disserentes,

minus

id,

quod habemus

in ani-

mo, consequimur, baud erit mirum; aequum est enim meminisse, et me, qui disseram, hominem, esse, et vos,

qui judicetis; ut,

tur, nihil ultra requiratis.

3

si

probabilia dicen-

Aristotle ordinarily

heaps up a great number of other opinions and beliefs, to compare them with his own, and to let us see how much he has gone beyond them, and how much nearer he approaches to probability: for truth is not to be judged by the authority and testimony of others: which made Epicurus religiously avoid quoting them in his

This is the prince of all dogmatists, and yet we are told by him that much knowl-

writings.

edge administers to many occasion of doubting the more; we see him sometimes purposely so shroud and muffle up himself in thick and inextricable obscurity, that we know not what use to

make

of his advice;

it is,

in fact, a

Pyrrhonism

under a resolutive form. Hear Cicero's protestation, who expounds to us another's fancy by his 1

Which

the learned rather feign than know.

well as I am able, explain; yet not as Pythius Apollo, that what I say should be fixed and certain, but like an ordinary man that follows probabilities by conjecture.— Cicero, Tusc. Quaes., i. 9. 3 If perchance, when we discourse of the nature of gods, and the world's original, we cannot do it as we desire, it will be no great wonder. For it is just you should remember that both I who speak, and you who are to judge, are men; so that if probable things are delivered, you should require and expect no more.— Cicero, from Timaeus. 2

1 will, as

12

II.

243 own Qui requirunt, quid de quaque re ipsi sentiamus, curiosius id faciunt, quam necesse est. :

Haec in philosophia ratio contra omnia disserendi, nullamque rem aperte judicandi, profecta a Socrate, repetita ab Arcesilao, confirmata a Carneade, usque ad nostram viget aetatem. Hi sumus, qui omnibus veris falsa quaedamadjuncta esse dicamus, tanta similitudine, ut in

iis nulla judicandi et assentiendi nota. 4 has not Aristotle only but most of the philos-

Why

insit certe

ophers, affected difficulty,

if

not to emphasize amuse the curi-

the vanity of the subject, and

mind, by giving it this bare, hollow Clitomachus affirmed that he could never discover, by Carneades' writings, what opinion he was of. This was what made Epicurus affect to be abstruse, and that procured Heracli6 tus to be surnamed otcotcivo?. Difficulty is a osity of our

bone

to pick.

make use of, like jugglers, to conceal the inanity of their art, and which hucoin the learned

man

sottishness easily takes for current pay:

Clarus, ob obscuram linguam, magis inter inanes

Omnia enim

.

magis admirantur, amantque, Inversis quae sub verbis latitantia cernunt* stolidi

Cicero reprehends some of his friends for giving of their time to the study of astrology, law, logic, and geometry, than they were worth, say-

more

ing that they were by these diverted from the duties of

life,

more

profitable

and more worthy

Cyrenaic philosophers equally despised natural philosophy and logic. Zeno, in the very beginning of the Books of the Commonstudies; the

all the liberal arts of no use. Chrysippus said that what Plato and Aristotle had written concerning logic, they had only done in sport and by way of exercise, and could not believe that they spoke in earnest of so vain a thing; Plutarch says the same of metaphysics; and Epicurus would have said as much of rheto-

wealth, declared

4

They who desire to know what we think of everything are more inquisitive than is necessary. This practice in philosophy, of disputing against everything, and of absolutely concluding nothing, begun by Socrates, repeated by Arcesilaus, and confirmed by Carneades, has continued in use even to are of those who declare that our own times. there is so great a mixture of things false amongst all that are true, and they so resemble one another, that there can be in them no certain mark to direct us, either to judge or assent.— Cicero, De Nat. Deor., i. 5. 5 Obscure. 6 He got a great name, among the weak-witted, especially by reason of the obscurity of his language;

We

for fools admire and love rather such things wrapt in dubious phrase.— Lucretius, i. 640.

as are

MONTAIGNE

2 44

ric, grammar, poesy, mathematics, and, natural philosophy excepted, of all the sciences, and Socrates of them all, excepting that of manners and of life; whatever any one required to be instructed in by him, he would ever, in the first place, demand an account of the conditions of

and past, which he examined and judged, esteeming all other learning subordinate and supernumerary to that, Parum mihi placeant e& literae quae, ad virtutcm doctori1 bus nihil profuerunt. Most of the arts have been, in like manner, decried by the same knowledge; but these men did not consider that it was from his life present

oncile them, each for himself. Plato seems to have affected this method of philosophizing in

end that he might with greater decency from several mouths deliver the didialogues, to the versity

and

variety of his

variously of things

is

own

fancies.

to treat of

conformably, and better, that

is

them

to say, more copi-

highest points of dogmatical and determinative speaking: and yet those which our parliaments

present to the people, the most exemplary, and most proper to nourish in them the reverence

the purpose to exercise their wits in those very

due

ficiency of the persons exercising

to the rest,

some have looked upon Plato

as a dogmatist, others as a doubter; others, in

some things the one, and in other things the other.

Socrates, the conductor of his dialogisms,

upon questions and

is

up

dis-

putes, never determining, never satisfying;

and

eternally

stirring

no other science but that of opposing himself. Homer, their author, has equally laid the foundations of all the sects of philosophy, to show how indifferent it was which way professes to have

we should choose. 'Tis said that ten several sects sprung from Plato; and, in my opinion, never did any instruction halt and waver, if his does not. Socrates said that wise women, in taking upon them the trade of helping others to bring forth, left the trade of bringing forth themselves;

he by the title of a sage man, which the gods had conferred upon him, was disabled, in his virile and mental love, of the faculty of bringing forth; contenting himself to help and assist those who could, to open their nature, anoint the passes, facilitate the birth, judge of the infant, baptize it, nourish it, fortify it, swathe it, circumcise it: exercising and employing his understanding in the perils and fortunes of

and

treat

ously and with greater profit. Let us take example from ourselves: judicial judgments are the

matters wherein there was no solid advantage.

As

To

as well as

to that dignity, principally

through the sufit,

derive their

much from the conclusion, which with them is of daily occurrence and common to beauty, not so

every judge, as from the dispute and heat of diand contrary arguments, that questions of

verse

law permit. And the largest field for reprehension that some philosophers have against others is drawn from the diversities and contradictions wherewith every one of them finds himself perplexed; either on purpose, to show the vacillation of human wit concerning everything; or ignorantly compelled by the volubility and incomprehensibility of all matter; which is the meaning of this phrase: in a slippery and sliding place let us suspend our belief: for, as Euripides says,

The works

of

God

in various

ways perplex

us:

that

others. It is so

with the most part of

this third sort of

authors, as the ancients have observed in the

writings of Anaxagoras, Democritus, Parmeni-

Xenophanes, and others: they have a way and design, rather inquiring than teaching, though theymix their style with some dogmatical periods. Is not the same thing seen in Seneca and Plutarch? how many contradictions are there to be found in these, if a man pry narrowly into them? The reconcilers of the jurisconsults ought first to recdes,

of writing doubtful in substance

1 That learning is in small repute with me, which nothing helped the teachers themselves to virtue.—

Sallust,

De

Bello ]ug., lxxxv.

like that

which Empedocles,

as

if

rapt with a di-

vine fury and compelled by truth, often strewed

here and there in his writings. "No, no; we feel nothing, we see nothing; all things are concealed from us; there is not one thing of which we can positively say it is"; according to the divine saying

:

Cogitationes mortalium timichz, et incertae 2

adinventiones nostras, et providentiae. It is not to be thought strange if men, despairing to overtake what they hunt after, have not yet lost the pleasure of the chase, study being of itself an employment pleasant, and so pleasant that

amongst the pleasures the Stoics forbid that also which proceeds from the exercise of the intellect, will have it curbed, and find a kind of intemperance in thirsting too much after knowledge.

Democritus having eaten

figs at his table that

tasted of honey, fell presently to consider with-

in himself whence they should derive this unusual sweetness; and to be satisfied in it, was 2 For the thoughts of mortal men are timid; and our devices are but uncertain.— Wisdom, ix. 14.

Essays

12

II.

245

from the table to see the place whence the figs had been gathered; which his maid observing, and having understood the cause, she smilingly told him that he need not trouble himself about that, for she had put them into a vessel in which there had been honey. He was vexed that she had thus deprived him of the occasion of this inquisition and robbed his curiosity of matter to work upon. "Go thy way," said he, "thou hast done me wrong; but for all that I will seek out the cause, as if it were natural"; and would willingly have found out some true reason for a false and imaginary effect. This story of a famous and great philosopher very

Atoms, Ideas, and Numbers for current pay: they were too wise to establish their articles of

us the studious passion,

he professed philosophy, of which he nevertheless, in his own judgment, made no great account, answered that this was truly to philos-

about to

rise

clearly represents to

us upon the pursuit of things of the acwhich we despair. Plutarch gives a like example of one who would not be satisfied in that whereof he was in doubt, that he might that puts

quisition of

not lose the pleasure of inquiring into it; like the other, who would not that his physician

should allay the thirst of his fever that he might not lose the pleasure of quenching it by drinking. Satins est swpervacua discere, quam nihil* As in all sorts of feeding, there is often only the

mere pleasure of eating, and that what we take, which is acceptable to the palate, is not always nourishing or wholesome; so that which our understandings extract from learning does not cease to be pleasant, though there be nothing in it either nutritive or healthful.

consideration of nature

is

Thus

say they: the

a diet proper for our

minds; it raises and elevates us, makes us disdain low and terrestrial things, by comparing them with those that are celestial and high: even the inquisition of great and occult things is very pleasant, even to those

who

acquire no other

and fear of judging The vain image of this sickly curiosity is yet more manifest in this other example that they so often urge Eudoxus wished and begged of the gods, that he might once see the sun near at hand, to comprehend its form, greatness, and beauty, though on the condition that he should thereby be immediately benefit than the reverence it.

This

is

what they

profess.

:

burned.

He

would,

at the price of his life,

pur-

chase a knowledge of which the use and possession should at the same time be taken from him;

and

for this

sudden and vanished knowledge, knowledges he had in the pres-

lose all the other

ent, or I

rus,

might afterwards acquire.

cannot easily persuade myself that EpicuPlato, and Pythagoras have given us their

tain. But, in the

:

vi:

One of the ancients, who was reproached that

They would consider all, balance everyand found this an employment well suited our natural curiosity; some things they have

ophize. thing, to

written for the benefit of public society, as their religions, and, for that consideration,

1

it

was but

reasonable that they should not examine public

opinions too closely, that they might not disturb the common obedience to the laws and customs of their country.

Plato treats of this mystery with a raillery manifest enough; for where he writes as for him-

he gives no certain rule: when he plays the he borrows a magisterial and positive style, and boldly there foists in his most fantastic inventions as fit to persuade the vulgar as ridiculous to be believed by himself; knowing self,

legislator,

very well

how

fit

we

are to receive

all sorts

of

impressions, especially the most immoderate and

and therefore

in his laws he takes singunothing be sung in public but poetry, of which the fabulous relations tend to some useful end; it being so easy to imprint all sorts of phantoms in the human mind, that it were injustice not to feed them rather with profitable untruths than with untruths that are unprofitable or hurtful. He says very plainly in his 3 Republic, "that it is very often necessary for the profit of men to deceive them." It is very easy to distinguish that some of the sects have more fol-

violent:

lar care that

lowed truth, and others utility, by which the last have gained their reputation. Tis the misery of our condition, that often that which presents itself to our imagination for the most true does not also appear the most useful to 2

wit, 'Tis better to learn more than is necessary than nothing at all.— Seneca, Eyist., 88.

upon things

so disputable and so uncerthen obscurity and ignorance of the world, each of these great personages endeavoured to present some kind or other of image of light; and worked their brains for inventions that might, at all events, have a pleasant and subtle appearance, provided that, false as they were, they might make good their ground against those that would oppose them Unicuique ista fro ingenio finguntur, non ex scientiae

faith

These things every one fancies according to his and not by any power of knowledge.— Seneca,

Suasor., s

iv. 3.

Bk.v.

Montaigne

246 life;

the boldest sects, as the Epicurean,

new Academic,

Pyrrho

ish the tender principles of a

kind of brutish

to give them some kind of colour; for having found nothing so abstruse that they would not

knowledge that natural reason gave them of Him amid the deceiving images of their dreams. Not only deceiving and false, but impious also, and injurious, are those that man has forged from his own invention; and of all the religions that St. Paul found in repute at Athens, that which they had dedicated to The Unknown God seemed to him the most to be ex-

venture to touch

cused.

nian, the

and done, constrained

are yet, after all

to

submit

is

said

to the civil

law.

Other subjects there are that they have tumbled and tossed, some to the right and others to the left, every one endeavouring, right or wrong,

weak and

it,

they are often forced to forge

ridiculous conjectures, not that they

themselves look upon them as any foundation, nor as establishing any certain truth, but merely for exercise

rent,

quam

:

Now

tarn id sensisse

quod

dice-

exercere ingenia materiae difficultate 1

videntur voluisse. Audit we did not take it thus, how should we palliate so great inconstancy, variety, and vanity of opinions as we see have been produced by those excellent and admirable souls?

example, what can be more vain than to imagine to dominate God by our analogies and conjectures? to regulate Him and the world by our capacities and our laws? and to make use, at the expense of the Divinity, of that small portion of knowledge He has been pleased to impart to our natural condition? and, because we cannot extend our sight to His glorious throne, to have brought Him down to our corruption and our miseries? Of all human and ancient opinions concerning religion, that seems to me the most likely and most excusable that recognized in God an incomprehensible power, the original and preas, for

Pythagoras shadowed the truth a little more judging that the knowledge of this first Cause and Being of beings ought to be indefinite, without prescription, without declaration; that it was nothing else than the extreme effort of our imagination towards perfection, every one amplifying the idea according to his capacity. But if Numa attempted to conform the devotion of his people to this project, to attach them to a religion purely mental, without any prefixed object and material mixture, he undertook a thing of no use; the human mind could never support itself floating in such an infinity of inform closely,

it requires some certain image thereof be presented according to its own model. The Divine Majesty has thus, in some sort, suffered Himself to be circumscribed in corporal limits for our advantage His supernatural and celestial sacraments have signs of our earthly condition: His adoration is by sensible offices and

thoughts;

to

:

words, for 'tis man that believes and prays. I omit the other arguments upon this subject; but a

man would have much

ado to make me beour crucifixes, that the

server of all things, all goodness, all perfection,

lieve that the sight of

and taking in good part the honour and reverence that man paid unto Him, under what method, name, or ceremonies soever:

picture of our Saviour's piteous passion, that the

receiving

Jupiter omnipotens, rerum, 2 Progenitor, genitrixque.

regumque deumque

ornaments and ceremonious motions of our churches, that the voices accommodated to the devotion of our thoughts, and that emotion of the senses, do not

warm

the souls of the people

with a religious passion of very advantageous

This zeal has universally been looked upon from heaven with a gracious eye. All governments have reaped fruit from their devotion impious men and actions have everywhere had suitable result. Pagan histories recognize dignity, order, justice, prodigies and oracles, employed for their profit and instruction, in their fabulous religions: God, peradventure, through His mercy, vouchsafing by these temporal benefits, to cher:

effect.

Of

those, to

whom

they have given a body,

as necessity required in that universal blindness, I

should,

I

fancy, most incline to those

who

adored the sun,

La lumiere commune, du monde; et si Dieu au chef parte des yeulx, Les rayons du soleil sont ses yeulx radieux, Qui donnent vie a touts, nous maintiennent et L'ceil

gardent, 1

Not so much that they themselves

believed

what

they said, as that they seemed to have had a mind to exercise their wits in the difficulty of the matter.—

Author uncertain. 2

All powerful Jove, father and mother of the world, of kings and gods.—Valerius Soranus, in St. Augustine, City of God, vii. 9.

des humains en ce monde regardent: beau, ce grand soleil, qui nous faict les saisons, Selon qu'il entre ou sort de ses douze maisons; Qui remplit Vunivers de ses vertus cogneues; Qui d'un traict de ses yeulx nous dissipe les nues: L 'esprit, Vame du monde, ardent et flamboyant, En la course d'un jour tout le del tournoyant;

Et

Ce

les faicts

:

Essays Plein d'immense grandeur, rond, vagabond, et

En

le

monde pour

terme:

repos, sans repos; oysif, et sans sejour;

aisne de nature, et

le

forasmuch as besides of his,

247

the heavens, the stars, the earth, and our souls,

which have been received by ancient institution in every

gods; admitting, moreover, those

ferme;

Lequel tient dessoubs luy tout Fils

12

II.

'tis

fere

this

the piece of this

republic.

du jour: x

grandeur and beauty

machine

that

Xenophon

reports a like perplexity in

one while, that men are not to inquire into the form of God, and presently makes him maintain that the sun is God, and the soul, God; first, that there is but one God, and afterwards that there are many. Speusippus, the Socrates' doctrine;

we

dis-

cover at the remotest distance from us, and, by that means, so little known that they were par-

makes God

donable for entering into so great admiration and

nephew

reverence of

governing all things, and that it is animal. Aristotle, one while says it is the mind, and another while the world; now he gives this world another master, and again makes God the heat of heaven. Xenocrates makes eight; five named amongst

it.

who first God to be a

Thales, believed

inquired into this matter, that made all things

spirit,

Anaximander, that the gods were always dying and re-entering into life at divers seasons, and that there were an infinite number of worlds Anaximenes, that the air was God, that hewas produced and immense, ever moving. Anaxagoras was the first who held that the description and system of all things were conducted by the power and reason of an infinite spirit. Alcmaeon gave divinity to the sun, moon, and stars, and to the soul. Pythagoras made God a spirit diffused through the nature of all things, from which our souls are extracted: Parmenides, a circle surrounding the heaven and supporting the world by the heat of light. Empedocles pronounced the four elements, of which all things are composed, to be gods: Protagoras had nothing to say, whether they were or not, or what they were Democritus was one while of opinion that the images of objects and their orbs were of water

:

:

:

gods; another while, the nature that darts out

those images,

and again, our science and

intelli-

of Plato,

the planets, the sixth composed of stars, as

of so

many members;

:

that 'tis heaven and earth

Theophrastus wanders in the same irresolution amongst his various fancies, attributing the superintendence of the world one while to the understanding, another while to heaven, and then to the stars: Strato says 'tis nature having the power of generation, augmentation and diminution, without form and sentiment: Zeno says 'tis the law of nature commanding good and prohibiting evil, which law is animal; and abolishes the accustomed gods, Jupiter, Juno, and Vesta Diogenes Apolloniates

alike, the

And

the Almighty ruler ot the skies

if

worlds enlightening eyes,

Has eyes, the sunbeams are His radiant eyes, That life to all impart, maintain, and guard, And all men's actions upon earth regard. This great, this beautiful, and glorious sun, That seasons gives by revolution That with his influence fills the universe,

And with one

glance does sullen shades disperse.

Life, soul of the world, that flaming in his sphere,

Surrounds the heavens in one day's career, Immensely great, moving, yet firm and round, Who the whole world below has fixed his bound, At rest without rest, idle without stay. Nature's

first

son,

and father of the day.

.

:

Xenophanes makes God round, seeing and hearing, not breathing, and having nothsays

'tis air.

the form of

On all

and

Ponticus does nothing but float in his opinions, finally deprives God of sense and makes him shift from one form to another and at last says,

ing in common with

Thus translated from Ronsard by Cotton: The common light that shines indifferently

the fixed

the seventh

and

he says in his Tim&us, that the father of the world cannot be named; in his Laws, that men are not to inquire into his being; and elsewhere, in the same books, he makes the world,

x

all

power

the eighth, the sun and the moon. Heraclides

gence. Plato divides his belief into several opinions:

a certain

God

human nature. Aristo thinks

be incomprehensible, deand knows not whether He be animal or something else: Cleanthes one while supposes Him to be reason, another while the world, then the soul of nature, and then the supreme heat surrounding and enveloping all things. Perseus, Zeno's disciple, was of opinion that men have given the title of gods to such as have added any notable advantage to human life, and even to profitable things themselves. Chrysippus made a confused heap of all the preceding lucubrations, and reckons, amongst a thousand forms of gods that he makes, the men also that have been deified. Diagoras and Theodorus flatly denied that there were any gods at all. Epicurus makes the gods shining, transparent, and perflable, lodged, as betwixt two forts, betwixt two worlds, secure from blows; clothed in a human figure and with such members prives

as

we

use:

Him

to

of sense,

have, which

members

are to

them of no

:

Montaigne

248 Ego deum genus

esse

semper

dixi, et

dicam

tue,

coelitum;

Sed eos non curare opinor, quid agat

injuries of our frail

to your philosophy, my masters, and brag you have found the bean in the cake, with this rattle from so many philosophical heads!

Trust that

perplexity of so many worldly forms has gained this for me, that manners and opinions contrary to mine do not so much displease as instruct me; nor so much make me proud, as they humble me in comparing them; and all other choice than what comes from the express and immediate hand of God, seems to me a choice of very little prerogative. The polities of the world are no less opposed upon this subject than the schools: by which we may understand that fortune itself is not more variable and diverse, nor more blind and inconsiderate, than our reason. The things that are most unknown are the most proper to be deified; wherefore, to make gods of ourselves, as the ancients did, exceeds the extremest weakness of understanding. I should much rather have gone along with those who adored the serpent, the dog, or the ox; forasmuch as their nature and their being are less

The

known

to us,

imagine what attribute to

and that we are more

we

at liberty to

and

please of those beasts,

them extraordinary

faculties;

to

but to

have made gods of our own condition, of which we should know the imperfection, and to have attributed to them desire, anger, revenge, mar-

and jealousy, our members and bones, our fevers and pleasures, our death and obsequies, this must needs proriages, generation, alliances, love

ceed from a marvellous intoxication of understanding:

human

aetates, vestitus,

ornatus noti sunt: gen-

era, conjugia, cognationes,

omniaque traducta

ad similitudinem imbecillitatis humanae; nam et perturbatis animis inducuntur; accipimus enim

deorum cupiditates,

3

aegritudines, iracundias; as

having attributed divinity not only to faith, vir1 1 have ever thought, and still think, there are gods above, but I do not conceive that they care what men do.— Ennius, in Cicero, De Divin. ii. 50. 2 Which things are so remote from the divine nature, that they are unworthy to be ranked among the gods.— Lucretius, v. 1 23. 3 Their forms, ages, clothes, and ornaments are known their descents, marriages, and kindred, and all appropriated to the similitude of human weakness; for they are represented to us with anxious :

Quid

and

but

ill

fortune,

and other

transitory life:

juvat hoc, templis nostros inducer e mores?

O curvae in terris animae, et coelestium inanesl

*

The Egyptians, with an impudent prudence, interdicted, upon pain of hanging, that any one should say that their gods Serapis and Isis had formerly been men, and yet no one was ignorant that they had been such; and their effigies, represented with the finger upon the mouth, sig5 nified, says Varro, this mysterious decree to their priests, to conceal their mortal original, asitmust, by necessary consequence, annul all the veneration paid to them. Seeing that man so much desired to equal himself to God, he had done better, says Cicero, to have attracted the divine conditions to himself, and have drawn them down hither below, than to send his corruption and misery up on high: but, in truth, he has in several ways done both the one and the other, with like vanity of opinion. When the philosophers search narrowly into the hierarchy of their gods, and make a great bustle about distinguishing their alliances, offices, and power, I cannot believe they speak with any seriousness. When Plato describes

Pluto's verger to us,

and the bodily pleasures or

pains that await us after the ruin and annihilation of our bodies,

the notions

and accommodates them

we have of them

to

in this life

Secreti celant calles, et myrtea circum

Sylva

tegit; curae

non

ipsa in morte relinquunt;

when Mohammed promises

Quae procul usque odeo divino ab numine distant, Inque deum numero quae sint indigna videri. 2 Formde,

liberty, victory, piety,

age, misery; to fear, fever,

humanum genus. 1

all

honour, concord,

also to voluptuousness, fraud, death, envy, old

hung with

e

his followers a par-

adorned with gold and precious stones, furnished with wenches of excelling beauty, rare wines and delicate dishes, I easily discern that these are mockers who accommodate their promises to our stupidity, to attract and allure us by hopes and opinions suitable to our mortal appetite. And yet some amongst us are fallen into the like error, promis-

adise

tapestry,

ing to themselves, after the resurrection, a terrestrial and temporal life, accompanied with all minds, and we read of the lusts, sickness, and anger of the gods.— Cicero, De Nat. Deor., ii. 28. * Into our temples to what end introduce our own

O souls, bending to the earth, deheavenly sentiments!— Persius, ii. 61, 62. 5 Cited by St. Augustine, City of God, xviii. 5. 6 Secret paths hide them, and myrtle groves environ them; their cares do not leave them when they diie.—JEneid, vi. 443. corrupt manners? void of

all

:

Essays sorts of worldly conveniences and pleasures. Can we believe that Plato, he who had such heavenly conceptions, and was so conversant

with Divinity as thence to derive the name of the divine Plato, ever thought that the poor creature, man, had anything in him applicable

incomprehensible power? and that he believed that the weak holds we are able to take were capable, or the force of our understanding to that

robust

enough

or pain?

to participate of eternal beatitude

We should then tell him, on behalf of

human

reason if the pleasures thou dost promus in the other life are of the same kind that I have enjoyed here below, that has nothing in common with infinity: though all my five natural senses should be loaded with pleasure and my soul full of all the contentment it could hope :

ise

we know what all this amounts to; all would be nothing: if there be anything of mine there, there is nothing divine; if it be no more than what may belong to our present conor desire, this

contentment of mortals is mortal; the recognition of our parents, children, and friends, if that can touch and dedition,

light

it

cannot be reckoned;

us in the other world,

all

if

there

it still

con-

tinue a satisfaction to us, we still remain in earthly

and

infinite conveniences:

we

cannot, as

we

ought, conceive the grandeur of those high and divine promises,

them;

to

we can

if

in

any

sort

conceive

have a worthy imagination of them,

we must imagine them unimaginable,

inexplic-

and incomprehensible, and absolutely another thing than any in our miserable experience. "Eye hath not seen/' says St. Paul, "nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love Him." And if to render us capable of them, our being be reformed and changed (as thou, Plato, sayest by thy purifications), it must be so extreme and total a change that, by physical doctrine, it will be no more us; able,

:

12

II.

249

change of habitation that he imagined in souls, can we believe that the lion in whom the soul of Caesar

is

enclosed espouses Caesar's passions,

or that the lion

would be

is

he?

If

in the right

it were still Caesar, they who, controverting this

opinion with Plato, reproach him that the son might be seen to ride his mother transformed into a mule, and the like absurdities. And can we believe that in the mutations that are made of the bodies of animals into others of the same kind, the new comers are not other than their predecessors? From the ashes of a phoenix a worm, they say, is engendered, and from that another phoenix; who can imagine that this second phoenix is not other than the first? We see our silk worms as it were die and wither; and from this withered body a butterfly is produced, and from that another worm; how ridiculous would it be to imagine that this were still the first? that which has once ceased to be is no more: Nee,

si

materiam nostram

collegerit Betas

Post obitum, rursumque redegerit, ut sita

nunc

est,

Atque iterum nobis fuerint data lumina vitae, Pertineat quidquam tamen ad nos id quoque factum; Interrwpta semel

cum

sit

repetentia nostra.

3

when thou sayest, in another place, be the spiritual part of man that will be concerned in the fruition of the recompenses of another life, thou tellest us a thing wherein there is as little appearance of truth: And, that

Plato,

it

shall

Scilicet, avolsis radicibus, ut nequit ullam Dispicere ipse oculus rem, seorsum corpore toto;

*

by this account, it would no more be man, nor consequently us, who should be concerned in this enjoyment: for we are composed of two

for,

principally essential parts, the separation of

which

is

the death

and ruin of our being

enim jecta est vitai pausa, vageque Deerrarunt passim motus ab sensibus omnes:

Inter

Hector erat tunc cum hello certabat; at ille Tractus ab JEmonio, non erat Hector, equo: it

must be something else that must receive these

.

.

.

say that the

worms feed upon

For, in Pythagoras' metempsychosis,

and the

He was Hector whilst he was fighting; but when dragged by Achilles' steeds, he was no longer Hector.— Ovid, Trist., hi. 11, 27. 1

What is changed

is

iii.

and therefore perand depart from tneir

dissolved,

ishes; the parts are separated,

order.— Lucretius,

his

man

suffers

members and

when

the

that the

them

dissolvitur; interit ergo;

Trajiciuntur enim partes, atque ordine migrant. 2

2

we cannot

earth consumes

recompenses:

Quod mutatur

B

*

756.

3

Nor, though time should collect after death our atoms, and restore them to the form they had before, and give us again new light of life, would that new figure concern us at all; the sense of our being, once interrupted, is gone.— Ibid., iii, 859. * No more than eyes once torn from their sockets can ever after see anything.— Ibid., 562. 5 For, when life is extinct, all motions of sense are dispersed and banished.— Ibid., 872.

Montaigne

250

Et nihil hoc ad nos, qui coitu conjugioque 1 Corporis atque animse. consistimus uniter wpti.

Moreover, upon what foundation of their justice can the gods take notice of or reward man after his death, for his good and virtuous actions, since it was they themselves who put them in the way and mind to do them? And why should they be offended at and punish him for evil actions, since they themselves have created him in so frail a condition, and that, with one glance of their will, they might prevent him from evil doing? Might not Epicurus, with great colour of human reason, object this to Plato, did he not often save himself with this sentence 'That it is impossible to establish anything certain of the immortal nature by the mortal?" She does nothing but err throughout, but especially when she meddles with divine things. Who more evidently perceives this than we? For although we have given her certain and infallible principles, and though we have enlightened her steps with the sacred lamp of the truth that it has pleased God :

to

communicate

to us,

we daily see, nevertheless,

she swerve never so little from the ordinary path, and that she stray from or wander out of the way set out and beaten by the Church, that

if

how

immediately she loses, confounds, and fettumbling and floating in this vast,

ters herself,

turbulent,

and waving

sea of

human

opinions,

without restraint and without any determinate end so soon as she loses that great and common road she enters into a labyrinth of a thousand :

several paths.

Man cannot be anything but what he is, nor imagine beyond the reach of his capacity. " Tis a greater presumption," says Plutarch, "in them who are but men to attempt to speak and discourse of the gods and demi-gods, than it is in a man, utterly ignorant of music, to judge of singing; or in a man who never saw a camp to dispute about arms and martial affairs, presuming, by some light conjecture, to understand the effects of an art to which he is totally a stranger." Antiquity, I fancy, thought to put a complement upon and to add something to the divine grandeur in assimilating it to man, investing it with his faculties and adorning it with his fine humours and most shameful necessities: offering to it our aliments to eat, our dances, mummeries, and farces to divert it, our vestments to cover it, and our houses to inhabit; caressing it with the odours of incense and the sounds of music, with festoons and nosegays; and, to ac-

commodate

it to our vicious passions, flattering with inhuman vengeance, delighting it with the ruin and dissipating of things by it created and preserved: as Tiberius Sempronius who burned the rich spoils and arms he had gained from the enemy in Sardinia as a sacrifice to Vulcan, and Paulus v'Emilius those of Macedonia to Mars and Minerva: and as Alexander, arriving at the Indian Ocean, threw several great vessels of gold into the sea in favour of Thetis, and, moreover, loaded her altars with a slaughter, not of innocent beasts only, but of men also; as several nations, and ours amongst the rest, were ordinarily used to do; and I believe there is no nation under the sun that has not done the same: Sulmone creatos Quatuor hie juvenes, totidem, quos educat Ufens, Viventes rapit, infer'ias quos immolet umbrisr

justice

its

The

Getae hold themselves to be immortal, and is nothing but a journey to Zamolxis,

that death their god.

Once

in every five years they despatch

some one amongst them

him such

to

him,

to entreat of

necessaries as they require. This en-

voy is chosen by lot, and the form of his despatch, after having been instructed by word of mouth what he is to say, is, that of those present three hold out so many javelins, against which the rest throw his body with all their force. If he happen to be wounded in a mortal Dart and that he immediately die, 'tis reputed a certain sign of divine favour; if he escape he is looked upon as a wicked and execrable wretch, and another is deputed after the same manner in his stead. Ames3 having grown old, tris, the wife of Xerxes, caused at once fourteen young men of the best families of Persia to be buried alive, according

some day the idols of Themixtitan are cemented with the blood of little children, and they delight in no sacrifice but of these pure and infantine souls: a justice thirsty to the religion of the country, to gratify

infernal deity.

And

to this

of innocent blood!

Tantum

religio potuit

suadere malorum.

The Carthaginians immolated

their

4.

own chil-

had none of their own bought of others, the father and mother being further obliged to attend the ceremony with a gay and contented countenance. dren

to Saturn;

and such

as

2 Four sons of Sulmo, and as many more whom Ufens bred, he seized alive, to offer them a sacrifice

gods.— ALneid, x. 517. Herodotus, vii. 4 Religion can persuade men to so many mischiefs.— Lucretius, i. 102.

to the infernal 3

3

sists

That

is

nothing to us whose being solely conunion of body and soul.— Ibid, 857.

in the strict

ills

and

1

:

Essays It was a strange fancy to seek to gratify the divine goodness with our affliction like the Lacedaemonians who regaled their Diana with the

12

II.

throat?

251

Tantus

est perturbatse mentis, et sedibus

guilty

placentur,quemodmone homines quidem saeviunt* The use of this natural contexture has not only respect to us, but also to the service of God and of other men; and 'tis as unjust wilfully to wound or hurt it, as to kill ourselves upon any pretence whatever; it seems to be great cowardice and treason to exercise cruelty upon and to destroy the func-

Iphigenia, at the port of Aulis, should

tions of the body, stupid

:

tormenting of young boys, whom they caused to be whipped for her sake, very often to death it was a savage humour to think to gratify the Architect by the subversion of His building, and to think to take away the punishment due to the :

by punishing the innocent; and that poor by her death and sacrifice acquit towards God the whole army of the Greeks from all the crimes they had committed;

1

Romano non pos2 To which may

uminiquitas,ut placaripopulo

sent, nisi tales viri occidissent?

be added, that it is not for the criminal to cause himself to be scourged according to his own

measure nor

at his

own

time; but that

it

wholly

belongs to the judge, who considers nothing as chastisement but the pain he appoints, and canthat

punishment which proceeds from

him who suffers: the divine vengeance presupposes an absolute dissent in us, both for its justice and our own penalty. And the consent of

therefore

it

was

a ridiculous

humour

of Poly-

3

Samos, who, to interrupt the continued course of his good fortune and to balance it, went and threw the dearest and most precious jewel he had into the sea, fancying by this voluntary mishap he bribed and satisfied

crates the tyrant of

the revolution and vicissitude of fortune;

and she, to mock his folly, ordered it so that the same jewel came again into his hands, found in the belly of a fish. And then to what end are those tearings and demembrations of the Corybantes, the Menades, and in our times of the Mohammedans, who slash their faces, bosoms, and members to gratify their prophet: seeing that the

offence lies in the will, not in the breast, eyes, genitories, in 1

And

plumpness, in the shoulders, or the

that the chaste girl,

on the very eve of her immolated by her

nuptials, should die, a sad victim,

father.— Ibid., 2

How

i. 99. great an injustice in the gods

was

it

that

they could not be reconciled to the people of Rome unless such men perished?— Cicero, De Nat. Deor., 6.

iii. 3

and

Herodotus,

iii.

41.

servile, in order to

spare the soul the trouble of governing

them

ac-

cording to reason; ubi iratos deos timent, qui sic propitios habere merentur. An regiae libidinis voluptatem castrati sunt quidam; sed nemo sibi, 5 ne vir esset, jubente domino, manus intulit. So did they

and that those two noble and generous souls of the two Decii, father and son, to incline the favour of the gods to be propitious to the affairs of Rome, should throw themselves headlong into the thickest of the enemy. Quae fuit tanta deor-

deem

dum

.

Et casta inceste, nuhendi tempore in ipso Hostia concideret mactatu moesta parentis;

not

suis pulsae furor, ut sicdii

fill

their religion

.

with

many

ill

effects:

Saepius olim Religio peperit scelerosa atque impia facta?

Now nothing about us can, in any sort, be compared or likened unto the divine nature that will not blemish and tarnish it with so much imperfection. How can that infinite beauty, power, and goodness admit of any correspondence or similitude to so abject a thing as we are, without extreme wrong and dishonour to His divine greatness? Infirmum Dei fortius est hominibus: 1 et stultum Dei sapientius est hominibus. Stilpo the philosopher being asked whether the gods were delighted with our adorations and sacrifices: "You are indiscreet," answered he; "let us withdraw apart if you talk of such things." Nevertheless, we prescribe Him bounds, we keep His power beseiged by our reasons (I call reason our reveries and dreams with the dispensation of philosophy, which says, that the wicked man, and even the fool, go mad by reason, but 'tis by

form of reason); we will subject and feeble appearances of our understanding; Him who has made both us and our understanding. Recause nothing is made of a particular

Him

to the vain

4 So great is the fury and madness of troubled minds when once displaced from the seat of reason as if the gods should be appeased with what even

men

are not so mad as to approve.— St. Augustine, City of God, vi. 10. 5 Where are they so afraid of the anger of the gods as to merit their favour at that rate? Some, indeed, have been made eunuchs for the lust of princes: but no man at his master's command has put his own hand to unman himself.— Ibid., after Seneca. 6 In older times religion inspired great and impious crimes.— Lucretius, i. 83. 7 For the foolishness of God is wiser than men, and the weakness of God is stronger than men.— Corinthians, 1. 25.

Montaigne

252

nothing, God, therefore, could not have made the world without matter. What! has God put into our hands the keys and most secret springs of His power; limits of our

is

He

obliged not to exceed the

knowledge? Put the case, O man, been able here to mark some foot-

that thou hast

His

effects: dost thou, therefore, think has therein employed all He can, and has crowded all His forms and all His ideas in this work? Thou seest nothing but the order and regulation of this little vault wherein thou art

steps of

that

He

lodged— if thou dost see

so

much— whereas His

divinity has an infinite jurisdiction beyond; this

part

is

nothing in comparison of the whole:

Omnia cum Nil sunt ad

totius

omnem:

1

'Tis a municipal law that thou allegest; thou knowest not what is the universal. Tie thyself to that to which thou art subject, but not Him; He is

not of thy brotherhood, thy fellow-citizen, or

companion If He has in some sort communicated Himself unto thee, 'tis not to debase Himself to .

thy

littleness,

nor

to

make

thee controller of fly to the

human body cannot

His power; the

clouds. 'Tis for thee the sun runs without rest-

ing every day his ordinary course: the bounds of the seas and the earth cannot be confounded;

unstable and without firmness; a be broken, is impenetrable to a solid body; a man cannot preserve his life in the flames; he cannot be both in heaven and upon the water

is

wall, unless

earth,

it

and corporally in a thousand places

at

He hasmade these rules; 'tis thee, that they concern; He manifested to the Christians, that He enfranchised them all,

once. 'Tis for thee, that

when

Him. And,

why, almighty as He is, should He have limited His power within any certain bounds? In favour of whom should He have renounced His privilege? Thy reason has in no other thing more of likelihood and foundation, than in that wherein it it

pleased

in truth,

persuades thee that there is a plurality of worlds;

Terramque,et solem, lunam, mare, caetera quae sunt, Non esse unica, sed numero magis innumerali: 2 the most eminent minds of elder times believed it,

and some

of this age of ours, compelled

appearances of

asmuch

human

and

as in this fabric that

some by which it seems not to be likely that God should have made this work only without a companion, and that the matter of this form should have been totally exhausted

number

by the

we behold

Quare, etiam atque etiam

tales fateare necesse est, Esse alios alibi congressus materiai, Qualis hie est, avido complexu quern tenet aether: *

especially

if it

be a living creature, which

its

mo6

it,

and that many of our people either confirm it or do not venture to deny it: no more than that ancient opinion, that the heaven, the stars, and other members of the world, are creatures composed of body and soul, mortal in respect of their composition, but immortal by the determination of the Creator.

Now,

if

there be

many

worlds,

and almost all philosophy has believed, how do we know that the principles and rules of this of ours in like manner concern the rest? They may, peradventure, have another form and another polity. Epicurus as Democritus, Epicurus,

We

see in supposes them, either like or unlike. this world an infinite difference and variety, merely by distance of places; neither corn nor wine, nor any of our animals are to be seen in that new corner of the world discovered by our fathers; 'tis all there another thing; and, in times

do but consider in how many parts of the world they had no knowledge either of Bacchus or Ceres. If Pliny and Herodotus are to be bepast,

lieved, there are, in certain places, kinds of

men

resembling us; and there are mongrel and ambiguous forms, betwixt the human and very

little

where men mouth and 6 eyes in their breast; where they are all hermaphrodites; where they go on all fours; where they have but one eye in the forehead, and a head more like that of a dog than like one of ours. Where they are half fish the lower part, and live in the water; where the women bear at five years old, and live but eight; where the head and skin of the forehead are so hard, that a sword will brutal natures: there are countries,

are born without heads, having their

3

there

is

Since there

is

nothing single in this mighty mass,

that can alone beget, or alone increase.— Ibid., 1077.

and

sea, fall short in

the account with the totality of the great All.— Lucretius, v.

not single,

or other;

in this sole individual;

*

*A11 things, heaven, earth,

679. Earth, sun,

unica solaque crescat, 3

reason, do the same; for-

nothing single and one,

2

et

that all the kinds are multiplied in

tions render so credible that Plato affirms

marique,

ccelo, terraque,

summam summai

Quum in summa res nulla sit una, Unica quae gignatur,

moon, sea, and the rest that are, are but rather innumerable.— Ibid., ii. 1085.

Wherefore

it is

quite necessary to confess that

there must elsewhere be the like aggregation of matter, just as that which ether holds in strict embrace. —Ibid., 1064. 5 In the Timaeus. e

Herodotus,

iv. 4.

Cf City .

of God, x. 29.

:

Essays not enter it, but rebounds; where men have no beards; nations that know not theuse of fire; and 1 others that eject their seed of a black colour.

What shall we say of those again?

And

if it

that naturally change

and then into men be true, as Plutarch says, that

themselves into wolves,

colts,

some place of the Indies, there are men without mouths, who nourish themselves with the in

how many

smell of certain odours,

Man,

of our de-

becomes more than ludicrous and, peradventure, quite incapable of reason and society; the disposition and cause of our internal structure would, for the most part, be to no purpose. Moreover, how many things are there in our own knowledge that oppose those fine rules we have cut out for and prescribed to nature? And yet we must undertake to circumscribe God himself! How many things do we call miraculous and contrary to nature? this is done by every nation and by every man, according to the measure scriptions are false?

of their ignorance;

at this rate,

how many

occult properties

and quintessences do we discover? For, with us, to go "according to nature," is no more but to go "according to our intelligence," as far as that is able to follow, and as far as we are able to see into it: all beyond that must be monstrous and irregular. Now, by this account, all things shall be monstrous to the wisest and most understanding men; for human reason has persuaded them that it has no manner of ground or foundation, not so much as to be assured that snow is white; and Anaxagoras affirmed it to be black: if there be anything, or if there be nothing: if there be knowledge or ignorance, which Metrodorus of Chios denied that man was able to determine; or whether we live, as Euripides doubts, "whether the life we live is life, or whether that we call death be not life:" Tls

T6

5*

oldev el £rjv

tov0\ 8 k^kXt/tcu davelv,

£rjp 5e, dvi\

oppose myself with my utmost power. 'Tis my opinion that a man should lend himself to others, and only give himself to himself. Were my will easy to lend itself out, and to be swayed, I should not stick there; I am too tender, both by nature and use: elsewhere, against those,

in

will, that

1

and Plato sets down a middle path of life between the two. But against such affections as wholly carry me away from myself, and fix me

ure;

1

Laws, vii. Born and bred up in negligence and Ovid, De Trist., iii. 2, 9. 2

ease.

I

r

:

Essays when

not in tumultuous bustle: In 1 negotiis sunt, negotii causa. It is not so much that they will go, as it is that they cannot stand like a rolling stone that cannot stop till it still can go no further. Occupation, with a certain

without

life

:

sort of

men,

is

a

mark of understanding and dig-

nity: their souls seek repose in agitation, as chil-

dren do by being rocked in a cradle; they may pronounce themselves as serviceable to their friends, as they are troublesome to themselves.

No one distributes his money to others, but everyone distributes his time and his life: there is nothing of which we are so prodigal as of these two things, of which to be thrifty would be both commendable and useful. 1 am of a quite contrary humour; I look to myself, and commonly covet with no great ardour what I do desire; and desire little; and I employ and busy myself at the same rate, rarely and temperately. Whatever they take in hand, they do it with their utmost will and vehemence. There are so many dangerous steps, that, for the more safety, we must a little lightly and superficially glide over the world, and not rush through it. Pleasure itself is painful in profundity

10

III.

by

487

this particular

circumstance which she put

own, not altogether vain; for Alexander disdained the ambassadors of Corinth, who came to offer him a burgess-ship of their city;

in of her

when they proceeded to lay before him Bacchus and Hercules were also in the register, he graciously accepted the offer. At my arrival, I faithfully and conscientiously represented myself to them for such as I find myself to be— a man without memory, without vigilance, without experience, and without vigour; but withal, without hatred, without ambition, without avarice, and without violence; that they might be informed of my qualities, and know what they were to expect from my service. And the knowledge they had had of my father, and the honour they had for his memory, having been the only motive to confer this favour upon me, I plainly told them that I should be very sorry anything should make so great an impression upon me, as their affairs and the concerns of their city had made upon him, whilst he held the government to which they had preferred me. I remembered, when a boy, to have seen him in his old age cruelly tormented with but

that

these public affairs, neglecting the soft repose Incedis ver ignes,

Suyyositos cineri doloso.

of his

2

The Parliament of Bordeaux chose me mayor when I was at a distance

of their city, at a time

from France, and still more remote from any such thought. I entreated to be excused, but I was told by my friends that I had committed an error in so doing, and the greater, because the king had, moreover, interposed his that affair. 'Tis an office that

command in

ought

to be looked honourable, as it has no other salary nor advantage than the bare honour of its execution. It continues two years, but may be extended by a second election, which very rarely happens; it was to me, and had never been so but twice before some years ago to Monsieur de Lanssac, and lately to Monsieur de Biron, Marshal of France, in whose place I succeeded; and I left mine to Monsieur de Matignon, Marshal of France also: proud of so noble a fraternity—

upon

so

much more

:

Uterque honus facts hellique minister?

Fortune would have a hand in

my

promotion,

1

They only seek business for business' sake.— Seneca, Efist., 22. " You tread on fire, hidden under deceitful ashes. —Horace, Od., ii. 1, 7. 3 Both able ministers in peace, and good in war.

-ALneid,

xi.

658.

own house,

to

which the declension of his

age had reduced him for several years before, the management of his own affairs, and his health; and certainly despising his own life,

which was in great danger of being lost, by being engaged in long and painful journeys on their behalf. Such was he; and this humour of his proceeded from a marvellous good nature; never was there a more charitable and popular soul. Yet this proceeding which I commend in others, I do not love to follow myself, and am not without excuse.

He had

learned that a

man must

forget him-

neighbour, and that the particular was of no manner of consideration in comparison with the general. Most of the rules and precepts of the world run this way; to drive us out of ourselves into the street for the benefit of public society; they thought to do a great feat to divert and remove us from ourselves, assuming we were but too much fixed there, and by a too natural inclination; and have said all they could to that purpose: for 'tis no new thing for the sages to preach things as they serve, not as they are. Truth has its obstructions, inconveniences, and incompatibilities with us; we must often deceive, that we may not deceive ourselves; and shut our eyes and our understandings, to redress and amend them Imveriti enim judicant, et qui frequenter in hoc iysum fallendi sunt, ne erself for his

:

:

Montaigne

4 88

When they order us to love three, four, or degrees of things above ourselves, they do like archers, who, to hit the white, take their aim a great deal higher than the butt; to make a crooked stick straight, we bend it the contrary rent.

1

fifty

way. I

believe that in the

Temple

of Pallas, as

we

were apparent mysteries to be exposed to the people; and others, more secret and high, that were only to be shown to such as were professed; 'tis likely that in these the true point of friendship that every one owes see in all other religions, there

be found; not a false friendship, that makes us embrace glory, knowledge, riches, and the like, with a principal and immoderate affection, as members of our being; nor an indiscreet and effeminate friendship, wherein it happens, as with ivy, that it decays and ruins the walls it embraces; but a sound and regular friendhimself

to

is

to

and pleasant. He who knows the duties of this friendship and practices them, is truly of the cabinet council of the Muses, and has attained to the height of human wisdom and of our happiness; such an one, exactly knowing what he owes to himself, will on his part find that he ought to apply to himself the use of the world and of other men; and to do this, to contribute to public society the duties and offices appertaining to him. He who does not in some sort ship, equally useful

does not live

live for others,

Qui

tI

sibi

amicus

est,scito

much

for himself:

hunc amicum omnibus

The principal charge we have, is, to every own conduct; and 'tis for this only that we here are. As he who should forget to live a

esse.'

mind being always

and should think he acand it, would be a fool; even so

up

to

he who abandons his own particular healthful and pleasant living, to serve others therewith, takes, in my opinion, a wrong and unnatural course. I would not that men should refuse, in the employments they take upon them, their attention, pains, eloquence, sweat, and blood if need

be:

Non ipse pro caris amicis Aut but

'tis

timidus perire:

patriot,

in health; not,

1

out the other: for how many people hazard themselves every day in war without any concern

which way

it

goes;

and thrust themselves into

the dangers of battles, the loss of which will not \

break their next nights' sleep? and such a man may be at home, out of the danger which he durst not have looked upon, who is more passionately concerned for the issue of this war, and whose soul is more anxious about events, than the soldier who therein stakes his blood and his life. I could have engaged myself in public employments without quitting my own matters a nail's breadth, and have given myself to others, without abandoning myself. This sharpness and violence of desires more hinder than they advance the execution of what we undertake; fill us with impatience against slow or contrary events, and with heat and suspicion against those never carry on with whom we have to do. that thing well by which we are prepossessed

We

3

only borrowed, and accidentally; his

For the ignorant ludge, and therefore are oft to be deceived lest they should err.— Quintilian, Inst. Orat., xi. 17.

He who

is

his

3

his

n 1

i

c

1 ?

3

r

j

r

[

I

Male cuncta

ministrat

Impetus.*

He who therein employs only his judgment and address proceeds feits,

he gives way, he defers quite

at his ease,

according to the necessities of occasions; he fails in his attempt without trouble and affliction, ready and entire for a new enterprise; he always

marches with the bridle in his hand. In him who is drunk with this violent and tyrannic intention, we discover, of necessity, much imprudence and injustice; the impetuosity of his desire carries him away; these are rash motions, and, if fortune do not very much assist, of very little fruit. Philosophy directs that, in the revenge of injuries received,

own

friend

is

a friend to every-

we should

strip ourselves of

on the contrary, that the revenge may be more heavily laid on, which, it conceives, will be by this impetuosity hindered.

but,

the better and

Epist., 6.

Not afraid to die for beloved friends, and for country.— Horace, Od., iv. 9, 51.

*

Passionate heat carries on things ill.— Statius,

Thebaid,

x.

704.

)

more cheerfully: he counter-

1

-

e

and led

choler; not that the chastisement should be less,

body else.— Seneca,

I

life,

quitted himself of his duty in instructing training others

and

heavier at its own expense, giving them what measure it pleases. Men perform like things with several sorts of endeavour, and different contention of will; the one does well enough with-,

one his

virtuous and holy

in repose

without action, but without vexation, without passion. To be simply acting costs him so little, that he acts even sleeping; but it must be set oni going with discretion; for the body receives the offices imposed upon it, just according to what, they are; the mind often extends and makes therm

-

:

Essays For anger not only disturbs, but, of itself, also wearies the arms of those who chastise; this fire benumbs and wastes their force; as in precipitation, festinatio tarda est,— "haste trips up

own

its

heels," fetters,

and stops

itself;

10

III.

irreparable

Nam

Ifsa se

Hoc

els,

liberality.

city:

very honest gentleman, and a particular friend of mine, had liked to have cracked his brains

by

a too passionate attention and affection

to the affairs of a certain prince, his

master;

which master has thus set himself out to me; "that he foresees the weight of accidents as well as another, but that in those for which there is no remedy, he presently resolves upon suffering;

may

follow."

seen

him maintain

And,

erty of actions,

have accordingly great indifferency and lib-

in truth, a

I

and serenity of countenance, in

very great and difficult affairs I find him much greater, and of greater capacity in adverse than :

in prosperous fortune: his defeats are to

more glorious than

his victories,

and

his

him

mourn-

ing than his triumph.

Do but consider,

and frivoand the like, this eager and ardent engaging with an impetuous desire, immediately throws the mind and members into indiscretion and disorder: a man astounds and hinders himself; he who carries himself more moderately both towards gain and loss, that even in vain

lous actions, as at chess, tennis,

has always his wits about him; the less peevish and passionate he is at play, he plays much more advantageously and surely.

As

to the rest,

we

hinder the mind's seizure

and hold, in giving it so many things to seize upon some things we should only offer to it; tie it to others, and with others incorporate it. It can feel and discern all things, but ought to feed upon nothing but itself; and should be instructed in what properly concerns itself, and that is properly of its own having and substance. The laws of nature teach us what justly we need. After the sages have told us that no one is indigent according to nature, and that every one is so ac-

hers; those that fly before us,

and of which we

satis est

nunc,

sat erat:

Divitias ullas

homini,

quum

hoc non

est,

animum mi exflere potesse? *

Socrates, seeing a great quantity of riches, jew-

and furniture carried in pomp through the

"How many

things are there," said he,

do not want." Metrodorus lived on twelve ounces a-day; Epicurus upon less: Metrocles slept in winter abroad amongst sheep; in summer in the cloisters of churches; Sufficit ad id 2 natura, quod poscit. Cleanthes lived by the labour of his own hands, and boasted that Cleanthes, if he would, could yet maintain another "that

I

Cleanthes. If that

which nature exactly and

originally

requires of us for the conservation of our being,

be too little (as in truth what it is, and how good cheap life may be maintained, cannot be better expressed than by this consideration, that it is

by its littleness it escapes the gripe and shock of fortune), let us allow ourselves a little more; let us call every one of our habits and conditions, nature; let us rate and treat ourselves by this measure; let us stretch our appurtenances and accounts so far; for so far, I fancy, we have some excuse. Custom is a second nature, and no less powerful. What is wanting to my custom, I reckon is wanting to me; and I should so little that

be almost as well content that they took away my life, as cut me short in the way wherein I have so long lived. I am no longer in condition for any great change, nor to put myself into a new and unwonted course, not even to augmentation. Tis past the time for me to become other than what I am; and as I should complain of any great good hap that should now befall me, that it came not in time to be enjoyed:

:

cording to opinion, they very subtly distinguish betwixt the desires that proceed from her, and those that proceed from the disorder of our own fancy: those of which we can see the end are

quod

qui credimus forro

in others, having taken all the necessary pre-

cautions which by the vivacity of his understanding he can presently do, he quietly awaits what

si,

id satis esse yotesset

velocitas imylicat. For example, according to what I commonly see, avarice has no greater impediment than itself; the more bent and vigorous it is, the less it rakes together, and commonly sooner grows rich when disguised in a visor of

A

489

can see no end, are our own: the poverty of goods is easily cured; the poverty of the soul is

Quo

mihi fortunas,

si

non conceditur uti?

3

I complain of any inward acquisition. were almost better never, than so late, to become an honest man, and well fit to live, when one has no longer to live. I, who am about to

so should It

1

For if what is for man enough, could be enough, were enough; but since it is not so, how can I believe that any wealth can give my mind content.— Lucilius, in Nonius Marcellinus, v. 98. 2 Nature suffices for what it requires.— Seneca, it

Epist., 90. 3

What is

the good of fortune to

it.— Horace, Epist.,

i.

5, 12.

me

if I

can't use

Montaigne

49° make my

exit out of the world,

would

easily re-

any new comer, who should desire it, all the prudence I am now acquiring in the world's commerce; after meat, mustard. I have no need of goods, of which I can make no use; of what use is knowledge to him who has lost his head? Tis an injury and unkindness in fortune to tender us presents that will only inspire us with a just despite that we had them not in their due season. Guide me no more; I can no longer go. sign to

Of

so

tience

many is

parts as

make up

a sufficiency, pa-

the most sufficient. Give the capacity of

an excellent treble to a chorister who has rotten and eloquence to a hermit exiled into the deserts of Arabia. There needs no art to help a

lungs,

fall;

the end finds itself of itself at the conclusion

of every affair. I

am

to authorise I

will

My world is at an end, my form

and am bound conform my outgoing to it. here declare, by way of example, that the

expired;

it,

totally of the past,

and

to

Pope's late ten days' diminution has taken me so aback that I cannot well reconcile myself to it; I belong to the years wherein we kept another kind of account. So ancient and so long a custom challenges my adherence to it, so that I am constrained to be somewhat heretical on that point: incapable of any, though corrective, in-

novation.

My imagination, in spite of my teeth,

always pushes me ten days forward or backward, and is ever murmuring in my ears: "This rule concerns those who are to begin to be." If health itself, sweet as it is, returns to me my fits, 'tis rather to give me cause of regret than possession of it; I have no place left to keep it in. Time leaves me; without which nothing can be possessed. Oh, what little account should I make of those great elective dignities that I see in such esteem in the world, that are never conferred but upon men who are taking leave of it; wherein they do not so much regard how well the man

and contiguous commodities; and their course ought, moreover, to be performed not in a right ends elsewhere, but in a

line, that

circle, of

which the two points, by a short wheel, meet and terminate in ourselves. Actions that are carried on without this reflection— a near and essential reflection, I mean— such as those of ambitious and avaricious men, and so many more as run point blank, and whose career always carries them before themselves, such actions, I say, are erroneous and sickly. Most of our business is farce: Mundus universus exercet histrionam. We must play our part properly, but withal as the part of a bor-

rowed personage; we must not make real essence of a mask and outward appearance; nor of a strange person, our own; we cannot distinguish the skin from the shirt; 'tis enough to meal the face, without mealing the breast. I see some who transform and transubstantiate themselves into as many new shapes and new beings as they undertake new employments; and who strut and fume even to the heart and liver, and carry their state along with them even to the close-stool I cannot make them distinguish the salutations made to themselves from those made to their :

commission, their

train, or their

mule:

Tantum

etiam ut naturam dedis1 cant. They swell and puff up their souls, and their natural way of speaking, according to the height of their magisterial place. The mayor of se fortunas yermittunt,

Bordeaux and Montaigne have ever been two by very manifest separation. Because one is an advocate or a financier, he must not ignore the knavery there is in such callings; an honest man is

not accountable for the vice or absurdity of employment, and ought not on that account

his

refuse to take the calling

upon him

:

'tis

the us-

age of his country, and there is money to be got by it; a man must live by the world, and make

how short his adminbe from the very entry they look at the exit. In short, I am about finishing this man, and not rebuilding another. By long use, this form is in me turned into substance, and

it, such as it is. But the judgment of an emperor ought to be above his empire, and see and consider it as a foreign accident; and he ought to know how to enjoy himself apart from it, and to communicate himself as James and

fortune into nature.

Peter, to himself, at all events.

will discharge his trust, as istration will

:

one of us feeble creatures is excusable in thinking that to be his own which is comprised under this measure; but withal, beyond these limits, 'tis nothing but confusion; 'tis the largest extent we can grant to our own claims. The more we amplify our need and our possession, so much the more do we expose ourselves to the blows and adversities of Fortune. The career of our desires ought to be circumscribed and restrained to a short limit of near I say,

his best of

therefore, that every

I

cannot engage myself so deep and so entire; to anything, 'tis not with

when my will gives me so violent

an obligation that

fected with

my judgment is in-

In the present broils of this kingdom, my own interest has not made me blind to the laudable qualities of our adversaries, nor to 1

as 2.

They

even

so

it.

much

up to Fortune, nature.— Quintus Curtius, ii.

give themselves

to forget their

Essays those that are reproachable in those of men of our party. Others adore all of their own side; for my

much

as excuse most things in good work has never the worse grace with me for being made against me. The knot of the controversy excepted, I have always kept myself in equanimity and pure indifference Neque extra necessitates belli, praecipuum 1 odium gero; for which I am pleased with myself; and the more, because I see others commonly fail in the contrary direction. Such as extend their anger and hatred beyond the dispute in question, as most men do, show that they spring from some other occasion and private cause; like one who, being cured of an ulcer, has yet a fever remaining, by which it appears that the ulcer had another more concealed beginning. The reason is that they are not concerned in the common cause, because it is wounding to the state and general interest; but are only nettled by reason of their particular concern. This is why they part,

do not so

I

those of

mine

a

:

:

III.

10

491

have elsewhere spoken of the zeal that pushed on worthy men to the like faults. For my part, I can say, "Such a one does this thing ill, and another thing virtuously and well." So in the prognostics, or sinister events of affairs, they would have every one in his party blind or a blockhead, and that our persuasion and judgment should subserve not truth but to the project of our desires. I should rather incline towards the other extreme; so much I fear being suborned by my desire; to which may be added that I am a little tenderly allowed, the next day, to be eloquent.

I

,

distrustful of things that

my

I

wish.

and beyond the general quarenemy to this vicious form of censure: "He is of the League, because he admires the Duke of Guise; he is astonished at the King of Navarre's energy, and therefore he is a Huguenot; he finds such and such faults in the

wonders in the inand prodigious facility of people in suffering their hopes and belief to be led and governed, which way has best pleased and served their leaders, despite a hundred mistakes one upon another, despite mere dreams and phantasms. I no more wonder at those who have been blinded and seduced by the fooleries of Apollonius and Mahomet. Their sense and understanding are absolutely taken away by their passion; their discretion has no more any other choice than that which smiles upon them, and encourages their cause. I had principally observed this in the beginning of our intestine distempers; that other, which has sprung up since, in imitating, has surpassed it; by which I am satisfied that it is a quality inseparable from popular errors; after the first that rolls, opinions drive on one another like waves with the wind a man is not a member of the body, if it be in his power to forsake it, and if he does not roll the common way.

king's conduct, he

But, doubtless, they

and to and public reason

are so especially animated,

beyond

justice

a :

degree so far

IN on tarn

om-

ad quemque 'pertinent, singuli carpebant.' I would have the advantage on our side, but if it be not, I shall not run mad. I am heartily for the right party; but I do not want to be taken notice of as an especial nia universi,

enemy rel. I

quam

ea, qudz

to others,

am

a mortal

is

therefore seditious in his

would not grant to the magistrate himself that he did well in condemning a book, because it had placed a heretic amongst the best heart";

and

I

poets of the time. Shall

we

not dare

to say of a

he has a handsome leg? If a woman be a strumpet, must it needs follow that she has a

thief, that

stinking breath? fore conferred tor of religion

the

memory

Did they

in the wisest ages re-

had beon Marcus Manlius, as conservaand the public liberty, and stifle

voke the proud

title

of Capitolinus they

of his liberality, his feats of arms,

and military recompenses granted to his valour, because he afterwards aspired to the sovereignty, to the prejudice of the laws of his country? If we take a hatred against an advocate, he will not be

I

have, in

discreet

:

And have no

sity of 2

express hatred beyond the neces-

war.

Every one was not

so

much

angry against things

in general, as against those that particularly con-

cerned himself.— Livy, xxxiv. 36.

wrong the

just side,

when

with fraud; I have ever been against that practice 'tis only fit to work upon weak heads; for the sound, there are surer and more honest ways to keep up their courage and to excuse adverse accidents. Heaven never saw a greater animosity than that betwixt Caesar and Pompey, nor ever shall; and yet I observe, methinks, in those brave souls, a great moderation towards one another: it was they go about to

assist it

:

a jealousy of

honour and command, which did

not transport them to a furious and indiscreet hatred, and was without malignity and detraction: in their hottest exploits I

upon one another,

discover some remains of respect and good-will;

and

am

therefore of opinion that,

had

it

been

each of them would rather have done his business without the ruin of the other than with it. Take notice how much otherwise matters went with Marius and Sulla. must not precipitate ourselves so headlong after our affections and interests. As, when I was possible,

1

time, seen

We

MONTAIGNE

492

opposed myself to the progress of love which I perceived to advance too fast upon me, and had a care lest it should at last become so pleasing as to force, captivate, and wholly reduce me to its mercy so I do the same upon all other occasions where my will is running on with too warm an appetite. I lean opposite to the side it inclines to, as I find it going to plunge and make itself drunk with its own wine; I evade nourishing its pleasure so far, that I cannot recover it without infinite loss. Souls that, through voung,

I

:

only discern things by their own halves, have this happiness that they smart less stupidity,

with hurtful things: 'tis a spiritual leprosy that has some show of health, and such a health as philosophy does not altogether contemn; but yet we have no reason to call it wisdom, as we often

And after this manner some one anciently mocked Diogenes, who, in the depth of winter and stark naked, went hugging an image of snow for a trial of his endurance: the other seeing him do.

thou now very cold?" said Diogenes. "Why, then," said the other, "what difficult and exemplary thing dost thou think thou doest in embracing that snow?" To take a true measure of constancy, one must necessarily know what the sufferin this position, "Art

he.

ing

"Not at

all," replied

is.

But souls that are to meet with adverse events and the injuries of fortune, in their depth and sharpness, that are to weigh and taste them according to their natural weight and bitterness, let such show their skill in avoiding the causes and diverting the blow. What did King Cotys do? He paid liberally for the rich and beautiful vessel that had been presented to him, but, seeing it was exceedingly brittle, he immediately broke

betimes to prevent so easy a matter of displeasure against his servants. In like manner, I have willingly avoided all confusion in my affairs, and never coveted to have my estate contiguous to those of my relations, and such with whom I coveted a strict friendship; for thence matter of unkindness and falling out often proceeds. I formerly loved the hazardous games of cards and dice; but have long since left them off, only for this reason that, with whatever good air I carried my losses, I could not help feeling vexed within. A man of honour, who ought to be touchingly sensible of the lie or of an insult, and who is not to take a scurvy excuse for satisfaction, should avoid occasions of dispute. I shun melancholy, crabbed men, as I would theplague; and in matters I cannot talk of without emotion and concern, I never meddle, if not compelled by my duty: Melius non incipient, quam desiit,

nent.

1

The

surest way, therefore,

is

to

prepare

one's self beforehand for occasions. I know very well that some wise men have taken another way, and have not feared to grap-

and engage

to the utmost upon several subconfident of their own strength, under which they protect themselves in all ill

ple

jects: these are

successes,

making

contend with

their patience wrestle

and

disaster:

Velut rwpes, vastum quae prodit in aequor, furiis, expostaque ponto, Vimcunctamatque minasperfertcoelique marisque; Ipsa immota manens. 2

Obvia ventorum

Let us not attempt these examples: we shall never come up to them. They set themselves resolutely, and without agitation, to behold the ruin of their country, which possessed

and commandmuch, and too hard a task for our commoner souls. Cato gave up the noblest life that ever was, upon this account; we meaner spirits must fly from the storm as far as we can; we must provide for sentiment, and not for patience, and evade the blows we cannot meet. Zeno, seeing Chremonides, a young man whom he loved, draw near to sit down by him, suddenly started up; and Cleanthes demanding of him the reason why he did so, "I hear," said he, "that physicians especially order repose, and ed

all their will: this is

too

forbid emotion in

all tumours." Socrates does not say: "Do not surrender to the charms of beauty; stand your ground, and do your utmost to oppose it." "Fly it," says he; "shun the fight and encounter of it, as of a powerful poison that

and wounds

darts

at a distance."

And

disciple, feigning or reciting, but, in

ion, rather reciting

own

good opin-

than feigning the rare per-

fections of the great Cyrus, ful of his

his

my

makes him

distrust-

strength to resist the charms of

the divine beauty of that illustrious Panthea, his captive,

and committing the

ing her to another, liberty as himself.

visiting

and keep-

who could not have so much And the Holy Ghost in like

s manner: Nenos inducas in tentationem. We do not pray that our reason may not be combated and overcome by concupiscence, but that it should not be so much as tried by it; that we should not be brought into a state wherein we

are so 1

as to suffer the approaches, solicita-

A man had better never to have begun,

have 2

much

than

to

to desist.— Seneca, Epist., 72.

amongst the vast billows, exwinds and the raging flood, remains unmoved, and defies all the force of seas and

As

posed

a rock standing

to the furious

skies.— ALneid, x. 693. "Lead us not into temptation.— Matthew, 6. 13.

Essays and temptations of sin: and we beg of Almighty God to keep our consciences quiet, fully and perfectly delivered from all commerce of tions,

evil.

they have reason for their revenging passion, or any other sort of troublesome agitation of mind, often say true, as things now

Such

as say that

10

III.

493

breezes that begin to sing and whistle in the shrouds, the fore-runners of the storm:

Ceu

flamina prima

Cum deprensa fremunt sylvis, Murmura, venturos

et caeca

voluntant

nautis prodentia ventos. 3

How often have I done myself a manifest in-

but not as they were: they speak to us when the causes of their error are by themselves nourished and advanced; but look backward— recall

justice, to avoid the

beginning— and there you will put them to a nonplus. Will they have their faults less, for being of longer continuance; and

ture than fire or the rack? Convenit a litibus,

are,

these causes to their

an unjust beginning, the sequel can be just? Whoever shall desire the good of his country, as I do, without fretting or pining himself, will be troubled, but will not swoon to see it that of

threatening either its own ruin, or a no less ruinous continuance; poor vessel, that the waves, the winds, and the pilot toss and steer to so contrary designs!

In tarn diversa, magister, Ventus, et unda, trahunt. 1

hazard of having yet a worse

done

me by the judges, after an age of vexations,

dirty

and

quantum

quam

vile practices,

licet, et

more enemies

to

my na-

nescio an paulo plus etiam

esse: est enim non mopaululum nonnunquam de suo jure decedere, sedinterdum etiam fructuosum. Were we wise, we ought to rejoice and boast, as I one day heard a young gentleman of a good family very innocently do, that his mother had lost her cause, as if it had been a cough, a fever, or something very troublesome to keep Even the favours that fortune might have given me through rela-

do

licet,

abhorrentem

liberale,

4

.

tionship or acquaintance with those

who have

sovereign authority in those affairs,

have very

I

conscientiously and very carefully avoided em-

He who does not gape after the favour of princes,

ploying them to the prejudice of others, and of

he cannot live without, does not much concern himself at the coldness of their reception and countenance, nor at the inconstancy of their wills. He who does not brood over his children or his honours, with a slavish propension, ceases not to live commodiously enough after their loss. He who does good principally for his own satisfaction, will not be much troubled to see men judge of his actions contrary to his merit. A quarter of an ounce of patience will provide sufficiently against such inconveniences. I find ease in this receipt, redeeming myself in the beginning as cheap as I can; and find that by this means I have escaped much trouble and many difficulties. With very little ado I stop the first sally of my emotions, and leave the subject that begins to be troublesome, before it transports me. He who stops not the start, will never be able to stop the career; he, who cannot keep them out, will never get them out when they are once got in; and he who cannot crush them at the beginning, will never do it after; nor ever keep himself from falling, if he cannot recover himself when he first begins to totter: Etenim ipsae se impellunt, ubi semel a ratione discessum

advancing my pretensions above their true right. In fine, I have so much prevailed by my endeavours (and happily I may say it), that I am to this day a virgin from all suits in law; though I have had very fair offers made me, and with very just title, would I have hearkened to them; and a virgin from quarrels too. I have almost passed over a long life without any offence of moment, either active or passive, or without ever hearing a worse word than my own name a rare favour of heaven. Our greatest agitations have ridiculous springs and causes: what ruin did our last Duke of Burgundy run into about a cartload of sheepskins! And was not the graving of a seal the first and

as after a thing

est;

ipsaque sibi imbecillitas indulget, in altum-

que provehitur imprudens, nee repent locum 2 consistendi. I am betimes sensible of the little 1

George Buchanan. The translation

is

in the pre-

vious passage. 2

For they throw themselves headlong

when once

:

commotion that machine of the world ever underwent? for Pompey and Caesar were but the off sets and continuation of the two others: and I have in my principal cause of the greatest this

they loose their reason; and frailty so far indulges that it is unawares carried out into the deep, and can find no port wherein to come to an anchor. —Cicero, Tusc. Quaes., iv. 18. 3 As when the rising winds, checked by woods, send out dull murmurs, portending a storm to the mariner.— JEneid, x. 97. 4 man should be an enemy to all lawsuits as much as he may, and I know not whether not something more; for 'tis not only liberal, but sometimes also advantageous, too, a little to recede from one's right.— Cicero, De Offic, ii. 18. itself,

A

Montaigne

494

time seen the wisest heads in this kingdom assembled with great ceremony, and at the public expense, about treaties and agreements, of which the true decision, in the meantime, absolutely depended upon the ladies' cabinet council, and the inclination of

The

some

foolish

woman.

poets very well understood this,

when

they put all Greece and Asia to fire and sword about an apple. Inquire why that man hazards his life and honour upon the fortune of his rapier and dagger; let him acquaint you with the occasion of the quarrel; he cannot do it without blushing; 'tis so idle and frivolous. A little thing will engage you in it; but being once embarked, all the cords draw; great provisions are then required, more hard and more important. How much easier is it not to enter in, than it is to get out? Now we should proceed contrary to the reed, which, at its first springing, produces a long and straight shoot, but afterwards, as if tired and out of breath, it runs into thick and frequent joints and knots, as so many pauses which demonstrate that it has no more its first vigour and firmness; 'twere better to begin gently and coldly, and to keep one's breath and vigorous efforts for the height and stress of the business. guide affairs in their beginnings, and have them in our own power; but afterwards, when they are once at work, 'tis they that guide and govern us, and we are to follow them. Yet do I not mean to say that this counsel has discharged me of all difficulty, and that I have not often had enough to do to curb and restrain my passions; they are not always to be governed according to the measure of occasions, and often have their entries very sharp and violent. But still good fruit and profit may thence be reaped; except for those who in well-doing are not satisfied with any benefit, if reputation be wanting; for, in truth, such an effect is not valued but by everyone to himself; you are better contented, but not more esteemed, seeing you reformed yourself before you got into the whirl of the dance, or that the provocative matter was in sight. Yet not in this only, but in all other duties of

We

life also,

the

way

of those

who aim

at

honour

is

very different from that they proceed by, who propose to themselves order and reason. I find some, who rashly and furiously rush into the

and cool in the course. As Plutarch says, that those who, through false shame, are soft and facile to grant whatever is desired of them, are afterwards as facile to break their word and to recant; so he who enters lightly into a quarrel is apt to go as lightly out of it. The same difficullists,

me from entering into it, would, hot and engaged in quarrel, incite me to maintain it with great obstinacy and resolution. 'Tis the tyranny of custom; when a man is once engaged, he must go through with it, or ty that keeps

when once

die. "Undertake coldly," said Bias, "but pursue with ardour." For want of prudence, men fall in-

want of courage, which

to

is still

more

intoler-

able.

Most accommodations of the

quarrels of these

days of ours are shameful and false; we only seek to save appearances, and in the meantime betray and disavow our true intentions; we salve over the fact. know very well how we said the thing, and in what sense we spoke it, and the company know it, and our friends whom we have wished to make sensible of our advantage, understand it well enough too: 'tis at the expense of our frankness and of the honour of our courage, that we disown our thoughts, and seek refuge in falsities, to make matters up. give ourselves the lie, to excuse the lie we have given to another. You are not to consider if your word or action may admit of another interpretation; 'tis your own true and sincere interpretation, your

We

We

real

meaning

in

what you

said or did, that

are thenceforward to maintain, whatever

you.

Men

which

speak

to

it

you cost

your virtue and conscience, under a mask; let

are not things to be put

us leave these pitiful ways and expedients to the jugglers of the law. The excuses and reparations that I see every day made and given to re-

seem

pair indiscretion,

to

me more

scandalous

than the indiscretion itself. It were better to affront your adversary a second time, than to offend yourself by giving him so unmanly a satisfaction. You have braved him in your heat and anger, and you would flatter and appease him in your cooler and better sense;

lay yourself lower

and

and by that means

at his feet,

whom before

you pretended to overtop. I do not find anything a gentleman can say so vicious in him, as unsaying what he has said is infamous, when to unsay it is authoritatively extracted from him; forasmuch as obstinacy is more excusable in a man of honour than pusillanimity. Passions are as easy for me to evade, as they are hard for me to moderate: Exscinduntur facilius ammo, quam 1 temyerantur. He, who cannot attain the noble

him secure himself in popular stolidity of mine; what they performed by virtue, I inure myself to do by temperament. The middle region harbours Stoical impassibility, let

the

1

bosom of

They

erned.

are

this

more

easily to

be eradicated than gov-

Essays storms and tempests; the two extremes, of philosophers and peasants, concur in tranquillity

and happiness: rerum cognoscere causas, Atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum

Felix, qui potuit

Subjecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avaril

Fortunatus et Me, Deos qui novit agrestes,

Panaque, Sylvanutnque senem, Nymphasque sororesi

1

The births of all things are weak and tender; and therefore we should have our eyes intent on beginnings; for as when, in its infancy, the danger

is

not perceived, so

remedy

is

as little to

when

it is

be found.

I

grown up, the had every day

encountered a million of crosses, harder to digest in the progress of ambition, than it has been hard for me to curb the natural propension that inclined

me

to

it:

]ure perhorrui 2 Late conspicuum tollere verticem.

All public actions are subject to various certain interpretations; for too

Some

and un-

many heads judge

employment of word or two about it, not that it is worth so much, but to give an account of my manners in such things), that

of them.

mine (and

I

say of this civic

am

willing to say a

have behaved myself in it as a man not suffimoved, and with a languishing affection; and they have some colour for what they say. I endeavoured to keep my mind and my thoughts in repose, Cum semper natura, 3 turn etiam setate jam quietus; and if they sometimes lash out upon some rude and sensible impression, 'tis in truth without my advice. Yet from this natural heaviness of mine, men ought not to conclude a total inability in me (for want of care and want of sense are two very different things), and much less any unkindness or ingratitude towards that corporation, who employed the utmost means they had in their power to oblige me, both before they knew me and I

ciently easy to be

and they did much more for me in choosme anew, than in conferring that honour upon me at first. I wish them all imaginable after;

ing

1

is he who has discovered the causes of and tramples under foot all fear, all con-

Happy

things,

cern, as to inexorable fate, or as to the roaring of

greedy Acheron he is blest who knows the country gods, Pan, old Sylvanus, and the sister nymphs.— :

Virgil, Georg., 2

ii.

490.

ever justly feared to raise Horace, Od., iii. 16, 18. 3

1

my head

too high.—

As being always quiet by nature, so also age.— Cicero, De Petit. Consul., ii.

now by

III.

495

I

good; and assuredly had occasion been, there is nothing I would have spared for their service; I did for them, as I would have done for myself. 'Tis a good, warlike, and generous people, but capable of obedience and discipline, and of whom the best use may be made, if well guided. They say also that my administration passed over

without leaving any mark or trace. Good! They moreover accuse my cessation in a time when everybody almost was convicted of doing too much. I am impatient to be doing where my will spurs me on; but this itself is an enemy to perseverance. Let him who will make use of me according to my own way, employ me in affairs where vigour and liberty are required, where a direct, short, and, moreover, a hazardous conduct are necessary; I may do something; but if it must be long, subtle, laborious, artificial and intricate, he had better call in somebody else. All important offices are not necessarily difficult: I came prepared to do somewhat rougher work, had there been great occasion; for it is in my power to do something more than I do, or than I love to do. I did not, to my knowledge, omit anything that my duty really required. I easily forgot those offices that ambition mixes with duty and palliates with its title; these are they that, for the most part, fill the eyes and ears, and give men the most satisfaction; not the thing but the appearance contents them; if they hear no noise, they think men sleep. My humour is no friend to tumult; I could appease a commotion without commotion and chastise a disorder without being myself disorderly; if I stand in need of anger and inflammation, I borrow it, and put it on. My manners are languid, rather faint than sharp. I do not condemn a magistrate who sleeps, provided the people under his charge sleep as well as he: the laws in that case sleep too. For my

commend a gliding, staid, and silent life: Neque submissam et abjectam, neque se effe-

part, I

rentem; * my fortune will have it so. I am descended from a family that has lived without lustre or tumult, and, time out of mind, particularly ambitious of a character for probity. Our people nowadays are so bred up to bustle and ostentation, that good nature, moderation, equability, constancy, and such like quiet and obscure qualities, are no more thought on or regarded. Rough bodies make themselves felt; the smooth are imperceptibly handled: sickness is felt, health little or not at all; no more than the oils that foment us, in comparison of the pains *

ero,

Not subject, nor

De Ofpc,

i.

34.

abject,

but not obtrusive.— Cic-

Mon TAIGNE

496 for

which we

are fomented. 'Tis acting for one's

not for the public good, to refer that to be done in the public squares which one may do in the council cham-

particular reputation

and

profit,

all good deeds, if novelty and difficulty be not conjoined; nay, so much as mere esteem, according to the Stoics, is not due to every action that

proceeds from virtue; nor will they allow him bare thanks, who, out of temperance, abstains

noonday what might have been done the night before; and to be jealous to do that himself which his colleague can do as well as he; so were some surgeons of Greece wont to perform their operations upon scaffolds in the sight of the people, to draw more practice and profit.

canus, deny him the glory that Panaetius attributes to him, of being abstinent from gifts, as a glory not so much his as that of the age he lived

They

in.

ber;

and

to

think that good rules cannot be understood, but by the sound of trumpet. Ambition is not a vice of little people, nor of such modest means as ours. One said to Alexander: "Your father will leave you a great dominion, easy and pacific"; this youth was emulous of his father's victories, and of the justice of his government; he would not have enjoyed the empire of the world in ease

and peace. Alcibiades, in

and

all this

had rather and learned,

Plato,

die young, beautiful, rich, noble,

in full excellence, than to stop short

of such condition; this disease

is,

peradventure,

excusable in so strong and so full a soul. When wretched and dwarfish souls gull and deceive themselves, and think to spread their fame for

having given right judgment in an affair, or maintained the discipline of the guard of a gate of their city, the

more they think

to exalt their

heads the more they show their tails. This little well-doing has neither body nor life; it vanishes in the first mouth, and goes no farther than from one street to another. Talk of it by all means to your son or your servant, like that old fellow who, having no other auditor of his praises, nor approver of his valour, boasted to his chambermaid, crying, "O Perrette, what a brave, clever man hast thou for thy master!" At the worst, talk of

it

to yourself, like a councillor of

my acquaint-

ance, who, having disgorged a whole cartful of

law jargon with great heat and as great folly, coming out of the council chamber to make water, was heard very complacently to mutter betwixt his teeth: Non nobis, domine, non nobis, sed nomini tuo da gloriam: l He who gets it of nobody else, let him pay himself out of his own purse.

Fame is not prostituted at so cheap a rate: rare and exemplary actions, to which it is due, would not endure the company of this prodigious crowd of petty daily performances. Marble may exalt your titles, as much as you please, for having repaired a rod of wall or cleansed a public sewer; but not men of sense. Renown does not follow

from an old blear-eyed hag. Those who have the admirable qualities of Scipio Afri-

known

We have pleasures suitable to our lot; let us

not usurp those of grandeur our :

natural,

and by

they are lower.

much more

so If

own

solid

are

and

more

sure, as

not for that of conscience, yet us reject ambi-

at least for ambition's sake, let

honour and relow and mendicant, that it makes us beg it of all sorts of people (Quae est ista laus 1 quae possit e macello yeti?' by abject means, and at what cheap rate soever: 'tis dishonour to be so honoured. Let us learn to be no more greedy, than we are capable, of glory. To be puffed up with every action that is innocent or of use, is only for those with whom such things are extraordinary and rare they will value it as it costs them. The more a good effect makes a noise the more do I abate of its goodness as I suspect that it was more performed for the noise, than upon tion; let us disdain that thirst of

nown,

so

')

:

account of the goodness exposed upon the stall, 'tis half sold. Those actions have much more grace and lustre, that slip from the hand of him that does them, negligently and without noise, and that some honest man thereafter finds out and raises from the shade, to produce it to the :

light

upon

its

own

account.

Mihi quidem

laud-

omnia, quae sine venditatione, et sine fOfulo teste fount, says the most ostentaabiliora videntur

3,

tious

man that ever lived.

had but to conserve and to continue, which are silent and insensible effects: innovation is 1

of great lustre; but

when we

'tis

are pressed

interdicted in this age,

upon and have nothing

to

defend ourselves from but novelties. To forbear doing is often as generous as to do; but 'tis less in the light, and the little good that I have in me is of this kind. In fine, occasions in this employment of mine have been confederate with my humour, and I heartily thank them for it. Is there any who desires to be sick, that he may see his physician at work? and would not that physician 2

What

praise

is

that

market-place?— Cicero, 3

All things truly

which

De

is

to

be got in the

Finib.,

ii.

15.

seem more laudable to me that and without the

are performed without ostentation,

Not unto us, O Lord, not to us: but unto Thy name be the glory.—Psalms, 93. 1. 1

testimony of the people.— Idem, Tusc. Quaes., 26.

ii.

Essays who

should wish the plague amongst us, that he might put his art in practice? I have never been of that wicked humour, and common enough, to desire that troubles and disorders in this city should elevate and honour my government; I have ever heartily contributed all I could to their tranquillity and ease. He who will not thank me for the order, the sweet and silent calm that has accompanied my administration, cannot, however, deprive me of the share that belongs to me, by title of my good fortune. And I am of such a composition, that I would as willingly be lucky as wise, and had rather owe my successes purely to the favour of Almighty God, than to any operation of my own. I had sufficiently published to the world my unfitness for such public offices; but I have something in me yet worse than incapacity itself; which is, that I am not much displeased at it, and that I do not much go about to cure it, considering the course of life that I have proposed to myself. Neither have I satisfied myself in this employment; but I have very near arrived at what I expected from my own performance, and have much surpassed what I promised them with whom I had to do for I am apt to promise something less than what I am able to do and than what I hope to make good. I assure myself that I have left no offence or hatred behind me; to leave regret or desire for me amongst them, I at least know very well that I never much aimed deserve to be whipped,

:

at

n

III.

497

convenience, by subtracting for some years, according to the example of Augustus, the Bissextile,

which

and

trouble,

is

in till

some

sort a

we had

day of impediment

exactly satisfied this

which itself is not done by this correcand we yet remain some days in arrear: and by this means, such order might be taken for

debt, the tion,

yet,

the future, arranging that after the revolution of such or such a

number

of years, the super-

numerary day might be always thrown that

we could

out, so

not, henceforward, err above four-

and-twenty hours in our computation. We have of. time but years; the world has

no other account for is

many

ages

made use

of that only;

a measure that to this day

upon, and one that

we

still

we

and yet

it

are not agreed

doubt what form

other nations have variously given to it, and what was the true use of it. What does this saying of some mean, that the heavens in grow-

ing old

bow

themselves

down

nearer towards

and put us into an uncertainty even of hours and days? and that which Plutarch says of the months, that astrology had not in his time determined as to the motion of the moon; what a fine condition are we in to keep records of

us,

things past!

was just now ruminating, as I often do, what and roving thing human reason is. I ordinarily see that men, in things propounded to them, more willingly study to find out reasons, I

a free

than

they slip over presupbut are curious in examination of consequences; they leave the things, and fly to the to ascertain truth:

positions,

it:

Mene huic confidere monstro! Mene salis placidi vultum, fluctusque quietos Ignorare?

causes.

Pleasant praters!

causes only concerns

x

The knowledge

him who has

of

the conduct

who are merely to undergo who have perfectly full and accom-

of things; not us, xi.

Of cripples

Tis now two

them, and

changes

made

plished use of them, according to our need, with-

How many

out penetrating into the original and essence; wine is none the more pleasant to him who

or three years ago that they

the year ten days shorter in France.

may we

expect should follow this

ref-

it was really moving heaven and earth Yet nothing for all that stirs from its place my neighbours still find their seasons of sowing and reaping, the opportunities of doing

ormation! at once. :

and propitious days, same time where they had, time out of mind, assigned them; there was no more error perceived in our old use, than there is amendment found in the alteration; so great an uncertainty there is throughout; so gross, obscure, and obtuse is our perception. Tis said that this regulation might have been carried on with less intheir business, the hurtful

just at the

1 Should I place confidence in this monster? Should I be ignorant of the dangers of that seeming

placid sea, those

now quiet waves?— JEneid,

v.

849.

knows its first faculties. On the contrary, both the body and the soul interrupt and weaken the right they have of the use of the world and of themselves, by mixing with it the opinion of learning; effects concern us, but the means not at all. To determine and to distribute appertain to superiority and command; as it does to subjection to accept. Let

me reprehend our custom.

They commonly begin thus: "How is such a thing done?" Whereas they should say, "Is such a thing done?" Our reason is able to create a hundred other worlds, and to find out the beginnings and contexture; it needs neither matter nor foundation: let it but run on, it builds as well in the air as on the earth, and with inanity as well as with matter:

Montaigne

498 Dare pondus idonea

futno.

1

and tales word of; besides that in truth, 'tis a little rude and quarrelsome flatly to deny a stated fact; and few people but will af-

pany and prate of that

I

frivolous subjects

believe never a

.

the

.

.

.

are not only remiss in defending our-

but that

we

we

seek and offer

love to entangle our-

selves in vanity, as a thing

conformable

being.

have seen the birth of

many miracles

time; which, although they

have we not failed to have come to, had they lived their full age. 'Tis but finding the end of the clew, and a man may wind off as much as he will; and there is a greater distance betwixt nothing and the least thing in the world, than there is betwixt this and the greatest. Now the first that are imbued with this beginning of novelty, when they set out with their tale, find, by the oppositions they meet with, where the difficulty of persuasion so caulk

up

that place with

some

lies,

3

and

false piece; be-

sides that, Insita hominibus libidine alendi

dustria rumores,

de

in-

we naturally make a conscience

what has been lent us, without some usury and accession of our own. The particular

of restoring error

first

he will make no

to do,

much of his own

difficulty of

adding as

invention, as he conceives nec-

essary to his tale to encounter the resistance or want of conception he meets with in others. I

who make

myself,

a great conscience of lying,

fortune to be at such a pass, that the best test of truth is the multitude of believers, in a crowd,

we know

non debeat se sapiens com2 mittere. Truth and lies are faced alike; their port, taste, and proceedings are the same, and we look upon them with the same eye. I find

I

'Tis a natural progress: for whoever believes anything, thinks it a work of charity to persuade another into the same opinion; which the better

my

way,

this

praecipitem locum

deceit,

informed

of

from contradiction. In

name

mouths

foundations and means of things that never were; and the world scuffles about a thousand questions, of which both the pro and the con are ut in false. Ita pnitima sunt falsa veris,

ourselves to be gulled;

last

first.

were abortive, yet foresee what they would

witnesses whose authority will stop our

from

and the

our

be believed,

to

least will

we

nearest,

better persuaded than the

to

hard have seen them, or at

that they

that

is

and am not very solicitous of giving credit and authority to what I say, yet find that in the arguments I have in hand, being heated with the opposition of another, or by the proper warmth of my own narration, I swell and puff up my subject by voice, motion, vigour and force of words, and moreover, by extension and amplification, not without some prejudice to the naked truth; but I do it conditionally withal, that to the first who brings me to myself, and who asks me the plain and bare truth, I presently surrender my passion, and deliver the matter to him without exaggeration, without emphasis, or any painting of my own. A quick and earnest way of speaking, as mine is, is apt to run into hyperbole. There is nothing to which men commonly are more inclined, than to make way for their own opinions; where the ordinary means fail us, we add command, force, fire, and sword. 'Tis a mis-

firm, especially in things

selves

who were

those

we

find that almost throughout

should say, "there is no such thing," and should myself often make use of this answer, but I dare not: for they cry that it is an evasion produced from ignorance and weakness of understanding; and I am fain, for the most part, to juggle for comI

makes the public error, and afterwards, makes the particular

where the number of fools so much exceeds the Quasi vera quidquam sit tarn valde, quani

wise.

nil sapere, vulgare* Sanitatispatrociniumest, in5

sanientium turba. 'Tis hard

to resolve a

man's

judgment against the common opinions: the first persuasion, taken from the very subject itself, possesses the simple, and from them diffuses itself to the wise, under the authority of the number and antiquity of the witnesses. For my part, what I should not believe from one, I should not believe from a hundred and one: and I do not judge opinions by years. 'Tis not long since

whom and

one of our princes, in

the gout had spoiled an excellent nature

sprightly disposition, suffered himself to be

persuaded with the report made

him

to

of

in turn, the public error

so far

forming and piling itself up from hand to hand, so that the remotest witness knows more about it than

the marvellous operations of a certain priest, who

one; and thus

1

i>ll

this vast fabric goes

by words and gestures cured

all sorts

as to go a long journey to seek

him

of diseases, out,

and by

the force of his mere imagination, for some hours

to give weight to smoke.— Persius, v. 20. False things are so like the true, that a wise man should not trust himself upon the precipice.— Cic-

Able

2

ero, Acad., 3

Men

— Livy,

ii.

having a natural desire

xxviii. 24.

4

As

Cicero,

21. to

nourish reports.

5

if

anything were so

De

Divin.,

common

as

ignorance.—

ii.

The multitude of fools is a protection wise.— St. Augustine, City of God, vi. 10.

to the

Essays persuaded and laid his legs asleep, as to obtain that service from them they had a long time so

forgotten.

Had

fortune heaped

up

five or six

had been enough to have brought this miracle into nature. There was afterwards discovered so much simplicity and so litsuchlike incidents,

it

in the architect of these operations, that

tle art

he was thought too contemptible to be punished; as would be thought of most such things, were they well examined. Miramur ex intervallo fall1 entia. So does our sight often represent to us strange images at a distance, that vanish on approaching near: Nunquam ad liquidum jama yerducitur.

2

wonderful from how many idle beginnings and frivolous causes such famous impressions commonly proceed. This it is that obstructs 'Tis

we seek out causes and and weighty ends, worthy of so great a name, we lose the true ones; they escape our sight by their littleness. And, in truth, a very prudent, diligent, and subtle inquisition is required in such searches, indifferent, and not preinformation; foi whilst

solid

possessed.

To

this very hour, all these miracles

and strange events have concealed themselves from me I have never seen greater monster or miracle in the world than myself: one grows familiar with all strange things by time and custom, but the more I frequent and the better I :

my own deformity understand myself. The principal right of advancing and producing such accidents, is reserved to fortune. Riding the other day through a village, about two leagues from my house, I found the place yet hot with the rumour of a miracle that had lately know

myself, the

more does

astonish me, the less

I

failed of success there; wherewith first the neighbourhood had been several months amused; then the neighbouring provinces began to take it up, and to run thither in great companies of all sorts of people. A young fellow of the place had one

night in sport counterfeited the voice of a spirit in his own house, without any other design at present, but only for sport; but this having suc-

ceeded with him better than he expected, to illustrate his farce with more actors he associated with him a stupid silly country girl, and at last there were three of them, of the same age and understanding, who from domestic lectures proceeded to public preaching, hiding themselves under the altar of the church, never speaking

*We admire at distance things that deceive.— Seneca, Eyist., 118, 2. 2

Report

Curtius,

is

ix. 2.

never fully substantiated.— Quintus

III.

n

499

but by night, and forbidding any light to be brought. From words which tended to the conversion of the world, and threats of the day of

judgment (for these are subjects under the authority and reverence of which imposture most securely lurks), they proceeded to visions and gestures so simple and ridiculous, that nothing could hardly be so gross in the sports of little had fortune never so little favoured

children. Yet

who knows

what height this jugThese poor devils are at present in prison, and are like shortly to pay for the common folly; and I know not whether some judge will not also make them smart for his. We see clearly into this, which is the design,

to

gling might have at last arrived?

discovered; but in

many

things of the like na-

exceed our knowledge, I am of opinion that we ought to suspend our judgment, ture, that

whether as to rejection or as to reception. Great abuses in the world are begotten, or, to speak more boldly, all the abuses of the world are begotten, by our being taught to be afraid of professing our ignorance, and that we are bound to accept all things

we

are not able to refute

:

we

things by precepts and decisions. The

speak of

all

style at

Rome

was, that even that which a wit-

ness deposed to having seen with his

own

eyes,

and what a judge determined with his most certain knowledge, was couched in this form of speaking: "it seems to me." They make me hate things that are likely, when they would impose them upon me as infallible. I love these words which mollify and moderate the temerity of our propositions: "peradventure; in some sort; some; and had I been 'tis said; I think," and the like set to train up children I had put this way of answering into their mouths, inquiring and not :

"What does this mean? I understand may be: is it true?" so that they should

resolving; it

not;

it

rather have retained the form of pupils, at threescore years old, than to go out doctors, as they do, at ten.

Whoever will be cured

must confess Iris is is

of ignorance,

it.

Thaumas; admiration philosophy; inquisition,

the daughter of

the foundation of

all

the progress; ignorance, the end. But there sort of ignorance strong ,

is

a

and generous that yields ,

nothing in honour and courage to knowledge; an ignorance, which to conceive requires no less knowledge than to conceive knowledge itself. I

my younger years a trial that Coras, a counsellor of Toulouse, printed, of a strange inread in

cident, of

two

men who

the one for the other.

I

presented themselves I hardly

remember (and

remember anything else) that he seemed to have rendered the imposture of him whom he judged

Montaigne

500

be guilty, so wonderful and so far exceeding both our knowledge and his own, who was the judge, that I thought it a very bold sentence that condemned him to be hanged. Let us have some form of decree that says, "The court understands nothing of the matter"; more freely and ingenu-

As

to

ously than the Areopagites did, who, finding

themselves perplexed with a cause they could not unravel, ordered the parties to appear again after a

hundred

years.

The witches of my neighbourhood run the hazard of their lives, upon the report of every new author who seeks to give body to their dreams. To accommodate the examples that Holy writ gives us of such things, most certain and irrefragable examples, and to tie them to our modern events, seeing that we neither see the causes nor the means, will require another sort of wit than ours. It, peradventure, only appertains to that sole all-potent testimony to tell us. "This is, and that is, and not that other." God ought to be believed, and certainly with very good reason; but not one amongst us, for all that, who is astonished at his own narration (and he must of necessity be astonished, if he be not out of his wits), whether he employ it about other men's affairs, or

am

I

against himself.

plain and heavy, and stick to the solid

and the probable, avoiding those ancient Majorem pdem homines adhibent quae non intelligunt.—Cwpidine humcmi

proaches,

genii, libentius obscura creduntur.

men get angry, and

to doubt,

upon pain

of persuading!

in-

see very

that

I

of execrable injuries; a

cuffed into belief. Let

them be angry with those

who

accuse their opinion of

cuse

it

of difficulty

I

am forbidden new Thank God, I am not to be

well that

way

1

reiis,

falsity; I

only ac-

to

drugs and poisons,

I

throw them out of

my count, as being the worst sorts of homicides: yet even in this,

ways

to rely

'tis

said, that

men

are not al-

upon the personal confessions

of

these people; for they have sometimes been

known to accuse themselves of the murder of persons who have afterwards been found living and well. In these other extravagant I

should be apt to say, that

it is

accusations,

sufficient a

man,

what recommendation soever he may have, be believed as to human things; but of what is beyond his conception, and of supernatural effect, he ought then only to be believed, when authorised by a supernatural approbation. The privilege it has pleased Almighty God to give to some ought not to be lightly communicated and made cheap. I have my ears battered with a thousand such flim-flams as these "Three persons saw him such a day in the east; three, the next day in the west; at such an hour, in such a place, and in such habit"; in earnest, I should not believe myself. How much more natural and likely do I find it that two men should lie, than that one man in twelve hours' time should fly with the wind from east to west? How much more natural that our understanding should be carried from its place by the volubility of our disordered minds, than that one of us should be carried by a strange spirit upon a broomstaff, flesh and bones as we are, up the shaft of a chimney? Let not us seek illusions from without and unknown, we who are perpetually agitated with illusions domestic and our own. Methinks one is pardonable in disbelieving a miracle, at least, at all events where one can elude its verification as such, by means not miraculous; of our witnesses,

:

and

I

am

of St. Augustine's opinion, that "

'tis

and boldness, and condemn

better to lean towards doubt than assurance, in

not so im-

things hard to prove and dangerous to believe." 'Tis now some years ago, that I travelled

the opposite affirmation equally, periously, with them.

if

He who will establish his huffing, discovers

through the territories of a sovereign prince, who,

be very weak. For a verbal and scholastic altercation, let them have as much appearance as their contradictors; Videantur sane, non affirmentur modo; 2 but in the real consequence they draw from it, these have much the

my favour, and to abate my incredulity, did me the honour to let me see, in hisown presence,

proposition by authority

and

his reason to

advantage. light

is

To

men, a clear and shining and our life is too real and eswarrant these supernatural and fankill

required;

sential, to

tastic accidents. 1

Men are most apt to believe what they least un-

derstand: and through the lust of

human

scure things are most easily credited.

wit, ob-

[The second

is from Tacitus, Histories, i. 22.] Let them state the probabilities, but not affirm. —Cicero, Acad., ii. 27.

sentence 2

in

and

in a private place, ten or twelve prisoners of

and amongst others, an old hag, a real witch in foulness and deformity, who long had been famous in that profession. I saw both proofs and free confessions, and I know not what insensible mark upon the miserable creature: I examined and talked with her and the rest as much and as long as I would, and gave the best and soundest attention I could, and I am not a man to suffer my judgment to be made captive by prepossession. In the end, and in all conscience, I should rather have prescribed them hellebore than hemlock: Captisque res magis this kind,

j

i

,

>

j

I

i

5

1

I

I

1

1

|

Essays x

mentibus, quam consceleratis, similis visa; jushas its corrections proper for such maladies.

tice

and arguments that worthy me, both there, and often in other places, I have met with none that have convinced me, and that have not admitted a more

As

to the oppositions

men have made

likely solution

to

than their conclusions.

It is true,

indeed, that the proofs and reasons that are

founded upon experience and fact, I do not go about to untie, neither have they any end; I often cut them, as Alexander did theGordian knot. After all, 'tis setting a man's conjectures at a very high price, upon them to cause a man to be roasted alive. We are told by several examples, as Praestantius of his father, that being more profoundly asleep than men usually are, he fancied himself to be a mare, and that he served the soldiers for a sumpter; and what he fancied himself to be, 2 he really proved. If sorcerers dream so materially; if dreams can sometimes so incorporate themselves with effects, still I cannot believe that therefore our will should be accountable to justice; which I say as one who am neither judge nor privy councillor, and who think myself by many degrees unworthy so to be, but a man of the common sort, born and vowed to the obedience of the public reason, both in its words and

He who

acts.

should record

my

idle talk as be-

ing to the prejudice of the pettiest law, opinion, or custom of his parish, would do himself a great

me much more;

n

III.

501

many humours, but

great

of so wild a composition.

Whether great matter:

it

be

'tis

a

to the

purpose or not,

hindering exercise, they

fect,

more

entire to the sports of

I

:

1

The

is

who

are troubled

and come Venus; which, also, the Greeks decried the women

warrant no other certainty, but that 'tis what I had then in my thought, a tumultuous and wavering thought. All I say is by way of discourse, and nothing by way of advice: Nee me yudet, ut istos, fateri nescire, quod nesciam; 3 I should not speak so boldly, if it were my due to be believed; and so I told a great man, who complained of the tartness and contentiousness of my exhortations. Perceiving you to be ready and prepared on one part, I propose to you the other, with all the diligence and care I can, to clear your judgment, not to compel it. God has your hearts in his hands, and will furnish you with the means of choice. I am not so presumptuous even as to desire that my opinions should bias you in a thing of so great importance my fortune has not trained them up to so potent and elevated conclusions. Truly, I have not only a say,

no

he knows not Venus in her perfect sweetness, who has never lain with a lame mistress. Fortune, or some particular incident, long ago put this saying into the mouths of the people; and the same is said of men as well as of women; for the queen of the Amazons answered the Scythian who courted her to love, "Lame men perform best." In this feminine republic, to evade the dominion of the males, they lamed them in their infancy— arms, legs, and other members that gave them advantage over them, and only made use of them in that wherein we, in these parts of the world, make use of them. I should have been apt to think, that the shuffling pace of the lame mistress added some new pleasure to the work, and some extraordinary titillation to those who were at the sport; but I have lately learnt that ancient philosophy has itself determined it, which says that the legs and thighs of lame women, not receiving, by reason of their imperfection, their due aliment, it falls out that the genital parts above are fuller and better supplied and much more vigorous; or else, that this deit

I

'tis

common proverb in Italy, that

with

for, in

many

I

what

deal of wrong, and

also a great

would endeavour to make my son dislike, if I had one. What, if the truest are not always the most commodious to man, being

opinions, that

less dissipate their strength,

the reason

why

weavers as being more hot than other

women

by reason of their sedentary trade, which they carry on without any great exercise of the body.

What

is it

might

also say of these, that the joggling

we may

not reason

of, at this rate? I

whilst so sitting at work, rouses

about

and provokes

their desire as the swinging and j olting of coaches ,

does that of our ladies. Do not these examples serve to make good what I said at first: that our reasons often anticipate the effect, and have so infinite an extent of

judge and exercise themeven on an inanity itself and nonexistency? Besides the flexibility of our invention to forge reasons of all sorts of dreams, our imagination is

jurisdiction, that they

selves

equally facile to receive impressions of falsity by

very frivolous appearances; for, by the sole authority of the ancient and common use of this

thing was rather to be attributed to madness, than malice.— Livy, viii. 18. 2 St. Augustine, City of God, xviii. 18. 3 Neither am I ashamed, as they are, to confess my ignorance of what I do not know.— Cicero, Tusc.

reason she was not straight, and accordingly reck-

Quaes.,

oned that deformity amongst her graces.

i.

25.

I have formerly made myself believe have had more pleasure in a woman, by

proverb, that

I

Mon TAIGNE

502

Torquato Tasso, in the comparison he makes betwixt France and Italy, says he has observed

derate throughout, and can never stop but of necessity and the want of ability to proceed fur-

that our legs are generally smaller than those of

ther.

the Italian gentlemen, it

and

attributes the cause of

our being continually on horseback; which the very same cause from which Suetonius

to

is

xii.

Of physiognomy

Almost

all

the opinions

we have

are taken on ,

draws a quite opposite conclusion, for he says, on the contrary, that Germanicus had made nis legs bigger by the continuation of the same exercise. Nothing is so supple and erratic as our understanding; it is like the shoe of Theramenes, fit for all feet. It is double and diverse, and the matters are double and diverse too. "Give me a drachm of silver," said a Cynic philosopher to Antigonus. "That is not a present befitting a king/' replied he. "Give me then a talent," said the other. "That is not a present befitting a Cynic." calor

tile

Ogni medaglia ha

2

il

suo riverso. This

why Clitomachus

is

the

said of old that Car-

neades had outdone the labours of Hercules, in having eradicated consent from men, that is to say, opinion and the temerity of judging. This so vigorous fancy of Carneades sprung, in my opinion, anciently from the impudence of those who made profession of knowledge, and their immeasurable self-conceit, ^sop was set to sale with two other slaves; the buyer asked the first of these what he could do; he, to enhance his own value, promised mountains and marvels, saying he could do this and that, and I know not what; the second said as much of himself, or

more when it came to ^Esop's turn, and that he was also asked what he could do; "Nothing," said he, "for these two have taken up all before me; they can do everything." So has ithappened :

in the school of philosophy

:

the pride of those

who attributed the capacity of all things to the human mind, created in others, out of despite and emulation, this opinion, that it is capable of nothing: the one maintain the same extreme in ignorance that the others do in knowledge; to make it undeniably manifest that man is immo-

Whether

the heat opens more passages and sethrough which the sap may be derived into the new born herbs; or whether it rather hardens and binds the gaping veins that the small showers and keen influence of the violent sun, or penetrating cold of Boreas, may not hurt them.— Virgil, cret pores

Georg., 2

i.

not amiss;

we could

not choose worse than by ourselves, in so weak

an

age.

his friends

have transmitted

upon no other account than

to us,

we approve

a reverence to

pub-

not according to our own knowledge; they are not after our way; if anything of the kind should spring up now, few men would value them. discern no graces that are not

lie

sanction:

We

as glide

on in

their

own

art;

such

purity and simplicity

its

reverse.— Italian proverb.

not simplicity, as

we

take

it,

cousin-

german to folly, and a quality of reproach? Socrates makes his soul move a natural and common motion a peasant said this; a woman said that; he has never anybody in his mouth but carters, joiners, cobblers, and masons; his are inductions and similitudes drawn from the most common and known actions of men; every one understands him. We should never have recognized the nobility and splendour of his admirable conceptions under so mean a form; we, who think all things low and flat, that are not elevated by learned doctrine, and who discern no riches but in pomp and show. This world of ours is only formed for ostentation men are only puffed up with wind, and are banded to and fro like tennis-balls. He proposed to himself no vain and idle fancies; his design was to furnish us with precepts and things that more really and fitly :

:

serve the use of Servare

Naturamque

life;

modum, f.nemque sequi.

tenere,

3

He was also always one and the same, and raised himself, not by starts but by complexion, to the

highest pitch of vigour; or, to say better, mounted

not at all, but rather brought down, reduced and subjected all asperities and difficulties to his original and natural condition; for, in Cato 'tis most manifest, that 'tis a procedure extended far beyond the common ways of men in the brave :

exploits of his

life,

and

in his death,

we find him

always mounted upon the great horse; whereas 8

89.

Every medal has

have and concealed beauty, such as requires and purified sight to discover its secret

light. Is

To keep a just mean,

to follow

|

'tis

pointed and puffed out and inflated by

a clear

k

That image of Socrates' discourses, which

a delicate

vias et caeca relaxat

Spiramenta, novas veniat qua succus in herhas: Seu durat magis, et venas astringit hiantes; Ne tenues yluvide, rayidive fotentia solis 1 Acrior, aut Boreae penetrabile frigus adurat.

1

'tis

easily escape so gross a sight as ours; they

Seu plures

reason

authority and trust; and

to observe just limits,

Nature.— Lucan,

ii.

381.

and

f

Essays the other ever creeps

upon

the ground, and with

and ordinary pace, treats of the most useful matters, and bears himself, both at his death and in the rudest difficulties that could

12

III

503

cola, for

having restrained her son in his too

vio-

a gentle

lent appetite of learning.

present themselves, in the ordinary

duly considered, which has in goods of men have, a great deal of vanity and weakness, proper and natural to itself, and that costs very dear. Its acquisition is far more hazardous than that of all other meat

man

way

of hu-

life.

has fallen out well, that the man most worthy be known and to be presented to the world for example, should be he of whom we have the most certain knowledge; he has been pried into by the most clear-sighted men that ever were; the testimonies we have of him are admirable both in fidelity and fulness. Tis a great thing that he was able so to order the pure imaginations of a child, that, without altering or wresting them, he thereby produced the most beautiful effects of our soul he presents it neither elevated nor rich; he only represents it sound, but assuredly with a brisk and full health. By these common and natural springs, by these ordinary and popular fancies, without being moved or put out, he set up not only the most regular, but the most high and vigorous beliefs, actions, and manners that ever were. 'Tis he who brought again from heaven, where she lost her time, human wisdom, to restore her to man, with whom her most just and greatest business lies. See him plead before his judges; observe by what reasons he rouses his courage to the hazards of war; with It

to

:

what arguments he

fortifies his

patience against

calumny, tyranny, death, and the perverseness of his wife you will find nothing in all this borrowed from arts and sciences: the simplest may :

'Tis a good,

if

as the other

it,

what we have bought we carry home in some vessel, and there have full leisure to examine our purchase, how much we shall eat or drink of it, and when but sciences we can, at the very first, stow into no other vessel than the soul; we swallow them in buying, and return from the market, either already infected or amended there are some that only burden and overcharge the stomach, inor drink; for, as to other things,

:

:

stead of nourishing; and, moreover, some, that

under colour of curing, poison us. I have been pleased, in places where I have been, to see men in devotion

vow

ignorance as well as chastity, 'tis also a gelding of our unruly appetites, to blunt this cupidity that spurs us on to the study of books, and to deprive the soul of this voluptuous complacency that tickles us with the opinion of knowledge: and 'tis plenarily to accomplish the vow of poverty, to add un-

and penitence:

poverty,

to

it

that of the mind.

live at this

is

We need little doctrine to

our ease; and Socrates teaches us, that

in us,

and the way how

manner how

to find

it,

and the

use it. All our sufficiency which exceeds the natural is well-nigh superfluous and vain 'tis much if it does not rather burden and to

:

not possible more to retire or to creep more low. He has done human nature a great kind-

cumber us than do us good: Paucisopus est Uteris 3 ad mentem bonam: 'tis a feverish excess of the mind; a tempestuous and unquiet instrument. Do but recollect yourself, and you will find in

how much it can do of itself.

yourself natural arguments against death, true,

there discover their

own means and

strength;

'tis

ness, in

showing

it

We are all of us richer than we think we are; but we are taught to borrow and to beg, and brought up more to make use of what is another's than of our own. Man can in nothing fix himself to his actual necessity: of pleasure, wealth, and power, he grasps at more than he can hold; his greediness is incapable of moderation.

And

I

find that in curiosity of

knowing

he is the same; he cuts himself out more work than he can do, and more than he needs to do: extending the utility of knowledge, to the full of its matter: Ut omnium rerum, sic litterarum quoque, intemyerantia laboramus. 1 And Tacitus

1

2

had reason

to

commend the mother of Agri-

We carry intemperance into the study of liter-

ature, as well as into everything else.— Seneca, ist, 2

106.

Tacitus, Agricola,

iv.

and the 'tis

fittest to

they that

die with as

Should

serve

you

in time of necessity:

make a peasant, and whole nations,

much

firmness as a philosopher.

have died less cheerfully before I had read Cicero's Tusculans? I believe not; and when I find myself at the best, I perceive that my tongue is enriched indeed, but my courage little or nothing elevated by them; that is just as nature framed it at first, and defends itself against the conflict, only after a natural and ordinary way. Books have not so much served me for instruction as exercise. What if knowledge, trying to arm us with new defences against natural inconveniences, has more imprinted in our fancies their weight and greatness, than her reasons and subtleties to secure us from them? They I

Ep3 Very little learning is needed mind.— Seneca, Epist., 106.

to

form a sound

:

Montaigne

5°4 are subtleties, indeed, with

alarms us to

little

many

and

slight

purpose.

which she often

Do but observe, how

frivolous, and,

if

nearly exam-

ined, incorporeal arguments, the closest

and

wisest authors scatter about one good one: they are but verbal quirks

and

fallacies to

amuse and

may be with some profit, I will sift them no further; many of that sort are here and there dispersed up and down gull us: but forasmuch as

it

this book, either borrowed or by imitation. There-

heed not to call only a pretty knack of writ ing, and that solid which is only sharp, or that good which is only fine: Quae magis gustata, quam potata delectant: 1 everything thatpleases, does not nourish: Ubi non ingenii, sed animi fore

one ought

to take a little

that force

which

negotium

agitur.

To

is

2

see the trouble that Seneca gives himself

himself against death; to see him so sweat and pant to harden and encourage himself, and bustle so long upon this perch, would have lessened his reputation with me, had he not very bravely held himself at the last. His so ardent and frequent agitations discover that he was in himself impetuous and passionate QMagnus animus to fortify

remissius loquitur, et securius

animo

.

.

.

non

est alius

3

he must be convinced at his own expense; and he in some sort discovers that he was hard pressed by his enemy. Plutarch's way, by how much it is more disdainful and farther stretched, is, in my opinion, so much more manly and persuasive and I am apt to believe that his soul had more assured and more regular motions. The one more sharp, pricks and makes us start, and more touches the soul; the other more constantly solid, forms, establishes, and supports us, and more touches the understanding. That ravishes the judgment, this wins it. I have likewise seen other writings, yet more ingenio, alius

color

');

:

reverenced than these, that in the representation of the conflict they maintain against the temptations of the flesh, paint them so sharp, so powerful and invincible, that we ourselves, who are of the

common

at the strangeness

of the earth, prone ness, that neither

ample nor precept; from these nature every day and patience, more pure and manly than those we so inquisitively study in the schools: how many do I ordinarily

How many who desire who die without alarm or regret? He who is now digging in my garden, has this morning buried his father or his son. The very names see

who

by which they

sweeten and molliis with them no more than a cough, dysentery but a looseness, the pleurisy but a stitch; and, as they gently name them, so they patiently endure them; they are very great and grievous indeed, when they hinder their ordinary labour; they never keep their beds but to die. Simplex ilia et

1

A

livery.— Ibid., 114, 115.

call diseases,

fy the sharpness of them: the phthisic

aperta virtus in obscurant et solertem scientiam versa

est.*

this about a time when a great load of our intestine troubles for several months

was writing

I

its weight upon me; I had the enemy door on one side, and the free-booters, worse enemies than they, on the other, Non 6 armis, sed vitiis, certatur; and underwent all sorts of military injuries at once

lay with all at

my

Hostis adest dextra laevaque a parte timendus.

Vicinoque malo

A

terret

utrumque

latus.

6

monstrous war! Other wars are bent against

strangers, this against itself, destroying itself

with its own poison. It is of so malignant and ruinous a nature, that it ruins itself with the rest and with its own rage mangles and tears it:

self to pieces.

We more often see

it

dissolve of

than through scarcity of any necessary

itself,

force of the enemy. All discipline comes to compose sedition, and is itself full of it; would chastise disobedience, and itself is the example; and, employed for the defence of the laws, rebels against its own. What a condition are we in! Our physic makes us sick! thing, or

evades

it:

by

it

Nostre mal s'empoisonne Du secours qu'on luy donne.

it.

Which more delight in the tasting, than in being drunk off.— Cicero, Tusc. Quaes., v. 5. 2 Where the question is not about the wit, but about the soul.— Seneca, Epist., 75. 3 great courage speaks more calmly and more securely. The mind and the soul wear the same

slight poverty?

to die, or

Exuperat magis, aegrescitque medendo. 7

To what end do we so arm ourselves with this harness of science? Let us look down upon the poor people that we see scattered upon the face

their busi-

Aristotle nor Cato, ex-

extracts effects of constancy

herd, are as much to wonder and unknown force of their

temptation, as at the resisting

and intent upon

know

* That plain and simple virtue is converted into an obscure and subde knowledge.— Ibid., 95. 6 The fight is not with arms, but with vices.—

Ibid. 8 Right and left a formidable enemy presses on me, and threatens me on both sides with present danger.— Ovid, De Pont., i. 3, 57. 7 Our disease is poisoned with its very remedies. —JEneid, Bk. xii. 46. The French verses are a translation by Mademoiselle de Gourney.

:

Essays Omnia

fanda, nefanda, malo permista furore, 1 Justificam nobis mentem avertere deorum.

In the beginning of these popular maladies, one the sound from the sick; but

may distinguish when they come

to continue, as ours have done, whole body is then infected from head to foot; no part is free from corruption, for there is no air that men so greedily draw in, that diffuses itself so soon and that penetrates so deep, as that of licence. Our armies only subsist and are kept together by the cement of foreigners; for of Frenchmen there is now no constant and regular army to be made. What a shame it is! there is no longer any discipline but what we see in the borrowed soldiers. As to ourselves, our conduct is at discretion, and that not of the chief, but every one at his own. The General has a harder game to play within, than he has without; he it is who has to follow, to court the soldiers, to give way to them; he alone has to obey: all the rest is dissolution and free licence. It

the

me

pleases

to observe

how much

pusillanimity

and cowardice there is in ambition; by how aband servile ways it must arrive at its end; but it displeases me to see good and generous natures, and that are capable of justice, every day corrupted in the management and command of ject

this confusion.

habit, consent

Long

and

toleration begets habit;

imitation.

We had ill-formed

enough, without spoiling those that were generous and good; so that if we hold on, there will scarcely remain any with whom to intrust souls

the health of this State of ours, in case fortune

chance

to restore

Hunc

it

saltern everso

Ne prohihete.

juvenem succurrere

seclo,

2

What

is become of the old precept, "That solought more to fear their chief than the enemy?" and of that wonderful example, that an orchard being enclosed within the precincts of a camp of the Roman army, was seen at their dislodgment the next day in the same condition, not an apple, though ripe and delicious, being pulled off, but all left to the possessor? I could wish that our youth, instead of the time they spend in less fruitful travels, and less honourable employments, would bestow one half of that time in being an eye-witness of naval exploits, under some good captain of Rhodes, and

diers

the other half in observing the discipline of the 1 Right and wrong, all shuffled together in this wicked fury, have deprived us of the gods' protec-

tion.— Catullus, lxiv. 405. 2 Forbid not, at least, that this young this ruined age.— Virgil, Georg., i. 500.

man

repair

12

III.

5°5

Turkish armies; for they have many differences and advantages over ours; one of these is, that our soldiers become more licentious in expeditions, theirs more temperate and circumspect; for the thefts and insolencies committed upon the common people, which are only punished with a cudgel in peace, are capital in war; for an egg taken by a Turkish soldier without paying for it, fifty blows with a stick is the fixed rate; for anything else, of what sort or how trivial soever, not necessary to nourishment, they are presently impaled or beheaded without mercy.

I

am

astonished, in the history of Selim, the

most cruel conqueror that ever was, to see that when he subdued Egypt, the beautiful gardens about Damascus being all open, and in a conquered land, and his army encamped upon the very place, should be left untouched by the hands of the soldiers, by reason they had not received the signal of pillage.

But is there any disease in a government, that worth while to physic with such a mortal drug? No, said Favonius, not even the tyranit is

nical usurpation of a

Commonwealth.

Plato,

man

should violate the peace of his country in order to cure it, and by no means approves of a reformation that disturbs and hazards all, and that is to be purchased at the price of the citizens' blood and ruin; determining it to be the duty of a good patriot in such a case to let it alone, and only to pray to God for his extraordinary assistance and he seems to be angry with his great friend Dion, for having proceeded somewhat after another manner. I was a Platonist in this point, before I knew there had ever been such a man as Plato in the world. And if this person ought absolutely to be rejected from our society (he who by the sincerity of his conscience, merited from the divine favour to penetrate so far into the Christian light, through the universal darkness wherein the world was involved in his time), I do not think it becomes us to suffer ourselves to be instructed by a heathen, how great an impiety it is not to expect from God any relief simply his own and without our co-operation. I often doubt, likewise, will not consent that a

:

whether amongst such

affairs,

there

so is

many men

as

meddle in

not to be found some one of

so weak understanding as to have been really persuaded that he went towards reformation by the worst of deformations; and advanced towards salvation by the most express causes that we have of most assured damnation; that by overthrowing government, the magistracy, and the laws, in whose protection God has placed him, by dismembering his good mother, and giving her

.

Mon TAIGNE

506 limbs to

be mangled by her old enemies,

filling

fraternal hearts with parricidal hatreds, calling devils and furies to his aid, he can assist the most holy sweetness and justice of the divine law. Ambition, avarice, cruelty, and revenge, have not sufficient natural impetuosity of their own; let us bait them with the glorious titles of justice and devotion. There cannot a worse state of things be imagined, than where wickedness comes to be legitimate, and assumes with the

magistrates' permission, the cloak of virtue -.Nihil in

speciem

fallacius,

deorum numen

quam

prava

religio,

praetenditur sceleribus.

1

ubi

The 2

extremest sort of injustice, according to Plato, is where that which is unjust, should be reputed

The common people

then suffered very much,

and not present damage only, Undique totis Usque adeo turbatur agris, s but future too; the living were to suffer, and so were they who were yet unborn; they stript them, and consequently myself, even of hope, taking from them all they had laid up in store U i

on

for

plain myself; conceiving, that

my

mise

many years:

Quae nequeunt secum

ferre aut abducere, perdunt; .

.

.

I

suffered others:

went the inconveniences

I

under-

that moderation brings

along with it in such a disease I was robbed on all hands; to theGhibelin I was a Guelph,and to the Guelpha Ghibelin; one of my poets expresses this very well, but I know not where it is. The :

situation of my house, and my friendliness with my neighbours, presented me with one face; my life and my actions with another. They did not lay formal accusations to my charge, for they had no foundation for so doing; I never hide my head

from the laws, and whoever would have questioned me, would have done himself a greater prejudice than me; they were only mute suspicions that were whispered about, which never 1

Nothing has a more deceiving face than false where devotion is pretended by wicked

religion,

men.— Livy, 2

xxxix. 16.

Republic.

3

to compro-

behalf: Per5 elevatur; and,

its

enim argumentative one saw as clearly into me

as

I

do

myself, instead of retiring from an accusation,

up

I

meet it, and rather give it some kind of colour by an ironical and scoffing confession, if I do not sit totally mute, as of a thing not worth my answer. But such as look upon this kind of behaviour of mine as too haughty a confidence, step

to

pret

it

little

kindness for

me

as they

who

inter-

the weakness of an indefensible cause;

namely, the great folks, towards whom want of submission is the great fault, harsh towards all justice that knows and feels itself, and is not submissive, humble, and suppliant; I have often knocked my head against this pillar. So it is, that at what then befell me, an ambitious man would have hanged himself, and a covetous man would have done the same. I have no

Si mihi,

Quod

of care of getting:

quod nunc

superest

etiam minus; et mihi vivam quid superesse volent dii. G

est,

aevi, si

but the losses that befal Besides this shock,

were

as if every

manner

Et cremat insontes turba scelesta casas Muris nulla fides, squalent populatibus agri. 4

it

conscience to plead in

spicuitas

have as

for just.

live

want appearance in so confused a mixture, no more than envious or idle heads. I commonly myself lend a hand to injurious presumptions that fortune scatters abroad against me, by a way I have ever had of evading to justify, excuse, or ex-

ers,

whether by

me by the injury of oth-

theft or violence, go almost as

near my heart, as they would do to that of the most avaricious man. The offence troubles me, without comparison, more than the loss. A thousand several sorts of mischiefs fell upon me in the neck of one another; I could more cheerfully have borne them all at once. I was already considering to whom, amongst my friends, I might commit a helpless and decrepit age; and having turned my eyes quite round, I found myseli bare. 1 o let one s self fall plump down, and from so great a height, it ought to be in the arms of a solid, vigorous, and fortunate friendship: these are very rare, if there be any. At last, I saw that it was safest for me to trust to myself in my necessity; and if it should so fall out, that I should be but upon cold terms in Fortune's favour, I should so much the more pressingly

recommend me

to

tach myself and look to myself

my all

own, and

at-

the more close-

Such great disorders overtake our fields on every side.— Virgil, Eclog., i. 1 1 4

What

they cannot bear away, they spoil; and the wretches burn harmless houses; walls cannot secure their masters, and the fields are wasted and spoiled.— Ovid, Trist., iii. io, 35; Claudian, In Eutrop.,

i.

244.

5

The clearness of a cause is clouded by argumentation.— Cicero, De Nat. Deor., iii. 4. 6 May I keep what I have, or even less; and live for myself what of life remains, if the gods grant me remaining years.— Horace, Epist., i. 18, 107.

Essays iy.

Men on all occasions throw themselves upon

own, which is alone certain and sufficient, to him who knows how therewith to arm himself. Every one runs elsewhere, and to the future, forasmuch as no one is arrived at himself. And I was satisfied that they were profitable inconveniences; forasmuch as, first, ill scholars are to be admonished with roreign assistance to spare their

the rod, piece of

when reason will not do, as a crooked wood is by fire and straining reduced to

straightness.

I

have a great while preached

to

myself to stick close to my own concerns, and separate myself from the affairs of others; yet I im still turning my eyes aside. A bow, a kind word or look from a great person tempts me; of

which God knows how little scarcity there is in these days, and how little they signify. I, moreover, without wrinkling my forehead, hearken to the persuasions offered me, to draw me into •.he open market-place, and so gently refuse, as if I were half willing to be overcome. Now for so indocile a spirit blows are required; this vessel which thus chops and cleaves, and is ready to fall one piece from another, must have the hoops forced down with good sound strokes of a malSecondly, that this accident served me for me for worse, if I, who both by the benefit of fortune, and by the condition of my manners, hoped to be among the last, should happen to be one of the first assailed by .his storm; instructing myself betimes to con-

in. 12 I

507

cannot hinder

pomp

the

my patience somewhat

is

to

be able

to

do what a

man

will

with

qui se habet in po1 testate. In an ordinary and quiet time, a man prepares himself for moderate and common accidents; but in the confusion wherein we have been for these thirty years, every Frenchman, est,

whether in particular or in general, sees himself

upon the point of the total ruin and overthrow of his fortune by so much the more every hour

:

ought he

have his courage supplied with the strongest and most vigorous provisions. Let us thank fortune, that has not made us live in an effeminate, idle, and languishing age; some who could never have been so by other means, will be made famous by their misfortunes. As I selto

dom

read in histories the confusions of other without regret that I was not present, the better to consider them, so does my curiosity states

make me with

in

and do not as what remains safe, both within and without. There is comfort in evading, one while this, another so

much regard what they take from me,

while that, of the evils that are levelled, at ourbut at present hurt others only about us; as also, that in matters of public in-

selves too, at last,

the

public death, 1

He

is

that

it is

more universally my affection is disweaker it is: to which may be added,

half true:

Tantum ex

fublicis malis

sentimus, quantum ad privates res fertinet; that the health from

which we

that itself relieves the regret it.

It was

we

fell

2

and was so ill,

should have for

health, but only in comparison with the

sickness that has succeeded it: we are not fallen from any great height; the corruption and brigandage which are in dignity and office, seem to me the most insupportable we are less injuriously rifled in a wood, than in a place of security. It was an universal juncture of particular members, each rotten in emulation of the others and most of them with inveterate ulcers, that neither admitted nor required any cure. This convulsion, therefore, really more animated than pressedme, by the assistance of my conscience, which was not only at peace within itself, but elevated, and I did not find any reason to complain of myself. Also, as God never sends evils, any more than goods, absolutely pure to men, my health continued at that time more than usually good; and, as I can do nothing without it, there are few things that I cannot do with it. It afforded me :

:

sort please myself in seeing eyes this notable spectacle of our

means to rouse up all my faculties, and to lay my hand before the wound that would else, per-

form and symptoms; and since

adventure,have gone farther; and I experienced,

some

my own

too cheap, in accidents

that do not absolutely assail myself;

terest,

liberty

human

'tis

persed, the

himself: Potentissimus

theatres,

of tragic representations of

not without compassion at what we hear, but we please ourselves in rousing our displeasure, by the rarity of these pitiable events. Nothing tickles that does not pinch. And good historians skip over, as stagnant water and dead sea, calm narrations, to occupy themselves with wars and seditions, which they know are most acceptable to the readers. I question whether I can decently confess with how small a sacrifice of its repose and tranquillity, I have passed over above the one half of my life amid the ruin of my country. I make fortune;

let.

my life, and fit it for a new state. The true

content to have been

though but in shadow and the fables of

exercise to prepare

train

am

it, I

destined to be present therein, and thereby to instruct myself. So do we eagerly covet to see,

its

most potent,

Seneca, Epist., 90.

who

is

master of himself.—

2

We

are only so far sensible of public evils, as they respect our private affairs.— Livy, xxx. 44.

:

:

Montaigne

5 o8

my

I had some stand against must be a great shock could throw me out of the saddle. I do not say this to provoke her to give me a more vigorous charge I am her humble servant, and submit toherpleasure: let her be content, in God's name. Do you

in

patience, that

fortune;

it

am sensible of her assaults? Yes, certainBut, as those who are possessed and oppressed

ask ly.

and that

if I

with sorrow, sometimes suffer themselves, nev-

by intervals to taste a little pleasure, and are sometimes surprised with a smile, so have I so much power over myself, as to make mv ordinary condition quiet and free from disturbing thoughts; yet I suffer myself, withal, by fits to be surprised with the stings of those unpleasing imaginations that assault me, whilst I am arming myself to drive them away, or at ertheless,

least to wrestle

violent plague, violent in comparison of all oth-

sound bodies are subject to more grievous maladies, forasmuch as they are not to be forced but by such, so my very healthful air,

ers: for as

where no contagion, however near, in the memory of man, ever took footing, coming to be corrupted, produced most strange effects: Mista senum et juvenum densantur funera; nullum Saeva caput Proserpina fugit; T

had

to suffer this pleasant condition, that the

my house was frightful to me; whatever had there was without guard, and left to the mercy of any one who wished to take it. I myself, who am so hospitable, was in very great distress sight of I

for a retreat for

my

frightful both to

its

family; a distracted family,

friends

and

itself,

and

filling

every place with horror where it attempted to settle, having to shift its abode so soon as anyone's finger began but to ache; all diseases are then concluded to be the plague, and people do

not stay to examine whether they are so or no. And the mischief on't is, that, according to the rules of art, in every danger that a man comes near,

he must undergo a quarantine in fear of

your imagination all the while tormenting you at pleasure, and turning even your health the

evil,

Yet all this would have much me, had I not withal been compelled

itself into a fever.

less affected

to be sensible of the sufferings of others, and miserably to serve six months together for a

1 Old and young were buried in mixed heaps. No one escaped cruel Proserpine.— Horace, Od., i. 28,

19.

my own

anti-

resolution

and

to this caravan; for I carry

which are patience. Apprehension, which dotes within myself,

is

particularly

feared in this disease, does not much trouble me; and, if being alone, I should have been taken, it

had been

parture;

a less cheerless

'tis

and more remote deI do not think

a kind of death that

of the worst sort;

'tis

commonly

short, stupid,

without pain, and consoled by the public condition; without ceremony, without mourning, without a crowd. But as to the people about us, the hundredth part of them could not be saved Videos desertaque regna Pastorum, et longe saltus lateque vacantes. 2

my largest revenue is pure manual what an hundred men ploughed forme,

In this place labour:

lay a long time fallow.

with them.

But behold another aggravation of the evil which befel me in the tail of the rest! both without doors and within I was assailed with a most

I

guide

But then, what example of resolution did we not see in the simplicity of all this people? Generally, every one renounced all care of life; the grapes, the principal wealth of the country, re-

mained untouched upon the vines; every man indifferently prepared for and expected death, either to-night or to-morrow, with a countenance

and voice to terms

so far

with

from

fear, as if

this necessity,

they had come

and

that

it

was an

universal and inevitable sentence. 'Tis always such; but how slender hold has the resolution of

The distance and difference of a few hours, the sole consideration of company, renders its apprehension various to us. Observe these dying?

people: by reason that they die in the same month, children, young people, and old, they are no longer astonished at it: they no longer

lament. I saw some who were afraid of staying behind, as in a dreadful solitude; and I did not commonly observe any other solicitude amongst them, than that of sepulture; they were troubled to see the dead bodies scattered about the fields, at the mercy of the wild beasts, that presently flocked thither.

How differing are the fancies of

men! the Neorites, a nation subjected by Alexander, threw the bodies of their dead into the deepest and less frequented part of their woods, on purpose to have them there eaten; the only sepulture reputed happy amongst them. Some, who were yet in health, dug their own graves; others laid themselves down in them whilst alive; and a labourer of mine, in dying, with his hands and feet pulled the earth upon him. Was not this to nestle and settle himself to sleep at greater ease? A bravery in some sort like that of the 2

You would have seen the fields a desert, and everywhere forsaken groves.— Virgil, Georg., iii. 476.

Essays Roman

soldiers,

who,

after the battle of

Cannae,

were found with their heads thrust into holes in the earth, which they had made, and in suffocating themselves, with their own hands pulled the earth about their ears. In short, a whole province was, by the common usage, at once brought to a course, nothing inferior in undauntedness to the most studied and premeditated resolution.

Most of the instructions of science to encourage us herein have in them more of show than of

We

force, and more of ornament than of effect. have abandoned Nature, and will teach her what to do; teach her who so happily and so securely conducted us; and in the meantime, from the footsteps of her instruction, and that little which, by the benefit of ignorance, remains of her image imprinted in the life of this rustic rout of unpolished men, science is constrained every day to borrow patterns for her disciples of constancy, tranquillity and innocence. It is pretty to see, that these persons, full of so much fine knowledge, have to imitate this foolish simplicity, and this in the primary actions of virtue; and that our wisdom must learn even from beasts, the

most profitable instructions in the greatest and most necessary concerns of our life; as, how we are to live and die, manage our property, love and bring up our children, maintain justice: a

III.

12

509

peradventure, will never befal us? Parent passis 2 tristitiam facit, pati 'posse; not only the blow, but the wind of the blow strikes us; or, like phrenetic people— for certainly it is a phrensy— to go immediately and whip yourself, because it may so fall out that Fortune may one day make you undergo it; and to put on your furred gown at Midsummer, because you will stand in need of it at Christmas! Throw yourselves, say they, into the experience of all the evils, the most extreme evils that can possibly befal you, and so be assured of them. On the contrary, the most easy and most natural way, would be to banish even the thoughts of them; they will not come soon enough; their true being will not continue with us long enough; our mind must lengthen and extend them; we must incorporate them in us beforehand, and there entertain them, as if they would not otherwise sufficiently press upon our senses. "We shall find them heavy enough when they come," says one of our masters, of none of the tender sects, but of the most severe; "in the meantime, favour thyself; believe what pleases thee best: what good will it do thee to anticipate thy

ill

fortune, to lose the present for

singular testimony of

and to make thyself miserable now, because thou art to be so in time?" These are his words. Science, indeed, does us one good office, in instructing us exactly as to the dimen-

this reason

sions of evils,

human infirmity; and that we so handle at our pleasure, finding

evermore some diversity and novelty, leaves in us no apparent trace of nature. Men have done with nature as perfumers with oils; they have sophisticated her with so many argumentations

and far-fetched discourses, that she is become and particular to each, and has lost her proper, constant, and universal face; so that we must seek testimony from beasts, not subject

variable

'tis

'Twere pity that any part of their greatness should escape our sense and knowledge. 'Tis certain that, for the most part, the preparation for death has administered more torment

him

tertained death, offering their throats to the ene-

indeed, true that even these themselves do not always go exactly in the path of nature, but wherein they swerve, it is so little that you may always see the track; as horses that are led, make curvets, but

still

follow

and by

:

and as a young hawk takes its flight, but still under the restraint of its tether. Exsilia, tormenta, bella, morbos, naufragia med1 itare, ut nullo sis malo tiro. What good will this curiosity do us, to anticipate all the inconveniences of human nature, and to prepare our-

mies' sword

selves with so much trouble against things which,

suffer, as if

that leads them;

.

1

.

.

Meditate upon banishments, tortures, wars, disand shipwrecks, that thou mayest not be a novice in any disaster.— Seneca, Epist., 91, 107.

eases,

3

always at the

to favour, corruption, or diversity of opinions. It

length of the halter, and they

Curis acuens mortalia cordal

than the thing itself. It was of old truly said, a very judicious author, Minus afficit sensus fatigatio, quam cogitation The sentiment of present death sometimes, of itself, animates us with a prompt resolution not to avoid a thing that is utterly inevitable many gladiators have been seen in the olden time, who, after having fought timorously and ill, have courageously en-

is,

many bounds and

fear of the future;

and bidding them despatch. The

sight of future death requires a courage that

slow,

and consequently hard

know

not

2

3

how

to die,

to

be

got. If

is

you

never trouble yourself;

men as much that they may possibly they really did suffer.— Ibid., 74. Sharpening mortals by care.— Virgil, Georg., i. It

troubles

123. * Suffering itself less

afflicts

the senses than the

apprehension of suffering.— Quintilian,

Inst. Orat.,

Montaigne

5 io

nature will, at the time, fully and sufficiently instruct you she will exactly do that business for :

you; take you no care— lncertam

frustra, mortales, funeris

Quaeritis, et

qua

sit

mors aditura

horam via.

.

.

.*

Poena minor, certain subito perferre ruinam;

Quod

timeas, gravius sustinuisse diu.

2

We trouble life by the care of death, and death by the care of

the one torments, the other

life:

frights us. It is not against death that

pare, that

is

momentary

too

we

pre-

a thing; a quarter of

an hour's suffering, without consequence, and without damage, does not deserve especial pre-

we

prepare ourselves against the preparations of death. Philosophy ordains that we should always have death before our eyes, to see and consider it before the time, cepts: to say the truth,

and then gives us rules and precautions

to pro-

vide that this foresight and thought do us

no

harm: just so do physicians, who throw us into diseases, to the end they may have whereon to employ their drugs and their art. If we have not

known how to live, 'tis injustice to teach us how to die, and make the end difform from all the rest: if we have known how to live firmly and quietly, we shall know how to die so too. They may boast as much as they please, Tota philoso3

pihorum vita, commentatio mortis est; but I fancy that, though it be the end, it is not the aim of life; 'tis its end, its extremity, but not nevertheless its object; it ought itself to be its own aim and design; its true study is to order, govern,

and

suffer itself. In the

offices, that

number of several

other

the general and principal chapter of

Knowing how to live comprehends, is this article of Knowing how to die; and, did not our fears give

it

weight, one of the lightest too.

To judge of them by utility and by the naked much in-

truth, the lessons of simplicity are not ferior to those

which learning teaches

quite the contrary.

we must

force;

us: nay,

Men differ in sentiment and

lead

them

to their

own good

ac-

cording to their capacities and by various ways:

Quo me cumque 1

Mortals, in vain you seek to

death, ii.

27, 2

rapit tempestas, deferor hospes.

and how

it

will

the hour of

come upon you.— Propertius,

1.

'Tis less painful to

tion:

know

1

'tis

hard

to

undergo sudden destruc-

bear that which you long fear.—

Author uncertain. 3 That the whole life of a philosopher is the meditation of his death.— Cicero, Tusc. Quaes., i. 30. * Wherever the tempest drives me, there I abide as a

guest.— Horace, Epist.,

i.

1,

15.

never saw any peasant among my neighbours what countenance and assurance he should pass over his last hour; nature teaches him not to think of death till he is dying; and then he does it with a better grace than Aristotle, upon whom death presses with a double weight, both of itself and of so long a premeditation; and, therefore, it was the opinion of Caesar, that the least premeditated death was the easiest and the most happy. Plus dolet quam necesse est, 5 qui ante dolet, quam necesse est. The sharpness of this imagination springs from our curiosity: 'tis thus we ever impede ourselves, desiring to I

cogitate with

anticipate

and regulate natural

prescripts. It is

only for the doctors to dine worse for

and

frown

it,

when

image of death; the common sort stand in need of no remedy or consolation, but just in the shock, and when the blow comes; and consider on't no more than just what they endure. Is it not, then, as we say, that the stolidity and want of apprehenin the best health,

to

at the

them that patience in and that profound carelessness of future sinister accidents? That their souls, in being more gross and dull, are less penetrable and not so easily moved? If it be so, let us henceforth, in God's name, teach nothing but ignosion in the vulgar give

present

rance

'tis

:

us, to

evils,

the utmost fruit the sciences promise

which

this stolidity so gently leads its dis-

ciples.

We have no want of good masters, interpreters of natural simplicity. Socrates shall

be one;

for, as I

remember, he speaks something

purpose

to the

judges

who

sat

upon

to this

his life

and

my masters, that if I entreat you not to put me to death, I shall confirm the charge of my accusers, which is, that I

death.

8

"I

am

afraid,

pretend to be wiser than others, as having some more secret knowledge of things that are above and below us. I have neither frequented nor known death, nor have ever seen any person that has tried its qualities, from whom to inform myself. Such as fear it, presuppose they know it; as for my part, I neither know what it is, nor what they do in the other world. Death is, peradventure, an indifferent thing; peradventure, a thing to be desired. 'Tis nevertheless to be believed, if it be a transmigration from one place to another, that it is a bettering of one's condition to go and live with so many great persons deceased, and to be exempt from having any more to do with 5

more than is necessary, who grieves necessary.— Seneca, Epist., 95. That which follows is taken from Plato, Apol-

He

before 6

ogy.

grieves

it is

Essays unjust and corrupt judges:

if it

be an annihila-

tion of our being, 'tis yet a bettering of one's condition to enter into a long and peaceable

night;

we

find nothing

more sweet

in life than

III.

5II

12

and

not to believe them as I ought, mistrusting their conduct, and not purely committing my affair into their hands. I wholly rely upon them; and hold my-

should

I

testify against myself,

to injure one's

self assured they will do in this what shall be most fit both for you and for me: good men, whether living or dead, have no reason to fear

superior,

the gods."

quiet repose

dreams.

The

and

a

profound

things that

I

sleep,

know

to

be

without evil, as

neighbour, and to disobey one's whether it be God or man, I carefully avoid: such as I do not know whether they be good or evil, I cannot fear them. If I am to die and leave you alive, the gods alone only know whether it will go better with you or with me. Wherefore, as to what concerns me, you may do as you shall think fit. But according to my method of advising just and profitable things, I say that you will do your consciences more right, to set me at liberty, unless you see further into my cause than

I

do; and, judging according to

past actions, both public to

and

my

private, according

my intentions, and according to the profit that many

so

fruit that

young and old, and the reap from me, you cannot more

of our citizens, both

dailv extract

vou

from all

my

conversation,

duly acquit yourselves towards my merit, than in ordering that, my poverty considered, I should be maintained at the Prytaneum, at the public expense, a thing that I have often known you, with less reason, grant to others. Do not impute

do not, according to the custom, supplicate and go about to move you to commiseration. I have both friends 1 and kindred, not being, as Homer says, begotten of wood or of a stone, no more than others, who might well present themselves before you with tears and mourning, and I have three desolate children with whom to move you to compassion; but I should do a shame to our city at the age I am, and in the reputation of wisdom which is now charged against me, to appear in such an abject form. What would men say of the other Athenians? I have always admonished those who have frequented my lectures, not to redeem their lives by an unbecoming action; and in it

to

obstinacy or disdain, that

the wars of

I

my country, at Amphipolis, Potidea,

and other expeditions where

I have been, have effectually manifested how far I was from securing my safety by my shame. I should, moreover, compromise your duty, and should invite you to unbecoming things; for 'tis not for my prayers to persuade you, but for the pure and solid reasons of justice. You have sworn to the gods to keep yourselves upright; and it would seem as if I suspected you, or would recriminate upon you that I do not believe that you are so;

Delia,

I

Is not this an innocent child's pleading of an inimaginable loftiness, true, frank, and just, unexampled? And in what a necessity employed! Truly, he had very good reason to prefer it be-

fore that

penned

Odyssey, xix. 163.

orator Lysias

had

him: admirably couched, indeed, in the judiciary style, but unworthy of so noble a criminal. Had a suppliant voice been heard out of the mouth of Socrates, that lofty virtue had struck

and ought his rich have committed her defence to art, and, in her highest proof, have renounced truth and simplicity, the ornaments of his speaking, to adorn and deck herself with the embellishments of figures, and the flourishes of a premeditated speech? He did very wisely, and like himself, not to corrupt the tenor of an incorrupt life, and so sacred an image of the husail in

the height of

its

and powerful nature

man

glory;

to

form, to spin out his decrepitude another

immortal memory of that his life not to himself, but to the example of the world; had it not been a public damage, that he should have concluded it after a lazy and obscure manner? Assuredly, year,

and

to betray the

He owed

glorious end.

and indifferent consideration

that careless

of his

death deserved that posterity should consider it so much the more, as indeed they did; and there is nothing so just in justice than that which fortune ordained for his recommendation; for the Athenians abominated all those who had been causers of his death to such a degree, that they avoided them as excommunicated persons, and looked upon everything as polluted that had been touched by them; no one would wash with them in the public baths, none would salute or own acquaintance with them: so that, at last, unable longer to support this public hatred, they hanged themselves. If any one shall think that, amongst so many other examples that I had to choose out of in the sayings of Socrates for my present purpose, I have made an ill choice of this, and shall judge this discourse of his elevated above common conceptions,

must

I

posely selected

and hold plicity,

1

which the great

for

it

to

it;

tell

for I

them

am

that

I

have pur-

of another opinion,

be a discourse, in rank and sim-

much below and behind common

ceptions.

He

con-

represents, in an inartificial bold-

Montaigne

5 I2

ness and infantine security, the pure and first impression and ignorance of nature; for it is to be believed that we have naturally a fear of pain, but not of death, by reason of itself; 'tis a part of our being, and no less essential than living. To what end should nature have begotten in us a hatred to it is

it

and

a horror of

it,

considering that

of so great utility to her in maintaining the

succession and vicissitude of her works? and that in this universal republic,

birth

it

and augmentation, than Sic

conduces more to to loss or ruin?

rerum summa novatur.

1

Mille animas una necata dedit.

some others. Such there are who quote Plato and Homer, who never saw either of them; and I also have taken things out of places far enough distant from their source. Without pains and without learning, having a thousand volumes about me in the place where I write, I ean presently borrow, if I please, from a dozen such scrap-gatherers, people about whom I do not much trouble myself, wherewith to trick up this treatise of Physiognomy; there needs no more but a preliminary epistle of the German cut to stuff me with illustrations. And so 'tis we go a begging for a ticklish glory, cheating the sottish world. These lumber pies of common-places,

wherewith

"The

one life is the passage to a thousand other lives." Nature has imprinted in beasts the care of themselves and of their conservation; they proceed so far as to be timorous of being failing of

little

show

to

so

many furnish their studies, are of common subjects, and serve but

use but to us,

and not

to direct us: a ridiculous

fruit of learning that Socrates so pleasantly dis-

Euthydemus.

cusses against

I

have seen books

worse, of hitting or hurting themselves, of our haltering and beating them, accidents subject

made of

and experience; but that we should kill them, they cannot fear, nor have they the faculty to imagine and conclude such a thing as death; it is said, indeed, that we see them not only cheerfully undergo it, horses for the most part neighing and swans singing when they die, but, moreover, seek it at need, of which elephants have given many examples. But besides, is not the way of arguing which Socrates here makes use of, equally admirable both in simplicity and vehemence? Truly, it is much more easy to speak like Aristotle, and to live like Caesar, than to speak and live as Socra-

his learned friends the examination of this

to their sense

extreme degree of perfection and difficulty; art cannot reach it. Now, our faculties are not so trained up; we do not try, we do not know them we invest ourselves with those of others, and let our own lie idle; as some one may say of me, that I have here only made a nosegay of culled flowers, and have brought nothing of my own but the thread that ties them. In earnest, I have so far yielded to the public opinion, that those borrowed ornaments accompany me, but I would not have them totally cover and hide me; that is quite contrary to my design, who desire to make a show of nothing but tes did; there lies the

;

what is my own, and what is my own by nature; and had I taken my own advice, I had at all hazards spoken purely alone. I more and more load myself every day, beyond my purpose and first method, upon the account of idleness and the humour of the age. If it misbecome me, as I believe it does, 'tis no matter; it may be of use to 1

Lucretius,

ii.

74.

things that were never either studied or

understood; the author committing to several of

and

compile it, contenting himself, for his share, with having projected the design, and by his industry to have tied together this faggot of unknown provisions; the ink and paper, at least, are his. This is to buy or borrow a book, and not to make one; 'tis to show men not that he can make a book, but that, whereof they may be in doubt, he cannot make one. A president, t'other matter to

in my hearing, boasted that he had cluttered together two hundred and odd common-places in

one of his judgments; in

telling

which, he de-

prived himself of the glory he had got by it in my opinion, a pusillanimous and absurd vanity for such a subject and such a person. I do quite :

contrary;

and amongst

am

glad

ing

it

for

ing

it

said that

if I

can

so

many borrowed things,

steal one, disguising

some new 'tis

and

alter-

hazard of havfor want of understanding its service; at the

some particular address of end it may not be so absolutely foreign. These set their thefts in show, and value themselves upon them, and so have more credit with the laws than I; we naturalists think that there is a great and incomparable preference in the honour of invention over that of natural use;

I

give

my own hand,

it

to the

quotation.

would have spoken by learning, I had I had written in a time nearer to my studies, when I had more wit and better memory; and should sooner have trusted to the vigour of that age than of this, would I have professed writing. And what if this gracious favour which Fortune has lately offered me upon the account of this work, had befallen me in that If I

spoken sooner;

Essays my life, instead of this, wherein 'tis equalsoon to be lost! Two of my acquaintance, great men in this faculty, have, in my opinion, lost half, in refusing to publish

5i3

12

III.

had he not corrected it by eduI believe he did but custom was; never so excellent a soul

time of

ness in his soul,

ly desirable to possess,

cation; but in saying so, scoff, as his

made

itself.

at forty years old, that

they might stay till threescore. Maturity has its defects as well as green years, and worse; and old age is as unfit for this

cannot often enough repeat how great an esteem I have for beauty, that potent and advantageous quality: he called it "a short tyran-

kind of business as for any other. He who commits his decrepitude to the press, plays the fool if he thinks to squeeze anything out thence, that

ny," and Plato, "the privilege of nature." We have nothing that excels it in reputation; it has

does not relish of dreaming, dotage and drivelling; the mind grows costive and thick in grow-

sents itself in the front; seduces and prepossesses

ing old. state,

I

and

my

ignorance in pomp and learning meagrely and poorly;

deliver

my

and accessorily, that principaland expressly; and write specifically of nothing, but nothing, nor of any science but of that inscience. I have chosen a time when my life, which I am to give an account of, lies wholly before me; what remains has more to do with death; and of my death itself, should I find it a this accidentally

ly

prating death, as others do, I would willingly give an account at my departure.

was a perfect exemplar in all great and I am vexed that he had so deface and body as is said, and so unsuit-

Socrates qualities,

formed a

able to the beauty of his soul, himself being so

amorous and such an admirer of beauty Nature did him wrong. There is nothing more probable than the conformity and relation of the body to the soul: Ipsi animi magni refert, quali in coryore locati sint: multa enim e corfore existunt, J quae, acuant mentem: multa, quae, obtundant; this refers to an unnatural ugliness and deformity of limbs; but we call ugliness also an un:

seemliness at first sight, which is principally lodged in the face, and disgusts us on very slight grounds, by the complexion, a spot, a rugged countenance, for some reasons often wholly inexplicable, in

members nevertheless of good sym-

metry and perfect.

The

a very beautiful soul in

deformity, that clothed

La

Boetie,

was

of this

predicament: that superficial ugliness, which nevertheless is always the most imperious, is of least prejudice to the state of the mind, and of little certainty in the opinion of men. The other, which by a more proper name, is called deformity, more substantial, strikes deeper in. Not every shoe of smooth shining leather, but every shoe well made shows the shape of the foot within. As Socrates said of his, it betrayed equal ugli,

1

It is

of great consequence in

that

many

what bodies

souls

the

first

place in the

dull it.— Cicero, Tusc. Quaes.,

33.

of

men;

it

pre-

affairs; no more did the first Scipio. The same word in Greek signifies both fair and good; and the Holy Word often says good, when it means

fair I should willingly maintain the priority in 2 good things, according to the song that Plato calls an idle thing, taken out of some ancient :

poet: "health, beauty, riches." Aristotle says that

the right of

command

appertains to the beauti-

and that, when there is a person whose beauty comes near the images of the gods, ven8 eration is equally due to him. To him who asked why people oftenerand longer frequent the company of handsome persons: "That question," said he, "is only to be asked by the blind." Most of the philosophers, and the greatest, paid for their schooling, and acquired wisdom by the favour and mediation of their beauty. Not only in the men that serve me, but also in the beasts, I consider it within two fingers' breadth of goodful;

ness.

And yet I fancy that those features and moulds and those lineaments, by which men

of face,

guess at our internal complexions and our fortunes to come, is a thing that does not very di-

and simply lie under the chapter of beauty and deformity, no more than every good odour and serenity of air promises health, nor all fog and stink, infection in a time of pestilence. Such as accuse ladies of contradicting their beauty by their manners, do not always hit right; for, in a face which is none of the best, there may dwell some air of probity and trust: as on the contrary, I have read, betwixt two beautiful eyes, menaces of a dangerous and malignant nature. There are favourable physiognomies, so that in a crowd of

rectly

2 3

i.

commerce

our judgments with great authority and wonderful impression. Phryne had lost her cause in the hands of an excellent advocate, if, opening her robe, she had not corrupted her judges by the lustre of her beauty. And I find that Cyrus, Alexander, and Caesar, the three masters of the world, never neglected beauty in their greatest

things spring from the

body sharpen the mind, and many that blunt and

are placed, for

I

In the Gorgias. Politics,

i.

5.

Montaigne

5M

you shall presently choose, amongst men you never saw before, one rather than another, to whom to surrender, and with whom to intrust your life; and yet not properly victorious enemies,

upon the consideration of beauty.

A person's look is but a feeble warranty;

and

something considerable too; and if I had to lash them, I would most severely scourge the wicked ones who belie and betray the promyet

it

is

nature has planted in their foreheads; should with greater severity punish malice under a mild and gentle aspect. It seems as if there were some lucky and some unlucky faces; and I ises that

I

believe there

is

some

art in distinguishing affable

from merely simple faces, severe from rugged, malicious from pensive, scornful from melancholic, and such other bordering qualities. There are beauties which are not only haughty, but sour, and others that are not only gentle but more than that, insipid; to prognosticate from

them future

events,

is

a matter that

I

shall leave

undecided. I

have, as

I

have said elsewhere, as to my own

concern, simply and implicitly embraced this ancient rule, 'That we cannot fail in following

Nature," and that the sovereign precept is to "conform ourselves to her." I have not, as Socrates did, corrected my natural composition by the force of reason, and have not in the least disturbed my inclination by art; I have let myself go as I came I contend not; my two principal parts live, of their own accord, in peace and good intelligence, but my nurse's milk, thank God, :

wholesome and good. Shall I say by the way? that I see, in greater esteem than 'tis worth, and in use solely among ourselves, a certain image of scholastic probity, a slave to precepts, and fettered with hope and fear. I would have it such as that laws and religions should not make, but perfect and authorwas

tolerably

this

that finds it has wherewithal to support itwithout help, born and rooted in us from the seed of universal reason, imprinted in every

ise

it;

self

man by

nature.

That reason which

straightens

Socrates from his vicious bend, renders

him

obedient to the gods and men of authority in his city; courageous in death, not because his soul is immortal, but because he is mortal. 'Tis a doctrine ruinous to all government, and much more hurtful than ingenious and subtle, which persuades the people that a religious belief is alone sufficient,

and without conduct, to

vine justice.

Use demonstrates

have a

satisfy the di-

us a vast

dis-

and conscience. favourable aspect, both in form and

tinction betwixt devotion I

to

interpretation;

Quid dixi, habere me? imo habui, Chreme. 1 Heul tantum attriti corporis ossa vides; 2 and that makes a quite contrary show to that of Socrates. It has often befallen me, that upon the mere credit of my presence and air, persons who had no manner of knowledge of me, have put a very great confidence in me, whether in their own affairs or mine; and I have in foreign parts thence obtained singular and rare favours. But the two following examples are, peradventure, worth particular relation: a certain person planned to surprise my house and me in it; his scheme was to come to my gates alone, and to be importunate to be let in. I knew him by name, and had fair reason to repose confidence in him, as being my neighbour and something related to me. I caused the gates to be opened to him, as I do to every one. There I found him, with every appearance of alarm, his horse panting, and all in a foam. He presently popped in my ears this flim-flam: "That, about half a league off, he had met with a certain enemy of his, whom I also knew, and had heard of their quarrel; that his enemy had given him a very brisk chase, and that having been surprised in disorder, and his party being too weak, he had fled to my gates for refuge; and that he was in great trouble for his followers, whom (he said) he concluded to be all either dead or taken." I innocently did my best to comfort, assure, and refresh him. Shortly

came four or five of his soldiers, who presented themselves in the same countenance and affright, to get in too; and after them more, and after

more, very well mounted and armed, to the number of five and twenty or thirty, pretending that they had the enemy at their heels. This mystery began a little to awaken my suspicion; still

I

was not ignorant what an age

much my house might be

I

lived in,

envied, and

I

had

how sev-

examples of others of my acquaintance to whom a mishap of this sort had happened. But, thinking there was nothing to be got by having begun to do a courtesy, unless I went through with it, and that I could not disengage myself from them without spoiling all, I let myself go the most natural and simple way, as I always do, eral

and invited them all to come in. And in truth I am naturally very little inclined to suspicion and distrust; I willingly incline

towards excuse and

the gentlest interpretation; I take men according to the common order, and do not more believe in those perverse 1

Have, did

Heaut., 2

I.

i.

I

and unnatural

say? no, Chremes,

I

inclina-

had.— Terence,

42.

Alas, of a

worn body thou but seest the bones.—

Pseudo-Gallus,

1.

238.

Essays

III.

12

5*5 upon

tions, unless convinced by manifest evidence,

I still

than I do in monsters and miracles; and I am, moreover, a man who willingly commit myself to Fortune, and throw myself headlong into her arms; and I have hitherto found more reason to

should have the gain of what they had already taken from me, which was not to be despised, without promise of any other ransom. After two or three hours that we had been in this place, and that they had mounted me upon a pitiful jade that was not likely to run from them, and committed me to the guard of fifteen or twenty harquebuseers, and dispersed my servants toothers, having given order that they should carry us away prisoners several ways, and I being already got some two or three musket-shots from

applaud than to blame myself for so doing, having ever found her more discreet about, and a greater friend to my affairs, than I am myself.

There

are

some

actions in

my

life

whereof the

conduct may justly be called difficult, or, if you please, prudent; of these, supposing the third part to have been my own, doubtless the other make, metwo-thirds were absolutely hers. thinks, a mistake, in that we do not enough trust heaven with our affairs, and pretend to more from our own conduct than appertains to us; and therefore it is that our designs so often mis-

We

we athuman prudence above its own, and cuts it all the shorter by how much the more we amplify it. The last comers remained

carry.

Heaven

is

jealous of the extent that

tribute to the right of

on horseback in my courtyard, whilst their leadwho was with me in the parlour, would not have his horse put up in the stable, saying he should immediately retire, so soon as he had news of his men. He saw himself master of his enterprise, and nothing now remained but its execution. He has since several times said (for he was not ashamed to tell the story himself) that my countenance and frankness had snatched er,

the treachery out of his hands. He again mounted his horse; his followers, who had their eyes intent upon him, to see when he would give the signal, being very much astonished to find him come away and leave his prey behind him.

Another time, relying upon some

truce, just

published in the army, I took a journey through a very ticklish country. I had not ridden far but

was discovered, and two or three parties of from various places, were sent out to seize me; one of them overtook me on the third day, and I was attacked by fifteen or twenty gentlemen in vizors, followed at a distance by a band of foot soldiers. I was taken, withdrawn into the I

horse,

thick of a neighbouring forest, dismounted, rob-

bed,

my

my trunks rifled, my money-box taken, and

horses

masters.

and equipage divided amongst new

We had, in this copse, a very long con-

test about

my ransom, which they set so high, that was not known

them. They were, moreover, in a very great debate about my life; and, in truth, there were various circumstances that clearly showed the danger I was in. it

was manifest

Tunc 1

I

to

animis opus, JEnea, tunc pectore firmo. 1

Then, ;£neas, there was needed an undaunted

insisted

the truce, too willing they

the place,

Jam

prece Pollucis,

jam

Castoris, implorata,

2

behold a sudden and unexpected alteration; I saw the chief return to me with gentler language, making search amongst the troopers for my scattered property, and causing as much as could be recovered, to be restored to me, even to my money-box; but the best present they made

me was my concern me

liberty, for the rest did at that time.

The

not

much

true cause of so

sudden a change, and of this reconsideration, without any apparent impulse, and of so miraculous a repentance, in such a time, in a planned

and deliberate usage (for,

them

enterprise,

and become

at the first dash, I plainly

just

by

confessed

I was, and whither I was do not yet rightly understand. The most prominent amongst them, who pulled off his vizor and told me his name, repeatedly told me at the time over and over again, that I owed my deliverance to my countenance, and the liberty and boldness of my speech, that rendered me unworthy of such a misadventure, and should secure me from its repetition. 'Tis possible that the Divine goodness willed to make

to

of

what party

going), truly,

I

use of this vain instrument for my preservation; and it, moreover, defended me the next day

from other and worse ambushes, of which these assailants had given me warning. The last of these two gentlemen is yet living, himself to tell the story; the first was killed not long ago. If my face did not answer for me, if men did not read in my eyes and in my voice the innocence of my intention, I had not lived so long without quarrels and without giving offence,

my

seeing the indiscreet liberty

I

take to say, right

my head, and to judge so rashly of things. This way may, with reason, appear uncivil, and ill adapted to our or wrong, whatever

comes

into

courage.— JEneici, vi. 261. 2 Having prayed for the aid of Castor and Pollux. —Catullus, Ixvi. 65.

5

Montaigne

i6

way of conversation; but I have never met with any who judged it outrageous or malicious, or that took offence at my liberty, if he had it from my own mouth; words repeated have another kind of sound and sense. Nor do I hate any person; and I am so slow to offend, that I cannot do it, even upon the account of reason itself; and

when

occasion has required

me to sentence crim-

have rather chosen to fail in point of justice than to do it: Ut magis peccari nolim, quam * satis animi ad vindicanda peccata habeam. Aristotle, 'tis said, was reproached for having been too merciful to a wicked man "I was, indeed," said he, "merciful to the man, but not to his wickedness." Ordinary judgments exasperate themselves to punishment by the horror of the fact: but it cools mine; the horror of the first murder makes me fear a second; and the deformity of the first cruelty makes me abhor all imitation of it. That may be applied to me, who am but a Knave of Clubs, which was said of Charillus, king of Sparta: "He cannot be good, seeing he is not evil to the wicked/' Or thus— for Plutarch delivers it both these ways, as he does a thousand other things, variously and contradictorily— "He must needs be good, because he is so even to the wicked." Even as in lawful actions, I dislike to employ myself, when for such as are displeased at it; so, to say the truth, in unlawful things, I do not make conscious enough of employing myself, when for such as are willinals, I

:

ing. xiii.

Of experience

There

desire

experience,

„

.

,

.

Per varies usus ariem expertentui feat, Exemplo monstrante viam,

which

is

but truth

a

so great a thing, that

one

we ought

not

to disdain any mediation that will guide us to it. Reason has so many forms, that we know not to which to take; experience has no fewer; the consequence we would draw from the comparison of events is unsure, by reason they are always unlike. There is no quality so universal in this image of things, as diversity and variety. Both

a

u

•* j rather men should t not commit had faults, than that I should have the heart to con-

«l *. t that I

i.

demn them.— Livy, xxix. 21. 2 By various proofs, experience

has made ample showing the way.— Manilius, i. 59.

art: ex-

for the

most

particularly

who could distinguish marks of

Delphos,

difference amongst eggs so well, that he never mistook one for another; and, having many hens, could tell which had laid it. Dissimilitude intrudes itself of itself in our works; no art can arrive at perfect similitude: neither Perrozet,

nor any other cardmaker, can so carefully polish and blanch the backs of his cards, that some gamesters will not distinguish them by seeing them only shuffled by another. Resemblance does not so much make one, as difference makes another. Nature has obliged herself to make nothing other, that was not unlike. And yet I am not much pleased with his opinion, who thought by the multitude of laws to curb the authority of judges, in cutting out for them their several parcels; he was not aware that there

is

as

much

liberty

and

latitude in the

interpretation of laws, as in their form;

and they

but fool themselves, who think to lessen and stop our disputes by recalling va to the express words of the Bible forasmuch as our mind does not find the field less spacious wherein to controvert the sense of another, than to deliver his :

own; and as if there were less animosity and tartness in commentary than in invention. We see how much he was mistaken; for we have more laws in France than all the rest of the world put together, and more than would be necessary for the government of all the worlds of Epicurus: flagitiis, sic

nunc

legibus laboramus:

8

and yet we have left so much to the opinions and decisions of our judges, that there never was so full a liberty or so full a licence. What have our legislators gained by culling out a hundred to thousand particular cases, and by applying ' n umber h d j aws? h . ... p r holds no manner or proportion with the infinite

£^

diversity of

.

human

.

^ ,

.

.

actions; the multiplication

of our inventions will never arrive at the variety of examples;

add

many more,

it

hundred times as not happen, that of

to these a

will

still

events to come, there shall one be found that, in this vast number of millions of events so chosen and recorded, shall so tally with any other one,

and be

so exactly

coupled and matched with it, some circumstance

that there will not remain

and 10 So

and the Latins, and we,

and yet there have been men,

at

^

means much more weak and cheap;

is

eggs:

Ut olim

more natural than that of knowledge. We try all ways that can lead us to it; where reason is wanting, we therein employ no

is

the Greeks

express example of similitude, employ that of

which

will require a diverse judg-

is little

relation betwixt our actions,

diversity

ment. There

8 So that as formerly we were opposed with wickedness, we are now oppressed with laws.— Tacitus, Annal., iii. 25.

Essays which are in perpetual mutation, and fixed and immutable laws; the most to be desired, are those that are the most rare, the most simple and general: and I am even of opinion, that we had better have none at all, than to have them in so pro-

number

digious a

as

we

have.

Nature always gives them better and happier than those ture of the state

we make

ourselves; witness the pic-

Golden Age of the

wherein we see nations

other:

some there

take the

first

are,

who

Poets,

and the

who have no

live,

for their only judge,

passer-by that travels along their

mountains, to determine their cause and others who, on their market day, choose out some one amongst them upon the spot to decide their controversies. What danger would there be, that the wisest amongst us should so determine ours, according to occurrences, and at sight, without obligation of example and consequence? For every foot, its own shoe. King Ferdinand, sending colonies to the Indies, wisely provided that they should not carry along with them any students of the long-robe, for fear lest suits should get footing in that new world, as being a science :

in

its

own

division;

nature, the mother of altercation

and

1

judging with Plato, "that lawyers and

physicians are the pests of a country."

Whence does it come to pass that our common language, so easy for all other uses, becomes and conand that he who so clearly expresses himself, in whatever else he speaks or writes, cannot find in these, any way of declaring himself that does not fall into doubt and contradiction? obscure, and unintelligible in wills tracts?

be not that the princes of that art, applying themselves with a peculiar attention to cull out portentous words and to contrive artificial sentences, have so weighed every syllable, and so thoroughly sifted every sort of quirking connecif it

tion, that

they are

now confounded and

intan-

gled in the infinity of figures and minute divi-

and can no more fall within any rule or any certain intelligence: Confusum est, quidquid usque in fulverem sectum 2 est. As you see children trying to bring a mass sions,

prescription, nor

of quicksilver to a certain

more they press and work reduce

it

to

number

of parts; the

and endeavour to their own will, the more they irritate it,

the liberty of this generous metal;

it evades their endeavour, and sprinkles itself into so many separate bodies as frustrate all reckoning; so is it here; for in subdividing these subtleties, we teach

III.

517

13

men

to increase their doubts; they put us into a

way

of extending and diversifying difficulties, and lengthen and disperse them. In sowing and retailing questions, they make the world fructify and increase in uncertainties and disputes, as the earth is made fertile by being crumbled and

dug deep: Difjicultatem facit doctrinal We doubted of Ulpian, and are now still more perplexed with Bartolus and Baldus. We should efface the trace of this innumerable diversity of

opinions; not adorn ourselves with posterity with crotchets. to

it;

many

but experience makes

this,

much

at

and

good

his

own

it;

Republic,

and

less will

fill

to say

manifest, that so

and break he could

if

another that is not who expressed

a third than he,

thoughts.

We open the matter, and spill

in pouring out: of

one subject we make a thou-

sand, and in multiplying and subdividing them, fall

again into the infinity of atoms of Epicurus.

Never did two men make the same judgment of the same thing; and 'tis impossible to find two opinions exactly alike, not only in several men, but in the same man, at diverse hours. I often find matter of doubt in things of which the commentary has disdained to take notice; I am most apt to stumble in an even country, like some horses that I have known, that make most trips in the smoothest

way.

Who will not say that glosses augment doubts and ignorance, since there's no one book to be found, either human or divine, which the world busies itself about, whereof the difficulties are

cleared

by

interpretation.

The hundredth com-

mentator passes it on to the next, still more knotty and perplexed than he found it. When were we ever agreed amongst ourselves: "this book has enough; there is now no more to be said about it?" This is most apparent in the law; we give the authority of law to infinite doctors, infinite decrees, and as many interpretations; yet do we find any end of the need of interpreting? is there, for all that, any progress or advancement towards peace, or do we stand in need of any fewer advocates and judges, than when this great mass of law was yet in its first infancy? On the contrary, we darken and bury intelligence; we can no longer discover it, but at the mercy of so many fences and barriers. Men do not know the natural disease of the mind; it does nothing but ferret and inquire, and is eternally wheel-

ing, juggling, 1

it

interpretations dissipate truth,

not do

it

it,

know not what

Aristotle wrote to be understood;

it.

so

I

and perplexing

itself like silk-

iii.

2

Whatever is beaten into powder Seneca, Eyist., 89.

is

confused.-

3

Doctrine

Orat.,

x. 3.

begets

difficulty.— Quintilian,

Inst.

:

Montaigne

5 i8

worms, and then suffocates

Mus in pice.

1

It

thinks

it

work;

itself in its

discovers at a great dis-

not what glimpse of light and imaginary truth; but whilst running to it, so many difficulties, hindrances and new inquisitance,

:

I

know

tions cross it, that it loses its way, and is made drunk with the motion: not much unlike /Esop's dogs, that seeing something like a dead body floating in the sea, and not being able to approach it, set to work to drink the water and lay the passage dry, and so choked themselves. To which, what one Crates said of the writings

of Heraclitus, falls pat

enough,

''that

they

re-

quired a reader who could swim well/' so that the depth and weight of his doctrine might not overwhelm and stifle him. Tis nothing but par-

There is more ado to interpret interpretations than to interpret things; and more books upon books than upon any other subject; we do nothing but comment upon one another. Every place swarms with commentaries; of authors there is great scarcity. Is it not the principal and most reputed knowledge of our later ages to understand the learned? Is it not the common and final end of all studies? Our opinions are grafted

upon one another;

the

first

serves as a stock to

the second, the second to the third, and so forth;

thus step by step it

comes

we climb the ladder: whence he who is mounted highest,

to pass that

ticular

has often more honour than merit, for he is got up but an inch upon the shoulders of the last but one. How often, and, perad venture, how foolishly,

what others

have

weakness that makes us content with or ourselves have found out in this chase after knowledge: one of better understanding will not rest so content; there is always room for one to follow, nay, even for ourselves; and another road; there is no end of our inquisitions; our end is in the other world. 'Tis a sign either that the is

mind has grown

satisfied, or that

mind can

it

short-sighted

has got weary.

when

it

No generous

itself; it will still tend further, power; it has sallies beyond its effects; if it do not advance and press forward, and retire, and rush and wheel about, 'tis but half alive; its pursuits are without bound or method; its aliment is admiration, the chase, ambiguity, which Apollo sufficiently declared in always speaking to us in a double, obscure, and oblique sense; not feeding, but amusing and puzzling us. 'Tis an irregular and perpetual motion, without model and without aim; its inven-

stop in

and beyond

its

tions heat, pursue,

and inter-produce one an-

other:

I

extended

my book, to make it speak of it-

no other reason but this, should remind me of what I say of others who do the same: that the frequent amorous glances they cast upon their work witness that their hearts pant with self-love; and that even the disdainful severity wherewith they scourge them, are but the dandlings and caressings of maternal love; as Aristotle, whose valuing and under valuing himself often springs from the 3 same air of arrogance. My own excuse is, that I ought in this to have more liberty than others, forasmuch as I write specifically of myself and of my writings, as I do of my other actions; that my theme turns upon itself; but I know not self; foolishly, if for

that

it

whether others will accept this excuse. I have observed in Germany, that Luther has left as many divisions and disputes about the doubt of his opinions, and more, than he himself raised

upon

test is verbal: I

the

ask

Holy Scriptures. Our conwhat nature is, what pleas-

and substitution are? the question is is answered accordingly. A

ure, circle,

Ainsi veoid on, en un ruisseau coulant, Sans fin Vune eau, apres Vaultre roulant; Et tout de reng, d'un eternel conduict,

about words, and stone is a body; but

Vune suyt Vaultre,

"And what is a body?"— "Substance." "And what

Vune

Vaultre fuyt. Par cette-cy, celle-la est poulsee, et

substance?" and so on, he would drive the reexspondent to the end of his Calepin. change one word for another, and often for one less understood. I better know what Man is, than

We

I

A mouse in

know what Animal

2

Etienne de la Boetie, thus translated by Cotton So in a running stream one wave we see

After another roll incessantly, And as they glide, each does successively Pursue the other, each the other fly:

Still

the same brook, hut different water

is,

or Mortal, or Rational.

To satisfy one doubt, they pop me in the ear with

a pitch barrel.

By this that's evermore pushed on, and By that continually preceded is: The water still does into water swill,

a man should further urge

is

Et cette-cy par Vaultre est devancee: Tousiours I eau va dans Veau; et tousiours est-ce Mesme ruisseau, et tousiours eau diverse. 2

1

if

this

still.

three;

'tis

the Hydra's head. Socrates asked

Me-

non, "What virtue was." * "There is," says Menon, "the virtue of a man and of a woman, of a magistrate

and of a private person, of an old

man and of a child." "Very fine," cried Socrates, 3

Ethics,

*

Plato, in

iv. 3.

Meno.

Essays one virtue, and thou hast brought us a whole swarm." We put one question, and they return us a whole hive. As no event, no face, entirely resembles another, so do they not entirely differ: an ingenious mixture of nature. If our faces were not alike, we could not distinguish man from beast; if they were not unlike, we could not distinguish one man from another; all things hold by some similitude; every example halts, and the relation which is drawn from experience is always faulty and imperfect. Comparisons are ever coupled at one end or other: so do the laws serve, and are fitted to every one of our affairs, by some wrested, biassed, and

"we were

in quest of

in. 13

519

already passed

upon the

first

condemned

a

man in a great fine towards anoth-

by an absolute judgment. The truth some time after being discovered, he found that he had passed an unjust sentence. On one side was the reason of the cause; on the other side, the reason of the judicial forms: he in some sort er

sentence in the state purse recompensing the condemned party. But he had to do with a reparable affair; my men were irreparably hanged. satisfied both, leaving the it

we

see they are,

'tis

no wonder

if

Do

but consider the form of this justice that governs us; 'tis a true testimony of human weakness, so full is it of error and contradiction. What we find to be favour and severity

more

so.

much of them both, know not whether the medium is as often

in justice— and

that

I

we

find so

met with— are sickly and unjust members of the very body and essence of justice. The country people run to bring me news in great haste, that they have just left in a forest of mine a man with a hundred wounds upon him, who was yet breathing, and begged of them water for pity's sake, and help to carry him to some place of rethey tell me they durst not go near him, but have run away, lest the officers of justice should catch them there; and as happens to those who are found near a murdered person, they should be called in question about this accident, to their utter ruin, having neither money nor friends to defend their innocence. What could I have said to these people? Tis certain that this office of humanity would have brought them inlief;

to trouble.

How many innocent people have we known that

have been punished, and

this

without the

and how many that have not arrived at our knowledge? This happened in my time certain men were condemned to die for a murder committed; their sentence, if not pronounced, at least determined and concluded on. The judges, just in the nick, are informed by judge's fault;

:

the officers of an inferior court hard by, that they

have some men in custody, who have directly confessed the murder, and made an indubitable discovery of all the particulars of the fact. Yet it

was gravely deliberated whether or not they ought to suspend the execution of the sentence

they con-

and the consequence of reversing judgments; that the sentence was passed, and the judges deprived of repentance; and in the result, these poor devils were sacrified by the forms of justice. Philip, or some other, provided against a like inconvenience, after this manner. He had

Since the ethic laws, that concern the particular duty of every one in himself, are so hard to

be framed, as

:

sidered the novelty of the example judicially,

forced interpretation.

those which govern so many particulars are much

accused

was, and out of his

How many

own

condemnations have

I

seen,

more

criminal than the crimes themselves? All

which makes

opinions, "That

wrong by

'tis

me remember the ancient man must do

of necessity a

who will do right in gross; and who would come to do great: that human justice is formed

retail,

injustice in little things, justice in

model of physic, according to which, useful is also just and honest and of what is held by the Stoics, that Nature herself proceeds contrary to justice in most of her works: and of what is received by the Cyrenaics, that after the all

that

there

is

is

:

nothing just of

and laws make

itself,

but that customs

and what the Theodorians held, that theft, sacrilege, and all sorts of uncleanness, are just in a sage, if he knows them to be profitable to him." There is no remedy: I am in the same case that Alcibiades was, 1 that justice:

I will never, if I can help it, put myself into the hands of a man who may determine as to my head; where my life and honour shall more depend upon the skill and diligence of my attorney than on my own innocence. I would venture myself with such justice as would take notice of my good deeds, as well as my ill; where I had as much to hope as to fear: indemnity is not sufficient pay to a man who does better than not to do amiss. Our justice presents to us but one hand, and that the left hand, too; let him be who he may, he shall be sure to come off with loss. In China, of which kingdom the government and arts, without commerce with or knowledge of ours, surpass our examples in several excellent features, and of which the history teaches me how much greater and more various the world is than either the ancients or we have been

Plutarch, Alcibiades.

.

Montaigne

5 20

able to penetrate, the officers deputed by the visit the state of his provinces, as they

prince to

need.

I

ject; 'tis

study myself more than any other submy metaphysic, my physic.

punish those who behave themselves ill in their charge, so do they liberally reward those who have conducted themselves better than the com-

Qua Deus banc mundi temper et arte domum; Qua venit exoriens, qua deficit, unde coactis

mon sort, and beyond

Unde

the necessity of their duty;

these there present themselves, not only to be approved but to get; not simply to be paid, but to have a present made to them. No judge, thank God, has ever yet spoken to me in the quality of a judge, upon any account

whatever, whether my own or that of another, whether criminal or civil; nor no prison has ever received me, not even as a visitor. Imagination renders the very outside of a

me:

I

am

so

enamoured

jail

displeasing to

of liberty, that should

I

be interdicted the remotest corner of the Indies, I should live a little less at my ease; and whilst I can find earth or air open in any other part of the world, I shall never lurk in any place where I must hide myself. Good God! how ill should I endure the condition wherein I see so many people, nailed to a corner of the kingdom, deprived of the right to enter the principal cities courts,

and the

and

liberty of the public roads, for

having quarrelled with our laws. If those under which I live should but wag a finger at me by way of menace, I would immediately go seek out others, let them be where they would. All my little prudence in the civil wars wherein we are now engaged, is employed that they may not hinder my liberty of coming and going. Now, the laws keep up their credit, not for being just, but because they are laws; 'tis the mystic foundation of their authority; they have no other, and it well answers their purpose.

Cornibus in plenum menstrua luna redit: salo superant venti, quid famine captet Eurus, et in nubes unde perennis aqua; 1 Sit ventura dies, mundi quae subruat arces, 2 Quaerite, quos agitat mundi labor. .

In this university,

I

suffer myself to

.

be ignorant-

and negligently led by the general law of the world I shall know it well enough when I feel ly

:

my learning cannot make it alter its course;

it;

will not

change

luck to

know how

it

me; 'tis folly to hope it, and a greater folly to concern one's self about it, seeing it is necessarily alike, public and common. The goodness and capacity of the Governor ought absolutely to discharge us of all care of the government: philosophical inquisitions and contemplations serve for no other use but to increase our curiosity. The philosophers, with great reason, send us back to the rules of nature; but they have nothing to do with so sublime a knowledge; they falsify them, and present us her face painted with too high and too adulterate a complexion, whence spring so many different pictures of so uniform a subject. As she has given us feet to walk with, so has she given us prudence to guide us in life: not so ingenious, robust, and pompous a prudence, as that of their invention; but yet one that is easy, quiet, and salutary, and that very well performs what the other promises, in him who has the good regularly, that

is

itself for

employ

sincerely

and

to say, according to nature.

The

to

it

They are often made by fools, still oftener by men who, out of hatred to equality, fail in equi-

most simply to commit one's self to nature, is to do it most wisely. Oh, what a soft, easy, and wholesome pillow is ignorance and incuriosity,

but always by men, vain and irresolute auThere is nothing so much, nor so grossly,

whereon to repose a well-contrived head! I had rather understand myself well in my-

ty;

thors.

nor so ordinarily faulty, as the laws. Whoever obeys them because they are just, does not justly obey them as he ought. Our French laws, by their irregularity and deformity, lend, in some sort, a helping hand to the disorder and corruption that all manifest in their dispensation and execution the command is so perplexed and inconstant, that it in some sort excuses alike disobedience, and defect in the interpretation, the

self,

than in Cicero.

Of the experience I have of

enough to make me wise, if I were but a good scholar: whoever will call to mind the excess of his past anger, and to what a demyself,

I

find

gree that fever transported him, will see the deformity of this passion better than in Aristotle,

:

administration and the observation of it. What fruit, then, soever we may extract from experience, that will

little

advantage our institution,

which we draw from foreign examples, if we make so little profit of that we have of our own, which is more familiar to us, and, doubtless, sufficient to instruct us in that whereof we have

1

By what art God governs this home of the uniwhence comes the moon, whither she goes;

verse;

how

it is that she fills her horn and comes to the every month; whence winds are frequent on the main; what the east wind courts with its blasts; and whence the clouds are perpetually supplied with water; whether a day is to come which is to uproot the world.— Propertius, iii. 5, 26. 2 Seek ye whom the cares of the world trouble.—

full

Lucan,

i.

417.

Essays more just hatred against it; whoever will remember the ills he has undergone, those that have threatened him, and the light occasions that have removed him from one state to another, will by that prepare himself for future changes, and the knowledge of his condition. The life of Caesar has no greater example for us than our own: though popular and of command, 'tis still a life subject to all human and conceive

a

it; we apply to we have principal need; whoever shall call to memory how many and many times he has been mistaken in his own

accidents. Let us but listen to

ourselves

whereof

all

judgment,

is

he not a great

ever after suspect

When

it?

fool I

if

he does not

find myself con-

by the reason of another, of a false opinion, I do not so much learn what he has said to me that is new, and the particular ignorance— that would be no great acquisition— as, in general, I learn my own debility and the treachery vinced,

my understanding, whence I extract the reformation of the whole mass. In all my other errors, I do the same, and find from this rule great utility to life; I regard not the species and of

III.

521

13

Judgment holds in me it

a magisterial seat; at least

make

carefully endeavours to

my

appetites to take their

own

it

so: it leaves

course, hatred

and friendship, nay, even that I bear to myself, without change or corruption; if it cannot reform the other parts according to its own model, at least it suffers not itself to be corrupted by them, but plays its game apart. That advice to every one, "to know themselves," should be of important effect, since the god of wisdom and light caused it to be written on the front of his temple, as comprehending all he had to advise us. Plato says also, that prudence is no other thing than the execution of this ordinance; and Socrates minutely verifies it in Xenophon. The difficulties and obscurity are not discerned in any science but by those who

are got into

for a certain degree of intelligence

it;

know that a man knows and we must push against a door to know whether it be bolted against us or no: whence is

required to be able to

not:

this Platonic subtlety springs, that "neither they

who know

am that a man

are to inquire, forasmuch as they know; nor they who do not know, forasmuch as to inquire they must know what they inquire of." So in this, "of knowing a man's self," that every man is seen so resolved and satisfied with

has said or done a foolish thing is nothing: a man must learn that he is nothing but a fool, a

ciently intelligent, signifies that every one knows

individual, as a stone that I

learn to suspect

careful to place

my steps

them

right.

I

have stumbled

at;

throughout, and

To learn

much more ample and important instruction. The false steps that my memory has so often made, even then when it was most secure and confident of

itself,

are not idly

may now swear to me and it

will, I

shake

thrown away;

assure

me

as

it

much as

my ears, and dare not trust it; the

first

opposition that

me

into suspense,

made

is

to its testimony,

puts

and I durst not rely upon it in anything of moment, nor warrant it in another person's concerns: and were it not that what I do for want of memory, others do more often for want of good faith, I should always, in matter of

choose to take the truth from another's mouth, than from my own. If every one would pry into the effects and circumstances of the passions that sway him, as I have fact, rather

himself, that every

man

thinks himself

suffi-

nothing about the matter; as Socrates gives Euto understand. I, who profess nothing else, therein find so infinite a depth and variety, that all the fruit I have reaped from my learning serves only to make me sensible how much I have to learn. To my weakness, so often confessed, I owe the propension I have to modesty, to the obedience of belief prescribed me, to a constant coldness and moderation of opinions, and a hatred of that troublesome and wrangling arrogance, wholly believing and trusting in it-

thydemus

self,

the capital

Do but

enemy

of discipline

hear them domineer; the

they utter,

and

first

truth.

fopperies

in the style wherewith men estaband laws. Nihil est turpius, quam

'tis

lish religions

cognitioni et perceptioni, assertionem wpyroba-

done into those which I am most subject to, he would see them coming, and would a little break their impetuosity and career; they do not always seize us on a sudden; there is threatening and

tionemque pr&currere. 2 Aristarchus said, that anciently there were scarce seven sages to be found in the world; and in his time scarce so many fools; have not we more reason than he to

degrees:

say so in this age of ours. Affirmation

Fluctus uti yrimo coepit

cum albescere

Paulatim sese tollit mare, et altius undas inde imo consurgit ad aethera fundo. 1

Erigit,

1

As

at the first

gins to foam,

and

breath of the winds, the sea bethence higher swells, and

swells,

and

obsti-

vento,

higher raises the waves, till at length they seem to the s\.y.—JEneid, vii. 528. 2 Nothing is worse than that assertion and decision should precede knowledge and perception.— Cicero, Acad., i. 13. rise to

Montaigne

22

want of wit. A fellow nacy has stumbled and knocked his nose against the ground a hundred times in a day, and yet he will be at his Ergo's as resolute and sturdy as before; so that one would conclude he had had some new soul and vigour of understanding infused into him since, and that it happened to are express signs of

him, as to that ancient son of the earth, took fresh courage and vigour by his fall:

Cui cum

parentem,

tetigere

membra:

dejecta vigent renovato robore

Jam

who

1

The

wise speak, and deliver their fancies more and piece by piece; I, who see no further into things than as use informs me, present mine generally without rule and experimentally: I pronounce my opinion by disjointed specifically,

thing that cannot be spoken at once and in gross: relation and conformity are not to be found in such low and common souls as ours. Wisdom is a solid and entire building, of which every piece keeps its place and bears its mark; articles, as a

Sola sapientia in se iota conversa

does not this incorrigible coxcomb think that he assumes a new understanding, by undertaking a new dispute? 'Tis by my own experience that I

accuse

human ignorance, which

is,

in

my opin-

Such by so vain own, let them be-

ion, the surest part of the world's school. as will not conclude

it

in themselves,

an example as mine, or their lieve it from Socrates, the master of masters; for the philosopher Antisthenes, said to his disci"Let us go and hear Socrates: I will be a

ples,

pupil with you"; and, maintaining this doctrine of the Stoic sect, "that virtue

was

sufficient to

happy, having no need of any other thing whatever" except of the force of Socrates, added he.

make

a life completely

:

The long attention ing myself, also

fits

that

I

employ

in consider-

me to judge tolerably of oth-

and there are few things whereof I speak and with better excuse. I happen very often more exactly to see and distinguish the qualities of my friends than they do themselves; I have astonished some with the pertinence of my description, and have given them warning of themselves. By having from my infancy been accustomed to contemplate my own life in those of others, I have acquired a complexion studious in that particular; and when I am once intent upon it, I let few things about me, whether countenances, humours, or discourses, that serve to that purpose, escape me. I study all, both what I am to avoid, and what I am to follow. Also in my friends, I discover by their productions their inward inclinations; not by arranging this infinite variety of so diverse and unconnected actions into certain species and chapters, and distinctly distributing my parcels and divisions under known heads and classes; ers;

better

Sed neque quam multae species, et nomine quae Est numerus*

sint,

1

Whose broken limbs, touching his mother earth, immediately new force and vigour acquired.— Lucan,

iv.

599.

2 But not the number of their species and names; they are too many.— Virgil, Georg., ii. 103.

2

est.

1

leave

it

know

not whether or no they will be able to bring it about, in so perplexed, minute, and fortuitous a thing, to marshal into distinct bodies this infinite diversity of faces, to settle our inconstancy, and set it in order. I do not only find it hard to piece our actions to one another, but I, moreover, find it hard properly to artists,

and

I

each by itself by any principal quality, ambiguous and variform they are, with diverse lights. That which is remarked for rare in Perseus, king of Macedon, "that his mind fixing itself to no one condition, wandered in all sorts of living, and represented manners so wild and vagabond, that it was neither known to himself or any other what kind of man he was," seems almost to fit all the world; and, especially, I have seen another of his make, to whom I think this conclusion might more properly be applied; no moderate settledness, still running headlong from one extreme to another, upon occasions not to be guessed at; no line of path without traverse and wonderful contrariety; no one quality simple and unmixed; so that the best guess men can one day make will be, that he affected and studied to make himself known by being not to be known. A man had need have sound ears to hear himself frankly criticised; and as there are few who can endure to hear it without being

to design

so

nettled, those who hazard the undertaking it to us manifest a singular effect of friendship; for 'tis to love sincerely indeed, to venture to wound and offend us, for our own good. I think it harsh to judge a man whose ill-qualities are more than

good ones: Plato requires three things in

his

him who will examine the soul of another: knowledge, benevolence, boldness.

4

am

sometimes asked, what I should have thought myself fit for, had anyone designed to make use of me in my younger years; I

Dum melior vires sanguis dabat, aemula necdum Temporibus geminis canebat sparsa senectus: 3

De

Wisdom Vinib.,

only

iii.

is

wholly within

5

itself.— Cicero,

7.

4

Plato, Gorgias.

5

Whilst better blood gave

my

limbs vigour, and

:

Essays am

very willing to "for nothing," say I; and profess not knowing how to do anything, that I may so be excused from enslaving myself to anI

other.

But

had

I

told the truths to that master of

mine, and had regulated his manners, if he had so pleased; not in gross, by scholastic lessons, which I understand not, and from which I see no true reformation spring in those that do; but by observing them by leisure, at all opportunities, and simply and naturally judging them as an eye-witness, distinctly one by one; giving him

understand upon what terms he was in the

to

common

opinion, in opposition to his flatterers.

There

none of us who would not be worse

is

than kings,

if

so continually corrupted as they

are with that sort of vermin;

and we

see that

Alexander, that great king and philosopher, could not defend himself from them. I should

have had

enough

judgment,

fidelity,

would be

for that purpose. It

office,

otherwise

effect;

and

for all

men

'tis :

it

would

a part that

and freedom

lose

its

a nameless

grace and

its

not indifferently fit has not the privilege

is

for truth itself

be spoken at all times and indiscriminately use, noble as it is, has its circumscriptions and limits. It often falls out, as the world goes, that a man lets it slip into the ear of a prince, not only to no purpose, but moreover injuriously and unto

its

justly;

and no man

shall

make me believe

that a

may

not be viciously applied, and that the interest of the substance is not often to give way to that of the form. For such a purpose, I would have a man who is content with his own fortune, virtuous remonstrance

Quod

sit,

esse velit; nihilque malit,

1

and of moderate station; forasmuch as, on the one hand, he would not be afraid to touch his master's heart to the quick, for fear by that means of losing his preferment; and, on the other hand, being of no high quality, he would have more easy communication with all sorts of people. I would have this office limited to only one person; for to allow the privilege of this liberty and privacy to many, would beget an inconvenient irreverence; and of that one, I would above all things require the fidelity of silence. A king is not to be believed, when he brags of his constancy in standing the shock of the ene-

my

for his glory,

if,

for his profit

and amend-

ment, he cannot stand the liberty of a friend's advice, which has no other power but to pinch before envious old age had whitened JEneid, v. 415. 1

Who

my

head.—

pleased with what he is, and desires nothing further.— Martial, x. 47, 1 2.

III.

5*3

13

his ear, the

remainder of

its

effect

being

still

in

own hands. Now, there is no condition of men whatever who stand in so great need of true his

and

free advice

sustain a public

ion of so

many

and warning, as they do: they and have to satisfy the opin-

life,

spectators, that, as those about

them conceal from them whatever should divert them from their own way, they insensibly find themselves involved in the hatred and detestation of their people, often upon occasions which they might have avoided without any prejudice even of their pleasures themselves,

had they been advised and set right in time. Their favourites commonly have more regard to themselves than to their master; and indeed it answers with them, forasmuch as, in truth, most offices of real friendship, when applied to the sovereign, are under a rude and dangerous 2

is great need, not only of very great affection and freedom, but of courage too.

hazard, so that therein there

In fine, all this hodge-podge which I scribble is nothing but a register of the essays of my own life, which, for the internal soundness, is exemplary enough, to take instruction against the grain; but as to bodily health, no man can furnish out more profitable experience th^n I, who present it pure, and no way corrupted and changed by art or opinion. Experience is prop-

here,

upon its own dunghill in the subject of where reason wholly gives it place: Tiberius said that whoever had lived twenty years erly

physic,

ought to be responsible to himself for all things that were hurtful or wholesome to him, and know how to order himself without physic; and he might have learned it of Socrates, who, advising his disciples to be solicitous of their health as a chief study, added that it was hard if a man of sense, having a care to his exercise and diet, did not better know than any physician what was good or ill for him. And physic itself professes always to have experience for the test of its operations so Plato had reason to say that, to be a right physician, it would be necessary that he who would become such, should first himself have passed through all the diseases he pretends to cure, and through all the accidents and circumstances whereof he is to judge. Tis but reason they should get the pox, if they will know how to cure it; for my part, I should put myself into such hands; the others but guide us, like :

him who paints at table,

seas and rocks and ports and there makes the model of

sailing in all security;

but put him

is

2

Tacitus, Histories,

1,

15.

sitting

a ship

to the

work

Mon TAIGNE

524 he knows not at which end make such a description of our

itself,

to begin.

dog— such

a

ear— but bring

it

town-crier does of a lost horse or colour, such a height, such an

They

maladies, as a

him, and he knows it not, for all that. If physshould one day give me some good and visible relief, then, truly, I will cry out in good earnest: to ic

Tandem

The

arts that

efficaci

do manus

scientiae.

1

promise to keep our bodies and

souls in health promise a great deal; but, withal,

there are none that less keep their promise. And, in our time, those who make profession of these

amongst us, less manifest the effects than any other sort of men; one may say of them, at

arts

the most, that they sell medicinal drugs; but that

man cannot say. I have be able to give an account of the custom that has carried me so far; for him who has a mind to try it, as his taster, I have made the experiment. Here are some of the articles, as my memory shall supply me with them; I have no custom that has not varied according to circumstances; but I only record those that I have been best acquainted with, and that hitherto have had the greatest possession of me. My form of life is the same in sickness as in they are physicians, a

lived long

enough

to

health; the same bed, the same hours, the same meat, and even the same drink, serve me in both conditions alike; I add nothing to them but the moderation of more or less, according to my strength and appetite. health is, to maintain my wonted state without disturbance. I see

My

with our hearths, by the same arguments which we commonly make use of in decrying their stoves: for, to say the truth, the smothered heat, and then the smell of that heated matter of which the fire is composed, very much offend such as are not used to them; not me; and, indeed, the heat being always equal, constant and universal, without flame, without smoke, and without the wind that comes down our chimneys, they may many ways sustain comparison with ours. Why do we not imitate the Roman architecture? for they say that anciently fires were not made in the houses, but on the outside, and at the foot of them, whence the heat was conveyed to the

whole fabric by pipes contrived in the wall, which were drawn twining about the rooms that were to be warmed: which I have seen plainly described somewhere in Seneca. This

German hearing me commend

the conveniences

and beauties of his city, which truly deserves it, began to compassionate me that I had to leave it; and the first inconvenience he alleged to me was, the heaviness of head that the chimneys elsewhere would bring upon me. He had heard some one make this complaint, and fixed it upon us, being by custom deprived of the means of perceiving it at home. AH heat that comes from the fire weakens and dulls me; and yet Evenus said, that fire was the best condiment of life: I rather choose any other way of making myself warm.

We

are afraid to drink our wines,

when

to-

that sickness puts

ward the bottom of the cask; in Portugal those fumes are reputed delicious, and it is the bev-

will be ruled

erage of princes. In short, every nation has

me off it on one side, and if I by the physicians, they will put me off on the other; so that by fortune and by art I am out of my way. I believe nothing more certainly than this, that I cannot be hurt by the use of things to which I have been so long accustomed. 'Tis for custom to give a form to a man's life, such as it pleases him; she is all in all in that: 'tis the beverage of Circe, that varies our nature as she best pleases. How many nations, and but three steps from us, think the fear of the night-dew, that so manifestly is hurtful to US, a ridiculous fancy; and our own watermen and peasants laugh at it. You make a German sick if you lay him upon a mattress, as you do an Italian if you lay him on a feather-bed; and a Frenchman, if without curtains or fire. A Spanish stomach cannot hold out to eat as we can; nor ours to drink like the Swiss. A German made me very merry at Augsburg, by finding fault

1

it

Show me an

efficacious science,

by the hand.— Horace,

and

E'pod., xvii. 1.

I will

take

many

customs and usages that are not only unknown to other nations, but savage and miraculous in their sight. What should we do with those people who admit of no evidence that is not in print, who believe not men if they are not in a book, nor truth, if it be not of competent age? we dignify our fopperies, when we commit them to the press: 'tis of a great deal more weight to say, "I have read such a thing," than if you only say, "I have heard such a thing." But I, who no more disbelieve a man's mouth than his pen, and who

know that men write as indiscreetly as they speak, and who look upon this age as one that is past, as soon quote a friend as Aulus Gellius or Maand what I have seen, as what they have And, as 'tis held of virtue, that it is not greater for having continued longer, so do I hold of the truth, that for being older it is none the wiser. I often say, that it is mere folly that makes us run after foreign and scholastic examples; their fertility is the same now that it

crobius;

written.

Essays was in the time of Homer and Plato. But is it not that we seek more honour from the quotation, than from the truth of the matter in hand? As if it were more to the purpose, to borrow our proofs from the shops of Vascosan or Plantin, than from what is to be seen in our own village; or else, indeed, that we have not the wit to cull out and make useful what we see before us, and to judge of it clearly enough to draw it into example for if we say that we want authority to give faith to our testimony, we speak from the purpose; forasmuch as, in my opinion, of the most ordinary, common, and known things, could we but find out their light, the greatest miracles of nature might be formed, and the most wonderful example, especially upon the :

human actions. Now, upon this subject,

subject of

I

Madrid to Lisbon, in the heat of summer, without any drink at all. He is very healthful and vigorous for his age, and has nothing extraordinary in the use of his life, but this, to live sometimes two or three months, nay, a whole year, as

he has told me, without drinking.

times thirsty, but he lets holds that it is an appetite

it

He is some-

pass over, and he

which easily goes off and he drinks more out of caprice than either for need or pleasure. Here is another example: 'tis not long ago that I found one of thelearnedestmenin France, and a man of considerable fortune, studying in a corner of a hall that they had separated for him with tapestry, and about him a rabble of his servants making all sorts of noise and confusion. He told me, and Seneca almost says the same of himself, he made an advantage of this uproar; that, beaten with this rattle, he so much the more collected and retired himself into himself for contemplation, and that this tempest of of

itself;

voices repercussed his thoughts within himself;

when

'tis

bent upon any-

thing, the least buzzing of a fly tears

into

it

pieces.

Seneca in his youth having, by the example of Sextius, put

on

a positive resolution of eating

nothing that had had life, and for a whole year dispensed with animal food, and, as he said, with pleasure: only left off, that he might not be suspected of taking up this rule from some

new

religion

by which

it

was

prescribed: he

adopted, in like manner, from the precepts of Attalus a custom not to lie upon any sort of bed-

way under his weight, and, even made use of such as would not

ding that gave to his old age,

yield to

any pressure. What the usage of his time

made him account roughness, that of ours makes us look upon as effeminacy.

Do

but observe the difference betwixt the

my labourers and my own; the Scythians and Indians have nothing more remote both from my capacity and my manners. I have picked up boys from begging, to serve me: who soon after have quitted both my kitchen and livery, only that they might return to their former course of life; and I found one afterwards, picking mussels out of the sewer for his dinner, way

of living of

whom

could neither by entreaties nor threats

I

reclaim from the sweetness he found in indigence. Beggars have their magnificences and delights, as

nities

well as the rich, and,

and

polities.

These

'tis

said, their dig-

are effects of custom;

only into what form she we ought to apply ourselves to the best, which she will soon make easy to us), but also to change and variation, which is the most noble and most useful instruction of all she teaches us. The best of my bodily conditions is that I am flexible and not very obstishe can

mould

us, not

pleases (the sages say

have inclinations more my own and orand more agreeable than others; but I diverted from them with very little ado, and

nate

:

I

dinary,

am

easily slip into a contrary course.

A young man

ought to cross his own rules, to awaken his vigour and to keep it from growing faint and rusty; and there is no course of life so weak and sottish, as that which is carried on by rule and discipline;

when a student at Padua, he had his study so long situated amid the rattle of coaches and the

Ad primum lapidem vectari quum placet, Sumitur ex libro; si prurit Angulus, inspecta genesi,

tumult of the square, that he not only formed himself to the contempt, but even to the use of

he

noise, for the service of his studies. Socrates an-

if

swered Alcibiades, who was astonished how he could endure the perpetual scolding of his wife, "Why," said he, "as those do who are accustomed to the ordinary noise of wheels drawing water." I am quite otherwise; I have a tender head and

5*5

13

easily discomposed;

setting aside the ex-

have gathered from books, and what Aristotle says of Andron the Argian, that he travelled over the arid sands of Lybia without drinking: a gentleman, who has very well behaved himself in several employments, said, in a place where I was, that he had ridden from amples

III.

shall often

collyria quserit;

1

throw himself even into excesses,

my

he

will take

1

he would be carried but a mile, he,

If

hora

frictus ocelli

advice; otherwise the least

for the

proper hour, consults his almanac; if he but rub the corner of his eye, he chooses the salve by his horoscope.— Juvenal, vi. 576.

Mon TAIGNE

526

debauch will destroy him, and render him troublesome and disagreeable in company. The worst quality in a well-bred

man

is

over fastidiousness,

and an obligation to a certain particular way; and it is particular, if not pliable and supple. It is a kind of reproach, not to be able, or not to dare, to do what we see those about us do; let

such as these stop at home. It is in every man unbecoming, but in a soldier vicious and intolerable: who, as Philopoemen said, ought to accustom himself to every variety and inequality

of

life.

I have been brought up, as much as was possible, to liberty and independence, yet so it is that, growing old, and having by indifference more settled upon certain forms (my age is now past instruction, and has henceforward nothing to do but to keep itself up as well as it can), custom has already, ere I was aware, so imprinted its character in me, in certain things, that I look upon it as a kind of excess to leave them off; and, without a force upon myself, cannot sleep in the day-time, nor eat between meals,

Though

nor breakfast, nor go to bed, without a great interval betwixt eating and sleeping, as of three hours after supper; nor get children but before I sleep, nor standing upon my feet; nor endure my own sweat; nor quench my thirst either with pure water or pure wine; nor keep my head long bare, nor cut my hair after dinner; and I should be as uneasy without my gloves as without my shirt, or without washing when I rise from table or out of my bed; and I could not lie without a canopy and curtains, as if they were essential things. I could dine without a tablecloth, but without a clean napkin, after the German fashion, very incommodiously; I foul them more than the Germans or Italians do, and make but little use either of spoon or fork. I am sorry they did not keep up the fashion, begun after the example of kings, to change our napkins at every service, as they do our plates. are told of that laborious soldier Marius, that growing old, he became nice in his drink, and never drank but out of a particular cup of his own I, in like manner, have suffered myself to fancy a certain form of glasses, and not willingly to drink in common glasses, no more than from a strange common hand all metal offends me in comparison of a

We

:

:

and transparent matter: let my eyes taste according to their capacity. I owe several other such niceties to custom. Nature has also, on the other side, helped me to some of hers; as not to be able to endure more than two full meals in one day, without overcharging my stomach, nor a total abstinence from one of tnose meals clear too,

•

without filling myself with wind, drying up my mouth, and dulling my appetite; the finding great inconvenience from overmuch evening air; for of late years, in night marches, which often happen to be all night long, after five or six hours my stomach begins to be queasy, with a violent pain in my head, so that I always vomit before the day can break. When the others go to breakfast, I go to sleep; and when I rise, I am as brisk and gay as before. I had always been told that the night dew never rises but in the beginning of the night; but for some years past, long and familiar intercourse with a lord, possessed with the opinion that the night dew is more sharp and dangerous about the declining of the sun, an hour or two before it sets, which he carefully avoids, and despises that of the night, he almost impressed upon me, not so much his reasoning as his experiences. What, shall mere doubt and inquiry strike our imagination, so as to change us? Such as absolutely and

on

a

sudden give way

to these propensions,

total destruction upon themselves. I

draw

am sorry for

gentlemen who, through the folly of have in their youth and health wholly shut themselves up it were better to endure a cough, than, by disuse, for ever to lose several

their physicians,

:

the

commerce

of

common

life in

things of so

great utility. Malignant science, to interdict us

the most pleasant hours of the day! Let us keep our possession to the last; for the most part, a man hardens himself by being obstinate, and corrects his constitution, as Caesar did the fall-

ing-sickness,

by dint

of contempt.

A man should

addict himself to the best rules, but not enslave

himself to them, except to such, if there be any such, where obligation and servitude are of profit.

Both kings and philosophers go ladies too; public lives are

mine, that

is

bound

to stool, to

obscure and private, enjoys

ural dispensation; soldier

and

ceremony;

and Gascon

all

nat-

are also

qualities a little subject to indiscretion; where-

fore

that

I

shall say of this act of relieving nature,

it is

desirable to refer

it

to certain prescribed

and nocturnal hours, and compel one's self to this by custom, as I have done; but not to subject one's self, as I have done in my declining years, to a particular convenience of place and seat for that purpose, and make it troublesome by long sitting: and yet, in the fouler offices, is it not in some measure excusable to require more care and cleanliness? Natura homo mundum et ele1

gans animal est. Of all the actions of nature, I 1 Man is by nature a clean and delicate creature. —Seneca, Eyist., 92.

:

Essays the most impatient of being interrupted in have seen many soldiers troubled with

am

III.

:

527

13

since,

my taste incontinently

that. I

hurtful to sick people, and

theunrulinessof their bellies; whereas mine and I never fail of our punctual assignation, which is at leaping out of bed, if some indispensable business or sickness does not molest us.

that

I

think then, as

I

said before, that sick

men

m

more cannot better place themselves anywhere safety, than in sitting still in that course of life wherein they have been bred and trained up; change, be it what it will, distempers and puts one out. Do you believe that chestnuts can hurt a Perigourdin or a Lucchese, or milk and cheese enjoin them not only the mountain people?

my mouth

followed.

Wine is

thing then finds distasteful, and with 'tis

the

first

Whatever I take against and nothing hurts me, that I eat with appetite and delight. I never received harm by any action that was very pleasant to me; and accordingly have made all mean invincible

dislike.

my liking, does me harm;

dicinal conclusions largely give way to ure;

and

I

have,

my pleas-

when I was young,

Quern circumcursans hue atque hue

saepe

Fulgebat crocina splendidus in tunica,

Cupido

2

We

given myself the rein as licentiously and incon-

new, but a contrary, method of life; a change that the healthful cannot endure. Prescribe water to a Breton of three score and ten; shut a seaman up in a stove; forbid a Basque footman to walk: you will deprive them of motion, and in the end of air and light.

siderately to the desire that was predominant in me, Et militavi non sine gloria, 3 as any other whomsoever; yet more in continuation and holding out, than in sally

a

Sex

me vix memini sustinuisse and

'Tis certainly a misfortune

An Cogimur a

vivere tanti est?

once, to confess at

animum

suspendere rebus, Atque, ut vivamus, vivere desinimus. Hos swperesse reor, quibus et spirabilis aer Et lux, qua regimur, redditur ipsa gravis} suetis

.

If

.

.

they do no other good, they do this at least,

that they prepare patients betimes for death, little

and

use of

undermining and cutting

little

by

sick, I

off the

upon me. I give great authority to my propensions and desires; I do not love to cure one disease by another; I hate remedies that are more troublesome than the disease

and subject

to

To

be subabstain from eat-

itself.

ing oysters, are two evils instead of one; the disease torments us

dy on the

on the one

other. Since

I first

came

Inde tragus, celeresque Barba meae. 5

pili,

mirandaque matri

have ever willingly suf-

fered myself to obey the appetites that pressed

ject to the stone

a miracle at

a tender age

under the subjection of love: it was, indeed, by chance; for it was long before the years of choice or knowledge; I do not remember myself so far back; and my fortune may well be coupled with that of Quartilla, who couldnot remember when she was a maid

life.

Both well and

what

vices}

we

side,

and the reme-

Physicians modify their rules according to the violent longings that happen to sick persons, ordinarily with good success; this great desire can-

not be imagined so strange and vicious, but that nature must have a hand in it. And then how easy a thing is it to satisfy the fancy? In my opinion, this part wholly carries all

the

rest.

it,

at least, above

The most grievous and ordinary evils

mistaking, let us rather run the hazard of a mis-

are those that fancy loads us with; this Spanish saying mightily pleases in several senses; Dep-

take, after we have had the pleasure. The world proceeds quite the other way, and thinks nothing

that

profitable that

is

picion of facility.

are ever in danger of

not painful;

it

has great sus-

My appetite, in various things,

own accord happily enough accommo-

has of

its

dated

itself to

the health of

my stomach.

enda me Dios de my. 1 am sorry when I am sick, I have not some longing that might give me the pleasure of satisfying

it;

all

the rules of phys-

would hardly be able to divert me from it. I do the same when I am well; I can see very ic

Relish

and pungency in sauces were pleasant to me when young, but my stomach disliking them

2

When

there,

Cupid, fluttering round me here and shone in his rich purple mande.— Catullus,

lxvi. 133. 3 1

Is life

worth so much"? They make us deprive

ourselves of things to which we are accustomed; and, that we may live, we must cease to live. ... I can't conceive that they still live, to whom light and air, by which they live, are forbidden.— PseudoGallus, Elog.,

i.

155, 247.

And

fought not ingloriously.— Horace, Od.,

iii.

26, 2. *

I

can scarcely remember

—Ovid, Amor., 5

My

Martial, 6

iii.

six

bouts in one night.

7, 26.

precocious beard astonished xi.

22, 7.

God defend me from myself.

my

mother.—

:

Montaigne

528 little

more

to

be hoped or wished

for.

'Twere

should be so weak and languishing, as not to have even wishing left to him. The art of physic is not so fixed, that we need be without authority for whatever we do; it pity a

man

and moons; according to Fernel and to Scaliger. If your physician does not think it good for you to sleep, to drink wine, or to eat such and such meats, never trouble yourself; I will find you another that shall not be of his opinion; the diversity of medical arguments and opinions embraces all sorts of forms. I saw a miserable sick person panting and burning for thirst, that he might be cured, who was afterwards laughed at for his pains by changes according

another physician,

to climates

who condemned

that advice

tohim had he not tormented himself to good purpose There lately died of the stone, a man of that profession, who had made use of extreme abstinence to contend with his disease: his fellow-physicians say, that on the contrary, this abstinence had dried him up, and baked the gravel in his kidneys. I have observed, that both in wounds and sicknesses, speaking discomposes and hurts me, as much as any irregularity I can commit. My voice pains and tires me, for 'tis loud and forced; so that when I have gone to whisper some great persons about affairs of consequence, they have often desired me to moderate my voice. This story deserves a place here. Some one in a certain Greek school speaking loud as I do, the asprejudicial

:

r>

master of the ceremonies sent to him to speak softly: "Tell him, then, he must send me, replied the other, "the tone he would have me speak in." To which the other replied, "That he should take the tone from the ears of him to whom he spake." It was well said, if to be understood: "Speak according to the affair you are speaking about to your auditor," for if it mean, " 'tis sufficient that he hear you; or, govern yourself by him," I do not find it to be reason. The tone and motion of my voice carries with it a '

great deal of the expression

and

signification of

my

meaning, and 'tis I who am to govern it, to make myself understood there is a voice to in:

struct, a voice to flatter, I

will not only that

and a voice

my

to reprehend.

voice reach him, but,

it strike and pierce him. footman with sharp and bitter language, it would be very pretty for him to say, "Pray, master, speak lower, I hear you very well." Est quaedam vox ad auditum accomodate, non magnitudine, sed pro prietate. i Speaking is

peradventure, that

When

I

rattle

my

/

half his latter

who speaks, and half his who hears;

ought

to prepare himself to receive

There

is

a certain voice

the ac-

cording to its bias; as with tennis players, he who receives the ball, shifts and prepares, according

he sees him move who strikes the stroke, and according to the stroke itself. Experience has, moreover, taught me this, that we ruin ourselves by impatience. Evils have as

and

their life

limits, their diseases

and

their re-

covery.

The constitution of maladies is formed by the pattern of the constitution of animals; they have their fortune and their days limited from their birth;

who

he

attempts imperiously to cut them

short by force in the middle of their course,

lengthens and multiplies them, and incenses instead of appeasing them.

"we

ion, that

I

am of Grantor's opin-

for

want

of courage; but that

way

and wilunder them

are neither obstinately

fully to oppose evils, nor truckle

we are naturally to

them, according to their condition and our own." ought to grant free passage to diseases; I find they stay less with me, who let them alone; and I have lost some, reputed the most tenacious and obstinate, by their own decay, without help and without art, and contrary to its rules. Let us a little permit Nature to take her own way; she better understands her own affairs than we. "But such an one died;" and so shall you: if not of that disease, of another. And how many have not escaped dying, who have had three physicians always at their tails? Example is a vague and universal mirror, and of various reflections. If it be a delicious medicine, take it: 'tis always so much present good. I will never stick at the name nor the colour, if it be pleasant and grateful to the palate pleasure is one of the chiefest kinds of profit. I have suffered colds, gouty defluxions, relaxations, palpitations of the heart, meagrims, and other accidents, to grow old and die in time a natural death; I have so lost them when I was half fit to keep them they are sooner prevailed upon by courtesy than huffing. must patiently suffer the laws of our condition; we are born to grow old, to grow weak, and to be sick, in despite of all medicine. 'Tis the first lesson the Mexicans teach their children; so soon as ever they are born they thus salute them "Thou art come into the world, child, to endure: engive

to

We

:

We

:

dure, suffer, and say nothing." 'Tis injustice to

lament that which has befallen anyone, which Indignare, si quid in te ini-

may bef al everyone

:

/

hearing, not by 1

it,

accommodated

to the

Quintilian,

its

xi. 3.

loudness, but

by

its

propriety.—

"

:

Essays que proprie constitutum est.* See an old man who begs of God that he will maintain his health vigorous and entire; that is to say, that he restore him to youth Stulte, Is it

The

quid haec frustra votis puerilibus

octets?

2

not folly? His condition is not capable of it. gout, the stone, and indigestion are symp-

toms of long years; as heat, rains, and winds are of long journeys. Plato does not believe that /Esculapius troubled himself to provide, by reg-

imen, to prolong life in a weak and wasted body, useless to his country and to his profession, or to beget healthful and robust children; and does not think this care suitable to the Divine justice and prudence, which is to direct all things

My good friend, your business isdone; nobody can restore you; they can, at the most, but patch you up, and prop you a little, and by that means prolong your misery an hour or two:

to utility.

Now

secus instantem cupiens fulcire ruinam,

Diversis contra nititur obiicibus;

Donee certa dies, omni cotnpage soluta, Ipsum cum rebus subruat auxilium.*

We must learn to suffer what we cannot evade; our life, like the harmony of the world, is composed of contrary things— of diverse tones, sweet and harsh, sharp and flat, sprightly and solemn: the musician who should only affect some of these, what would he be able to do? he must know how to make use of them all, and to mix them; and so we should mingle the goods and evils which are consubstantial with our life; our being cannot subsist without this mixture, and the one part is no less necessary to it than the other. To attempt to kick against natural necessity, is to represent the folly of Ctesiphon, who undertook to kick with his mule. I consult little about the alterations I feel for these doctors take advantage; when they have you at their mercy, they cudgel your ears with their prognostics; and having once surprised me, weakened with sickness, injuriously handled me with their dogmas and magisterial fopperies— one while menacing me with great pains, and another with approaching death— by which threats I was indeed moved and shaken, but not subdued :

1

Then be

when

anything unjustly decreed against thee alone.— Seneca, Epist., 91. 2 Why, you blockhead, pray such childish prayers in vain?— Ovid, Trist., iii. 8, 1 1. 3 Like one who, desiring to stay an impending angry,

there

together.— Pseudo-Gallus,

and

i.

it, till,

all,

171.

529

13

nor jostled from

my place; and

ment was neither was

at least

though

my judg-

altered nor distracted, yet

disturbed:

'tis

it

always agitation and

combat.

Now, I use myimagination as gently as I can. and would discharge it, if I could, of all trouble and contest; a man must assist, flatter, and deceive it, if he can; my mind is fit for that office; it needs no appearances throughout: could it persuade as it preaches, it would successfully relieve me. Will you have an example? It tells me: "that 'tis for my good to have the stone that the structure of my age must naturallv suffer some decay, and it is now time it should begin to disjoin and to confess a breach; 'tis a common necessity, and there is nothing in it either miraculous or new; I therein pay what is due to old age, and I cannot expect a better bargain; that society ought to comfort me, being fallen into the most common infirmity of my age; I see everywhere men tormented with the same disease, and am honoured by the fellowship, forasmuch as men of the best quality are most frequently afflicted with it: 'tis a noble and dignified disease: that of such as are struck with it, few have it to a less degree of pain; that these are put to the trouble of a strict diet and the daily taking of nauseous potions, whereas I owe my better state purely to my good fortune; for some ordinary broths of Eringo or burst-wort that I have twice or thrice taken to oblige the ladies who, with greater kindness than my pain was sharp, would needs present me half of theirs, seemed to me equally easy to take and fruitless in operation, the others have to pay a thousand vows to /Esculapius, and as many crowns to :

their physicians, for the voiding a little gravel,

which I often do by the aid of nature even the decorum of mv countenance is not disturbed in company; and I can hold my water ten hours, and as long as any man that is in perfect health. :

The

mind, "formerly was unknown to thee;

fear of this disease," says

affrighted thee,

when

it

the cries and despairing groans of those

make

it

Thou

art a conscientious fellow:

who

worse by their impatience, begot a horror in thee. Tis an infirmity that punishes the members by which thou hast most offended.

Qua

is

ruin, places various props against

time, the house, the props,

III.

venit indigne poena, dolenda venit:

"consider this chastisement:

'tis

*

very easv in

comparison of others, and inflicted with a paternal tenderness: do but observe how late it comes;

in a short

giving way,

fall

*We that

are entitled to

we have

complain of

a

punishment

not deserved.— Ovid, Heroid.,

v. 8.

Mon TAIGNE

530

it only seizes on and incommodes that part of thy life, which is, one way and another, sterile and lost; having, as it were by composition, given time for the licence and pleasures of thy youth. The fear and the compassion that the

people have of this disease serve thee for matter of glory; a quality, whereof if thou hast thy judg-

ment purified, and that thy reason has somewhat cured it, thy friends, notwithstanding, discern some tincture in thy complexion. 'Tis a pleasure to hear it said of oneself: what strength of mind, what patience! Thou art seen to sweat with pain, to turn pale and red, to tremble, to vomit blood, to suffer strange contractions and

world; not forcing thee with a tyrannical submany other infirmities which

jection, like so

thou seest old

men

hold

afflicted withal, that

them in continual torment, and keep them in perpetual and unintermitted weakness and pains, but by warnings and instructions at intervals, intermixing long pauses of repose, as it were to give thee opportunity to meditate and ruminate upon thy lesson, at thy own ease and leisure. To give thee means to judge aright, and to assume the resolution of a man of courage, it presents to thee the state of thy entire condition, both in good and evil; and one while a very cheerful and another an insupportable life, in one and

convulsions, at times to let great tears drop from

the same day. If thou embracest not death, at

thine eyes, to urine thick, black, and dreadful

thou shakest hands with it once a month; hast more cause to hope that it will one day surprise thee without menace; and that being so often conducted to the water side, but still thinking thyself to be upon the accustomed terms, thou and thy confidence will at one time or another be unexpectedly wafted over. A man cannot reasonably complain of diseases that fairly divide the time with health." I am obliged to Fortune for having so often assaulted me with the same sort of weapons she forms and fashions me by use, hardens and habituates me, so that I can know within a little for how much I shall be quit. For want of natural memory, I make one of paper; and as any

by some sharp and cruelly pricks and tears the

water, or to have it suppressed

craggy stone, that

neck of the bladder, whilst

all

the while thou

entertainest the company with an ordinary coun-

tenance; drolling by fits with thy people; making one in a continuous discourse, now and then

making excuse for thy pain, and representing thy suffering less than it is. Dost thou call to mind the

men

of past times,

who

so greedily sought

and exeron and into which

diseases to keep their virtue in breath cise?

Put the case that nature

sets thee

impels thee to this glorious school,

thou wouldst never have entered of thy own free will. If thou tellest me that it is a dangerous and mortal disease, what others are not so? for 'tis a physical cheat to except any that they say do not go direct to death: what matters if they go thither by accident, or if they easily slide and slip into the path that leads us to it? But thou dost not die because thou art sick; thoudiest because thou art living: death kills thee without the help of sickness: and sickness has deferred death in some, who have lived longer by reason that they thought themselves always dying; to which may be added, that as in wounds, so in diseases, some are medicinal and wholesome. The stone is often no less long-lived than you; we see men with whom it has continued from their infancy even to their extreme old age; and if they had not broken company, it would have been with them longer still; you more often kill it than it kills you. And though it should present to you the image of approaching death, were it not a good office to a man of such an age, to put him in mind of his end? And, which is worse, thou hast no longer anything that should make thee desire to be cured. Whether or no, common necessity will soon call thee away. Do but consider how skilfully and gently she puts thee out of concern with life, and weans thee from the

least

whence thou

:

new symptom happens

in

my

disease,

I

set

it

down, whence it falls out that, having now almost passed through all sorts of examples, if anything astounding threatens me, turning over these

little

never

fail

loose notes, as the Sybil's leaves,

I

of finding matter of consolation from

some favourable prognostic in my past expeCustom also makes me hope better for the

rience.

time to come; for, the conduct of this clearing out having so long continued, 'tis to be believed that nature will not alter her course, and that no other worse accident will happen than what I already feel. And besides, the condition of this disease is not unsuitable to my prompt and sudden complexion: when it assaults me gently, I am afraid, for 'tis then for a great while; but it has, naturally, brisk and vigorous excesses; it kidclaws me to purpose for a day or two. neys held out an age without alteration; and I have almost now lived another, since they

My

changed

their state; evils

have

their periods, as

well as goods: peradventure. the infirmity draws towards an end. Age weakens the heat of my stomach and its digestion being less perfect sends ,

this

crude matter

tain revolution,

to

may

my

kidneys; why, at a cernot the heat of my kidneys

Essays be also abated, so that they can no more petrify my phlegm, and nature find out some other way of purgation. Years have evidently helped me to drain certain rheums; and why not these excrements which furnish matter for gravel? But is

there anything delightful in comparison of

sudden change, when from an excessive I come, by the voiding of a stone, to recover, as by a flash of lightning, the beautiful light of health, so free and full, as it happens in our sudden and sharpest colics? Is there anything in the pain suffered, that one can counterpoise to the pleasure of so sudden an amendment? O, how much does health seem the more pleasant to me, after a sickness so near and so contiguous, that I can distinguish them in the presence of this

pain,

one another, in their greatest show; when they appear in emulation, as if to make head against and dispute it with one another! As the Stoics say that vices are profitably introduced to give value to and to set off virtue, we can, with better reason and less temerity of conjecture, say that nature has given us pain for the honour

and indolence. When were knocked off, felt the pleasure of that itching which the weight of them had caused in his legs, he rejoiced to consider the strict alliance betwixt pain and pleasure; how they are linked together by a necessary connection, so that by turns they follow and mutually beget one another; and cried out to the good fellow ^Esop, that he ought out of this consideration, to have taken matter for a and

service of pleasure

Socrates, after his fetters

fine fable.

The worst that I see in other diseases is, that they are not so grievous in their effect, as they a man is a whole year in reand all the while full of weakness and fear. There is so much hazard, and so many steps to arrive at safety, that there is no end on't: before they have unmuffled you of a kerchief, and then of a cap, before they allow you to walk abroad and take the air, to drink wine, to lie with your wife, or eat melons, 'tis odds you relapse into some new distemper. The stone has are in their issue

:

covering,

this privilege, that

it

carries itself clean off:

whereas the other maladies always leave behind

them some impression and alteration that render the body subject to a new disease, and lend a hand to one another. Those are excusable that content themselves with possessing us, without extending farther, and introducing their followers; but courteous and kind are those whose passage brings us any profitable issue. Since I have been troubled with the stone, I find myself freed from all other accidents, much more, methinks,

III.

13

53 1 was before, and have never had any fever since; I argue that the extreme and frequent vomitings that I am subject to, purge me: and, on the other hand, my distastes for this and that, and the strange fasts I am forced to keep, digest my peccant humours, and nature, with those than

I

whatever there is in me superfluous them never tell me that it is a medicine too dear bought for what avail so many stones, voids

and

hurtful. Let

:

many caustics, incisions, sweats, setons, diets, and so many other methods of cure, which often, by reason we are not able stinking draughts, so

to undergo their violence

and importunity, bring

when I have the stone, when free from it, as an

us to our graves? So that I

look

upon

it

as physic;

absolute deliverance.

And

here

is

another particular benefit of

my

which is, that it always plays its game by itself, and lets me play mine, if I have only courage to do it; for, in its greatest fury, I have endured it ten hours together on horseback. Do but endure only; you need no other regimen: play, run, dine, do this and t'other, if you can; your debauch will do you more good than harm; disease;

say as

much to one that has the pox, the gout, The other diseases have more uni-

or hernia.

versal obligations; rack our actions after another

kind of manner, disturb our whole order, and to their consideration engage the whole state of life: this only pinches the skin; it leaves the understanding and the will wholly at our own disposal, and the tongue, the hands, and the feet; it rather awakens than stupefies you. The soul is struck with the ardour of a fever, overwhelmed with an epilepsy, and displaced by a sharp megrim, and, in short, astounded by all the diseases that hurt the whole mass, and the most noble parts; this never meddles with the soul; if anything goes amiss with her, 'tis her own fault, she betrays, dismounts, and abandons herself. There are none but fools who suffer themselves to be persuaded, that this hard and massive body which is baked in our kidneys is to be dissolved by drinksT wherefore, when it is once stirred, there is nothing to be done but to give it passage; and, for that matter,

it

will itself

moreover observe

make

one.

convenwherein we have little to guess at: we are dispensed from the trouble into which other diseases throw us by the uncertainty of their causes, conditions, and I

ience in

it,

that

it is

this particular

a disease

progress; a trouble that

is

infinitely painful

:

we

have no need of consultations and doctoral interpretations; the senses well enough inform us both what it is and where it is. By suchlike arguments, weak and strong, as

Mo NTAIGNE

532

Cicero with the disease of his old age, I try to rock asleep and amuse my imagination, and to dress its wounds. If I find them worse to-morrow,

I

true: least

will provide I

am come

new stratagems. That

this is

to that pass of late, that the

motion forces pure blood out of my kidneys:

what

of that?

fore,

and

I

move

ride after

about, nevertheless, as be-

my hounds

with a juvenile

me; and where

for

eleven, nor sup

I

rule,

I

after six.

till

never dine before I formerly attrib-

uted the cause of the fevers and other diseases I fell into, to the heaviness that long sleeping had brought upon me; and have ever repented going to sleep again in the morning. Plato is more angry at excess of sleeping, than at excess of 1 drinking. I love to lie hard and alone, even without my wife, as kings do; and well covered with clothes. They never warm my bed, but since I have grown old, they give me at need warm cloths to lay at my feet and stomach. They found fault with the great Scipio, that he was a

and insolent ardour; and hold that I have very good satisfaction for an accident of that importance, when it costs me no more but a dull heaviness and uneasiness in that part; 'tis some great stone that wastes and consumes the substance of my kidneys and my life, which I by little and little evacuate, not without some natural pleasure, as an excrement henceforward superfluous and troublesome. Now if I feel anything stirring, do not fancy that I trouble myself to consult my pulse or my urine, thereby to put myself upon some annoying prevention; I shall soon enough feel the pain, without making it more and longer, by the disease of fear. He who fears he shall suffer, already suffers what he fears. To which may be added, that the doubts and ignorance of those who take upon them to expound the designs of nature and her internal progressions, and the many false prognostics of their art, ought to give us to understand that her ways are inscrutable and utterly unknown; there is great uncertainty, variety, and obscurity in what she either promises or threatens. Old age excepted, which is an indubitable sign of the approach of death, in all other accidents I see few signs of the future, whereon we may ground our divination. I only judge of myself by actual sensation, not by reasoning: to what end, since I

life,

and

Sleeping has taken up a great part of my I yet continue, at the age I now am, to sleep eight or nine hours together. I wean myself to my advantage, from this propension to sloth, and am evidently the better for so doing. I find the change a little hard indeed, but in three days 'tis over; and I see but few who live with less sleep, when need requires, and who more constantly exercise themselves, or to whom long journeys are less troublesome. My body is capable of a firm, but not of a violent or sudden agitation. I evade of late violent exercises, and such as make me sweat, wherein my limbs grow weary before they are hot. I can stand a whole day together, and am never weary of walking: but from my youth, I have ever preferred to

am

ride

upon paved

resolved to bring nothing to

it

but expecta-

and patience? Will you know how much I get by this? observe those who do otherwise, and who rely upon so many diverse persuasions and tion

counsels;

how often

the imagination presses up-

on them, without any bodily pain. I have many times amused myself, being well and in safety, and quite free from these dangerous attacks, in communicating them to the physicians as then beginning to discover themselves in me; I underwent the decree of their dreadful conclusions, being, all the while, quite at my ease, and so much the more obliged to the favour of God, and better satisfied of the vanity of this art. There is nothing that ought so much to be recommended to youth as activity and vigilance: our life is nothing but movement. I bestir myself with great difficulty, and am slow in everything, whether in rising, going to bed, or eating: seven of the clock in the morning is early

great sleeper; not, in

my

opinion, for any other

men were

reason, than that

am

fault with. If

I

way

'tis

of living,

thing

he be found

displeased, that

alone should have nothing in

him

to

anything fastidious in my my lying than any-

rather in

else; but, generally, I give

commodate myself,

as well as

way and

any one,

ac-

to neces-

sity.

breech in

dirt;

roads;

and

little

on

foot, I get

fellows as

I

up

to the

am are sub-

be elbowed and jostled, for have ever loved to repose myself, whether sitting or lying, with my heels as high or higher than my seat. There is no profession more pleasant than the military, a profession both noble in its execuject in the streets to

want

of presence;

I

tion (for valour is the stoutest, proudest, and most generous of all virtues), and noble in its cause: there is no utility either more universal or more just, than the protection of the peace and grandeur of one's country. The company of so many noble, young, and active men delights you the ordinary sight of so many tragic spectacles; the freedom of the conversation, without art; a masculine and unceremonious way of living, please you; the variety of a thousand sev:

Laws.

:

:

Essays

HI. 13

533

of mar-

My face and eyes presently discover my con-

music, that ravishes and inflames both your and souls; the honour of this occupation, nay, even its hardships and difficulties, which Plato holds so light that, in his Republic, he

dition; all my alterations begin there, and appear somewhat worse than they really are; my friends often pity me, before I feel the cause in myself. looking-glass does not frighten me; for even in my youth it has befallen me more than once to have a scurvy complexion and of

eral actions; the

encouraging harmony

tial

ears

makes women and children share delightful to you.

You put

in them, are

yourselves volunta-

and hazards, according as you judge of their lustre and importance; and, a volunteer, find even life itself ex-

upon

rily

particular exploits

cusably employed,

Pulchrumque mori

succurrit in armis.

1

To fear common dangers that concern so great men; not to dare to do what so many sorts of souls, what a whole people dare, is for a heart that is poor and mean beyond all a multitude of

measure company encourages even children. If others excel you in knowledge, in gracefulness, in strength, or fortune, you have third causes to blame for that; but to give place to them in stability of mind, you can blame no one for that :

but yourself. Death is more abject, more languishing and troublesome in bed than in battle; fevers and catarrhs as painful and mortal as a musket-shot. Whoever has fortified himself valiantly to bear the accidents of

common life, need

not raise his courage to be a soldier. Vivere, Lucili, militare est.

mi

2

are often apt to itch.

into the world with all my senses eneven to perfection. My stomach is commodiously good, as also is my head and my breath; and, for the most part, uphold themselves so in the height of fevers. I have passed the age to which some nations, not without reason, have prescribed so just a term of life, that they would not suffer men to exceed it; and yet I have some intermissions, though short and inconstant, so clean and sound as to be little in-

came

tire,

ferior to the health

and pleasantness of my youth.

do not speak of vigour and sprightliness; 'tis not reason they should follow me beyond their I

limits

Non

hoc amplius

est liminis,

Coelestis, pattens latus.

1

Tis

2

To

fine to die

live,

my

aut aquae,

9

sword in hand.— ALneid,

Lucilius,

is

to

ii.

1

am no

so that the physicians, not finding

as well, according to

my rule,

as

my mind does,

should move a little more at our ease. My mind was then not only free from trouble, but, moreover, full of joy and satisfaction, as it commonly is, half by its complexion, half by its design

we

Nee I

am

vitiant artus aegrae contagia mentis.

longer able to stand waiting at a door iii.

10, 9.

'

of the opinion that this temperature of

my soul has often raised my body from its lapses; this

is

often depressed;

and gay,

'tis

if

the other be not brisk

at least tranquil

and

at rest. I

had a

quartan ague four or five months, that made me look miserably ill; my mind was always, if not calm, yet pleasant. If the pain be without me,

me;

I

much

afflict

see various corporal faintings, that beget

me but to name, which yet I should than a thousand passions and agitations of the mind that I see about me. I make up my mind no more to run; 'tis enough that I can crawl along; nor do I more complain of the natural decadence that I feel in myself, a horror in

less fear

Quis tumidutn guttur miratur in Alpibus?

5

than I regret that my duration shall not be as long and entire as that of an oak. I have no reason to complain of my imagination; I have had few thoughts in my life that have so much as broken my sleep, except those of desire, which have awakened without afflicting me. I dream but seldom, and then of chimaeras and fantastic things, commonly produced

from pleasant thoughts, and rather ridiculous than sad; and I believe it to be true that dreams are faithful interpreters of our inclinations; but there is art required to sort and understand them: 4

The

troubles of the

mind.— Ovid.,

in the rain.— Horace, Od.,

4

317.

make war.— Seneca,

Epist., 96. 3

any great consequence, any cause within answerable to that outward alteration, attributed it to the mind and to some secret passion that tormented me within; but they were deceived. If my body would govern itself prognostic, without

ill

the weakness and languor do not

do not remember that I ever had the itch; and yet scratching is one of nature's sweetest gratifications, and nearest at hand; but the smart follows too near. I use it most in my ears, which I

I

My

5

Trist.,

iii.

body never

affected

my

8, 25.

No one is surprised to see a goitre in the Alps.—

Juvenal,

xiii.

162,

Montaigne

534

nary and accustomed things; Per

Res, quae in vita usurpant homines,

divitiarum taedio ludit.*

cogitant, curant, vident,

Quaeque agunt vigilantes, agitantque, ea si cui in somno accidunt,

Minus mirandum

est.

Plato, moreover, says,

prudence

to

draw

the office of

'tis

instructions of divination of

Xenophon, and

:

I

don't

know about

men

Aristotle,

it

that

of

ir8

reproachable authority, relate. Historians say that the Atlantes never dream; who also never

any animal food, which

I add, forasmuch as peradventure, the reason why they never dream, for Pythagoras ordered a certain prepa-

eat

a

is

man eats,

it is,

ration of diet to beget appropriate dreams.

Mine

any agitation of body or expression of voice. I have seen several of my time wonderfully disturbed by them. Theon, the philosopher, walked in his sleep, and so did Pericles' servant, and that upon the tiles and are very gentle, without

to

qu& luxuria make good cheer

enjoying, and to be curious the essence of this vice:

is

modica coenare times olus omne

Si

that

but there are wonderful instances of

Socrates,

what

in

1

2

future things from dreams this,

with what another

Not

There

is,

patella.

indeed, this difference, that

'tis

better

to oblige one's appetite to things that are

easy to be had, but

'tis

always vice

5

most

to oblige one's

formerly said a kinsman of mine was who, by being in our galleys, had unlearned the use of beds and to undress when he self:

I

over-nice,

went

to sleep.

If I

had any sons, I should willingly wish them the good father that God gave me,

my fortune: who

has nothing of

me

ment of his goodness, but

but the acknowledgtruly

'tis

a very hearty

me from my cradle to be brought up in a poor village of his, and there continued me all one, sent

the while

I

was

me up

ing

and still longer, bringmeanest and most common Magna pars libertatis est bene at nurse,

to the

top of the house.

way

hardly ever choose my dish at table, but take the next at hand, and unwillingly change it for another. A confusion of meats and a clutter of

moratus venter? Never take upon yourselves, and much less give up to your wives, the care of their nourishment; leave this to fortune, under popular and natural laws; leave it to custom

I

dishes displease

am

me as much as any other confu-

with few dishes and opinion of Favorinus, that in a feast they should snatch from you the meat you like, and set a plate of another sort before you; and that 'tis a pitiful supper, if you do not sate your guests with the rumps of various fowls, the beccafico only deserving to be all eaten. I usually eat salt meats, and yet I love bread that has no salt in it; and my baker never sends up other to my table, contrary to the custom of the country. In my infancy, what they had most to sion

am

:

I

easily satisfied

an enemy

correct in

:

to the

me was the refusal of things that chil-

dren commonly best love, as sugar, sweetmeats, and march-panes. My tutor contended with this aversion to delicate things, as a kind of overnicety; and indeed 'tis nothing else but a difficulty of taste, in anything it applies itself to. Whoever cures a child of an obstinate liking for

brown bread, bacon,

or garlic, cures

him

also of

pampering his palate. There are some who affect temperance and plainness, by wishing for beef and ham amongst pheasant and partridge;

1

upon

another end, to make me familiar with the peoand the condition of men who most need our assistance; considering that I should rather regard them who extend their arms to me, than those who turn their backs upon me; and for this reason it was, that he provided me godfaple

thers of the meanest fortune, to oblige and attach

me

to

them.

Nor has for,

his design succeeded altogether

ill;

whether upon the account of the more hon-

our in such a condescension, or out of a natural compassion that has a very great power over me, I have an inclination towards the meaner sort of people. The faction which I should condemn in our civil wars, I should more sharply condemn, flourishing cile

me

to

and

it,

successful;

should

I

see

it

it

would half recon-

miserable and over-

whelmed. How much do I admire the generous humour of Chelonis, daughter and wife to kings

delicacies;

of Sparta! whilst her husband, Cleombrotus, in

the commotion of her city, had the advantage

no wonder if what men practise, think, and do when waking, should also run heads and disturb them when they are

* The caprices of luxury which would escape the tediousness of riches.— Seneca, Epist., 18. 6 If you can't be content with herbs in a small

very fine; this

'Tis

is

delicacy

care for, see, in their

asleep.— Attius, in Cicero, 2

to train them up to frugality and hardship, that they may rather descend from rigours than mount up to them. This humour of his yet aimed at

the taste of effeminacy that disrelishes ordi-

'tis all 'tis

of living:

In the Timaeus, 71. 'Herodotus, iv. 184.

De

Divin.,

i.

22.

dish for supper.— Horace, Epist., 8

A well-governed

stomach

erty.— Seneca, Epist., 123.

is

i.

5, 2.

a great part of lib-

Essays a good daugh-

over Leonidas, her father, she, like ter, stuck close to her father in all his misery and exile, in opposition to the conqueror. But so

soon as the chance of war turned, she changed her will with the change of fortune, and bravely turned to her husband's side, whom she accompanied throughout where his ruin carried him; admitting, as it appears to me, no other choice than to cleave to the side that stood most in need of her, and where she could best maniher compassion.

fest

1

1

am naturally more

apt to

follow the example of Flaminius, who rather gave his assistance to those who had most need of

him than

good, than

I

to those

do

who had power to do him Pyrrhus, who was of

to that of

an humour to truckle under the great, and to domineer over the poor. Long sittings at meat both trouble me and do me harm; for, be it for want of moderation, or that I was so accustomed when a child, I eat all the while I sit. Therefore it is that at my own house, though the meals there are of the shortest, I usually sit down a little while after the rest, after the manner of Augustus; but I do not imitate

him

in rising also before the rest of the

company; on the contrary, I love to sit still a long time after, and to hear them talk, provided I am none of the talkers; for I tire and hurt myself

with speaking upon a

as

find it pleasant

I

and

to strain

The

full

love to have

I

I

shall not

touch

it

meats, that will endure

all

it,

them very high and even, as to several, quite gone. Nothing but hardness generally offends me (of any other quality I am as patient and indifferent as any man I have known); so that, contrary to the common humour, even in fish it often happens that I find them both too fresh and too firm: not for want of teeth, which I ever had good, even to excellence, and which age does but now begin to threaten I have always been used every morning to rub them with a napkin, and before and after dinner. God is favourable to those whom he makes to die by degrees; 'tis very

little

boiled or roasted, and prefer

:

the only benefit of old age; the last death will

be so

much

quarter of a

the less painful;

it

will kill but a

man or but half a one at most. I have

one tooth lately fallen out without drawing and without pain: it was the natural term of its duration; and that part of my being and several others, are already dead, others half dead, of

those that were most active, and in highest es-

teem during my vigorous years; 'tis so I melt and steal away from myself. What a folly it would be in my understanding, to apprehend the height of this

fall,

already so

were from the very

much

top! I

advanced, as

hope

I

shall not.

if it I,

in

ing my death, that it will be just and natural, and that henceforward I cannot herein either require or hope from Destiny any other but un-

Romans had more

they were not prevented by other extraordinary business, many hours and the greatest part of the night; eating a principal action of life,

that

to argue

reason than we in setting apart for eating, which is

and

truth, receive a principal consolation in meditat-

my voice before dinner.

ancient Greeks and

535

3

of order,

much

stomach, as

and very wholesome

III.

if

lawful favour. Men make themselves believe that we formerly had, as greater stature, so,

but they deceive themselves; and

longer

lives,

Solon,

who was

of those elder times, limits the

and drinking more deliberately than we do, who perform all our actions post-haste; and in extending this natural pleasure to more leisure and

duration of

better use, intermixing with their meals pleas-

have concluded the most moderate measures to be the most perfect, shall I pretend to an immeasurable and prodigious old age? Whatever happens contrary to the course of nature, may be troublesome; but what comes according to her, should always be pleasant: Omnia, quss secundum naturam punt, sunt habenda in bo3 4 nis. And so Plato likewise says, that the death

ant and profitable conversation.

They whose concern it is to have a care of me, may very easily hinder me from eating anything they think will do me harm; for in such matters I never covet nor miss anything I do not see; but withal, if it once comes in my sight, 'tis in vain to persuade me to forbear; so that when I design to fast, I must be kept apart from the supper-table, and must have only so much given me, as is required for a prescribed collation; for if I sit

resolution.

When

I

down

to table, I forget

order

my

cook to

my

who have

which

and Cleomenes.

threescore

much and

is

2

and ten

of ancient times;

occasioned by

years.

I,

so universally adored

wounds and

and who

diseases

is

but that which comes upon us, old age conducting us to it, is of all others the most easy,

violent;

and in some

sort delicious.

Vitam

adolescenti-

alter the

to

Plutarch, Agis

so

that apivTov fjicrpov

manner of dressing any dish, all my family know what it means, that my stomach is out 1

life to

2

The mean

3

All things that are done according to nature, are

is

best.

be accounted good.— Cicero, In Timaeus.

*

De Senec,

xix.

Montaigne

536 1

bus

senibus maturitas. Death mixes

vis aufert,

and confounds

throughout with

itself

life;

de-

cay anticipates its hour, and shoulders itself even into the course of our advance. I have portraits of myself taken at five and twenty, and five and thirty years of age; I compare them with that lately drawn; how variously is it no longer me; how much more is my present image unlike the former, than unlike that I shall go out of the

world with? It is too much to abuse nature, to make her trot so far that she must be forced to leave us, and abandon our conduct, our eyes, teeth, legs,

and

all

the mercy of a and to resign us being weary of following

the

rest, to

foreign and begged assistance, into the

hands of

art,

am

not very fond either of salads or fruits, father hated all sorts of sauces; I love them all. Eating too much hurts me; but, as to the quality of what I eat, I do not yet cer-

except melons.

tainly

know

My

that

my stomach;

any

sort of

meat disagrees with

observed that either full moon or decrease, spring or autumn, have have in us notions any influence upon me. that are inconstant and for which no reason can neither have

I

We

be given: for example, I found radishes first my stomach, since that nauseous, and

grateful to

now find

again grateful. In several other things, I stomach and appetite vary after the

my

same manner; I have changed again and again from white wine to claret, from claret to white. I am a great lover of fish, and consequently make my fasts feasts, and feasts fasts: and I believe what some people say, that it is more easy of digestion than flesh.

of eating flesh

make

upon

As

I

make

a conscience

fish-days, so does

my

taste

mixing fish and flesh; the difference betwixt them seems to me too remote. From my youth, I have sometimes kept out of a conscience of

way

the

at meals; either to

sharpen

my appetite

against the next morning (for, as Epicurus fasted

and made lean meals

to accustom his pleasure without abundance, I, on the contrary, do it to prepare my pleasure to make better and more cheerful use of abundance); or

to

make

else

I

at

shift

my vigour

fasted to preserve

for the serv-

some action of body or mind for both the one and the other of these is cruelly dulled in me by repletion; and, above all things, I hate that foolish coupling of so healthful and sprightly a ice of

:

goddess with that little belching god, bloated with the fumes of his liquor;— or to cure my sick stomach, or for want of fit company; for I say,

supper? But,

Young men

are taken

by maturity.— Cicero,

De

away by

force, old

Senectute, xix.

men

did, that

we

old fellows especially, let us

opportune time of eating, and leave to almanac makers hopes and prognostics. The utmost fruit of my health is pleasure; let us take hold of the present and known. I avoid the invariable in these laws of fasting; he who would have one form serve him, let him avoid the continuing it; we harden ourselves in it; our strength is

first

months

there stupefied and laid asleep; six

you

your stomach so inured to it, that all you have got is the loss of your liberty of doing otherwise but to your prejudice. I never keep my legs and thighs warmer in winter than in summer; one simple pair of silk stockings is all. I have suffered myself, for the relief of my colds, to keep my head warmer; and my belly upon the account of my colic my diseases in a few days habituated themselves thereafter,

shall find

:

to, and disdained my ordinary provisions: we soon get from a coif to a kerchief over it, from a simple cap to a quilted hat; the trimmings of the doublet must not merely serve for ornament: there must be added a hare's skin or a vulture's skin, and a cap under the hat: follow this gradation, and you will go a very fine way to work. I will do nothing of the sort, and would willingly leave off what I have begun. If you fall into any new inconvenience, all this is labour lost; you are accustomed to it; seek out some other. Thus do they destroy themselves, who submit to be pestered with these enforced and superstitious rules: they must add something more, and

something more after that; there is no end on't. For what concerns our affairs and pleasures, it is much more commodious, as the ancients did, to lose one's dinner, and defer making good cheer till the hour of retirement and repose, without breaking up a day; and so was I formerly used to do. As to health, 1 since by experience

on the contrary, and that the digestion find,

1

same Epicurus

regard what he eats, as with

to

take the

us herself. I

one is not so much whom; and I commend Chilo, that he would not engage himself to be at Periander's feast till he first was informed who were to be the other guests; no dish is so acceptable to me, nor no sauce so appetizing, as that which is extracted from society. I think it more wholesome to eat more leisurely and less, and to eat oftener; but I would have appetite and hunger attended to; I should take no pleasure to be fed with three or four pitiful and stinted repasts a day, after a medicinal manner: who will assure me, that, if I have a good appetite in the morning, I shall have the same as the

am

that is

it is

better to dine,

better while awake.

I

not very used to be thirsty, either well or

Essays my mouth

indeed, apt to be dry, but and commonly I never drink but

sick;

is,

without thirst; with thirst that is created by eating, and far on in the meal; I drink pretty well for a man of my pitch: in summer, and at a relishing meal, I do not only exceed the limits of Augustus, who drank but thrice, precisely; but not to offend Democritus' rule, who forbade that men should stop at four times as an unlucky number, I proceed at need to the fifth glass, about three halfpints; for the little glasses are

and

I

avoid as

my

favourites,

which other people an unbecoming thing. I mix my wine

like to

drink them

sometimes with

half,

off,

sometimes with the third

and when I am at home, by an ancient custom that my father's physician prescribed both to him and himself, they mix that which is designed for me in the buttery, two or three hours before 'tis brought in. Tis said, that Cranaus, king of Athens, was the inventor of this custom of dashing wine with water; whether useful or no, I have heard disputed. I think it more decent and wholesome for children to drink no wine till after sixteen or eighteen years of age. The most usual and common method of living is the most becoming: all particularity, in my opinion, is to be avoided; and I should as much hate a German who mixed water with his wine, as I should a Frenchman who drank it pure. Public usage gives the law in these things. I fear a fog, and fly from smoke as from the part water;

plague the first repairs I fell upon in my own house, were the chimneys and houses of office, the common and insupportable defects of all old :

buildings;

and amongst the

difficulties of

war,

I

reckon the choking dust they make us ride in a whole day together. I have a free and easy respiration; and my colds for the most part go off without offence to the lungs, and without a cough. The heat of summer is more an enemy to me than the cold of winter; for, besides the incommodity of heat, less remediable than cold, and besides the force of the sunbeams that strike up-

on the head,

all glittering

light offends

my eyes,

in. 13

537

one step back, and a very manifest one; I shall retire another: from the second to the third, and so to the fourth, so gently, that I shall be stark blind before I shall be sensible of the age and decay of my sight: so artificially do the Fatal sisters untwist our lives. And so I doubt whether my hearing begins to grow thick; and you will see I shall have half lost it, when I shall still lay the fault on the voices of those who speak to me. A man must screw up his soul to a high pitch, to make it sensible how it ebbs away. My walking is quick and firm; and I know not which of the two, my mind or my body, I have most to do to keep in the same state. That preacher is very much my friend who can oblige my attention a whole sermon through: in places of ceremony, where every one's countenance is so starched, where I have seen the ladies keep even their eyes so fixed,

could never order

I

it so,

that

some part or other of me did not lash out; so that though I was seated, I was never settled. As the philosopher Chrysippus' maid said of her master, that he was only drunk in his legs, for it was his custom to be always kicking them about in what place soever he sat; and she said it, when the wine having made all his companions drunk, he found no alteration in himself at all; it may have been said of me from my infancy, that I had either folly or quicksilver in my feet, so much stirring and unsettledness there is in them, wherever they are placed. 'Tis indecent, beside the hurt

health,

and even

eat so greedily as

it

does to one's

to the pleasure of eating, to I

do;

I

often bite

my

tongue,

and sometimes my fingers, in my haste. Diogenes, meeting a boy eating after that manner, gave his tutor a box on the ear. There were men at Rome that taught people to chew, as well as to walk, with a good grace. I lose thereby the leisure of speaking, which gives great relish to the dinner-table, provided the discourse be suitis, pleasant and short. There is jealousy and envy amongst our pleasures; they cross and hinder one another. Al-

able, that

cibiades, a

man who

well understood

how

could not now sit at dinner over against a flaming fire. To dull the whiteness of paper, in those times

make good cheer, banished even music from

when

us, "that

so that

I

was more wont to read, I laid a piece ol glass upon my book, and found my eyes much relieved by it. I am to this hour ignorant of the use of spectacles; and I can see as far as ever I did, or any other. Tis true, that in the evening I begin to find a little disturbance and weakness in my sight, if I read; an exercise I have always found troublesome, especially by night. Here is I

table, that

ment

it

might not disturb the entertain-

of discourse, for the reason, as Plato it is

call fiddlers

to

the

1

tells

the custom of ordinary people to

and singing men to feasts, for want and pleasant talk, with which

of good discourse

men

of understanding know one another." Varro requires

how

to entertain

all this

in enter-

tainments: "Persons of graceful presence and 1

In the Protagoras.

Montaigne

538 agreeable conversation,

who

are neither silent

nor babblers; neatness and delicacy, both of meat and place; and fair weather." The art of dining well is no slight art, the pleasure not a slight pleasure; neither the greatest captains nor the greatest philosophers have disdained the use or science of eating well. My imagination has delivered three repasts to the custody of my memory, which fortune rendered sovereignly

sweet

to

me, upon several occasions in

flourishing age;

mv

my more

present state excludes me;

for every one, according to the good temper of body and mind wherein he then finds himself,

own share a particular grace who but crawl upon the earth,

furnishes for his

and savour.

I,

hate this inhuman wisdom, that will have us despise and hate all culture of the body; I look upon it as an equal injustice to loath natural pleasures as to be too much in love with them. Xerxes was a coxcombical blockhead who, environed with all human delights, proposed a reward to him who could find out others; but he is not much less so who cuts off any of those pleasures that nature has provided for him. A man should neither pursue nor avoid them, but receive them. I receive them, I confess, a little too warmly and kindly, and easily suffer myself have no to follow my natural propensions. need to exaggerate their inanity; they themselves will make us sufficiently sensible of it, thanks to our sick wet-blanket mind, that puts us out of taste with them as with itself; it treats both itself and all it receives, one while better, and another worse, according to its insatiable, vagabond, and versatile essence:

We

Sincerum acescit.

est nisi vas,

quodcunque infundis,

1

I, who boast that I so curiously and particularly embrace the conveniences of life, find them, when I most nearly consider them, very little more than wind. But what? We are all wind

throughout; and, moreover, the wind itself more discreet than we, loves to bluster and shift from corner to corner; and contents itself with its proper offices, without desiring stability and solidity— qualities that nothing belong to it. The pure pleasures, as well as the pure displeasures, of the imagination, say some, are the greatest, as was expressed by the balance of Cri-

no wonder; it makes them to its own and cuts them out of the whole cloth; of every day see notable examples, and, per-

tolaus. 'Tis

liking, this I

adventure, to be desired. But I, who am of a mixed and heavy condition, cannot snap so soon at this one simple object, but that I negligently suffer myself to be carried away with the pres-

ent pleasures of the general

Cyrenaic philosophers will have

Unless the vessel be clean, it will sour whatever it.— Horace, Epist., i. 2, 54.

you put into

it

law, intel-

that as cor-

poral pains, so corporal pleasures are

more pow-

both asdouble and asmore just. There are 2 some, as Aristotle says, who out of a savage kind of stupidity dislike them; and I know others who out of ambition do the same. Why do they not, moreover, forswear breathing? why do they not live of their own? why not refuse light, because it shines gratis, and costs them neither pains nor invention? Let Mars, Pallas, erful,

them their light by which to Venus, Ceres, and Bacchus. Will they not seek the quadrature of the circle, even when on their wives? I hate that we should be enjoined to have our minds in the clouds, when our bodies are at table; I would not have the mind nailed there, nor wallow there; I would have it take place there and sit, but not lie down. Aristippus maintained nothing but the body, as if he had no soul; Zeno stickled only for the soul, as if he had no body; both of them faultily. Mercury

or

afford

see, instead of

Pythagoras, they say, followed a philosophy was all contemplation; Socrates one that

that

was

all

conduct and action; Plato found a mean

betwixt the two; but they only say this for the sake of talking. The true point is found in Socrates; and Plato is much more Socratic than Pythagoric, and it becomes him better: When I dance, I dance; when I sleep, I sleep. Nay, when I walk alone in a beautiful orchard, if my thoughts are some part of the time taken up with foreign occurrences, I some part of the time call them back again to my walk, to the orchard, to the sweetness of the solitude, and to myself.

Nature has with a motherly tenderness observed this, that the actions she has enjoined us for our necessity should be also pleasant to us; invites us to them, not only by reason, but also by appetite, and 'tis injustice to infringe her laws. When I see both Caesar and

and she

Alexander in the thickest of their greatest business, so fully enjoy human and corporal pleasures, I do not hold that they slackened their souls, but wound them up higher, by vigour of courage, subjecting these violent employments and laborious thoughts to the ordinary usage of life:

1

human

lectually sensible, and sensibly intellectual. The

2

wise,

Ethics,

had they believed the ii.

7.

last

was

their

:

Essays m. ordinary, the

first

their extraordinary, vocation.

We are great fools.

"He has

passed over his

life

we: "I have done nothing today." What? Have you not lived? That is not only the fundamental, but the most illustrious of all your occupations. "Had I been put to the management of great affairs, I should have made it seen what I could do." Have you known how to meditate and manage your life, you have performed the greatest work of all. For a man to snow and set out himself, nature has no need of in idleness," say

fortune; she equally manifests herself in all stages,

one.

and behind

a curtain as well as without

Haveyou known how

to regulate

your con-

you have done a great deal more than he who has composed books. Haveyou known how to take repose, you have done more than he who has taken cities and empires. The great and glorious masterpiece of man is duct,

to

know how to live

to reign, to lay

up

to

purpose;

all

other things,

treasure, to build, are, at most,

appendices and props. I delight to see an army, at the foot of a breach he is presently to assault, give himself up entire and free at dinner, to talk and be merry with his

but

little

a general of

friends; to see Brutus, when heaven and earth were conspired against him and the Roman liberty, stealing some hours of the night from his rounds to read and abridge Polybius, in all security. Tis for little souls, that truckle under the weight of affairs, not from them to know

how clearly to disengage themselves, not to know how to lay them aside and take them up again

O fortes, pejoraque passi Mecum

saepe viril nunc vino pellite euros: Cras ingens iterabimus aequor. 1

13

539

chus; according to the precepts of their sect, that require the perfect sage to be as expert

other duties of palatus.

it

be in

jest or earnest, that

the theo-

and Sorbonical wine, and their feasts, are turned into a proverb, I find it reasonable they should dine so much more commodiously and pleasantly, as they have profitably and seriously logical

employed the morning in the exercise of schools. The conscience of

other hours,

is

dinner-table.

the just

The

their

having well spent the

and savoury sauce of the

sages lived after that manner;

and that inimitable emulation

to virtue,

which

astonishes us both in the one and the other Cato, that humour of theirs, so severe as even to be im-

portunate, gently submits itself and yields to the human condition, of Venus and Bac-

laws of the

in-

life:

Cut cor

sapiat, ei et sapiat

2

Relaxation and

facility, methinks, wonderhonour and best become a strong and generous soul. Epaminondas did not think that to take part, and that heartily, in songs and sports and dances with the young men of his city, were things that in any way derogated from the honour of his glorious victories and the perfect purity of manners that was in him. And amongst

fully

many

admirable actions of Scipio, the grandworthy to be reputed of a heavenly extraction, there is nothing that gives him a greater grace than to see him carelessly and childishly trifling at gathering and selecting shells, and playing at quoits upon the seashore with Lselius; and, if it was foul weather, amusing and pleasing himself in representing by writing in comedies the meanest and most popular actions of men; or having his head full of that wonderful enterprise of Hannibal and Africa, visiting the schools in Sicily, and attending philosophical lectures, improving himself, to the blind envy of his enemies at Rome. Nor is there anything more remarkable in Socrates than that, old as he was, he found time to make himself taught dancing and playing upon instruments, and thought it time well spent; but this same man was seen in an ecstacy, standing upon his feet a whole day and a night together, in the presence of all the Grecian army, surprised and ravished with some profound thought. He was so

father, a person

the

first

who, amongst so many valiant

men

of

the army, ran to the relief of Alcibiades, op-

pressed with the enemy; shielded

Whether

and

telligent in the use of natural pleasures as in all

him with

own body, and disengaged him from

his

the crowd,

by absolute force of arms. It was he who, in the Delian battle, raised and saved Xenophon when fallen from his horse; and who, amongst all the people of Athens, enraged as he was at so unworthy a spectacle, first presented himself torescue Theramenes, whom the thirty tyrants were hauling to execution by their satellites, and desisted not from his bold enterprise but at the remonstrance of Theramenes himself, though he was only followed by two more in all. He was seen, when courted by a beauty with whom he was in love, to maintain at need a severe abstinence. He was seen ever to go to the wars, and walk upon ice, with bare feet; to wear the

1

Brave spirits, who have often suffered sorrow with me, drink cares away; to-morrow we will set sail on the great sea.— Horace, Od., i. 7, 30.

- He that has a learned soul has a learned palate too.— Cicero, De Finib., ii. 8.

.

:

Montaigne

540

same robe, winter and summer; to surpass all his companions in patience of bearing hardships, and to eat no more at a feast than at his own private dinner. He was seen, for seven and twenty years together, to endure hunger, poverty, the indocility of his children, and the claws of his wife, with the same countenance; and, in the

temperance, which in them was singular and exemplary. I enjoin my soul to look upon pain and pleasure with an eye equally regular, Eodem enim

end, calumny, tyranny, imprisonment, fetters, and poison. But was this man obliged to drink

be as careful to extinguish the one, as to extend the other. The judging rightly of good brings along with it the judging soundly of evil: pain has something of the inevitable in its tender beginnings, and pleasure something of the

full

bumpers by any rule of civility? he was alman of the whole army, with whom the

so the

advantage in drinking remained.

And

he nev-

animi in

vitio est effusio

and the other

severely, and, so far as

against the immoderate

manners. The people deman goes much more easily

er than correctors of

ceive themselves; a

indeed by the ends, where the extremity serves for a bound, a stop, and guide, than by the middle way, large and open; and according to art, more than according to nature: but withal much less nobly and commendably. Grandeur of soul consists not so much in

mounting and

how

in pressing forward, as in

know-

govern and circumscribe itself; it takes everything for great, that is enough, and demonstrates itself better in moderate than in eminent things. There is nothing so fine and legitimate as well and duly to play the man; nor science so arduous as well and naturally to ing

to

know how to live this life; and of all the infirmities we have, 'tis the most savage to despise our being.

Whoever has a mind to send his soul abroad, when the body is ill at ease, to preserve it from the contagion, let him, by all means, do it if he can: but, otherwise, let him on the contrary favour and assist it, and not refuse to participate of

its

natural pleasures with a conjugal com-

and and charming blandishments of pleasure: they are two fountains, from which whoever draws, when and as much as he needs, whether city, man, or beast, is very fortunate. The first is to be taken medicinally and upon necessity, and more scantily; the other for of fortitude to fight against pain,

office

but not

thirst,

love,

sensible of:

is

ply

away

"pass

when

time,"

when

things that a child

is

virtue.

it is ill

my own; I and uneasy, but

do not pass

it away: "I taste it one must run over the ill, and settle upon the good. This ordinary phrase of pastime, and passing away the time,

good

'tis

I

over again and stick to

it";

represents the usage of those wise sort of peo-

who

think they cannot do better with their than to let them run out and slide away, pass them over, and baulk them, and, as much as they can, ignore them, and shun them as a thing of troublesome and contemptible quality but I know it to be another kind of thing, and find it both valuable and commodious, even in its latest decay, wherein I now enjoy it; and nature has delivered it into our hands in such and so favourable circumstances, that we have only ourselves to blame if it be troublesome to us, or slide unprofitably away: Stulti vita ingrata est, 3 trepida est, tota in futurum fertur. Nevertheless, I compose myself to lose mine without reple

lives

gret;

Nor does 1

For

it

3

ly

is

perishable by

troubles or annoys me.

properly well become any not to be they die, excepting such as are

when

by the same vice that we dilate ourselves and contract ourselves in sorrow.— Idem,

Tusc. Quaes., 2

it

'tis

in mirth

ions,

as a thing that

but withal

condition, not that

its

displeased

its

first

reason comes, they ap-

have a special nomenclature of

eration, lest

who set so high a value upon it, tasted it in most charming sweetness, by the means of

when

if,

to themselves, that

it

I

drunkenness. Pain, pleasure,

to

and hatred are the

placency, bringing to

it, if it be the wiser, modby indiscretion they should get confounded with pleasure. Intemperance is the pest of pleasure; and temperance is not its scourge, but rather its seasoning. Eudoxus, who therein established the sovereign good, and his compan-

able,

2

hobby-horse with children, and it became him well; for all actions, says philosophy, equally become and equally honour a wise man.

every day, to propose to ourselves those that are weak and imperfect, scarce good for any one service, and rather pull us back; corrupters rath-

it is

end. Plato couples them together, and wills that it should be equally the its excessive

evi table in

have enough wherewithal to do it, and we ought never to be weary of presenting the image of this great man in all the patterns and forms of perfections. There are very few examples of life, full and pure; and we wrong our teaching

in dolore

to

er refused to play at cob-nut, nor to ride the

We

quo

laetitia,

contraction and equally firm; but the one gaily

Laws,

The

iv.

3

1

i.

life

of a fool

is

uneasy, timorous, and whol-

bent upon the future.— Seneca,

Epist., 15.

Essays good husbandry in enpleased to live. joying it: I enjoy it double to what others do; for the measure of its fruition depends upon the more or less of our application to it. New especially that I perceive mine to be so short in time, I will extend it in weight; I will stop the promptitude of its flight by the promptitude of my grasp; and by the vigour of using it compensate the speed of its running away: by how much

There

is

more short, I must make it so much deeper and more full. Others feel the pleasure of content and prosthe possession of living

it

too, as

slides and passes by;

my soul to it too: not there to but therein to take delight; not there to lose itself, but to be present there; and I employ it, on its part, to view itself in this only,

I

associate

engage

541

13

images which fancy puts into their heads, Morte obita quotes fama

Aut quae

sopites

est volitare figuras,

deludunt somnia sensus:

which hasten and prolong their as they are pursued.

pursuit

end

is

The

was

Nil actum credens,

according

and end of their Alexander said, that the

to pursue; as

of his labour

flight,

1

fruit

to labour,

cum

quid swperesset agendum. 2

is

well as they, but not as it one should study, taste, and ruminate upon it, to render condign thanks to Him who grants it to us. They enjoy the other pleasures as they do that of sleep, without knowing it. To the end that even sleep itself should not so stupidly escape from me, I have formerly caused myself to be disturbed in my sleep, so that I might the better and more sensibly relish and taste it. I ponder with myself of content; I do not skim over, but sound it; and I bend my reason, now grown perverse and peevish, to entertain it. Do I find myself in any calm composedness? Is there any pleasure that tickles me? I do not suffer it to dally with my senses perity; I feel

III.

itself,

prosperous state, to weigh and appreciate its happiness, and to amplify it. It reckons how much it stands indebted to Almighty God that conscience and the intestine passions are in repose; that it has the body in its natural dispo-

For my part then, I love life, and cultivate it, such as it has pleased God to bestow it upon us. I do not desire it should be without the necessity of eating and drinking; and I should think myself inexcusable to wish it had been twice as long: Sapiens divitiarum naturalium quaesitor 3 accerimus: nor that we should support ourselves by putting only a little of that drug into our mouths, by which Epimenides took away his appetite, and kept himself alive; nor that we should stupidly beget children with our fingers or heels, but, rather, with reverence be it spoken, that we might voluptuously beget them with our fingers and heels; nor that the body should be without desire, and without titillation. These are ungrateful and wicked complaints. I accept kindly, and with gratitude, what nature has done for me: am well pleased with it, and proud of it. A man does wrong to the great omnipotent Giver of all things, to refuse, annul, or disfigure His gift; all goodness Himself, He has made everything good: Omnia quae secundum naturam sunt, aestimatione digna sunt. 4.

Of

philosophical opinions,

I

preferably em-

its

brace those that are most solid, that

sition, orderly and

most human, and most our own my discourse is, suitable to my manners, low and humble:

competently enjoying the soft and soothing functions, by which He of His grace is pleased to compensate the sufferings wherewith His justice at His good pleasure chastises us. It reflects

how

great a benefit

it is

be so protected, that, which way soever it turns its eye, the heavens art calm around it. to

No desire,

no fear or doubt, troubles the come, that

difficulty, past, present, or to

air;

no

its

im-

agination may not pass over without offence. This consideration takes great lustre from the comparison of different conditions; and therefore

it is

that

I

my thought, in a thouwhom fortune or their own

present to

sand aspects, those error torments and carries away; and those,

more

who

me, so negligently and incuriously receive their good fortune. Those are men who like to

away their time, indeed; they pass over the and that which they possess, to give themselves up to hope, and for vain shadows and

pass

present,

is to

say, the

:

philosophy plays the child, to my thinking, when it puts itself upon its Ergos, to preach to us that 'tis a barbarous alliance to marry the divine with the earthly, the reasonable with the unreasonable, the severe with the indulgent, the honest with the dishonest; that pleasure is a brutish quality, unworthy to be tasted by a wise man; that the sole pleasure he extracts from the enjoyment of a fair

young wife, is

a pleasure

of his conscience to perform an action accord1

Such

forms which after death are said dreams which delude the senses in sleep.— ALneid, x. 641. 2 Thinking nothing done, if anything is left to do.— Lucan, ii. 657. 8 A wise man eagerly desires natural riches.— Senas those

to flutter about; or those

eca, Epist., 119. *

All things that are according to nature are worthy

of esteem.— Cicero,

De

Vinib.,

iii.

6.

Montaigne

542

ing to order, as to put on his boots for a profitOh, that its followers had no more right, nor nerves, nor juice, in getting their

facere, quae facienda sunt; et alio corpus impel-

not what Socrates says, who is its masours: he values, as he ought, bodily pleasure; but he prefers that of the mind, as hav-

animum; distrahique inter diversissimos motus? 3 To make this apparent, ask any one, some day, to tell you what whimsies and imaginations he put into his pate, upon the account of which he diverted his thoughts from a good meal, and regrets the time he spends in eating:

ing more force, constancy, facility, variety, and

you

able journey.

wives' maidenheads, than in

That ter and

its

lessons.

is

all

the

most part we had better sleep than purpose we wake); and that his discourses and notions are not worth the worst mess there. Though they were the ecstasies of Archimedes himself, what then? I do not here speak of, nor mix with the rabble of us ordinary men, and the vanity of the thoughts and desires that divert us, those venerable souls, elevated by the ardour of devotion and religion, to a constant and conscientious meditation of divine things, who, by the energy of vivid and vehement hope, prepossessing the use of the eternal nourishment,

first;

trix,

not the adversary of pleasure. Nature

gentle guide, but not

more sweet and

is

a

gentle,

than prudent and just ilntrandum est in rerum naturam, et penitus, quid ea postulet, pervidendum. 1 1 hunt after her foot throughout; we have confounded it with artificial traces; and that academic and peripatetic good, which is "to live according to it," becomes, by this means, hard

and explain; and that of the

Stoics,

cousin-german to it, which is "to consent to nature." Is it not an error to esteem any actions less worthy, because they are necessary? And yet they will not beat it out of my head, that it is not a very convenient marriage of pleasure with necessity, with which, says an ancient, the gods always conspire. To what end do we dismember by divorce a building united by so close and brotherly a correspondence? Let us, on the contrary, confirm it by mutual offices; let the mind rouse and quicken the heaviness of the body, and the body stay and fix the levity of the soul. Qui, velut summum bonum, laudat animae et,

tanquam malum, naturam

accusat, profecto et

animam

carnis

carnaliter appetit,

carnaliter fugit; quoniam id vanitate humana,non veritatedivina. 2 In this present that God has made us, there is nothing un-

carnem

sentit

worthy our care; we stand accountable, even to a hair; and 'tis no slight commission to man, to conduct man according to his condition; 'tis express, plain, and the principal injunction of all, and the Creator has seriously and strictly enit. Authority has alone power upon common understandings, and is

joined

to

of

work more

weight in a foreign language; therefore let us again charge with it in this place: Stultitiae proprium quis non dixerit, ignave et contumaciter

A man must search into the nature of things, and examine what she requires.— Ibid., v. 16. 1

2

nothing so insipid in

is not so fantastic— but only it temperance, with him, is the modera-

means alone— he

et

is

dishes at your table, as this wise meditation of

goes

naturam,

will find there

by no

dignity. This, according to him, goes

to limit

lere, alio

He who commends

wake

to the

the final aim and last step of Christian desires,

the sole, constant, and incorruptible pleasure, disdain to apply themselves to our necessitous, fluid,

and ambiguous conveniences, and easily body the care and use of sensual

resign to the

and temporal pasture: 'tis a privileged study. Between ourselves, I have ever observed supercelestial opinions and subterranean manners to be of singular accord. /Esop, that great man, saw his master make water as he walked: "What, then," said he, "must we dung as we run?" Let us manage our time as well as we can, there will yet remain a great deal that will be idle and ill employed. The mind has not other hours enough wherein to do its business, without disassociating itself from the body, in that little space it must have for its necessity. They would put themselves out of themselves, and escape from being men; 'tis folly; instead of transforming themselves into angels, they transform themselves into beasts; instead of elevating, they lay themselves lower.

These transcendental humours affright me, high and inaccessible cliffs and precipices; and nothing is hard for me to digest in the life of Socrates but his ecstaciesand communication

like

with demons; nothing so human in Plato as that for which they say he was called divine; and of our sciences, those seem to be the most terrestrial

the nature of the soul as the

supreme good, and condemns the nature of the both carnally desires the soul, and carnally flies the flesh, because he is so possessed, through human vanity, and not by divine truth.— St. Augustine, City of God, xiv. 5.

flesh as evil, certainly,

his (for the

3

Who will not say, that it is the property of folly,

and contumaciously to perform what is to to bend the body one way and the mind another, and to be distracted betwixt wholly different motions?— Seneca, Epist., 74. slothfully

be done, and

Essays and low that are highest mounted; and I find nothing so humble and mortal in the life of Alexander, as his fancies about his immortalisation. Philotas pleasantly quipped him in his answer: he congratulated him by letter concerning the oracle of Jupiter Hammon, which had placed him amongst the gods: "Upon thy account, I am

but the men are to be pitied who are to live with a man, and to obey him, who exceeds and is not contented with the measure of 1 a man. "Diis te minorem quod geris, imperas. The pretty inscription wherewith the Athenians honoured the entry of Pompey into their city, "By so much thou is conformable to my sense 2 'Tis art a god, as thou confessest thee a man." an absolute and, as it were, a divine perfection, for a man to know how loyally to enjoy his being. We seek other conditions, by reason we do not understand the use of our own; and go out glad of

it,

III.

13

543

of ourselves, because

we know not how

there to

much purpose to go upon stilts, when upon stilts, we must yet walk with our legs; and, when seated upon the most elevated throne in the world, we are but seated upon our breech. The fairest lives, in my opinion, reside. 'Tis to for,

which regularly accommodate themcommon and human model; without miracle, without extravagance. Old age stands a little in need of a more gentle treatment. Let us recommend it to God, the protector of health and wisdom, but withal, let it be gay and are those

selves to the

sociable.

:

1

Because thou carriest thyself lower than the gods, thou rulest.— Horace, Od., iii. 6, 5. 2

Plutarch,

Pompey.

Frui paratis et valido mihi Latoe, dones, et, precox, Integra

Cum mente; nee turf em senectam Degere, nee Cithara carentem. 3

3 Grant it to me, Apollo, that I may enjoy what I have in good health; let me be sound in body and in mind; let me live in honour when old, nor let music be wanting.— Horace, Od., i. 31, 17.

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