Grammar and Usage Guide 0716632225, 9780716632221

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Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Grammar and Usage Guidelines and usage guidelines show how Grammar Following words together guidelines results in clear

and

to

put

these

correctly.

and

speaking. This section presents

effective writing

grammar and usage

guidelines for each of the eight parts of speech: nouns,

pronouns,

adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions,

conjunctions,

and

interjections.

Nouns A noun names

a person, place,

thing,

idea,

action,

or

quality.

Common

and Proper Nouns

common nouns and proper A common noun names a type of person, place, or

There are two kinds of nouns: nouns.

thing. Boy,

animal,

city,

mountain, pencil,

machine, and telephone are

all

common

chair, flower,

nouns.

A

proper

noun names a particular person, place, or thing. John, Fido, San Francisco, and Mount Rushmore are all proper nouns.

Abstract, Concrete,

and Collective

Nouns Nouns can be divided into three other groups: abstract, concrete, and collective. An abstract noun names things that cannot be seen or touched, such as qualities, actions, and ideas. Courage, cleanliness, loyalty, greed, love,

and danger are

all

abstract

nouns.

A

10

concrete noun names things that can be seen and

touched. Desk,

dow

are

all

tree,

and win-

guitar, hand, student, cup,

concrete nouns.

A collective noun names a group of people or things. Team, flock, panel, audience, gang, class, herd, and jury are

all

collective nouns.

When

a collective

noun

group

refers to a

as a unit,

any verbs and pronouns related to the noun are

in the

singular:

The

class

The

flock

has gone to the museum.

headed on

^XTien a collective

noun

its

southward course

in late

refers to the individual

Octoher.

members noun

of a group, any verbs and pronouns related to the are in the plural:

The gang are

all

going

their separate ways.

The panel are submitting

their opinions to the chairperson

today.

Gender All

nouns have one of four genders: masculine, feminine, neuter. Nouns that specih" male creatures are

common, or

masculine: John, father, brother, king, rooster.

Nouns

specify female creatures are feminine: Mary, mother,

that

sister,

queen, hen.

Most nouns

that

name

creatures give

gender. These nouns are said to have

no

indication of

common

gender.

and cook are examples of common nouns. All nouns naming nonliving objects are called neuter. Rock, candle, picture, and ribbon are all examples of neuter nouns. Noun endings such as -ess, -trix, and -ine can be added to nouns to make them feminine (poetess, avia/m,-), but these endings are rarely used. Instead, nouns of common gender such ds poet and aviator are used to refer to

Child, animal, parent, relative, singer,

both sexes.

Some words that are masculine (fireman, postman, policeman) have alternatives with common genders (fire fighter, mail carrier, police officer). The use of common gender lessens the possibilit\- of sexist interpretation.

11

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Number A nouns number shows whether the noun names one or more than one person or thing. A noun is singular if it names one person or thing: child, rock, mouse. A noun is plural if it names more than one person or thing; children, rocks, mice.

—

Most nouns change their form in the plural: cat churches. Most plurals can be formed simply by adding -s or -es. The spelling of some nouns changes

cats;

to

church

form

—

the

mouse— mice;

plural:

—children;

child

shelf—shelves;

foot—feet. The

other nouns does not change

—two

woman

at

— two

all

in

—women;

spelling

the plural:

of

one two

—

one quail quail. Consult your dictionary' whenever you are in doubt about how to form noun plurals. Here are some more ir-

sheep

sheep;

one deer

deer;

regular ones:

Singular

Plural

alumnus (male)

alumnae

alumna (female) barracks

barracks

criterion

criteria

fungus

fungi

half

halves

loaf

loaves

louse

lice

man

men

ox

oxen

phenomenon

phenomena

self

selves

thesis

theses

tooth

teeth

wife

wives

Appositives An

is a noun, or a group of words acting as a means the same thing, explains, or elaborates on the noun that comes before it.

appositive

noun,

12

that

Carol,

my

best frieyid,

is

moving

to Toledo,

(friend

=

Carol) Lou's neighbor,

Chuck

won

Matts,

the

school election.

(Chuck Matts = neighbor) Harry's

long-standing dream,

came I

to

visit

California,

= dream) football and soccer,

finally

true, (to visit California

enjoy playing two sports,

(football

and soccer = sports)

Possessive Case Nouns change

their

form to show ownership: Barbara's These form

gloves; the baby's bottle; the scouts' leader.

changes show

nouns are in the possessive case. nouns form the possessive by adding an

that the

All singular

apostrophe and

-s:

Sally's coat

My

brother's skates

Exception: Singular nouns that end in

-s

form the posses-

by adding either an apostrophe and -s or an apostrophe only. Both forms of the possessive are considered sive

correct:

book

Charles's

Charles"

nouns

Plural

book that

end

in

form the possessive by adding

-s

an apostrophe only:

The

girls'

dressing

room

The boys' gym teacher Plural

nouns

that

do not end

adding an apostrophe and The men's The

in

-5

form the possessive by

-s:

hats

children's toys

In cases of joint ownership, only the last

word shows

pos-

session: Jack and Barbara's dog

Mother and Father's car

13

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

When two

or

more persons own something

individually,

both words show possession: Helen's and Linda's books

Dorothy Johnson's and David Washington's computers In

compound nouns (nouns made of more last word shows possession:

than one

word), only the

father-in-/flM'5

editor in chief's

Pronouns A pronoun

takes the place of a noun. Pronouns stand for people or things without naming them.

There are

five

kinds of pronouns: personal, relative, de-

monstrative, indefinite, and interrogative.

Personal Pronouns A

personal pronoun

refers to a to

s form shows whether the pronoun person speaking (first person), a person spoken

(second person), or a person or thing spoken about There is more than one spelling for each

(third person).

"person."

Which one

to use

depends on which case

needed. Singular 1st

person

is

himself,

herself,

itself,

ourselves,

yourselves,

themselves.

These pronouns are called "reflexive" because they show that the verb's action is turned back on the word or words the reflexive pronouns stand for.

My baby Reflexive

stand

brother just learned

how

to feed himself.

pronouns can emphasize the word or words they

for. I

spoke to Jack and Alan themselves.

A

Alert:

pronoun cannot be used someone or something.

reflexive

refer to Correct:

Todd looked

Incorrect:

at

alone.

must

himself in the mirror.

They asked myself and her

to join them.

Pronouns

Relative

Relative pronouns introduce adjective clauses. The pronouns are who, whose, whom, which, and that.

Samuels

Mr.

It

is

the architect

who designed

the

relative

school

library.

The mystery book, which was

a gift

from

Claire's brother,

held her spellbound from beginning to end.

The committee

that planned the project has

been congrat-

ulated.

Demonstrative Pronouns Demonstrative pronouns are used to designate particular people, places, or things that may or may not be named in the

same sentence. The demonstrative pronouns are and

that, these, Is this

Ihat

what you asked

is

the

this,

those.

dog

I

for?

want.

These are the best cookies. I

want

those.

15

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Indefinite Indefinite

Pronouns

pronouns

things in general. ail

refer to

Some

one or more persons or pronouns are:

indefinite

Nominative Case we

I

you

you he, she,

they

it

who, whoever as subjects of sentences are in the

Pronouns used

nomina-

tive case. /

went

to the movies.

You look

tired.

We students complained Who knows the answer?

about the assignment.

Many people use the wrong pronoun form when a subject consists of more than one word. Remember: No matter how many nouns or pronouns are in the subject, the subject is

always in the nominative case.

He and / have been Him and myself) You and she are

friends for years. (Not;

Him and

/

or

You and her)

invited for dinner. (Not:

Martin and he went to the game. (Not: Martin and him)

Pronouns used

as predicate nominatives are in the

nomi-

native case. It

was

/

who

Someone

called.

left

a

book on the

desk.

Was

it

you or

he'^

Objective Case

me

us

you

you

him, her,

them

it

whom, whomever Pronouns used

as direct objects of verbs are in the objec-

tive case.

Does Mark know Mother wants us

that

to

Cathy likes him"^

come home

Jim and Sylvia were talking

them

Whom

for dinner.

in class until

Mr. Martin asked

to stop.

will

you

invite to

your

part\'?

17

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Pronouns used

as indirect objects are in the objective case.

me

Uncle Charles and Aunt Sarah sent

a lovely birthday

card.

Cindy was happy when Dad gave her the car keys.

Would you

When

please

tell

us a

the Wilsons moved,

Pronouns used

stor>^?

we

gave them a party

as objects of prepositions are in the objec-

tive case.

Deliver the package directly to me, please.

Do you wish to go with him'^ Why doesn't anyone ever listen to To whom do you wish to speak?

Many people use

the

us'^

wrong pronoun form when

objects, indirect objects,

direct

and objects of prepositions consist

more than one word. Remember: No matter how many nouns or pronouns form the direct, indirect, or preposiof

tional object, they are all in the objective case. If

you want

to

Jack and

know

Martha requested rectly lo John

The

the answer, just zsk Jack and me. (Not:

/ ov Jack

and myself) responses be sent

that all the survey

and him.

store never sent

di-

and he)

(Nov. John

Mother and her the items they

or-

dered. (Not: Mother and she)

A good way to

test

yourself in cases like these

is

to separate

noun and pronoun. Repeat the sentence using each pronoun to see which sounds best. For example, ". just ask me" sounds much better than ". just ask /." Therethe

.

.

and me Pronouns used

fore, Jack

is

in

.

.

correct.

incomplete constructions take either

the objective or the nominative case, depending

on the

meaning of the sentence. Sally likes

Margaret better than me.

ter than Sally likes

Margaret better than

than / do)

18

(

Full construction: bet-

she likes me) /.

(Full construction: better

Possessive Case my, mine

our, ours

your, yours

your, yours their, theirs

his, her, hers, its

whose Possessive pronouns indicate ownership.

They can be used

as predicate nominatives. In that case, they use the

mine, ours, yours, This

book

is

his, hers,

its,

theirs,

forms

whose.

mine.

The yellow sweater

is

yours.

Possessive pronouns can also be used as adjectives. In that

form my, our, your,

case, the\' take the

his, her,

its,

their,

whose. This

is

my

book.

Whose coat

is

that?

Never use an apostrophe with possessive pro-

Alert:

nouns. The next move {^oi:

The wind (Not:

That

is

yours.

yours)

it's,

shifted

its

direction.

which means

new speedboat

is

it is)

ours.

(Not: our's)

Whose dog was barking (Not: who's,

Theirs

is

the

last

night?

which means "who first

house on the

is")

left.

(Not: theirs)

Agreement The noun a pronoun stands pronoun always agrees with

for its

is

called

its

antecedent.

antecedent in person

A

(first,

second, or third person), number (singular or plural), and gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter). In the following examples, antecedents are marked (A), and pronouns are marked (P):

19

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

(A)

(P)

Sally gave her crayons to Judy.

(Third person, singular, feminine) (A)

(P)

The boy bought

own

his

lunch.

(Third person, singular, masculine) (A)

Rick

(P)

and Edna

practiced their skating routine.

(Third person, plural) (A) /

(P)

am

having a hard time with

(First

When

my homework

tonight.

person, singular)

the antecedent

is

a collective noun, use either a sin-

gular or a plural pronoun, depending

upon

the sentence's

meaning. Vncjury are (Each

The jury met (The

room

in the next

member

of the jury

to reach

its

is

casting their votes.

casting an individual vote.)

decision.

jury, acting as a unit,

met

in

order to reach a deci-

sion.)

The

indefinite

either,

pronouns anybody, anyone, anything, each,

everybody,

everyone, everything,

neither,

nobody,

none, no one, one, somebody, someone and something are singular.

Each

girl

had her own g>'m

Neither boy took his turn

locker.

at bat.

Many people make mistakes in antecedent agreement when plural nouns come between the singular indefinite pronouns and pronouns that stand for them later in a sentence. Remember: These indefinite pronouns are singular no matter what words follow them, and so are the

later

pronouns.

One

of the

women

lost

Neither of the dogs got

When

the antecedent of a

women, or when

its

shot this year.

pronoun

men and unknown,

refers to both

the gender of an antecedent

the masculine singular

20

her gloves.

pronoun may be used.

is

Evetyone

will get his turn to

be

class monitor.

Each person entering the theater had to show

Some people feel

it

are reluctant to follow this rule because they

A good way

fosters sexism.

to avoid the

to put the antecedent in plural form and

changes to the

sary'

his ticket.

problem

make any

is

neces-

rest of the sentence.

All of the students will get their turn to

be

class monitor.

Or \'ou can leave the antecedent alone and change another word in the sentence. Everyone

will get

a turn

to

be

class monitor.

You can

also use masculine and feminine pronouns combined by a slash {he/she, sihe, her/his).

Everyone

will get his/her (or her/his)

chance to be

class

monitor.

Adjectives An

adjective modifies a

make

Adjectives

noun or

a

the meaning of a

pronoun.

noun or pronoun more it in some way. There

specific

by describing

are

t\pes of adjectives: descriptive and limiting.

t\\'o

it

or limiting

Descriptive Adjectives A

descriptive adjective indicates a noun's quality' or condi-

tion.

The area was covered with The plants had short roots. The

trees

High

hills

thick vines.

were surrounded by red

flowers.

rose in the distance.

Limiting Adjectives A

limiting adjective points out a

ber or

quantity-.

noun or

indicates

its

num-

Limiting adjectives can be classified as nu-

merical adjectives, pronomial adjectives, or articles.

21

Grammar and Usage Guidelines

Numerical Adjectives Numerical adjectives give number. There are two kinds of numerical adjectives: cardinal and ordinal.

numbers answer "how many?"

Cardinal

were

Six chairs

room.

in the

The table seats eight persons. The report contained ten pages. Ordinal numbers answer "in what order?"

The second

step

Our team came The

fifth

is

broken.

in third.

carbon copy

is

hard to read.

Pronomial Adjectives Many pronouns can be used

as adjectives, in

which case

they are called pronomial adjectives. There are four kinds

of pronomial adjectives: personal, demonstrative, indefinite,

and

Personal

interrogative.

—my, your,

Here

is

Where

my is

our, their

his, her,

garden.

your

scarf?

John was

listening to his radio.

Sally lost

her

ring.

Welcome to our home. Hank and Phyllis danced Demonstrative

—

this, that, these,

gone too

This time you've

That route

to their favorite song.

is

those

far.

too long.

These colors go well together.

Those people are Indefinite

—any, few,

Select

any

lost.

other, several,

somebody

dessert you wish.

Feiv people are so friendly as Martin.

Other methods will work

just as well.

Several questions arose.

Somebody from

22

the group should go.

—which, what

Interrogative

Which song

What day

is

will

number one? you be here?

Articles

Some grammar

experts consider both the definite and

definite articles to

be

The doctor came to our house, (definite

A number

in-

adjectives.

of people complimented

article)

me on my

baking,

(indefinite article)

Placement of Adjectives Adjectives usually

come

before the noun or pronoun they

modify.

She bought the red

We

dress.

warm sun. The skinny young man always ate as much as he The poor woman wore a torn, rumpled coat. sat in tlie

Adjectives can

be placed

after the

noun or pronoun

variety or emphasis. In this case, the adjective in apposition to the

wanted.

is

for

said to

be

noun or pronoun.

The mountain climber, exhausted, paused in the The dog, lean and alert, led the search party.

The house, old and

neglected,

had stood vacant

shelter.

for years.

Comparison of Adjectives Descriptive adjectives modifi- nouns and pronouns by

in-

and characteristics. The degree to which nouns and pronouns have the quality^ or characteristic can be indicated b\' means of comparison. Adjectives can be compared in ascending (upward) or descending (downward) order. There are three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative. The positive degree does not actually compare. It expresses the quality or characteristic: dicating their qualities

23

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

attentive, good. The comparative degree expresses a degree higher or lower than the positive: taller, less tall,

tall,

more

attentive, less attentive, better, worse.

The

superlative

degree expresses the highest or lowest degree of the quality or characteristic: tallest, least tall, most attentive, least attentive, best, worst. There are three ways of forming the comparison upward: 1

.

Some

adjectives

form the comparative by adding

the comparative degree and

-est

-er for

for the superlative degree.

Almost all adjectives of one syllable and some adjectives of two or more syllables form the comparative this way. Positive

Never use more and most when adding -er and -est to adThis is a double comparison and should be

jectives.

avoided. Incorrect: Sandra was

Correct:

more

sryiarter than Caroline.

Sandra was smarter than Caroline.

Incorrect: Harold

is

the most tallest person

Harold

is

the tallest person

Correct:

I

I

know.

know.

Choice of Adjectives Avoid unnecessary, vague, and repetitious adjectives. They weaken the descriptive power of your writing and speaking. Adjectives should make descriptions sharper and more interesting.

We visited

Unnecessary adjective: tall,

ing

Adding the

is tall.

the observation tower

on

110-story building. (Any 110-story build-

top of the

adjective tall gives

no additional

information.

Vague

adjectives:

Debbie

is

one of the

nicest

people

1

have

ever met. (The sentence gives no information about

what makes Debbie so ful?

Avoid using

nice.

Repetitious adjectives:

splashed water huge. They

all

special. Is

Be

A

big,

over

mean almost

she kind? Polite? Help-

specific.)

huge truck drove by and

my new the

same

coat.

(Delete big or

thing.)

Predicate Adjectives A

predicate adjective

is

an adjective that follows a linking all forms of the verb to be: am,

verb. Linking verbs include

are, is, was, were. Other linking verbs include: appear, feel, grow, look, seem, smell, sound, and taste. They tell about

They connect the subject nouns that follow. Because many linking verbs can also be used

the subject s state of being.

to the

adjectives or

tion verbs (verbs that

as ac-

about a physical or mental occurrence), many people make the mistake of using an adverb

after a linking verb. is

tell

But a modifier following a linking verb

always an adjective, never an adverb.

25

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Incorrect:

That soup tastes strangely.

Correct:

That soup tastes strange.

Incorrect:

I

feel

Correct:

I

feel

when you leave. bad when you leave. badly

To

test whether to use an adjective or an adverb, ask "Which word is being modified?" If the verb is being modified, use an adverb. If the subject is being modified, use

an adjective.

The children grew (The adjective

tall

tall.

modifies the subject children.

The children grew

quickly.

(The adverb quickly modifies the verb grew. ) Ms. Johnson appeared worried

when

she heard the news.

(The adjective worried modifies the subject Ms. Johnson.) Ms. Johnson appeared suddenly from behind the house.

(The adverb suddenly modifies the verb appeared. )

Common

Errors

— These/those

This/that

The pronomial adjective always agrees noun it modifies: This (singular)

in

number with

the

kind (singular) of weather

That (singular) sort (singular) of book

Those (plural) kirids (plural) of songs Tljese (plural) sorts (plural) of exercises

Do

Alert:

not use

a

Incorrect: That sort of

after

a

kind and

sort.

cake.

Correct: That sort of cake.

—

Fewlfewer

Few

little/less

2Lnd fewer

answer the question

"How many?" (Can you

count them?) I

26

have a few errands to run. (You can count the errands.)

Marcy has fewer records than Traq*. (You can count the records.)

"How much?"

and less answer the question you cannot count.)

Little

Ms. Marks has

My

little

sister has less

patience with students

time to spend with

who

me now

(These

talk in class.

that

she has

a part-time job.

Verbs A

verb expresses an action or a

Action verbs

show

of being.

and mental

physical

amples of action verbs

state

think, hope, desire. State-of-being verbs

Some examples

actions.

are: run, talk, sing,

Some

make,

show

ex-

beliei^e,

a condition.

of state-of-being verbs are: appear,

be, be-

come, feel, and seem.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs Transitive Verbs There are other ways to classify verbs. A transitive verb, for example, shows action that is performed on something. Something receives the action. Each of these sentences contains a transitive verb:

John

hit the ball to Michael.

(The

ball received the hitting.)

Margaret writes

(The

letters to

her cousins.

letters receive the writing.)

Mark and

Sally love their

mother.

(Mother receives the loving.)

Direct Object

The verbs above are

they take a direct object.

A

direct object

transitive

names

because

the person

or thing that receives the action of the verb. In the

sentence above, the direct object receives the action of the verb the direct object

is

the

noun

is

hits.

letters,

the

noun

ball,

first

which

second sentence, which receives the ac-

In the

27

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

tion of the verb ject is the

In the third sentence, the direct ob-

lurite.

noun mother, who

receives the action of the verb

love.

An

way

easy

to find the direct object in a sentence

is

and verb and then ask "whom?" or "what?". In the first sentence, you would ask, "John hit whom or what?" In the second, you would ask, "Margaret writes what?" In the third, you would ask, "Mark and Sally to find the subject

love

whom

or what?" In each case, the noun that answers

the question

is

the direct object.

Indirect Object.

Transitive verbs can also take indirect

names the person or thing the performed toward or for. Each of these sentences contains both a direct object and an indi-

objects.

An

indirect object

action of the verb

is

rect object:

John threw the dog a bone. Jennifer sent her friend a

letter.

Martha gave her mother some perfume. In the

first

sentence, the indirect object

is

dog and

the di-

whom

or

what?") In the second sentence, the indirect object

is

rect object

bone. (Ask: "John threw what to

is

friend and the direct object is letter. (Ask: "Jennifer sent what to whom or what?") In the third sentence, the indirect object

is

mother and the direct object

whom

"Martha gave what to

is

perfume. (Ask:

or what?")

Intransitive Verbs

An

intransitive

verb takes no direct object. Each of these

sentences contains an intransitive verb:

Mark sings

in the

school choir.

Harriet walks in the woods.

Our baby brother

sleeps through the night.

Transitive or Intransitive?

Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending on how they are used in the sentence. Remember: If a verb takes a direct object, not take a direct object,

28

it

it

is

is

a transitive verb.

an intransitive verb.

If

it

does

Mary

a

ivrites

letter, (transitive

—

direct object

Mar\- writes beautifully, (intransitive

John walked

his dog. (transitive

John walked

to the store.

read three books

I

—no

—the

a week,

letter)

direct object

intransitive

(

is

direct object)

— no —

(transitive

is

dog)

direct object)

direct object

is

books) I

read

quickly, (intransitive

— no

direct object)

Linking Verbs A

linking verb is an intransitive, state-of-being verb that needs an adjective, noun, or pronoun to complete its meaning. The most common linking verb is to be in all its forms. Other common linking verbs are: act, appear, feel, grow, look, seem, sound, taste, and turn. Jack seems sad.

The chocolate cake baking George

in the

That person in the gray hat

Each of these sentences verbs

seem,

oven smells

feel, smell,

tells

—

be

is

our lawyer.

about a

The

The

adjectives or the

that follow linking verbs are closely related to the

subjea. In ject.

state of being.

link the subjects with the ad-

jeaives or nouns that describe them.

nouns

delicious.

he a professor.

will

fact,

they describe, define, or explain the sub-

be used as action verbs and mental action).

iMost linking verbs can also

(verbs that

show

physical

The houv grew

late,

The children grew Harold appeared

(linking verb)

quickly, (action verb)

satisfied

Ms. Robinson appeared rier rang, (action

at

with our answer, (linking verb) the door soon after the mail car-

verb)

Adjeaives that fcjllow linking verbs are called predicate adjectives.

Nouns

that follow linking verbs are called predi-

cate nominatives.

Joyce \odks pretty, (predicate adjective)

The radio

sounds^ funny, (predicate adjective)

Clarence became a doctor, (predicate nominative)

Marsha was a

leader, (predicate nominative)

29

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Voice All transitive

verbs can have two voices: active or passive.

In the active voice, the subject of the verb performs the action. In the passive voice, the subject of the

verb receives

the action.

John

The

A

hit the ball, (active voice; subject

ball

local

was

company performed company)

subject

—John)

by John, (passive voice; subject

hit

the

opera,

—

ball)

(active

voice;

—

The opera was performed by (passive voice; subject

a local company.

—opera)

Notice what has happened in these four sentences. Ball, the direct object in the ject in

sentence, has

first

become

the sub-

the second sentence. Opera, the direct object in the

become

third sentence, has

the subject in the fourth sen-

be transformed from the active voice the passive voice by turning the direct object into the

tence. Sentences can to

subject.

The passive voice form of the verb cipal verb: hit;

The

The

is

ball is hit;

ball will

formed by using an appropriate

to he, plus the past participle of the prin-

The

have been

bit,

ball

was

hit;

The

ball will

be

for example.

Mood A

verb's

mood shows

attitude or viewpoint.

There are

three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Use the indicative

mood

for a statement or question of fact.

You are serious about this? Ned is learning how to tap-dance. Did you look at the beautiful antique

Use the imperative

mood

cars

for a request or a

on

display?

command.

Please be serious.

Leant

how

to tap-dance.

Look at those

beautiful antique cars!

Use the subjunctive being

30

is

mood when

the action or state of

doubtful, conditional, unreal, or improbable.

If

you were

serious, I'd be.

Ned should learn

to tap-dance.

Should you look at the antique

be sure

cars,

to notice the

bumpers.

Number

Person and A

verb's person

almost

form

all

to

and number depend on the

subject. But in

verbs, only the third person singular changes

show person and number.

Person depends on whether the subject speaking

(first

son), or the person First

is

the person

person), the person spoken to (second per-

spoken about (third person).

person

Second person

we go we walk am, we are

Third person

I

go,

you go

he goes

I

walk,

you walk

she walks

you are

it

I

The number depends on whether

is

the verb refers to a sin-

gular or plural subject. Singular

Singular

Plural

Plural

we go

1

you go

you go

you are

you are

he goes

they go

she

they are

I

go

am

we

is

are

Tense A

verb's tense

shows the time of the verbs

action.

There

are three major divisions of time: past, present, and future. In each of these time frames, the action can

simple (occurring

at

that particular

be considered

moment) or

perfect

(completed, or "perfected"). There are six tenses in English:

present, present perfect, past, past perfect, future, and

future perfect.

Present Tense

—shows action occurring I

see

The

my

in the present:

sister playing in the schoolyard.

fire fighters

hear the alarm and spring into

action.

31

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

—shows habitual or customary' Jim walks

My

his

action:

dog every morning before

brother talks

—shows unchanging conditions, One

plus

school.

in his sleep.

one equals

facts,

or

beliefs:

two.

Congressional elections are held every two years.

When

it

rains,

it

pours.

—shows action completed present and used

make an

when

in the past (called the historical

the writer or speaker wants to

especially vivid impression):

Then on December

16,

about 45 Bostonians dressed as

In-

dians raid three British ships and throw 340 chests of tea into ica is

Boston Harbor. The Revolutionary War

coming

closer now.

1775. This time, the place

—shows action

finally

It

is

in

Amer-

begins on April 19,

Lexington, Massachusetts.

that will occur:

She flies to Houston tomorrow.

He

sigfTS

the contract next week.

Present Perfect Tense

— shows

action

begun

in the past

and completed by the

present moment: Jerry has taken I

the required courses.

all

hai'e seen the play that

was recently made

into a television

special.

— shows action begun

in the past

and continuing up

to or

through the present moment: Cynthia has been

my

friend since the

first

day she moved

to town.

Harry has been shooting baskets for

Past Tense

—shows action completed We I

32

went

to the

in the past:

movies yesterday.

enjoyed meeting your cousin.

at least a half

hour.

Past Perfect Tense

—shows

an action that occurred in the past prior to an-

other past action or event:

Mark had finished drying the dishes by the time Sam

ar-

rived. I

had heard good

things about you long before

I

met you.

Future Tense

—shows an action They

will call

Martin will

that will

you

visit

occur

in the future:

later this afternoon.

his aunt next

month.

Future Perfect Tense

— shows an

action that will

be completed

at

some

future

time:

Sandra will have finished two years of college by the time

you see her

We

will already

this

summer.

have

left

for

our vacation before Saturday.

Verb Phrases is needed to show and mood. (I will go to the store this afternoon; The game was enjoyed by all; I might decide not to go to the part}'.) These groups of two or more verbs are called verb phrases. Verb phrases consist of a form of the principal, or main, verb plus one or more auxiliar}', or helping, verbs.

Frequently, a combination of verbs tense, voice,

Principal (Main) Verb In verb phrases, the principal verb usually takes the

of the present or past participle. a verb

ends

The present

form

participle of

example, seeing; hearing; speaking. ends in -d, -ed, -t, -eii, or -n; for exam-

in -ing; for

The

past participle

ple,

walked;

left;

stolen.

33

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Auxiliary (Helping) Verb The most common

auxilian- verbs are: he, can, could, do,

have, may, might, must, shall, should,

verbs

be, do,

and have can

will,

and would. (The

also act as principal verbs. For

am

a student"; "You do your best"; "We have The other auxiliar\' verbs, such as could, should, and would, are sometimes called modal

instance: "I

three books." might, verbs.)

Note:

The

entire verb phrase

is

considered to be a sen-

have seen the have seen. In the sentence, /

tence's verb. For example, in the sentence, /

Grand Canyon,

the verb

is

will have finished my book report by Friday, the verb is will have finished. Word placement has no effect on what makes up the verb. In the sentence, / will certainly have decided by Friday, the verb is will have decided.

Principal Parts Ever)'

verb has three principal

parts: the

present infinitive

(usually called "the present"), the past indicative (usually

and the past participle. Regular verbs form the past and the past participle by adding -d or -ed to called "the past"),

the present infinitive. Present

featured either in the dictionary's irregular verb dividually in

Present

main entries

that

show

list

or

the principal parts.

in-

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Present

Conjugation A verbs

conjugation

is

a

mood, number, person, forms

and

come from

past

its

participle),

complete listing of tense, and voice.

all its

All

forms by

the verb's

three principal parts (present, past,

combined with

auxiliary verbs

as

needed.

Here

is

the complete conjugation of the verb to see

in the active voice:

Indicative Singular

Mood

Grammar and Usage

Subjunctive

Mood

Guidelines

(continued) Singular

Singular

Future perfect tense

Future tense (if)

I

should see

(iO you should

(if)

we

(if)

you should see

should see

I

(if)

you should have seen

see (if)

he, she,

should have seen

(if)

it

(iO they should see

(if)

he, she,

it

should

have seen

should see

Imperative (you) see

Mood

— singular and

Infinitive form:

plural

Imperative

Mood

(you) be seen

— singular and

plural

Present

Perfect

Past

be seen

have been seen

Infinitive form:

to

Participle;

being seen

having been seen

Gerund:

being seen

having been seen

to

Conjugation of Progressive Forms Each

form suggests a different shade of meaning. The you just reviewed show conjugations of simple

N'erb

tables

forms.

Another important form is the progressive form, which shows continuous action. Here is a synopsis of the progressive forms of to see in the active voice, first person singular.

Indicative

Mood

Present tense:

I

am

Past tense:

I

was seeing

seeing

be seeing

Future tense:

I

shall

Present perfect tense:

I

have been seeing

Past perfect tense:

I

had been seeing

Future perfect tense:

I

shall

have been seeinE

Mood

Subjunctive Present tense:

(if)

I

be seeing

Past tense:

(if)

I

were seeing

Future tense:

(if)

I

should be seeing

Present perfect tense:

(if)

I

have been seeing

Past perfect tense:

(

if)

I

had been seeing

Future perfect tense

(

if)

I

should have been seeint

Imperative

Mood

(you) be seeing

— singular and plural

39

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Alert:

Do

not confuse verb phrases in the progressive

conjugation with the present participle used as an adjective.

I

am singing,

(verb phrase in progressive conjugation)

The singing bird nested

in the tree,

(present participle used as

an adjective)

Verbals Verbals are verb forms that can be used as parts of speech

other than verbs. There are three kinds of verbals: tives, participles,

infini-

and gerunds.

Infinitive

The

form, often follows the prep-

infinitive, a verb's basic

osition to: to walk, to go, to see.

It is

in this

form

that the

infinitive {walk, go, see) acts as a verbal.

As a noun:

To err

is

human.

(Infinitive

used as the subject of a

sentence) I

As an adjective:

want to go.

(Infinitive

used as a direct object)

Her main

goal, to win,

(Infinitive

used as an appositive)

Here

is

a

(Infinitive

book

is

unrealistic.

to read.

used to modify the noun

book)

Our

vacation was a time to relax.

(Infinitive

used to modify the predi-

cate nominative time)

As an adverb:

That

is

easy to say.

(Infinitive

used to modify the predi-

cate adjective easy)

John played (Infinitive

played)

40

to win.

used to modify the verb

Notice that although the infinitive acts as a noun and subject of the sentence in the following examples,

some verb

characteristics.

For instance,

it

it

is

the

keeps

can take a direct

object.

To play the piano was (

Or

it

infinitive: to

his greatest desire.

play; direct object: piano)

can be modified by an adverb. To run quickly (infinitive: to

difficult,

is

run: adverb: quickly)

Participle Every verb has two participles: a past participle and a present participle. -en,

or

-n; for

The

past participle usually ends in -ed,

example, walked, chosen. The present

-d,

-t,

parti-

ciple always ends in -ing; for example, singing, dancing. Participles

have two uses. Sometimes

verb phrases (for example:

Sometimes they

I

am

the\'

singing; you

are part of

had gone).

act as adjectives. Participles that act as ad-

jectives are verbals.

Carole calmed the frightefied (Past participle

Do you

like

baked potatoes?

(Past participle

Burning

kitten.

used as an adjective)

used as an adjective)

leaves smell good.

(Present participle used as an adjective)

The chirping birds woke us up

early.

(Present participle used as an adjective)

Notice that although the past and present participles act as adjectives,

they keep

stance, they can take

The

gir\

some verb

characteristics.

For

in-

an object.

painting the fence

is

my

sister,

(present participle: pam/m^,- direct oh]eci. fence)

Or

they can be modified by an adverb.

The modestly bowing

violinist

appreciated the audiences

applause,

(present participle: bowing; adverb: modestly)

41

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Gerund A gerund

is

form ending

a verb

SwimDiing

is

good

(Gerund acting I

in -ing that acts as a

noun.

exercise.

as the subject)

enjoy hiking.

(Gerund

My

acting as a direct object)

favorite sport, fencing,

(Gerund

keeps

me

in shape.

acting as an appositive)

Notice that although the gerund acts as a noun, it also keeps some verb characteristics. For instance, it can take an object. I

enjoy singing folk songs.

(gerund: singing; object: /o/^ songs)

Or

it

can be modified by an adverb. Walking

briskly

is

healthy,

(gerund: walking; adverb: briskly)

Gerunds and present participles both have -ing endings. Be careful to name them properly when analyzing sentences. A gerund acts as a noun. A present participle can an adjective.

act as I

like

swimming.

(Gerund used

as a

noun)

The swimming children

frolicked in the pool.

(Present participle used as an adjective)

Agreement Verbs agree

in

person and number with their

Harry runs

subjects.

a mile a day.

(Third person singular subject: Harry

Third person singular verb: runs)

We run (First

First

to the store after school.

person plural subject:

We

person plural verb: run)

Singular verbs are used with these indefinite pronouns:

anybody, anyone, anything, each,

42

either,

everybody, every-

one, et'en'thing, neither, nobody, none,

no

one, one, some-

body, someone, something.

Each apartment has

a separate heating unit.

Neither boy wants to run the errand.

Always use singular verbs N\ith these pronouns. Don't become confused when the pronouns and the verbs are separated by phrases or clauses with plurals.

Alert:

Each of the apanments has a separate heating Neither of the boys

Compound

who

unit.

are waiting watits to run the errand.

subjects (tux) or

more nouns used

as the sub-

ject) usually take a plural verb.

and

Melissa

Charles plan to be married in June.

Mother and Father go out every Saturday

When one

the parts of a

compound

night.

subject are thought of as

unit, they take a singular verb.

Peanut butter and jelly

The

traffics hustle

Compound and neither subject

is

and

subjects joined .

.

.

nor take

is

my

favorite

bustle gets

sandwich spread.

on my

by the words

nerves.

or, either

a singular verb unless the

.

.

.

or,

second

plural.

Either Becky or Linda wins every prize.

Neither Harrv^ nor Cathy wants to

Sam or Kevin has

dr\-

the dishes.

the key.

Jenny or the boys have the

car.

Consistent Tense Be sure

that all

verb tenses

Actions happening

at

the

in a

sentence are consistent.

same time should be

in the

same

tense. Incorrect:

John walked

into study hall

and

starts

com-

plaining about his grade on the spelling lest.

Correct:

John walked

into stud\' hall

plaining about his grade

and started com-

on the

spelling

test.

43

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Sometimes sentences describe actions happening at different times. Make sure the tenses represent the sequence of events correctly.

Correct:

He already left by the time I arrived. He had already left h\ the time I arrived.

Incorrect:

Elaine has promised to

Incorrect:

call

when she got

call

when she

home. Elaine has promised to

Correct:

gets

home.

Adverbs An adverb modifies

Classifying

a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Adverbs by Meaning

Adverbs usually answer the questions How? When? ^liere? or To what extent? Mark walked

slowly.

(Slowly modifies the verb, telling I

how Mark

walked.)

will leave soon.

(Soon modifies the verb, Let's

go

is

I

will leave.)

out.

(Out modifies the verb, Sally

telling wheti

not

telling

where

we

shall go.)

late.

{Not modifies the adjective, telling to what extent Sally late [not at

The

elderly

man moved somewhat

gingerly.

(Quite modifies the adverb, telling to what extent the derly

is

all],)

el-

man moved gingerly.)

Adverbs that tell examples are:

how

are called adverbs of manner.

beautifully,

energetically,

fast,

Some

happily,

quickly.

Adverbs

that tell wheji

Some examples

44

are called adverbs of time.

are: before, later,

now, soon,

then.

Adverbs that tell where are called adverbs of place. Some examples are: down, forward, in, near, out, there, up.

some adverbs

Notice that

of place can also act as preposi-

tions.

climb up. (adverb)

Let's

The

Adverbs gree.

kitten

climbed up

that tell to

(preposition)

what extent are called adverbs of de-

Some examples

somewhat,

tiie tree,

are: almost, extremely, quite, rather,

very.

Classifying

Adverbs by Use

Adverbs of manner, time, place, and degree are classified by their meaning. Another way to classify adverbs is by their use.

Interrogative adverbs introduce questions.

amples

When

are: will

Some

ex-

you been?

Relative adverbs introduce subordinate clauses.

I

ex-

did you go?

V^Tyere iiave

amples

Some

how, when, where, and why.

are:

when, where, why.

meet you when

classes are over.

Do you know why Max was Conjunctive

adverbs

so angr\?

(sometimes called

transitional

ad-

verbs) join two independent clauses or two sentences, and

modify one of them.

Some examples

moreover, nevertheless, otherwise,

We

still,

are: hence,

however,

therefore, thus.

followed the recipe; however, the casserole was not so

good

as

we'd hoped.

Sarah liked the

dre.ss; nevertheless,

she did not buy

it.

Independent adverbs have no grammatical function Some examples are: yes, no.

in a

sentence or clause. No,

I

Yes,

you did leave your gloves

don't think

I'll

join you. at

the skating rink.

45

Grammar and Usage Guidelines

Comparison of Adverbs Adverbs of manner (adverbs that tell how), like adjectives, can be compared upward and downward in three degrees: positive, comparative, and superlative. Adverbs can also be compared upward by two different methods. 1.

Most adverbs are compared upward by using more for

the comparative degree and most for the superlative degree. Positive

Adverb or Adjective? Many words

that end in -fy are adverbs (sharply, strongly, However, some words that end in -ly are adjectives

surely).

(cowardly, friendly, lovely, manly).

not end in

be used either

Word

And some adverbs do Some words can

here, soon, there).

-ly (Jar, fast,

as adverbs or adjectives.

Adverb

Adjective

deep

Dig deep to find water,

We

far

We

He came from a/«r

hard

Mark

little,

The world

walked /ar into the

the ball hard.

It

remember

.

The horse came

right

Turn

straight

He drew

hard little

choice. feet

and

legs.

It

was

a

near escape.

That was the right way

right at the stop

to turn.

He walked

his lines

straight.

that

deep well.

.

near.

sign,

Other words

a

long

.

near

was

He had

will little

note nor long

long

a

countn.'.

forest, hit

dug

a straight

line.

can be used either as adverbs or adjec-

tives include: close, daily, first, hard, high, late, only, tight.

To look it

is

at

whether used

test

how

it is

an adjective.

adverb,

word

is

an adverb or an adjective,

it

There goes Marsha on her daily {Daily

is

is

Some words

daily.

— —quickly — slow— slowly — near

deep

quick

some

trip.)

have t^'o closely related adverb forms.

—cheaply —deeply hard— hardly high— highly — In

trip to the store.

an adverb modify^ing the verb goes.

cheap

late

modifies a noun,

an adjective modih'ing the noun

Marsha goes to the store (Daily

it

modifies a verb, adjective, or other

an adverb.

is

it

If

a

in the sentence. If

lately

nearly-

right

rightly

tight

tightly

cases, usuallv in informal, short

commands, the

47

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

two forms have the same meaning and can be used

inter-

changeably.

Go slow around that curve. Go slowly around that curve. In other cases, the

tvv'o

forms have different meanings and

cannot be used interchangeably.

Come

near me.

sit

You nearly missed

Sam

hit

that turnpike exit.

the ball hard.

Nana' hardly had time

to catch her breath.

Well/Good Well can be used as both an adverb and an adjective. As an adverb, well

means "capably or

successfully."

Richard did well on the math

test.

(Modifies the verb did)

As an adjective, well means "healthy" or "satisfactory."

You

lootc well.

(Modifies the pronoun vow) All is well.

(Modifies the pronoun all)

Good

Alert:

used

is

always an adjective and should never be

in place of well.

Incorrect: Margaret played good.

Correct: Margaret plaxed well.

Bad/Badly Badly

is

I

used only

did badly on

as

my

an adverb. spelling

test.

(Modifies the verb did)

Bad

is

I

used only

an adjective.

feel bad.

(Modifies

48

as

tlie

pronoun

/)

Adverb Placement Since adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives, and other admany different sentence posi-

verbs, they can appear in

The meaning of

tions.

where

the adverb

is

depending on

a sentence can vary

placed. For example:

Jack almost caught a dozen fish this morning.

(Twelve times, Jack came close to catching a Jack caught almost

a.

dozen

fish this

Qack caught somewhat fewer than twelve I

fish.)

Just spoke with Sally.

(I I

fish.)

morning.

Sally only a

spoke with

spoke Just with

(Sally

few minutes ago.)

Sally.

was the only person with

whom

I

spoke.)

where you place adverbs such as almost, even, hardly, just, merely, nearly, only, and scarcely. Put them as close as possible to the words they modify.

Be

carefijl

Prepositions A

preposition

is

relationship of a

word or group of words that shows the noun or pronoun to some other word in

a

the .sentence.

The

fish

swam

in the tank.

(The preposition in shows the relationship between the

noun tank and

the verb

The boy running with

his

swam.

dog slipped and

fell.

(The preposition with shows the relationship between the

noun dog and the

participle running.

)

Sandra hung her coat on the hook.

(The preposition on shows the relationship between the

noun hook and the noun

We

were

talking

coat.

)

about you.

(The preposition about shows the relationship between the

pronoun you and the verb were

talking.)

49

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Here

is

a

list

about

of

some

frequently used prepositions:

We

stumbled down.

(Down

acts as

The smoke (Up

to

up the chimney.

drifted up.

(Up

an adverb, modifying the verb

tell

acts as

whether the word

Which

it

acts as

chimney.)

drifted.)

acts as a preposition

takes an object.

if it

sition. If not,

Some

drifted

acts as a preposition, taking the object

The smoke

verb, see

tion

an adverb, modifying the verb stumbled.)

If

it

does,

it

or an ad-

acts as a

prepo-

an adverb.

Prepositions to Use?

nouns, adjectives, and verbs take the same preposi-

all

or most of the time.

account for

foreign to

sensitive to

argue with

happy about

similar to

capable of

independent of

sympathize with

confide in

inseparable from

tamper with

desirous of

obedient to

envious of

protest against

But some words routinely take several different prepositions, depending on meaning: angr\' at

concerned

angr\' with

concerned with

apply for

free

apply to

free of

careless about

part

careless of

part with

from

from

for

quarrel over quarrel with

speak against

speak

until

worried by worried throughout

The main word entry in a good dictionary will explain the changes in meaning that different prepositions bring about. If you are unsure of which preposition to use, always consult

your dictionary.

51

Grammar and Usage Guidelines

Which An

Prepositions to Leave Out?

object can have

more

tlian

one

preposition.

Charlie was interested in and curious about local politics.

In this example, interested takes the preposition in. Curi-

ous takes the preposition about. Both prepositions must appear in the sentence. Here's a different example: Charlie was interested and involved in local politics.

Here, both ititerested and involved take the preposition

To

repeat the preposition

essarily

in.

would make the sentence unnec-

wordy. Use the preposition in only once.

Between/A mong Use between

for

two persons or

John interrupted

Use

among The

items.

a private discussion

for three or

between Patty and me.

more persons or

guitar players strolled

among

items.

the diners in the Spanish

restaurant.

Ending Sentences with Prepositions Often

when

Whom Whom

speaking, is

she waiting /or.^

is

Tom

Some people For

we end

sentences with prepositions.

going with?

object to this form for writing, and prefer

whom is she waiting? whom is Tom going?

With

Find out, and follow, the

52

st\'le

your teacher prefers.

Conjunctions A

conjunction joins words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating, and correlativ^e.

Coordinating Conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions join grammatically equal structures:

words with words; phrases with phrases; clauses with and sentences with sentences. The most common

clauses;

coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for,

nor, so,

or,

and yet. Words with words: Samantha

will play basketball

or base-

ball.

(The coordinating conjunction or ketball

joins the tu'O

nouns

bas-

and baseball

Phrases with phrases: his guitar

On

the bench, And\- sat strumming

and humming

a tune.

(The coordinating conjunction

and

joins the

phrases strumming his guitar and

r^o

participial

bumming a

tune.

Subordinate clauses with subordinate clauses: That

woman who works

in the baker\-

but

who

is

)

the

hates sweets.

(The coordinating conjunction but joins the two subordinate clauses

who works

in the bakery

and who hates

sweets )

Sentences with sentences: Our team members vowed to

win the trophy.

Yet the\' failed.

(The coordinating conjunction yet thoughts.

links the

Our team members vowed

to

rvv^o

win

complete the trophy

and they failed.)

53

Grammar and Usage

Guidelines

Subordinating Conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions connect subordinate clauses to

main

clauses.

tions include: after

The most common subordinating conjunc-

Words Correlative Conjunctions Join conjunctions

Correlative

nouns with nouns,

join

sentence

similar

parts

adjectives with adjectives, prepositional

phrases with prepositional phrases, for example.

and makes friends

Incorrect:

Rita

is

botli talented

Correct:

Rita

is

both talented and

easily.

likable.

Talented and likable are both predicate adjectives. Makes friends easily

is

Incorrect:

a predicate.

We

went not

onl\- to the

bank but

also to eat

onl\- to the

bank but

also to the

lunch.

We

Correct:

went not

cafe for lunch.

To

bank and to the cafe for lunch are To eat lunch is an infinitive phrase.

the

prepositional

phrases.

Interjections An

interjection

Interjections

is

shows emotion.

a wc:)rd or phrase that

ha\'e

no grammatical connection with the

other words in a sentence. Interjections that

show

strong

emotioh take an exclamation point. Those that show mild emotion take a comma. Common interjections include: bravo, hurrah, oh, ouch, and whoops. Oh, never mind.

Ouch! That

hurt.

Hey! You almost drove through a stop

Alert:

We

use interjections

more make

in

sign.

speaking than writ-

ing.

Too many

interjections

ing.

When you

write, avoid the "excitement" of this par-

writing dull, not excit-

agraph: Oh, no! tried!

I

can't believe

You mean they

ble! I'm glad

I

it!

still

Not again! This

is

the third time they've

can't pass the driving test! That's terri-

pa.ssed mine!

55

SENTENCE-BUILDING GUIDELINES Putting words together to form effective sentences is the subject of this section. Complete Sentences Phrases Repetition and Wordiness

Sentence-Building Guidelines

Sentence-Building Guidelines important to good communication. They are extremely flexible and interesting to work with. Sentences always have two basic parts: a subject and predicate. But you can arrange these in countless ways to make your point You can communicate almost anything once you learn how to build good sentences. This section will help you learn how.

Sentences are

Complete Sentences Complete sentences are groups of related words that always have a subject and predicate, and always state a complete thought.

Subject The

subject of a sentence

is

what or

whom

you are

talking

about. /

know, (subject =

/)

summer swi glimmered through = The bright summer suti)

The bright (subject

the trees,

My friend Sandra went to the movies, (subject = My friend Sandra)

Simple and Complete Subjects There are several ways of describing a sentence's subject. The simple subject is the noun or pronoun you are talking about. The complete subject is the simple subject plus all the words that go with it.

summer sun glimmered through the = sun) (complete subject = The bright summer sun) The bright

(simple subject

58

trees.

My friend Sandra went

to the movies.

= Sandra) (complete subject = My friend Sandra) (simple subject

The neu'ly opened soda bubbled. (simple subject

= soda) = The newly opened soda)

(complete subject In sentences

where there is only one noun or pronoun in word is the simple and complete subject.

the subject, that /

know, (simple and complete subject =

Compound Subjects

Simple and

We

/)

also say a sentence has a simple subject

only one noun or pronoun as the subject. a

compound

pronouns /

when

subject

there are two or

there

is

sentence has

more nouns or

as the subject.

know, (simple subject =

/)

She

and I

know, (compound subject

My

friend

Sandra went

(simple subject

My

when

A

friends

she

and I)

to the movies,

= Sandra)

Sandra and Jim went

(compound

=

subject

to the movies,

= Sandra and Jim)

Cathy campaigned for the class president, (simple subject Cathy,

=

Max, and

(compound

I

Cathy)

campaigned

subject

=

Cathy,

for the class president,

Max, and

I)

Predicate The predicate

is

the part of a sentence that says sc:)mething

about the subject. She and

The

I

bright

(predicate

My

know, (predicate = know)

summer sun glimmered through = glimmered through the trees)

friends Sandra

(predicate

= went

and Jim went

to the

the trees.

movies

to the movies)

59

Sentence-Building Guidelines

The newly opened soda bubbled.

= bubbled)

(predicate

and

Cathy, Max,

I

campaigned for

= campaigned for

(predicate

the class president.

the class president)

Simple and Complete Predicates There are several ways of describing a sentence's predicate. The simple predicate is the verb that says something about the subject. The complete predicate is the verb and all the words that go with it.

summer sun glimmered through the trees. = glimmered) (complete predicate = glimmered through the trees)

The

bright

(simple predicate

My

friends Sandra and Jim

went

= went) (complete predicate = went

to the movies.

(simple predicate

Cathy, Max,

and

I

to the movies)

campaigned for

the class president.

= campaigned) (complete predicate = campaigned for (simple predicate

In sentences that

word

is

She and

where there

is

the class president)

only one verb in the predicate,

the simple and complete predicate. I

know, (simple and complete predicate = know)

The newly opened soda bubbled. (simple and complete predicate

Simple and

We is

= bubbled)

Compound Predicates

also say a sentence has a simple predicate

only one verb for the subject.

two or more verbs

for the

A compound

same

when

there

predicate has

subject or subjects.

The newly opened soda bubbled. (simple predicate

= bubbled)

The newly opened soda bubbled and fizzed.

(compound

predicate

Cathy, Max,

and

I

(simple predicate Cathy, Max,

60

and

I

= bubbled and fizzed)

caryipaigned for the class president,

= campaigned) campaigned and voted

for the class pres-

(compound

ident.

predicate

= campaigned and

voted)

Richard danced in the school play,

= danced)

(simple predicate

Richard danced

(compound

Alert:

and sang in the scliool play, = danced and sang)

predicate

VChen teachers

icate.

Ask

if

about a .sentence's subject or the simple subject or pred-

talk

mean

predicate, they usually

vou are unsure.

SubjectyPredicate Order Most

comes before the

often, the subject

The

kite

The

letter

(subject

To make

I

flew up and

was

I

=

mailbox,

verb

= was)

a sentence

more

the predicate and put

Up and ^way flew In the

awa\-. (subject

in the

letter,

I

interesting,

predicate. kite,

verb

=

flew)

you may reorganize

first.

it

mailbox was

=

the I

kite.

the

letter.

Complete Thoughts and Fragments A

complete sentence

is

always a complete thought. Incom-

plete thoughts are called fragments.

The cheerful

little girl

The cheerful

(fragment)

little girl

played baseball

in the park,

(com-

plete thought)

Reflected the sunlight (fragment)

The

glass

skyscraper

reflected

the

sunlight,

(complete

thought) Sticky black

mud

The

black

stick\'

covered sidewalk (fragment)

mud

co\ered the sidewalk, (complete

thought)

When

I

graduate (fragment)

VCtien

I

graduate, I'm joining

VISTA (complete thought)

61

Sentence-Building Guidelines

Commands

Requests and Can you

find the subject in these sentences?

Please finish your dinner.

The

Work

a

Keep

quiet!

first

little

longer.

sentence

mand. The third

is

The second is a mild comcommand. All have the under-

a request.

a strong

is

stood subject you. They are complete thoughts, with a sub-

and verb, even though you doesn't show. They are therefore all complete sentences. ject

Phrases Phrases are groups of two or informatic:)n to different

predicates, but they

more

sentence

do not have

related

parts.

words

that

add

Many phrases have

subjects

and predicates,

as

sentences and clauses do. There are four types of phrases: prepositional, participial, gerund,

and

infinitive phrases.

Prepositional Phrases Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition,

its

object,

and any modifiers. Prepositional phrases are always used as adjectives or adverbs.

by the sunny garden after

my

arrival

near the cool fountain

around the window with the gray suit in

good shape

Here are examples of prepositional phrases used tences.

Did you see the (acts as

The man with (acts as

62

lights

around

an adjective; modifies the

gray suit

is

an adjective; modifies

the

window?

lights)

my father, man)

in sen-

The wrestlers kept (acts as

You

in

good shape.

an adverb, modifies kept)

phrases in other t\pes of

will often find prepositional

phrases.

Some examples

follow.

Participial Phrases Participial

phrases consist of a past or present participle,

its

and any modifiers. (Past participles are verbs usually ending in -ed. Present participles are verbs always ending in -ing.) Participial phrases are used only as adjectives.

object,

worried sick surprised

the

at

news

locked from within setting the lights

around the window

wearing the gray

suit

keeping

in

good shape

Here are examples of participial phrases used Did \ou see them setting the

lights

around

(acts as an adjective; modifies

them)

The man wearing

my man)

(acts as

The

the gray suit

an adjective; modifies

wrestlers, keeping in

(acts as

is

in sentences:

the

father,

good shape, worked

an adjective; modifies

window?

out.

iirestlers)

Gerund Phrases Gerund phrases

gerund (present participle, and any modifiers. Gerunds and present participles look exactly alike. The difference between gerund phrases and participial phrases is how you use them in sentences. Gerund phrases are always used as nouns. Participial phrases are always used as adjectives. These sentences have the same phrases as the previous examples. But here, the phrases are used as nouns. The phrases are therefore gerund phrases. ending

in -ing),

consist of a

its

objects,

Setting the lights (acts as a

around

the

window was

a

wonderful

idea,

noun; used as the subject of the sentence)

63

Sentence-Building Guidelines

My

father likes

wearing the gray

suit.

noun; used as a direct object)

(acts as a

Their goal, keeping in

good

was important

shape,

to the

wrestlers,

noun; used as an appositive for goal)

(acts as a

Do

Alert:

not confuse gerund phrases with participial

Gerund phrases

phrases.

are used as nouns. Participial

phrases are used as adjectives.

Swimming

laps takes stamina, (gerund phrase, acting as a noun;

subject of the sentence.)

The

girl

swimming

laps

is

my

sister,

an adjective; modifies the noun

Phrases

Infinitive Infinitive

phrases consist of an

any modifiers. tives,

(panicipial phrase, acting as

girl)

Infinitive

infinitive, its objects,

and

phrases are used as nouns, adjec-

and adverbs. to

go

to

become

inside a pilot

to drive safely to set the lights

around the window

to

wear the gray

to

keep

irj

suit

good shape

Here are some examples of

infinitive

phrases used in sen-

tences.

The idea ful,

My

to set the lights

(acts as

father likes to

(acts as a

around

64

window was wonder-

wear

the

gray

suit.

noun; used as a direct object)

The wrestlers worked out (acts as

the

an adjective; modifies idea)

to keep in

good shape.

an adverb; modifies the verb worked.)

Misplaced Modifiers '^lien

you put modifiers

absurd, or

silly

in the

wrong

places, confusing,

statements can result. Here are

some

sen-

tences with misplaced modifiers. Notice that there can be

more than one way Incorrect:

to correct these errors.

Turn on the switch /or beginners. (There's

no

special switch for beginners. But

someone might begin by turning on switch. This prepositional phrase

wrong

a

the

in

is

place.)

Correct:

For beginners, turn on the switch.

Correct:

The

Incorrect:

Martin grabbed for the books feeling frustrated.

first

step

turning on the switch.

is

(Martin, not the books, participial

phrase

is

felt frustrated.

in the

wrong

grabbed

Correct:

Martin, feeling frustrated,

Correct:

A

Incorrect:

Shelley needs her coat to keep

This

place.) for

the

books. frustrated Martin

grabbed

(Shelley doesn't care outside.

infinitive

warm

outside.

warm

her coat keeps

needs

Shelley

warm. This

if

for the books.

keep

to

phrase

is

in the

herself

wrong

place.)

needs her

coat.

outside, Shelley

needs her

coat.

Shelley, to keep

Correct:

To keep

warm

warm

outside,

Correct:

Clauses Clauses are groups of related words that have both a subject

and predicate. Clauses can be

classified a

number of

ways.

Independent Clauses Independent, or main, clauses can stand by themselves.

They express complete thoughts. Independent clauses can be long or short. Rain

falls

Roses are red

65

Sentence-Building Guidelines

Twenty persons attended the ceremony

The Spanish

class visited a

The passenger

in the

Mexican

brown

restaurant.

who

hat

is

talking to the train

conductor seems furious about the delay

Adding periods

to

independent clauses makes them com-

plete sentences. For example: Rain

falls.

Roses are red.

Twenty persons attended the ceremony.

Dependent Clauses Clauses that cannot stand by themselves are called dependent,

or subordinate, clauses. They are incomplete thoughts,

or

fragments.

Dependent

need independent Dependent clauses act

clauses

clauses to complete their meaning. as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.

Adjective Clauses. Adjective clauses can modify any noun or pronoun. They can be used in several ways.

To modify a

subject:

The package

that

Sue wrapped was the

prettiest,

(modifies package)

To modify a predicate nominative-. The

tall fire

fighter

is

the

one who saved my

cat.

(modifies one)

To modify a

direct object.

The puppy chased the

stick that

its

owner

threw.

(modifies stick)

To modify an indirect

We

object.

sent our classmate

who was sick

a get-well card,

(modifies classmate)

To modify^ a prepositional

We

walked up the

(modifies

66

hill)

hill

object:

where the hut stood.

Adverb Clauses. Adverb adjective, or adverb.

To modify a

We

ate

clauses can modify any verb,

They can be used

in several ways.

verb:

when

the guests arrived.

(modifies ate)

To modify an I

adjective.

baked enough cupcakes so that there

is

one for each

child.

(modifies enough)

To modify an adverb: The stereo was so loud

that I coiddn't

hear the phone.

(modifies so)

To modify a predicate Rachel

is

adjective:

often crank\'

when she first wakes

up.

(modifies cranky)

Noun

Clauses.

Noun

clauses can take the place of any

noun or pronoun. They can be used

in several ways.

As a subject: What happened

at the party surprised everyone,

(subject of the verb surprised)

As a direct object: Sara

knew

that her outfit

was

attractive.

(objea of the verb knew)

As an indirect

We

will

object: give whoever wants

one

a

copy of the entire

speech, (indirect object of the verb give)

As a prepositional object: The campers took nothing except what

they

coidd carry in

their packs, (object of the preposition except)

As a predicate nominative: The question

is

whether

we should

build a house or buy

one. (predicate nominative after the linking verb

is)

67

Sentence-Building Guidelines

As an appositive: His

first

a pipe had noun thought)

thought, that

positive for the

hurst,

was

incorrect, (ap-

Elliptical Clauses All clauses

contain a subject and predicate. But these aren't

always written out completely. NXIien part of a clause

derstood rather than written, the clause clause. Elliptical clauses

they add

variety' to

make sentences

an

is

less

is

un-

elliptical

wordy, and

speaking and writing.

Ms. Jones retired from the mill in November; Mr. Jones,

month by an

later,

(a

elliptical

complete independent clause

a

follov^'ed

independent clause)

Completely written out,

this

sentence would read:

Ms. Jones retired from the mill in November; Mr. Jones retired from the mill a

month

later. (rv\'0

complete inde-

pendent clauses)

The verb and

a prepositional phrase, retired from the mill,

are missing in the elliptical clause in the

comma

has taken their place, as

is

first

example.

often the case in

A

ellipti-

cal constructions.

While listening to the radio,

Sam heard an

interview with

the Senator, (an elliptical dependent clause followed by a

complete independent clause)

Completely written out,

this

sentence would read:

While he was listening to the radio, Sam heard an interview with the Senator, (a complete dependent clause

lowed by

The

subject, he,

a

and part of the verb, was, are missing

the elliptical clause in the

Restrictive

fol-

complete independent clause)

first

in

example.

and Nonrestrictive Clauses

Clauses are either restrictive or nonrestrictive. Restrictive

They identify' people them from sentences would alter the and things. Removing relative pronoun that introduces meanings. The sentences" clauses are necessan' sentence parts.

restrictive clauses.

68

Nonrestrictive

give

clauses

information

additional

about persons or things. You can omit nonrestrictive clauses from sentences without changing their meanings. The relative pronouns who or which often introduce non-

Commas

restrictive clauses.

set

The tapes

Restrictive:

Dad's

The

Nonrestrictive:

that

in

we

can't find might be in

which are

Dad's

The meal

Restrictive:

off.

car.

tapes,

be

them

my favorites,

might

car.

that I liked best

came with hot

fudge sundaes for dessert.

The meal, which was my

Nonrestrictive:

day,

first all

came with hot fudge sundaes

for des-

sert.

Restrictive:

The

Nonrestrictive:

My

girl sitting

by

sister, sitting

me was my

sister.

by me, slowly ate her ice

cream.

Sentence Structure Sentences can be classified

in several

ways.

One

The four kinds of sentence structure compound, complex, and compound-complex. structure.

is

by their

are: simple,

Simple Sentences Simple sentences are made up of one independent (main) clause. A simple sentence can have a simple subject and predicate, a compound subject or predicate, or both a

compound

subject

The boy

I

and a compound predicate.

ate the apple, (simple subject and predicate)

A man and

his

son

I

came

to the store,

(compound

subject

and simple predicate)

The pianist

I

bowed

to the

audience and sat

piano, (simple subject and

My

brother and sister

I

compound

swim and

5;^/.

down

at

the

predicate)

(compound

subject

and compound predicate)

69

Sentence-Building Guidelines

Compound Sentences Compound

sentences have two or

more

related but inde-

The clauses are connected by semicolons; coordinating conjunctions like and, but, or so; and semipendent

clauses.

colons followed by conjunctive adverbs like however, nev-

and

ertheless,

We

therefore.

don't like horror movies;

we

left

the theater immedi-

ately.

We

don't like horror movies

and we

left

the theater im-

mediately.

We

don't like horror movies; therefore,

we

left

the theater

immediately.

Complex Sentences Complex sentences have one independent or more dependent clauses.

late,

we

him

let

I

finished

join the

game.

independent clause

dependent clause

After

one

independent clause

dependent clause

Although Harry was

clause and

my homework,

I

went

to the store

dependent clause that

you

told

me

about.

Compound-Complex Sentences Compound-complex sentences have two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. dependent clause

When

independent clause

the house gets cold in winter. Father lights a fire in independent clause

the fireplace

70

and Mother makes some hot chocolate.

independent clause

dependent clause If Sally

come

can

dependent clause if

she

can't,

I'll

to visit

tomorrow,

we'll

go

to the park;

independent clause

home and

stay

read.

Sentence Types You can

classify

sentences according to what they do. The

four sentence t\pes are: declarative, interrogative, imperative,

and exclamatory.

Declarative Sentences Sentences that

state facts

or

make

sentences. Declarative sentences

assertions are declarative

end wi\h

a period. Most

sentences are declarative sentences.

The boy

is tall.

The new faaory provided

The

jobs for

much

of the community.

blouse's tag scratched the back of Kim's neck

when she

moved.

Interrogative Sentences Sentences that ask questions are interrogative sentences. Interrogative sentences Is

end with

a question mark.

there a shoner route to the mall?

What time

Do you

is it?

like Oriental

Rhetorical questions

food?

end with exclamation points rather

than question marks. These questions are

mations than questions.

No answer

is

more

Why

did

How

can anyone "forget" to go to school!

I

ever do

like excla-

expected.

that!

71

Sentence-Building Guidelines

Imperative Sentences Sentences that give perative sentences.

commands or make

You

is

requests are im-

the understood subject of imper-

ative sentences.

Mild commands end with a period. Strong commands end with an exclamation point. Requests end with a period. Bring the paper with you

when you come

in.

(mild com-

mand)

Go

command)

away! (strong

Please take out the garbage, (request)

Exclamatory Sentences Sentences that show strong feeling are exclamatory sentences.

They end with exclamation

points.

You should be ashamed of yourself! I

can't stand this

any more!

Sentence Arrangement You can

classify

sentences according to

how you

arrange

their words.

Loose Sentences Loose sentences present a complete thought add details to strengthen it. The new team was

a strong

thusiastic rookies

The spy plunged

one with

and seasoned

first

and then

a combination of en-

athletes.

into the rapids, seeking to escape

from

the counteragents.

Loose sentences are direct and easy to follow. They help the reader grasp the main thought quickly. But too many loose sentences used together can be boring.

72

Periodic Sentences Periodic sentences place the main thought

last.

With a combination of enthusiastic rookies and seasoned athletes, the

new team was

a strong one.

Seeking to escape from the counteragents, the spy plunged into the rapids.

Periodic sentences provide variety' and often create a sense

of drama by keeping the main thought until the end.

When

you use loose and periodic sentences together, your ing is more interesting and exciting.

writ-

Balanced Sentences Balanced sentences use the same or similar word forms more than once to present thoughts for comparison or contrast. Silently-

permitting defeat

is

harder than actively fighting

defeat.

To

learn

is difficult,

to

know

a joy.

Balanced sentences have a definite pattern. Used occasionthey have a dramatic

ally,

effect.

Yon have already seen these two

Alert:

sentences:

Ms. Jones retired from the mill in November; Mr. Jones, a

month

later.

To

learn

is difficult,

to

know

a

joy.

The second clause

in both cases is elliptical (incomplete). example, a semicolon introduces the elliptical clause and a comma replaces the missing words retired

In the

from

first

the mill. In the

second example, a

the elliptical clau.se and ing

word is. Depending on

comma

introduces

no punctuation replaces the miss-

you can use either type of second example). Usually, the longer the sentence, the more you need to use the first length,

punctuation (none for

is

in the

type.

73

Sentence-Building Guidelines

Repetition and Wordiness wordy (or redundant) sentences are weak. means using the same words or thoughts more than once. Wordy means using too many words to say what you mean. When you build sentences, get to the point. Don't go around it. Here are examples of repetitious and wordy senRepetitious and

Repetition

tences, with

ways to improve them:

Weak:

A

Better:

An enormous

Weak:

The

large, big,

huge ship

sailed into the harbor.

ship sailed into the harbor.

tiny, small, petite

poodle

sat

on

the

woman's

lap.

Better:

The teeny poodle

Weak:

The dining room table

Better:

were

on the woman's

sat

table,

hallway table, and kitchen

covered with French

all

lap.

lace.

French lace covered the dining room, hallway, and kitchen tables.

Weak:

The

could possibly be located

scissors

in

the

drawer, in the cupboard, or in the sewing basket.

Better:

The

scissors

might be

in the

drawer, cupboard, or

sewing basket.

Weak:

There were seven persons

Better:

Seven persons attended.

Weak:

No one came

Better:

Only Jane came.

Weak:

I

cannot find the time to

Better:

I

cannot

Weak:

It

is

a

talk

good

A good

idea

attended.

with the exception of Jane.

talk to

you now.

now. idea to inspect your house for ter-

mites ever\' Better:

who

is

now

anci then.

to inspect

your house for termites

occasionalK'.

Weak:

I

regret ver\-

much

the decision Better:

74

that

I

ha\e to inform you that

is final.

Unfortunately, the decision

is final.

Weak:

I

only met him on one occasion.

Better:

I

met him once.

Weak:

It

snows

in April

Better:

It

rarely

snows

Weak:

Father

Better:

Father believes practice makes perfect.

Weak:

The clown was

is

once

in a great while.

in April.

of the belief that practice

brought so

tricks

much

and told jokes

name

of the character

laughter. Dimse>' played

to

make

the

The clown did many humorous Better:

A clown named Dimsey was His actions,

perfect.

funny. EverN'one laughed at the

clown. Dimsey was the

who

makes

tricks,

crowd

laugh.

things.

the crowd's favorite.

and jokes were

hilarious.

75

CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION GUIDELINES This section contains thirty one guidelines for proper capitalization. It also describes how to use

punctuation marks Capitalization Guidelines

78

Punctuation Guidelines

82

i^^fntti^mimmmimiiimw

Capitalization

and Punctuation Guidelines

Capitalization and

Punctuation Guidelines Capital letters are signals to readers.

They

announce new sentences, people's names, and book titles. They show the beginning of direct quotations and professional titles. Punctuation has one

purpose: to

make

writing clear

and

effective.

This

section gives useful guidelines to follow for

and punctuation.

capitalization

Capitalization Guidelines Knowing when

to use capital

sometimes be confusing. This

and lower-case letters can gives you some general

list

capitalization rules to follow.

1.

Capitalize proper nouns.

America

James Smith 2.

Zeus

Shakespeare

Capitalize proper adjectives. Proper adjectives are adjec-

tives that are

that are

used

formed from proper nouns and proper nouns as adjectives.

American

tourist

Iowa farmers

Shakespearean play

Chinese

New

Texas

England

states

Lower-case the words in the following they

come from proper nouns,

that they are

list.

they are so

Even though

commonly used

not capitalized. pasteurized milk

chinaware

derby hat

scotch plaid

frankfurter (hot dog)

Vienna bread

manila envelope 3.

Capitalize the Rejoice,

78

pronoun

O ye

/

and the

people, for

I

art

chili

interjection O.

bring you glad tidings.

4.

Capitalize

words

that

show

family relationship

when

they

are used instead or as part of a name. I

asked Mother

if

Uncle John was coming.

Lower-case these words

when

a possessive

such as my,

your, or their comes before them.

My mother 5.

nicknames and other identifying names.

Capitalize

Babe Ruth 6.

visited her uncle.

Great Emancipator

Capitalize professional titles

ately before a personal

Richard the Lion-Hearted

when

Pope John Paul

General Patton

come immedi-

they

name.

Lower-case professional

that

titles

President de Gaulle

II

come

don't

before a

name. George

S.

was

Patton

a great

American general.

Charles de Gaulle, president of France 7.

academic

Capitalize

and

titles

their abbreviations

when

they follow a personal name. Jane Doe, Doctor of Philosophy

John Smith, M.D.

Maria Ames, R.N. 8.

Capitalize personified nouns.

none of Beauty's daughters 9.

brand names.

Capitalize

Comet

Cougar (car)

(cleanser)

10. Capitalize specific political

(and the adjectives

Capitalize the

tribes

12.

Capitalize

names of

Japanese direction

them).

Count>'

(and the adjectives that

German

and geographical locations

come from

Dade

Chicago 11.

that

Rice Krispies

all

Asian

Asia nationalities,

come from

Caucasian

words used

to

races,

and

them).

show

Sioux a specific

place.

North Pole

Far East

Midwest

the South

79

Capitalization

and Punctuation Guidelines

Lower-case north, south,

east,

and west when they

refer to

a direction or a section of a state.

We

live

west of Washington and vacation

in

northern

Vir-

ginia.

13.

names of

Capitalize the

and the

common nouns

geographic features

specific

that are part of the

proper names.

Niagara Falls

Mississippi River

Pacific

Ocean

But: Mississippi

and Ohio

rivers

of the Niagara

falls

names of buildings, monuments, streets, and other specific locations, and the comnouns that are part of the proper names.

14. Capitalize

the

bridges, parks,

mon

Avenue

White House

Statue of Libert)'

Fifth

Route 34

Brooklyn Bridge

Grant Park

U.S.

names of

the

15. Capitalize

organizations, businesses, and

institutions.

League of

Women

General Foods Corporation

Voters

Burnsville Junior

Baylor University

High School 16. Capitalize

names of

the

political parties

and religious

denominations and their members. Democratic Party

Democrat

Islam

Moslem

17. Capitalize

names of sacred

the

creeds, confessions of

faith,

Bible Apostles' 18. Capitalize

Supreme

Creed

writings and of specific

and prayers.

Talmud

Koran

Hail Mar>'

Lord's Prayer

nouns and pronouns

that refer to a specific

Being.

God

Allah

Trust in

Him

for

Jehovah

He

is

Lord

good.

But:

The Romans believed

80

in

many

gods.

19. Capitalize specific cultural treaties, laws,

and

historical events, wars,

and documents.

American Revolution

World War

Homestead Act

Articles of Confederation

names of

20. Capitalize the

Middle Ages

historical

II

and

Roaring Twenties

cultural periods.

Era of

Good

Feeling

But: colonial period

names of

21. Capitalize the

postwar era

twentieth centur\'

specific branches, departments,

and other divisions of government. Senate

Depanment

Los Angeles

Library'

of State

of Congress

Park District

But: state legislature

traffic

names of

22. Capitalize the

Capitalize the

specific

public library

awards and

Academy Award

Nobel Peace Prize 23-

coun

names of

prizes.

Medal of Honor

specific trains, planes, ships,

satellites,

and submarines. (These

italicized

or underlined.)

specific

names are

of St. Louis

Orient Express

Spirit

Lusitania

Sputnik

24. Capitalize the names of stars, constellations, and other astronomical designations.

North Star planets

also

Big Dipper

Milk}'

planets,

Way

Eanh and Venus

But:

moon

earth's circumference

sun

Halley's

comet

25. Capitalize the days of the

week, months of the year, and

holidays. Lower-case the seasons.

Tuesday

October

Memorial Day

Fourth of July

spring

fall

summer

winter

81

Capitalization

and Punctuation Guidelines

26. Capitalize the first

word

word or

of a sentence or a

piirase that has the force of a sentence.

The children are running across the

word of

27. Capitalize the first

a direct quotation.

"We're leaving tomorrow," said Jane replied, "Have a good 28. Capitalize the first

lowing a colon Here

my

is

Mar\'.

trip."

word of

a

complete statement

decision:

You

word

will not

Dear

Sincerely yours,

Sir:

works of

poems, songs,

plays, articles, television

love,

books, magazines, newspapers,

art,

other writing, capitalize the

first

and

shows, reports, and last

words and

all

coordinate conjunctions, and

articles,

If five letters

or close.

dear Ellen:

With

30. In titles of

other words except

to the concert.

My

Gentlemen: truly,

go

in a letter's greeting

Yours

prepositions.

fol-

(:).

29. Capitalize the first

be

street.

Wow!

Stop!

long or more, prepositions

may

capitalized.

Up

Mofia Lisa

the

Down

Staircase

The Saturday Evening Post

"Come

"Fire

In"

and Rain"

A Chorus

Line

"Learning About Atoms" 31. Capitalize the parts of a

from one part

book when reference same book.

is

made

to another of the

This information

is

in

Chapter

1.

But: This chapter ends the book.

Punctuation Guidelines This

list

common

82

presents the punctuation marks and their most uses.

A

Period

(.) Is

Used

end of complete sentences, including requests and mild commands. 1.

At the

The sun was shining. Please wash the car.

Come 2.

early.

After each

number or

letter that

begins an oudine head-

ing.

WHY I.

I

my

health

Indoor exercise

A.

1.

3.

LIKE SPORTS

Improves

Weight training

After initials

and many abbreviations, especially

if

the

abbreviation spells a word. J.

R

R.

Tolkien

in.

Dr.

Ms.

ft.

U.S.

C.O.D.

The abbreviations for some organizations and government agencies use no periods. VISTA

FBI

ABC

A Question Mark At the

IBM

(?) Is

Used

end of direct questions, statements ending with words or sentences that ask a question.

a

question, or

Why

did you buy that dress?

An Exclamation 1.

That was

silly,

wasn't

it?

You're leaving now?

Why?

Point (!)

Is

Used

After a word, phrase, or sentence that expresses strong

feeling.

What

Yuch! 2.

a beautiful day!

This puzzle

is

impossible!

To strengthen statements or commands. Okay,

I'll

forget about

it!

I'm supposed to take three tests in

Go

one

day!

awav!

83

Capitalization

and Punctuation Guidelines

3.

After a rhetorical question.

who

says so!

A Colon 1.

After a

(:) Is

Used

complete sentence followed by a

Students carry

many

list.

things: books, notebooks,

and brown-

bag lunches. 2.

After a statement followed

by a clause

that further ex-

plains the statement. Today's mothers often find themselves with a double workload: 3.

After a formal letter's greeting.

Dear 4.

They have jobs and housework.

Sir

or Madam:

Dear Ms. Williams:

To separate hours from minutes, book title.

parts of a

named

source, or parts of a

Genesis 1:15

6:30 A.M.

A Comma 1

(,) Is

Cleopatra: Sister of the

Moon

Used

To separate long coordinate

clauses of a

compound

sen-

tence.

She could go home now, but she would rather wait

for her

friend.

But:

She said no and 2.

that's that.

Between words, phrases, or clauses Jane carried her

Did they meet I

washed the

at

coat, hat,

in a series.

and gloves.

school, in church, or at a party?

dishes, Joe dried them,

and Sam put them

away. 3.

To

phrases and dependent clauses main clause of a sentence.

set off

fore the

By taking the Although

84

tollway.

we were

Dad saved

tired,

we

that

fifteen minutes.

continued to study.

come

be-

To

4.

or appositives that are not

set off phrases, clauses,

required for a sentence to have meaning.

The

nurses, kind as they were, couldn't replace Mother.

Mr. Garcia, the principal, 5.

To

well organized.

is

Her

hair

is

as long as, but darker than, mine.

Ber^^een sentence parts that

6.

modifying the same noun.

set off coordinate phrases

show

contrast or compari-

son.

The more time 7.

To

>'ou take

stand for one or

now, the

youll have

less

later.

more missing words.

The eggs were runny; the bacon,

greasy;

and the

toast,

burnt.

Often, to separate short elliptical clauses from complete

8.

independent clauses.

To 9.

err

is

To separate Walk

groups of three.

theirs, there.

To separate words

when

that

might be mistakenly joined

reading a sentence.

Soon 11.

to forgive divine.

identical or similar words.

in, in

They put 10.

human,

To

after,

set off

the pool closed for repairs.

words

that introduce a

ond, yes, no, oh) or suggest a break

sentence

{first, sec-

thought {howei'er,

in

namely, of course). First,

The 12.

To

write

down your name.

car broke

set off the

No,

I

can't

do

down, of course, before we got

name

Kevin, your bicycle

of a person spoken is

that.

to school.

to.

across the street.

Your grades, Mary, are improving. 13.

To

set off a short quotation

from the

rest of the sen-

tence. "I'll

"I

order the drapes today," Mother

said.

wish, "John whispered, "that this class

would

end.'

85

Capitalization

and Punctuation Guidelines

14. After

an informal

Dear 15.

Mom

Before any

and Dad, full

greeting and close.

letter's

With love,

Sincerely yours,

or abbreviated

title

that follows a per-

son's name. Janet Brown, 16.

To

Dean of Students

J.

E.

Lopez, M.D.

separate the parts of a date, an address (except zip

code), or a geographic location.

May

We

31,

Disneyland 17.

To

To

is

Anaheim,

42,536

in large

numbers.

numbers

in a sentence.

400 students graduated from our school.

A Semicolon Between

Ohio 45809.

California.

103,789,450

separate unrelated

In 1986,

1.

in

groups of thousands

set off

1,000 18.

Christmas Day, 1976

1969

lived at 5615 Martin Drive, Lima,

(;) Is

parts of a

Used

compound sentence when

they are

not joined by the conjunctions and, but, for, nor, or I

want to

finish this

repon now;

I'll

watch TV

or.

later.

2. To separate independent clauses when they are long or already have commas elsewhere. I

bought hot dogs, onions, and

relish;

but

I

forgot the buns,

mustard, and peppers.

John took French 3.

this \'ear; Gale,

German and

After each clause in a series of three or

art.

more

clauses.

Lightning flashed nearby; the thunder roared above our heads; and If

we

called off the

game on account

the clauses in the series are short, you Lightning flashed, thunder roared, and

4.

To

separate items in a series

of rain.

may use commas. down came

when commas

are

the rain.

needed

elsewhere. Attending the meeting were Mr. Sloan, the adviser; Mrs. Bates, the speaker;

86

and Mr. Green, the

principal.

Before words like hence, however, nevertheless, therefore, and thus when they connect two independent clauses. 5.

Today 6.

a holiday; therefore,

is

we

can go to the show.

Before expressions that explain, such as /or example, for is, and namely, when a stronger break than

instance, that a

comma

needed.

is

own phones

Teen-agers like to have their

for

two reasons;

namely, privaq' and convenience.

(— )

A Dash 1.

To show The

Is

Used—

sudden change

a

best

way

in thought.

to finish that

— but

no,

you don't want

my

opinion. 2.

To suggest "I

3.

—er—ah— tired

to find

it,"

she mumbled.

—

tired of

weeding the lawn. a part of a sentence.

—the player from Iowa—won the match.

Before a summary introduced by words Katie,

To make

When

—

Tony, and Jay

all

To form noun

or

like all

—

one line ( ) when writing by hand. two hyphens (--)•

(') Is

Used

possessives.

Singular possessive

Plural possessive

the tree's leaves

the trees' leaves

Mary's house Charles's

this.

these students got perfect scores.

a dash, use

typing, use

An Apostrophe 1.

seem

To emphasize or define Marge Smith

5.

can't

Before a repeated word or expression.

He was 4.

halting or hesitating speech.

mother

the Johnsons' house

Tom

and Charles's

mother

(But:

Tom's

and Charles's mothers)

87

Capitalization

and Punctuation Guidelines

2.

To show one or more missing

words, or num-

letters,

bers.

one o'clock (one of the clock)

can't (cannot) '86 3.

(1986)

To show

numbers,

plurals of

letters,

and words used

as

words. two

some

4's

A Hyphen 1.

when

too

B's

many and's

Used

(-) Is

compound numbers between

writing out

21

and

99.

twenty-three

ninety-ninth

sixty-one

2. When writing out fractions used when fractions are used as nouns.

as modifiers, but not

two-thirds majority

But:

Two 3.

thirds

were counted

To avoid confusing words

present.

that are spelled alike.

re-cover the sofa, but recover from the flu

but a relay race

re-lay a carpet, 4.

In

some words,

to avoid

awkwardly joining pre-established

letters.

anti-intellectual

semi-invalid

But:

cooperate 5.

After a prefix

when

the root

word begins with

a capital

letter.

pre-Hispanic 6.

After the prefixes

all-, ex-,

Between

before the

parts of a

word

it

self- (in

most

compound

cases). self-conscious

adjective

when

it

appears

modifies.

hard-working father

88

and

ex-classmate

all-powerful 7.

un-American

mid-Pacific

up-to-date

news

well-known person

But:

Dad 8.

is

Between

hard working. parts of

It is

up

to date.

Slie

is

well known.

some compound nouns. stay-at-home

great-grandmother

father-in-law

But: coat of

attorney general

arms

9. To divide a word at the end of a line. You may divide a word only between syllables but not between all syllables in all words. There are some places where you should not divide a word, even where there is a syllable break. Here are some general guidelines for deciding where to divide words at the end of lines.

—

a.

Do

not divide words of one syllable, contractions, ab-

breviations, or

numbers

width

thought

written in figures.

give

shouldn't {not should-n't)

UNICEF {not UNI-CEF) 3,416,521 («oM,4l6-521) b.

Do

not divide a

word

if

either part

is

word by

a

itself

or the hyphenation could cause confusion. often {not of-ten) piety- {not pie-ty) c.

Do

women

{not

women)

not divide one-letter syllables or -ed from the rest

of the word.

amend-ment {not a-mendment) at-tached {not attached) d.

Divide a word after a prefix or before a

suffix.

not carry over a t^o-letter suffix to the next trans-portation

or

transporta-tion

(not

But do

line.

transpor-tation)

mostly {not most-ly) e.

Divide

And

compound words between compounds at

divide hyphenated

their

main

parts.

the hyphen.

home-coming {not homecom-ing) self-respect {not self-respect)

89

Capitalization

and Punctuation Guidelines

Divide between double consonants. But divide after double consonants if the root word ends in the double f.

consonant.

g.

run-ning

get-ting

pull-ing

miss-ing

Do

not hyphenate

followed by a silent

at

end of

the

a

word where an

/ is

e.

babble {not bab-ble)

people {not peo-ple)

Be aware that there are exceptions to the hyphenation rules. Check your dictionan' whenever you are unsure. And always place the hyphen at the end of the line, not at the beginning of the next line.

The

passed through the House and the Sen-

bill

ate.

Quotation Marks (" ") Are Used 1.

To enclose 'T

all

parts of a direct quote.

think you should shorten this," said the teacher, "be-

cause you're running out of space." 2.

To enclose quoted words or phrases within My

father always tells

me

to "get a

good

a sentence.

night's sleep

and

eat a hearty breakfast."

Enclose a quote within a quote

"When

I

asked

my

in single

father for advice,

quotation marks.

he

said, 'Get a

sleep and eat a hearty breakfast,"

night's

"

good

Jane ex-

plained. 3.

To enclose

the

titles

of short musical works and poems.

"The Star-Spangled Banner" "To a Waterfowl" 4.

Around the

lectures,

titles

of

book

chapters, magazine articles,

sermons, and pamphlets.

For homework, read "The Making of Modern England"

your history book.

90

in

5.

To enclose

a

word or phrase explained or defined by

the rest of the sentence; a technical term in nontechnical

and

writing;

well-known expressions, or words

slang,

whose meaning

is

contradicted in the sentence (irony).

By "soon" he means tomorrow. You need a "declination chart"

to use the

compass accu-

rately.

The new mystery

is

a 'thriiler-diller."

Johnm's "pursuing happiness"

The 6.

"jo\"

of motherhood"

is

at

the video arcade.

not found in changing diapers.

Before the beginning of each stanza of a quoted

and

poem

after the last stanza.

Before each paragraph of continuous quoted material

7.

and

Quotation marks are not used end of middle paragraphs. Often they are not used with single-line quotes presented by themselves between at

after the last paragraph.

the

original paragraphs. 8.

Commas and

periods are placed inside closing quotation

marks. "I will

9.

go now," she

said,

"and be back

in

an hour."

Semicolons and colons are placed outside closing quo-

tation marks.

She

said, "I'll

go

to the store"; but then

"To be or not to be":

famous 10.

this

is

she stayed home.

one of Shakespeare's most

lines.

Question marks and exclamation points are placed

side the closing quotation marks

if

in-

they belong to the

quote. 'What book are you reading?" he "Go now!" she ordered.

But

if

asked.

they are not part of the quote, question marks and

exclamation points go outside the quotation marks. Did they sing "America the Beautiful"?

What

a surprise

when she

said, "I'm

moving"!

91

Capitalization

and Punctuation Guidelines

Parentheses 1.

To enclose

Are Used

)

(

additional material in a sentence.

President Washington (1732-1799) was from Virginia. 2.

To enclose sources of information within

a sentence.

Cain was jealous of Abel and killed him (Genesis 3.

Around numbers or

4:

5-8).

letters that indicate subdivisions

of

a sentence.

There

will

Brackets 1.

be three and (3)

choice,

To enclose words already within 1600]) has

To

parentheses.

tragedy {Hamlet [written about

difficult

been performed many

times.

correct a direct quote that originally had a mistake.

'The choc[o]lates were delicious," wrote 3.

To explain something within Kathy said, to

4.

multiple

Are Used

([ ])

Shakespeare's most

2.

test patts: (1) true-false, (2)

essay.

buy

To present

MARY

"When

I

little

brother.

a direct quote.

get older [she

was 4

then], I'm

going

a dog."

and acting directions

stage

[seated, with face in her hands]:

Ellipses (

my

.

or

.

.

.

.

.

.

)

in plays. I

am

so depressed!

Are Used

With direct quotes to show that a word or words have been left out. Use three spaced dots to show that words are missing at the beginning or within the quote. To show missing words at the end of a quote, use four spaced dots (the first dot is the period). Here are examples for the complete quote "Individual sports like gymnastics and downhill skiing are exciting

and

The announcer are exciting.

The announcer

said,

". .

.

Gymnastics and downhill skiing

." .

.

said,

and fascinating

92

fascinating to watch."

"Individual .sports

to watch.

.

.

.

are exciting

A 1.

Slash (Solidus) Is

Used

Between two words

indicate that the

word could

either

My 2.

sister

to

and/or brother

As a dividing line 5/29/68

will

With run-in lines of poetr>' and another begins. (Leave a

to

/

show where one line ends space on either side.)

little

the world's a stage,/

merely players.

And

They have

And one man

/

and abbreviations.

c/o (in care of)

5/8

trances:

be home.

in dates, fractions,

3.

"All

meaning of

apply.

men and women

the

all

and

their exits

in his

their en-

many

time plays

parts, /

His acts being seven ages."

Italics or Underlining Is 1.

For the

titles

Used

of books, plays, long poems, newspapers,

and magazines.

2.

The Black Stallion

Julii4S

The Tuscaloosa News

Newsweek

For

of paintings and other works of

titles

The Blue Boy 3.

Spirit

of St. Louis

For any foreign word that

lish.

Odyssey

art.

Venus de Milo

For names of specific ships, planes, Titanic

4.

Caesar

is

not

trains,

and

satellites.

Orient Express

Telstar

commonly used

These words have labels (such

in

Eng-

as Latin, French, or

Italian) in the dictionary.

The Hawaiian The 5.

parry'

For any words, A,

girl said

aloha oe when she

was wunderhar, according letters,

to

left.

our cousin.

or numbers used as words.

an, and the are articles.

Cross your

The

t's

and dot your

7's in multiplication

Remember

that these

/'s.

were hard, but the

words appear

lO's

in italics

were

when

easy.

set in

type (as in books or magazines). They are underlined

when handwritten or

typed.

93

COMMON GRAMMAR AND USAGE ERRORS commonly m.ade in grammar and usage are presented Errors

along with methods of correcting and avoiding them. in this section,

Misused Words

96

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

Common Grammar

and

Usage Errors words and expressions are unacceptable Some formal writing or presents in

speaking. This section

many commonly misused

and

words, phrases,

ways

constructions. It also suggests

to

avoid them.

Misused Words a,

an.

A

is

used before words beginning with consonant

sounds; an, before words beginning with vowel sounds (regardless of what the

a hat a an apple

table

a

first letter is).

car

an hour

an oven

accept, except. Accept means "to receive willingly"; except

means

means

"to exclude." As a preposition, except

"other than." I

will accept the first part of

your suggestion, but

I

must

except the second pan. I

jog every day except Sunday.

advice, advise. Advice tice"

is

a noun; advise, a verb.

mean "inform"

use advise to

or

"tell";

save

it

Do

not

for "give no-

or "warn." She gave

me good

advice

when

she advised

me

not to

hitchhike.

verb meaning "to influence." Efmeans "to cause, bring about, or accoma noun effect means "a result or an accomplish-

afifect, effect. Affect is a

fect,

as a verb,

plish"; as

ment." Affect

is

never a noun.

His presence affected the

A new

mood

of the party.

club constitution was effected after two weeks of

meetings.

The

96

play had a wonderful effect

on the audience.

aggravate, irritate. Aggravate means "to make an already

more

troubled situation worse, or

means

serious." Irritate

"to annoy, exasperate, or chafe." Sitting in a draft

Some all

aggravated

my

stiff

neck.

detergents can irritate your skin.

the farther, all the faster. CIS far as or as fast as.

Do

not use these expres-

sions. I'se

make an indirect means "to avoid or evade." Illude means "to deceive or trick." And don't confuse allude with refer: refer means "to make a direct reference to allude, elude, illude. Allude means "to reference to something." Elude

a specific thing."

He alluded

to a past time

The teacher referred us

to

The criminal eluded the

He

when he was young and page 20

rich.

in the text.

police.

illuded us into thinking he was from Great Britain.

among, between. Use among to show the relation of more than two persons or things; use between when dealing with two things (or more than two things if each is considered individually).

We I

are

among

friends.

was standing between the

The

sofa

and the

table.

railroad runs between Chicago, Milwaukee,

and Min-

neapolis.

amount, number. Amount is used with a unified bulk or lump sum; number suggests separate, countable units. The number of

nickels

you gave doesn't add up

amount the candy costs. The amount of flour here isn't enough cakes we need to bake.

and

etc.

Do

for the

to the

number

of

not use this expression.

anticipate, expect. Use anticipate

prepare for something." Use expect

when you mean when you mean

"to "to

think something will occur." The>' anticipated the storm

We

b\-

going to a safe place.

expect the mail will be delayed.

97

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

anxious, eager. Anxious suggests anxiety or worry; eager

means "looking forward

We I

wanting

to or

to."

are anxious about the campers' safety.

am

eager to

start

my

vacation.

anyways, anywheres. Do not use these words. Use anyway and anywhere instead. apt, liable, likely. J^t suggests fitness or suitability; liable

suggests obligation; and likely indicates probability.

She

is

an apt musician.

They were held

The

rain

is

liable for the

likely to arrive

damage.

here

this

evening.

awhile, a while. Awhile is an adverb; while (as in a while) is a noun. Use a while after prepositions {for a while, after

a

while).

Work awhile

bad, badly.

Bad

after linking

verbs

He was

a

is

for

a

feels

I'll

help you.

while.

an adjective; badly, an adverb. Use bad

{is,

bad boy

feels, tastes).

today.

The engine misfired She

and

longer,

She stood there

badly.

bad about missing

the concert.

beside, besides. Beside means "alongside of"; besides

means

"in addition to."

He

sat

beside me.

Besides the mortgage,

Dad

has car payments to make.

biannual, biennial. Biannual means "twice

a

year";

biennial means "once every two years."

We We

received the biannual reports

in

January and

July.

received the biennial reports in 1984 and 1986.

bursted, bust, busted. Never use bursted; the past tense of burst is burst. Bust and busted are slang uses of burst; don't use them. The pipe The pipe

98

burst today.

The pipe

burst yesterday.

This pipe has burst before.

is

bursting now.

can, may. Can means mission

"is

able to."

May means

"has per-

lo."

You can After

sketch well

when you

lake your time.

you have put everything away, you may

capital, capitol. Use capital (with an «)

when

leave.

referring to

which a government is located, or crimes punishable b\' death. Use capitol (with an o) only when referring to buildings where legislatures money, upper-case

letters, a cit\' in

meet. Capitol has a capital

C

if it

means the building

in

which

the Congress of the United States meets.

contact, contacted. These are place

them with

call,

much overused

terms. Re-

consult, telephone, see, or write.

credible, creditable, credulous. Credible means "believable." Creditable

Credulous means

means "worthy of esteem or

praise."

"gullible."

His account of the situation was credible.

He made

a creditable contribution to the project.

Credulous people believe everything data.

Data

is

that they are told.

the plural form of the Latin

can be used as a collective singular noun to a

body of information

word datum. It when referring

as a unit.

The data

[figures] in this chart are confusing.

The data

[information) was available to everyone.

different than, different from. Use different from. Elementary school

is

different from junior high.

disinterested, uninterested. Disinterested means "unbiased"; uni}iterested, "having

The argument was I

am

settled

interest in."

by a disinterested

not use these expressions.

I

don't doubt tbat you are right.

I

can't help worrying.

to,

owing

to,

party.

uninterested in your argument.

doubt but, help but. Do

due

no

because of. Do not use due to for because of or on account of. Due to is correct after a link-

99

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

ing verb, or as an adjective following a noun.

Wrong:

Due

Correct:

Because of heavy traffic, I was late. My tardiness was due to heavy traffic.

to

heavy

was

traffic, I

Deena got pneumonia due

each one and .

that

.

are. This

.

late.

to a

bad

cold.

an agreement error. Each implies

is

words used in phrases modify each do not change the number of the verb. takes a singular verb. Plural

Each student was promoted.

Each of the students was promoted.

emigrate, immigrate. Emigrate means "to move out of a country"; immigrate, "to

move

They emigrated from

into a country."

Ireland.

She immigrated

to Canada.

enthuse. Do not use the verb enthuse. Use showed enthusiasm or was enthusiastic.

Wrong: Correct:

He enthused about the new project. He showed erithusiasm about the new project. He was enthusiastic about the new project.

etc. Avoid using this expression in writing. Instead, say specifically

what you mean. do your

Weak:

Use books, magazines,

Better:

Use books, magazines, and other to

do your

etc.,

to

research.

library materials

research.

farther, further. Use farther to suggest a distance that can

be measured. Use further

to

show a greater degree, extent, means "moreover" and "in

quantity, or time. Further also

addition to."

We We

'wdW.Qd farther than

can discuss

The baby's

this

we had

to.

mailer further tomorrow.

tired and, further, she's hungry.

fewer, less. Fewer applies to things

that

can be numbered

or counted. Less applies to things in bulk, in the abstract,

or in degree and value. There arefeu'er houses here because there

100

is less

land.

formally, formerly. Formally means "in a formal man-

means

nev^; formerly

"in the past."

who formerly

Jan Smith,

attended Paul Junior High School,

was formally graduated School

good, well. Good as

is

an adjective only I

had

She

an adjective;

when

well,

an adverb. Well acts

describing someone's health.

good time; the dinner had been planned well good about the project, but she did not feel

a

to

had

best,

go

to

work on

Those children ought

well

it.

had ought. Do

better,

Use ought to or should

verbs.

High

Lincoln Junior

felt

enough

had

from

spring.

last

not use these

instead.

to (should) behave.

hanged, hung. People

are

hanged; things

(pictures,

clothes) are hung.

The

hanged an innocent sheepherder. hung my picture in his den.

vigilantes

Grandfather

hardly, scarcely. Hardly means "done with

difficulty"

or

"barely able to." Scarcely suggests "not enough." could hardly push the power mower;

I

energy-

have

got. Use just "I

have

it

I

had scarcely any

left.

have

[not I've got

it]."

imply, infer. Imply means "to suggest or hint means "to draw a conclusion."

He I

implied that he would vote against

inferred from

my

at";

infer

it.

mother's behavior that something was

wrong. in, into. In suggests being inside; into suggests the act of

entering.

She was

sitting in

my

chair

when

I

walked into the room.

inside of, off of, outside of. The of

is

unnecessary with

these prepositions. I

keep

He

my

wallet inside

my

purse.

stood outside the door.

101

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

irregardless, disregardless.

Do

not use these words. Use

regardless.

They played regardless of the is

when,

rain.

where. Do not use

is

these phrases for defini-

tions or explanations.

Wrong:

Writing

is

Correct:

Writing

is

when you put your thoughts on paper. putting your thoughts on paper.

the possessive of

its, it's. Its is

it; it's

is

the contraction for

it is.

It's

sad that the dog broke

its

foot.

kind, sort, type. These are singular nouns and must be modified by singular adjectives. kind

but

these kinds

that type

hut

those types

this

kind of a, sort of a, type of a. Remove use kind

of,

sort of, or type

the a.

And do not

of in place of somewhat,

rather,

or almost.

What kind of material are you using? I'm somewhat undecided. leave, let. Leave means "to depart" or "to allow to remain in a certain condition." Let

means

"to allow, enable, or not

interfere with." I

will leave the

Leave the lie, lay. Lie

verb are

means

lie,

computer and

means

you use

it.

"to recline"; the principal parts of this

lay, lain.

Lying

is

the present participle. Lay

"to put or place"; the principal parts of this verb are

lay, laid, laid.

Laying

is

the present participle.

Will they lay the

I

down and rest. down yesterday to rest. had lain down to rest.

I

was

They are laying the

Lie I

102

let

window open.

lay

lying

on the couch.

They laid the

tile

They have laid

tile?

yesterday.

tile

before. tile.

like, as. As

is

a conjunction; use as to join clauses. Like

a preposition; like with a

noun or pronoun forms

is

a prep-

ositional phrase. I

did the assignment as

I

was instructed

do

to

it

(or as

instructed).

My

sister looks like

loan, lend. Loan I

will

is

me.

look like Aunt

I

a noun; lend

is

Rutli.

a verb.

lend you the money, but you must pay

this

loan

in

full.

lots, lots of,

a

whole

Use many, much, or a great

lot.

deal in place of these expressions.

Used

of.

incorrectly for

Wrong: Correct:

would would

of,

have could

after auxiliary' verbs.

of,

should of

have, could have, should have

perform, preform. Perform means "to earn' out or to give a performance"; /re/br^w means "to form or shape beforehand."

The orchestra performed The

patio

is

made

beautifully.

oi preformed concrete.

practicable, practical. Practicable means

"capable of

being put into practice": practical means "being useful or successful."

The new

seem practicable.

rules

She always finds practical solutions

for

our problems.

principal, principle. Principal as a noun refers to a of money, or a person or thing of ^d\ective, principal is

a

noun meaning

means

first

"first, chief,

$70,000.

Ouv principal is Ms. Smith. Getting good grades is my principal is

goal this school year.

a leader with high principles.

raise, rise. Raise its

or main." Principle

"a law, code, doctrine, or rule."

The principal of the loan was

She

is

a transitive verb requiring an object;

principal parts are raise, raised, raised.

ticiple

is

sum

importance; as an

raising. Rise,

Its

present par-

an intransitive verb, does not require

103

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

an object;

its

participle

is

I

principal parts are

rise, rose, risen. Its

present

rising.

raised tomatoes and corn.

Please rise to sing the school anthem.

real, really. Real

is

ing reality." Really

is

an adjective meaning "genuine or havan adverb meaning "actually or

The stone looked

like a real

diamond, but

it

truly."

really

was

a

fake.

reason

because.

is

say reason

Do

or reason

is

not use this construction. Instead,

is that.

The reason why

Wrong:

I

am

late

because the car

is

stalled.

Correct:

The reason why

I

Correct:

The reason why

I

am am

late is

complicated.

late is that the car stalled.

respectfully, respectively. Respectfully means "in a respectful

manner." Respectively means "each

in the

order

given." I

am

I

talked respectively to Alex, Donald, and Gordon.

respectfully observing

Memorial Day.

seen, saw. The principal parts of see are

The present

participal

Wrong:

I

is

see,

saw, seen.

seeing.

seen them

We have saw

the store.

at

the

movie. Correct:

I

saw them

at

We have seen

the store.

the

movie.

shall, will. Use shall with /

Use

in directives.

and we

will with he, she,

and and with /

in the future tense, it,

and

they,

and we when giving a promise. I

shall

go

to

The police

work; she will go to school. shall have the authority to confiscate -stolen

goods. I

will

do

sit, set. Sit

all that I

can to help you.

means "place oneself;

set

means

"to put or

place something." Sit

104

down and

rest awhile.

I

will set the

box on the

floor.

so.

Do

not use so in place of so

do not use so

word

stronger

that,

to

mean

wish to go so

I

wish to go so that

VC'rong:

That

is

so

Correct:

That

is

ridiculoids.

which. That

I

that

a

to

can meet her, too.

I

silly.

often used to begin restrictive clauses

is

(clauses that are necessary to the

used

And

Use

can meet her. too.

I

Correct:

is

thus.

instead.

Wrong:

Vihich

or

that, therefore,

"ven^": so kind, so terrible.

many

begin

meaning of the sentence).

nonrestrictive clauses (clauses

simply pro\ide additional information).

The house

that

My house,

which

liked

I

is

old.

was not

for sale, [restrictive]

needs many

repairs, [nonrestrictive]

Do

then, also. These words are adverbs.

not use them

instead of conjunctions.

He

>X'rong:

ate breakfast, then

went

to

work.

^'e enjoy skiing, also skating. Correct:

He

ate breakfast

We

enjo\' skiing

there, their, they're. Their

is

and then went and skating.

Were means

work.

to

"in or at that place."

a possessive pronoun. They're

is

a contraction for

they are.

Connie parked the car

there.

Their house was custom-built. They're going to leave soon. to, too,

word

two. To

is

a preposition {to the store)

that introduces

an

infinitive {to walk).

verb meaning "also" or "more than what

enough" (me, try and.

Do

Wrong: Correct:

type.

Do

Two

too: too hot).

is

to.

finish the painting today.

will try

I

will try to finish the painting toda\-.

not use as a substitute for type I

Correct:

I

would would

an ad-

is

I

Wrong:

and the is

proper or the number {two cats).

not use try and. Use try

and

Too

of.

like to

buy

this type dress.

like to

buy

this t\pe

o/ dress.

105

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

unique. Unique means

Do

"without equal."

one of its kind" or more or most with unique.

"the only

not use

Wrong:

Those are most unique

Correct:

Those are unique

very. Very

is

earrings.

earrings.

an overused adverb. Try to use more specific

words that are strong in themselves. This same advice applies to so, surely, too, extremely, indeed. modifiers, or use

Weak:

She sings very

Improved:

She sings

She

is

well.

beautifully.

a talented singer.

while. While means "during the time

Do

that."

not use

while in place of although, and, but, or whereas.

Wrong:

The days were

hot, while the nights

Correct:

The days were

hot,

were

cool.

but the nights were cool.

While you were on vacation,

we won

the cham-

pionship.

who, whom. Use who

Use

as a subject.

whom

as

an ob-

ject.

That

is

the

boy who threw the

rock,

[who

is

the subject of

threw]

The

girl for

is

My

whom

I

bought the

gift

was delighted, [whom

the object of the preposition /or]

mother, ject

of

who

is

often

late,

came

early,

[who

is

the sub-

is]

Misused Constructions Misused grammatical constructions are confusing. Here are some explanations of problems you can avoid.

Agreement Problems Subject-Verb Agreement

A

106

verb must agree with

its

subject in

number and

person.

The paper was

Number:

at

the door, [singular]

The papers were on my desk, Singular

Person:

/

am

at

Plural

We

home.

You are He, she,

[plural]

at

it is

home.

at

are

home.

at

You are

home.

home.

at

They are

at

home.

Here are some additional reminders about subject-verb agreement. 1.

When

come between the subdo not change the person or

other parts of a sentence

ject

and the verb, these

the

number

parts

of the verb.

The boys who had a good time

now

the part\- are

at

pla\ing

Softball.

The report about 2.

leases

and contracts was

distributed.

Inverting the order of the subject and verb does not

agreement.

affect

In the trunk

Some nouns

were piles of money.

[Piles were.

.

.]

.

meaning and therefore take singular verbs: news, measles, United 3.

are plural in form but singular in

Xations.

The news was bad.

The United Nations

Some nouns

is

located in

New

York.

are plural in form but can be either singular

or plural, depending on their meaning in the sentence.

Some

of these nouns are economics, athletics, politics,

ethics.

Athletics

^hat 4.

Two

or

is

keep the nation athletics

more

if

not a

in shape,

way of

subjects joined by

The baby and the dog love If

life?

and

attention.

take a plural \erb.

[They

love.

.

.

.]

the ru'o subjects form a single idea or are thought of as

a unit, they

should take a singular verb.

Macaroni and cheese

is

my

favorite dish.

[It is.

.

.

.]

107

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

5.

nor take

Singular subjects joined by or or

a singular

verb. Either the hoi4se or the garage If

the subjects joined by or or

is

on

nor

fire.

differ in

number or

person, the verb agrees with the subject nearer the verb. Neither the lamp nor the bulbs were working. Either the trees or the 6.

A

is

regarded as a

collective

verb

noun

cutting.

takes a singular verb

unit.

when emphasis

laum needs

when

the

group

But a collective noun takes a plural placed on the individual

is

members

of the group.

The audience was applauding, [applauding The audience were

together]

arriving, [arriving separately]

Pronoun Agreement We have already seen that

pronouns used

as subjects

must

agree with their verbs. Pronouns must also agree with their antecedents.

Here are some

rules for

making pronouns

agree with their verbs and their antecedents.

When

using indefinite pronouns as subjects be careful choose the correct form of the verb. The following indefinite pronouns are considered to be singular and take singular verbs: each, either, neither, and all pronouns end1.

to

ing in -body, -one, or -thing.

Each of these apples

Nobody wants Everyofie

is

to

be

spoiled.

is

sick.

here.

These indefinite pronouns are considered take plural verbs: both, few, many, several. Both of you are going

Many All,

to

be plural and

to succeed.

are called, but/eu' are chosen.

any, most, none, and

some can be

either singular or

When depending on pronoun refers to one thing or to a quantity as a whole, use a singular verb. When the pronoun refers to a number plural,

their

meaning

in the sentence.

the

of individual items, use a plural verb.

108

Some Some

money was

missing, [singular]

of their friends were there, [plural]

All of

my hope

All of

you are

When

2.

of the

gone, [singular]

is

invited, [plural]

the subject

is

a relative

pronoun (who, which,

verb should agree with the pronouns antecedent.

that), the

She

is

who

the student

speaks Spanish, [student speaks]

dogs that were harking are quiet now. [dogs were

Tlie

barking]

A pronoun

3.

ber,

agrees with

woman

The

antecedent in gender, num-

picked up her groceries.

The women picked up

Be

its

and person.

their groceries.

when the pronoun's antecedent is an pronoun. Follow the rules given above for decidthe indefinite pronoun is singular or plural; then

especially careful

indefinite

ing

if

make

pronoun agree with the

the other

indefinite pro-

noun. Neither of the girls All of the girls are

is

wearing her

wearing

4.

When

is

either singular or plural

the antecedent

collective

noun

is

is

coat.

their coats.

pronoun on whether the

a collective noun, the

— depending

singular or plural in the sentence.

The committee made its decision. The committee discussed the matter among themselves

Faulty

Pronoun References

Every pronoun must have an antecedent. Place pronouns as close as possible to their antecedents so that

what word the pronoun refers back

it

is

clear

to.

Avoid confusing references. A reader will be confused if two possible antecedents for a pronoun. 1.

a sentence contains

Confusing:

Mer

Clear:

After Michael talked to Bill, Bill

Michael talked to

Bill,

he was angry.

was angry.

or Michael was angry after he talked to Bill.

109

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

Avoid vague references. Vague references occur when pronoun is not actually stated. Using they, this, that, and which to refer to an entire statement (rather than to one noun) is a common form of vague ref2.

the antecedent of a

erence. Vague:

I

had not finished the repon, which

irritated Mr.

Brown. Clear:

The

fact that

I

had not finished the report

irritated

Mr. Brown.

My 3.

failure to finish the report irritated Mr.

Avoid the indefinite use of

they,

it,

and you.

shows Hamlet's

Confusing:

In the first act,

it

Clear:

In

Hamlet's character

tlie first act,

In the

Shifts in Point

Hamlet shows

first act,

Brown.

character. is

shown.

his character.

of View

In writing, the point of view should be as consistent as

view include changes in numand voice. There are of course times when you do need to change the point of view. But frequent and unnecessary shifts are confusing. possible. Shifts in point of ber, subject, tense,

1.

Avoid unnecessary

shifts in

number

(singular

and plu-

ral).

2.

much care. much care.

Wrong:

Plants are lovely, but

Correct:

Plants are lovely, but they require

//

requires

Av^oid unnecessan,' shifts in the subjects in sentences.

Wrong:

\i

Correct:

If

you do \our research, it will be a good paper. you do your research, you will write a good paper.

3.

Avoid unnecessary Wrong:

Jack

shifts in

tense (present, past, future).

came home and took off his jacket. He walks room and changes clothes. Ten minutes

to his later,

Correct:

he was ready

minutes

110

to eat dinner.

came home and took off his jacket. He walked to his room and changed clothes. Ten

Jack

later,

he was readv

to eat dinner.

4.

Avoid unnecessary

voice (active and passive).

shifts in

He did good work,

Wrong:

but no special credit was

re-

ceived.

He did good work,

Correct:

but he received no special

credit.

Improper Parts of Speech Words

that

belong

one pan of speech are sometimes Here are some

to

incorrectly used as another part of speech.

examples of using the incorrect part of speech:

Nouns

incorrectly used as verbs: author a book, host a

program Adjectives incorrectly used as adverbs: played good, real pretty-

Sentence Faults Sentence

faults

incomplete or

occur when you write sentences that when you improperly run sentences

are to-

gether.

Sentence Fragments

A

sentence fragment

a period at the

you

will

is

end of

an incomplete sentence.

If

you put

a phrase or a subordinate clause,

have a fragment. Phrases and subordinate clauses

cannot stand alone. You can correct a sentence fragment

by joining

it

to a sentence.

Fragment:

j^ter

going

to

college for

four years

My

brother was ready to teach. Correct:

After

going to college for four years,

my

brother was ready to teach.

Fragment:

I

was

late for school.

Although

I

awoke

earlier

although

I

awoke

earlier

than usual. Correct:

1

was

late for school,

than usual.

Sometimes you can add words or change wording the fragment a complete sentence in

to

make

itself.

Ill

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

Fragment:

Watching the election

Correct:

My

family

results all night.

was watching the election

results all

night.

One

Fragment:

of

my

One

Correct:

of

my

ming

who

friends

swimming

her ring

lost

in the

pool.

friends lost her ring in the swim-

pool.

Run-on Sentences A

run-on sentence

connected.

is

A comma

two or more sentences incorrectly

alone cannot properly join sentences.

These are run-on sentences because only a comma appears between the two clauses. This error is called a comma splice.

Run-on:

The team managers worked

Run-on:

good job. The committee it

Run-on:

has

many

Classes started

scheduled to meet tomorrow,

is

matters to discuss.

on September

not arrive until September

Run-on sentences can be corrected

Make two

1.

Classes started

3.

hard.

Use a semicolon between the

until

Use

or,

5,

however,

did

in several ways:

on September

September

a conjunction

They did

a

good

job.

clauses. 5,

however,

I

did not register

7.

between the clauses (such

as and, but,

or nor).

The team managers worked hard, and they did 4.

I

7.

separate sentences.

The team managers worked 2.

hard, they did a

Make one of

a

good

job.

the statements into a phrase or a subordi-

nate clause.

Scheduled to meet tomorrow, the committee has many matters to discuss.

Another error is to run sentences together with no punctuation at all between them. These run-together sentences must also be separated or properly connected.

112

Wrong:

I

spent a month's allowance for

dress

I

like

spent a month's allowance for this dress.

I

like

the

Correct:

I

the I

st\'le.

spent a month's allowance for this dress be-

cause I

I

like the st\le.

spent a month's allowance for this dress; the

Wrong:

this

style.

Why

I

like

st\'le.

are you leaving

now

wait

now?

Wait!

I'll

walk

home

walk

home

with you. Correct:

Why

are you leaving

I'll

with you.

Why are you home with Split

leaving

now? Wait and

I'll

walk

you.

Constructions

Unnecessarily splitting

infinitives,

separating subjects from

verbs, or separating parts of a verb phrase are errors called split constructions.

Here

is

a

list

with examples of

split

con-

structions to avoid: 1.

Avoid

split infinitives.

An

infinitive

walk, to think). Putting other

verb

is

is

to plus a verb {to

words betw^een

to

and the

often awkward.

Awkward: Better:

To be or to not To be or not to

Awkward:

We

had

be: that

is

the question.

be: that

is

the question.

to without any preparation or

warning

pack our belongings. Better:

Without any preparation or warning, to

2.

a

we had

pack our belongings.

Avoid unnecessarily separating a subject and its verb or its object. Keeping these basic sentence parts

verb and

together usually makes your writing clearer.

Awkward:

Mary,

in

one bounding

[subject

Awkward:

leap, cleared the fence.

and verb separated]

Mary cleared,

in

one bounding

leap, the fence.

[verb and object separated] Better:

Mary cleared

the fence in

one bounding

leap.

113

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

3.

Do

not separate a preposition from

Awkward:

He walked

into, since

its

object.

he was

in the

neighbor-

hood, the museum. Better:

Since he was in the neighborhood, he walked

museum.

into the 4.

Do

not separate the parts of a verb phrase.

Awkward:

Mary

has,

been Better:

although you would not think

so,

ill.

Mary has been

ill,

although you would not

think so.

Awkward:

might have,

I

you had not opposed me,

if

bought the portable phone. Better:

If

you had not opposed me,

I

might have

bought the portable phone.

Faulty Parallel Constructions means expressing two or more resame grammatical form. To make a pair of ideas parallel, you would state both ideas in the same structure in the same kind of words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. You should also use parallel structure in a series of items joined by and or or. Here are some examples of Parallel construction

lated ideas in the

—

parallel structure:

Words:

Working and playing are both important.

Phrases:

Both at

home and

at school she

is

well organ-

ized.

Clauses:

Sentences:

when my back is better and when the mower is repaired. Our neighbor to the south has a brick house and a well-kept lawn. Our neighbor to the north has a wood-frame house and a I

will cut the grass

weedy lawn.

Here are some examples of some ways to correct them:

along with

Wrong:

To write was easier

Correct:

Writing was easier for her than talking.

Wrong:

He

for her than talking.

enjoys playing golf, tennis, and to play ball.

114

faulty parallelism,

soft-

Correct:

He

Wrong:

Having checked our bags and since we had said

Correct:

Since

enjoys playing golf, tennis, and Softball.

we boarded the plane. we had checked our hags and had

good-bye,

said

good-bye, ^-e boarded the plane.

Wrong:

unwanted animals homes for them. The animal shelter cares for unwanted animals and tries to find homes for them. The animal and

Correct:

is

shelter cares for

trying to find

Problems with Modifiers Whenever you use modifying words, be sure

word

it

phrases, and clauses,

that the relationship beri;v-een the modifier

modifies

is

clear.

Avoid the following

and the

common

problems with modifiers.

Dangling Modifiers Adjective phrases

word or phrase

and clauses

in

connected

that are not

to

any

the sentence are called dangling modi-

These danglers cause confusion. The reader does not they modify. Here are examples of dangling modifiers, along with some ways to correct them: fiers.

know what

Dangling:

Correct:

Dangling: Correct:

Hanging the curtains, the rod slipped and hit him on the head. VC'hen he was hanging the curtains, the rod slipped and hit him on the head.

Young and alone, the dark can be frightening. Young and alone, she was frightened by the dark.

Young and alone, a

child can

be frightened by

the dark.

Dangling:

To complete

the project

on

time, the typewriter

must be repaired. Correct:

To complete

the project

on

time, I

must have

the typewriter repaired. If the project

is

to

be completed on time, the

typewriter must be repaired.

115

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

Squinting Modifiers An adverb which

it

that

is

placed between two verbs

—

could modify

The hammer

that

is

—both

of

called a squinting modifier.

he was waving menacingly

to the

fell

floor.

menacingly one time, and it seems to refer to was at it again, and it seems to refer to fell. In other words, the modifier, menacingly, squints at both

Look

at

waving. Look verbs.

The writer probably meant:

The hammer

that

he was menacingly waving

to the

fell

floor.

Misplaced Modifiers These are phrases or clauses

enough

that are

not placed close

word they modify. They sometimes appear word other than the word they are intended to

to the

to modify' a

modify.

Of

the three incorrect modifier constructions, the

misplaced modifier these sentences.

is

The

the easiest first

one

to correct.

Look

at

sentence in each group has a

misplaced modifier; the second has the modifier

in the

correct place. Misplaced:

Mary admitted that tion,

Clear:

to

her mother with a sad face

she had failed the chemistry examina-

[seems to modify mother]

With a sad face, Mary admitted to her mother that

she had failed the chemistry examina-

tion.

Misplaced:

He keeps

the awards he

won

at school in his

bedroom. Clear:

In his bedroom, he keeps the awards he

won

at school.

The awards he won at school are kept bedroom.

116

in his

Avoiding Cliches overused words and expressions, are a part of They can seem colorful and fun to use. Have you ever passed a test by the skin of your teeth? You may have waited with bated breath for your grade. In the final analysis, you would have been dou^2 in the dumps if you hadn't passed. Don't let anyone put words in your mouth. Cliches are worn out. Use your own words to express your thoughts. This is one reason for avoiding cliches. Another reason is that many cliches are no fun at all. They are boring and overstuffed. People use them to sound official or smart. Would you and your friends ever e?!deavor to inaugurate the widespread use of seat belts? You'd more likely try to begin using seat belts regularly. An important language goal is learning to say things in the fewest words possible. Don't waste anyone's time. Many cliches are wordy. That's the third reason to avoid them. It's a cinch that you and your friends would never cooperate together when you could definitely simply cooperate. You may have in the neighborhood of ten problems to discuss. But discussing about ten problems will get the same results. A budding genius may be able to solve them all, but a genius could do the same. Exercise your vocabulary skills. Replace cliches with cliches, or

everv'day language.

original

words

your meaning. 'When it is necessary, Or add a twist to a worn-out vour own. You'll find that there's usually

that

fit

rearrange your sentences. phrase, making

more than one

it

wa\' to skin

a

cliche.

There are many cliches. Here are some common ones with words that can replace them. // goes without saying that \our best bet is to put your nose to the grindstone and learn these replacements.

117

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

Replacement

abreast of the times

current

according to Hoyle

by the rules

according to the record

the record shows that

aching void

emptiness

acid test

conclusive

acknowledge defeat

admit defeat

after all

is

said

and done

ahead of schedule all

altogether

almost never

seldom

along the same lines

similarly

as luck

would have

think; believe it

words

at

a loss for

at

the present time

bathed

in tears

bolt

end line

budding genius busy as

speechless today;

now

sobbing

end

from the blue

bottom

fortunately; unfortunately

best decision

best bet bitter

way

in that

like that

are of the opinion

a

bee

surprise total;

goal

genius

extremely busy

by and large

generally

by force of circumstances

because

by leaps and bounds

fast

by the skin of one's teeth

barely

captain of the ship

head

center of attention

focus

checkered career

bad record

clinging vine

dependent person

close to nature

natural

colossal mistake

bad error

come

conflict (verb)

into conflict

compare favorably

118

really

early

in all

and

test

compare well

conduct an investigation

investigate

conspicuous by one's absence

missed

cook one's goose

harm; ruin

Replacement

Cliche

cooperate

cooperate together cost the

sum

of

cost

create the possibility

enable

deadly earnest

serious

doom down

insure failure

due

to failure

dumps

in the

miserable

measure

in large

to

each and every

due

largely to

all

endeavor

try

epic struggle

prolonged

equal to the occasion

able

even,' fiber of one's

being

fabricate

lie

familiar

landmark

few and

far

fit

between

and foremost

first

as a fiddle

fly off the

for a period of a all

for the

intents

rare first

rage

week

and purposes

purpose of

free as the breeze

down

well-known landmark

fit

handle

footprints in the sands of time

for

completely

women

sex

fair

past events for a

week

seemingly in

order

to; to

free; carefree

to brass tacks

get serious

give encouragement to

encourage

give rise to

cause

go without saying

be obvious

get

fight

goodly number

many

green as grass

green

green with envy

envious

have need for

need

heartfelt gratitude

thanks

heart's content

satisfaction

heated argument

serious argument

hold promise

look promising

holy state of matrimony

marriage

in a

most careful manner

meticulously

119

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

Cliche

in all cases

Replacement

Replacement

Cliche

no one of

right

mind

none the worse

wear

for

normalK', no in

of a confidential nature

confidential

optimum

best

paramount issue

critical issue

picturesque scene

lovely scene

pleasing prospect

good idea

powers

authorities

that

be

one

good condition

promising future

likely success

put one's nose to the

work hard

grindstone put words in one's race, color, or

rant

and rave

reign right

mouth

creed

influence origin, beliefs

rave

supreme

rule

and proper

correct

sadder but wiser

experienced

safe to say

reasonable

sea of faces

crowd

self-made person significantly

reduce

entrepreneur greatly reduce

skeleton in the closet

secret

skin alive

punish

spill

the beans

strong as an ox

blurt

powerful

stubborn as a mule

obstinate

sturdy as an oak

strong

substantial portion

many, much

take into consideration

think about

take into custody

arrest

word for easy way out

take one's take the

believe find an easy solution

than meets the eye

than

thanking you in advance

thank you for

thereby hangs the tale

that's the

time marches on

time passes

time of one's

best time

life

too funnv for words

is

obvious

reason

hilarious

121

Common Grammar

and Usage Errors

Cliche

Replacement

upset the applecan

disturb

utilize

use

venture a suggestion

suggest

walk of

career

way of

life

beliefs

life

women

weaker sex wheel of fortune

fate

where angels

where

there's

danger

widespread use

regular use; regularly

with bated breath

nerv'ously

without further delay

immediately

words

I

fail

to express

wreak havoc

122

fear to tread

can't describe

bring disaster

Index

A

after

kind and

26

sort,

A/an, 96 Abbreviations

and capitalization, and periods, 83 and slash, 93

"'9

Abstract nouns, 10-11 Accept/except, 96

Active voice, 30

conjunctive, 45

As/like, 102

independent, 45 interrogative, 45 irregular, 46 with linking verbs, 25-26 of manner, 44 by meaning, 44-45 modifving participle, 41

Astronomical designations

of place, 45 placement, 49

45 of time, 44 by use, 45 words with tu'o closely relative,

related forms,

Addresses

Affect/effect,

21-27 and adverb clauses, 67 vs. adverbs, 25-26, 47-48

Adjectives,

articles,

choice

common

96 96

Aggravate/irritate, 97

compound

25

26-27 23-25 compound, 88-89 errors,

comparison

of,

demonstrative, 22

Awards and

capitalization, 81

Awhile/a while, 98

subjects,

Bad/badly, 48, 98 Balanced sentences, 73

Because of/due

Brand names and capitalization, 79 Buildings, names of and capitalization, 80

43

pronouns, 42-43 problems, 106-109 pronouns, 19-21 verbs, 42—43 All the farther/all the faster,

Bursted/bust/busted, 98 Businesses, names of

and

capitalization,

Alhide/elude/illnde, 97 Also/then, 105

interrogative, 23

Among/between, 52, 97 Amount/number, 97

Can/may, 99

Amd etc.,

Capitalization,

with linking verbs. 25-26 numerical, 22 vs. participles,

40-41

personal, 22

placement (before or after

noun), 23

predicate, 25-26

pronomial, 22-23 repetitious, 25

unnecessary-, 25

used as adverbs,

HI

clauses,

97 Antecedent, 19

Anticipate/expect, 97 Anyways/anywheres, 98 Anxious/eager, 98 Apostrophes, 87-88 and missing letters, 88 and plurals, 88 and possessive pronouns,

19 with possessives, 13-14,

87

vague, 25

Adverb

Appositives, 12-13

67

Adverbs, 44-49 vs. adjectives,

47-48 comparison

25-26,

and commas, 85 and noun clauses, 68 Apt/liable/likely,

of,

46

Articles,

23

98

80

97

indefinite, 22

21-23

99-100

Between/among, 52, 97 Biannual/biennial, 98 Book titles and parts, 82 and colons, 84

descriptive, 21

limiting,

to,

Beside/besides, 98

Brackets, 92

Agreement indefinite

23

of,

47-48

Auivice/advise,

and commas, 86 Adjective clauses, 66

capitalization, 81

B

preposition, 50-51

vs.

and

Auxiliary verbs, 34

Capital/capitol, 99

78-82 and abbreviations, 79 and astronomical designations, 81

awards and prizes, 81 and brand names, ""9 and business, 80 and colons, 82 days of the week, 81 and direction words, 79-80 and direct quotations, 82 and famih- relationships, 79 first

word of

sentence, 82

and geographic

features,

80

123

and government terms, 81 and historical events and terms, 81

and and and and

institutions,

80

interjection O, 78 /

pronoun, 78

(formal and informal), 82

and

letters

locations,

list,

ships,

trains, planes,

81

and nationalities, 79 and nicknames and identifying names, 79 and organizations, 80 and parks, 80 and personified nouns, 79 and political parties, 80 and professional and academic titles, 79 and proper adjectives, 78 and proper nouns, 78 and races, 79 and religion, 80 and seasons, 81 and streets, 80

and -est endings, 24-25

incorrect, 25

and capitalization, 82 and quotation marks, 91

Commands,

80

and names of

least),

-er

118-123

reasons to avoid, 117 v^ordiness, 117 Collective nouns, 10-11 Colons, 84

and monuments, 80 and names of buildings,

and

{less

24

definition, 117

and pronouns, 20

79

months, 81

downward

restrictive, 68-69 and semicolons, 86 Cliches, 117-123

62, 83 See also Imperative sentences

irregular,

with

24

more and

most,

24-25 Comparison of adverbs, 46 downward, 46 irregular, 46 Complete sentences, 58-62 Complex sentences, 70 Compound adjectives, 88-89

Compound-complex

Commas, 84-87

sentences, 70-71

and addresses, 86 and appositives, 85

Compound

for clarity, 85

Compound

and clauses, 84 and dates, 86 and elliptical clauses, 73 and geographic location, 86 and informal letters, 86 and introductory words,

nouns, 89

possessive, 14

sentences, 70 and semicolons, 86

Compound

subjects

and plural verbs, 43 Concrete nouns, 10-11 Conjugation of verbs, 37-40 synopsis, 38 Conjunctions, 53-55 coordinating, 53

85

Cardinal numbers, 22

and numbers, 86 and person spoken to, 85 and phrases, 84-85 and quotation marks, 91 and quotations, 85 vs. semicolon and series, 84

subordinating, 54 Conjunctive adverbs, 45 Consistency of verbs, 43-44 Contact/contacted, 99 Contractions, 88 Coordinating conjunctions, 53

Case

to stand for missing

Correlative conjunctions, 54

of

titles

(books,

articles),

82

and

79

tribes,

nominative, 17 objective,

17-18

possessive, 19

Clauses, 65-69 adjectives,

66

adverbs, 67

and colons, 84 and commas, 84 dependent, 66-69 68 independent, 65-66

elliptical,

nonrestrictive,

noun, 66-68

124

68-69

words, 85 Common nouns, 10-11 used as part of proper name, 80 Comparative degree of adjectives, 24 Comparative degree of adverbs, 46

Comparison of 23-25 ascending

adjectives,

vs.

descending,

23 degrees, 23-24

correlative, 54

incorrectly used, 55

placement, 54

words

joined, 55

Credible/creditable/credulous,

99

D Dangling modifiers, 115 Dash, 87 Data, 99 Dates and commas, 86

Days of the week and capitalization, 81

and quotation marks, 91 and rhetorical questions,

Declarative sentences, 71

Demonstrative adjectives, 22 Demonstrative pronouns, 15

Dependent

clauses,

Exclamator}' sentences, 72

and

Family relationships

and

Direction words

79-80

Direct objects

and adjective clauses, 66 and noun clauses, 67 and pronouns, 17 and transitive verbs, 27-28 Direct quotation

and capitalization, 82 and quotation marks, 90 Disinterested! uninterested, 99 Disregardlirregardless, 102

Doubt

Due

but/help but, 99

tolbecause of 99-100

capitalization,

79

Farther/further, 100 Faultv parallel construction,

114-115 Feminine nouns, 11 Few/fewer vs. little/less, 26-27 Fewer/less, 100

.

and italics, 93 Formally/formerly, 100-101

Ellipses,

96

92

68 and commas, 85

Elliptical clauses,

and punctuation, 73 EludeIalludeIilliAde, 91 Emigrate/immigrate, 100 Enthuse, 100

ending, 24-25 -er adverb ending, 46 -ess noun ending, 11

and

and

-est etc.,

24-25 adverb ending, 46 adjective ending,

Exclamation points, 83-84 and exclamatory sentences, 72 and imperative sentences, 72

79

97

Immigrate/emigrate, 100

Future perfect tense, 33 Future tense, 33

Imperative sentences, 72

Imperative mood, 30 conjugation, 38

Imply/infer, 101 Incomplete constructions, 18 Indefinite adjectives, 22

Indefinite pronouns, 16

Gender, 11 Geographic features and capitalization, 80 Gerund phrases, 63-64 vs. participial

phrases, 64

Gerunds, 42 Good/well, 48, 101 Government terms

and

singular, 20

singular verbs,

Grammar and

Indirect objects

and adjective clauses, ^lo and noun clauses, 67 and pronouns, 18 and transitive verbs, 29

usage; See

specific parts

Grammar

of speech

errors; See specific

errors

42^3

Independent adverbs, 45 Independent clauses, 65-66 and semicolons, 86 Indicative mood, 30 conjugation, 37, 39

capitalization, 81

100

Except/accept, 96

capitalization,

Illude/allude/elude,

93

slash,

names

Identifying

See also Numbers Fragments, 61, 111-112 Further/farther, 100

-er adjective

-est

and capitalization, 81 Hung/hanged, 101 Hyphens, 88-90 and compound adjectives, 88-89 and compound nouns, 89 and numbers, 88 and prefixes, 88 and word division, 89-90

Fractions

.

Effect/affect,

capitalization, 81

Foreign words

Each are, 100 EagerIanxious, 98 .

99

but,

Holidays

Descriptive adjectives, 21

capitalization,

101

Historical terms, events

Expect/anticipate, 97

Different than/different from,

and

Have got,

Help but/doubt

71

66-69

99

Hardly/scarcely, 101

-ine

noun ending,

11

Infer/imply, 101

H

Infinitive phrases,

Had best/had better/had ought, 101

Hanged/hung, 101 Hard/hardly, 48

Infinitives,

64

40-41

In/ into, 101 Initials

and periods, 83

125

Inside of/off of/outside Institutions, names of

and

capitalization,

of,

101

80

Interjections, 55

and

capitalization,

78

Interrogative adjectives, 23

Loan/lend, 103

gender, 11

Locations

number, 12

and capitalization, 79 and commas, 86 Loose sentences, 72 Lots/ lots of/a whole lot, 103

possessive case, 13-14 proper, 10

used

Number,

Interrogative adverbs, 45 Interrogative pronouns, 16 vs. relative

pronouns, 16

Interrogative sentences, 71 Intransitive verbs,

28-29

Introductory words

and commas, 85 Irony, 91

Irregardless/disregard, 102

shifts,

M

Irregular verbs,

35-36

Masculine nouns, 11 May/can, 99 Misplaced modifiers, 65, 116 Missing letters, 88 Misused constructions, 106-116 See also specific constructions

97 93 See also Underlining Is when/ is where, 102 Its/it's, 102

Misused words, 96-106 Modifiers, 115-116 misplaced, 65

Italics,

J-K Kinds/sorts, 26

Number/amount, 97 Numbers and commas, 86 and hyphens, 88 Numerical adjectives, 22

O Objective case, 17-18 Object of preposition, 50 with more than one

Months

preposition, 52

capitalization of, 81

and pronouns, 18

Monuments, names of and capitalization, 80 Mood, 30-31

Off ofinside ofoutside of lOl Ordinal numbers, 22 Organizations

More, 24-25, 46

and capitalizations, 80 and periods, 83 Outside of/off ofinside of \Q\ Ownership

Most, 24-25, 46

Kind/sort/type, 102

N

,

individual, 14

Names Lay/lie, 102 Least, 24, 46

110

verbs, 31

Irregular plurals, 12 Irritate /aggravate,

as verbs, 111

12

joint,

and and

13

capitalization, 81

93

italics,

Leave/let, 102

Nationalities

Lend/loan, 103 46 Less/fewer, 100

Near/nearly, 48

Parentheses, 92

Neuter nouns,

Parks,

Less, 24,

Letter (formal

and informal)

and capitalization, 82 and colons, 84 and commas, 86

and

capitalization,

79

1

Nicknames and capitalization, 79 Nominative case, 17 Nonrestrictive clauses, 68-69

Liable/apt/ likely, 98

Noun

Lie/ lay, 102

Nouns, 10-14

66-68

clauses,

abstract,

Likely /liable/apt, 98

appositives, 12-13; See

10-11

Limiting adjectives, 21-23 Linking verbs, 29

collective,

as action verbs,

common,

126

114-115

names of

and

capitalization,

Participial phrases, vs.

80

63

gerund phrases, 64

Participles, 41 vs. adjectives,

40, 41

speech improper. 111

Parts of

Like/as, 103

29 and adjectives, 25-26 and colons, 84

Parallel constructions,

also Appositives

10-11 10

compound, 89 concrete, 10-11

See also specific parts Passive voice, 30 Past perfect tense, 33 Past tense, 32

Perform/preform, 103 Periodic sentences, 73

Periods, 83

and declarative sentences, -1

Predicates, 59-61

and imperative sentences, 71

and quotation marks, 91 Person (in verbs), 31 Personal adjectives, 22 Personal pronouns, 14-15 Personified nouns

and

and adjeaive clauses, 66 and noun clauses, 67

capitalization,

79

Phrases, 62-65

and commas, 84-85 gerund, 63-64 infinitive, 64

simple and complete, 60 simple and compound, 60-61

and adjective clauses, 66 and noun clauses, 67 See also Object of preposition

ending sentences with, 52

Principal verbs, 33 Prizes

and

Pronoun and

Possessive adjeaives, 19

See also Personal adjectives

Possessive case, 13-14, 19

compound nouns,

singular/plural, 13

indefinite, 16

Possessives

and apostrophes, 87 Practicable/practical, 103

Predicate adjectives, 25-26, 29

67 Predicate nominatives, 29 clauses,

78

Pronouns, 14-21 agreement, 19-21 case, 16-19 demonstrative, 15 faulty reference,

apostrophe, 19

109-110

incomplete constructions,

Races

interrogative, 16

17-18 personal, 14-15 as objects,

possessives, 19 reflexive,

14-15

79

103-104

Real/really, 104

Reason is because, 104 Redundancy, 74-75 Reflexive pronouns, 14-15 Relative adverbs, 45 Relative pronouns, 15

interrogative

pronouns, 16 Religions

and

capitalization,

80

Repetition, ''4-~5

repetitious adjectives, 25

Requests. 62 Respectfully/respectively, 104

relative, 15

and sexism, 21 as subjects,

capitalization,

Raise/rise,

vs.

18

wrong

R and

/ capitalization,

14 indi\idual ownership, 14 joint ownership, 13

Possessive pronouns, 19

and commas, 85

capitalization, 81

degree of adverbs, 46

23-24

and direct quotations, 90 and other punctuation, 91 and poetn-. 91 single, 90 and titles, 90 words used in a special

Progressive verbs

degree of adjeaives.

80

sentences Quotation marks, 90-91

way, 91 Quotations

conjugation, 39 Pronomial adjectives, 22-23 Pronoun agreement, 108-109

and adverb

and quotation marks, 91

leaving out, 52

and quotation marks, 91 and slash, 93 Point of view shifts, 110-111

Positive

Question marks, 83 and interrogative

frequently used, 50

Principal/principle, 103

Positive

See also specific marks of

Questions; See Interrogative

possessives, 13

capitalization,

78

sentences, ^1

adverbs, 50-51

Poetry

panies

capitalization,

Prepositional object, 50

which to use. 51 Present perfect tense, 32 Present tense, 31-32

and

and

punctuation

and apostrophes, 88 personal pronouns, 14

Plurals, 12

78

and hyphens, 88

vs.

62-63

capitalization,

Punctuation, 82-93

Prefixed

Prepositions, 49-52

Placement of adjectives, 23 Placement of adverbs, 49

Political

and

Proper nouns, 10

Prepositional phrases, 62-63

panicipial, 63

prepositional,

Proper adjeaives

n

forms, 18

Restrictive clauses,

68-69

Rhetorical questions, 71, 84 Rise/raise,

103-104

127

Run-on sentences, 112-113

Sit/set,

104-105

and indirect objects, 29 and intransitive verbs, 28-29

Slang, 91 Slash,

93

Tribes

Solidus, 93

Scarcely/hardly, 101

Sort/kind/type, 102

Seasons

Split constructions,

and

capitalization, 81

names of and capitalization, 80

Seen/saw, 104 Semicolons, 86-87

Streets,

commas, 86 and quotation marks, 91

vs.

Subjects,

shifts,

58-59 simple and compound, 59 and verb agreement, 106-108 Subjunctive mood, 30-31 conjugation, 37-38, 39

fragments, 61

complex, 70

compound, 70 compound-complex, 70-71 declarative, 71

and

elliptical clauses,

73

exclamatory, 72 faults,

111-113

word

82 imperative, 72 interrogative, 71 loose, 72

first

of,

periodic, 73

and periods, 83 simple, 69 structure,

110

simple and complete, vs.

69-71

subject/predicate order,

61

71-72 Sequence of verbs, 44 types,

Subordinating conjunctions, 54 Superlative degree of adjectives, 24 Superlative degree of adverbs,

Underlining, 93 Uninterested/disinterested, 99

Unique, 106 Unnecessary adjectives, 25

Vague

adjectives,

25

Verbals, 40-43

Verbs, 27-44

and adverb

clauses,

67

agreement, 42-43 conjugation, 37-40

35-36

phrases, 33-34

Technical words, 91 Tense of verbs, 31-33

principal parts, 34-36

31-33 and 27-29 voice, 30 tense,

consistency, 43-44

transitive

sequence, 44 shifts, 110 That/which, 105 Then/also, 105

Very,

There/their/they're, 105

Voice, 30, 111

Sexist interpretation, 11, 21

Time, 84

104 Shifts in point of view, 110-111

Titles

128

U

29 mood, 30-31 person and number, 31

This/ that, 15

personal pronouns, 14 possess ives, 13

Type/sort/kind, 102

linking,

These/those, 15

Singular, 12

Type, 105

irregular,

and commas, 84 and semicolons, 86 Set/sit, 104-105

Simple sentences, 69

79

11

Try and, 105

46

Series

Shall/will,

capitalization,

noun ending,

-trix

58-59

and adjective clauses, 66 and noun clauses, 67 and predicate order, 61

Sentences arrangement, 72-73 balanced, 73 complete, 58-62 complete thoughts

and

113-114 Squinting modifiers, 116

with kinds/sorts, 26

W,

106

X, Y,

Z

Well/good, 48, 101

with kind/sort, 26

Which/that, 105 While, 106

capitalization, 79,

82

Who/whom, 106 Will/shall,

93 quotation marks, 90 To/too/two, 105 italics,

Transitive verbs,

and direct 27-28

intransitive,

27-29

objects,

Word

104

division,

89-90

Wordiness, 74-75, 117

Words, letters, numbers as words, 93