Good and Faithful Servant: Stewardship in the Orthodox Church 978-0881412550

Table of contents :
Foreword
Brian Gerich 7
I Stewardship of Money in the Early Church:
A Close Reading of Who Is the Rich Man that Shall Be Savedf
by Clement of Alexandria
Jaroslav Pelikan 13
2 Stewardship and the Tithe in the Old Testament
Michael Prokurat 27

Stewardship and the New Testament
John Barnet
Healing the Christian Body: An Ancient Syriac Theme
Susan Ashhrook Harvey
Stewardship as a Way toward Deification:
Some Moral and Social Issues in St Gregory Nazianzen
Hilarion Alfeyev
6
7
The Power of Detachment in Early Monastic Literature
John Chryssavgis
Some Aspects of Stewardship of the Church of
Constantinople under Ottoman Turkish Rule (1453-1800)
DemetriosJ. Constantelos

O Generosity, Accountability, Vision:
Historical Perspectives on Orthodox Stewardship in America
John H. Erickson 1

^ On Stewardship and Philanthropy: Forty Sentences
Thomas Hopko 1 33
X O Offering You “Your Own of Your Own”:
Stewardship in the Liturgy
Paul Meyendorff 153
I I Ethics and Stewardship
Stanley Samuel Harakas 165
I 2, Orthodox America: Philanthropy and Stewardship
Anthony Scott 187

Citation preview

T

MKtl

isisisi

mint

GOOD AND FAITHFUL S

E R VAN

Stewardship in the

Orthodox Church EDITED BY ANTHONY SCOTT

_

BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY Copley Square Boston.

MA02116

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT Stewardship in the Orthodox Church

GOOD AND FAITHFUL

SERVANT Stewardship in the

Orthodox Church

Edited by

ANTHONY SCOTT

vladimir’s seminary press CRESTWOOD, NEW YORK IO707

st

2003

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Good and

faithful servant

Anthony p.

:

stewardship in the Orthodox Church

/

edited by

Scott,

cm.

Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN 1.

I.

0-88141-255-4

(alk.

paper)

Stewardship, Christian. Scott,

2.

Anthony (Anthony

Orthodox Eastern Church-Doctrine.

L.)

BV772.G585 2003 248'.6'o8828i9-dc22

2003058793

st

COPYRIGHT © 2003 vladimir’s seminary press

575 Scarsdale

Road, Crestwood, 1-800-204-2665

NY 10707

isbn 0-88141-255-4 All Rights Reserved

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

CONTENTS Foreword Brian Gerich

I

7

Stewardship of Money in the Early Church:

A

Close Reading of

Who Is the Rich Man

that Shall Be

Saved f

by Clement of Alexandria 13

Jaroslav Pelikan

2

Stewardship and the Tithe in the Old Testament

27

Michael Prokurat

3

Stewardship and the

New Testament 43

John Barnet

4 5

Healing the Christian Body:

An

Ancient Syriac

Theme

Susan Ashhrook Harvey

Stewardship

as a

Some Moral and

57

Way toward

Deification:

Social Issues in St Gregory

Nazianzen

7i

Hilarion Alfeyev

6

The Power of Detachment

in Early

Monastic Literature

John Chryssavgis

7

Some

Aspects of Stewardship of the Church of

Constantinople under Ottoman Turkish Rule (1453-1800) Demetrios J. Constantelos

105

9

O

Generosity, Accountability, Vision: Historical Perspectives

on Orthodox Stewardship

in

John H. Erickson

^

On

1

O

1

Stewardship and Philanthropy: Forty Sentences

Thomas Hopko

X

America

Offering You “Your

1

Own

33

of Your Own”:

Stewardship in the Liturgy

Paul Meyendorff

I I

Ethics and Stewardship Stanley

I

2,

153

Samuel Harakas

165

Orthodox America: Philanthropy and Stewardship Anthony

Scott

187

FOREWORD

thank

God

together

I

to this

Anthony

that Father

Orthodox academics,

much-needed book on stewardship

have-our time, our

talent,

everything. That

grasp, especially for

We

might

ask:

some

However,

Orthodox

Why are

Christians, both those

we

who

migrated from

Roman

Catholic

concept of stewardship?

I

because we are an “immigrant church.”

it is

several generations

of American-born

does one explain the thousands of American-

men and women

employment, from the highest els,

as regards the

now have

How

born Orthodox Christian

all

concept for most people to

our friends in Protestant and

will say that

Christians.

explain that

this country.

submit that we

I

Orthodox Church.

book pointedly

a very difficult

is

communities years ahead of us that

in the

and our treasure-comes from God and that

Orthodox

abroad and those born in

know

theologians, and clergy to contribute

Several of the contributors to this

God owns

Scott had the vision to bring

in

all

professions and fields of

levels as chief executives to the lowest lev-

who contribute more of their time,

talent,

and

treasure to their colleges,

to their kids’ sports teams, or to their country club rather than to their

church and In

my

its

salvific

opinion,

mission?

we

the laypeople— parents and grandparents— and the

clergy-including the hierarchs-have failed in our duty to teach our

dren and those in our sphere of influence what

dox

Christian.

It

happen

to be an

its

broadest form.

Many

I

upon

living

to our children

our

of our

lives as faithful stewards.

and grandchildren

if

Ortho-

have heard

uncomfortable discussing or preaching on the subject.

salvation depends to

means

has only been within the past ten years that

discussions about stewardship in fathers are

it

chil-

What

spiritual Yet, is

our

going

they do not learn about

stewardship? Shouldn’t the topic be given a high priority?

7

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

8

During the period from

1991 to 1997,

campaign

chair of the $20 million capital

had the

I

for St Vladimir’s

ological Seminary. Additionally, in 1996, the

our parish stewardship program,

started

the past five years

I

privilege of being co-

Orthodox The-

dean of our cathedral and

just the

two of us. Moreover,

I

for

have been the stewardship chair of the Western Amer-

ican Diocese of the Serbian Church. In 1982, following the teaching of our

Lord that

my wife

better to give than to receive,

it is

Obren

private family foundation, the

During these many

years,

&

I

who

faithfully contributed

parish in her homeland, to her

to St Vladimir’s Seminary,

lis),

name and

I

I

much

and yet who had only two bills

came

in!

dresses to her

Ultimately she gave

home to the seminary and 50 percent to her parish in Minhour reading

large-print Bible.

of our cathedral:

watching people give $1.00 per week in the collection plate and

When

I

asked about a

the typical response was,

my

Califor-

dollars to her parish, to her

also experienced the frustration as stewardship chair

tithing!

frus-

had the joy of dealing,

neapolis. Every night, despite failing eyesight, she spent an

from her

a small,

parish in the United States (Minneapo-

reused the envelopes that her

50 percent of her

joy and

widow from Southern

hundreds of

first

formed

have had the joy of watching St

for several years, with a 92-year-old Russian

nia

much

$20 million goal.

its

I

Marilyn Gerich Foundation.

have experienced

I

tration related to these assignments.

Vladimir’s Seminary exceed

B.

and

sacrificial,

“Why do

I

call that

annual stewardship commitment,

need to pay more money, since

I

pay

dues of $150 per year?”

Why

are these

two

real

over again-so different?

examples— which

have experienced over and

submit that the Russian widow’s

I

centered, while the other situation reminds

beggar Lazarus-only in

I

this case the

me

life

was Christ-

of the Gospel story of the

Church of Jesus Christ got the

left-

over crumbs. In this volume, Fr

Anthony

Scott describes obstructions to sacrificial

giving, including the “dues” system,

the

mark

(see

and

in

my experience,

his

words meet

“Orthodox America: Philanthropy and Stewardship”). Who-

ever initiated the “dues” system in our parishes did a great disservice to the entire

Church. Members

paying dues a

at their

country club,

maintenance

a

feel that

paying dues to the parish

is

the

same

as

country club or other clubs, but they are incorrect. At

budget

reserves,

is

prepared which covers

all

of the operating

and planned improvements. That

total

is

costs,

then

Foreword

9

number of members

divided by the

dues required for that year. That

most

In

budget. In

is

parishes, “dues” bear

my parish,

in order to calculate the

not what happens

no

amount of the

our parishes.

at

relationship to the total operating

our annual budget

is

approximately $550,000, with-

out provision for replacement reserves, missions, charitable works, and so forth.

We

have

five

hundred “dues-paying members.” Our dues should be

$1,100 per person per year. Instead they are $204!

how

deceptive and inoperable a dues system

Likewise, “Forty Sentences,”

ing for those of us

convicting.

who

painful

demands upon

my

and

life

if

by Fr Thomas Hopko,

several

I

is

personally found

my current perspective, if I

I

were

.

.

.

Humans

which comes from

own all

souls

people.

are to be stewards

their divine Master.

and bodies, then .

.

They

.

for those

.

.

I

that

and challenged

when

was not

easy.

have committed

I

away one-third of my “pie”— was narios where

me

They

Scripture teaching “To

air.”

my life

is

Con-

and have,

are

.

.

.

then for

and the

Other chapters

in this

ani-

book

as well.

to our

that smart?

whom much

about

are to care first for their

me

to

campaign by making

might need the money for

I

of all that they

the time arrived for

co-chair of St Vladimir’s capital

to be

of our life and work

are to care also for the earth, the plants

my conscience

must admit

.

eternity.

of their family members

mals, the fish of the sea and the birds of the

pricked

it

really serious

would spend

sider Sentence 16: “Stewardship extends to every aspect in the world.

not relaxing read-

of “the sentences” made particularly

were concerned about where

I

difficult to see

is.

profess to be Christians.

found that

I

not

It is

I

leadership as

a seven-figure gift,

it

Lord and Savior, but giving

came up with

my own

given

show

much

use, is

all

kinds of sce-

but in the end the

expected” (Lk 12.48)

my conscience. Also, what about the Lord’s promise that care of my needs and me: “Be anxious for nothing”(Mt

kept recurring in

he would take 6.31:—33)?

prayer,

Did

which

I

really believe that?

for

me

is

And how

about the Sunday Eucharistic

one of the most important: “For

before the awesome, dreaded judgment seat of Christ.”

I

a

good account

must admit

that

God has returned that gift two-fold, or as we Americans haughtily would say, “My net worth increased due to my brilliance.” Dr John Barnet (“Stewardship and the New Testament”) points out that “the drive toward self-sufficiency eventually overcomes tions, including one’s charitable intentions

all

other motiva-

toward his neighbor.”

He

quotes Martin Hengel in saying that property represents both “a dangerous

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

IO

threat

and

uneasy.

a

and

vant and to love

more

my

“supreme obligation” to be

neighbor

And, even when the

as myself. It

is

of disbursing

fear

head. Because

its

it

make

my time, tal-

good and

a

to

felt

faithful ser-

a continual struggle.

assets

is

overcome, the

common

has not been

and

barns,”

I

for

sin

of

Orthodox Chris-

significant gifts to the parish, the diocese, or the seminaries,

make

tians to

thought about those words,

never run out of goods opposes the concept that

I

treasure are a

pride rears

I

the threat to accumulate, “to build

First,

certain that ent,

supreme obligation.” As

when one does make such a gift, much ado and praise is poured on the donor. I suspect that many donors stmggle with Jesus’ teaching in Matthew 6.1

“Take care! Don’t do your good deeds publicly, to be admired, for then

:

you

will lose the

This

book

reward from your Father in heaven.”

addresses

all

those

well as providing edifying

pitfalls, as

instructive correctives: Professor Jaroslav Pelikan’s exposition

ardship in the ante-Nicene, pre-Constantinian

Money

in the Early

Shall Be Saved

,

Church:

A

and

about stew-

Church (“Stewardship of

Close Reading of

Who Is

by Clement of Alexandria”); Dean John

FI.

the

Rich

Man

that

Erickson’s expla-

nation of fundamental social and political influences on financial matters in

Orthodox

parishes (“Historical Perspectives

in America”);

mary

on Orthodox Stewardship

and the Very Reverend Fr Stanley Harakas’s outline of pridimensions of stewardship (“Ethics and Stewardship”). Dr

ethical

Paul Meyendorff places stewardship within the liturgical context (“Offering

You ‘Your

Own

of Your Own’”); Fr Demetrios Constantelos discusses

“Some Aspects of Stewardship of Susan Ashbrook Harvey

relates

the

Church of Constantinople”; Dr

stewardship to “Healing the Christian

Body”; and Bishop Hilarion Alfeyev, within the context of the mores of the society of St Gregory of Nazianzus, argues the point, “Stewardship as a

From the late Fr Michael Old Testament” to Dn John

Way and

to Deification.”

Prokurat’s “Stewardship

Tithe in the

Chryssavgis’s “The Power of

Detachment a great

in Early

many It is

this

volume spans and explores

aspects of stewardship.

Throughout,

money.

Monastic Literature,”

my

I

am reminded

total life,

my

that stewardship

time,

my

talents,

encompasses more than

my

and

treasure.

For most

Americans, especially those of us in the business world, we are measured

by how much money we have and how many “toys” we own.

you want

Who

to give

away some of your toys or money

would buy the annual

Forbes

to help

magazine of the

Why would

your neighbor?

richest

400 men and

Foreword

ii

women in America if it had only one entry: “The richest person-God Net Worth-EVERYTHING!” This book made me hearken back to the memory of my late father, who had three years of education in Yugoslavia, who never made more than $700 per month, who worked for the same company forty-eight years, who was married for forty-seven years, who dedicated his time and meager treasure to God and his Church, and who died at age 92 as a peaceful and happy .

man,

free

from cholesterol medication and heart

of the medication valium. For forty

years,

palpitations,

he and

He

.

and ignorant

his wife lived in the

900-square foot home, for which he paid $4,000.

.

same

never had a family

foundation, was not being continually pursued by development officers

and

fundraisers,

peace and love.

and was not on any boards. He

lived a long

life full

of

He lived in the fullness of his faith and knew what was ever-

lasting.

Orthodox Christians have much that this

book will be

tion in our

the basis for a

Holy Church.

I

highly

and parish council member read

to learn

and

a

long way to go.

ing workshops

should In is

avail

my

now several

pray

new way of thinking and for new direcrecommend that every hierarch, priest,

it.

Every parish bookstore should have

copies for sale, and every parish library should have a copy addition, there are

I

clergymen and laypeople

on

who

the shelf. In are conduct-

and giving seminars on stewardship. Parishes and dioceses

themselves of these gifted people.

opinion stewardship can no longer be ignored.

more than

parish budgets:

Matthew 19.21,

It is

What

is

at stake

the future of our church in America.

the “Parable of the Rich

Man,” burns

in

my heart.

I

can only

plead for God’s mercy and continually recite the Jesus prayer, “Lord Jesus Christ,

Son of God, have mercy on me

a sinner.”

Brian Gerich Trustee

of St Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary

Senior Vice President ofPublic Storage, Inc.

STEWARDSHIP OF MONEY IN THE EARLY

CHURCH A Close Reading of Who Shall

Be Saved?

Is

the Rich

Man

that

by Clement ofAlexandria

Jaroslav Pelikan*

n any serious discussion of Christian “stewardship”

more

I

substantial than a scriptural-sounding

or fund-raising, the early,

Church must have

i.e.,

euphemism

for begging

of place, either because

repository of the normative Catholic Tradition

periods of Christian history have drawn it

something

the ante-Nicene or pre-Constantinian,

a certain pride

forms of Protestantism, because

as

on which

or, alternately for

stewardship” that

of

witness ever since.

its

under investigation, the

is

the

When

more

special

dogma it

is

the

subsequent

was there that the true Church

adopting the so-called apostolic norms of episcopacy and vitiated the authenticity

all

it is

radical

“fell”

by

that have

“Orthodox

prominence

in this

period both of acknowledged spokesmen for Orthodoxy such as Irenaeus

of Lyons and of

brilliant

but controversial theological virtuosos such

Origen of Alexandria makes witness, not only, as earliest doctrinal

is

obligatory to examine

many of us have been doing

and creedal

*Dr Jaroslav Pelikan

efforts to find

its

proto- Orthodox

for a long time, for the

formulas by which to give

Sterling Professor of History Emeritus at Yale University.

author of more than thirty books and historians

it

is

as

widely acknowledged

as

He

one of the most important

is

the

living

of Christian doctrine. !3

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

14

voice to the Church’s faith in the

made

but also for the

flesh,

Holy

Trinity or the mystery

earliest theoretical

and

of the Word

practical endeavors

of

construing the interrelations between the Church and the social and politincluding the sticky problem of private property

ical order,

1 .

The primitive

communism described in the words of the Acts of the Apostles, “Now the company of those who believed were of one heart and soul, and no one said that

any of the things which he possessed was

everything in

grim account

from

it

3

common” 2 — especially because of how Ananias and Sapphira

-has drawn the

interest

such as the Social Gospel in in

Roman

Catholicism,

tude toward

money and

who

it

relation

has

become

a

own, but they had

followed in Acts by the

were punished for deviating

of those modern Christian movements,

liberal Protestantism

have

and Liberation Theology

tried to find in the early Christian atti-

property a third possibility beyond the tired old

antitheses between capitalism

But

it is

his

and socialism.

commonplace of modern

of Christianity to

discussions about the

politics to observe that neither the writers

of the

New Testament nor the other Christian authors of the first two or three centuries, in their

considerations of the puzzling directive of Christ in the

Gospel of Matthew about the difference between what was to be “rendered to Caesar”

and what was

to

be “rendered to

readers for the serious possibility,

God ,” 4 had quite prepared their

which became

a political reality with the

fourth-century conversion of Constantine and the subsequent legislation

of Theodosius, that Caesar would actually become

Church and the

a

guardian of the

Church— indeed, even

a

a

member of

bishop of

sorts, as

emperor Constantine (although he had not yet been baptized

time) said to the assembled episcopate of the

Eusebius, he “let addressing

whose

God

them

fall

in

jurisdiction

as reported

by

hearing in the following words: ‘You are bishops

within the church;

to oversee whatever

is

I

also

am

external to the church.’

a bishop, ”5

ordained by

(Precisely

what was

“within” and what was “external” remained quite unclear, especially considers, for example, the role of Christian emperors

*S.

at the

the expression ‘that he himself too was a bishop,’

my is

Church when,

the

if

one

and empresses,

Giet, “La doctrine de l’appropriation des biens chez quelques-uns des Peres,”

Rechercbes de science religieuse

49

(i948):55— 91.

2

Acts 4.32.

3

Acts 5.1— 11.

4

Mt

5

Eusebius, Tbe Life of Constantine 24 (NPNF-II 1:546).

22.21.

Stewardship ofMoney in the Early Church

15

“equal to the apostles,” in the seven ecumenical councils of the Church,

beginning with Constantine himself at Nicaea.) In a similar though not quite identical way, as Otto Schilling has in the

most comprehensive monograph on the question

6

shown

those same early

,

Christian writers, in their parallel considerations of the closely connected

why

saying in the Gospel of Matthew about

kingdom of heaven” and

enter the

eye of a needle

7

it

was “hard

man

for a rich

to

camel to pass through the

easier for a

addressed their discussions of Christian stewardship of

,

money chiefly to an audience for many of whom the primary problem was not money but the lack of it. In the apt words of Adolf von Harnack, This resolute renunciation of the world was really the

made

the church competent and strong to

if ever,

was the saying

must have nothing

true:

to

do with

it.”

and

it

who

ascetic.

selves

from

it .

not

are

God and

goodness

first

instance,

who

in the

did not.

men

had not

of the present world, and practically severed them-

8

Ernst Troeltsch put

it

,

why in

in his pioneering

Christian Churches “the

is

for the world

But revolutions

believed in them, and also for those

This situation helps to explain

hesitation

the world. Then,

was a veritable revolution to overthrow

This could never have happened, in the asserted the vanity

thing which

Primitive Christianity has been

polytheism and establish the majesty of

world-for those

upon

“He who would do anything

upbraided for being too unworldly and effected with rosewater,

tell

first

pre-Constantinian period,

this

work on The

problem of property

.

.

.

and uncertainty,” and even that not

noteworthy that

as

Social Teachings of the

was only solved amid much for a very long time

in his notes to that generalization Troeltsch,

9 .

But

amid

it

vari-

ous other references to primary and secondary sources, was obliged to

add that “the only work which deals with the problem of Clement: Can a Rich 6

Otto

Schilling, Reichtum

Man

Be Saved?’ -a

historical

directly

is

judgment

.

.

.

that

that,

und Eigentum in der altchristlicben Literatur (Freiburg im

on

Breisgau:

Herder, 1908). 7

Mt

19.23-24.

8

Adolf von Harnack, The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries, James Moffett, tr., Introduction byjaroslav Pelikan (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1961), 98. 9

tion

Ernst Troeltsch, The Social Teachings of the Christian Churches, Olive

by H. Richard Niebuhr (New York: Harper Torchbooks,

i960),

115.

Wyon,

tr.,

Introduc-

6

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

1

must

balance,

be seen as holding

still

true.

10

Occupying

as

does

it

this truly

unique and even isolated position within the writings of the ante-Nicene Fathers of the Church, the treatise

by Clement of Alexandria

which, though written in Greek,

often referred to by the Latin

is

11 dives salvetur —may therefore serve as a

for the present study

(d. ca.

215)—

Quis

title

convenient point of organization

of the Christian stewardship of money

in the ante-

Nicene or pre-Constantinian Church. 12

The Christocentric Presuppositions of Christian Stewardship In this attempt to formulate a Christian interpretation of money-as in their ethical

thought generally, and even in their doctrinal thought-the Christ-

and Christian theology of the second and

ian apologetics

third centuries

were intent on making two quite distinct and yet complementary points:

newness and qualitative difference of the gospel ofjesus Christ

to assert the

as the decisive last

and

final revelation

days,” 13 but also to affirm

its

of God, which had taken place “in these

continuity with the noblest intuitions and

deepest aspirations, pagan as well as Jewish, that had preceded

it:

conse-

quently, not only with the prophecy of Isaiah that “a virgin shall conceive

and bear such

Son,” 14 but with the prophecy of Vergil (which

a

of them,

Augustine, claimed to have been borrowed from Isaiah) that

as St

“now

many

the Virgin descends” to give birth to a Child

bringer of peace to the world. 15 Being, as Eric

who would

be the

Osborn has shown, the

founder of Christian philosophy, 16 Clement, in a well-known parallelism 17 based on St Paul’s discussion of the proper function of the law of Moses,

10

Two

older studies are

iiber Familie

und Eigentum,”

“Welcher Reiche wird 11

See

Md.: The 12

still

selig

quite useful: Franz Xaver Funk,

Theologische Quartalschrift 53 (i87i):427-49;

werden?”

this

is,

in Johannes

Quasten, Patrology (4

and

L. Paul,

44 (i90i):504~44-

vols.;

Westminster,

Press, 1951-86), 2:15-16.

Clement of Alexandria, Who

Because

Zeitschriftfur wissenschaftliche Tbeologie

comments and bibliography

Newman

“Clemens von Alexandrien

therefore, in

in citing the treatise,

Is the

one sense

adopted-but

Rich

Man

a one-source

that Shall

Be Saved? (ANF 2:591-604).

paper despite

other references,

I

have,

also adapted-this translation, giving the paragraph

num-

its

ber in brackets, so that the passages can be located in any of the other editions. 13

14

Heb

1.2.

Isa 7.14.

15

Vergil, Eclogues IV.4-63.

16

Eric Francis

Osborn, The Philosophy of Clement of Alexandria (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1957). 17

Gal 3.23-26.

Stewardship ofMoney in the Early Church

carried this

program so

l

far as to suggest that

“before the advent of the Lord,

philosophy was necessary to the Greeks,” because [paidagogos]

Hebrews,

toward

“was a ‘schoolmaster

18

he came from his broad

and Hellenistic Greek

sical

it

to bring ‘the Hellenic mind,’ as the law [brought] the

’

‘to Christ.’”

When

7

money and

(if

not always profound) reading of clas-

literature to discuss the Christian attitude

property and what was meant by denying the world for

Clement was quite aware of the many

Christ, therefore,

striking parallels to

be found between Christian and pre-Christian asceticism, Jewish and even

pagan— parallels

that were close

enough

to induce the church historian

Eusebius, a century or so after Clement, to identify as Christian the apostolic era a Jewish

community of ascetics who went

and “renounced

their property,” as they

Alexandria in his

treatise

On the

many

into the desert

had been described by Philo of

Contemplative Life } 9

“Nor was the renunci-

ation of money and property and the bestowal of it

new

monks of

on

the poor or needy

did so before the Savior’s advent,

some because of

the leisure [thereby obtained] for learning and others for

empty fame and

a

thing, for

vainglory, as the Anaxagorases, the Democriti,

Clement

freely

When

acknowledged.

and the Crateses

within

total

its

easier for a

rich

man

to be saved,

If there

wont of some

way mathematikosf [

was to be

a

lest

mature case for

and

[4], it

had

to be interpreted

cally

not

command

a Christian

of stewardship), therefore,

needed Christ and His gospel as

new,

former days?”

new and

as divine, as

What was

special,

of Christ was quite

20

it

there about the

his

clear

Cor

5.17;

Gal

6.15.

[18].

view of money and for the

would probably serve

as a cap-

could not be based simplisti-

to learn

property: the world had

about

that.

“Why

commandment of Christ

to the

“new

then

creation” 20

that

was

[12] ?

own question about the uniqueness and newness

and unequivocal, more

Clement of Alexandria, Stromata I.5 (ANF 2:305). Eusebius, Church History Il.xvii (NPNP-II 1:117-19). Cf. 2

in

alone life-giving, what did not save those of

and even peculiar

Clement’s answer to

19

had to be “apprehended

on the absolute renunciation of money and

really

18

it

be distorted or misunderstood

responsible Christian use of property (which sule definition

it

it

context in the text of the Gospels rather than narrowly or

myopically, as was the a scholarly

and study:

,”

was

Christ said that

camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a this saying required careful attention

[n]

so,

it

must be admitted,

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

i8

than those of several other Christian theologians and apologists during these centuries, at any rate as they are

known

to us

through their writings.

For him, what was “new, divine, and alone life-giving” about the Christian stewardship of

work of Jesus

money and

Christ,

in the person

grounding

and

which meant not merely an obedience to the teach-

(although both of those were, of course, an indispensable

ple in treating

it

element in

but above

it),

all

the acceptance of the gift of grace

and of new

through His death and resurrection. For to a superficial observer-like

who

Origen’s opponent, Celsus, as

its

of the four Gospels about money and an imitation of Christ’s exam-

ings

life

property was

“Whoever

is

word, whoever persons to

a sinner,

whoever

a wretch, the

is

whom

paraphrased the invitation of the gospel is

unwise, whoever

a child, and, in a

God will receive him!” 21 — the gave its money or property might

kingdom

Christian stewardship

is

of

appear to be “ragged, or ugly, or feeble.” But that was a shallow judgment that ignored the deeper reality, for “within dwells the hidden Father,

and

summons

that

His Son

[pais\,

who

died for us and rose with us

manifested Clement’s training in sis

on pathos

as the

own profoundly

He

With

gave His life-the equivalent for

the same in return, for one another.

and have made such

a

the

its

empha-

as well as his

are beggarly, alien to us,

coming of Christ

in

His

shutting

and transitory

life,

And

all.

if we

From

us

owe our

He

lives

mutual compact with the Sav-

why should we go on hoarding and

which

rhetoric, with

22 emotional “frame of mind” of the hearer,

to the brethren, ior,

In a

Christocentric piety, he appealed:

For each of us

demands

Greek

classical

[33].”

[37]

up worldly goods,

?

death, and resurrection, this “divine

transaction [32]” and unprecedented exchange had turned the whole

human

system of

outlawing

it

money and

or banishing

it

property completely upside down, not by

(which would, in a sense, have been too easy

and, besides, would not have worked, as the earlier forms of asceticism had already demonstrated

of the moral and

Money and tral.

[12]),

spiritual

but by a radical and fundamental revaluation

currency

itself.

property, therefore, were in

They were “instruments which

21

As quoted by Origen, Against

22

Aristotle, Rhetoric

I.ii.3

1356a.

Celsus

are of

III. 59

and of themselves morally neu-

good use

to those

(Henry Chadwick,

tr.).

who know the

Stewardship ofMoney in the Early Church

instrument

[14].”

The analogy that Clement

physical beauty and

body

l

anyone

good

looks: “It

is

on

cited in the present treatise

9

was

not on account of handsomeness of

An even more appropriate analogy, as is evident from his other writings, was human reason and intelligence. 23 The New Testament, and above all St Paul, 24 had that

warned against it

its

shall live or,

the other hand, perish

[18].”

pride and pretension as vigorously and as frequently as

warned against the delusions of wealth; and

used in Clement’s day (and,

alas,

not only in

Christian anti-intellectualism. But

this biblical

warrant had been

his day!) as a justification for

Clement recognized

that these warnings

did not invalidate the use of reason and intelligence, and even of logic, and

who hunt

he urged that “those

must approach in the

it

with the utmost perfection of the logical faculty.” 25 For

mystery of the divine dispensation or oikonomia (the etymological

words “economy” and “economics”), the

origin of the English

and

ulty

connection of the divine teaching

after the

demonic or

divine: “If you use

in

affected

skill, it is

instrument

by your

money

is

money could become

appearance and even

a pleasing

it

lack

skillfully,

logical fac-

it is

either

skillful; if you are deficient

of skill, being itselfdevoid ofblame. Such an

[14].”

Nor was Clement, presuppositions about

in articulating these philosophical

money and

and theological

become

property, too squeamish to

quite specific about their concrete implications for Christian stewardship in the real world. cific set

that

He

spelled out those implications in a lengthy

of definitions of the mysterious

title

from the

opened the Sermon on the Mount, “Blessed

theirs

he

is

the

who

first

are the

kingdom of heaven.” 26 The genuinely “poor

holds possessions, and gold, and

of God; and ministers from them to the salvation of men;

silver,

poor

his

own; and

is

in spirit, for

in spirit”

gives

was

as the gifts

them

and knows that he possesses them more

of the brethren than

spe-

of the Beatitudes

and houses,

God who

and

for the

for the sake

superior to the possession of them,

not the slave of the things he possesses; and does not carry them about in his soul,

nor bind and circumscribe

laboring at

some good and

23

H. Richard Niebuhr,

issue into a 24 25 26

new

light

by

Christ

setting

his life within

divine work, even

and

Culture

Clement

Cor 1.17-2.16. Clement of Alexandria, Stromata

(New

if he

5.3.

should

York: Harper,

1951),

at

is

ever

some time

has put this entire

into the context of a comprehensive taxonomy.

i

Mt

them, but

I.28

(ANF

2:340-41).

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

20

or another be compelled to lose them, and to bear their

is

able with a cheerful

removal equally with their abundance

mind

[16].

In this remarkable passage, which could probably without a great deal of difficulty

be transported into any era of Christian history (and, for that

matter, into

and

any Christian confession), Clement

tightly interrelated principles

set forth five

component

of the Christian stewardship of money

and property.

The Operative Principles of Christian Stewardship Money was a gift of God, and therefore not intrinsically Implicit in this

first

assertion, however,

was

a rejection

evil.

of the most wide-

spread heresy in the ante-Nicene Church, a dualism (shared by Marcion

and many of the Gnostics) between Creation and Redemption

would

that

have separated the realm of divine grace from the material world of stuff,

of sexual intercourse, and of reptiles and

insects.

27

Behind

this

dualism was

an even more profound metaphysical separation between the Creator and

God who had made the visible world and Christ. When so many of the early creeds began with affirmation, “I believe in God the Father Almighty,

the Redeemer, between the lesser

the Father of Jesus

some form of

the

Maker of heaven and West, they were,

earth,” to

at least

quote the so-called Apostles’ Creed of the

by implication, declaring

Orthodox and Catholic Church

it

that “the Creator”

to be the faith

of the

of the physical world

and “the Father” ofJesus Christ were not two separate beings, but one and the

same God. Although Christian Orthodoxy properly and unequivocally

repudiated this dualism, also in the later and it

more

sophisticated form that

took in the Manichaean heresy, what could be styled

often reasserted itself within the “spiritual” that depreciated or

life

a “soft

dualism”

of the Church, in an exaltation of the

even despised the material world, above

all

the world of sexuality but also the world of things— and the world of money.

Therefore

it

has been necessary over and over for the

interpretation of the stewardship tion that “possessions,

of money to reaffirm Clement’s proposi-

and gold, and

God.” In Clement’s commonsensical anything, what

27

room would be

Tertullian, Against

Marcion

I.xiv.i

Orthodox Christian

left

silver,

and houses

[are]

rhetorical question, “If

among men

(ANF 3:281).

the

gifts

of

no one had

for giving [13]?” Or, as he

— Stewardship ofMoney in the Early Church

21

phrased the same concern more profoundly on the basis of the doctrine of

God

“Why

the Creator,

all if it is

ever sprung from the earth at

the author and patron of death [26]?”

Like all other gifts, money service

In “the divine all

money have

should

of “the

and property were here to

be used infreedomfor the

God who gives them for the salvation of men. ”

and mystic wisdom

[5]”

of this salvation, the

God who made

who needed none of them nevertheless required them of His though only by their own free and unconstrained choice. “For

things but

servants,

God compels

not (for compulsion

choice depends

To

[10].”

those

on

the

man

a degree that

who held

as

being

some of

to a doctrine

theologically embarrassing,

is

repugnant to God)”;

free,

his editors

and

Lord

interpreters, particularly

human will,

have found that “to

the part of one exercising compulsion, but to save the

willing that of one

showing grace,” so that

willing souls” to save

them by His

grace

in this sense [21].

foredoomed” or “condemning [money] the high art of the Christian life,”

life

“God

conspires with

Against both of the extreme

toward money-“neglecting salvation,

obtain

as the

Clement of Alexandria emphasized

is

money and

on God

gift

of the bondage of the

save the unwilling

attitudes

but the

rather, “the

as if they

as a traitor

had already been

and an enemy

was to “learn in what way and

which consisted

in “rendering

only

to life”

how

to use

this small trib-

ute of gratitude for the greatest benefits, and being unable to imagine any-

thing else whatever by [27].”

way of recompense

to

Gerard Manley Hopkins was to formulate

poem “Morning, Midday, and Evening

God, who needs nothing this

same imperative

in his

of 1879:

Sacrifice”

This pride of prime’s enjoyment

Take

as for tool,

And

hold

not toy meant

at Christ’s

employment. 28

That was the paradoxical divine-human transaction divine

Donor solicited voluntary gifts from

though He were given to

them

in

[32], in

which the

the recipients of His bounty as

need of the very things that

He had

created

and had

in the first place.

u Poems of Gerard Manley Hopkins (3rd

ed.;

London: Oxford University

Press, 1948), 88.

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

22

The ground of the paradox of Christian stewardship was that the

and who

incarnate in Jesus Christ,

demanded this

served,

As

Christ’s classification

inquirer

critical

made

required that

“morefor the sake of the brethren. ”

service

29

followed as

I

you did

say to you, as

you did

to

[whom]

ardship as those “within

and rose with us

for us

Man

one of the

to me,” 30 the identification

it

who died

it

in response to a

was three chapters

it

Matthew’s Gospel by the word of the Son of “Truly,

He alone be worshiped and

of the “greatest commandments”

clear,

God who became

at the Last

least

later in

Judgment,

my brethren,

of these

of the beneficiaries of Christian stew-

dwells the hidden Father,

and His Son,

implied a direct correlation between

[33],”

“loving Christ” and “loving and caring for those

who have believed

Him

in

[30].”

Quite simply and evangelically put, “we owe our

lives to the

brethren

[37].”

In his effort to resolve the challenge of Christ’s lesson about

how dif-

ficult

it

was for

man

a rich

to enter the

many of the themes of Christian

anticipated

ated, for example, with the preaching

and powerful,

as

Good

stewardship that are associ-

of St John Chrysostom to the

rich

31 With Blake Leyerle has recently systematized these.

Christian believers throughout history, the

kingdom, Clement of Alexandria

Samaritan

as a

Clement took

supreme paradigm

Christ’s parable

for selfless generosity.

32

of In

keeping with the Christocentric emphasis of his message that “for each of us

He

gave His

life [37],”

Clement grounded the moral imperative of

parable in an interpretation that saw Christ Himself as the ultimate

Samaritan,

who found

and

in His

compassion bound up

and

oil [29].

a

wounded humanity its

lying

by the

wounds and healed

side it

ers,

requirements of Christian stewardship in the here and

by pointing out something

Good

that

with His wine

the side of the road, the Samaritan already

wine and 29 3()

3

Mt Mt

in

oil,

but also the

man

it

had been

half-dead

by

“came provided with such things

“money

for the innkeeper, part given

now and

22.37-40. 25.40.

(1994): 29-47.

Lk

hear-

danger required,” which included not only the medicinal

'Blake Leyerle, “Chrysostom

32

now of his

Samaritan, or that at any rate became obvious once

man

practi-

was obvious about the narrative of the

pointed out by Clement: that before he ever found the

as the

Good

of the road

But Clement could also apply the paradigm to the exceedingly cal

this

10.30-37.

on Alms-Giving,” Harvard

Theological Review 87

Stewardship ofMoney in the Early Church

part promised [28].”

23

To the Good Samaritan, but

by extension

also

to every

Christian steward, therefore, the searching question applied: “If no one had

room would be left among men for giving [13]?” This was what made it possible for the Good Samaritan or any other

anything, what insight

Christian steward to practice stewardship without excessive anxiety or constant calculation

about whether

its

recipients were truly

worthy of

it

(as

though anyone had ever been worthy of the compassion of Christ!): “In the uncertainty of ignorance

it is

the sake of the deserving, than to

fail

triad

meet

to

For both this life

faith

good

[33].”

in the

without ceasing and,

life

that are less

That was why,

good

in the Pauline greatest.” 33

attain their goals, while love, in

would only go on growing

everlasting,

as especially St

without ever reaching

to the undeserving for

was love that was said to be “the

it

and hope would eventually

and then

do good

by guarding against those

[the needs of] the

of “faith, hope, love,”

better to

[38],

Gregory of Nyssa was to emphasize,

satiety.

The Christian steward possessed— and gave—money and property in such a manner as to be “superior to the possession ofthem. ”

Such generosity— which could even, “disinterested benevolence”— was

of anachronism, be styled

at the risk

made

possible

by the

Christian’s divinely

sovereign attitude toward wealth. Such an attitude was based

on

a strict

hierarchy of values, in which the supreme position was occupied not by

property or cash, but by those “riches which deify and which minister everlasting life [19].” This characteristically

Christian definition of salvation as takers

of the divine nature,” 34

tonism and nerve;

as a mystical

and undeniably

shows how eminently from” that was also

it

is

(though not exclusively) Eastern

thedsis , deification

by being made

often dismissed as a remnant of Neopla-

and otherworldly quietism that

severs the

practical

it

could be, for

a “liberation for,”

it

represented a “liberation

which was able

God

“and

to put

all

what made someone

34

i

Cor

13.13.

2 Pet 1.4.

unsubdued,

its

in the

“riches

free

in

which

of disease,

wealth,” regardless of external circumstances; that “superi-

ority to the possession of”

33

“free,

money

mankind,”

words of the Liturgy of St John Chrysostom. These authentic

unwounded by

moral

has sometimes been that. But Clement’s use of it

place-and that place was the service of

deify” were

“par-

money and

property meant that “one

is

able in

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

24

the midst of wealth to turn from to seek

God

and to breathe

alone,

The Christian steward was one in such

its

a way as

“to be able

power,” to “practice self-discipline, and

God and

who was

walk with

able to

with a cheerful mind to bear their loss equally

For contrary to the conventional wisdom, be

of the

stances, It

[2 6].”

manage money and property ”

with their abundance.

satisfied or that

God

false species

abundance of money no

it

of the smug and

that

self-

of ascetic, both of these extreme circum-

less

than

loss

of money, could be

a snare.

was the “superiority to the possession of them” that would enable the

Christian steward, whether rich or poor, to “escape the superfluity of riches

and the

difficulty they interpose in the

the eternal

good things

beginning of his tory addresses tery “wealth

possessors,

attained

of

is

it

As Clement pointed out very

itself sufficient to

to turn

them from the path by which

and

is

and instead of God’s

if [this

[17].” It

was

rich

man “who is

But

it

a “spurious wealth” to transform the

was also

“have no part in God, and tasted the righteousness social contrast

to

of

still less

God

a spurious in

[17].”

much

them about

within them

[16].”

transitory

end

to

and “wretched” poverty

to

in the

the painful

all

rich

economic and

and the plight of the poor,

insensitive, they

both of them were “the

in their souls

mean-

For

they possessed [or did not possess but wanted rying

the

property, and not to have

between the comfort of the

alike, in that

is

on

human

which Clement was not by any means

fact very

a spe-

carries his

perpetually

and perishing, and now belongs to one, now to another-and at all [19] !”

no great

Spirit bears in his heart gold or land,

ing and purpose of life into such “outward possession, which

nobody

is

its

to be

is

happens] without

always acquiring possessions without end, and

lookout for more

salvation

his hearers as well that “it

denounced the

object [n].” Therefore he

flat-

puff up and corrupt the souls of

But he went on to remind

riches in his soul,

vividly at the

was shallow and sycophantic to “bestow lauda-

thing or desirable to be destitute of wealth cial

to be able to enjoy

the rich,” because even without any help from such

on

and

[1].”

treatise,

[39].”

way of life, and

slaves

to, as

were therefore in

of the things that

the case

may

and binding and circumscribing

be], car-

their lives

Stewardship ofMoney in the Early Church

*5

Some Implications for the History and the Practice of Orthodox Stewardship At

just

about the time that Clement wrote

and economic

situation

be more than

a

Church

its

this little masterpiece, the social

of the Church was beginning to change.

It

would

century before Constantine and his successors gave the

legal rights as a “religion that

then increasingly preferential treatment

is

permissible

and

Roman Roman emperor Commodus

as the state religion

empire. But already during the reign of the (180-92), according to the report

[religio licita]?

of the

of Eusebius,

our condition became more favorable, and through the grace of God the churches throughout the entire world enjoyed peace, and the

word

man to the So that now at Rome many

of salvation was leading every soul from every race of devout worship of the

God of the

universe.

who

were highly distinguished for wealth and family turned with

their

household and

Although

this

unto

relatives

all

their salvation. 35

amelioration of conditions was only temporary, having been

followed by persecutions under Emperors Decius and then Diocletian, it

does seem that the development, with Clement of Alexandria, of a

distinctively Christian understanding

came none too soon,

of

money and of

its

stewardship

to be able to minister to the needs also

of this new

Christian constituency.

But

in the

long run,

as later chapters in this

book will document at some

length, the conversion of Constantine brought to the Christian East not

only the end of persecution, cutors

and other martyrs

at least for a brief respite

arose, but also

before other perse-

some highly ambiguous conse-

quences, not least in the area of the stewardship of money. Orthodox Christianity

had welcomed the

relief

brought by toleration, but also the

privileged status within political society that followed— at least until a

change of

official

policy that turned against

strated yet again the fickleness

Orthodox teaching demon-

of rulers and the abiding timeliness of the

warning from the Psalms in the Liturgy, “Put not your There

is

good reason

trust in princes.”

36

to argue that only with the Iconoclastic Controversies

35

Eusebius, Church History V.xx i.i (NPNF-II

36

George Huntston Williams, “Christology and Church-State Relations

Century,” Church History 20-III

(1951): 3-33;

1:239).

20-IV: 3-26.

in the

Fourth

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

26

of the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries did Byzantine Orthodoxy fully confront the dimensions of the problem, and of the need to protect its administrative

Orthodox

autonomy even and

ruler.

it

collected

as the

by the

Church was dependent

State, that administrative

the freedom to teach and pray,

would always be

Ironically, therefore, the success

alism in undoing the alliance of

in

Church and

by politicians, but by setting it free

for

its

livelihood

autonomy, and with

some

sort

of jeopardy.

of modern anticlericalism and rationState

pected blessing for the Church, not only by setting

its

for a recovery of

proved to be an unexit

free

from meddling

dynamic elements from

Tradition that had often been neglected because they did not seem to

be needed.

It is

surely not a coincidence that the

development of Christian

stewardship as not only a strategic but a sacramental force in the the churches took place in a context where the

on

by an

Central to this need was not only political authority but

economic power. As long

on revenues

especially against interference

a steady

carry out

its

Church could no longer rely

ministry. In this “post-Constantinian” universe, therefore, the

of the “pre-Constantiman” context of the second and

third centuries have

drawn

in that setting, the

Quis dives salvetur Latin ,

a

new

modest

title

and

interest

and acquired

little treatise all,

with

its

a

new

relevance.

by Clement of Alexandria,

vigorous emphasis on steward-

ship as a matter of free choice rather than of constraint, can, please find

its

of all

stream of income from “church taxes” or even from “dues” to

distinctive features

And

life

voice again.

God,

STEWARDSHIP AND THE TITHE IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Michael Prokurat* of the Lord

“All shall give as they are able, according to the blessing

your

God

that

He

has given you.” (Deut 16.17)

“Do not grow weary when you

pray,

do not neglect

to give alms.”

(Sir 7.10)

“With every gift show

and dedicate your

a cheerful face,

tithe

with glad-

ness.” (Sir 35.11)

“Prayer with fasting

is

good, but better than both

is

almsgiving with

righteousness.” (Tob 12.8)

“Thus

also in spiritual things,

and ordering

own

life

serves

God and

and another

well,

labors in believing

in undertaking the care

and another in the patronage of the needy. Even

strangers, tle’s

his

one

own

tithe,

Stephen’s

company

served

God

for the

of

Apos-

in being guardians

of

the widows, others in teaching the word, wherein Paul was also, serving in the preaching it

was to

Romans

of the Gospel.

this that

And

he was appointed.”

this

(St

was

his

mode of service:

For

John Chrysostom, Homily on

1.9)

*The Very Rev Michael Prokurat was Sacred Scripture

at

the University of St

a pastor

and

Thomas, and

Dictionary ofthe Orthodox Church. Fr Michael

fell

priest for thirty-three years, professor of

editor

and primary author of The

asleep in the Lord

on July

23,

Historical

2003.

27

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

28

tewardship

a prevalent place as a multifaceted

theme

throughout the Old Testament. Whether we focus our attention

S in

commands

on

the divine prerogatives of stewardship, the care

over creation given to

men and women, human

and dominion responsibilities

handling their time-treasure-talents, or the transformation of humanity

and creation through

this ministry, the topic

remains extremely broad. For

example, in surveying only one small part of the Bible, the book of Genesis,

one could variously describe stewardship

before and after the

Fall,

the tithe accepted

(Jerusalem), or the sacrifice of Isaac

we

as the toil of

Adam

by Melchizedek

and Eve at

Salem

by Abraham. In view of this breadth,

our inquiry to focus on Old Testament attitudes toward stew-

shall limit

ardship as sacrificial giving, especially tithing.

Presuppositions Devotional and philanthropic practices appear widespread in Biblical cultures ranging over a

millennium, from the time of David until the time of

may be found in the Old Testament but are not always easily recognizable. Some references are explicit and easy to understand, but many of the most important ones are

Jesus. Stewardship, sacrificial giving,

hidden within the unexpressed

and

tithing

cultural attitudes

all

and

beliefs or are presup-

positions to the ancient Near Eastern world. Beliefs

attitudes ancient people held but did not always articulate

and

or explain constitute presuppositions of the biblical world.

seem strange

to us, or they

might appear to us

as the

“supposed to be” but are not. They might even be current

They might

way

things are

beliefs

and

atti-

tudes of people of faith, but in any case, they are not the same as the beliefs

and

attitudes

special

The that

of secular America today. For these reasons they deserve

comment. first

God

important presupposition held throughout biblical times

possesses everything, or in contemporary terms,

land, people, animals, environment,

everything because so, a related

He

created

it.

It all

and so

“owns

forth. In brief,

belongs to Him.

And

all

is

of it”:

God owns since that

is

presupposition follows: His people believe that they receive

everything from His hand as a gift-to care for during earthly

life

and then

to be returned.

What a strange concept for Americans who are intent on being owners of as many consumer goods as possible! Most Americans would be quick

Stewardship

and the

to point out that they It

own

belongs to them by legal

prove

it.

When

they die,

it

own

their right,

will

world in relation to

will

car, furniture,

show you

the

and so on.

documents

to

be passed on to their children or someone

God

(or gods),

both divine and community

seat to

home,

land,

and they

29

People in biblical times, whatever their religion, saw

else. It is their right!

their

Old Testament

Tithe in the

and personal

“rights”

took a back

interests.

We also observe that during biblical times most land was not inhabited, and no one claimed to own

went out

to farm

Today

the land

God.

all

1

it .

by hand what

on

complete, accurate portioning

lines,

it

However, two the deity

little

when

is

map of the world; and then out among modern nations.

distinct attitudes in the ancient

The

first

with

attitude,

own

The man and the woman

life— is a gift

in the

creation until the Fall,

The second

attitude,

world evolved

Garden of Eden

from God,

gift is

dependent on

Garden enjoyed

when

first,

in place

Fall,

gift giver is

Him com-

this relationship

claimed that

of God, and consequently there was i-ii:

that

their attitude changed.

which came with the

theme occurs throughout Genesis

is

to be accepted

our stewardship. The

beings were solely in control of creation and themselves. selves

as regards

proper to Christians and Jews,

for with proper attention, with

God and

not

they proceeded to draw

are reflected in the

obviously God, and the beneficence of the pletely.

it is

cartographers and national leaders compiled a

creation-including even our

and cared

owned by someone, and

very recent, approximate to the time in the

and ownership, and these

story in Genesis.

and towns and

cities

land they developed and cultivated.

earth appears to be

Historically this attitude

nineteenth century

People lived in small

human

They put them-

“hell to pay.” This

beginning with the prototypical

man and woman, Adam and Eve, moving in ever expanding circles through the nuclear family (Cain and Abel), the larger family unit, the community, the

city,

and ending

In each instance

in the representative mega-culture

human

of the day, Babel.

beings put themselves in place of God-exercising

the ultimate sin of pride— and were punished because of it. Nevertheless, in

every case

God was

merciful and provided a

way

for salvation. Thus,

responsible stewardship could be restored with repentance.

These

biblical presuppositions, including the belief that

all

human

beings belong to God, are foreign to people today, in spite of the fact that

'For a discussion of the theological significance of “the land” in the

Walter Brueggemann, The Land (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977).

Old Testament,

see

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

30

we have

specific reminders

when

ple,

a child

ognize that this

of them

born, most parents— even

is

life is

“Where did

I

it is

commonplace

come from?” with

human

God and

belongs to

is

life,

sia,

God’s

right, or to

government into

Many

even one’s own, because that

human

life— whether

practice

put

another way,

it

state.

Giving

through abortion, euthana-

is

tantamount to making the

ancient cultures took this understanding of “divine rights” to

is

referred to in the Bible

son Isaac in Genesis

complex

its

human sacrifice. On occasion the among the People of God, in spite of the of Abraham’s near

22.

2

While the topic of human

to treat here, the basic sensibility that

upheld in Scripture, though in

a

firstborn

all

human

God

“redeemed” through an appropriate, substitutionary

About half of the text of the

first five

we

12-13)

of both humans and animals belong to

sacrifice

sacrifice

form that prohibits

Within the story of the Passover (Exodus

der.

properly

a god.

clear prohibition indicated in the story

is

life

it

but most extreme, conclusion:

logical,

God

Western and Eastern, makes

punishment, or any other means— is tantamount to giving the

capital

state

“From God.”

not the “property” of the individual or

the state the right to take

cultures,

to answer the child’s ques-

the serious response,

Similarly, traditional Judeo-Christian law, illegal to take a

they are not believers-rec-

if

from God. In many of the world’s

a gift

including American culture, tion,

our language and culture. For exam-

in

is

life

much

sacrificial

but that

sacrifice.

too

belongs to

learn that

books of the Bible

of his

mur-

all

humans

the are

3

(the Pentateuch,

or Torah) consists of various laws central to which are the laws of sacrifice.

Although Christians no longer perform these dynamics that motivate them

are instructive to

ardship. In different forms, the sacrifices. life itself:

away the blood and

9.4-6). Since they believed that

life is

all life

itself— was the sacrifice appropriate to

2

This

is

our understanding of stew-

most important of these

The ancient Hebrews viewed blood take

different sacrifices, the

sacrifices are

blood

concretely, as equivalent to

gone (Lev

17.10-16; similarly,

Gen

comes from God, blood-or

God

alone.

Humans

life

were forbidden

the tenth reading prescribed for the vespers and Divine Liturgy of Great and

Holy Saturday, the paschal baptismal

service.

The same

reference occurs in the prayer for the

paschal blessing of meats. 3

The Church’s

first at

liturgical cycle calls for the

reading of this text-and others similar to it—

Great Vespers of the feast of the Meeting of the Lord. By so doing the compilers of

the lectionary imply that even Jesus had to be sacrificially redeemed according to the precepts of the Mosaic Law.

Stewardship

and the

from using blood Life, in this

animal

literally

sacrifices

humanity

possesses

without involving any

(Deut

15.23).

human

to shape their culture

God

already

to exist, but gave

daily lives (and the

both the priesthood and

on

this

understanding. Similarly, Christian

them

to us

it.

Him— and

God. And God, of course,

based on the

He did not really need sacrifice and gifts for our own existence. Today, as then, we enjoy

owned

proper relationship with

litur-

to describe the faith-

God was

Further, everything dedicated or gifted to

He

and

same terminology of “servants”

gical services use the

premise that

sac-

were substituted.

their entire sacrificial system,

the sacrifices themselves,

ful.

God

1

of Christians today). They called themselves “servants”

said

of God and based

the

God

sacrifice to

people living in ancient times allowed the sensibility that

same may be

a

3

any purpose other than

for

way, was offered up to

rifice; rather,

Finally,

Old Testament

Tithe in the

gives

Old Testament provides

the gifts— when

them back

to us.

we

offer

them back

to

A review of the books of

us with specific tenets of sacrificial giving.

The Pentateuch Leviticus

27

Chapters 17 through 26 of the book of Leviticus are Holiness Code, based

as the

upon

the central

ple

God

religious

and property represent “the commandments

Moses finds

for the people

vows of

firstlings,

of Israel on Mount Sinai”

years of service,

grouped with vows, the

and dedication

to

God

is

tithes are

today might

call

social

vows of human

ministry and

and

parallel to

13.11-16),

tithes.

than

vows of

Although

tithes

contemporary forms of

years of service comprise

community

religious institutions

from those of contemporary Western comparable.

Ex

one

assumed and expected.

before the invention of money, equal

Although

Among them

sacrifices (other

as in

service.

produce, by which they measured their livelihood

4

Lord gave to

not vowed, since their portioning off

These ancient practices legitimately giving. 4 For instance,

holy. In a lengthy

vows regarding peo-

(27.34).

vows of animal

which automatically belong to God,

is

that the

houses, vows of inheritance and landholdings, and are

known

theme of holiness. The Peo-

ple of God, Israel, are expected to be holy, even as

appendix to the Holiness Code (chapter 27)

corpus of laws

a

payment

as

Vows of animals and an agricultural society

in-kind.

of the Old Testament

culture, they are similar

what we

Vows of houses and differ in significant

enough

in intent to

ways

be seen

as

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

32

inheritance can be

compared

contemporary bequests.

to

holdings and assessments parallel living

much

we might

as

Tithes of herds and flocks

are, again,

payment of one-tenth of their

give a tithe

of our paycheck. In each case

and produce of fields and orchards labors in-kind,

trusts.

And vows of land-

the tithes are considered “holy to the Lord.”

Numbers 18

The eighteenth chapter of the book of Numbers Israel

is

go to the

to

Aaron and the chapter

falls

who

Levites,

have no

Levites served as priests

is

of a

larger episode

of forty

God and

of murmuring against

from

of their own.

i

through

25,

Hebrew name of

the

describing

the

book of

Sinai.

years, this section

of the story

a refusal to take possession

These complaints, the murmurings, extended to priestly service,

a tithe

and ministers of the sanctuary. The

Numbers), before they arrived on Mount part

how

tribal inheritance

within the division including chapters

the time “in the wilderness” (which

As

explains

whereupon the Lord, through

a

tells

of the land.

of leadership and

issues

budding rod of almond,

chose Aaron and the ancestral house of Levi to serve in the sanctuary and

of meeting,

in the tent

prerogative,

respectively.

on pain of

No

other tribe or

death. In exchange,

had

Israelite

Aaron and the

this

Levites bore

the responsibility for any offenses connected with the priesthood

and the

sanctuary.

Aaronic sacrifices,

priests

and

their families

which (except

for those parts

many

session. In contrast to

made

their living

burned

by offering

entirely)

became

all

the

their pos-

other cultures, the Israelites did not believe

that their sacrifices physically satisfied their deity, but rather that their sacrifices

supported their

priests.

went

to the

The

Levites,

who

did not perform sacrifices,

of what the Levites received, or

lived off tithes, while a tithe tithe,” also

5

Aaronic

a “tithe

priests.

Neither the priests nor the Levites had an allotment of land Israelites,

but only

sacrifices

and

tithes.

Because of

this

and Levites maintained an economic advantage over the

tribes,

even though they were not landowners. This was so

fact that their (one) tribe lived off the best

E.

Bernhard W. Anderson. Annotated note on Lev

Murphy,

eds.,

The

New Revised Standard

New

Version

(New

York:

the

if

rest

of the

only for the

portions and received ten per

2.2-3,

Oxford Annotated Bible with

among

arrangement, the

priests

5

of the

the

i

n Bruce M. Metzger and Roland

Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books:

Oxford University

Press, 1991) 127.

Stewardship

and the

Tithe in the

Old Testament

33

cent of what the other eleven tribes produced. Thus,

among

the Israelites

there was an expectation that the religious leadership performed a valuable service before a

God and

that their reward for this service provided

high standard of living-with more wealth than their fellow

may

contrast this attitude with those churches

expect-or even force-their clergy to

them with

Israelites.

and Christians today

One who

lower standard of living than

live at a

the average parishioner.

Deuteronomy 12.1-31

The book of Deuteronomy Moses.

It is

is

presented as three farewell addresses of

most probably the “book of the

law,”

i.e.,

Temple of Jerusalem during the reign of King Josiah was used to help centralize worship

in

Kgs 22-23), which

(2

b.c.

and 26 have

in chapters 12, 14,

to teach us.

Chapter through

12

28).

6

It

is

found within the second address of Moses (chapters

avoid idolatry,

how

to slaughter

sacred donations. Herein

Many

theme

describes the centralization of worship, a

of and important to the book. Instructions

make

in the

Jerusalem in the reform of 621

However, the descriptions of tithing found

more

found

a scroll,

and is

are repeated here

eat meat,

and most

5

distinctive

about

especially,

how how

to to

a surprise.

educated Christians understand that their weekly donations in

church are an integral part of liturgy -a personal, vowed offering in the context

of the eucharistic meal. This eucharistic offering

entire week’s work, given as part service.

same understanding But you all

among

Very few— even

your

is

found

tithes

Communion

the clergy— are aware of the fact that this

in the

Old Testament! Lord your

His habitation to put His

there, bringing there

representative of our

of the thanksgiving of the

shall seek the place that the

tribes as

is

God

name

will

there.

your burnt offerings and your

and your donations, your votive

gifts,

the firstlings of your herds and flocks.

your

And you

choose out of

You

shall

sacrifices,

go

your

freewill offerings,

and

shall eat there in the

presence of the Lord your God, you and your households together, rejoicing in

all

the undertakings in which the Lord your

God

has

blessed you. (Deut 12.5^7)

6

Reading part of Exodus

Holy Saturday.

12

is

prescribed for the vespers and Divine Liturgy of Great and

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

34

This passage directs the Israelites to go to the appointed place where

God

dwells, to take

all

their sacred donations

emblematic of

their life’s

How

work, and to eat there with other households in the presence of God. strikingly similar this is

also “rejoicing in

is

all

to the Christian eucharistic assembly, wherein there

God

the undertakings in which the Lord your

has

blessed you.”

Deuteronomy 14.1-15.23 In the pericope of Deuteronomy 14.1-15.23

of life of a holy people. Since

is

a description

of the way

due the landowner (Gen

Am 44)-and the Lord owns the land of Israel-Israel

27.30;

who

a tithe

we have

is

Lev

28.22;

the steward

pays the annual tithe to God. 7 Besides a tithe of firstlings of herd and

flock, the

people are responsible for

a tithe

resenting

what we Americans would

call

of the Mediterranean

diet.

of “wheat, wine, and

the “meat

and mashed potatoes”

These three foods occur

as a

thematic group

throughout the Old Testament, even from the early poetic

and represent human

27.28),

preserved in

when

wheat, wine, and

liturgical practice

oil are blessed.

Gen

texts (e.g.,

The same symbolism

agricultural bounty.

Orthodox Christian

oil,” rep-

on the eve of the

Having been offered by the

is

feasts,

faithful,

the bounties of the land are distributed back to the people in celebration

of the

feast.

Nevertheless,

Deuteronomy

14 goes

duces a conversion of the tithe into

might be transported more practice

easily.

money

“landowner”

is

tithe

and

this practice

that the

is

intro-

so that

(literally: “silver”)

Thus, the monetary tithe

stemming from the recognition

and receives the steward’s

beyond

a very old

Lord “owns everything”

due the landowner. In

this case, the

the Creator.

Deuteronomy 14.27-29 modifies and expands

the Israelite understand-

ing of the tithe to a central sanctuary (usually identified with Jerusalem)

introducing an important tributed to the

orphans, as Levites 7

new

provision. Every three years the tithe

expect, but also destitute resident aliens

have neither an inheritance of land (that

For Christians, the

“New

Israel,” see

is,

of the Transfiguration (August

to offering the agricultural tithe itself

is

based).

6)

found

and the

dis-

local

an agricultural

the similar prayers for “Offering First Fruits”

the “Sanctification of Fragrant Herbage.” These prayers in the Eastern feasts

is

by

poor and needy. This group includes not only widows and

we would

who

it

and the Dormition (August in the

15),

Church and

Old Testament (on which

the

and

are said at the

are directly related

name

“first fruits”

Stewardship

and the

Tithe in the

from the

inheritance) nor a salary

be described

work

that

that

The

(v. 29).

poor and needy,

God may

The implication

God

Levites here

lost their livelihood. 8

“so that the Lord your

is:

you undertake”

nity neglects the

35

central sanctuary.

who had

country clergy

as

given for this provision the

Old Testament

is

no reason

might

The reason

bless

you

that if the

in all

commu-

to bless the

work of

community. Chapter 2 6 of Deuteronomy records two short

liturgies

for tithing: the initial liturgy offers

has

with the priest

first fruits

at the central

sanctuary; the tithe to the poor and needy in the local community. Each liturgy

ends with a prayer that recognizes that the Lord has given the peo-

ple “a land flowing with milk

and honey” (w.

9, 15),

and they

in turn express

their thanks with the tithe.

As we read through the Pentateuch, the impression we get— indeed, the impression

we

are

meant

the patriarch was the

The

patriarch Jacob

tithe

the

to have about sacred donations-is that

first

to

pay

tithes

soon followed

of everything received (Gen

way

to

Mount

Sinai

(Num

given to the Levites. Next, the that the people

of Israel give

explained extensively in

of the

at the

of war

spoils

(cf.

Abraham

Psalm no).

sanctuary of Bethel, promising a

28.18-22).

Second, in the wilderness on

commanded that tithes be Lord commanded Moses on Mount Sinai 18),

the Lord

and more.

sacrificially, their tithes

Deuteronomy how— by and

to

Last,

Moses

whom— these

gifts

were to be given.

The Prophets Before proceeding to a consideration of sacrificial giving and tithing in the prophets, a contextual note in the

Although the references to

number of references by no means

in the prophetic books.

of the

in order.

tithing

prophets are confined to two, and citations of sacrificial giving are

limited, the few

issues

is

indicates a blind spot

The preoccupation of the prophetic books with

of social and economic social justice issues

justice

makes

this clear

and emphatic.

have to do with the distribution of food and

wealth, especially notable in reference to the welfare of

widows and

orphans. The Major Prophets— Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel— and the twelve

Many

Minor Prophets brought such concerns forward

in the

many of book of

Deuteronomy. Further, these references

do not designate individual

which we Americans usually think, but communal 8

charity.

For

Gerhard von Rad, Deuteronomy. Old Testament Library Dorothy Barton, ,

Pa.:

charity,

Westminster

Press, 1966), 103.

tr.

terms in

this

reason

(Philadelphia,

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

36

the prophetic admonitions to social justice toward the

and others marginalized

in society

simply on an individual

basis.

that

do not coincide with

The

sin against the

serious because of its

communal

sacrificial

giving

widows and orphans-

and impoverishment-was

their systematic exploitation

is,

widows and orphans

all

the

more

or corporate character.

Amos 4 In the fourth chapter of the pre-exilic prophet as a unit, sacrificial giving istic

of vain

piety.

Amos

and

tithing are

Amos, which might be

mentioned

said that such piety

but

as character-

was practiced in vain because

on

the Israelites (in this instance focusing attention

women)

(4.4),

read

the behavior of the

oppress the poor and needy and engage in luxurious excesses. 9

Amos described this sacrificial piety ironically as sin, in spite of its frequency and

brought

intensity: the oppressive rich

three days.

Thank

and

offerings

sacrifices daily

Lord. However,

when

the sanctuaries of Bethel and Gilgal,

The reason was the

tithes every

were in abundance and

freewill offerings

announced publicly (4.4-5), and the people delighted sacrificial gifts to the

and

in presenting all these

these offerings were presented in

Amos

labeled

them

“transgressions.”

these otherwise salvific actions were considered transgressions

sinful

community context

in

which they were given, given even

as

the needy and poor were crushed. Moreover, while the needy were being

oppressed, those enjoying luxuries were characterized callously as ordering

around

their spouses, “Bring

As sacred effects

something to drink!”

as the sacrificial gifts

and

tithes

(Am

4.1).

were thought to be, their

could not overcome the social injustice that destroyed

poor people. tithes,

me

Amos

would be

led

real

people,

prophesied that these transgressors, in spite of their

away into

and destroyed Samaria and

captivity as slaves.

Israel

some

Assyria invaded

years later in 721 b.c., so they were.

Later prophets, including Jesus, understood that

pious excess and hatred for the poor

When

may

Amos’ prophecy

against

judge every generation.

Malachi 3.6-12 “Will anyone rob

we robbing you?’ curse, for 9

you

are

God? In

Yet

your

you

are

tithes

robbing me! But you

and

offerings!

You

say,

‘How

are

are cursed with a

robbing me-the whole nation of you!” (Mai 3.8-9)

For example, the couches of the Samaritan householders were so expensively orna-

mented

that they were inlaid with carved ivory.

1

Stewardship

and the

Old Testament

Tithe in the

37

References to tithing in Malachi3.8, io are part of the question-and-answer “instruction,”

known

The whole work, dating from a

genre torah characteristic of the book.

as the literary

the

,

first

half of the fifth century b.c.,

is

titled

prophetic “oracle” and might have some continuity with the oracles

the end of the

book of Zechariah.

10

Certainly the content of Malachi,

ing to proper support of the Lord’s house,

of the prophet Haggai, the

is

at

relat-

reminiscent of several oracles

century b.c. contemporary of

late sixth

Zechariah. Both encourage people to return to the Lord and to evidence their return

by the appropriate

The language Malachi used tithes to robbery,

no

less

ing tithes— the

same

18— resulted in

a curse.

failure. Likewise, lier

gifts-gifts given to the Lord’s house. is

very strong, comparing the withholding of

than the robbery of God. Subsequently, withhold-

tithes

The

ordered in the laws of Leviticus 27 and

Numbers

curse was connected with various aspects of crop

Haggai had drawn attention to the farming

crisis

of an

ear-

generation resulting from their neglect of the Lord’s Temple in Jerusalem

(Hag

1.5-11).

Both Haggai and Malachi prophesied

in a curse, the cessation

of God’s blessing

that cheating

God

results

in agricultural collapse.

The Writings Nehemiah 13 1-3 .

In the middle of the fifth century b.c.

upon

Persia and, following

Nehemiah

which lier

it

had

lost in the

(387 b.c.).

faithful

(Neh

To

from

the religious reforms of Ezra a generation

before, proceeded to rebuild the walls

allowed Jerusalem to reclaim

traveled to Jerusalem

its

of the

city.

This building program

position as a religious and political capital,

Babylonian destruction a century and

a quarter ear-

this effect, the officials, the Levites, the priests,

of Jerusalem entered into

a

and

all

covenant to uphold the Law of

9.38-10.39; similarly, 12.44-47). Since there

was no longer

a

God

monar-

chy to support the Temple or to enforce the Mosaic laws sustaining the to the leaders

and people

fortunate,

it fell

sacrifices,

and philanthropy according

seem

laws

to have

to

pay

for the

Temple

the

less

services,

11 These to the prescribed norms.

been constantly violated during the ministries of the

prophets Haggai and Malachi. Prominent in the renewed covenant was a 10

Joseph Blenkinsopp,

A History of Prophecy in Israel (Louisville,

Ky.:

The Westminster

Press, 1996), 209. 1

’This situation

the czar

is

reminiscent of the Russian Church after the Russian Revolution,

no longer supported the churches. The people had

selves for maintaining the institution.

to accept the responsibility

when them-

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

3«

voluntary temple Levites,

and the

tax, offerings

Nehemiah made of the Persian

fruits

tithes for the

b.c.).

of the

During

second

this

that the people tithes

firstborn, the tithes for the

Temple.

second administrative

a

upon covenant

in the collection

trip to Jerusalem at the

decade

a

visit

after his first visit

had disobeyed— violated especially oil for

which recently had been neglected. In addition

the Levites, singers,

New faithful treasur-

for the priests.

were appointed for the distribution of the

may

and the people from foreign

temple

tithe to the

staff,

to the tithe, special atten-

tion was paid to reaffirming the observance of the Sabbath

the priesthood

behest

he reaffirmed the previous,

of wheat, wine, and

and gatekeepers, and the contributions ers

and

emperor Artaxerxes about

(between 433-423 agreed

of the

tithe

of first

and cleansing

Today we

cultic influences.

be reminded of the diaspora churches spread throughout the world,

tempted by influences “foreign” occasional administration that

2

is

to Christianity less

and struggling with the

than honest.

Chronicles 31.1-21

Just as three chapters in 2 Kings describe Hezekiah (713-687 b c .) as a

good

.

king, four chapters in 2 Chronicles continue this tradition

him with

the later reformer King Josiah (640-609 b c .). .

writing about

400

Hezekiah exercised After breaking lished the service

and compare

The Chronicler,

b c ., used chapter 31 to describe the stewardship .

in his religious reform.

down

of the

the shrines to foreign gods in Judah, he re-estab-

priests

and Levites with contributions from

his

own

possessions. Further,

he

commanded

due to the

the people

priests

and

the law of the Lord.

As soon

also

word

Israel

in the tithes

may

devote themselves to

spread, the people of Israel

of grain, wine,

and they brought

The people of

brought

as the

first fruits

the produce of the field;

Judah

lived in Jerusalem to give the portion

Levites, so that they

gave in abundance the

everything.

who

in

oil,

honey, and of all

abundantly the

and Judah who

tithe

of

lived in the cities

of

of cattle and sheep, and the

tithe

of the

dedicated things that had been consecrated to the Lord their God, and laid

them

in heaps. (2

Chr 31.4-6)

As the story unfolds, the stewardship reform was so successful that Hezekiah systematized it, building storage chambers in the Temple where

and the

Stewardship

Tithe in the

Old Testament

39

and dedicated contributions were gathered

the tithes

Teams of Levitical overseers were appointed ately:

for distribution.

to allot the gifts proportion-

temple offerings for the sustenance of the

priests

and

Levites serving

from throughout the land.

The Chronicler’s evaluation of Hezekiah’s be summarized in

Hezekiah did

and

his

this

own

may

words:

throughout

faithful before the

successful stewardship

Lord

all

his

Judah; he did what was good and right

God. And every work

that he under-

took in the service of the house of God, and in accordance with the law

and the commandments, he prospered.

(2

to seek his

God, he did with

all

his heart;

and

Chr 31.20-21) Sirach 3.30-4. 10; 29. 8-13; 35. 1-26

Two

centuries before Jesus of Nazareth, another Jesus, the son of Sirach,

wrote a Hebrew book of wisdom 12 similar to Proverbs. His grandson translated his flowing

wisdom poetry into Greek after 132 b.c. (from

and we know

to Sirach),

of Sirach (ben devoted to

this

book

variously as the

Sira) ” or “Ecclesiasticus.”

sacrificial giving,

the Prologue

“Wisdom of Jesus, Son

Three sections of the book are

with an overall orientation toward almsgiving

for the poor.

The poor.

first

The

two sections on almsgiving actually address the needs of the

ethical

theme of “righteousness” found throughout

Scripture

is

identified with almsgiving in Sirach, “almsgiving atones for sin” (3.30).

What

the classical prophets saw as the cause of the

widow and

the orphan,

“Do not add to the needy” (4.3). He articulates

Sirach also puts forward, giving explicit instructions:

troubles of the desperate; or delay giving to the a

theology of the poor foreign to contemporary thought: Be gracious to the

poor,

if only

because they have no voice in society. Accordingly,

God Him-

When

they curse

self listens to

them and

is

their

Redeemer

(or Avenger).

God hears them (35.14-2 6; 4.5-6; cf. Deut 15.9-10). The secaffirms that almsgiving to the poor is a commandment of the

their oppressors,

ond

section

Law: “Help the poor for the commandment’s sake, and not send them away empty-handed”

(29.9, as

15.7-11).

The extended meaning of

becomes

a spiritual treasury against evil (29.11-13;

12

“Wisdom”

is

this

chokmah in Hebrew and sophia

duty

in Greek.

in their

need do

an explanation of Deut is

that sacrificial giving

Tob

12.8-10).

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

4o

The

last

keeping the

section under consideration (35.1— 13) expands the image of

Law through

does almsgiving

fulfill

tute for offerings

on

on a

attitudes

almsgiving rather than Temple

sacrifice.

Not only

righteousness, but also constitutes a spiritual substi-

the

altar.

of mechanistic

13

This perspective

sacrifice to the

is

a

profound advancement

gods (or God)

as a bribe,

wherein

“quid pro quo” was expected. Sirach evaluated the attitude and psychol-

ogy of philanthropy your

icate

and the

tithe

as well:

with gladness”

later teachings

movement of the

the

gift

show a

4.1-21; 12.1-22; 14.1-15

composed

as Sirach

his

book

author of Tobit wrote with a similar emphasis on

morality-by means of the story of a

focus

on

entirety

Hebrew, the Jewish

in

common wisdom

spiritual quest.

and

its

Three sections of the

giving and, just as with the message of Sirach,

sacrificial

anticipate Gospel

a

heart within the giver.

same time

book mention

and ded-

book of Deuteronomy

Just as in the

(35.11).

cheerful face,

of Jesus, offerings were required to correspond to

Tobit

About

“With every

maxims on

the

same topic (Mt 6.2-4).

righteousness, morality,

and

Classical Judaism’s

giving was adopted in

sacrificial

its

by Christianity and then developed.

Tobit 4.1-21 emphasizes the importance of proportional giving for everyone, whether rich or poor: gift

from them

the

little

you have many

in proportion; if few,

you have”

insists that this

“If

(v. 8).

teaching

is

do not be

possessions,

make your

afraid to give according to

Similarly chapter 14, Tobit’s deathbed counsel, to be kept throughout

all

generations: “Your chil-

commanded to do what is right and to give alms, and God and to bless His name at all times with sincerity and

dren are also to be to be mindful of

with

all

their strength” (14.9).

Other admonitions to give

in the

book encourage people

to

pay wages

fairly,

food to the hungry, and to clothe the naked, reminding us of later

teachings of Jesus

on

the

same

topics.

But one of the most

striking

admo-

nitions-one accepted in the Pauline writings and by St.John Chrysostomis

to “give

“extra” in

all

your surplus

of our labors

Western culture.

as

alms”

(4.16).

This charitable principle, that the

rightly belongs to the poor, has

It

might be viewed

See also Tobit, chapter 4.

all

as a deleted half-verse

deleted in America’s so-called Protestant

l3

been

work

but forgotten

of Scripture,

ethic. This “ethic”

was

Stewardship

Tithe in the

by the famous

identified lical

and the

sociologist

41

Max Weber and

was said to be

principle-mentioned throughout Scripture and encapsulated

“work hard and prosper.” But the

verse in Ephesians-to “ethic,”

own

Old Testament

were cut short:

hands, so as

to

“ .

.

.

let

verse,

a

Bib-

in

one

and the

them labor and work honestly with

have something

their

with the needy (emphasis mine).”

to share

Conclusion In reiterating points

drawn from Old Testament readings

we come

ardship and the tithe, tians

and Jews

to

some

see creation-including

as regards stew-

striking conclusions. First, Chris-

own

our

life-as a gift

from God, to

be accepted and cared for with proper attention, by stewardship. Second, the People of their deity,

God

but rather that they supported their

the service before

reward for Israelite

did not believe that their sacrifices physically satisfied

God performed by

this service

emblematic of their the presence of

wine, and

their religious leadership,

where

life’s

God

dwells, to take

valued

and

their

their sacred donations

work, and to eat there with other households in

on

oil are blessed.

when

the eve of the feasts,

In both the

is

preserved in

the tithed wheat,

Old and New Covenants the

of the land, and the wheat, wine, and

back to the people in celebration of the

feast. Fifth,

faithful

oil are distributed

the ancient, monetary

stems from the recognition that the Lord “owns everything” and

receives the steward’s tithe

expands the

Israelite

ing an important to the

due the landowner. Deuteronomy modifies and

understanding of the

new

poor and needy. The implication

poor and needy, God has no reason

throughout Scripture atones for sin.”

tithe to

is

and

ethical

is

that if the

to bless the

Prophets, including Jesus, understood that for the

distributed

community

neglects

work of that commu-

identified with almsgiving in Sirach:

Not only does almsgiving

and hatred

is

theme of “righteousness” found

fulfill

constitute a spiritual substitute for offerings

excess

Jerusalem by introduc-

provision: Every three years the tithe

nity. Sixth, the theological

gai

all

God. Fourth, Old Testament symbolism

offer the bounties

may

Israelites

was a good standard of living. Third, the gathered

Eastern liturgical practice

the

The

family (mimicked by the Christian eucharistic assembly) were to go

to the appointed place

tithe

priests.

“

almsgiving

righteousness, but

on

the

altar.

Amos’ prophecy

it

also

Seventh, the against pious

poor judges every generation. Both prophets Hag-

and Malachi prophesied

that cheating

God

results in a curse: the cessa-

tion of God’s blessing in agricultural collapse. But

one of the most

striking

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

4^

admonitions found

Church-was

later in the

to “give

all

Writings— one accepted in the Christian

your surplus

as alms.”

Further Reading The

interested reader

might consult any of

below, but before doing so listed

is

a

number of helpful

encouraged to go back and read the

biblical citations

herein in their entirety. For the purposes of this chapter, the

text served as the

resources listed

Old Testament

primary source.

Anderson, Bernhard W. Understanding the Old

Testament.

4th ed. Englewood

Cliffs,

N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1997. Bulgakov, Sergei. “Orthodoxy and Economic Life,” in The Orthodox Church. Translated

by Lydia Kesich. Crestwood, N.Y.:

Less helpful

is

Bulgakov’s

first

St.

Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1988.

discussion in print of the “Divine Sophia” in the

“Sophie Economy,” chapter 4 of his Philosophy ofEconomy (recently translated into English by Ekaterina Evtukhova), which he identifies with the world soul,

Body of

prototypical humanity, the

Christ,

and the Church— a rather wide-

ranging definition! Farmer, William R., ed. The International Bible Commentary. Collegeville, Minn.: The Liturgical Press, 1998.

Florovsky, Georges. “St.

John Chrysostom: the Prophet of

N.Y.: St Vladimir’s Seminary Qiiarterly 4,

Haran, Menahem. Temples and Temple

Number 3&4

Charity.” Tuckahoe,

(1955):

Service in Ancient Israel.

37-42.

Winona

Lake, Ind.:

Eisenbrauns, 1985.

Harrington, Daniel 1999

J.

Invitation to the Apocrypha.

Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans,

-

Hierarchs of the Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the

Americas.

A

And the Word Became Flesh and Dwelt Among Us, Full of Grace and Truth:

Pastoral Letter on the Occasion of the Tlrird Christian Millennium. Brookline,

Mass.:

Holy Cross Orthodox

Matthews, Victor H., and

BCE. Peabody,

Don

Press,

2000.

C. Benjamin. Social World ofAncient

Israel,

1250-587

Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 1993.

“Orthodox Perspectives on Creation,” Tuckahoe, N.Y.:

St Vladimir’s Theological

Quarterly 33.4 (1989) 331-49.

Stewardship Ministries Resources, Greek Orthodox Archdiocese, http:// ww2.goarch.0rg/goa/ departments/ stewardship/ resources/welcome. html Vaux, Roland de. Ancient

Wilson,

J.

Israel.

2 vols.

New

York: McGraw-Hill, 1961.

Christian. “Tithe,” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. VI. Edited

David Noel Freedman.

New

York: Doubleday, 1992, 578-580.

by

STEWARDSHIP AND THE NEW TESTAMENT John Barnet* A Scriptural Understanding

of Property

or as long as there has been history, there has been private prop-

F that, in

erty; for as

long

as there has

been private property, there have

been wealth and poverty. Natural law theory holds that

Golden Age

history’s

possessions were held in

all

in pre-

common

and

Martin Hengel’s words, “the moral downfall of man began with the

introduction of private property .”

1

Metal working, agriculture, trade, and

various crafts destroyed the paradisal condition by introducing “mine” and “thine.”

On

the other hand, the Christian perspective,

the writings of the

Church

is

Fall

and not

its

attested in

and therefore

Fathers, sees private property,

wealth and poverty, as a consequence of the tinction

amply

cause.

The

dis-

an important one, for perspective dictates the approach with

which one solves the problem of wealth and poverty: philosophy

sees the

solution in the eradication of private property; Christianity, in the restoration of communion with

vate property

is

viewed

God. as

(Interestingly

call for a

are the root

condemned

is

not property

itself

both instances a

return to nature

pri-

condition that

and the

Fathers’

of all dissension.) The Christian

approach— the restoration of communion with to be

in

an unnatural condition,

provokes philosophy’s romantic

admonitions that possessions

enough,

God— suggests

that

what

is

but the misuse of property, which

makes communion with God impossible. *Dr John Barnet

is

Assistant Professor of New Testament

nology and Special Projects

at St Vladimir’s

Orthodox Theological Seminary

'Martin Hengel, Property and Riches in Christianity , translated

by John Bowden

and Assistant

the Early

to the in

Dean

for Tech-

Crestwood, NY.

Church: Aspects of a Social History of Early

(Philadelphia, Pa.: Fortress Press, 1974), 4.

43

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

44 The

indeed probability, of misusing property means

possibility,

a Christian, property represents, again in Hengel’s words,

ous threat and

a

supreme obligation.” 2 In the

first

that, for

both “a danger-

half of this chapter

I

shall

outline the scriptural view of property as threat and obligation. In the sec-

ond

half of the chapter

I

would

New

in the

explore the limitations of the threat-

theme of stewardship, proposing instead

obligation paradigm for the stewardship, or the

like to

management of property, must be rooted above

that

all else

Testament conviction that private property represents the

opportunity for Christian witness.

Property as Threat and Obligation In the

Old Testament one

finds

numerous

in

the

Old Testament

references implying that posses-

sions themselves are not wrong. Indeed, there are frequent allusions to the idea that possessions are actually a blessing

from God,

as in the

examples

of the blessing of Abraham and the blessing of Isaac:

The Lord has has given

him

greatly blessed flocks

servants, camels

and

[Abraham], and he has become

and herds, asses.

silver

(Gen

great;

He

and gold, menservants and maid-

24.35)

The Lord

blessed [Isaac], and the

and more

until

man became

rich,

and gained more

he became very wealthy. (Gen 26.12-13)

Furthermore, the Torah protects legitimate property:

You

shall

not

You

shall

not covet your neighbor’s house; you shall not covet your

steal.

(Ex 20.15)

neighbor’s wife, or his manservant, or his maidservant, or his ox, or his ass,

or anything that

The protection

Law

also

is

your neighbor’s. (Ex 20.17)

of property, however,

commands

them 2

you gather the

for the

only one aspect of the Law; the

the love of neighbor (Lev

poor and the sojourner: “And you neither shall

is

poor and

shall

fallen grapes

19.18),

not

strip

among whom

are the

your vineyard bare,

of your vineyard; you

shall leave

for the sojourner” (Lev 19.10). Characteristic

Hengel, Property and Riches 69. ,

of

.

and the New

Stewardship

Testament

45

Jewish piety of the pre-Christian era were efforts to

between

nate, the sharpest contrasts

not elimi-

alleviate, if

and poor. This was done through

rich

individual works of mercy and institutional welfare. Imitation of the goodness of God,

who

for individual acts

found

provides

good

all

things,

of generosity. The

justification

legal basis for institutional welfare

is

Deuteronomy:

in

At the end of every three years you produce

in the

same

year,

sojourner, the fatherless,

come and the

eat

and be

and

shall bring forth all the tithe

lay

work of your hands

that

the

inheritance with you, and the

and the widow, who

are with

the Lord your

filled; that

of your

up within your towns: and

it

no portion or

Levite, because he has

all

was said to be the

you do. (Deut

your towns,

God may

shall

you

bless

in

14.28-29)

Also found in the Torah are regulations stipulating debt remission and land redistribution, both of which tended to benefit the poor and the

downtrodden:

At the end of every seven years has lent to his neighbor. (Deut

And you

shall

hallow the

.

.

.

every creditor shall release what he

15. 1)

fiftieth

year

.

when each of you

.

shall return

to his property. (Lev 25.10)

Scriptural regulations for debt remission sible, as

land.” 3

and land redistribution were pos-

Hengel notes, because “Yahweh was the

real

owner of the holy

Even the Jews were no more than sojourners on Yahweh’s

property,

hereditary tenants entrusted with a loan for which they were accountable to

God. This

for the Jews

The “dangerous

was the “supreme obligation” of property.

threat”

of property, on the other hand, may well have

represented the greater concern for the Jewish community, for the very heart ofjudaism as expressed in the Shema\ “Hear,

God

our

heart,

is

one Lord; and you

and with

all

your

the worship of another

monotheism— could 3

soul,

shall love the

and with

god— an

idol

all

Lord your

it

struck at

O Israel: The Lord God

your might” (Deut

with

6.4-5).

,

14.

Only

from Judaism’s perspective of universal

destroy the very foundation ofjudaism. Yet

Hengel, Property and Riches

your

all

it

was

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

46

precisely this tendency toward idolatry that constituted the dangerous threat

of property. For as Luke Johnson explains, idolatry can be understood as

the choice of treating as ultimate and absolute that which solute nor ultimate.

pay

We

treat

something

as ultimate

neither ab-

is

by the worship we

meaning here, of course, neither the worship of lips or of incense

it,

but of service. Worship

which

serve

I

by

my

is

service. Functionally,

freedom. Whatever

I

may

my

then

god

is

that

claim as ultimate, the

my god is that which rivets my attention, centers my activity, preoccupies my mind, and motivates my action. That in virtue of which act is god; that for which will give up anything else is my god. 4 truth

that

is

I

I

In other words,

when

the

mind

of whether the possessions

Such

a person

is

closed to

is

preoccupied with possessions, regardless

many or few, then the mind is closed to God. God even if he or she professes faith in God, a

are

contradictory condition that actualizes the terrible words of the prophet Isaiah: “This

with their

people draw near with their

lips,

while their hearts are

commandment of men property

is

mouth and honor me

from me, and

far

learned by rote”

wrongly. 5

when he was his life

called

19.17).

failed to

man (Gen

12.5).

by God

unknown

land (Gen

12. 1),

to an

with his possessions but, in Johnson’s words,

obey (Gen

life

19.26)

TJje

God’s

call to leave

T.

to

Sodom (Gen

God’s

call,

and so

sought to establish by what she owned.” 7

Reappraisal ofProperty in the Presence of the

finds expression in the

Luke

called him.” 6 Lot’s

with the wealth of her husband

The Old Testament understanding of property

4

who

As Johnson concludes, “She could not respond

lost the life that she

example

a wealthy

the other hand, identified her

and

Lot’s wife, the

Abraham was

“allowed his identity to be determined by the one

13.5)

a

of

he did not identify

(Gen

The dangerous

is

well illustrated in the contrasting responses to God’s call

who responded

on

of me

of

Nevertheless,

wife,

their fear

threat

(Is 29.13).

Abraham, the model of appropriate response, and of one

[the Lord]

New Testament

Johnson, Sharing

Possessions:

Fortress Press, 1981), 49.

“Johnson, Sharing Possessions, 60-62. 6

Johnson, Sharing Possessions, 60.

Johnson, Sharing Possessions,

62.

as well,

Kingdom

as threat

although

and obligation

it is

reinterpreted

Mandate and Symbol of Faith (Philadelphia,

Pa.:

Stewardship

in the light

and the New

Testament

of the gospel,

as

47

indeed

is

Law. For, as the Apostle Paul teaches, the Christ came, that tation

we might be

justified

Law was only “our custodian

by

faith” (Gal 3.24).

of the Old Testament understanding of property

what Hengel

calls

Old Testament

the entirety of the

is

a

The

until

reinterpre-

consequence of

the “central significance” 8 of Christianity, namely,

its

emphasis on the imminence of the kingdom of God. In the presence of the

about their daily needs,

do not be anxious, drink?” or

“What

kingdom men and women

as Jesus teaches in the

saying,

shall

“What

we wear?” For

or

the Gentiles seek

and your heavenly Father knows that you need them His kingdom and His righteousness, and as well.

(Mt

not to be anxious

Sermon on

we wear?”

shall

are

the

“What all

all.

sustains

But seek

these things shall be yours

all

stripped of its idolatrous that can

imminence of the kingdom

power

to hold

them

overwhelm the concern

in

God, not

is

that prop-

dependent

relation-

neighbor and make

for

impossible the love of enemy. Certainly Jesus attacked it

it is

“Man shall not live by bread alone, but by from the mouth of God” (Mt 4.4). Therefore, for

Christians, the significance of the

power

first

them:

every word that proceeds

ship, a

we

6.31-33)

mammon, who

is

shall

these things;

Instead, they are called to witness at every opportunity that

erty

Mount:

mammon whenever

captured men’s hearts. But, as Hengel writes,

Jesus was not interested in any

new

theories about the rightness or

wrongness of possessions in themselves, about the origin of property or its

better distribution; rather he adopted the

untrammeled

attitude to property as to the

same scandalously free and

powers of the

state,

the alien

Roman rule and its Jewish confederates. The imminence of the kingdom of God robs all these things of their power defacto for in it “many ,

that are

first will

be

last,

In other words, for those

dom

truly

and the

who

last first.”

have eyes to

makes the things of this world

The claim

see, the

presence of the king-

irrelevant.

imminent kingdom renders all earthly things tensive relationship with the Old Testament view that

that the

irrelevant stands in

9

8

Hengel, Property and Riches,

9

Hengel, Property and Riches, 30.

29.

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

48

On

property represents a blessing from God.

women who

by accepting the support of the

true that

the one hand,

Himself implicitly affirms the view that property called

who

Magdalene, from

seven

wife of Chuza, Herod’s steward,

teaching of Jesus,

who

calls

out,

and Joanna, the

is

who

others,

8.2-3). Nevertheless,

assessment of property as blessing

itive

not wrong: “Mary,

and Susanna, and many

vided for them out of their means” (Lk

certainly

followed Him, Jesus

is

demons had gone

it is

pro-

Judaism’s pos-

completely transformed in the

His disciples “blessed” because they see and

hear what the prophets longed to see (Mt 12.16-17). While the heavenly

reward of those

who

follow Jesus will indeed be great (Mt 19.28-29), in this

they are to expect only the subsistence provisions of those

life

Preach as you go, saying, “The kingdom of heaven

out paying, give without pay. Take no gold, nor

God

belts,

will

is

the dead, cleanse lepers, cast out demons.

sick, raise

staff; for

labor

of the gospel:

for the sake

your

who

no bag

for

your journey, nor two

the laborer deserves his food

(Mt

at

hand.” Heal the

You received with-

silver,

tunics,

nor copper

in

nor sandals, nor

a

10.8-10).

provide for the earthly needs of the disciples, as Jesus promises

who seeks first God’s kingdom and His righteousness (Mt 7.33): those who accept the gospel when they are evangelized by the disciples will everyone

care for

them (Mt

of others

is

10. 11).

itself to

disciples serve

would think

Indeed, the disciples’ dependence on the charity

be understood

only one master (Mt

to find

23.10).

of the gospel,

a sign that the

On the other hand, to those who

some middle ground between God and

the things of

world, Jesus makes clear the impossibility of their endeavor:

this

can serve two masters; for either he

he

as a sign

will

and

will hate the

one and love the

“No one other, or

be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve

mammon”

(Mt

God

6.24).

Perhaps the ultimate expression of Jesus’ uncompromising attitude

toward possessions

would be will

is

found

perfect, go, sell

in

His hard words to the rich man: “If you

what you possess and give

to the poor,

have treasure in heaven; and come, follow me” (Mt

the rich

man

including the

19.21).

and you

Although

has faithfully observed the

commandments of

commandment

neighbor (Mt 19.18-20), he

unable to make the

final act

to love one’s

the Law,

of radical obedience that leads to eternal

is

life.

Stewardship

and the New

Testament

49

When the rich man rejects the invitation ofjesus, he becomes a sign of'how difficult

it is

for a rich

man to enter the kingdom, much

to the astonishment

who apparently hold the view that property is a sign of God’s favor: “Who then can be saved” (Mt 19.25)? And like the rich man, many of us also turn away from this invitation, whether our possessions are many or few, before we understand the meaning ofjesus’ words: “With men this [salvation] is impossible, but with God all things are possible” (Mt 19.26). Although Jesus’ demand of the rich man— that he should give his posof the

disciples,

sessions to the

poor— is

He commands

a total

even

if

we

severe, the truly radical aspect

commitment

to

is

that

Himself and His path. Therefore,

from our abundance,

are able to share

of His words

like

who

Zacchaeus

gives

half of his possessions to the poor in response to the presence of the king-

dom (Lk 19.8), our generosity may not be adequate, even if it fulfills the Old Testament too

is

commandment

reinterpreted

must be

to love one’s neighbor. For this

by Jesus, who teaches

that

it is

commandment

not enough to give; one

charitable in the proper spirit:

men in order to be seen by them; from your Father who is in heaven.

Beware of practicing your piety before for then

you

will

Thus when you ocrites

do

by men.

you

give alms,

I

say to

do not

give alms,

sound no trumpet before you,

synagogues and in the

in the

Truly,

have no reward

you they have received

let

doing, so that your alms secret will reward you.

Indeed, so important

is

your

(Mt

their

hand know what your

in secret;

more than

But when

hand

right

and your Father who

is

sees in

6.1-4)

gift;

the

widow’s all

amount

sacrifice:

itself

“Truly

of them; for they in

it

becomes I

all all

tell

becomes

irrelevant,

you, this poor

contributed out of the living that she

21.3-4).

The most

significant reinterpretation

of Judaism’s view of property,

however, undoubtedly occurs as a consequence of the that Jesus brings to the greatest

love

hyp-

may be praised

their reward.

abundance, but she out of her poverty put

had” (Lk

they

the hidden intention of one’s piety that

as Jesus teaches regarding the

has put in

left

my be

the sole basis for evaluating the

widow

streets, that

as the

God above

all else.

new understanding

commandment-the commandment

The Old Testament

to

truth that possessions are a

“dangerous threat” (when they are mistaken for the Absolute)

is

clearly

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

50

on

preserved in the teaching of Jesus, as noted previously in the pericope serving two masters. But this truth

two great commandments of the Law: “You

links the

your

also reinterpreted

is

God

with

mind. This shall love

all

your

the great

is

and

your neighbor

juxtaposition

first

(Mt

is

The

like

is

your

all

You

it,

significance of this

to be understood in terms

not possible to love

it is

and with

second

a

Lord

shall love the

soul,

22.37-39).

commandment

the other, with the result that

your

all

commandment. And

as yourself”

that each

is

and with

heart,

by Jesus when He

God and

of

hate neigh-

who says he is in the light and hates his brother is in the darkness still. He who loves his brother abides in the light” (1 Jn 2.9-10). Indeed, the juxtaposition of these commandments

bor or to love neighbor and hate God: “He

reveals that the love

of the needy neighbor

was hungry and you gave was

me, me.

a stranger

was

I

.

.

.

I

In this passage, Jesus

it

to me.

makes

it

manifested in concrete action

more

possible to state

I

you did

(Mt

I

was it

25.35-36,

to

was naked and you clothed in prison

(1

Jn 3.17-18),

and you came to

one of the

least

of these

my

40)

clear that the love is

of neighbor, which must be

the basis for salvation.

It is

not

strongly the requirement to love one’s neighbor, espe-

needy neighbor, nor

For Christians,

me,

visited

say to you, as

you did

I

me food, I was thirsty and you gave me drink,

and you welcomed me,

and you

sick

Truly,

brethren,

cially the

the love of God:

O blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom of the world; for

Come,

I

is

to explain

how

this love

is

to be expressed.

“supreme obligation” of property.

this represents the

Stewardship as the Opportunity for Christian Witness Most of us

willingly accept the idea that Christian charity

expression of love. Yet love with our a

own

many of us

find

it

the necessary

difficult to express concretely this

possessions, whether in response to the daily request for

handout from those who we

believe, rightly or wrongly, are unwilling to

help themselves or the conscience-striking plea from distress.

is

Regardless of the source of the request,

someone

in terrible

many of us have

at

one

time closed our hearts against our neighbor.

One

explanation for our refusal to help the neighbor

are unwilling to

do the

difficult

is

that

we

often

work of determining the neighbor’s

true

need and then acting upon that need regardless of the consequences.

Stewardship

and the New

Another explanation

is

Testament

5i

we have

that

lost the scriptural

possessions as a loan from God. Consequently,

understanding of

we come

more

to assign

value to the things of this world than to our fellow man, a perspective that reverses the hierarchy ordained

dominion over His

by God when He created man

entire creation

born of our conflicting

(Gen

1.26).

Thus

attitudes toward possessions

to have

there arises a tension

and people. The nature

of this tension suggests that the problem of Christian charity could be over-

come by encouraging

a

change of attitude toward possessions on the one

hand and neighbor on the

other. In this section

of the chapter

I

shall try to

show, however, that an understanding of charity that emphasizes either

detachment from possessions or obligation toward the neighbor mately limited and therefore

which

that

is

the free

is

is

ulti-

not truly charity. Rather, for Christians, only

and concrete expression of the genuine love of the

other can truly be called charity.

Detachmentfrom Possessions

For a Christian, a certain detachment from possessions

quence of the erty has

realization that in the presence

no meaning. This

useless in the face

is

is

a natural conse-

of the kingdom private prop-

because the things of this world are ultimately

of an ethic that not only disregards

social position,

which

so often accompanies distinctions of wealth and poverty, but also reverses

our

commonly

called it

them

to

held understanding of authority and greatness: “But Jesus

Him and said,

over them, and their great

‘You

know that the

men

rulers

of the Gentiles lord

exercise authority over them.

It

shall

among you; but whoever would be great among you must be ” your servant, and whoever would be first among you must be your slave’ not be so

(Mt 20.25-28). Such

soul,

“Now

company of those who

the

and no one

of the value of private property is reflected

toward possessions characteristic of the Jerusalem com-

in the free attitude

munity:

a reappraisal

said that

any of the things which he possessed was

own, but they had everything the Greek-speaking

widows

believed were of one heart and

in

common”

(Acts 4.32).

his

Even the neglect of

at the daily distribution (Acts 6.1)

can be

inter-

preted as evidence that the organization and planning of the Jerusalem

community were tation

“kept to a

minimum,

... in view

of the intensive expec-

of the return ofjesus.” 10

As the expectation of an imminent parousia died down, however, the 10

Hengel, Property and Riches, 34.

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

52

Church continued

early

means

encourage freedom from possessions

to

“to serve God’s cause, to proclaim the gospel

bors.” 11 In other words, the

Church came

and

were to be used in the service of the poor,

to serve neigh-

to encourage for

tentment with those possessions sufficient to support as in the

as a

life,

most

a con-

while riches

following exhortation

of St John Chrysostom:

Let us use our goods sparingly, as belonging to others, so that they

may

become our own.

How shall we use them sparingly, as belonging to oth-

When we do

not spend for our needs only, but give equal shares

ers?

into the hands of the poor. If

you need, you

you

but spend more than

are affluent,

an account of the funds which were entrusted

will give

to you. 12

But such an understanding, however true ing, for

it

might

it

be,

can also be mislead-

increases the possibility of understanding the

management of

property primarily in a juridical sense, as a law or regulation to be obeyed. In other words,

it

Such appears

introduces the element of compulsion. to have

been the case with Ananias and Sapphira,

who

withheld a portion of their possessions from the Jerusalem community (Acts 5.1-2).

One

could argue,

to give their property to the

But Peter

Holy

Spirit

and

in

it

not

at

has Satan

to keep back part

remained unsold, did was

Church:

why

said, “Ananias,

it

your heart to

filled

your disposal?

How is lied to

it

that

men

been reluctant to give

1

all

wood,

St

its

was

sold,

you have contrived

this

deed

after

but to God. (Acts 5.3-4)

entirety as a free

that they

felt

gift.

some

sort

of compul-

Why should they have

had promised? Apparently Ananias and

that the portion that they withheld

'Hengel, Property and Riches,

12

And

it

attempted to deceive the community by withholding a por-

tion of what was intended in

felt

to the

it

Nevertheless, Ananias and Sapphira apparently

Sapphira

lie

of the proceeds of the land? While

not remain your own?

your heart? You have not

sion, since they

they were not compelled

as Peter does, that

still

had

great value for

55.

John Chrysostom, On Wealth and

Poverty, translated

N.Y.: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1984), 50.

by Catherine

P.

Roth

(Crest-

Stewardship

and the New

them; however,

Testament

53

of others’ expectations they were unable to

in the face

express this attitude. In other words, their understanding of their place

community was apparently informed by

within the Jerusalem

obligation, rather than being determined

by the

a sense

of

realization that in the pres-

ence of the kingdom private property has no meaning. This suggests that a

model of charity

that

is

based primarily on a contentment with sufficiency,

or a detachment from possessions,

ultimately incomplete.

is

The Freedom ofLove

While an emphasis on detachment from possessions ultimately may not

model of Christian

serve as an adequate basis for a

charity,

it

does remind

us that possessions offer us the opportunity to express concretely our love

of neighbor. Nevertheless,

any objective object

is

act

as Christos

of virtue

to manifest

God,

Yannaras cautions, “Any good work,

justified in the

is

to reveal the

Church’s eyes only when

men,

your Father

work

God

who

reveals the

is

in

that they

God in man.” 13 Or, as to God only when they

image of

Scripture teaches us, acts of virtue are acceptable

“so shine before

may see your good works and

heaven” (Mt

5.14).

give glory to

In order to determine what sort of

image of God in man, one

may

begin by looking

first

reveals

Himself in history

The personal

freedom

essence or being, making begets the

Here we

are

human

as personal existence, as distinctiveness

it

into “hypostases”: freely

reminded that there

freedom

and

is

is

no

14

love in the Trinity without freedom,

not love but necessity. Consequently, for

beings to partake in true

life,

own life, we must exiscommunion and relationship with

which

our calling in personal

our fellow man,

a relationship that

is

God’s

must be based on the freedom of love

manifested in the relationship of personal that charity, as with love

and from love He

Spirit to proceed.

tentially express

means

God

existence of God [the Father] constitutes His

Son and causes the Holy

that love without

itself,

communion of the

must be given

freely.

Trinity.

as

This

Moreover, char-

Christos Yannaras, The Freedom ofMorality, translated by Elizabeth Briere (Crestwood,

N.Y.: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1984), 79-80. 14

to

Himself.

According to Yannaras, the experience of the Church has shown that

13

its

Yannaras, The Freedom ofMorality, 17-18.

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

54

ity

must show

not

itself for

charity. In other

what

With

man. For with the self-sufficiency

is

no longer

is

our calling in personal

Fall,

a free act

man comes

became one of individual

sufficiency, that ultimately

making it impos-

communion

with our fellow

by an

“existential

than personal communion.

ciency eventually overcomes

all

It

self-

model of charity based primarily

a

detachment from possessions: the drive toward individual

a

moment

tendency toward individual

this

undermines

of the

of God and His kingdom.

to be characterized

survival, rather

of necessity,

it is

cannot

it

bom

of nature bounded by individuality .” 15 From that

precisely this element

on

charity

the Fall the element of necessity was introduced,

sible for us to express

life

when

cannot be mandated,

like love,

ceases to manifest the presence

it

of love; otherwise

truly is— an expression

words, charity,

be compelled. Otherwise, love of neighbor,

it

self-suffi-

other motivations, including one’s charita-

ble intentions toward the neighbor.

The Church

teaches us that this

is

an unnatural

state,

which can only

be transformed from within, not merely cosmetically adjusted. Such a transformation

the aim of the gospel. But

is

malized according to

upon

model, for

a juridical

it is

the freedom of the love of the Trinity.

an aim that cannot be an aim that

Any

is

communion and

relationship to

transformation

is

which human beings

these efforts serve to “improve” the outer

predicated

not of that personal are called.

not possible through man’s individual

is

is

for-

expectation of compul-

not of the Trinity and therefore

sion or necessity

this

it is

man; they

leave

Moreover,

efforts.

At best

untouched the

inner man. Rather, in the words of Yannaras,

this

transformation can take place only

of Christ, the

existential reality

ion, rather than

life

ticipation in the

blood

which

if

man

creates

as individual survival. ...

body of

life as It

personal

means

Christ; eating His flesh

total,

body

commun-

bodily par-

and drinking His

16

body of

Christ, his

Church, ultimately

transformation of a person’s heart, the seat of intention, for in

grafted into the

.

Participation in the

God

is

it is

human

effects the

understanding and

there— in response to the gospel— that one stands before

need of His salvation. Jesus Himself declares that

15

Yannaras, The Freedom ofMorality,

81.

16

Yannaras, The Freedom ofMorality,

81.

He “came

not to

Stewardship

and the New

Testament

the righteous, but sinners”

call

stands that one

in

is

55

(Mt

9.13).

Therefore, unless one

need of salvation, then every attempt to practice

responsible stewardship, whether

it

be contentment with sufficiency or

charity toward one’s neighbor, ultimately represents merely the

men and

not, as

it

under-

first

might otherwise be, the witness of one’s

work of

salvation.

The Witness of Salvation

When

the rich

man

rejects the invitation

of Jesus to enter the kingdom, he

expresses the impossibility of effecting his ful

observance of all the

mandment

own

salvation, despite his faith-

commandments of the Law,

human

astonished disciples expose the fruitlessness of all

is

impossible” (Mt

are possible” rich

man

is

words of Jesus

to love one’s neighbor. Indeed, the

presence of the kingdom: “With

(Mt

19.26).

19.26).

men

including the com-

endeavors in the

of the

this [the salvation

that

offered

is

man]

rich

God all

things

by Jesus

to the

Nevertheless, Jesus adds, “But with

The path of salvation

to His

the path of voluntary impoverishment, the loss not only of his

great possessions but also the social status that invariably

accompanies

great wealth.

A similar opportunity for voluntary impoverishment who

centurion, a soldier of high status Jesus, the

son of a mere carpenter (Mt

you come under

my

healed” (Mt

Not only does

powerless to

8.8).

13.55):

“Lord,

am not worthy to have

word and of

for the healing

appears to understand that he has no right to

he confesses

I

my

the centurion implicitly

own need

presented to the

declares his unworthiness before

roof; but only say the

fulfill his

is

make

his unworthiness. This self-lowering

on

servant will be

know

that he

his servant,

is

he also

his supplication

when

the part of the centu-

rion recalls the private instructions ofjesus to His disciples that they should

up

take

their crosses

(Mt

10.38; 16.24), lose their lives

ble themselves like a child

(Mt

(Mt 20.26-27). In other words, tern established loses

His

18.3-4), it is

(Mt

a self-lowering that actualizes the pat-

by Jesus Himself, who

takes

up His own

cross

(Mt

20.19),

own life (Mt 16.21, 23; 20.28), and comes to serve others rather than

26.39, 42),

who

raises Jesus

Voluntary impoverishment

who

hum-

and become the servants of others

be served Himself (Mt 20.28). This pattern represents the

(Mt

10.39; 16.25),

from the dead (Mt is

also the posture

will

of His Father

16.9, 23).

of the Canaanite woman,

accepts Jesus’ implicit characterization of her lowly status: “Yes, Lord,

yet even the dogs eat the

crumbs

that

fall

from

their master’s table”

(Mt

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT 15.27).

Furthermore,

precisely the Canaanite

it is

Jesus’ characterization

of her

Canaanite

woman

her final appeal, that

status,

be the manifestation of her great

woman’s acceptance of

faith

(Mt

15.28).

is

considered to

Like the centurion, the

overcomes the objection of Jesus’ response, expressing

the recognition of her need in the face of her unworthiness. Unlike the cen-

who manifests his Canaanite woman is depicted as a turion, however,

whose

great faith

is

an act of self-lowering, the

faith in

thoroughly marginalized supplicant

manifested in the acknowledgment of her low

status.

Conclusion Thus one comes free is

to see that Christian charity, properly understood,

and concrete manifestation of one’s love

possible only in the person

total participation in the

need of His

salvation.

the

for the neighbor, a love that

whose heart has been transformed through

body of Christ,

Does

is

this

mean,

as

one who stands before God

therefore, that

we

in

are to forgo the

We are to give nonetheless. ability. We are to give ever mind-

inadequate charity of our imperfect love? No.

We

are to give to the best

ful that

of our limited

our possessions must represent above

witness to the salvation that

is

give with humility, all

all

a sign

a sign that

we

18.13).

Such

is

are to give with the

of God’s providential

serve only

care.

one master.

We

We

are to

the while acknowledging the inadequacy of our

the while praying with the tax collector

(Lk

We

us.

our voluntary impoverishment for the

are to give with the certainty that

must be

the opportunity to

being effected in

knowledge that our charity must be

sake of the gospel

all else

“God be

merciful to

gift,

me asinner”

the nature of Christian stewardship.

Further Reading Chrysostom, St John. On Wealth and

Poverty. Translated

Crestwood, N.Y.: St Vladimir’s Seminary Hengel, Martin. Property and Riches in Early Christianity. Translated

by Catherine

P.

Roth.

Press, 1984.

the Early

Church: Aspects of a Social History of

by John Bowden. Philadelphia,

Pa.: Fortress Press,

1974.

Johnson, Luke

T.

Sharing Possessions: Mandate and Symbol ofFaith. Philadelphia, Pa.:

Fortress Press, 1981. Tarazi, Paul

Nadim. “Witnessing the Dynamics of Salvation,”

St Vladimirs Tfjeolog-

ical Quarterly 22 (1978): 179-91.

Yannaras, Christos. The Freedom of Morality. Translated by Elizabeth Briere. Crest-

wood,

N.Y.: St Vladimir’s

Seminary

Press, 1984.

HEALING THE CHRISTIAN BODY An Ancient Syriac Theme Susan Ashbrook Harvey"'

W

hen Orthodox Christians prepare

to receive the

Eucharist, they pray to receive the holy oblation “for the

healing of soul and body.” In the rich tradition that Syriac-speaking Christianity has offered to the Church,

healing has been a central theme. Ancient Syriac writers often gave Christ

the

title

of “Good Physician” or “Medicine of Life,” and the Eucharist, too,

was referred to frequently

as “the

unique to Syriac Christianity, but worthy. Noteworthy, too,

gave witness to

how

is

Medicine of Life.” These

stewardship and

The

its

the particular

way

in

role in Christian

Syriac language

means

“life.”

ing, for the link

is

note-

which Syriac Christianity

“the healing of soul and body” should be understood.

is

when

recall

thinking about

life.

of Aramaic, the language that Jesus

a dialect

spoke, itself a dialect of Hebrew. In Syriac the also

were not

their centrality to Syriac tradition

an understanding that we would do well to

It is

titles

word

for salvation, hayye\

This double sense lends poignancy to the theme of heal-

between salvation and mortality

is

always in view.

Many

ancient Christians understood our present condition of human finitude to

be the 2-3).

result

of Adam and Eve’s disobedience

Mortality— the physically

finite state

*Dr Susan Ashbrook Harvey holds M. Studies, University Christianity, at

Litt.

jointly

Oxford. She currently

is

Garden of Eden (Gen

of our bodies— was perceived to

and Ph.D. degrees from the Centre

of Birmingham, England. While

working

in the

between the Centre

at

Birmingham she

for Byzantine Studies

Professor of Religious Studies at

Brown

for

Byzantine

specialized in early Syriac

and the Oriental

Institute

University, Providence,

Rhode

Island.

57

5

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

«

be

moral aspect of our beings

a

The Christian

as well as a physical one.

prayed for the healing of soul and body because both aspects of the

human

person suffered in the fallen order. Without healing, we die; without salva-

we

tion,

are lost.

In healing

life.

From

its

As the Syriac term evokes so

lies

be saved

well, to

is

the promise of salvation: the promise of eternal

earliest

to have life.

Christian writings, Syriac tradition repeatedly insists

that healing the Christian

body

requires healing the whole

body

of Christ.

Both the body of the individual believer and the body of the Christian com-

munity

as a collective are in

The

state.

need of salvation. Both bodies

individual suffers hunger,

nity suffers these

same

and war. To pray

for the healing

in the

human

situation

body and

tian

the

thirst, illness,

afflictions in the

is

how

required for a Christian

a Christian

way of life.

its

live,

I

how

wish to explore

of the Christian body,

of how Orthodox tradition has understood the

one

or what activities were

In this chapter,

Syriac writers understood the healing

to be

view underlies

existence. This

should

change

writers, the Chris-

community were seen

Christian

body, each dependent on the other for

injustice, tyranny,

also to pray for a

and condition. For ancient Syriac

body of the

every discussion of

and death. The commu-

forms of poverty,

of soul and body

live in a fallen

activity

as

an example

of stewardship.

The Frame of Memory The

city

of Edessa

(called “Urhai” in Syriac,

today the town of Urfa in

southeastern Turkey) was one of the great centers of early Christianity.

Edessa was

known

as “the Blessed

Nazareth Himself had placed letters

with the

city’s ruler,

City” because of the legend that Jesus of

a special blessing

King Abgar

upon

it

V Ukkama

in

an exchange of

(“the Black”). 1

But

Edessa’s privileged place was held even without the fame of such a legend.

Distinguished for learned academies in Greek, Syriac, and Armenian, a center for

merchants crossing the east-west trade routes, and bustling with a

diverse, multi-ethnic population, Edessa

offering religious, intellectual,

and

was

a

cosmopolitan metropolis

cultural leadership for

many

centuries.

In the fifth century ad, however, Edessa experienced an exceptional era of greatness.

It

was a time of examining Edessa’s Christian experience and

deciding what the distinctive contours of ucts

of this era deserve attention for

‘A

lively

its

legacy should be.

their articulation

survey of Edessa’s history as a Christian center

Edessa: the Blessed City (Oxford: Clarendon, 1970).

of healing

may

Two

prod-

as a

major

be found in

J.

B. Segal,

Healing the Christian Body

theological

theme

59

in Syriac tradition: the Teaching ofAddai, a long narrative

claiming to recount the story of Edessa’s conversion to Christianity in the century; and the literary corpus associated with the episcopacy of

first

Bishop Rabbula of Edessa, whose term sive ecclesiastical

The

bishop (411-435/6) led to exten-

and monastic reforms.

Teaching ofAddai is an

but claiming to be from the it

as

anonymous work written

first

century. 2

Combining a number of legends,

honor of apostolic

grants the church at Edessa the

in the fifth century

origins

and

a venera-

ble Christian past, which, while exaggerated, nonetheless accords with

major themes of Syriac Christianity centuries.

The

as

it

Teaching of Addai tells the story

about the ministry of Jesus and wrote a

mighty works, confessed Abgar’s

Jesus’

God, petitioned invited

Him

against him.

come

that Jesus

of

how King Abgar Him. The

letter to

faith that Jesus

to Edessa to heal

its first

heard

letter praised

must be the Son of

Abgar of an

illness,

and

to share Abgar’s throne in order to escape the plots festering

To

to Edessa for a disciple

had developed through

this letter Jesus sent a reply saying that

was time to end His work on earth;

it

who would

ings to the people

heal

Abgar of his

illness

He

come

could not

He would

rather,

and bring the gospel

send

teach-

of Edessa. 3 Subsequently, the story goes, Addai came to

many

Edessa, healed Abgar and

of the

others, converted the people

city,

instituted the church there. 4

and

In the Syriac account of The Teaching ofAddai, healing

theme expressed both

a

It is

and

hold

of the

city as a

hears about the ministry of Jesus,

his attention, particularly the reports

letter,

2

first

Abgar addresses Jesus

A bilingual

as “the

Syriac-English edition

(Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press,

a central theme.

in individual terms (the healing

in social terms (the healing

Abgar

is

1981).

is I

available

will

community).

it is

King

raising the dead. In his

Physician.”

When

by George Howard, The

quote from

When

the healing miracles that

of Christ

Good

of sick persons)

the apostle

Teaching ofAddai

this version.

had been known long before the Teaching ofAddai was written. Papyrus fragments of the Jesus-Abgar correspondence in both Greek and Syriac versions sur3

vive

The

story was

from the

that

late third century,

Edessa to see the cal History.

one

letters

Around 384,

early in the fourth century, Eusebius

and have them

there, the

Greek

bishop showed her the

different than the Latin version

cussion of the evidence see Sebastian bius, Christianity

translated into

for his

and Judaism

ed.

,

of them that she knew P.

letters,

at

of Caesarea

monumental

the Western pilgrim Egeria visited Edessa while

Holy Land; while she was little

and

visited

Ecclesiasti-

on pilgrimage

to the

which she noted were

home. For an

a

excellent dis-

Brock, “Eusebius and Syriac Christianity,” in Euse-

H. Attridge and G. Hata (Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State

University Press, 1992), 212-34. “Traditionally

whom Jesus

Addai has been associated with Thaddaeus, one of the seventy apostles

sent out in

Luke

10: 1-20.

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

6o

Addai

arrives in Edessa,

Abgar

greets

him with

rejoicing as the

Christ “for healing and for salvation” {Tasyutha ’ w-lhayye

Abgar

in the presence

out the

city.

, \

one sent by

After healing

13).

of his noblemen, Addai performs healings through-

Then King Abgar summons

gospel. In his preaching

the city to hear Addai preach the

Addai announces that the healings prove the truth

of the gospel he has been sent to proclaim. Together, the

men and women

of Edessa convert to Christianity. It is

important that the story does not end there, with the healings of

the sick in Edessa. Rather, the Teaching ofAddai continues to describe the

response of the city to those healings: not simply a response of conversion,

but one of establishing the church of Edessa in such is

changed in the process.

up

First

King Abgar

invites

a

way that

Addai

the city itself

to build a church

teachers to assist him, offering to provide the expenses for the

and

set

new

building as well as whatever

money

needed to enable the clergy to

is

When

devote themselves full-time to their task of ministry.

lowed these instructions, the nobles and people of the of their own, “some things support of the poor”

(73).

for the

Addai has

city bring

fol-

donations

house of God and some things for the

With ample

supplies from the imperial house-

wider citizenry, Addai and his priests tend to their min-

hold

as well as the

istry,

gathering the people daily for services and “making visitations of alms

to the sick his base,

and

to the well according to Addai’s teaching.”

Addai then goes on to build churches and

in other districts as well,

“both

far

and

From

exhorts

them

to follow his

deed before

we preach

all

people”

in

Addai

his

falls

ill

and the

deathbed the apostle

example by demonstrating the truth of Christ-

ian teaching through active deeds: “Because thus our that whatever

as

establish the priesthood

near.” Finally

people gather to hear his farewell discourse.

With Edessa

Lord commanded

us,

words to the people we ourselves should do by

(83).

And

so Addai dies, handing the church of

Edessa over to his rightly established successors.

According to the Teaching of Addai, the church of Edessa went on to flourish despite vicissitudes because

Edessan Christians followed Addai’s

of the faithfulness with which the final exhortation.

describes the first-century church of Edessa as a in

its

devotional activities the teachings

women

it

community

sick” (101).

Held

in the highest

that displayed

preached: “All the

were modest, honorable, holy and pure

in diligent service, relieving the

Thus the story

.

.

.

they lived honorably

burdens of the poor, and

honor by

all

men and

peoples of the

visiting the

city,

pagan or

Healing the Christian Body

61

Christian, “the very sight of

them.

.

.

.

them spread peace

who

to those

beheld

For that which they said to others and admonished them to do,

they showed by deeds the same thing in their Surely the significance of the story

own

persons”

lies in this idyllic

(103).

description of the

church of Edessa. The healing miracles acclaimed with such wonder throughout the early part of the story

As

tion of Christ’s work.

among

are not,

and cannot

in the gospels, healings

be, the culmina-

of individual problems-

the blind, the deaf, the lame, the sick— are

shown

in this legend as

preludes to the larger healing work of Christ, the healing of the civic com-

munity. In that larger task of healing, to participate.

The church

many members” (Rom

12.

is

thus

all

shown

followers of the gospel are called to be a

body

itself,

“one body of

and the health of each member

4-5),

is

to the health of the whole. Significantly, the Teaching ofAddai

no

process of healing to be an essentially social one: alone. Rather, the Christians of Edessa are

tion to others and to the

are part.

shows

this

individual stands

known by how

body of which they

essential

they

live in rela-

The establishment of

the Edessan church requires not only political tolerance but also considerable

economic investment by

members, whether wealthy or

all

building and proper adornment of church

and

assistants as they are

facilities,

not, for the

the financing of clergy

needed, and adequate care for the poor, the

and the needy. The Christians there

are

shown

sick,

both of their

to contribute

time and of their goods; moreover, these contributions are identified necessary for the task of true worship.

devotion

is

to be lived properly.

mandate: the healing of one’s

They

Conversion

own body

are required if the

life

in this story carries

as

of true

an ethical

within Christianity endows the

believer with the capacity, indeed the moral obligation, to extend that heal-

beyond one’s own

ing

self to the

The theme of healing in early Syriac

lection

body of Christ,

as expressed in the Teaching

hymnography. The Odes of Solomon

of hymns, the

biblical translations.

5

in

which the

faithful believer stands

which the believer

ing activity.

ofAddai

also

is

found

are a second- century col-

from

Beautiful in their simplicity, sometimes enigmatic, they

a stance that requires the in

community.

earliest Syriac literature that survives to us apart

are filled with hauntingly powerful descriptions

one

the larger

is

of the

activity

wholly in the presence of God.

whole of one’s being, body and

soul.

brought to wholeness: worship of God

Thus the Odist

extols the

of worship

power of singing God’s

is

It is

as

It is

a stance

itself a heal-

praise:

Edited with English translation by James H. Charlesworth, Die Odes ofSolomon, 2nd ed. (Missoula, Mont.: Sheffield Academic Press, 1 977). I follow Charlesworth’s translation, with 5

some

alterations.

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

6z

My heart was

up and enriched

lifted

in the love

of the

Most High, so that

My limbs were Infirmities fled

my name.

with

strengthened,

might not

that they

And

Him

might praise

I

fall

from

from His power.

my body,

stood firm for the Lord by His

it

Because His kingdom

The experience of devotion

(Ode

firm.

for the Odist

God, so

increasing strength from

is

/

and caused

truth, / is

sickness to pass

from me.

an act of devotion that changes the

one

is

which one gains

in

condition, strengthened

truth.

/

and holy in Thy righteousness” (Ode

18.1-3)

own

that one’s

and healed, becomes an expression of God’s me,

will;

“Thy

right

hand

And I became mighty

23.

9-10).

exalted in

Thy

To sing of God, then, of its doing. One’s

self in the process

condition displays one’s relationship to the divine. In the Odes, worship

God.

Further, worship

self brings

is

described as the complete giving of oneself to

shown

is

as a process in

which the giving over of the

one into God’s presence and there into the experience of being

made new. For if God

Him

is

affected

is

perfection,

by His own

all

that

is

perfect nature.

near

Him or in harmony with

Thus the Odist expresses

experience:

I

lifted

up

my arms

on high

[in prayer]

on account of the compassion of the Lord.

And my

Helper

and His

And

I

me up

lifted

.

.

according to His compassion

salvation.

put off darkness,

and put on

light.

And I myself acquired In

.

them

there was

no

limbs.

sickness,

or affliction or suffering.

And abundantly

helpful to

me

was the thought of the

Lord,

and His everlasting fellowship. (Ode

21. 1-3)

his

Healing the Christian Body

63

Repeatedly the Odist extols worship granted tranquility, serenity, and self over to

to be

as a state in

Lord.

rest in the

God, the more God pervades one’s

worked on one’s disposition no

less

which the believer

The more one

is

gives one-

being. God’s healing

is

shown

than one’s physical condition.

The Odes of Solomon are often thought to be dominated by baptismal imagery. 6 This would account for the emphasis on worship as an experience of being fashioned anew

Ode

6,

shown

as well as

being brought into God’s presence. In

sacrament (perhaps both baptism and Eucharist) and healing are to be foundational for the believing

description that mirrors the Odist’s

community

as a

whole, with a

own account of how worship of God

works on him: Blessed, therefore, are the ministers of that drink,

Who

have been entrusted with the water.

They have

And Even

refreshed the parched

lips,

have aroused the paralyzed

will.

lives that

were about to expire,

They have held back from

And

death.

limbs which had collapsed,

They have

restored

They gave

strength for their coming,

And And and

and

set up.

light for their eyes.

everyone recognized them lived

by the

living water

as the Lord’s

of eternity. (Ode

6. 13-8)

The Odes of Solomon represent something of the devotional experience and activity of earliest Syriac Christianity, when the church was a small minority of believers in a society dominated by other religions of the

east-

ern Mediterranean region. In the course of the fourth century, as Christianity

gained ascendancy and grew dramatically in numbers, Syriac writers

increasingly

show

between personal

the link between individual faith

and

and

collective healing as

one

ethical activity: the link stressed in the leg-

endary account of the Teaching ofAddai.

Aphrahat “the Persian Sage” described ture 6

made up of many

faith as like a building, a struc-

different pieces: faith, fasting, prayer, love, alms,

A helpful discussion can be found in Michael Pierce, “Themes in the ‘Odes of Solomon’

and Other Early Christian Writings and (1984): 35-59.

their Baptismal Character,” Ephemerides Liturgicae 98

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

64

meekness, holiness, wisdom, hospitality, simplicity, patience, long-suffer-

and purity of heart (Dem.

ing,

“On

i,

Faith”).

7

Note

that these activities

involve not only the Christian’s personal disposition in relation to God,

but also the expression of that disposition toward others,

of almsgiving or

as in the practice

hospitality.

Elsewhere Aphrahat describes different types of prayer and the

by which they “Give

are offered to

rest to the

weary,

indeed prayer.” 9 In

fact,

you think you ought

visit

God. 8 Care of others

first

God

or to offer true prayer. Just as

if you

significant type:

for the poor: this

is

delay such activities because

and then act— as

from prayer— then you

ferent in kind

make provision

the sick,

Aphrahat says

to pray

one

is

activities

if

these actions were dif-

do

will fail utterly to

the will of God

image so

offers rest to the faithful— an

powerfully evoked in the Odes of Solomon — the Christian, Aphrahat says,

must bring about God’s If

God is

to

rem

greatest

the Syrian

a favorite

individual

is

healing, the

part of the larger

the action of prayer.

same

solace

believer

and com-

body of the community.

of all Syriac theologians and hymnographers was St Eph-

(d. 373),

and the theme of Christ

of his. 10 But Ephrem also

image of our Maker. For Ephrem, tween Creator and created thing

same

others, providing the

The body of the

The

fulfill

work on the believer-to heal and save the Christian— the

must work on fort.

order to

rest for others in

made by God

is

Medicine of Life was

stresses that healing restores in us the

as for the

bond

Odes of Solomon, the

an intimate one. As Ephrem explains

marked by God

is

as the

by an engraver’s stamp;

as

it,

be-

every-

therefore,

the whole of the created order demonstrates God’s greatness. For humanity,

however, the relationship

is

even more profound. At the incarnation

entered into humanity, becoming what Eucharist

we are

filled

God

can be to portray 7

There

is

are;

each time

we

partake of the

anew in our very selves, each and every one of us, with

Marked by our Maker,

Christ.

we

God

filled

with His glory, our only right response

throughout our bodies

an English translation byj.

Gwynn

in

all

in the Nicene

that

we do:

and Post-Nicene Fathers,

vol. 13

(Oxford: James Parker and Co. /New York: The Christian Literature Co., 1898; Repr. Grand Rapids: Syriaca

Wm. I,

Eerdmans,

The

4,

“On

Syriac text

is

edited by D.

I.

Parisot, in Patrologia

Prayer,” English translation in Sebastian

P.

Brock, The Syriac

on Prayer and the Spiritual Life (Kalamazoo, Mich.: Cistercian Publications, 1987), edited by Parisot, Patrologia Syriaca

Syriac

is

9

4.14; Brock, 19.

Dem.

10

The

ed. R. Graffin (Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1894), cols. 5-46.

demonstration Fathers

1988), 345-52.

See Sebastian

P.

I:

cols. 137-82.

Brock, The Luminous Eye: The Spiritual World Vision of Saint Ephrem the

Syrian (Kalamazoo, Mich.: Cistercian Publications, 1992), especially ch. 6, Life,” 99-114.

5-25.

“The Medicine of

Healing the Christian Body

65

Let chastity be portrayed in your eyes and in your ears the

sound of truth. Imprint your tongue with the word of life and upon your hands [imprint]

Stamp your and

let

alms.

footsteps with visiting the sick,

the image of your Lord be portrayed in your heart.

Tablets are

honored because of the image of kings.

How much Lord

Once

all

[more

will]

one

[be honored]

who

portrayed his

in all his senses. 11

again the Christian, strengthened and healed,

called to ethical

is

action as the fulfillment of that healing.

The Frame of Tradition The

Teaching ofAddai

and pieces of

ries

was written

in the fifth century to

earlier Syriac Christianity. Its

draw together

sto-

purpose was to present

a

how Syriac tradition should be remembered and counterpart from the same moment in history may be

legacy that would articulate lived. Its practical

seen in the ecclesiastical reforms initiated by the great bishop of Edessa, Rabbula. 12 Rabbula’s legacy in Syrian

name

Orthodox

tradition

so great that his

is

has been associated with a vast range of changes that

came about

dur-

ing the fifth century: the triumph in the Syrian churches of Nicene Ortho-

doxy, the defeat of paganism, revision of the standard Syriac translation of the Bible (producing the Peshitta, the authorized Syriac version), and the

regulation of monasticism and of church orders.

remembered

for his extensive social welfare

Above

Rabbula

all,

is

programs on behalf of the poor,

the sick, the homeless, and the needy. 13 Rabbula’s achievements were embellished over time

by the accretions of legend, many included

orate hagiography, the Life of Rabbula, written 1

’Ephrem, Hymns on

Hymns (Mahwah, 12

The

Virginity 2.15; here translated

around 449. 14 But

principal study

on Rabbula

is

by Kathleen McVey, Ephrem the Syrian:

Georg G. Blum, Rabbula von

Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium

Subsidia34 (Louvain: Secretariat du Corpus See the discussion in

S.

SCO,

Edessa:

Der

(hereafter

1969).

A. Harvey, “The Holy and the Poor: Models from Early Syriac

Hanawalt and Carter Lindberg

The

Christ, der

CSCO) 300/

Christianity,” in Through the Eye of a Needle:Judeo-Christian Roots 0/ Social Welfare, ed.

14

practical

N.J.: Paulist Press, 1989), 270.

Bischof, der Theologe,

13

in a long, elab-

(Kirksville, Miss.:

Truman

State University Press, 1994), 43-66.

Syriac text of the Life ofRabbula was edited in Paul Bedjan, Acta

torum Vol. IV (Paris/Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1894;

Emily Albu

repr.

Martyrum

et

Hildesheim: Georg Olms,

Sanc1968),

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

66

evidence of his reforms survives in two collections of canons for clergy and

monks

transmitted in Syriac under his

13 .

Large portions of the canons

in the Life ofRabbula, with narrative explica-

quoted or paraphrased

are also

name

tion to provide context or interpretation of the rulings.

The

Life

of Rabbula presents the bishop as one

order on every part of his church. In

fact,

who

sought to impose

the Rabbula canons are notable

of the Christian community-the

for addressing each part

ent ranks of church orders, and monastics— and each

proper

on

is

laity,

the differ-

accorded their

conduct, responsibility, and authority. Controls were placed

role,

and sexual

the laity with regard to marriage, divorce,

relations.

The

laity

were also charged with contributing economic support for the poor, both voluntary (monastics and hermits) and involuntary (victims of calamity, hardship, and tragic circumstance: the

owed) tice.

and they were ordered

in their territories;

The

effect

of these

Still,

no

fast,

pray,

clergy, consecrated

and Daughters of the Covenant” tion of lodging (where

by

restriction

on food and

bition from secular jobs ministries.

17 .

men and women

in Syriac),

whom

and with

and seek

jus-

to see

is

than the clergy or monastics

the laity were distinct from the consecrated offices.

canons marked out

tonsure;

less

to

of the Rabbula canons

rules in the context

the laity as a consecrated group

orphaned, or wid-

sick, destitute,

16 .

The Rabbula

(called the

and monastics by

“Sons

their loca-

they lived); by clothing, shoes, and

drink;

by

travel restrictions

and prohi-

Within these groups, the canons assign separate

The ordained authority of

the priesthood was clearly distin-

guished from the charismatic authority of monk or nun, and each had their different purpose.

The canons

identify different liturgical responsibilities

complete

for each office, safeguarding the

liturgical cycle

of the church.

Deacons, deaconesses, and Sons and Daughters of the Covenant assisted 396-450. There

is

a

German

translation

by G.

Bickell,

“Sammtliche Prosa-Schriften des

Bischofs Rabulas von Edessa,” in idem, Ausgewahlte Schriften der syrischen Kirchenvater Apbraates, Rabulas

und

Rosel, 1874), 155-271.

An

v.

Ninive, Bibliothek der Kirchenvater 102-4, 204-5 (Kempten:

excellent English translation will

volume by Robert Doran

soon appear from Cistercian Pubfrom

Fifth

Century Edessa: the

Syriac edition with English translation in Arthur Voobus, Syriac

and Arabic Documents

lications in a

Man

Isaak

entitled “Writings

of God, Rabbula and Hiba.” 15

Regarding Legislation Relative Exile, i960),

Rabbula 16 17

“The Rules of Rabbula

for the Clergy

See, for example,

See

RC

Asceticism (Stockholm: Estonian Theological Society in

to Syriac

for the

Monks,” 24-33

(hereafter

RM), and “The Rules of

and the Qeiama,” 34-50 (hereafter RC).

RC

6,

11, 15,

24, 28, 30, 31, 56,

2, 3, 6, 10, 18, 19, 22, 23,

and

57.

24, 25, 26, 29, 37, 38, 41, 42, 45;

See also the Life ofRabbula, Bedjan, Acta

14,

RM 2, 3, 4, 14,

405, 406, 412, 415, 420, 421, 422.

15, 17,

26.

Healing the Christian Body

in service to the parishes

67 of village, town, and

city.

The

Life

ofRabhula adds

to the

canons the information that the Daughters of the Covenant worked

in the

women’s

hospital run

The concern with

by the church

in

Edessa

18 .

ministries extended into the secular sphere.

The

canons prohibited monastics from any secular involvement, but the clergy were declared responsible for social

justice.

The

care

of widows, orphans,

the poor, and sick was specifically their charge. Prohibited from involve-

ment

in suspect legal proceedings, they

were also prohibited from currying 19

favor with the nobility

lest

This area of concern

elaborated significantly in the LifeofRabbula, where

is

they contribute to the oppression of the poor

the bishop’s battles against the existing hierarchies are treated at length.

ofRabbula

on

,

just as

it is

a recurring

the clergy, rather than

the monastic

life as

quences of the

on

unbroken

But these canons

Doing

civil

justice

theme

power is

a

structures

and

social

major theme of the

in the canons. Placing

it

.

as a

Life

duty

the monastics, protected the primary task of prayer.

are also notable for the far-reaching

economic conse-

they prescribe. The Rabbula canons

ecclesiastical situation

present a specific understanding of holy poverty. Strict financial controls

were placed on monasteries to prevent any economic prosperity. Rather, ascetics

of

all

kinds (monastics, solitaries, Sons and Daughters of the

Covenant) were counted among the poor and needy charged to the care of

The canons command

the local church.

that if the care

of the

ascetics

should exceed the coffers of village parishes, the situation was to be reported to the bishop so that funding could be sent from Edessa. Further

on

controls were placed

from charging

ties

utes

on

the

laity,

the clergy,

who

were prohibited by severe penal-

from imposing

fees for services or accepting gifts,

and from holding secular

jobs. If

trib-

undo hardship ensued,

20 the bishop was again to be notified for assistance .

The extent of economic control prescribed by

the canons receives

extensive discussion in the Life ofRabbula, where Rabbula’s realignment of

the

economic

especially

famed

18 19

20

See

RC RC

RC3,

is

chronicled in detail. If Rabbula was

gifts to clergy,

20, 27,33,

14, 15,

6, 7, 8, 9, 19,

;

RM 7,

8, 16, 19,

1 6,

19, 26,

34, 36, 47.

44

40,

59.

was no

less

monasteries, and ascetics throughout

and beyond. While the canons indicate

5, 8, 12, 13, 5,

his see

for his extensive social welfare programs, he

generous in his annual his territory

of

structure

local responsibility

20, 21, 24. Life ofRabbula, Bedjan, Acta IV, 444.

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

68

through the

system also assumed major central-

village parishes, Rabbula’s

ization through the episcopal seat.

Two

further points are significant. First,

who

system indicates concern for the holy poor, those

this

chose a

life

of austerity

of local parishes, these

in the service

ascetics

were

voluntarily

of the church; placed under the care

free to

follow their vocations under the

protective watch of the church. Second, this system sought to ensure that

by the bishop’s

vigilance each part of the church could follow

its

professed

and defined function: monasteries were not to be businesses, but places of prayer;

Sons and Daughters of the Covenant were not to be employed

in

secular service, but solely in the service of the church; the clergy were to serve,

not to grow

rich.

The Rabbula canons gave enormous of the bishop. In the

Life

financial authority into the

hands

ofRabbula, we are told that in his concern to

cate church funds for his social welfare

allo-

programs Rabbula forbid the build-

ing of new churches, sold off church treasure, implemented the canons that

gave the church the inheritance of every

and sought further funds

priest;

from other metropolitan churches and from the imperial court tinople. Rabbula’s

period

patristic

work strongly

known

parallels that

for their social welfare programs: Basil

seems to have been exceptional;

Constan-

of other bishops of the

John Chrysostom, and John the Almsgiver are obvious activity

in

of Caesarea,

But Rabbula’s

cases.

his successor, Ibas, lost

no time

in

reversing his policies.

Like the Teaching ofAddai, the Rabbula canons provide us with an idealized picture of what the church should be,

be-or hoped social,

to

be-in Syriac

and economic

activity

tradition.

and what

it

These canons regulate the

of the Christians of Edessa’s see

united body. The congregation within that territory was structural interdependence (the allocation

essary to complete liturgical

was understood to

life

of different

of the church), and

economic interdependence. According

of one,

together by

ministries, each nec-

further,

to this system,

might consider further implications of

as that

bound

Edessan church could function alone, either structurally or

We

religious,

bound

no

also

by

part of the

financially.

this picture.

The Rabbula

canons require that everyone in the congregation be responsible for every-

one sick,

else.

No one is left out; no one can fall by the wayside unattended. The

the needy, the orphaned, the widowed, the stranger,

(both voluntary and involuntary):

all

vided sustenance, care, and comfort.

have

a place,

and

all

and the poor are to

be pro-

Healing

the Christian

Body

69

But physical healing was not the only ministry of Edessa under Rab-

and

bula’s leadership

revised

The

legacy.

and authorized

liturgical life

translations

of the church was regulated;

of the Bible were placed in churches;

monasteries were established; ministries were defined and designated; the

worship activity of the diocese was brought into bula’s legacy

gation,

clearly

body and

However, tical

was

one

its full

expression. Rab-

that sought to heal Edessa’s Christian congre-

soul.

if such

vision was to be

resources were needed.

implemented-or even attempted-prac-

The LifeofRabbula speaks

ious financial strategies Rabbula

employed

at

length about the var-

At the end

to fund his programs.

of the day, what was required was the commitment of every Christian to

see

themselves, their property, and their resources as inextricably joined to the

body of which they were

part: to the church, the

body of Christ.

Such commitment, such interdependence, such connection would

make

possible a Christian

body-the church-that would

salvation promised to every believer, of a

body healed and whole. The

between individual and collective healing

essential link

stressed in Syriac tradition. In a mid-fifth century story

man

Christian holy

Pethion

ing for her cure, Pethion ter to

is

asked to heal a young

admonished her

girl.

father: “If you

repeatedly

is

from

Persia, the

But before pray-

want your daugh-

be healed, give upright judgment, do not show any favoritism, and

do not

And

truly reflect the

take bribes.

.

.

Liberate the needy as far as your

.

means allow .” 21

while the Rabbula canons are notable for their breadth of concern,

they accord closely with canons of earlier collections-notably the Didas-

Apostolorum and the Testament of Our Lord— as well

calia

rulings in their insistence in their

midst

spiritual in

There

its

is

22 .

Ministry

on every is

'There

is

Harvey, Holy

identified time

The

and again

as material as well as

offering.

much

evidence from ancient Syriac Christianity that supports as the

body of Christ

an English translation of the story in Sebastian

Women ofthe Syrian

82-99; here quoted from p. 22

with subsequent

parish’s responsibility for every person

and elaborates the vision of the church 2

as

P.

in the

way

Brock and Susan Ashbrook

Orient, rev. ed. (Berkeley: University

of California

Press, 1998)

83.

Syriac editions of these canonical collections have been published together with

English translations as follows: Arthur Voobus, The Didascalia Apostolorum in Syriac 401-2, 407-8/ Scr. Syr. 1 75-6/ 179-80 (Louvain, Belgium: Secretariat du Corpus

idem, The Synodicon

in the West Syrian Tradition

gium: Secretariat du Corpus

and Related Sources

,

SCO,

1975);

CSCO 339-40/ Scr.

,

CSCO 367-8/

Scr. Syr. 161-2

Belgium: Peeters,

CSCO

SCO,

1979);

(Louvain, Bel-

idem, The Canons Ascribed to Maruta

Syr. 191-2 (Louvain,

,

oj

Maipherqat

1982).

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

7o

captured by the story of Addai and the legacy of Rabbula. While both figures

were remembered in romanticized and idealized

present a great deal of practical

wisdom and common

the case of the Rabbula canons).

Only when

portraits,

both

sense (especially in

Christians

commit

their

resources as well as themselves to the church-their goods, their time, their voices, their prayers, their presence, their energy, their activities— can the

work of

Christ, the healing

of soul and body, be done.

WTen we

think

about stewardship in the church today, we would do well to consider the

model from

Syriac tradition.

Further Reading Brock, Sebastian R, The Luminous Eye: The Spiritual World Vision of Saint Ephrem the Syrian (Kalamazoo, Mich.: Cistercian Publications, 1992). Excellent introduction to the

most important Syriac writer and theologian and

also contains lucid

number of the themes I have discussed in this chapter. Harvey, Susan Ashbrook, “Embodiment in Time and Eternity: A Syriac Perspecdiscussion of a

Tuckahoe, N.Y.:

tive,”

cusses

how

St.

Vladimir’s Theological Qiiarterly 43 (1999): 105-30. Dis-

in Syriac tradition the theology

and profound

ethical

mandate

for care

of embodiment

of the

sick,

carries

an inherent

needy, and poor.

Harvey, Susan Ashbrook, “The Holy and the Poor: Models from Early Syriac Christianity,” in

Through

the

Eye ofa Needle: Judeo-Christian Roots of Social Welfare ed. ,

Emily Albu Hanawalt and Carter Lindberg

(Kirksville,

Mo.: Truman State Uni-

versity Press, 1994) 43-66. Provides a treatment

of the major paradigms

responses to poverty in ancient Syriac tradition.

Simeon

of Edessa, and the anonymous story of St Alexius the

McLeod,

Man

Man

of God)

and

the Stylite, Rabbula

of God of Edessa (the prototype for the are the

main

figures discussed.

Frederick G., “The Stranger as a Source of Social

Christianity,” in Christianity

Change

Nichols (Atlanta, Ga.:

Littlefield, 1995) 36-55.

end of the

of Edessa and

to ask

how

W.

Discusses the leg-

also the figure

saints’ stories in Syriac tradition raise issues

social needs.

in Early Syriac

the Stranger: Historical Essays , ed. Francis

Rowman and anonymous Man of God

for

of Rabbula

about Christianity and

STEWARDSHIP

WAY

AS A

TOWARD DEIFICATION Some Moral and Social Issues

in

St Gregory Nazianzen

Hilarion Alfeyev

O

moral

issues.

1

ur philosophy”

(rj

xa 0

’

f]piocc:

cptAoaotfia),

divided into two parts: the one that

gory Nazianzen,

is

mg!

that concerns doctrinal matters,

Xoyooq,

i.e.,

other which Sia nLv £0cov syei to euaspsc;, In other words, dogmatic

with the moral side of Christian

moral and

life

and

will

consider

themes related to the

social

Gregory turned to these themes throughout the siastical career,

in Nazianzus,

i.e.,

we

is

and the

that concerns

and moral theology

constituents of “Christian philosophy.” In this chapter

characteristic

according to Gre-

are the

shall

two

be dealing

some of Gregory’s

issue

of stewardship.

entire period

of his

but more specifically during the time of his service

eccle-

as a priest

around a.d. 370 to 380.

The Meaning of Suffering In 372, several disasters finally, a

upon Nazianzus:

fell

storm of rain and

hail

pestilence, drought, and,

which devastated the herds and destroyed

the year’s harvest. 2 For a small Cappadocian city entirely dependent agriculture, this

was a

real catastrophe.

*Bishop Hilarion (Alfeyev) holds

dox Theological

Church

to the

European

'Disc. 4, 23, 2

P.

Institute in Paris.

Gallay,

La vie de

He

Institutions

6-8 (SC} 09, S.

a doctorate is

and

upon

People came to church in order to

from Oxford University and

St Sergius

Ortho-

head of the Representation of the Russian Orthodox is

the author of

many books and

articles.

116).

Gregoire de

Nazianze (Lyon-Paris,

1943), 122.

71

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

72

hear a word of consolation from their bishop, but Gregory Nazianzen the Elder, diminished in health,

remained

silent.

Thereupon, Gregory the

Younger was asked to deliver the sermon, and he used

on

reflect

the

meaning of suffering and on why

sent

from

from

idea behind the Discourse 16

God

as a

punishment

is

for sins in order to bring people to repen-

story before the Fall, nature was obedient to

with him, but after he had transgressed the face against

humans and

set itself

abnormal situation because

it is

Adam and

commandment,

bondage

its

to decay.” 4

of creation begins with the transfiguration of the

the transfiguration of

humans

was in harmony

against them. 3 Nature

up

is

possible only

when

The whole of the Old Testament shows

tion of Sodom

It is

nature set

its

now

an

is

in

The

transfigura-

human

person. But

they recognize and

repent of their sinful deeds, try to liberate themselves from

cause of natural disasters:

biblical

“subjected to futility” and “waits with eager

longing” for the liberation “from

for the better.

God

rather simple: Disasters are

According to the traditional Christian view based on the

tance.

tion

disasters are sent

and nations.

to individuals

The main

occasion to

this

enough

to

that

sin,

and change

human

remember the Flood, 5

sin

is

the

the destruc-

and Gomorrah, 6 and the various punishments sent by God

to Egypt. 7 Repentance,

on

the contrary, can deter God’s anger from both

individuals and peoples, as confirmed

by the prayer of King Hezekiah 8 and

the fasting of the people of Nineveh. 9

According to St Gregory, God’s anger and punishment correspond to the measure of people’s sinfulness. Natural disasters are caused neither

the imperfection of the universe, nor fate,

but only by our

Tell us

by the absence of Providence, nor by

sins:

whence come such blows and

can give of them?

Is it

scourges,

some disordered and

and what account we

irregular

unguided current, some unreason of the universe,

no Ruler of the world, which

is

Gen

3

Cf.

4

Rom

5

Gen Gen

6 7

8 9

Ex Is

1.28;

8.19-23.

6-7. 18.20-19.28.

7-12.

38.1-8.

Jon

2.19-20; 3.14-18.

3.5-10.

as

motion or some

though there were

therefore borne along

the doctrine of the foolishly wise,

by

who

are themselves

by chance,

as

is

borne along

at

Way toward Deification

Stewardship as a

random by

73

the disorderly spirit of darkness?

and changes of the universe

.

.

directed

.

guidance of the reins of Providence?

Or

by reason and order under the

Whence come

does and hailstorms, our present warning blow? diseases, earthquakes, tidal waves,

And how ungodly?

.

and equal

What

.

.

is

delight,

Whence

pestilences,

fearful things in the

heavens?

changed for the punishment of the

our calamity, and what

of virtue or

a

The

of devastated land,

reality

and

famines and torna-

the creation, once ordered for the enjoyment of humans-

is

common

their

are the disturbances

touchstone of wickedness

its

cause?

It is

either a test

10 .

and farmers grieving

a destroyed harvest,

over their losses evokes in Gregory a deep feeling of sorrow and compassion.

At the same time he does not

remind

lose the opportunity to

his listeners

of the moral lessons that can be drawn from what has happened. He the citizens of Nazianzus to look at themselves and to

Terrible

an unfruitful season, and the

is

be otherwise, ing

on

their

when men

when

harvest,

of the crops.

It

stores. Terrible

again

is

their sins:

could not

and count-

are already rejoicing in their hopes,

but harvested

all

loss

remember

calls

an unseasonable

the farmers labor with heavy hearts, sitting as

it

were

beside the grave of their crops, which the gentle rain nourished, but the

wild storm has rooted up.

ground devastated,

cleared,

.

.

.

Wretched indeed

is

the sight of the

and shorn of its ornaments.

.

.

.

Why have

the crops withered, our storehouses been emptied, the pastures of our flocks failed, the fruits filled

of the earth been withheld, and the plains been

with shame instead of with fatness:

and not abounded

in corn, the

why have

valleys

lamented

mountains not dropped sweetness,

as

they shall do hereafter to the righteous, but been stripped and dishonoured.

.

.

.

Alas!

ble, the seed

What

we sowed

a spectacle! is

the approach of which instead of

Lord.

.

.

.

Our

prolific crops

recognised by scanty remains, and our harvest,

we reckon from

the

number of

from the ripening corn, scarcely bears the

Why is

this,

and what

wait to be convicted by others,

is

let

and wrongly encroached upon

Disc.

1

6 4-5 (PG35, 937-941). ,

his

the months,

firstfruits for

the

the cause of the breach? Let us not us be our

own

examiners.

of us has oppressed the poor, and wrested from him

l0

reduced to stub-

.

his portion

.

.

One

of land,

landmark by fraud or violence, and

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

74 joined house to house, and field to

field, to

no neighbor,

rob his neighbor of some-

thing,

and been eager

earth.

Another has defiled the land with usury and

ering where he .

.

.

to have

.

.

.

what he has had, nor prudently

God

all

cerned,

the

11 .

takes place through repentance. All sufferings

disasters aspire to this reconciliation.

can be both individual and

it

on

and meagre nourish-

nourished even in a slight degree

are

Reconciliation with

and

his bread

pity

Who is nourished in the persons

to the needy, or rather to Christ,

who

no

the future. Another has had

least, for

widow and orphan, and not imparted of those

both gath-

showing himself at once thankless and

senseless, in neither giving thanks for

ment

interest,

the

had not sowed and reaping where he had not strawed.

Another has robbed God

providing, at

on

so as to dwell alone

As

repentance

far as

collective.

is

con-

Both can contribute

changing God’s anger into mercy:

Come

then,

all

of you,

my brethren,

weep before the Lord our Maker in

our various ages and families,

and

12

let

us worship and

us raise the voice of supplication;

He

hates, enter into the ears

Lord of Sabaoth. Let us anticipate His anger by confession;

Him

to see

appeased, after

He was

is

Himself to that which

natural, His mercy.

us, to the

will refrain,

selves,

He

other

a

we may

sumed with

it;

11

Disc.

1

let

6, 6;

And

reap in joy

Sodom. let

overwhelmed by

if

Let us

14 ,

let

17-18

Ps 95.6.

13

Cf Joel

14

Cf. Ps 126.5.

2.14.

He

us

(

I

know

God. And when He

is

To the

He will betake one He is forced by

forced to strike, surely let

show

amend our

us have

He

mercy on our-

ourselves people of Nin-

wickedness,

lest

we be con-

us listen to the preaching of Jonah, lest

fire

and brimstone, and

us escape to the mountain,

12

This

road for our Father’s righteous affections. Let us sow

eveh, not of

Sodom

inclined.

according to His nature. Only

and open

in tears, that

is

3

unnatural to Him, His anger,

has laid aside that which is

us desire

,

the sponsor of the loving-kindness of

I

let

of the

wroth. Wl?o knows he says, whether

He will not turn and repent, and leave a blessing behind Him certainly,

down, and

fall

us appoint a public mourning;

let

;

instead of the cry which

let this,

let

PG 35, 941;

939-960).

let

if

we be

we have departed from

us flee to Zoar,

let

us enter

it

to

Stewardship as a

as the

sun

us, lest

Way toward Deification

rises; let

us not stay in

we be frozen

75

the plain,

all

into a pillar of

us not look around

let

salt, a really

immortal

to

pillar,

accuse the soul which returns to wickedness. 15

That repentance which also expressed in acts

it is

is

here in question

not expressed only in

is

of charity. To distribute bread to the hungry, to

offer hospitality to the homeless, to provide clothes for the are the virtues

by which we

are conciliated,

are reconciled with

and by which the

The meaning of suffering

“On Love

tears;

is

rain

naked-these

God, by which the heavens

of God’s mercy comes upon

earth. 16

developed in Gregory’s Discourse

also

14,

was delivered around 373 in Caesarea of Cappadocia and speaks specifically about the lepers. Some scholars believe that to the Poor.”

Gregory composed

this

It

sermon

after visiting a hospital for lepers built

St Basil the Great. Others say that Gregory delivered

age people to donate

ever

its

money

it

of such

for the building

by

in order to encour17

a hospital.

What-

motivation, the discourse constitutes important evidence about

Gregory’s attitude to people’s sufferings. With deep emotion does he describes those

I

cannot see

who

are struck with

their suffering

their sufferings.

The

what he

without

spectacle

tears.

which

is

.

calls

.

.

You

and

at the

same time dead.

.

are also witnesses

before your eyes

piteous, unbelievable for everyone except those ple living

“the sacred disease”: 18

.

.

Who

who

is

terrible

have seen

it:

of

and peo-

they were or where are

they from can hardly be recognized. They are rather wretched remains

of those

who once

were humans. In order to be recognized they

their fathers, mothers, brothers,

and-so, and

my

mother

and you were once

is

and

so-and-so,

my friend

am

birthplaces: “I

and

my name

is

name

the son of so-

such-and-such,

and acquaintance.” They do

this

because

they have no previous appearance by which they could be recognized.

They 15

people mutilated, deprived of possessions, of family, of

are

(PG} 5, 952-953). 20 (PG } 5, 961-964).

Disc.

1 6,

lb

Disc.

1 6,

17

See Gallay,

14

Vie, 87;

A. Benoit, Saint Gregoire de Nazianze, sa

vie, ses

oeuvres

et

son epoque,

2 e ed. (Hildesheim, 1971), 272-274. 18

Disc. 14, 6

(PG} 5,

“a sacred disease.” leprosy. See

H. G.

864-865). Ancient Greek poets

historians usually called epilepsy

However, from the fourth century onwards

this description

Liddell, R. Scott, Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford, 1989), 822;

A Patristic Greek Lexicon (Oxford, 1991), 922; E. a Byzance 4 e~A

and

siecles (Paris,

1977),

111.

is

applied to

G.W. H. Lampe,

Patlagean, Pauvrete economique et pauvrete sociale

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

y6

friends,

and even of bodies; the only people of all who

members of the body which they no longer have or

those which

.

.

.

Who is closer than a father? Who is more compassion-

than a mother? But for these people even the doors of the parents’

ate

hearts are sealed.

19 .

.

,

They

from towns, they

are expelled

from homes, markets, assemblies, roads, suffering!— even

in

which the to

ponder the transience of

one of the strongest arguments against

On

some people

the other hand,

suffer,

ers this to

human

they say, because

God

life

and the been

to suffer has always

God’s providence and

faith in

prefer to fence themselves off by

of indifference and hard-heartedness by referring to the

People

and-O

lepers live as well as their social

meaning of suffering. That God allows humans

mercy.

banquets,

festivals,

.

compel Gregory

vulnerability

are expelled

from water 20

The miserable conditions

a wall

at the

mourn over

remain.

still

and

to

same time hate themselves; they do not know whether those

pity

wants them to

suffer.

will

of God:

Gregory consid-

be a hypocritical attitude and claims that the ultimate reasons for

suffering are as

governed.

What seem

unknown

to us as the rules

by which the universe

is

deformed may be perfect and

to us imperfect or

beautiful in God’s eyes.

And if people suffer, this does not necessarily mean

that they are punished;

sometimes suffering

is

a test

have to pass in order to achieve higher moral

through which people

qualities. In

any event, the

ultimate goal of suffering as well as the true

meaning of human

revealed only in the age to come, where

that seems

rectified

by God

So much

God

against to

us to share with

A

Christian

who

for those

or

who

must provoke

21

in us

rich

not accusations

(

Disc. 14, 29-31

PG 35,

is

calls us to collaboration,

in caring for the needy, the sick,

lost their faith

by

of

God and

and courage, who have

syn-

and

to be

fallen into

disease:

person must help him

“even nature

Disc. 14, 9-12

Him

God

called to reveal the face

is

has not fallen must

'^Literally, 20

have

are struck

A healthy and who

be

but a desire to intervene creatively into the situation in order

the suffering.

distress,

will

21

suffering in the world

He wants

“God”

anomalous

be

.

improve the conditions of people.

ergy:

all

life will

assist

sealed.”

868-872).

(TG33, 897-900).

who

him who

fell

is

sick

and the needy; he

and bruised himself;

a

Stewardship as a

Way toward Deification

cheerful person,

him who

Him

for

suffers

him who

fainthearted; the

is

in misfortune, imitating

is

a shipwreck. eases.

.

.

.

.

.

.

who need

prosperous,

God’s mercy.

While you

give

sail free,

hand

to thank

can do good to

to be assisted,

and that others

Be

at theirs

and everyone who has

you have nothing

.

.

a

.

a

god

for the

Every navigator

body

to the

one who

is

close to

close to bodily dis-

is

one shipwrecked.

... If

to share, shed tears together with an unfortunate

wretch: the mercy which

comes from your

heart

him; and sincere compassion makes mishap

In

is

who

your being able to become one of those

your hands 22 and not you

at

one who

from misfortune. Give something to God

others and not one of those

gaze

77

summary, Gregory claims

is

a great

easier to

medicine for

be borne

23 .

that although the ultimate reason for suf-

may remain unknown, in some cases it falls upon humans as a punishment from God. Our task, however, is not to speculate about human suffering but to help those who suffer. Every misfortune, disaster, or disease provides us with a chance to help those who have been affected. Any suffering

fering that has befallen our neighbor gives us the possibility to express

passion in concrete deeds.

By helping our

and become ourselves “gods”

for those

deification begins in our everyday lives

fellow

who

humans, we

suffer.

when we

assist

com-

God

Thus, the mystery of

imitate

God

in

His com-

passion and mercy.

Social Inequality and Christian Morality Gregory was

a citizen

of a mighty empire in which

it

was a commonplace

own slaves. At the head of the social pyramid stood the semiemperor, who was supposed to be subject to no one other than God.

for citizens to

divine

The

slaves

formed the bottom of the pyramid. These were to be “submis-

sive to their masters with all respect,

not only to the kind and gentle, but

24 Slaves were entirely also to the overbearing .”

and without

their consent they

of the Christian life .

25

clergy. In fact,

Between these two

2i

24 25

I.e.,

in the

could neither marry, nor become members they could not even dispose of their

own

of provinces and

cities,

nobles of different

hope of receiving alms.

Disc. 14, 26; 28 i

their masters

poles, various social classes were located-from

senators, courtiers, governors 22

dependent on

(PG } 5,

892-896).

Pet 2.18.

Cf. C.

Mango, Byzantium,

32-33, 222-223.

the

Empire of New Rome (London: Trafalgar Square, 1980),

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

78

ranks, landowners,

and army

Clergymen could

libertines.

officers to

it

became more and more

among

candidates for the episcopacy from

and

less feasible for a representative

become

any

theoretically belong to

from the fourth century

ever,

merchants, soldiers, peasants, and

of

social rank;

common

the aristocracy;

how-

to seek

became

it

less

lower stratum of the society to

a

a bishop.

All of society was to be governed

Roman

inherited from the ancient

by

a

system of order 26 one that was ,

Empire. The hierarchical structure of

Byzantine society corresponded to the underlying notion of a natural inequality of people. At the

same time,

before the law, except the emperor

below

it

Characteristic in this respect

same way

slaves) to

who was above

and

it,

air are a

common

Christianity. St Peter

and kings” allow

all

in

be the emperor

mind

the pagan

Roman

as

ject to the

governing authorities,” since “there

make

27

state

to the

Roman

more

human

institution,

by him.

as sent

.

.

.

is

no

authority except from all

third centuries, apologetic

who

are in high

works addressed

emperors repeatedly stressed that Christians are loyal to the

civil authorities.

accepted

and

of his time when

St Paul called every Christian to be “sub-

supplications “for kings and

positions .” 30 In the second

(i.e.,

.

supreme, or to governors

Honor the emperor.” 28 also to

people”

political regimes, including those hostile to

Fear God.

God ,” 29 and

were

authority has been mandatory in every era in

civil

had

“all free

he wrote: “Be subject for the Lord’s sake to every it

who

possession of all peo-

be equally under the protection of law

kinds epochs and under

whether

slaves

Gregory’s remark that, like the beauty of the

that “lawgivers

Christian loyalty to all

is

of the sun and the

skies, the light

not

were considered to be equal

each of whom his or her master was the ultimate authority).

(for

ple in the

all

The divine

origin of the emperor’s

power was

Even the pagan emperor, according

fact.

to Christians than to the pagans, because

God

a

commonly

to Tertullian, belongs

appoints

him

31 .

Gregory Nazianzen does not question the divine origin of imperial

power even when the

issue turns

on

the person of Julian the Apostate. In

Gregory’s eyes Julian was not a usurper, nor was his power unlawful: 26 27

28 29 30 31

Mango, Byzantium Disc. 4, 96, i

Pet

33.

16-20 (SC309, 242).

2. 13-17.

Rom i

,

Tim

13. 1-2.

2.2.

Tertullian, Apology 33.

He was

.

Way toward Deification

Stewardship as a

who

a legitimate ruler

79

did not realize the height of his vocation and

turned himself against God. In his Discourse

delivered

19,

of the population census decreed by Julian, Gregory through the

authority, even

civil

Herod

or a criminal like

when

are heads

a

pagan such

of state. This

is

on the occasion

insists that

as

who

God

acts

Octavian Augustus

confirmed by the Gospel

story of Jesus

who was born

during the time of Herod’s population census

and who was

a loyal citizen

of the

Roman

Empire:

In those days a decree went outfrom Caesar Augustus that all the world should

And

be enrolled.

Bethlehem

and

to be enrolled with

lineage

of David?

Mary,

And

1

it

is

his betrothed, because he

and Ruler of everything,

tiny habitation

Today Herod

.

.

.

rages

the

Head

Aoyou

you 33

enrolling, with Christ are

Xoyi^sic). Christ

seems to

me

it

involved. In order to

population census

are

infants,

And

and and

to be liberated.

.

.

you measuring, with you

calculating (fisia

He remains God and humans. What does this word show?

being born for you,

instructs those to

show reverence

He

the house

in a squalid

whom such things are entrusted

most important administrative matters God

that in the

that time.

is

associates with

that

born

who were

you sanctioning, with the Word

are

becomes man; He It

is

and slanders the

because of the Liberator he destroys those are

wasfrom

then— O, miraculous thing!— that the

Savior, the Creator

With Christ

AndJoseph also went up to

the population census began.

to those

always

who were conducting the

associates with the flesh

in order to console us in

is

and humans

our slavery

He

precisely at

himself pays

the tax (to SiSqocyfjiov), 34 and not only for himself but also for Peter, the

most venerable among the

God,

disciples.

therefore, acts through

regardless

35

any kind of ruler and any kind of superior,

of his attitude toward Christianity.

It is

for this reason that nei-

and

third cen-

of the Church saw themselves

as social

ther Christ, nor the apostles, nor the apologists of the second turies,

nor the

reformers.

the

many

later Fathers

None

called to change the existing social structures.

centuries of

social doctrine;

its

32

Lk

33

These words

34

Cf.

35

Disc. 19, 12-13

its

existence Christianity did not elaborate

are addressed to Julian.

17.24-27. (

its

own

moral teaching always addressed individuals rather than

2.1-5.

Mt

Throughout

PG 35,

1057-1060).

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

8o

By no means did

the faceless mass or various social structures.

Christians

consider this world to be ideal, but they were convinced that as long as

humans remained

in their fallen state

no

paradise

on

earth was possible-

hence, the tranquil and conscious obedience of Christians to the authori-

human

well as their refusal to be engaged in the struggle for

ties, as

and freedom. 36 For

a Christian, a true

ated from the

power of a

free, liberated

from the chains of sin.

freedom consists not

superior, lord, or long but in

rights

in being liber-

becoming

spiritually

In his Discourse 17, delivered in the presence of the governor (city

mayor) of Nazianzus, Gregory speaks of the obligation

obey the Spirit.

the

and claims

civil authorities

However, he does not

that this

is

a

law issued by the Holy

limit himself to this notion.

mayor himself and speaks of how he should

the citizens. For the administrator, the

way to

for Christians to

use his

He

also addresses

power on behalf of

deification

lies

through alms,

philanthropy, and a merciful attitude towards his subordinates; for the subordinate,

on the other hand,

it lies

God,

in obedience to

to the superiors,

and to other fellow humans:

Let us submit to

God,

to each other,

and to earthly

authorities: to

God

because of everything, to each other because of love to our brothers,

and

to the authorities because

law

among our

way decreed by

of order.

.

.

.

There

is

also the following

laws which are praiseworthy and in the the

Holy

Spirit

their masters, wives to their

.

.

.

most beautiful

that slaves should be obedient to

husbands, the Church to the Lord, and the

students to the shepherds and teachers. In the

same way we should sub-

mit to every governing authority not only because of wrath 37 but also

of conscience. ...

for the sake

ernors?

Now my word

erning, with Christ are

received the 36

38

And what

will turn to

you

sword-not

Both the introduction of

you

.

.

.

about you,

With Christ from

exercising authority, for

for action, but for threat.

a special social doctrine in a

40 .

.

.

rulers

are

and gov-

you 39 gov-

Him have you Be with Christ

number of Christian churches

clergy in the

Roman Catholic Church) and the involvement of certain representatives of the struggle for human rights are essentially modem phenomena. Christian tradition

knows many

cases

(notably in the

on

of intercession of the Church on behalf of the oppressed, but

a purely philanthropic basis 37

38 39

40

I.e.,

Cf.

Rom

1.5. is

was done

political or social doctrine.

not only in order to avoid God’s wrath.

This and what follows I.e.,

and was not motivated by any

this

addressed to the governor of Nazianzus.

not in order to use the sword but in order to threaten infringers.

Stewardship as a

Way toward Deification

and not with an earthly ter tyrant.

human

.

.

Imitate

.

person

is

.

be with the good Lord and not with

ruler,

a bit-

God’s love of humans. The most divine

.

.

81

precisely this, to

in a

do good. You can become god with-

out any labor: do not miss your chance to reach deification.

Some

exhaust their possessions, others exhaust their flesh for the sake of the others mortify themselves for Christ and arise and go entirely

spirit, still

away from the world

Nothing of these do we expect from you, only

love of your fellow humans. 41

obey

In the text quoted, Gregory calls the slaves to

same way to

Church obeys

as the

be merciful to their

form of a

self “the

slaves,

Christ. In another place he calls the masters

remembering

servant.” 42 For those

that Christ also took

who

are free

it is

have slaves but they must not deal harshly with them. 43

ments imply that Gregory advocated a slave-owner, free

From

slavery.

he understood well that

and noble, and

the beginning,

person from

the

only

it is

He

all

as a result

says,

their masters in the

it

beginning made him

enough

that they

None of these

state-

Though being an aristocrat and

people were originally created

of the

was not

upon him-

5o.

44

Fall that inequality existed:

But He who made

free

as

a

human

and self-governed, limited

only by one law of the commandment, 46 and rich in the delight of paradise.

.

.

.

Freedom and

richness consisted in keeping the

ment, and true poverty and the time

when

devil appeared

jealousy, quarrels, .

.

.

and

But you should look

.

at its

subsequent division. 47

Gregory underlines the nobles and plebeians

4x

Disc. 17,

42

Cf. Phil 2.7.

43

Disc. 19, 13

44

Mt Mt

45

46 47

Cf.

is

as

19.8.

19.4.

Gen

2.16-17.

Disc. 14, 25-26

(PG 35,

892).

at

However, from

humans was broken due

the

initial

unnatural as

to their

was destroyed by greedi-

equality of ranks rather than

fact that the division

6-10 (TG35, 972-977)-

(PG 35,1060).

transgression.

their natural nobility

ness.

.

its

and the treacherous tyranny of the

the kinship between

division into ranks, .

slavery, in

command-

is

its

of the

human

race into

division into slaves and

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

82

masters. 48 True nobility origins but in his high

What

One

is

is

a master?

and

true

What

is

a slave?

one

See a fellow servant in him

about household

law,

who

one’s

way of life

a false division?

attends

and

(nocq oxocioq) is a slave,

is

also

Wealth, according to Christian views, Christ himself instructed the rich

.

.

of God?

especially the slaves

makes one

either slave or free.

liberated us. 49

and he who

Division into rich and poor

.

to their masters.

(6 iqoTtoq) that

He

upon you

me

Elsewhere Gregory speaks more bluntly: “For

person

one man’s noble

one judgment.

slaves,

Christ appeared as a slave but

not

Is it

They should not avoid doing good It is

in

moral character:

the Creator of all,

And what

freedom consist not

is

every morally perverse

virtuous

is

free.”

50

among the consequences of the is

hardly compatible with salvation:

young man

to

sell all his

to give to the poor. 51 Gregory, less radical, suggested

two

possessions and possibilities for

the rich: either to distribute their possessions to the poor, or to keep

themselves but to share

Developing

We demand .

.

.

48

their

table to be sprinkled with the

oils

.

.

.

is

close to Gregory

la

humans

of flowers

most aromatic and most

of Nyssa but

into free

and

differs

from

slaves as instituted

Basil the Great;

by God:

see R.

esclavitud teorfa y praxis,” Basil ofCaesarea: Christian, Humanist, Ascetic. :

A Sixteen-Hundredth Anniversary Symposium,}. Hadjinicolaou-Marava, Recherches sur

on Gregory of Nyssa’s views on

15-16;

and wealthy peo-

and that adorned boys with exuberant woman-like

In this assertion Gregory

“San Basilio y

for

squandering and their indifference to the poor:

the latter regarded the division of Teja,

criticizes the aristocratic

it

latter option).

that even the floor should exhale the fragrance

and the

expensive

with others (he himself chose the

theme, Gregory

this

of his time for

ple

it

Fall.

Fedwick, ed., Part

la vie des esclaves

dans

le

I

(Roma,

1981),

Monde Byzantin

slavery see R. Moriarty,

Human

396-399; A.

(Athens, 1950),

Owners,

Human Slaves:

Gregory ofNyssa, Horn. Eccl. 4, Studia Patristica 27 (Papers Presented at the Eleventh International Conference on Patristic Studies held in Oxford 1991), E. A. Livingstone, ed. (Louvain, Belgium, 19 93),

62-69.

We

should note that the notion of the natural equality of all humans became

more and more widespread

in

by the

repeatedly stated in Justinian’s novellae). This did not lead, how-

civil authorities (it

ever, to the abolition

is

Byzantium and by the

of slavery: SeeJ. Gaudemet,

716-717. 49 5(>

51

Carm.

1,

2, 33

Carm.

1,

2,

Mt

19.21.

(

PG 37, 938).

26 (PG37,

853).

sixth century

was acknowledged even

Institutions del''antiquite,

2nd

ed. (Paris, 1982),

Stewardship as a

Way toward Deification

hair should stand in rows ...

with their finger-tips

.

.

.

of whom some should hold wine-cups

while others must hold fans above our head

and by handmade wafts cool the

of wine

ers?

.

... It

.

Why

.

is

until intoxication.

do we

live

of our

fullness

even a sufficient amount of water glasses

83

something

is

.

flesh.

.

What

.

O

.

For the poor

while

great,

is it,

.

friends

we drink

and broth-

luxuriously while our brothers are in distress?

necessary either to reject everything for Christ and sincerely

low Him, having taken the

cross.

52 .

.

.

way-be

sanctified,

and

that those without

Thus, every social inequality-be

it

between

may

rich

we

possess

sequence of the

The same

Fall.

it

partake of it

in a

53 .

and poor, masters and

nobles and plebeians— is contrary to the original order and

slaves,

fol-

or to share our possessions with

Christ in order that our possession of goods-because right

.

applies to the inequality between

a

is

con-

men and

women. In

Byzantium women,

especially those

who were

ered to be second-rate citizens. Their roles in social for the

most

remained

part they

at

home, looked

married, were consid-

were insignificant;

life

after the children,

and

occupied themselves with some simple needlework. In Gregory’s view,

which corresponded to commonly accepted opinions,

occupy herself with theology or speak on loom, yarn, and the reading of pious use cosmetics nor build

on her head

woman should not

religious matters.

literature

a

a

54 .

Her

lot

possible,

woman

is

tower out of artificial

hair; instead

to stay indoors, pray, weave, or spin, speak as

meet only other pious women, and attend

In marriage, the wife

is

show on her

face,

much money or drinks

Cf.

33

Disc. 14, 17-18

Carm.

1,

Carm.

1, 2,

(

PG 35,

57

if

off; if

she

she laughs, he must stop

do so

57 .

877-880).

(PG }y, 602-603). 29 (PG 37, 884-885).

2, 3

der Frauen (Heidelberg, 1972). 36

56 .

Mt 16.24.

52

55

as

little

too much, he must limit her;

she goes out too often, he must forbid her to

54

It is

own husband

he must wipe them

speaks too much, he should force her to cease;

if

to her

55 .

subordinate to her husband, and he must watch her

behavior. If cosmetics

her; if she spends too

a

A woman should neither

she should wear hair-dress and be content with her natural beauty best for a

is

Carm.

1,

2,

29

(PG yy, 903-904).

Disc, yy, 8, 15-20

(SC318,

288).

Cf. A. Knecht, Gregor von Nazianz Gegen die Putzsucht

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

84

In spite of these views Gregory understood that the primordial equality

woman and man

between

When

could not be contested.

reasoning as

women in ancient Israel, Gregory advances a hypothesis according to which men should be blamed for intro-

regards the subordinate position of

ducing laws that discriminate against women. In Christianity, on the contrary,

every discrimination should be avoided because

God and

in Christ “there

is

neither male nor female .” 58

For what was the reason they restrained the

man, and

that a

woman who

woman, but indulged

practises evil against her husband’s

an adulteress, and the penalties of the law for

husband commits fornication against

if the

to give?

I

do not accept

They who made

the

are equal before

all

this legislation;

Law were men, and

bed

is

very severe; but

this are

he has no account

his wife,

do not approve

I

the

custom.

this

therefore their legislation

is

hard on women, since they have placed children also under the authority

of their

not ity

so,

but

of the

fathers, while leaving the

He says: Honoryourfather andyour mother.

legislation.

owed by

is

There

is

weaker. But

do you consider the

die for the

He

honor.

says, shall

And

Gal

Ex

60

Rom

61

Cf.

62

20.12. 1.3.

Mt

Gen 63 Eph

1.23.

2.24. 5.32.

61 ,

and

become one flesh

a

and the Church

3.28.

also

is

also for the

woman.

saved by His death.

62 ;

this

is

so

let

on

the

woman’s

profound one, and 63

.

It

it is

is

is

side.

He

is

hon-

They

the one flesh have equal

Paul legislates for chastity by his example.

Church through

59

both by His pas-

;

through her husband: and

58

better? Christ saves

David 60 and so perhaps you think the man

what way? This mystery is

the

and the other the

man? The woman

He is born of a Virgin

to Christ

See the equal-

to be the stronger

man? So He was

flesh for the

called descendedfrom

two,

.

does

woman sinned, and so did Adam. The serpent deceived

Was He made

ored; but

.

God

one Maker of man and woman; one debt

them both; and one was not found

Did He

59 .

for.

children to both their parents. ... If you enquire into the

worse-well, the

sion.

weaker sex uncared

I

am

How, and

saying that

it

in

refers

well for the wife to respect Christ

well for the

his wife. Let the wife ,

he

husband not

to dishonor

says, see that she respects her

Way toward Deification

Stewardship as a

85

husband 64 for by doing so she respects Christ; but also he bids the hus,

band

cherish his wife, for so Christ does the

Church

65 .

many of the widely held Byzantine citizen. He contests a

In this passage Gregory actually argues against

opinions of the average fourth-century

fundamental tenet of Byzantine thinking especially espoused

and monastic

way,” 66

woman

where

literature,

is

in ascetical

presented as the “devil’s gate-

of everything bad, scandalous, and immoral

a source

here speaks out in defense of women, in the same

way

defends the poor, the suffering, and the discriminated Gregory’s views

on

Gregory

that elsewhere he

68 .

can be summarized in the following

social issues

comes from God; every kind of dis-

three basic concepts: every authority

crimination and inequality

67 .

unnatural; and every person, regardless of his

is

or her social rank, can live a virtuous

that leads to deification.

life

Perhaps the most characteristic feature of Gregory’s moral and social teaching

is

way towards

as a

living a virtuous

and

fied

comes

for

are necessary in order for the

improving the quality of his

purification,

a person’s

is

from above

70 .

Eph

Disc. 37, 6, 4-7,

66

Tertullian,

67

Cf.

.

.

to

women

III), E.

F.

X.

70

this

end:

Gzrw. Cf. Jn

1,

(New

36-48

2, 8

3.3.

{PG 37,

661).

Basil the Great.

to the Sixth International Conference

(ed.

As has been noted,

not measure up to modern standards of even

A. Livingstone, ed.,

Basil’s Letter 199,

from

Murphy, Moral and Ascetical Doctrine

TU 117

Courtonne,

canonical regulations discriminating against 69

“second

God, of theology

but a means towards

life is

in general “did

Gregory Nazianzen”; see

Oxford 1971, Part

from

his

1982), 26-27.

latter’s attitude

clear

through which

225-227;}. LaPorte, The Role of Women in Early Christianity

Studia Patristica 14 {Papers Presented in

living,

20 (SC318, 282-286).

Women 1, 1. Mango, Byzantium,

.

person to be puri-

accordance with Christian moral stan-

In this respect Gregory differs significantly

those of

in society

5.33.

York-Toronto,

the

Virtuous

one’s ascent to the heights of the knowledge of

is

65

68

life.

human

complete transfiguration,

Life in

and of contemplation. Virtuous

64

both in the Church and

life

The observation of God’s commandments and

deification. life

birth ,” 69 or birth

dards

human

that he considers

Patristic Studies held

(Berlin, 1976), 325. This

161-163),

women.

on

where

in St. Basil,

is

particularly

Basil introduces various

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

86

Ascend through virtuous

you want one day

to

life.

become

Acquire purity through purification. a theologian

Do

and worthy of the Divinity?

Observe the commandments and progress through keeping His prescriptions. For practice

is

a foothold

S7iipaaig Oecopiat;). 71

7i

Disc 20, .

12,

4-7 (SC 270, 80-82).

of contemplation

(Tipoc^ig

yap

THE POWER OF

DETACHMENT

EARLY

IN

MONASTIC LITERATURE John Chryssavgis Introduction: The Way of the Desert

O

ne

may

not immediately or even easily associate the notion

of stewardship with the early monastic cism as a

is

normally regarded

way of giving,

as a

as a life

way of giving

principles

and

and possessions-the monastics

ment

well as

its

reflected in

we

shall explore the

of

of the world-of worldly

liberation

to things material as well as about the importance

stewardship. In this chapter,

as a life

that fled to the deserts

and taught about

Palestine in fact dealt with

up, rather than

of sacrifice rather than

sharing. Nevertheless, in their radical renunciation

Monasti-

tradition.

of Egypt

from an

attach-

of partnership and

notion of detachment,

corresponding notion of attachment, particularly

as

as these are

connection with the concepts of charity and community within

the monastic literature of the early church.

The focus of our

attention will

be on the Sayings ofthe Desert Fathers (fourth century), the Ascetic Discourses of

Abba

Isaiah

of Scetis

sixth century),

*Dn John

(fifth century),

the Reflections of Abba Zosimas (early

and the Letters of Barsanuphius and John (mid-sixth century).

Chryssavgis studied theology in Athens and Oxford and taught

ological College in

Sydney and

at

Holy Cross School of Theology

in

at St

1

Andrew’s The-

Boston. His writing has

focused on the early ascetic literature of Egypt, Palestine, and Sinai.

*On ton, Ind.: kett,

the Sayings and the Reflections see J. Chryssavgis, In the Heart ofthe Desert (Blooming,

World Wisdom Books, 2003); on

Abba

Isaiah, Ascetic Discourses

Isaiah

of Scetis, see J. Chryssavgis and

P.

R. Pen-

(Kalamazoo, Mich.: Cistercian Publications, 2002); on

Barsanuphius and John, see forthcoming translation byj. Chryssavgis, Barsanuphius andJohn: Questions

and Answers (Kalamazoo, Mich.:

Cistercian Publications).

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

88

Detachment, or apotage

an ongoing lesson learned over

in fact

is

,

years in the desert, not an action that occurs once for is

the

step

first

And

of salvation.”

people and you

detachment

is

Abba Zosimas

to

God in these words:

will

me in the way from

be saved .” 2

more than merely

always far

always liked to say:

harmful, but being attached to

things, material or other;

it

an attitude of

.” 3

not primarily the inability to focus on

is

on

the spiritual capacity to focus

it is

life.

spatial or material.

not possessing something that

“It is

material and other, without attachment. it is

“Lord, lead

a voice came, saying to him: “Arsenius, flee

This kind of detachment

tual;

it

of monastic renunciation of material possessions or of the

Abba Arsenius prayed

is

some ways,

In

wasteland of the desert.

flight to the

Yet,

all.

many

And

It is

detachment

of every monastic,

life

things,

something profoundly

in this respect,

requiring continual refinement in the

all

spiri-

ongoing,

is

as in the life

of every Christian. In this light, perhaps ciation as merely the

there are

of steps stages

that

many

would even be inappropriate

it

first

one undergoes

of coats of skin,

way of detachment,

of spiritual

ofrefinement. There

are,

it

what

is

just as there are a

we might

Indeed,

truly

just as

refer to a series

all,

when we

until

learn to let

to.

stewardship

“our inner vision

go of something, we

Detachment a

is

is,

therefore, the

way of submitting

to the

needs of neighbor and to the priority of grace.

Abba Zosimas fervor that

said: “In time,

we suppose

become attached 2 3

4

Arsenius Reflections

Doulas

i.

through neglect, we lose even the

we have

in

to useless, insignificant

i.

I,

that

b and XV,

d.

of

where detachment resembles the shedding

worth holding on

beginning of humility,

number

number of successive detachments

our senses are sharpened, or

becomes [more] keen .” 4 After also learn

life.

seems, a

in the desert,

until

of renun-

stage-albeit essential-of detachment. Rather,

stages in the

in the ladder

to speak

little

our ascetic renunciation.

and

We

entirely worthless matters,

The Power ofDetachment in Early Monastic Literature

89

God and neighbor, appropriating material things as if they were our own or as if we had not received them substituting these for the love of

from God. ‘What do you have that you did not receive? And received

it,

then

why do you

boast as

if it

were not

a gift?’ ”

(I

if

you

Cor ^.y) 5

Detachment from the body and the world: The Sayings of the

Desert Fathers

many of us, the early monastics seemed to discipline the body in cruel ways. Indeed, many of the Sayings of the Desert Fathers appear to treat the For

body very

harshly. In fact, however, the emphasis

excess layers,

on

as “flesh.” It

is

getting rid of the dead layers,

always

which

on shedding the

this literature defines

another aspect of offering, even sacrificing oneself to the

world and to God. In the

desert,

detachment

ing excess baggage and of traveling light.

manage with

is

less

is

precisely a

way of renounc-

And the truth is that we can always

than we have; indeed, we can often manage with a

lot less

than we would dare to imagine. Even while claiming that the entire world belongs to God, the desert elders would material possessions. Their context

the world; entire

an

it is

world

is

no longer

a struggle to

is

effort to establish

in fact centered

strive

become

depend on

to

less

centered

on

another order and focus, where the

on God.

Refocusing our vision

Nonetheless, the ascetic’s treatment of the body appears negative to con-

temporary readers and practitioners because we have overloaded the body with

far

too much. The change, therefore, as we

lifestyle to that

espoused by Antony or Arsenius, seems so overwhelming

and so enormous erally cal

move from our own

that

it

creates a sense

of vertigo within

us.

Our bodies

go through “withdrawal symptoms” when confronted with the

withdrawal of Antony into the desert. After

that the

more we

have, the better

the less he had, the

we

more he was!

are;

We

all,

lit-

radi-

our culture teaches us

Antony’s context taught him that

appear to be carrying so

much

bag-

many preoccupations and concerns, and such great loads that walking freely with God truly appears frightening, unfamiliar, and perhaps painful. Our natural response, then, is to resist such change, to defy the gage, so

divine vocation to give, and to refuse the opportunity of stewardship.

simply makes no sense to 5

Reflections

X,

c.

us.

It

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

90 Abba Antony when they

said:

see

“A time

is

someone who

saying: ‘You are crazy;

you

coming when people not insane, they

is

are

not

like us.’

And

go insane.

will

will attack that

person

”6

Thus, in the fourth century, detachment meant that the desert Fathers

and Mothers became

as

nothing,

much

like the

sand of the desert that

rounded them. Moreover, detachment further implied ing one with the environment. Their holiness was part

a sense

sur-

of becom-

and parcel of a sense of

wholeness. Just as “at-one-ment” with one’s neighbor was of the essence of desert spirituality, so too

was “at-tune-ment” to one’s environment, to the

world, and to God.

Abba John

the

Eunuch

“My children,

said:

since our Fathers have previously cleansed

If the

let it

us not pollute this place,

from demons.” 7

purpose of fleeing to the desert was to re-establish

then reconciliation with creation and reconnection with

may sometimes

These elders

moving

appear eccentric, but

it,

too,

comes

God was

critical.

eccentricity literally

means

world on God. The world becomes a waste-

the center, re-centering the

land unless

a lost order,

alive in

an authentic

human

being,

who

in turn

becomes the eyes and conscience of the world.

We might think of it in this way:

it is

simply not possible to share some-

when we keep our

thing precious, or even to hold a lover’s hand,

clenched, or

if we are

holding onto something so

pose of monastic detachment

mately to learn

how

is

not to

to live as a part

tightly.

live apart

from

The genuine pursociety,

.

.

with people, then you will not be able to either.”

live

it is

then, to be

is

to be neither

Antony

more

25.

7

John the Eunuch

8

to flee

from

lived rightly

properly in solitude

dependent nor detached from people.

transparent, allowing for sincerity in personal rela-

tionships and sensitivity in material possessions.

6

ulti-

8

The aim, Instead,

but

of society.

One day Abba Longinus said to Abba Lucius: “I wish people.” The old man replied: “If you have not first of all .

fists

Longinus

1.

5.

TJje

Power ofDetachment

in Early

Abba Agathon

“Under no circumstances should

said:

Monastic Literature

91

a

monk

let his

conscience accuse him of anything.”

He

also said: “I have never

one. And, as far as grievance against

I

could,

gone I

to sleep with a grievance against any-

have never

let

anyone go

to sleep with a

me .” 9

Detachment implies

and

a corresponding sincerity

sensitivity in actions,

words, and even gestures.

Abba

“When someone

Isaiah said:

wishes to render

evil for evil, that

person can cause harm to another’s soul even by means of a single nod

of the head .” 10

This attitude also extends beyond one’s connection with other people to one’s relationship to material things.

Abba Agathon was walking with a small green pea it?”

on

his disciples.

the road, said to the old

One of them, on finding man: “Father, may I take

The old man, looking at him with astonishment,

that put

there?” “No,” said the brother.

it

“How

replied:

“Was

it

you

then,” continued the

old man, “can you take up something, which you did not put

down ?” 11

Work and prayer; words and silence

The detachment

We

are to let

existence.

that

is

recommended

here

is

actually a

go of our actions, of our statements, and

The aim of letting go of our

actions

is

form of letting finally

go.

of our very

in fact the first step in the

learning of prayer, which in itself is the starting-point and ending-point of all

authentic action, of any action that stems from the heart.

Abba

Nilus said: “Everything that you do in revenge against a brother

who has harmed you will come back to your mind at the time of prayer.”

He

also said:

bear 9

fruit for

Agathon

10

Isaiah

and

2

8.

11

Agathon

12

Nilus

1

11.

and

5.

“Whatever you have endured out of love of wisdom

you 4.

at the

time of prayer.” 12

will

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

92

images and so

many to God

and heavily

to pray

In prayer,

we

are literally letting go:

renouncing and refining so

much information that tend to veil our relationship weigh down on the soul. By letting go, we also learn

more spontaneously— a

that children

gift

seem

to have innately but

which

takes a lifetime for us to recover as adults.

When we are detached from material things, then the way of silence and the

way of service Abba Poemen

coincide.

said: “If three

serves interior peace,

people meet, of whom the

and the second

God

gives thanks to

the third serves with a pure mind, these three are doing the

Furthermore, through detachment, work

It

was said of Abba Apollo, that he had

trained in

all

to say that

good works and

all

things are

for everything.” 14

(cf.

fully pre-

in illness,

and

same work.” 13

never separated from prayer.

a disciple

in the gift

good

is

first

named

of ceaseless

Isaac, perfectly

prayer. ...

in their proper time, “for there

He

used

a

time

is

Eccl 3.1-8)

Just as prayer conditions our works, silence too conditions our words.

Such

silence

is

yet another

Abba Poemen live.”

form of freedom and detachment.

said: “If you are silent,

you

will

have peace wherever you

15

Such prayer

in silence frees us for carefree service

no longer conditioned by

of others, where we

are

the burden of necessity but always prepared for

the novelty of grace’s surprise.

Detachment The

A

later

in

Discourses of

emigrant from Egypt,

monastery

personal relations:

Abba Isaiah of Scetis

Abba

Isaiah

had spent many years

as well as actually residing in the desert

Palestine-fleeing fame, as

u Poemen 14

Isaac the

15

Poemen

29.

Theban 84.

2.

we

are

He moved to and 431. He first

of Scetis.

informed-between

431

in a

.

TJje

Power oj Detachment

in Early

settled near Eleftheropolis,

Monastic Literature

moving

finally to Beit

93

Daltha near Gaza, some

four miles from Thavatha, where Barsanuphius and John would later establish their reputation.

There, Isaiah stayed for several decades, serving for his

contemporaries and

visitors as a living

life,

until his death in 489.

identifiable

and

Abba

had

numerous

Isaiah inserted

ascetic

Sayings both ,

original, in his Ascetic Discourses, possibly regarding himself

as responsible for preserving

that he

example of the old Scetiote

and even promoting the words of the

elders

either personally heard or heard about in Egypt.

An asceticism ofsensitivity Drawing on

a rich

monastic tradition that defines regulations for those

ing in a religious community, as well as charitable

conduct

(cf.

the basic evangelical precepts of

Mt 7.12 and Lk 6.31), Abba

eate clearly the boundaries

of respect

Th e Ascetic Discourses

sonal relations.

on

liv-

Isaiah

is

careful to delin-

in regard to personal

[hereafter A.D.] clearly

and

interper-

emphasize the

primacy of charity: Without

charity, virtue

is

only an

illusion.

A.D

(.

21)

For Isaiah, such sensitivity in brotherly relations

is

part

monastic detachment. The ultimate aim of renunciation simply to give up, but in one’s his

self.

own

desert ascetic in

Egypt— so

sojourn there— was called to

and even

Our

The

fact to give freely

let

and parcel of learning not

is

of one’s own possessions and

Isaiah

would have

recalled

from

go of all control— material, verbal,

spiritual:

of old

fathers

said that the flight

is

one from one’s own

self.

(A.D.

26)

“Letting go of oneself before God,” “letting go of other people,” and “letting

be of things in general” are phrases frequently repeated in

ascetic writings is

(cf.

esp.

A.D.

4).

Such

is

“the

discovered in “the power of the cell” (A.D.

render, the act of worldly renunciation

Asceticism

In this regard, interact

Abba

upon and

is

Isaiah’s

power of renunciation” 4).

that

Indeed, without such sur-

worthless (A.D. 26).

and community

Isaiah appreciates

how

influence the dance that

an untold number of variables

we

call life.

More than we

often

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

94 perhaps care to admit, our

realize or

and

gesture, a nod, a smile,

A.D

lives

hinge on

little

on

things:

a

word, a

approach extends to “the

a glance. This gentle

how one greets another to how one holds a vessel given by another; from how one stands in prayer to how one behaves in the privacy of the cell; from how one notices a person of the opposite sex to how one walks with a friend of the same sex; from how one carries out the shopping to how one converses in public; from slight

and

trivial” (

.

details

15)

of daily routine: 16 from

discussions about Scripture to disputes about theology

These

details are personal,

same time so

the

universal.

and yet so general; they

Our words

(or

A.D.

(cf.

3-5).

and

are particular,

at

our silence) and our deeds (or

our indifference) have a profound impact on our neighbor and on our world. Even minor actions have significant spiritual consequences. Isaiah

is

convinced that

it is

not

participation that renders the

life

monk

in ascetic isolation, but a

Abba

in shared

life

genuine disciple of Christ.

The grace oflove

This

is

why we

are called

not only to “love praying ceaselessly,” but-as

Isaiah observes— “we are to love to love ” (A.D. [telos: cf.

sion

is

A.D.

16),

spiritual life

(A.D.

Nothing

7).

able” (A.D.

when we do not

“detachment” (A.D.

21

Love

16).

and

soul” (A.D.

is

5, 16,

identified with

2 6). Indeed, such loving

7),

more

is

2 6,

and

love, “then life (cf.

the other side of the

is

is

the only purpose

end of all

pas-

and danger-

detestable

than insensitivity toward the pain of others and

toward the presence of God (A.D. sitive to others,

Love

the climax [oros] of all virtue, while “the

self-justification”

ous in the

16).

Abba

18).

When we

are

our prayer, too,

is

A.D.

I

21; see also

same coin known detachment

is

not sen-

unaccept-

Jn 3.13— 14);

as “dispassion”

“the very seal of the

“the actual image of Christ within us” (A.D.

25).

Often we reduce the concept of love or stewardship merely to outward actions. Yet love involves the “visible” “invisible” aspects are

of support and

silence. Conversely,

supposed to speak “can be the cause of our

time, a

word out of place “can

context within which

Abba

est attention, the

Cor 16

12.12):

Cf. also

Abba

also be the death

least significant

most vulnerable

Isaiah, Saying 8.

as well as the

being silent

when we

spiritual death;” at the

of our soul” (A.D.

Isaiah perceives the virtue

image of the body, wherein the

(I

dimensions of charity

of love

members

is

same

3).

The

the Pauline

deserve the great-

are indispensable, ultimately invaluable

Power oj Detachment

TJ)e

Monastic Literature

in Early

95

Every one of the body’s stronger limbs takes care of the weaker

and care

bers in order to attend

they say:

“I

am

“What have

We

have learned

incarnate bility

weak one.” But the

the

ing:

way of love-so

this

Son of God,

in

whom we

until the latter are healed;

I

am

not weak.”

Abba

(.

A.D

26).

.

Isaiah believes-directly

from the

have been nurtured from the vulnera-

of childhood to the maturity of sainthood. In

course,

and

cruel person busies himself, ask-

do with the weak?

to

I

them

for

mem-

his 25th Ascetic Dis-

image of the providential and maternal

Isaiah analyses this

love of God:

While the young infant times from every she gives

it

order that

moved

heart

to pity, for

comforts

it

When

evil.

breath with

its

is

is still

all

not

it is

We

on

are raised

It

this

revealing us as being

bones” as

(here,

Abba

mother’s bosom, she guards she offers

cries,

it

filled

it

it

at all

her breast. Gradually, it

with boldness. But

to learn fear ... in

when

it

cries,

she

is

born of her entrails. She consoles, embraces, and it

her breast. If it

or precious stones, nevertheless

mother’s bosom.

its

her strength, helping

by giving

again,

in

it

is

greedy for gold,

silver,

overlooks these while being in the

scorns everything in order to take the breast.

milk of love, which comprises the “great mystery”

“members of Christ’s body, of His

Isaiah

is

flesh

paraphrasing St Paul in Ephesians

and of His

5.30), as

well

of the Desert Fathers were

first

“members one of another.”

Detachment from material things: The Reflections of Abba Zosimas One of the most recollected ical

likely places that the Sayings

and then collected was

in Palestine, partly

due to

its

geograph-

proximity to Egypt, but also due to the steady progression of Egyptian

monks both

to the southern parts

their alphabetical,

of Judaea. The Sayings of the Desert

and anonymous or systematic

Fathers in ,

collections, are

already found in seminal texts of the early period. Such texts include,

among others,

the Ascetic Discourses of Abba Isaiah of Scetis in the late fifth

century and the Reflections of Zosimas, first

who founded

a

community

in the

half of the sixth century. In particular, the monastery of Seridos in the

Gaza region played an important and

influential role,

which

is

reflected in

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

96

the Correspondence of Barsanuphius

we now

that

and John. 17

It is

to these latter

two

turn our attention.

Abba Zosimas’

Reflections

make numerous

of the Sayings

citations

implying perhaps that Zosimas borrowed these from existing written

Abba Zosimas even which

ers,

attests to the fact that these less

by the middle of the

were widely

everywhere in monastic

is

the sayings with this specific

known circles

perhaps the

title.

earliest

and, possibly,

of lower

Pales-

such characterization of

In a quaint passage,

we

are told that:

blessed Zosimas always loved to read these Sayings

they were almost

texts.

sixth century. Indeed, Zosimas’ reference to “the

sayings of the holy elders” 18

The

,

Apophthegmata from oth-

reveals having heard various

even accessible more or tine

texts

like the air that

the time;

all

he breathed. 19

Like The Sayings of the Desert Fathers themselves, these “reflections” were related but not actually recorded

much

by Zosimas. In content and

menical Council

525,

namely from the period just

(in 451) until

times by Dorotheus of Gaza,

He

who knew him

Reflections

personally and visited

of Abba Zosimas. In

may

this section,

quote excerpts from some key passages from the

in fact

we

shall

Ecu-

elders several

him

as

be the simply

which speak

Reflections ,

about attachment to and detachment from material possessions. Chapter I:

Whoever

so desires

is

Abba Zosimas would some

On Detachment

able to regard the

whole world

fight or argue over this; or else,

or be afflicted over this? Unless

18

Cf. Reflections XII.

19

See Reflections XII,

b.

being nothing.

it

value-and

who would

be someone

who

Cf. L. Regnault, “Les Apophtegmes des Peres en Palestine aux

Mi): 320-330.

as

take whatever he could find-whether a nail or

thread, or anything else of insignificant

would ever

17

mentioned

is

younger contemporary and compatriot. Dorotheus

compiler of the

54

after the fourth

around the time of the great Gaza

Barsanuphius, John, and their disciple Dorotheus.

clearly

they very

resemble the Ascetic Discourses of Abba Isaiah of Scetis. Zosimas flour-

ished between 475 and

a

style,

say:

keep

a

“Who grudge

has truly lost his

Ve

et

Vie

siecles,” lrenikon

Ti)c

Power ofDetachment in Early Monastic Literature

mind.

Any

who

godly person,

is

consider the whole world as this sesses the entire world.

thing that

progressing and advancing, should

nail,

As I always

even

like to say: ‘It

[Zosimas] remembered the brother

(I

he possessed these vegetables

Cor 7.30-31). He was not

test

” it.’

toil in labor,

as if he

and

or plant and nur-

did not in fact

when

therefore worried

his elder,

him, began to destroy them. This appeared

instead, he concealed his feelings. Moreover,

he said to his elder: ‘Father,

may

vegetables,

Did he perhaps uproot them or throw them away?

ture their growth? Yet,

not possessing some-

is

who owned some

used to say: “Did he not sow the seed, or

No.

person actually pos-

if that

harmful, but being attached to

is

97

if

as

wishing to

nothing to him;

when one

you wish, you may

own them

root remained,

leave

it,

so that

we

share a meal.’ Then, that holy elder understood that his disciple

of God and not of the vegetables.”

was genuinely

a servant

Abba Zosimas

also used to say that if the

demons

being attached to things, because they are neither

by them, then they know does not in

fact

that such a person

notice

someone not

afflicted

nor troubled

may walk on

this earth

but

have an earthly mentality. Chapter XV:

On Perfect Detachment

Once, Abba Zosimas remembered the saying about the Old Man, who was robbed by brother, that

his

neighboring brother. Instead of ever rebuking his

Old Man began

to

work

had need of these. Abba Zosimas

“There was an Old Man,

who

harder, thinking that the brother

also told the following story.

lived near

our monastery and

very good soul. There was another brother,

When

the

Old

Man

open the Old Man’s So when the Old his vessels, his vessels

a

also lived nearby.

was absent one day, that brother was tempted to cell,

Man

enter inside, and take his vessels and books.

returned, he

he went to announce still

who

who had

opened the door and, not finding

this to the brother.

However, he found

lying in the middle of the brother’s cell; for, the brother

had not yet put them away. Not wishing to put the brother

to

shame

or to rebuke him, he pretended that he had a stomachache and went to the toilet for

enough time so

as to

allow the brother to put away the

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

98

vessels.

Then, the Old

Man

He

brother on another subject. a

returned and began to speak with the did not rebuke the brother at

After

all.

few days, however, the Old Man’s vessels were recognized, and the

Man knowing

brother was taken to prison without the Old

about

When

it.

prison, he was

anything

he heard about the brother, namely that he was in

unaware of the reason

still

for

which the brother was

imprisoned. So he came to me, said the Abbot, for he would frequently visit us,

and

church bread.’ said: ‘Yes.’

be so kind

said: ‘Please,

However, the Old

Man

account of you, Abba. For, theless, here, take

this

is

wanted these

some consolation

entered the prison, the brother

The Old

eggs and

I

I

came

said:

am

‘I

dened. Therefore,

that

Man

I

who stole your vessels. Neverhere. And take this clothing; it is

‘Child,

here.

I

may your heart be

did not

know at all

assured, that

that

you

have

eggs and

come

to bring

some church

was sad-

you some consolation. Look,

bread.

Now,

then,

I

shall

went off and begged

come out

certain dignitaries-for, he

do

all

was well known

because of his virtue— and they arranged for the brother of prison.”

“Again, they also used to say the following about the same

Once he went for himself.

to

I

are here

can in order to have you removed from prison.’ Indeed, the Old

among them to

I

on

here

the one

it is

Man told him:

and

Now, when he

because of me. Nevertheless, on hearing that you are here,

some

He

in order to visit the

to the brother.

to his feet

fell

am

your book;

not the reason

here are

some

asked him: ‘Do you have visitors coming today?’

I

prison and bring

yours.’

me some

as to give

to the market place in order to purchase

And

he bought

it.

Having given

a piece

Old Man.

some clothing

of gold, he

still

had

pay some small change. So he took the clothing and placed

it

beneath him. Wftile he was counting out the coins on the counter,

someone came along and wanted

to steal the clothing.

The Old

Man

perceived this and understood what was happening. Yet, since he had a merciful and compassionate heart, he lifted himself

up

gradually, sup-

posedly pretending to reach out over the counter in order to pay the coins. In this way, the other person

departed.

And

was able to

steal the clothing,

and

The Old Man, however, did not rebuke him.”

the blessed

Abba Zosimas would conclude: “How expensive were

the clothing and the vessels, which the

Old

Man had lost? Yet,

his great

The Power ofDetachment in Early Monastic Literature

will

power revealed

99

that he possessed these material things without

attachment to them.

He

any

neglected the fact that they had been stolen,

and simply remained the same person; he was neither saddened nor troubled. For, as is

I

always

like to say:

harmful, but being attached to

it.’

‘It is

not possessing something that

Even

if this

Old Man possessed

whole world, he would have done so without being attached to his actions,

he proved that he was

Extreme lessons

in giving

free

up and

it.

the

From

from everything.”

in giving freely!

Detachment of the Will: The Letters of Barsanuphius and John The geographical region of Gaza became

indelibly

marked

in the following

century by the presence of two remarkable elders, Barsanuphius and John, as well as

exactly

by

their

most intimate

disciple,

Dorotheus.

when Barsanuphius, himself an Egyptian monk,

of Thavatha and chose to be enclosed this position, ally attracted

as a recluse in a

We do

not know

entered the region

nearby

he offered counsel to a number of ascetics

who

cell.

From

were gradu-

Man as he developed a reputation for discernOne of these monks, Abba Seridos, who also

around the Old

ment and compassion.

attended to Barsanuphius, was appointed abbot of a monastic community,

probably established in order to organize the increasing number of monks that looked to Barsanuphius as their elder. Seridos was the only person per-

mitted to communicate with Barsanuphius, acting as a mediator for those

who sought counsel. Some time between live

525

and

beside Barsanuphius, also

527,

known

Old Man.” John was simply called the

same

as “the

“the Other

Old Man.” These two shared

and supported one another’s

life-style

hundred and

named John, came to holy Old Man” or “the Great

another hermit,

fifty letters

survive

ministry.

Around

from these two Old Men. Monks

in

eight

com-

munities, hermits in isolation, spouses in families, professionals in society,

and laypersons of every vocation submitted questions elders

and received

The responses

a response

are

through their

in writing to the wise

scribes.

spontaneous and balanced, wise and

witty, reminis-

cent of their predecessors in the Egyptian desert. The Letters of Barsanuphius and John in

fact reveal

another element that gradually disap-

peared from the Sayings as these began to be collated and edited. For, ,

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

IOO

during the stage of transition from an oral culture to a written

became more

ings

ment and

static,

losing

that originally sparked

critical struggle that

text,

the Say-

some of the personal and spontaneous

them; more

ele-

significantly, the actual process

shaped these words was also concealed.

What was

recorded, instead, was the intense drop of wisdom, yet without the long

and arduous

stages that led to the final

is

itations

of the

way

What

is

the ongoing process— all of the contentions, hesitations, and lim-

missing

the

product of the experience.

that

it

spiritual aspirant.

The

Sayings present the spiritual reality in

should be rather than in the ,

denials, doubts,

and temptations.

way

that

it

is— together with

Yet, in the Letters

all

the

of Barsanuphius and

John, we witness each of the painful stages unfolding in slow motion before

our very eyes,

like a film consisting

of many, gradually changing pictures.

There are two concepts developed in the

John

that are

of particular

interest to

Letters

of Barsanuphius and

our study about stewardship and

sharing.

To aj^iaiov

(the apsepheston, or not reckoning oneself as anything)

Be

carefree

all

people; this

from

all

things; then,

true exile.

is

And do

thus,

will

Father,

you

will find

be kept whole.

Indeed, Barsanuphius is

have time for God. Die unto

your thought to be undis-

not consider yourself as having done anything good;

your reward

notion, which

will

Moreover, retain the virtue of not reckon-

ing yourself as anything; then, turbed.

you

is

(Letter 259)

specifically asked to explain this

complicated

so central to his teaching.

what does

it

mean not

to reckon oneself as anything? 20

Brother, not reckoning oneself as anything

means not equating oneself

with anyone and not saying anything in regard to any good deed that

you may

also have achieved. (Letter 227)

Barsanuphius knows that he

which he actually

20

See also

is

not innovative in

this aspect

of his teaching,

attributes to his predecessors in the desert

Letters 123

and

157.

of Egypt.

The Power ofDetachment in Early Monastic Literature

i

oi

We are called to strive for these things, for which our Fathers also strove, namely those around Abba Poemen and the others who have

struggled

in this way. This struggle includes reckoning oneself as nothing,

not

measuring oneself at

(cf.

Gen

18.27).

and regarding oneself as earth and ashes

all,

Whereas, the struggle of those in the world involves regard-

ing oneself as knowledgeable, bringing oneself to puffing up, and reck-

oning oneself as being someone, measuring oneself in everything. All this

keeps us away from humility.

To

biHociwfjioc (the

Elsewhere, the Great

Man

Old

(Letter

dikaioma, or pretense explains another

the pretense to rights, and describes

The notion of pretense

604)

to rights

to rights)

complex

virtue,

origin.

its

something that does not contain

is

arrogance, but rather contains the denial of fault, in the

Adam

namely

and Eve and Cain and others who sinned, but who

manner of later

denied

their sin in order to justify themselves. (Letter 477)

Barsanuphius

is

drawing on

own

his

long experience and spiritual

monk was

appropriation of the desert tradition, where the to

blame other people or

den of personal

never evasively

assume the bur-

situations but always directly to

responsibility.

Abba Antony

said to

Abba Poemen:

“This

son: always to take the blame for one’s

expect temptation to the

last

is

own

the great

work of a

sins before

per-

God and

to

breath.” 21

Bearing One Another’s Burdens

The

clearest evidence that

mitment

one

is

laboring for such responsibility or

in love lies in the fulfillment

“bear one another’s burdens” (Gal 6 tation

of the example set-ultimately,

.

of the Apostolic commandment to

2),

a

com-

which

is

nothing

less

than an imi-

commandment ordained-by Christ

Himself:

Come to me, all you that are weary and are carrying heavy burdens, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you, and learn from me; for, I

21

Cf. Antony, Saying 4.

—

,

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

102

am

my yoke

For,

These the

and humble

gentle

texts

is

and

easy,

and you

in heart,

my burden

from Paul and Matthew

Old Men themselves

are

den, 24 while

light.

is

quoted

(Mt

in

your

numerous

Letters

own

love that

according to God.

my measure,

beyond

.

or beyond

of Christ, knowing-as

I

.

.

Yet, if

I

am

you:

I

have made you

more than love; this

those for

is

who

“I

who

our sake, and

do

this.

that great love leads

for,

ultimately, a sign all

Amma

I

.

.

loved those .

However,

me

I

bear

did not say to

more and be burdened

such conduct would be vainglory.

who

who laid down His own

life

have loved us with perfect love

if you

wish to cast on I

me

the whole

accept this too. Forgive

me

to talking nonsense. (Letter 73)

as

Humble Stewardship of detach-

go of our valued possessions and of our very being. of humility, which

in the desert

is

clearly treasured

virtues.” 26

Theodora

said that neither asceticism,

of suffering are able to save.

Only

nor

vigils,

true humility can

do

nor any kind

that.

22

See, for instance, Letters 94, 96, 104, 108, 123, 239, 243, 483, 575a, 579,

23

See

24

See Letter 73.

25

See

26

that

seen, in the early monastic literature, the concept

signifies a letting

“above

namely

slave.

bear the whole.” This belongs to the perfect, to

Conclusion: Detachment As we have

the love

I

burden, then for the sake of obedience

It is,

told you,

of

someone

moved by

with me. For,

have become brothers of Christ,

in order to

ment

speak

affairs

And again, I said what have said in order to banish selfwhy I did not speak to you of bearing two-thirds, showing

did not say:

I

I

a partner

I.

myself to be stronger than you;

And

I

bear one-third,” leaving you to bear

“I

disciples

nothing but a worthless

Since then you did not understand what half your sins,

say something to

I

my power,

said-that

while

the entire burden! 25

on other occasions even

is

22

other times two-thirds of the bur-

at

admire your love, brother, but you do not understand the

I

souls.

11.28-30)

burdens of their

explicitly bear the

sometimes only half the burden, 23

will find rest for

Letters

70 and

Letters 73, 553,

72.

and

John the Dwarf 22.

833.

There was

and 604.

Power ofDetachment in Early Monastic Literature

Tide

who was

a hermit

or drink.”

“Is

it

demons. And he asked them:

able to banish the

“What makes you go away? vigils?”

Is it

103

fasting?”

They

“We do not

replied:

eat

They said: “We do not sleep.” “Then what power

sends you away?” They replied: “Nothing can overcome us except

Amma

humility alone.”

victorious over the

Theodora

said:

“Do you

see

how

humility

is

demons?” 27

In the final analysis, humility looks to shift the focus of oneself as the center

of the world and to place oneself in the service of others.

Abba Or gave

this advice:

“Whenever you want

and proud thoughts, examine your conscience

to

subdue your high

carefully:

Have you

loved your enemies and been kind to them in their misfortunes?” 28

It is

humility that makes sense of all giving:

If

I

give

that

I

away

all

my

possessions,

may be burned

The humble person

and even

but do not have love,

is

all

.

things”

.

.

bears

Cor

(I

all

own

things, believes

12.4-7).

said: “It

cumstances and

who

I

n

heal the

as benefactors

Such

a sense (


tolike

0 Ieros Kodix tou Patriarcheiou Konstantinoupoleos sto miso

a so l

Istoria tou

Neou

Chrysostomos A. Papadopoulos,

Diakonia

Press, 1954), 174-175.

1992), 91.

Ellenismou, vol. B, part

1

(Thessalonike, 1964),

E Orthodoxos Anatolike Ekklesia (Athens: Apos-

Some Aspects of Stewardship of the Church of Constantinople

spiritual force” in the

words of

i

o9

Steven Runciman, one of the most

Sir

authoritative scholars of the subject. 9

pensed not only through sacramental

Its spiritual

obligations were dis-

services, the liturgy in particular,

but

through the daily practice of philanthropy. Under adverse circum-

also

stances, the Patriarchate

During the assumed the

proved

early four

role

itself a spiritual

power

in diakonia.

hundred years of Ottoman

rule the church

of the protector, the apologist, and the defender of its peo-

ple. Patriarchs, bishops,

and

priests

became the guardians of social

justice

and the advocates of a more humane treatment of the poor, the persecuted, the orphans, the prisoners,

and others

both the Patriarchate’s policy and

in need. Philanthropic

a local

communal

concern was

responsibility.

The

Greek nation under the Ottoman Empire included both wealthy and poor, but there was no sharp division between social class citizens

among among

the

classes, for all

were second-

under Turkish law and Islamic custom. The more affluent

Orthodox Christians had consideration

their brethren while the latter

for the less fortunate

had accepted willingly the paternal-

ism of the former. Under the circumstances, Greek Orthodox Christians,

whether wealthy or poor or masters or

servants,

bonds of unity and mutual

Law

thropic

spirit,

was

dition.

It

foreign

and

tions

but

it

was

a manifestation

hostile system.

The

and

in

role

did not enforce the philan-

of a long-standing benevolent

this spirit that sustained the

of the individual parish

rights

assistance.

were forced to develop

tra-

Greek people, united under

a

of the community and the contribu-

promoting

a sense

of unity with reciprocal

by modern

responsibilities are increasingly appreciated

scholars

of the Ottoman centuries.

As

a rule, the social

philanthropy of the Church in

manifested on a systematic or organized basis; constructed establishment as result

it

social mission as

period was not

a social or well-

we know it today, but an everyday activity, a

conscious participa-

one of religious philanthropia rather than

its

as social welfare,

a long-standing tradition

inherited from the Byzantine experience of philanthropy, the fostered social justice

the

and the needs of all. The Church had understood

an expression of Christian agape. Following

i.e.,

was not

of mutual concern, mercy, and compassion;

tion in the sufferings

this

Church

and perpetuated the Christian vision of the human

being as an image and likeness of God. 9

Runciman, op.

cit.,

412; see also

Timothy Ware,

Eustratios Argenti:

Church under Turkish Rule (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964),

1-5,

41-42.

A Study ofthe Greek

no

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT Though we

we

shall

find several organized philanthropic institutions, of which

speak shortly, the Church emphasized individual virtue and good-

will, a practice that

expressed

its

theological

a

done

predetermined

believer.

needy

as

as a rule

effort,

but

as

not on the basis of a planned program or

as

as

an obligation of

a believer to a fellow

The philanthropist clergyman or layman gave higher value an individual,

as a person.

Thus,

altruistic love

of God

who had been entrusted to them, while

believers were urged to consider the

sermons of leading

men of this

poor and needy

to the

much of the

was

background of the Church’s charitable work. The clergy treated jects as children

The

ethical philosophy.

community of believers and

philanthropic activity of the Church as a individuals was

and

their sub-

the wealthy

as their brethren.

The

period, such as Elias Meniates (1669-1714),

Nicephoros Theotokes (1731-1800), and Kosmas Aitolos (1714-1806), reveal

and were urged

that the rich were advised against a self-centered wealth see themselves as stewards

of possessions belonging to

God

to

for the service

of men everywhere. 10 It

was the task of the clergy to awaken

passion,

and

activity

and involvement

the less fortunate. Bishops in particular

in their flocks a love

improvement of the

for the

made numerous

appeals

but also eschatological grounds for orphans, widows, the release

and com-

on

sick,

lot

of

ethical

and the

of prisoners. Contributions for dowries of poor or orphaned

girls,

donations for the release of people imprisoned because of debts to a tyrannical state,

and other humane measures which were encouraged by the

Church, indicating that

in the practice

of philanthropy, the Church was

motivated more by religious and humanitarian principles than by sociological

considerations.

While

social justice

Christian connotation

is

is

subject to laws, philanthropia in

a free manifestation

of love,

a

its

Graeco-

spontaneous and

human being, human values and

natural overflow of concern for the welfare of one’s fellow

perceived as the ideal, harmonious development of potentialities— grounded

upon

source and creator of all, and

of creation and the

1()

upon

God

as the

faith in the

spiritual likeness

Supreme Being, the

human

being

as the

crown

of the Creator. Thus emphasis was

See Nicephoros Theotokes, Kyriakodromion, 9th ed. (Athens: Ekdotikos Oikos “Zoe,”

1930), 49-53, 134-139,307-312;

Mass.:

faith in

all

N. M. Vaporis, Father Kosmas,

Holy Cross Orthodox

Press, 1977);

the Apostle

Constantine Cavarnos,

Tuckahoe, N.Y.: St Vladimir's Seminary Quarterly 4.4

(1966).

ofthe Poor (Brookline,

“St.

Cosmas

Aitolos,”

Some Aspects of Stewardship of the Church of Constantinople

on

placed

a philanthropia that

framed in miseries and

glories

would embrace the

iii

totality

of the person-

and strength and weaknesses.

The underlying concepts of the Church

as well as the political

Ottoman subjugation made philanthropy

stances during the

an everyday awareness and

activity.

It

was practiced for purely

sons, because without applied charity there

viewed philanthropy

no

is

accompanied by almsgiving, guidance, sympathy,

movement,

religious rea-

The

clergy

human

being,

salvation.

an obligation toward one’s fellow

as

a

circum-

altruism,

and

selfless

concern. St Kosmas the Aitolian, an eighteenth-century champion of the

have

a loaf of bread to eat, while

poor, writes:

“I

do not

alone, but give

eat

it

have clothes; love one.” St

tells

some

to

me: give one

you do not; love

your brethren and you

to

tells

me:

eat the rest.

I

your brother and you wear the other

Kosmas upbraided those who

weak and poor and

exploited the

advised repentance and philanthropic action. 11 The early and medieval

God

Christian view, that philanthropy must be exercised in order to please

and

receive forgiveness of sins

refrain

to

by church

fathers.

Philanthropy

needy individuals but

human

hunger, to the

and achieve is

eternal

was repeated

life,

like a

not only contributions of money

also a response to spiritual or psychological

being’s thirst for love, guidance, certainty,

restoration of personal dignity.

Churchmen made

of the Scriptures but also of Greek and

Roman

exhortations

on

classical authors,

and

the basis

of Byzan-

emperors and Jewish kings.

tine

Prayers, fasting,

and

spiritual exercises

must find an

outlet in

good works,

while memorials for the deceased must be accompanied by charities. Such a

combination on the part of the

faithful

is

so powerful that even pagans

can be saved. St Theda succeeded in freeing from tized Phalkonila. St

Trajan. 12 Patriarchs stituents

hell the

Gregory Dialogus saved the soul of the pagan emperor

and bishops appealed

for support to wealthy con-

but also to princes and friends in foreign lands. For example,

Meletios Pegas, Patriarch of Alexandria (f 1601), in several Ivanovitch

1584-1598) the “long

(d.

solicited assistance for the

very

much

ciful,

pagan and unbap-

who

like

Theodore

of Moscow and emperor of all Russia,”

poor of

his jurisdiction.

those of Byzantine times.

desires

letters to

mercy and not

He

His arguments are

writes: “Imitate

sacrifices.”

God

the mer-

The Russian emperor

responded, sending him help for which the Patriarch acknowledged the H Cavarnos, 12

op.

cit.,

192.

Theophilos of Ioannina, Tameion Orthodoxias, 5th ed. (Athens: Typografeion

laidou, 1980), 146.

I.

Niko-

2

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

1 1

Theodore had helped the

king’s generosity.

Patriarchate of Jerusalem.

Patriarchate

Other Russian

had

tsars

of Antioch and the assisted the

Greek

churches to free themselves from debts and continue their philanthropic

work

13 .

There were several forms of philanthropy. Wealthy laymen took tives

and conducted

drives for public

their villages or provinces.

and

eleemosynary drives

A

works such

certain pious

built the bridge

as bridges

man named

initia-

and schools

in

Photos conducted

of Kremmenitza

in Epiros. Bessar-

ion of Larissa (sixteenth century) became renowned for his efforts to emancipate prisoners, to feed the hungry, as a great

and

benefactor of the province of Thessaly. Through his efforts several

bridges were built in Thessaly and other parts of Greece is

made of two

bridges at

Argyris of Ioannina

Europeans.

Among tal,

He was honored

to assist the poor.

He

Leukopotamos and

had made

used

14 :

mention

specific

at

Acheloos Rivers. Anastasios

a sizable fortune

through trade with Western

much of his

wealth for the welfare of his compatriots.

his philanthropic contributions

were the establishment of a hospi-

the distribution of funds to poor prisoners (in addition to

sent a hot dinner to every prisoner each Sunday), widows,

money, he

and orphans. Fur-

thermore, he built roads and bridges. But his wealth and his generosity caused the jealousy and envy of All Pasha of Ioannina. Upon Argyris’ death, the Pasha took advantage of the weakness of Argyris’ son, Nicholas,

and

through perfidies and various pretexts, Argyris’ wealth was decimated. Ali Pasha’s policy and legacy were renowned: “When any rich citizen died, Ali’s

hands itched to take hold of the dead man’s

estate .” 15

There were numerous Orthodox Greeks in the diaspora their fellow

countrymen

under the Ottoman Turks. They erected and redeemed prisoners and proved them-

Orthodox Church and the Greek

that existed in the city of

George Sina.

ian East

It

might have been the

first

who were

Epistles,

An

orphanage

No.

2, ed.

descendents of the

such institution in the Christ-

of modem times. The orphanage was known

"Meletios Pegas,

nation.

Moschopolis in the eighteenth century might have

been the work of the great family of benefactors priest

supported

living

churches, schools, and libraries selves pillars of the

who

as Orphanodioiketerion 16

by W. Regel, Analecta Byzantino-Russica

,

(St Peters-

burg, 1898), 95.

M Spyridon Lambros, Neos Hellenomnemon thropists see vol. 15

16

5

,

vol. 13 (Athens, 1916), 135; for other philan-

(Athens, 1908), 293.

William Plomer, The Diamond ofJannina (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970), 72. Constantine I. Amantos, Mikra Meletemata (Athens, 42-43. 1940),

Some Aspects of Stewardship of the Church of Constantinople

JI 3

Ordinary clergymen and lay people became instrumental lent institutions in provincial

1784) erected an orphanage built outside visitors.

on

of her monastery

towns and

Theophilos Kaires

islands.

Athens

a hospital

Her community became renown

and

a hospice for

Turks.

They had been

and returned to

apostates to Islam, but later

women

sought

on they repented

Apostasy from Islam carried

Thus they sought protection

in Philothee’s monastery.

Philothee paid for her act of philanthropy with her

We know

poor

commitment and philanthropic

religious

their ancestral Christian faith.

the penalty of death.

(b.

for philanthropic services to the

principles led her to extend protection to four persecuted

by the

benevo-

the island of Andros; Philothee Benizelou in

poor and the persecuted. Her

for

own

life.

17

of

several hospitals during this period in cities other than

Constantinople.

A hospital was erected in Adrianople around 1752 through

the generosity of Demetrios Ioseph. Nicholas Karayiannes, past president

of the Greek community

in Venice (1727-1733), established a hospital in

Jerusalem around the year 1714. The hospital was opened to clergymen,

monks, and laymen and perhaps other

alike.

The Church maintained

institutions in other

major

cities. It

known

hospital in Mytilene, built in the year 1691,

located across from the

Church of St Therapon

hospital existed in Heracleion a teacher’s college

and

(c.

1800), Crete,

later into a

grammar

Smyrna

a hospital in

(i.e.,

also

maintained a

as xenodocheio

“Healer”).

A

and

church

which was transformed into

school. 18

Thus, the Ecumenical Patriarchate had developed an extensive program

of philanthropic

activity in Constantinople, including the establishment

of

hospitals, old age

homes, orphanages, asylums, and reformatory homes.

However,

known whether any of Constantinople’s many

it is

not

thropic institutions survived the onslaught of Kallistos,

who

May

29, 1453.

Pierre Gilles, a

Byzantine

Andronikos

witnessed the sack of Constantinople, implies that

the capital’s philanthropic institutions were destroyed

Frenchman, indicates that two major

era, the hospitals

philan-

many of

by the conquerors. institutions

of Sampson and Eubolos, were not

of the

in existence

when he visited Constantinople in 1544. 19 What about philanthropia and institutionalized philanthropy of the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople proper? The theoretical principle 17

Zoe Genakos, E Epanastase mias pynaikas,

18

“To Bostaneion Nosokomeion kata to 1966,”

19

Pierre Gilles, The Antiquities

Italica Press, 1988),

73-74.

Philothee Benizelou (Athens, 1985).

0 Poimen 32.1

of Constantinople, 2nd

ed.,

(Mytilene, 1967), 30.

Ronald G. Musto

ed.

(New

York:

II

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

4

for the application is

love and love

to love

is

of philanthropic stewardship remained the same: “God

one another”

(1

Jn

day of the Triodion had

A common analysis

... If God so loved us,

from God.

7-11).

we

in turn are

The gospel pericope read on the

a telling effect

on the

bound

third Sun-

faithful everywhere.

of sermons and admonitions of the church was an

feature

of the words of Christ concerning the Last Judgment.

He will

save

who when he was hungry they gave him food; when thirsty, they gave him drink; when he was a stranger, they took him into their home; when those

naked, they clothed him;

when he was

prison they visited him. Those

who

ill

fail

when

they came to his help;

in

of the hungry,

to serve the needs

the thirsty, the naked, the sick, and the poor strangers will be eternally

damned (Mt 25.31-43). ical principles led

or

endow

Personal charity was widely practiced.

The same

some wealthy individuals, including clergymen,

to

eth-

found

philanthropic institutions.

Established in Constantinople through the generosity of a certain Petros Sophianos, the earliest church hospital appears to 1517 in the district

ment

that

of Galata. Sophianos requested

have been erected in

in his last will

and

Orthodox and non- Orthodox Christians who happened

sick while in

testa-

to

fall

Constantinople could be treated in his institution. The estab-

lishment was endowed with sufficient funds for distribution patients, a nurse, a priest,

among

the

an undertaker, and for the maintenance or

replacement of furniture and

utensils.

20

A monk named Joseph

was the

founder of a xenon (hospital) in Constantinople during the patriarchal tenure of Jeremiah

about

else

By the nity

II

Tranos (1572-1579; 1580-1584), but we

it.

close of the eighteenth century,

of Constantinople supported three

aegis

around 1794, the Greek commu-

hospitals. All three

were under the

of the Ecumenical Patriarchate but received the support of the whole

Greek community. The later

know nothing

it

first

hospital was established in 1753.

Some

years

was destroyed by an unknown cause and rebuilt by the patriarch

Neophytos the Seventh the physician-saints

in 1793.

The

hospital included a chapel in

Cosmas and Damian,

honor of

“the unmercinaries,” and

it

located not far from the Seven Towers of the Great Walls. This hospital

mately evolved into a major philanthropic complex, and included the largest hospital in the Balkans. 2()

M. Gedeon,

“Peri

Philoptochon

kai

It

,” .

.

.

ulti-

one time,

survives to the present

Philantropon diataxeon

Syllogos 21 (Constantinople, 1891): 80, col. 2.

at

was

it

day

Hellenikos Philologikos

Some Aspects of Stewardship of the Church of Constantinople

as the hospital

of Baluokle. The union of the Greek grocers of Constantino-

ple built the original hospital.

The second of Galata. sailors

and

and

1814,

It

hospital was built ca. 1762,

was also known

as the

it

it

was for

had been burned down before

was

Kyrillos the Sixth.

built ca. 1780

and located

rodromion-Beyoglou. Each hospital had but

in the district

was rebuilt through contributions of the Greek community

third hospital

istration

was located

it

Nautikon Nosokomeion because

sea merchants. This hospital, too,

under the Patriarchate of Patriarch

The

and

all

its

own

in the district

of Stau-

constitution and admin-

three were under the supervision of

whose members were appointed by the Ecumenical In addition to these three hospitals, the Greek

one board of trustees Patriarch. 21

community supported

home for men, another old age home for women, an asylum for men and another asylum for insane women, a reformatory institu-

an old age insane

tion for

girls,

and an orphanage. All were under the supervision of the

Church, and they became known collectively

as Ethnika Philanthropika

Katastemata— National Philanthropic Establishments. 22

As

name

to hospitals, every

one of them had

a

major philanthropist whose

appears on inscribed plaques. Hospital archives and records reveal

Greek hospitals were open

that the

patients of various religious beliefs

Roman

to

all

and offered

and ethnic

origins:

their services to

Greek Orthodox,

Catholics, Protestants, Oriental Christians of the

Armenian and

Coptic Churches, and Muslims and Jews; Greeks and Bulgarians, Albanians,

Romanians

(Vlachs), Russians, Austrians, Illyrians (Serbians or Albani-

ans), Arabs, Persians, English,

on

Germans, and Dutch. The Greeks

the basis of the city’s or the province’s

name from which

are

named

they came.

Greeks were from Constantinople, Thrace, Macedonia, Epiros, Thessaly, Anatolia, the Aegean Islands, and Greece proper (Central Greece-Attica-

Boeotea-Acarnania) and Peloponnesos. 23 21

The

hospitals of the

Greek community

in

Constantinople under the aegis of the Ecu-

menical Patriarchate are conveniently discussed by Eugenios, antes proskynemata (Athens, 1886), 139-183

Nosokomeia kai e Noseleutike politike

tes

and more

E Zoodochos

Pege kai ta hierea

fully in Aristoteles K. Stavropoulos, Ta

Ellenikes Ethnotetas sten Konstantinoupole (Athens, 1984),

esp. 92-95. 22

Ibid., 154; T. Siofis,

“Ethnika Philantropika Katastemata,” Hemerologion 1906 (Constan-

tinople, 1905), 83-94. 23

Information on the ethnic and religious background, the number of patients treated,

the nature of illnesses, and salaries of physicians and staff is provided by the annual reports

of the philanthropic

institutions. Cf. also Stavropoulos, op.

cit.,

135-173.

ii

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

6

Hospital records also indicate that there were twelve sources of revenue, including individual donations and private charities; donations from bish-

who

ops,

were obligated to contribute to the hospitals upon their ordina-

tion to the episcopal office; the product of the special collection boxes

stationed in every parish church; special

gifts

from the Greeks of the

pora, especially the Greek communities in Romania, Austria,

from

rentals

interest

In order to systematize

bution of its

charities,

from endowments.

its

philanthropic policies, maintain a just

and have

all

churches were expected to maintain “sacred boxes”

kouteia or kivotia eleous. ,

The

distri-

and provincial dioceses

parish churches

contribute their share, in 1791 the Patriarchate established a ury. All

and Hungary;

of houses which had been donated to the hospitals by wealthy

and the

individuals;

dias-

common known

treas-

as hiera

collections were used to support local needs

but also the philanthropic obligations of the mother church in Constantinople. 24 Ioannes Kallimaches served as the

gram. Nevertheless,

much of the

supervisor of this pro-

first

was

responsibility

left in

community: each congregation was responsible

local

the hands of each

for support

of local

orphans, deserted children, and for the procurement of dowries for poor Often, the local parish was called

girls.

upon

to contribute toward the

redemption of prisoners of war and to use the income of the “poor boxes” for medical expenses

of the poverty-stricken.

It

was not

annual income of a certain church or shrine was

uncommon that the

set aside exclusively for the

benevolent program of the Patriarchate. Certain

of looking

community churches had been charged with after the

needs of insane people, such

ton Kyrou in Egrikapio. 25 In the year 1780, the

imposed new

financial obligations

order to support the hospital

at

upon

all

Ecumenical Patriarchate

Stavrodromion. This hospital had been des-

after

The income of the prosper-

1794 was set aside for the maintenance of

three hospitals. 26

The ers.

Patriarchate dispensed annual contributions for the relief of prison-

Local churches took special offerings several times during the year for

those

351;

church of Panagia

the churches of Constantinople in

ignated for a time to receive victims of plagues.

ous Zoodochos Pege shrine

as the

the responsibility

who

were

in prison

because of debt or for some other reason. Several

24

A. Papadopoulos-Kerameus, Analecta, vol. 2 (Brussels, 1963), 326, 346-347.

25

R. Janin, Constantinople Byzantine (Paris: Institut Francais

Eugenios, E. Zoodocbes 26

Eugenios, op.

cit.

Pege, op. cit.

D’Etudes Byzantines,

1950),

Some Aspects of Stewardship of the Church of Constantinople

committees were established, and each one was thropic project.

On

the other hand,

tians in Constantinople-tailors, grocers,

own

their

funds for charitable purposes

in charge

trade unions of

all

ii

7

of some philan-

Orthodox Chris-

moneychangers, and others-had

27 .

The philanthropy of the Church was extended

to include education

and

educational institutions. Through the generosity of individuals, the Church

maintained schools for poor children. For example,

had undertaken

riotes

all

a certain

the expenses for the establishment of a school at

Kastoria where education was free of charge and available to

endowed

George Kasto-

sufficient funds for the salaries

all.

Kastoriotes

of two teachers. The Patriarchate of

Jerusalem maintained a representative in Constantinople whose responsibility

was to

collect funds for schools in Palestine. Kastoriotes paid the

of two laymen and

and Arabic cation

is

a

several clergy in Palestine for the instruction

to children

wages

of Greek

of Orthodox Christians. But philanthropy and edu-

major subject that cannot be treated extensively here

28 .

The Christian commandment about “diakonia” (servanthood) was taken seriously by the Church whether in Constantinople or elsewhere.

The Church was

close to

its

people, and the people remained faithful to

Church amidst persecutions,

their

tragedies. In essence, the

provinces; in

cities

bedside of the sick

and at

pressures of proselytism,

Church was where

villages;

on

home and

life

and other

was: in the capital and in

the mountains and in the valleys; at the

in the hospitals; in prison with the fallen

or the hard pressed; and close to individuals unjustly persecuted-present

where even the needs of the

faithful called.

There were several other considerations that contributed to philanthropic stewardship in major

cities.

Greeks settled in certain specific Fanar, the latter of which large.

and

districts

became

The compactness of these

For example, in Constantinople the such as Galata, Psamathia, and

the nucleus for the Greek

districts

facilitated personal relationships

community

at

encouraged intensive socialization

and extensive cooperative networks.

No person in need went unnoticed, and frequent church services enhanced the Church’s knowledge of people in need-whether material or moral.

Loyalty to the Church and constant contact with priests and bishops fostered philanthropic concern

and

activity.

Cooperative

activities,

economic

independence, and self-respect through economic achievement always 27 2 cit.,

Ibid.

*Ekklesiastike Aletheia, vol.

323, 326.

i

(1880), 175-176,

205-207, 209; Papadopoulos-Kerameus, op.

8

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

1 1

have been encouraged in the Greek community which, however, acknowledges that not everyone can

become

self-sufficient

and

financially inde-

pendent. Thus the need to put to practice the biblical injunctions: help the sick,

protect the orphan and the widow, assist the elderly, and clothe the

The

poor.

priest

economic

of the community had an obligation and even

interest in addressing the well-being

a personal

of his poor parishioners and

the generosity of the well-to-do families.

This neighborhood, or enoria philanthropic stewardship was an indi,

vidualized, spontaneous,

and generally very caring phenomenon.

mon

a

heritage, the use

religious traditions,

became binding nity-at-large

of

and

common

under Ottoman Turkish

com-

language, theological teachings and

social cohesiveness

factors, reinforcing

A

and humanitarian

instinct

and strengthening the Greek commurule.

Selected Bibliography Apostolopoulos, D. G.

0 lews Kodix tou Patriarcheiou Konstantinoupoleos sto miso tou

ifouAiona. Athens: Ethnikon Idryma Ereunon, 1992.

Arampatzoglou, Gennadios M. (Metropolitan of Heliopolis). part

2.

Constantinople,

Fotieios Bibliotheke,

1935.

Arnakis, George G. “The Greek

Church of Constantinople and the Ottoman

Empire.” Journal ofModern History 24 (1952): 235-250. Istavridis, Vasil. Istoria tou Oikoumenikou Patriarcheiou. Athens, 1967. Synoptike Istoria tou Oikoumenikou Patriarcheiou. Thessalonike, 1991.

Maximos, Metropolitan of

Sardis. To

Oikoumenikou Patriarcheiou en

te

Orthodoxo

the History

ofthe Greek

Ekklesia. Thessaloniki, 1972.

Papadopoullos, Theodore H. Studies and Documents Relating to

Church and People under Turkish Dominion. Hampshire: Variorum, 1990. Ricaut, Paul. The Present State of the Greek

Reprinted

New York,

and Armenian

Churches.

London, 1679;

1970.

Runciman, Steven. The Great Church

in Captivity.

Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-

sity Press, 1968.

The Fall of Constantinople 1453. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965.

Stavropoulos, Aristoteles K. Ta Nosokomeia kai notetas sten Konstantinoupole (1433-1838).

Vakalopoulos, A.

Istoria tou

e Noseleutike Politike tes ellenikes Eth-

Athens, 1984.

Neou Ellenismou

,

Vol.

2.

Thessalonike, 1964: 134-220.

Ware, Timothy [Kallistos of Diocleia]. Eustratios Argenti:

A Study ofthe Greek Church

under Turkish Rule. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964. Ye’or, Bat. The Decline

of Eastern Christianity under Islam: From Jihad to Dhimmitude

by Miriam Kochan and David Littman. Madison-Teaneck, Dickinson University Press, 1996.

trs.

,

N.J.: Fairleigh

GENEROSITY, ACCOUNTABILITY, VISION Historical Perspectives on Orthodox

Stewardship in America

John H. Erickson

n

1915,

shortly after arriving to head the Russian

Orthodox Church’s

North American archdiocese, Archbishop Evdokim Meshchersky

I

wrote an impassioned essay on “Religious Life in America.” In tried to refute the

misconception widely held

in Russia that

it

he

Ameri-

cans were indifferent to religion and interested only in business. After pro-

viding a detailed in

statistical

report

on

the various Christian denominations

America, noting in particular their work with youth, their missionary

home and

efforts at

abroad, and the

amount of private donations given

for

religious causes, the archbishop concluded:

Have you encountered

the

same labor

the

same

ple

and not by the government or

rivers

of gold, which

are

in

your country? Have you seen

poured out here by the private peostate institutions?

Have you seen

who suffer? Have you seen such who voluntarily, without any pay,

such intense service rendered to those multitudes of self-denying workers toil in

Christ’s vineyard?

"John H. Erickson

NY and

the Peter N.

is

1

Dean of St

Gramowich

Vladimir’s

Orthodox Theological Seminary

in

Professor of Church History at the seminary.

'(Sergiev Posad: 1915), cited in Orthodox America 1794-1976 (Syosset, N.Y.:

Church

in

Crestwood,

Orthodox

America, 1975) 128-29.

119

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

120

one of the most

Tlie archbishop here calls attention to

of the American

religious scene. In contrast to the prevailing situation in

Old World, whether

the

striking features

in Russia

and other

Orthodox lands

traditionally

or in Western Europe, funding for churches and other worthy causes in

America depends

largely

humble

cases very

the generosity of private individuals, in

individuals,

The archbishop

cies.

on

and not on the

their activities,

other public agen-

also alludes in passing to another feature

and with

ican religious scene. Religious association,

and

state or

a voluntary matter. In

is

it

America

it

of the Amer-

support for churches

it

cannot be taken for

granted that every citizen belongs to the church and therefore

support

is

through taxes and other public funds. Americans are

tribute to their churches

and other worthy

to contribute. In practice they are

many

obliged to

free to

con-

causes, but they are also free not

most generous when they themselves

have embraced the mission of the church or agency in question. Their gen-

depends

erosity thus

in large part

are less likely to be generous

on

when

the vision offered to them.

like to

know

that the “rivers

they

they do not trust the church or agency

in question. Their generosity therefore also

They

And

depends on accountability.

of gold” which they voluntarily pour out

in fact are being spent for their intended purpose.

Some of

the practical implications of Archbishop Evdokim’s assess-

ment of American to

religious

life

can be seen in the early history of what was

become Holy Trinity Orthodox Church

Mr John J.

1899,

in

New Britain, Connecticut.

Hamilla, a Carpatho-Russian immigrant from the Austro-

Hungarian Empire, joined with fourteen of his countrymen Cyril

and

and Methodius Brotherhood. Their goal was

to

form the

through the public

gathering places of the city to listen for people speaking their language. potential contributors

“It’s

not possible to build [Orthodox] churches in

America. In Russia, only the

dollars

He

five dollars

on

was allowed to holding 2

tsar builds churches.

How

can you build a

then added: “All you want to do

is

collect a

and then, skip town!” The brotherhood members devised

order to convince the

it

a table select

man of their good and asked him one of

in trust until

Recounted

in

The

whom they encountered sometimes were suspicious.

exclaimed,

church in America?”

Sts

to establish a church,

to raise funds for this endeavor, they circulated

One of them

In

it

his

to

own

was needed. 2

Orthodox America,

122.

faith. First,

a

few

plan in

each of them placed

do the same. Then the new man

friends as treasurer for the

money,

in

Generosity, Accountability, Vision

Several points should be noted in this account.

haps the

least

may

lars

obvious,

not seem

working in

the generosity of these

is

much

like

Holy

first,

though

new Americans.

Five dol-

Trinity in

New

an hour,

amounted

it

Britain were not built

to a week’s

by the

or even by large contributions from a handful of wealthy patrons.

were built by ordinary

own

their

men and women who

to contribute.

tsar

They

contributed generously from

often meager resources. But even these ordinary

had to be asked

per-

today, but for a recent immigrant in 1899,

a factory or mill for ten cents

wages. Parishes like

The

Members of the

men and women

Sts Cyril

and Methodius

Brotherhood had to seek out potential contributors wherever they might be, not limiting themselves to their

acquaintances.

And

would have

also

had

to demonstrate their

Without accountability on

fallen

circle

of friends and

they had to ask for their support.

The brotherhood contributors.

immediate

ship. In return, the

He had

faith to potential

their part, their appeals very likely

on deaf ears. The new man

generous but also prudent.

good

whom

they approached was

the capacity for responsible steward-

brotherhood demonstrated

their

own

capacity for

responsible stewardship by allowing a trustworthy independent agent to serve as treasurer, so that the finances of their project

parent to the

new

is

very

Church. As

much is

fully trans-

contributor.

This concern for accountability also

would be

may strike

us as very American. In fact

in line with the canonical tradition

often pointed out, the ancient canons

it

of the Orthodox

do not deal in detail with

the administrative structures of the local church, or diocese. In general they

presuppose the

full

episkopos (overseer);

authority of the bishop within his

he

ment, stewardship) of

is

all

canons also recognize the

own

church.

He

is its

ultimately responsible for the oikonomia (manageaspects of

its

material

and

possibilities for financial

spiritual

life.

But the

abuse within the diocese

or any other ecclesiastical entity. Note, for example, Apostolic

Canon 38:

Let the bishop have the care of all the goods of the church, and

let

him

administer them as under the authority of God. But he must not alienate

any of them or give the things which belong to

tions. If they

be poor

under that pretense, 3

cival

Trans.

let

sell

him

relieve

them

to his

poor; but

let

own

rela-

him

not,

the goods of the church. 3

“The Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Undivided Church,”

A Select Library ofNiceneand Post-Nicene Fathers,

(.

as

God

ed.

Henry

series 2, vol. 14) 596, slightly

R. Per-

modified.

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

122

Such concern

for financial integrity led the

Council of Chalcedon

(Fourth Ecumenical Council, 451 a.d.) to require each diocese to have an

oikonomos (treasurer, steward) to “administer the church’s goods with the

own

advice of his

bishop,” so that “the administration of the church will

not be without checks and balances, the goods of the church sipated,

and the priesthood

same concern

is

will

be

free

from

all

not be

dis-

suspicion” (canon 2 5). 4

The

will

evident in the elaborate enforcement mechanisms pre-

by the Second Council of Nicea (Seventh Ecumenical Council, 787 canon n):

scribed a.d.,

Since

we

by

means

all

are

under obligation to guard to maintain in

its

all

the divine canons,

integrity that

we ought

one which says that there metro-

are to be oikonomoi [treasurers, stewards] in every church. If the

politan appoints an oikonomos in his church, he does well; but not,

it is

ity to ity

permitted to the bishop of Constantinople by his

choose an oikonomos for the metropolitan’s church.

belongs to the metropolitans,

do not wish

bishops

if the

if he

own

does

author-

A like author-

who are subject to them The same

to appoint oikonomoi in their churches.

rule

is

also to be observed with respect to monasteries. 5

Here the Church’s usual insistence on the the bishop within his

own

diocese,

province, of the abbot within his

seded by

its

of church

and exclusive authority of

full

of the metropolitan within

own

monastery, and so forth,

concern for financial integrity and accountability

his is

own

super-

at all levels

life.

But even the most elaborate mechanisms for maintaining responsible stewardship can break down, and even

when they

no guarantee

When

against financial disaster.

most of us tend necticut.

We

are in place, they offer

something does go wrong,

to be like the potential contributor in

suspect willful malfeasance

on

New

Britain,

the part of those in charge. In

fact other factors— inexperienced leadership or extraordinary

stances, unforeseen

for

and unforeseeable-may be more

whatever reason, something does go awry

breaks down, and trust once lost

4

First

Trans.

Abp. Peter

L’Huillier, The

is

in

decisive.

Trans.

circum-

But when,

church finances,

trust

very difficult to regain. This was to be

Church ofthe Ancient Councils: The Disciplinary Workofthe

Four Ecumenical Councils (Crestwood, N.Y.: St Vladimir’s Seminary 5

Con-

“The Seven Ecumenical Councils,” 562-63,

Press, 1996) 264.

slightly modified.

Generosity, Accountability, Vision

I2 3

the sad experience of the North

Orthodox Church

American archdiocese of the Russian

in the decades following the

Communist

revolution in

Russia (1917). 6

At the time when Archbishop Evdokim was

extolling the generosity

of

private philanthropy in America, his archdiocese could boast not only

of

over three hundred parishes but also of

a

seminary, an orphanage, a

monastery, a “women’s college,” and a national center and savings bank

much of the funding

intended to serve the needs of recent immigrants. But

of clergy

for these enterprises-even including a significant portion

and pensions— came not from

of gold” poured out by private individ-

“rivers

North American archdiocese-for indeed the immigrant

uals within the

flock was hardly in a position to

pour out

an annual subsidy from the

state

Evdokim’s day,

“rivers

of gold”!— but rather from

church in Russia. By Archbishop

subsidy— not raised for nearly two decades— was woefully

this

inadequate to meet the growing needs of the archdiocese and itable activities.

The archdiocesan newspaper was

filled

self-supporting.

But

mother church

the

Synod

in Russia,

in fact the archdiocese

in Russia. In

what was

still

dollar

articles

and

let-

nearly

to be his final report to the raising the

from 89,300 rubles to 1,000,000. Since the exchange

and the

many char-

depended on support from

Archbishop Evdokim proposed

rubles per U.S. dollar,

with

its

become more

suggesting ways that the archdiocese could

ters

salaries

annual subsidy

rate at the

had approximately

Holy

time was two

five times its pres-

ent purchasing power, the archbishop was asking for roughly $2,500,000 in today’s terms. But “rivers of gold” were not forthcoming from the govern-

ment and

state institutions

to a subsidy

of Russia

The Holy Synod

either.

initially

of 550,000 rubles ($275,000, or roughly $1,375,000

terms), but almost

none of this money ever

in today’s

was

in the midst

tsarist

government

arrived. Russia

of revolutionary chaos. The financial support that the

agreed

provided had not always been adequate for the church’s needs— state support seldom

is!

Nor was

it

motivated simply by the Russian government’s

disinterested love for the church’s religious mission.

America among other things was expected tions.”

to

The church

in

North

promote Russian “public

But hitherto the link between church and

state

rela-

had been advanta-

geous for the North American archdiocese. With the coming of the

6

For what follows about the

detailed account

New

is

fate

of the North American archdiocese,

provided in John H. Erickson, Orthodox Christians

York: Oxford University Press, 1999) 78-80.

in

a

somewhat more

America (Oxford and

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

124

Communist istic

revolution in Russia and the establishment of a militantly athe-

regime, that link

became an overwhelming

liability.

Archbishop Evdokim was not on hand to witness the resulting

crisis in

what everyone believed

North America. In

1917,

would be

absence, leaving his auxiliary, Bishop Alexander

a brief

Nemolovsky, a debt

in charge

he had

for Russia for

left

of the archdiocese. At the time the archdiocese had

of over $100,000, and by

1919, this

Meanwhile revenues plummeted. Receipts

amount would

for 1922

The inexperienced Bishop Alexander proved with

mounting

this

crisis.

Like

many

total

only

utterly incapable

$2,557.

of dealing

America and abroad, he believed

in

that the revolutionary tumult in Russia

would

nearly double.

would be

short-lived.

As

a stop-gap

measure he resorted to more loans and to mortgaging parish property-a

move

that proved to be as

spective.

Meanwhile

unpopular

as

was unwise from

it

a financial per-

opponents challenged the legitimacy of

his

his

appointment and brought lawsuits against him, accusing him of flagrantly misspending the church’s money. It is

lations

unnecessary to give a detailed account here of the subsequent tribu-

of Bishop Alexander, of his successor Metropolitan Platon, and of

the troubled North American archdiocese. Suffice

of trust and mutual accountability fostered by effectively destroyed.

Ordinary parishioners

it

to say that the sense

in places like

New

Britain,

Connecticut, wished to remain loyal to the church as they knew loved

They showed

it.

little

was

earlier ruling hierarchs

and

it

Communist-

desire to ally themselves with the

backed “Living Church,” which, claiming to be the legitimate Russian

Orthodox Church, sought

to gain control

of church

assets in

America. But

neither did they want to leave their parish properties vulnerable to lawsuits

or to ill-advised financial tration.

moves on

Motivated by what

at the

the part of the central church adminis-

time could only have been regarded as

prudent stewardship, they sought to save the church they knew and loved

by

effectively severing the administrative

from the wider concerns of Orthodoxy

and

in

financial

life

of the parish

America. For example,

many

parishes introduced “protective clauses” into their by-laws, such as:

The Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church [name], of state], hereinafter referred to as

as

an

virtue

ecclesiastical

the

“Church” or

as the

[city

and

“Corporation,”

corporation organized and existing under and by

of the laws of the

state

of

[state],

hereby recognizes and

will

Generosity, Accountability, Vision

125

honor the canons of the Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church of North America

for spiritual guidance and, accordingly acknowledges

authority in

matters of a purely religious or spiritual nature as distin-

all

guished from nature,

all

its

matters of an administrative, or temporal, or secular

which have been,

are,

and

will

be governed and administered

in

accordance with the charter, the by-laws, and the rules and regulations

of the Corporation.

No

patriarch, archbishop, metropolitan or bishop, or

any

ecclesiastical

authority of the North American diocese or any other diocese shall

have any authority, claim or right to manage, or

in

any way to control

or affect, the real or personal property of the Corporation.

No

unincorporated or incorporated diocese, sobor, diocesan conven-

any

tion, diocese council, or

ecclesiastical authority

Orthodox Church, or any other church, pose of the

real

shall administer

society, or institution.

.

dis-

.

.

bishop of the Orthodox Church or any convention, or any sobor

of the Orthodox Church, or any other church, assess the

Corporation or

Corporation membership

its

shall

members without

have the right to

the permission of the

7 .

Such clauses may have helped save parish properties, but they

and/or

or personal estate of the Corporation for the benefit of

any church, corporation,

No

of the Russian

up

set

between

a false

dichotomy between the

religious matters

and

spiritual

financial matters— a

in the process,

and the material,

dichotomy

alien

not

only to the Orthodox canonical tradition but also to the most basic principles

of Orthodox theology. They also fostered

a faulty

understanding of

Christian stewardship by implying that, in financial matters at parishioners’

first

and foremost

responsibility

least,

the

was to the Corporation. For-

gotten was the ancient canonical understanding according to which “the

goods of the church

.

.

.

belong to God” and are to be administered “as

under the authority of God.”

The

crisis

that arose in the

Orthodox Church 7

New

Virtually the

England

in the

North American archdiocese of the Russian

wake of the Communist revolution

same paragraphs can be found

parishes.

in

is

remarkable

now-superseded by-laws of at

least six

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

126

only for rise to

some

its

it.

magnitude and

Other Orthodox

great

and some

standing low-paying

for the extraordinary circumstances that gave

have experienced similar

jurisdictions

small. This

was not

of generosity. Notwith-

a crisis

employment and then

crises,

the hardships of the Great

Depression, Orthodox immigrants and children of immigrants continued to contribute to their churches in

income. Neither was

simply a

this

amounts disproportionate of accountability,

crisis

as

to their

though better

bookkeeping and reporting mechanisms might have remedied such desperate situation. Ultimately this was a

Orthodox Christians

Like so

many

the Sts Cyril

wanted to

of vision,

its

other Orthodox immigrants to America, the

under-

members of

New Britain, Connecticut, whom they approached for

and Methodius Brotherhood of

They and those

establish a church.

this

was

a

worthy cause. But what was

understanding of the Church? In their Old World a self-evident

and organic part of life.

moral teaching provided a

common

villages, the

daily

Its

worship determined the patterns for work and Its

still

mission.

support took for granted that

been

how

a crisis in

America understood— and sometimes

in

stand-the Church and

crisis

a truly

Church had

and annual

leisure, fasting

their

cycles

and

of

feasting.

point of reference for behavior.

Its

sacraments and other rites gave the faithful tangible experience of the Holy.

Immigrants to America-whether Greeks or

wanted such

a

Church

and

for themselves

wanted something more

as well.

Slavs,

Arabs or Armenians-

for their children.

They wanted

a place

But they

where they could be

with their compatriots from the Old World, where their very particular social, cultural, linguistic,

and

spiritual heritage

could be affirmed, where

they could find some shelter from the pressures of New World

some semblance of the community they had ated.

As

went

a subtle change. In the

a result, the relationship

tone of church

Now life.

munity-of this or

it is

Old World,

The

the

life.

it

behind could be

In America, this relationship

and concerns of a

that nationality,

community open

particular natural

tendency.

in principle to

One example must

and

com-

of this or that village-take precedence

The process of parish formation this

came

that determines the shape

over the wider demands of the Church understood as a faith, a

recre-

was the Church that determined

community

interests

where

between Church and community under-

the shape and tone of community to be reversed.

left

life,

in

all

nations and

America

suffice.

offers

Around

all

community of peoples.

many examples of

1892 a group

of Greek

Generosity, Accountability, Vision

Orthodox immigrants

in

127

Chicago, hailing for the most part from Sparta,

organized a parish and obtained also included a

growing number of Greek Orthodox immigrants from the

region of Arcadia. In 1897

rival

from that region. But the parish

a priest

They

the Greco-Turkish war.

some of these Arcadians went

off to fight in

arrived too late for the war, but while in the

old country, they met a priest from their

own

who was

region

eager to

Chicago. With a congenial priest so conveniently

his children in

at

visit

hand,

the Chicago Arcadians quickly established a parish of their own. 8

Orthodox almost

In America, immigrant loyalty to the

Church with

inevitably tended to identify

loyalty to the ethnic

the example just given, with loyalty to the

community— or

Old World

bishops and other “outsiders,” particularly

when

involved, they also tended to identify loyalty to the the parish corporation.

To be

a

good Orthodox

even, as in

village. Distrustful

of

financial matters were

Church with

loyalty to

good

Christian, to be a

member of the Church, meant to be a good member of the community, a member in good standing in the parish. The horizon of responsible Christian stewardship

narrowed correspondingly. Orthodox Christians contin-

ued to be generous with both time and money. They continued the

Church they knew and

local parish.

loved. But this meant,

activity after another, generally

ing of a mortgage. But these sources

much

less

show

little

of

evidence of con-

of generosity, extending beyond the parish

way

tell

culminating in the burn-

relatively

the hardships of the Great Depression gave

level.

Even

after

to the relative affluence

of

many parishes accumulated substantial reserve and embarked on grand building programs, money raised in the

the post-World

funds

and foremost, the

Anniversary books, parish records, and similar sources

one fund-raising

cern,

first

to support

parish seldom

War II

era, as

went beyond the

parish.

collection” might be earmarked for

To be

sure,

an occasional “special

some wider purpose,

usually in

response to a “special appeal” from the central church administration. the whole, however, parish financial records

show

little

On

sustained and

planned support for the kinds of social, educational, and missionary programs that Archbishop Evdokim and other early hierarchs had promoted.

The

parish

became

introverted, turned in

upon

no sense of mission and outreach and with only responsibility toward

8

This episode

America, 72.

is

anyone outside

recounted

at

somewhat

its

itself,

a

with virtually

minimal sense of

own immediate membership.

greater length in Erickson, Orthodox Christians in

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

128

Older parish by-laws standing,

ments

one who has paid

i.e.,

in full, “is entitled to all

tism $5.00,

his

hand,

Church

rights to

church services such

his child’s?]

and ministrations which the

least at a

very reasonable price! “Bap-

cost of services.”

$5.00,”

as

and so

Baptisms,

On

forth.

the other

be assessed the

Wedding and

Funerals.”

of the Church for Baptism

his intentions

of becoming

sum of Fifty

“Any nonmember who

Wedding must

(Adults) $20.00, Funerals (Chil-

desires the services

must declare

this Parish, [and] shall

assess-

suspended because of non-payment of dues “loses

is

“Any non-member who

own?

good

Rites

Requiem Divine Liturgy

member who

a

A member in

annual church dues and other

Matrimony $20.00, Funerals

dren) $10.00,

for a

point very vividly.

of said Parish administers”-at

Priest

all

illustrate this

a

[his

member of

($50.00) dollars plus

desires the services

declare his intentions of becoming a

of the Church

member of this

sum of Fifty ($50.00) dollars plus cost of services.” “Any expelled or non-member desiring the services of the Church for funerals shall be required to donate the sum of Two Hundred Parish, [and] shall be assessed the

and

Fifty ($250.00) dollars in addition to the cost

of such services per-

formed.” 9 Such provisions in effect reduce the sacramental

Church

Absent

is

of the

of commercial transactions intended, among other

to a series

things, to ensure the financial stability parish.

life

and material well being of the

any sense that the Church has

the world— or even for

a responsibility in

Orthodox Christians who happen not

and

for

to be dues-

paying members of the parish in question. Fortunately the parish has not been the only outlet for the generosity

of Orthodox Christians

in

America. Working on

local, regional,

and

national levels, Greek-American, Russian-American, Serbian-American,

and diverse other hyphenated-American Orthodox established a

men and women

number of organizations devoted wholly

have

or partially to phil-

anthropic purposes. For the most part these organizations have been layinitiated

and

lay-led.

Though

usually church-related, possibly with a bishop

enrolled as honorary “patron” and priests “spiritual advisors,” they tures.

less actively

involved as

have not always been closely tied to church

struc-

For example, the Federated Russian Orthodox Clubs (FROC), estab-

lished in 1927, for affiliation in

9

more or

The

reflect a

much of

its

history declined any formal ecclesiastical

order to remain “above” the jurisdictional divisions that

parish by-laws quoted here were

common

first ratified

and long-standing pattern especially

in 1959

and amended

for Slavic parish

life

in

in 1967; they

America.

Generosity, Accountability, Vision

129

plagued the Russian-American community in the wake of the revolution in Russia.

Of these

10

philanthropic organizations, arguably the most significant, in

terms both of scope of

and

activities

Orthodox Ladies Philoptochos means

Communist

“friend of the poor.”)

size

Greek word philoptochos

Society. (The

history

Its

of budget, has been the Greek

shows both the strengths and the

inherent limitations that have characterized these organizations. Greek

Orthodox women of Holy

Trinity

Church

in

New

York City formed the

Philoptochos chapter in 1902, in order to provide social services for the

first

many Greek immigrants who

at the

time were beginning to stream into

America. Other local chapters helped to extend the society’s

meet the expanding needs of the Greek community, and dent, Mrs. Eriphili Vrachnos, turned over

its

in 1931,

its

presi-

charter to Archbishop

Athenagoras, then newly assigned to America and stantinople, thus marking the society’s transition

activities to

later patriarch

from

of Con-

a largely parochial

organization to one of national importance. The range and scale of the

Philoptochos Society’s

has been truly extraordinary. For example,

activities

in 1937, the society assisted in the establishment

of Holy Cross Seminary

(originally in Pomfret, Connecticut, later in Brookline, Massachusetts). In it

1944,

helped to purchase what was to become

home for orphaned and mobilized

II it

St. Basil’s

Academy,

a

semi-orphaned children. In the wake of World War

relief efforts for war-torn Greece. In 1974,

it

instituted

national support for the Greek Children’s Cardiac Program, which

flies

children to the United States for heart surgery unavailable in Greece. In the

wake of the Cyprus

from 1974 onward, it provided care for over thousand displaced Cypriot children and contributed well over

five

$100,000 in other

The

litany

tragedy,

relief assistance.

11

of Philoptochos accomplishments could go on and on-

women

volunteer work of Philoptochos

in hospitals

support for research on Cooley’s Anemia in

(a

Mediterranean countries), participation in 10

The

FROC

voted to become an

official

type of anemia arthritis

only in 1994,

dox Christians 11

in

when

it

also

America, or

changed

its

name

common

and Easter

Seals

organization of the Orthodox Church in

America (formerly the Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church lia”)

and nursing homes,

to the

more

in

America, or “Metropo-

inclusive Fellowship of Ortho-

FOCA.

For further details see Stella Coumantaros, “The Greek Orthodox Ladies Philoptochos

Society and the Greek American tion, ed.

Community,”

in

The Greek American Community in Transi-

Harry J. Psomiades and Alice Scourby (New York:

Pella Publishing, 1982) 191-96.

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

I}0

and so on. But

telethons,

certainly the Philoptochos Society’s largest

and

most conspicuous projects have focused on the Greek community, whether at

home

chos

is

or abroad.

just typical

tians in

in this respect, as in so

itself

been true even when the ethnic com-

activity. Press releases invariably call attention is

the ethnic group that natural, but

this has

has not been the immediate beneficiary of the organization’s

the noble cause that

it

is

providing the support. All this

also serves to limit the horizon

Here again, the problem

accountability.

not only to

being supported but also to the noble generosity of

Like the parish corporation, the ethnic

The problem

is

is

may seem

perfectly

of Orthodox stewardship.

community can become an end

in

one not simply of generosity or even of

one of vision. What

Church and of its mission? What this

the Philopto-

of the philanthropic organizations that Orthodox Chris-

community, and

philanthropic

itself.

many others,

America have established over the decades. Emphasis has been on

the ethnic

munity

And

is

is

our vision of the

our understanding of our

own

role in

mission?

Often we Orthodox Christians

in

America have tended

to identify the

Church with our particular ethnic communities or with the Church’s most tangible institutional expressions-the parish, the jurisdiction, the patriarchate. Ultimately, however, the

men and women

Church

is

more encompassing than

this. It

who have been called— and are still being called— to a new life of communion with God and with each other. This new life of communion seeks visible expression in instituembraces

of all ages and peoples

tional forms, but these forms in themselves for other expressions

of communion, such

tunately in recent years our vision of the

must not become

as the sharing

a substitute

of resources. For-

Church-and with

it

our under-

standing of responsible stewardship-has been expanding. Agencies such as International

Orthodox Christian

Christian Missions Center

Charities

(OCMC)

(IOCC) and

the

Orthodox

have reminded us that the mission

and witness of the Church go beyond our own

particular ethnic institu-

tional interests.

How

can God’s

call to reconciliation

and through the Church, become today? In

its

Old World

and communion, expressed

truly credible

setting, the

and

effective in the

Church very often took

this support,

even when generous, often

Church’s mission and compromise

its

as

world

for granted the

moral, political, and financial support of the state in advancing

but

in

its

mission,

not served to obscure the

witness by identifying the

Church

Generosity, Accountability, Vision

with the powers of

I

this world. In

America, in any

people” and not “the government or

of gold” that they

it is

state institutions” that

responsibility for advancing the Church’s mission “rivers

case,

are invited to

pour

now

3

I

“private

bear primary

and witness, through the America we

out. In

are

all

invited to exercise responsible stewardship, to share our resources in a gen-

erous but also disciplined and accountable way. But Christian stewardship,

we

also

need

a vision.

We

if this

is

to be truly

need to make God’s

oikonomia God’s plan of salvation for humankind, the model for our ,

human

oikonomia, for our stewardship of God’s

many

own

gifts to us.

Further Reading Efthimiou, Miltiades

and George A. Christopoulos,

B.,

Orthodox Church in America.

and South America,

New York:

eds. History

of the Greek

Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of North

1984. Includes a chapter

on

the history of the charters of

the archdiocese.

Erickson,

John H. Orthodox

Christians in America.

New

York and Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1999. Popular-level illustrated survey of the history of Ortho-

doxy

in

America, emphasizing

how

ordinary Orthodox Christians in America

have experienced their Church.

Thomas E. The Orthodox Church. Denominations in America, no. 7. WestConn.: Greenwood Press, 1995. Detailed account particularly of institu-

Fitzgerald, port,

tional developments.

Gaustad, Edwin. Church and State in America.

New

York and Oxford: Oxford Uni-

versity Press, 1999. Popular-level illustrated survey

the United States, First

among

in

other things clearly explaining implications of the

Amendment’s establishment Religious History

of church-state relations

clause.

ofAmerica. Rev. ed. San Francisco: Harper

&

Readable general introduction to the place of religion in American

Row, 1990. life,

includ-

Psomiades, Harry J., and Alice Scourby, eds. The Greek American Community

in Tran-

ing the ways in churches are financed.

sition.

New York:

Pella Publishing, 1982. Valuable sociological essays with exten-

sive bibliography.

Schmemann, Alexander. Crestwood, N.Y.:

many of which World and Clergy 1.

New

St.

Church, World, Mission: Reflections on Orthodoxy in the West.

Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1979.

offer stimulating, observations

New World St.

collection of essays,

differences between

Old

experiences of Orthodoxy.

and Laity in the Orthodox

York:

on

A

Church.

Vladimir’s Seminary,

concerning parish by-laws

Orthodox

ca. 1957.

Life

pamphlet

series no.

Includes pungent observations

as well as theological reflection.

Stokoe, Mark, with Leonid Kishkovsky. Orthodox Christians in North America

1794-1994. Syosset, N.Y.: Orthodox Christian Publications Center,

1995.

1

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

32

Highly readable

doxy Tarasar,

in

illustrated history written to

mark

the bicentennial of Ortho-

America.

Constance

J.,

and John H. Erickson,

eds. Orthodox

America iy^4~i^y6:

Development ofthe Orthodox Church in America. Syosset, N.Y.: Orthodox Church in

America, Department of History and Archives,

1975. Includes

many

historic

photographs, extensive excerpts from primary sources, biographical sketches of

key leaders, and summaries of parish development.

ON STEWARDSHIP AND PHILANTHROPY Forty Sentences

Thomas Hopko

W i.

hen we contemplate God’s Word

how

taments and see

in the

Old and New

Tes-

the Christian saints understood and

applied the Scriptures, a vision of stewardship and philan-

thropy emerges that

may be summarized

Giving belongs to God’s very being. The

God

the perfect giver.

in forty sentences.

God is by nature universe. God gives in

biblical

gives not only in creating the

an exclusively divine manner within His divinity. Christian Scriptures reveal

from

God all

that

ation.

loving,

He

is

and has

Being what

divine being and

Him,

God

as

requires

Himself.

it

is

life

in

is,

requires that

inary in Crestwood,

cannot not

He

fully share the fullness

'Some church

NY

is

of His

many

and

that

He

is,

not being

1

Dean

years

and

Emeritus of St Vladimir’s

to

is

a

at the

world-renowned

Orthodox Theological Sem-

seminary from 1972 to 1992.

its

The

logic here

power

to

do

is

so. If

that if a being it

He

lecturer.

even the Hellenist philosophers saw that the

self-sharing.

must give according

all

It

.

and taught Dogmatic Theology

fathers claim that

self-diffusive it

cre-

always have with Himself, as essential to His

Son Jesus Christ

served as a parish priest for

good,

God

manner, without reference to

an exclusively divine way. God’s goodness requires

*The Very Rev Thomas Hopko

it is

Perfectly

constrained by His divinity, so to speak, to share

Him to have a perfectly divine Son who is It

life.

Spirit

were, to “reproduce Himself” in another divine person.

very nature, His

not but be

of His divine being and

in a strictly divine

God

Holy

Jesus and breathing forth His

eternity as essential actions

good and all

Son

begetting His

fails

to give,

is, it is it is

Good

can-

good; and

it

not good, but

H3

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

L34

Jesus Christ

2.

the perfect expression of God’s goodness and love.

is

God

Christians believe that

eternally gives

all

He

that

Son Jesus

to His

is

in

God the Father begets His Son before the foundation of the world in a manner beyond human comprehension, which same Son is born on earth as a man of the Virgin Mary. As God’s theanthropic Son, Wisdom, Word and Image, Jesus Christ is and has everything that God His Father is and has. He is eternally “light from light, true God from true God.” And He is fully human from the moment of His conception in time. He is “of one essence” (homoousios with God the Father according to His divinity, and “of the

Holy

Spirit.

)

one essence” (homoousios with

when God’s Son was

never was

Lord

is

Christ

creates

all

The

not.

eternal existence

things through, in,

whom God

by

the personal agent

is

Being God’s Son, Word,

Spirit.

people according to His humanity. There

ofJesus Christ the

the supreme example of God the Father as the perfect giver. 2

God

3.

all

creates

Wisdom and

heaven and on

ative activity, all things in

and for Jesus Christ. Jesus things

all

by the Holy

Power, the agent of God’s cre-

and

earth, visible

invisible, exist

whom they consist and are held together (Col 15-17). Israel’s Messiah is He by whom all things are made, the one through whom by and

for Jesus in

things

all

come

exists in the

1.

to be.

He

is

order of creation. 3

things belong to

4. All

of all that

also the ever-existing divine pattern

God and

Christ as their creator.

am God,

“I

demands of divinity,

why God must have a Son and Spirit according to the and why, therefore, the one God must necessarily be Father by nature

and extend His being

in a strictly eternal

becomes

evil.

This, the saints argue,

ing forth the Spirit. In this view, (aitia)

of all

is

God the

of His Logos/Son and Holy

and divine manner by begetting the Son and breathFather

Spirit

Thus, against the Arians, there never was

Spirit,

when

surely was (without entering into the issue

no

1.

according to His good

the

Son and Holy

Spirit

is

the creator

will (kat' eudokian).

were not, but there

of the created character of time) when there was

creation. 2

to

the principle (arche), source (pege) and cause

according to nature (kat’ ousian), but

through His Logos/Son and

things,

is

Cf. Ps no. 1 [Psalm

may

15-20; 3

be

It is

a

are

1.

1-4, et

common

al.

brings

them

is

is

Godhead

22.41-46; Jn 1.1-18, 20-28;

the divine hypostasis in

to say, in other words, that

somehow

all

whom

1

Cor

exists

{logoi) are

in the countless divine energies

nature (or supranature) from the Father through the

all

24;

Col

beyond

creatures find their

creatures exist in

into being according to His divine ideas

divine Logos, incarnate as Jesus. These ideas

within the

quoted or referred

texts

imagination in a divine manner within the Godhead, and that

divine pattern and ground. This

God

16.16,

though

patristic teaching that all that exists in creation

the divine Logos, incarnate as Jesus,

that

Mt

Bible,

See also the dogmatic definitions of the seven ecumenical councils.

human comprehension and

and

from the English

times from the Septuagint.];

at

Heb

numbers

{logoi),

God’s mind

united in the one

themselves actualized in a divine way

flowing necessarily from God’s divine

Son

in the

Holy Spirit, which

then are concretely realized in created form as actually existing things in

ideas {logoi)

this world.

On

Stewardship

and Philanthropy

your God

...

creatures,

human

the world and

H5

that

all

in

is

it is

mine”

(Ps 50.7-10).

we can claim

beings have nothing that

as

Being God’s

We We

our own.

nothing and have nothing that we have not received from God.

are

God made

belong to God, together with every created thing, because His divine

Holy

the

and

will

Spirit.

also to His

action, through His

Because

Son and Word, Jesus

things belong to

all

Son Jesus Christ

and

by, in,

for

God

whom

us by

Christ,

and

the Father, they belong

they have

come

by

to be

the Spirit’s power. 4

Everything that

5.

He had made, and

God made

behold,

is

good. “And

God saw everything

was very good” (Gen

it

first

creation story in Genesis

ond

story

when God

that

“it is

not good that

good” of the

sec-

Adam

sees the earth creature

all

by himself and

says

should be alone” (Gen

2.18).

Woman from Man’s side, and all becomes very good as ing

bad by nature. Each and every

is

power to the

This line from the

to be read with the “not

is

man

1.31).

smallest material particle

creature, is

blessed

that

God

fashions

it

should be. Noth-

from the

greatest spiritual

by God

as a created expres-

sion of that which exists in God’s uncreated, supradivine being beyond

human comprehension and

imagination. Indeed,

goumenon

opinion) that

a theological

(i.e.,

being everything that can possibly powerful,

why would He deny

from nothingness into being? seems that

God

Human

6.

will give

For

if

a Christian theolo-

will ultimately bring into

God

is

good and wise and

existence to anything that

seems that

It

being to

beings are

exist.

God

it is

made

pate in God’s divine being and

all

in

He

He

could bring

cannot, and will not.

that can possibly be. 5

God’s image and likeness

life.

It

“Let us

make man

in

to partici-

our image,

after

God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them” (Gen 1.26-27). God created and continues to create human beings, male and female, to be by grace all that God Himself is by nature. We humans are creatures with the comour likeness

so

...

mandment not merely 4

See note

5

Seven times

variety,

that

it is

God

2.

Alsojn

to imitate

in Genesis, at each stage

way

in their self-destructive

things are

as for the

divine

by God’s

of creation’s unfolding

in greater multiplicity

and

“God saw that it was good” (Gen 1.3, 10, 12, 18,21,25,31). The theologoumenon make everything that can be made parallels the dogmatic assertion that God

may

serve as the

hypothesis that

God

lost,

but nevertheless gives existence even to those

madness choose

ing corruption of the blasphemers of the the

become

written,

will

who

to

16.14-15.

does not wish anything in creation to be beings

God, but

Holy

to be lost. Thus, ironically, the

Spirit

who

hate reality and attempt to defy

crowning argument for God’s goodness and

will create

unend-

love, as well

everyone and everything that can possibly

exist.

i

3

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

6

grace.

more

We

are

made

to be “partakers

by agency of Christ and the Holy

actions in creation

made to become ever more 1. 19,

We

2.9).

be

Spirit to

with

“filled

To be made

7.

Spirit.

in

all

the fullness of God” (Eph

Christ and the

3. 14-19).

God’s image means to have dominion over

has

itual

beings with minds, souls, and bodies, possessing intelligence,

and with Jesus Christ. Humans

in

power to guide and govern

ourselves, each other,

by the grace and power of God. “Then God

said

are

and over

.

.

.

‘let

”

the earth’

(Gen

1.27).

Our human being and

all

that

personal, spirwill,

and

them have domin-

air,

and over every creeping thing

the earth,

all

made

Holy

and the whole of creation,

ion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the tle,

are

6

God

made

we

Indeed,

what God’s unique Son, Word, and Image,

fully

made and saved and empowered by

are

ever

1.3)

whom dwells “the whole fullness of divinity bodily” (Col

in

is,

Pet

(2

God’s supraessential divinity through God’s

perfectly participating in

Jesus Christ,

of the divine nature”

life as

and over the

cat-

upon

that creeps

commun-

persons in

ion with other persons caring for creation with knowledge, goodness, wis-

dom, and

love

Only

likeness.

what

is

means

it

made

for us to be

Jesus has fulfilled God’s will for

in

God’s image and

humans

to be

and

act

according to God’s image and likeness. Indeed, Christ Himself is the image

of the 2

Cor 4.4).

in 1.

God according to which all humans are made (Col 1.15, He alone among the “sons of men” has dominion over all things

invisible

heaven and on 9

ff;

8.

earth,

God’s Word and

it.

of galaxies, each with

its

billions

Spirit

and intercede on behalf of all through

name through

entrusted to our care. 1.1 6,

Eph

10. 10;

that deal with fullness

by

faith

of planets and

as prophets

of praise and thanksgiving to God; and

things in God’s

Christians,

prophets, priests, and pastors of cre-

who know God’s word and will by God’s Holy Spirit; as priests who consecrate all

do so

inspiration of

SeeJn

(Eph

Christ.

all

to govern the billions

sacrifice

Him

Human beings are commanded by God to that is in We may even be called in ages to come

and with Jesus

are to

brought into perfect unity in

4.9-3.13;

govern the earth and

h

are

Dan 7.13-14). God made humans to be Rev

ation in

We

which

and

the Father through the

in

Son

fail

1.22-23,3.14-19; truth,

grace, to

church fathers go further

a constant sacrificial service

Humans

of grace,

as pastors

life,

and

“become

1.19, 2.9;

divinity.

imitators

and other

The

of God

letter to

the direct things

by

a continual

who

govern

all

of love to those

in this magnificent calling

Col

stars.

through sin

New Testament Scriptures the Ephesians

(ginesthe

mimetai ton

(5.1)

exhorts

theou).”

Many

exhorting believers by the gracious divine energies flowing from in the

Holy

Spirit

simply to “become god

(ginesthe theon).”

On

Stewardship

and

rebellion.

to

and Philanthropy

God

sends His Son Jesus, the

do what humans have

on

earth

l

failed to

all

and

7 .

God made

because

also

all

give glory

by and

things

redeemed and saved

When creatures rebelled and and gratitude

for His

things

all

Son Jesus

by and

rejecting their calling to rule in

God owns

them.

when we

rebellion

and

Jesus, because

Christ, but because

for the

same Lord Jesus.

sinned against God, being fools

God, and who

to

of all humans beings, not only

first

God’s name,

because

us, therefore,

who

desecrate, pollute,

God’s good creation, thereby becoming enslaved to

Jesus

to be

be and do from their very beginnings

redeemer. Everything belongs to God,

by

Adam,

final

All things are God’s not only as their creator, but also as their

9.

God

new and

37

He

God

its

refuse to

and corrupt

destructive powers

sends His Son to save

has redeemed us in His

Son

destroyed ourselves, each other, and our world through our

We

sin.

God

belong to God, and most

specifically to

His Son

buys us back by Christ’s blood when we became

vated by the devil and subjected to

sin, suffering,

and death.

God

capti-

sets us

when we are enslaved to our madness through the devil’s deceit. He gives us life when we commit suicide through our sins. He pays our debt of love when we refuse to give the love that we owe to God and our neighbor. We are not our own. God’s Son to whom we belong as our creator and free

redeemer has purchased us

The only

10.

8 .

thing that creatures can claim as their

has created only good. Sin

good

the

things

God

holy and blessed. for their evil

is

unending

gives us. a

It is

It is

a pollution

our own, because

It is

even inaccurate,

has

evil

no

something blessed by God.

It is

a futile

is

its

Acts 2.14-21, 3.22-26;

8

Mt

9

The word

20.28;

Cor sin

Rom

6.20, 7.23;

means

5.14;

Eph

1.7;

literally to

very conception of sin. The same

is

1

Cor Col

a negation

and perversion of

1

1

Tim

Pet 2.9;

Rev

and

about

all

life

9 .

1.5-6.

2.5-6.

“miss the mark.” Thus the “mark” true

always and

It is

attempt to destroy the good things

15.45-49; 1.14;

speaking, to say that

own.

that can alone be said, strictly speaking, to have being 7

is

entrusted to creatures

strictly

existence of

on something good,

necessarily a parasite

God

and corruption of what

misuse and abuse of what

delight.

is evil.

and destruction of

a perversion, distortion,

is

own

is

presupposed

concepts, symbols, and words for

wickedness. Fall presupposes a condition from which one

falls.

in the

evil

and

Transgression and lawlessness

presuppose the law. Stain, pollution, and impurity presuppose cleanliness. Alienation and estrangement presuppose the homeland. Deviation presupposes the way. Perversion, distortion,

and corruption presuppose wholeness and

“parasitic” character

of evil.

integrity.

Thus our very language affirms the

i

GOOD AND FAITHFUL SERVANT

38

Sin

11.

is

we will with what is our own.

dom the

and choice.

It is

Sin

rather an act

place to be and to

first

born of the

a destructive act

is

born of the falsehood that we

do what we choose.

If

will in all things. Sin, therefore,

wrong and bad

choices.

rather,

destructive act of thinking that

we

are

are free in

God’s creatures,

more

is

not a matter of making

freely

God,

one has choices

at

all. It is

creatures perfect

freedom and

life.

In this sense, sin

is

Jesus.

Adam,

to restore

human

Spirit,

Only when

a

beings

It is

heirs of its

with

Him. As redeemed

for

the insanity of crea-

all

own

10 .

things, in Christ

new and

redeemer, the

become “sons of God”

Him who

(synkleronomoi) with

a son,

things in

life

sinners purchased

last

by

blood and baptized into Christ in the name of the Father, Son, and

Christ’s

Holy

all

obey

madness

the foolish

tures acting as if all things, including themselves, are their

Humans become God’s sons, the God sent His Son into the world as

to

is

which alone constitutes

will

of creatures attempting to be gods without God.

12.

self-

the refusal to

with love and gratitude, and so to choose God, and

obedience to God’s benevolent

in

and

subtly, the foolish

accept oneself as a creature whose only real and rational choice

God

free-

we have no choice but to obey God

and to do God’s

It is

do what

are free to

not a wrong or bad use of human

certainly if we are Christians,

and most

we

that

lie

is

co-heirs

the heir of all things (kleronomos panton ). n

God

person confesses before

and wishes only to be

and

in Christ,

a slave,

that he or she

is

unworthy

to be

does that person become by God’s

grace a truly adopted first-born son possessing everything that belongs to

who refuse faith in Him because of misunderstanding or perverse teaching, or who have been scandalized by the behavior of people claiming to be Christians, may in

God

alone. People

who

have never heard of Jesus, or

be participating in Christ’s divine sonship and inheritance without

fact

knowing 10

The

it.

If so, they, too, will ultimately possess all things in the Savior

first

chapter of St Paul’s

Romans

letter to the

is

12 .

the classical scriptural description of

See also Deut 11.26-32,30.15-20, referred to also in the early Christian Didache.

this tragic truth.

n See

Rom 8.17; Gal 4.1-7; Heb 1.2, 14; et al. 12 Women as well as men are called God’s “sons”

in Christian Scripture

and

liturgy,

and

not simply God’s children or daughters, because they have received and become everything that Jesus Christ all

in Christ

enjoy

(Gal 4.4-6). All in the

only

Holy

free

is

and has all

as

God’s only-begotten ( monogenes) firstborn

the fullness of God in the Spirit, having

who are baptized

Spirit.

In the

into Christ have put

new covenant

in the

Jewish men, but enslaved Gentile

31.31-34; Joel 2.28-32; Acts 2.17-21;

become sons by

on Christ and have God

Messiah

all

the faithful are

women. This

Gal 3.27-4.7; Eph

(prototokos)

2;

Col

is

faith

as

full

God’s gospel in

2.9-3.17.

Son. Thus

and grace

Abba/Father

members; not Jesus. Cf. Jer

About servanthood and

On

and Philanthropy

Stewardship

Humans become God’s

13.

and

*39

slaves in

makes us

sons and heirs by being God’s servants

and with Jesus Christ. Jesus

unique Son of God,

Christ, the

God’s sons by grace by being obedient

to be

in love to

God

His

Father even unto death on the cross. Being God’s Son, Christ becomes

God’s suffering servant and slave

in order that we,

every grace and blessing for eternal

sess

life

in

through Him,

and through

Him

may

as

pos-

we were

intended to do from the beginning of creation. Jesus makes us to be God’s sons with Himself. Through our suffering and death in obedient service

and servitude

to

Himself is and

God

and with

in

we

Jesus,

has. Truly, in Christ,

God

are given everything that

has given

God

things unto us, begin-

all

own supra-abundant fullness of divinity. 13 steward is a bonded slave who manages his master’s

ning with His

A

14.

steward

(