Germany and the Middle East 1871-1945 9783964565259

Table of contents :
Contents
Maps, Figures, and Documents
Preface and Acknowledgments
The German Middle Eastern Policy, 1871-1945
The German Mission to Afghanistan 1915-1916
“When Continents Awake, Island Empires Fall!” Germany and the Destabilization of the East 1919-1922
“The Jinnee and the Magic Bottle”. Fritz Grobba and the German Middle Eastern Policy 1900-1945
German-Saudi Relations and Their Actors on the Arabian Peninsula, 1924-1939
German Research on the Ancient Near East and Its Relation to Political and Economic Interests from Kaiserreich to World War II
Berlin - Ankara - Baghdad. Franz von Papen and German Near East Policy during the Second World War
In the Shadow of the Moon. Arab Inmates in Nazi Concentration Camps
About the Authors
Selected Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

Germany and the Middle East, 1871 - 1 945

Germany and the Middle East 1871-1945

Edited by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz

Iberoamericana / Vervuert 2004

Bibliographie information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.ddb.de

O Iberoamericana, 2004 Amor de Dios, 1 - E-28014 Madrid Tel.:+34 91 429 35 22 Fax: +34 91 429 53 97 © Vervuert, 2004 Wielandstr. 40 - D-60318 Frankfurt am Main Tel.:+49 69 597 46 17 Fax: +49 69 597 87 43 [email protected] www.ibero-americana.net ISBN 84- 8489- 169-0 (Iberoamericana) ISBN 3- 86527- 157- X (Vervuert) ISBN 1-55876-299-X (Markus Wiener Publishers) For information within the United States please write to: Markus Wiener Publishers, 231 Nassau Street, Princeton, NJ 08542. www.markuswiener.com Cover image: Kaiser Wilhelm II visiting Jerusalem in 1898. Copyright © 2004 by the Department of Near Eastern Studies, Princeton University Copyright © 2004 by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz for the bibliography and index Reprinted from Princeton Papers: Interdisciplinary Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, volumes X-XI, except for the bibliography and index. Cover design by Maria Madonna Davidoff Book design by Kelsang Wangden, HeartBridge Communications LLC Printed in Spain Impresión: Publidisa Depósito legal: SE-111-2005 en España

Contents Maps, Illustrations, and Documents

vii

Preface and Acknowledgments

ix

The German Middle Eastern Policy, 1871-1945 Wolfgang G. Schwanitz

1

The German Mission to Afghanistan, 1915-1916 Thomas L. Hughes

25

"When Continents Awake, Island Empires Fall!" Germany and the Destabilization of the East, 1919-1922 Hans-Ulrich Seidt

65

"The Jinnee and the Magic Bottle": Fritz Grobba and German Middle East Policy, 1900-1945 Wolfgang G. Schwanitz

87

German-Saudi Relations and Their Actors on the Arabian Peninsula, 1924-1939 Uwe Pfullmann

119

German Research on the Ancient Near East and Its Relation to Political and Economic Interests from Kaiserreich to World War II Stefan R. Hauser

155

Berlin - Ankara - Baghdad: Franz von Papen and German Near East Policy during the Second World War Karl Heinz Roth

181

In the Shadow of the Moon: Arab Inmates in Nazi Concentration Camps Gerhard Hopp

217

About the Authors

241

Selected Bibliography

245

Index

259

Maps, Figures, and Documents Map 1 Map 2 Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7

Figure 8 Figure 9

Figure 10 Figure 11

The most critical time for the Allies in the Middle East between mid-1940 and 1942

13

Iraq: For a brief period a German foothold in the Middle Eastern door in May 1941

14

The German Kaiser Wilhelm II visits the Ottoman Empire and Jerusalem in 1898

x

Afghanistan's ruler Emir Hablbullah and his sons 'Inayatullah (left) and Amanullah

24

Soldier and Scholar: Major General Oskar Ritter von Niedermayer, Ph.D. (1885-1948)

64

An Intellectual and Revolutionary: Karl Radek alias Karl Sobelsohn (1885-1939)

69

Comrades in Arms: Enver Pasha (1881-1922) and Friedrich Sarre (1865-1945)

74

The foremost German Middle Eastern envoy for 25 years, Dr. Fritz Grobba (1886-1973)

86

Knowledge Transfer to the U.S.: Cover sheet of manuscript MS # P-207, 1955-1957

90

The Ibn Sa'ud: King (o-Aiit miiKmty »mon* the jirnfominanily |-t9-H(iii»li Dr.ixn.

ienliment.

D e s p i t e the wishful t h i n k i n g t h a t continues to exist in Britain, 1 dislike a n d m i s t r u s t of Britain are strong t h r o u g h o u t the A r a b world, as well as in I r a n and I n d i a . T h e r e are t w o reasons for t h i s : Or.e is British s u p p o r t of t h e Jews in Palestine and of other minorities for the a p p a r e n t p u r p o s e of dividing and ruling t h e A r a b s t a t e s ; the o t h e r is the reluctance of Britain to grant independence t o m a n d a t e d territories. T h e A r a b s place little t r u s t in British promises, which have been often broken in the past. T h e i r d i s t r u s t , o f British m e t h o d s leads t h e m to look for ulterior motives in every m o v e m a d e by Britain, if a n y t h i n g adverse happens, t h e y automatically b l a m e t h e British, without: bothering to look into the f a c t i of t h e case. T h i s makes it easy for Axis propaganda to stir u p A r a b feeling; how easy is shown by the killing of the British Consul M a s o n a t M o s u l after G e r man propaganda had accused t h e British of being responsible for the d e a t h of K i n g Ghazi. T h e acquisition b y Iraq and E g y p t of their independent« only a f t e r years of rebellion h a v e convinced the A r a b s t h a t force is the only means b y which they can e x t r a c t w h a t they regard as t h e i r rights from the British.' • Hut K< the roil«tic ankle, .irtk fUiianilun and ikt IFor, In Ss«mi T:o)/ (Um4m), September 194), w-AW TCS, • A a ;iium»tion of C!K iu*ngih «n wissens c h a f t l k h « » R s ^ u k u o d e nx d e » Frag;«i, wefebe die arahische H s s » beireffcB, d ä r s a U g ^ i : l . Si int u n d £ i e l d e r natumaiaoziali&tisuteit RasNi:o> {Ktliiik ist n. a . der S e n a t s de« deutsche» Vtrlkcs vor d a n M.nets«ndeu iüiiSQitsen des J u d e ^ u a i s » bei d e m « «ich ubi ei« u n h a t m ü t i ü c h u Raistsig e m i w h hafidell, «las r a s s e u h w l ^ i s c h wie ^ a r s k icrUcb eine geschk&llittb « n o r m a l e Kr8theine.n« W i r l a i n i>ö» dsese E u i ^ a d s i i r g iratn AlaJruck, ohne darsleitt u n d ?o» d e n V6ik (, î .k.j-t. !

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Document 6. Anti-Semitism or anti-Judaism? An Arab question and the official German answer in 1942

231

Anti-Semitism or Anti-Judaism? We are presenting a correspondence of some time ago which makes clear we are no longer using the concept "anti-Semitism." The word cannot always be replaced with "anti-Judaism " or something like that (opposition to Jews, enmity toward Jews)— not when it is historically fixed. The term is an expression of our time. The present no longer recognizes "anti-Semites," but opponents of the Jews. The Iraqi Prime Minister Gailani directed the following question to the director of the Race Political Bureau of the NSDAP, Prof Dr. Grofi: The propaganda of the enemies of the Axis Powers claims that Germany considers the Arabs on a par with the Jews as racially inferior or places the Arabic race in a very unfavorable place on the value scale of human races. As prime minister of Iraq I am too well acquainted with my countrymen and the Arabs in general not to know that they give no credence to these allegations since they received much support and recognition from the Germans in their struggle for freedom and justice so that they are convinced of their friendship and respect. But since the enemy propaganda constantly repeats this lie, I think it would be useful if it were opposed by the truth of the German attitude toward the Arabic race on the part of the official German side. I, therefore, would be particularly grateful if you, as director of the Race Political Bureau of the NSDAP, and outstanding representative of German race research, would explain to me the standpoint concerning this question of the national socialist racial ideology and of the German scientific race research. I remain sincerely yours, Rashid Ali el Gailani

Translation of Document 6. Anti-Semitism From Weltkampf: Die Judenfrage in Geschichte und Gegenwart, (Berlin) 3 (1944): 168. 232

Dr. Groß replied on October 17, 1942: In response to your request, I am glad to take the opportunity to explain to you in the following the standpoint of the national socialist racial ideology and of German race research with regard to the questions concerning the Arabic race. 1. The purpose and goal of the national socialist racial policy is, among other things, the protection of the German people from the subversive influence of the Jews, who constitute an unharmonious mixture of races, which represents an abnormal historical entity from race biological and characterlogical viewpoint, and who are to be strictly distinguished from the peoples of the Near Eastern and Oriental races, that is, also from the semitic-language groups of the Near East. 2. For this reason, the expression "anti-Semitism," which has been used for decades in Europe by the anti-Jewish movement, is incorrect since this movement was exclusively directed against Jewry that subverts all nations, but not against other peoples who speak a Semitic language —and who have likewise for ages been opposed to the Jews. By the same token, the defensive measures of the German racial laws are not aimed at the Jew because of his oriental origin or the Semitic specificity of his language but solely because of his asocial and antisocial character as enemy of the world. 3. While we are rejecting Jewry sharply and absolutely as a race biological and historical entity, the Semitic-Arabic peoples, languages, and cultures have always been the object of loving interest of German science. This has remained unchanged even in view of recent race research. If anything, this standpoint reflects the great respect which the Germans more than any people has always paid the valuable, cultural achievements of other nations and cultures. Nobody in Germany, whose opinion is taken seriously, has ever stated that the Arabs are inferior or occupy on the value scale of

233

human races an unfavorable position. Rather, the national socialist racial teaching recognizes the Arabs as members of a highly valued race, which can look back on a glorious, heroic history. It is for this reason as well that the political struggle for freedom by the Arabs against the Jewish usurpation of Palestine has always been followed and supported from the German side with particular sympathy. With the expression of foremost respect, I remain, Yours truly, Prof. Dr. Groß

Translation of Document 6, continued

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A R A B INMATES IN N A Z I CONCENTRATION C A M P S

rian war a few years later might have relativized the experience of the Algerian victims of Nazi persecution in view of the innumerable new victims and sufferings, and dismissed or even obliterated their memories about their imprisonment in concentration camps. Likewise, the independence struggles soon flaring up in other Arab countries brought out new groups of victims among the population, which then filled the collective memory of their peoples and determined the institutionalized memory.38 Fourth: The conflict that broke out in 1948 between Arabs and Israelis paradoxically played a part, too, in forgetting the Arab victims of Nazi persecution. In addition to other things, it separated the sufferings of Arab Jewish Nazi victims from that of their Arab Muslim and Christian fellow-inmates and fellow-countrymen; this went down into the sufferings of another group, the Jewish people, and is still today part of the Jewish memory of the Shoah.39 Fifth: All these conditions of oblivion are part of a process which Reinhart Koselleck called the "crossover" from the "primary experience" of the suffering generation, that is, Arab inmates, to the "institutionalized memory" which established the "ex post experience." 40 Aleida Assmann defines this process by saying: "Memory is to be replaced by history". Memory, she writes, is not a "static container where experiences can be preserved unchanged"; instead it is the society "always defining new reference frameworks and interpretation patterns for the past." 41 Authors like Peter Reichel, Peter Steinbach, and Michael Wolffsohn call this process a "memory and history policy" respectively. 42 The following is an example. The memorial at the concentration camp Mittelbau-Dora in Thuringia includes an inscription, in steel letters, about inmates from Arab states. Some time after the German reunification, presumably in 1992, an Israeli diplomat visited the former camp and saw this inscription which is unfortunately overly general and requested its removal. The management dismissed this request and looked instead for evidence that might justify the "offensive" words. The archives were searched for names like cAlI, Ahmad, Muhammad, and Mustafa, and when they found some, the holders of which were born in Arab countries, they sent copies of these documents to the diplomat, who made no reply. Meanwhile, I have found in the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp records twenty-

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GERMANY AND THE M I D D L E E A S T

two Algerians, three Moroccans, two Tunisians, and thirteen Arabs of unknown origin. This story is an example of how memory and history policy, respectively, are practiced under the conditions of the Arab-Israeli conflict. Victim monopolization, observed by Tom Segev on both sides of the conflict, also seems to mean on the Israeli side to negate and ignore Arab victims of Nazi persecution. While this aspect of victim monopolization has not yet attracted public attention, the alleged and actual denial of the Holocaust by Arabs as an aspect of their victim monopolization undergoes widespread and heated debates. This type of history policy has at least two negative aspects. First, the conflict that contributed to the erasure of Arab sufferings under the Nazi regime has turned this loss of memory into a deficiency, that is, the absence of suffering and consequently of victims. Second, it also made it possible that the written memories of Arab perpetrators, that is, collaborators with Nazism, among them from the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, draw a picture of this historical period where Arab victims seem nonexistent. When Yâsir 1 Arafat in 1998 cancelled his visit to the Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C., Eli Wohlgelernter wrote a comment in Jerusalem Post headlined "Learning to See 'the Enemy' as Victims." This article also dealt with Irit Abramski-Bligh's efforts at Yad Vashem, to teach the Holocaust to the Israeli Arabs. 45 These efforts are doubtless very laudable and must be appreciated. However, neither there, nor anywhere else, did I find anything about efforts to recall the Arab victims of Nazi genocide. Research about Arab victims of the Nazis is still in its initial stages. However, it should not be restricted to concentration camp inmates, about which this essay presents the first research results, but should include other groups of victims like forced laborers and prisoners of war. Another area that needs to be investigated concerns Arabs who actively fought against the Nazi regime and Fascism, including those who fought on the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War, members of the French Résistance, and soldiers and officers in the Allied anti-Hitler coalition. This will cast a critical light on Arab-German history between 1933 and 1945 and might lead in many respects to its revision.

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Notes 1. Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes (Political Archives of the Foreign Office), Berlin (PArchAAB), R 100702. The visit is presumably mentioned for the first time by David Yisraeli, Ha-Reich Ha-germani we-eres Yisra'el (Ramat Gan, 1974), 278. See also Israel Gutman, ed., Enzyklopädie des Holocaust, vol. 2 (Berlin, 1993), 631; Elliott A. Green, "Arabs and Nazis - Can It Be True?" Midstream 40, no. 7 (1994): 11; Rafael Medoff, "The Mufti's Nazi Years Re-examined," The Journal of Israeli History 17, no. 3 (1996): 332. Medoff also mentions that an Arab delegation visited and inspected Laurahütte, a slave labor subcamp of Auschwitz, in 1944. 2. See Maurice Pearlman, Mufti of Jerusalem: The Story of Haj Amin El Husseini (London, 1947), 73. See also Joseph B. Schechtman, The Mufti and the Fuehrer: The Rise and Fall of Haj Amin el-Husseini (New York and London, 1965), 160; Derek Hopwood, "Amin al-Husayni," in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, supplement 1 - 2 (Leiden, 1980), 69, which, however, confuses the affidavits of Imre Steiner and Rudolf Kasztner. 3. See Simon Wiesenthal, Großmufti — Großagent der Achse (Salzburg and Vienna, 1947), 37-45. See also Quentin Reynolds, Ephraim Katz, and Zwy Aldouby, Minister of Death: The Adolf Eichmann Story (London, 1961), 174; Siegfried Einstein, Eichmann: Chefbuchhalter des Todes (Frankfurt am Main, 1962), 166; Klaus von Munchausen, "Der Traum vom großen Arabien," Die Zeit (September 7, 1990): 45. 4. See Reynolds et al., Minister of Death; see also Einstein, Eichmann. 5. See Hannes Stein, "Die DDR, das Dritte Reich, und Israel," Die politische Meinung 44, no. 357 (1999): 82. 6. For Kasztner's affidavit see Nicholas Bethell, The Palestinian Triangle: The Struggle between the British, the Jews, and the Arabs 1935-1948 (London, 1979), 225. 7. This includes the absurd accusations that al-Husayni represented the Muslim peoples at the Wannsee Conference in January 1942 and "influenced Hitler's gas chamber concept." See Marzio Pisani, "'Resistenza' e 'collaborazionismo' nella seconda guerra mondiale Islam," L'Uomo libero 4, no. 16 (1983): 68; Martin Ros, Schakale des Dritten Reiches: Untergang der Kollaborateure 1944-1945 (Stuttgart, 1997), 329. 8. See Gerhard Höpp, "Der Gefangene im Dreieck. Zum Bild Amin al-Husseinis in Wissenschaft und Publizistik seit 1941. Ein bio-bibliographischer Abriß," in Eine umstrittene Figur: Hadj Amin al-Husseini, ed. Rainer Zimmer-Winkel (Trier, 1999), 523; Gerhard Höpp, ed., Mufti-Papiere: Briefe, Memoranden, Reden und Aufrufe Amin al-Husainis aus dem Exil, 1940-1945 (Berlin, 2001). 9. Hermann L. Gremliza, "Ein skandalöser Text," in Israel, die Palästinenser, und die deutsche Linke (Wuppertal, 2002), 58. 10. Bundesarchiv (Federal Archives), Berlin (BArchB), Reichsführer SS, film no. 2922, frame 699524. 11. This and the following information is mostly based on sources accessible to me at the memorial sites of the concentration camps and the Federal Archives in Berlin.

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G E R M A N Y AND THE M I D D L E E A S T

12.

13.

14.

15.

16. 17.

18.

19.

20.

My express thanks to the staff of these institutions and the former inmate of Natzweiler and Dachau camps, Ernest Gillen (Howald/Luxembourg), for their valuable help and support in my investigations. The national origin of ninety-five additional Arab inmates could not yet be established. The difference between the absolute number of inmates and the total number of inmates in the individual concentration camps results from the fact that many inmates were in more than one camp. See Rachel Simon, "It Could Have Happened There: The Jews of Libya during the Second World War," Africana Journal 16 (1994): 391-422. See also the files not used by the author in PArchAAB, R 41507, 41508, and 412583. A very brief and superficial chapter on "Muslime im KZ" (Muslims in concentration camps) is in Bernd Bauknecht, Muslime in Deutschland von 1920 bis 1945 (Cologne 2001), 136ff.; for African victims compare the studies by Robert W. Resting, "Forgotten Victims: Blacks in the Holocaust," The Journal of Negro History 77 (1992): 30-36, and Maguéye Kassé, "Afrikaner im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland," Utopie kreativ, 115-116 (2000): 501-507, which also need to be supplemented. See G.-L. Fréjafon, Bergen-Belsen bagne sanatorium (Paris, 1947), 73f.; Aimé Bonifas, Häftling 20801 (Berlin, 1968), 40f.; Jean Degroote, Prisons de la Gestapo et camps de concentration (Steenvorde, 1995), 23; Jean-Louis Vigla, Evadés d'Aurigny: Hiver 1942-1943 (Cherbourg, 1995), 187f.; Un pas, encore un pas...pour survivre (Kommando Buchenwald) (Amiens, 1996), 220. Inmates of Sachsenhausen camp remember some "black people, Arabs" as fellow-inmates. See Brandenburgisches Landeshauptarchiv (Brandenburg County Archives), Potsdam (BrLHArchP), Pr.Br.Rep.35 H KZ Sachsenhausen, no. 8/1, 426. See Alois Hotschnig, Ludwigs Zimmer (Cologne, 2000), 138, which mentions Algerians in the Mauthausen camp. Olga Wormser-Migot, Le système concentrationnaire nazi 1933-1945 (Paris, 1968), 431, mentions Algerians; Hans Marsâlck, Die Geschichte des Konzentrationslagers Mauthausen (Vienna, 1974), 119, mentions Arabs and Egyptians; Bärbel Schindler-Saefkow, "Ein Gedenkbuch für die Opfer von Ravensbrück," in Tod oder Uberleben? Neue Forschungen zur Geschichte des Konzentrationslagers Ravensbrück, ed. Werner Röhr and Brigitte Berlekamp (Berlin, 2001), 186, inmates from Egypt and Morocco. A commemorative plaque on the former roll call square of the Buchenwald camp tells of Algerians, Egyptians, and Moroccans among others. See Gedenkstätten für die Opfer des Nationalsozialismus (Bonn, 1999), 865 and 898. An inscription at the former roll call square of concentration camp Mittelbau-Dora refers to inmates from Arab countries. Ibid., 865. Ina R. Friedman, The Other Victims: First-Person Stories of Non-Jews Persecuted by the Nazis (Boston, 1990), 1, wrote: "Fifty years after the Holocaust many people believe, that only Jews were the victims of the Nazis. That is not true. While six million Jews were killed in the Holocaust, five million Christians were also deliberately murdered by the Nazis." Muslims are not mentioned. See Jan Assmann, "Die Katastrophe des Vergessens. Das Deuteronium als Paradigma kultureller Mnemotechnik," in Mnemosyne: Formen und Funktionen der kulturellen Erinnerung, ed. Aleida Assmann and Dietrich Harth (Frankfurt am Main, 1991), 344ff.

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21. The decree of December 12, 1941, called "Nacht- und Nebel-Erlass," by the Supreme Commander of the German Army (Chef des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht), Wilhelm Keitel, provided that any persons "who infringes on the law of German Reich or occupying power will be transferred under cover of darkness to the Reich as a measure of deterrence." Philippe Waxrenier, member of the Résistance, mentioned for instance a Tunisian who joined his resistance network. See Raymond de Lassus Saint Geniès, Si l'echo de leurs voix faiblit... (Paris, 1997), 147ff. 22. The decree issued on February 3, 1944, by the Supreme Commander West, Hugo Sperrle, for the fight against French guerillas, also sanctioned reprisals against civilians. 23. See Gabriele Lotfi, KZ der Gestapo: Arbeitserziehungslager im Dritten Reich (Stuttgart and Munich, 2000). 24. See Wolfgang Ayaß, "Asoziale" im Nationalsozialismus (Stuttgart, 1995). 25. My thanks to the Saxon and Thuringian State Archives and the Brandenburg County Archives for their valuable help and support while 1 was reviewing personal files of inmates of Brandenburg, Ichtershausen, Leipzig, and Untermassfeld jails. 26. See Wolfgang Sofsky, Die Ordnung des Terrors: Das Konzentrationslager (Frankfurt am Main, 1999), 138ff. 27. See "Antisemitismus oder Antijudaismus?" Weltkampf 3 (1944): 168 (document 6 above). As early as the summer of 1936, after the passing of the Nürnberger Rassengesetze (Nuremberg racial laws) stirred up anxiety in the Middle East as well, Nazi politicians from the Foreign Office (Pilger), the Ministries of Interior (Globke, Stuckart), Justice, and Propaganda, and the Office for Racial Policy (Gross) met and discussed the issue of "racial" classification of Egyptians, for example. The participants categorized them as a race of "alien blood" ("fremdbliitig"), but in view of the upcoming Olympic Games in Berlin they agreed "the time for an official declaration [of this ranking —G.H.] vis-à-vis foreign countries was not yet ripe." See PArchAAB, R 99173 and R 99174. 28. See Susann Samples, "African Germans in the Third Reich," in The African-German Experience: Critical Essays, ed. Carol Aisha Blackshire-Belay (Westport, Conn., 1996), 53-69; Marianne Bechhaus-Gerst, "Afrikaner in Deutschland 1933-1945," Zeitschrift für Sozialgeschichte des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts 12 (1997): 10-31. 29. See Thomas Rahe, "Die Bedeutung von Religion und Religiosität in den nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslagern," in Die nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager —Entwicklung und Struktur, ed. Ulrich Herbert, Karin Orth, and Christoph Dieckmann, vol. 2 (Göttingen, 1998), 1006-1022. 30. See Marsálek, Geschichte des Konzentrationslagers Mauthausen, 21. 31. See Sofsky, Ordnung des Terrors, 147f. 32. Ibid., 57. 33. The historian Koselleck questioned the sense of putting up a memorial for each group of victims and argued not to remember the victims by "SS categories" but "based on the facts created by the perpetrators," that is, "that they were murdered." Reinhart Koselleck, "Die Diskontinuität der Erinnerung," Deutsche Zeitschrift für Philosophie 47 (1999): 222.

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34. Ibid., 215. 35. See Le grand livre de témoins (Paris, 1994). 36. See Aleida Assmann, "Gedächtnis ohne Erinnerung? Die Probleme der Deutschen mit ihrer Geschichte," Gedenkstätten Rundbrief 10, no. 97 (2000): 12. 37. See Michael Pollak, Die Grenzen des Sagbaren: Lebensgeschichten von KZÜberlebenden als Augenzeugenberichte und als Identitätsarbeit (Frankfurt am Main and New York, 1988), 163ff.; Ulrike Jureit and Karin Orth, Überlebensgeschichten: Gespräche mit Überlebenden des KZ-Neuengamme mit einem Beitrag von Detlef Garbe (Hamburg, 1994), 164ff. ; Ulrike Jureit, Erinnerungsmuster: Zur Methodik lebensgeschichtlicher Interviews mit Überlebenden der Konzentrationsund Vernichtungslager (Hamburg, 1999), U6ff. 38. See Benjamin Stora, Le dictionnaire des livres de la guerre d'Algérie (Paris, 1996). 39. See Michael M. Laskier, North African Jewry in the Twentieth Century: The Jews of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria (New York and London, 1994), 55ff. 40. See Koselleck, "Die Diskontinuität der Erinnerung," 215. 41. See Assmann, "Gedächtnis ohne Erinnerung?" 11 and 7. 42. See Peter Reichel, Politik mit der Erinnerung (Munich, 1995). Peter Steinbach, "Die Vergegenwärtigung von Vergangenem. Zum Spannungsverhältnis zwischen individueller Erinnerung und öffentlichem Gedenken," in Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte B 3 - 4 (1997), 7; Michael Wolffsohn, "Von der äußerlichen zur verinnerlichten 'Vergangenheitsbewältigung.'Gedanken und Fakten zu Erinnerungen," in ibid., 17. 43. See Tom Segev, "Der Holocaust gehört in seinen historischen Kontext," Universitas 51 (1996): 90. 44. A good survey on the discussion is given by Rainer Zimmer-Winkel, ed., Die Araber und die Shoa: Über die Schwierigkeiten dieser Konjunktion (Trier, 2000). 45. See Joseph Massad, "Palestinians and Jewish History: Recognition or Submission?" Journal of Palestine Studies 30 (2000): 61. See also

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About the Authors G. SCHWANITZ, born in 1955, researches Middle Eastern history and foreign relations. Born in Germany, he spent his childhood in Egypt and now lives near Princeton. For twelve years he taught Middle Eastern history and policy at universities in Berlin and Potsdam. Educated at Leipzig University as an Arabist and economist, he received his Ph.D. there on Egypt's infitäh in 1985. He has been a researcher at the German Academy of Science and the Center of Modern Orient Berlin, and a visiting fellow in Cairo, Princeton, and Washington. He has edited eight books on the Middle East and authored Deutsche in Nahost 1946-1965 (Germans in the Near East, 1946-65) and Gold, Bankiers und Diplomaten: Zur Geschichte der Deutschen Orientbank 19061946 (Gold, Bankers, and Diplomats: A History of the German Orient Bank 1 9 0 6 - 4 6 ) in a series of comparative history "America-Middle East-Europe" (www.trafoberlin.de), as well as the forthcoming Middle Eastern Policy of German Empires and Republics. WOLFGANG

L. HUGHES is a senior visiting research scholar at the German Historical Institute in Washington, D.C. His article expands a lecture delivered there on January 2 9 , 2 0 0 2 . A Washingtonian since 1 9 5 5 , he has had a many-sided career as a lawyer, author, diplomat, and foundation executive. He was the former U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Intelligence and Research in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations ( 1 9 6 3 - 6 9 ) , Minister and Deputy Chief of Mission at the U.S. Embassy in London under the Nixon Administration ( 1 9 6 9 - 7 0 ) , and president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace ( 1 9 7 1 - 9 1 ) . He holds degrees from Carleton College, Oxford University, and Yale Law School, and is a trustee of several German-American organizations.

THOMAS

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born in 1 9 5 2 , joined the German Foreign Service in 1982. He has held assignments in Moscow, at NATO Headquarters in Brussels, and in Washington, D.C. He earned his Ph.D. on French Middle Eastern policy and was Lecturer for International Security Policy of the Robert Bosch Foundation ( 1 9 9 4 - 9 7 ) . He served as vice-chairman of the Bosnia Special Task Force (SoBos: Sonderstab Bosnien). He has written, translated, and edited numerous books and articles, among them the classical Russian biography on Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz by Alexander Swetschin and recently Berlin, Kabul, Moskau: Oskar Ritter von Niedermayer und Deutschlands Geopolitik (www.herbig.net). [email protected] HANS-ULRICH SEIDT,

born in 1956, pursues historical research about the Middle East with concentration on West Asia and the Arabian Peninsula. Educated at Leipzig University as an Arabist and historian, he earned there a Ph.D. about North African history with special regard to Morocco. In the 1990s he was a researcher at the Berlin Center of Modern Orient and taught at Hamburg University. He has traveled extensively in Arab lands and edited numerous books, among them historical reports and diaries of Julius Euting, Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, Richard Francis Burton, Georg Augustus Wallin, and Adolph von Wrede. He has authored Throhnfolge in Saudi-Arabien. Wahhabitische Familienpolitik von 1744 bis 1953 (Succession to the Throne in Saudi Arabia: Wahhabi Family Policy, 1744-1953), the biography Ibn Saud. König zwischen Tradition und Fortschritt (Ibn Saud: King between Tradition and Progress), and the Endeckerlexikon arabische Halbinsel (Encyclopedia of Discoverers of the Arabian Peninsula), (www.pfullmann.de). U W E PFULLMANN,

STEFAN R. H A U S E R , born in 1962, specializes in the history of the Ancient Orient at the Institut für Vorderasiatische Altertumskunde of the Free University in Berlin. Current research topics include "Burial, Status and Ritual: The Social Structure of Neo-Assyrian Assur," "History and Archeology of the Arsacid Empire," and "The Living Presence: On the Power of Images in Ancient Mesopotamia." Among his articles is "Archäologische Methoden und Theorien" (Der Neue Pauly Wissenschafts- und Rezeptionsgeschichte, vol. 13) (Archaeological Methods and Theories [The New Paul History of Research and Reception]); his books include Assur: Ausgrabungen der Freien Universität Berlin I:

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Die nachassyrischen Schichten (Assur: Excavations by the Free University of Berlin I: The Post-Assyrian Stratas). Together with Ann C. Gunter he edited "Ernst Herzfeld and the Development of Near Eastern Studies, 1900-1950" ([email protected]). born in 1942, is the co-founder and head of the German Foundation of Social History of the 20th Century in Bremen. He holds an M.D. and a Ph.D. He has authored many articles and books about the social and economic history of the world crisis in the 1920s, about Nazi Germany, the Cold War, and current history, among them Facetten des Terrors. Der Geheimdienst der "Deutschen Arbeitsfront" und die Zerstörung der Arbeiterbewegung 1933-1938 (Facets of Terror: the Secret Service of the German Arbeitsfront and the Destruction of the Labor Movement 1933^8), and Der Krieg vor dem Krieg. Ökonomik und Politik der "friedlichen" Aggression Deutschlands 1938/1939 (The War before the War: Politics and Economics of the German "Peaceful" Aggression 1938-39). He is the co-editor of Sozial.Geschichte (formerly 1999), the German journal for the history of the 20th and 21st century. Currently he is completing a biography on Franz von Papen and the German Policy towards Turkey during World War II (www.stiftung-sozialgeschichte.de). K A R L HEINZ R O T H ,

1942-2003, professor, worked at the Center for Modern Oriental Studies in Berlin. Educated as an Arabist and Islam scholar at Leipzig University, he did his Ph.D. there about the intellectual conflicts in Arab countries, and his habilitation thesis on the history of the Arab Nationalist Movement, 1948-75. He researched the history of the Muslim immigration to Germany, Muslim biographies between the cultures, and Arab personal experiences with Nazi Germany. He was the editor and author of many articles and books, among them Fremdeinsätze: Afrikaner und Asiaten in europäischen Kriegen, 1914-1945 (Among Strangers: African and Asian Soldiers in European Wars), Texte aus der Fremde: Arabische politische Publizistik in Deutschland, 1896-1945. Eine Bibliographie (Literature on Foreign Soil: Political Publicatioins by Arabs in Germany, 1896-1945. A Bibliography), and Mufti-Papiere: Briefe, Memoranden, Reden und Aufrufe Amin al-Husainis aus dem Exil, 1940-1945 (Mufti-Papers: Letters, Memoranda, Speeches and Appeals by Amin al-Husainl from his Exile, 1940^45) (www.zmo.de). GERHARD H Ö P P ,

243

Selected Bibliography Abdullah, Muhammad S. Geschichte des Islams in Deutschland. Graz, 1981. Adamec, Ludwig W. Afghanistan 's Foreign Affairs to the Mid-Twentieth Century: Relations with the USSR, Germany, and Britain. Tucson, 1974. Ajami, Fouad. The Dream Palace of the Arabs: A Generation's Odyssey. New York, 1998. Akten zur deutschen Auswärtigen Politik 1918-1945. Aus dem Archiv des Auswärtigen Amts, serial A: 1918-1925, 14 vols.; serial B: 1925-1933, 21 vols., Göttingen, 1966-1983; serial C: 1933-1937, 6 vols., Göttingen, 1971-1981; serial D: 19371945, 13 vols., Baden-Baden, 1950-1970; serial E: 1941-1945, 8 vols., Göttingen, 1969-1981; supplement to serial A-E, Göttingen, 1995. 'Aqqad, 'Abbäs Mahmüd al-. Hitler fi al-mizän [Hitler on the Scale]. Cairo, 1940. 'Atïq, Wagïh 'Abd as-Sâdiq. Al-jaish al-Misri wa al-Almânfiathna'al-harb al-'alamlya ath-thaniya [The Egyptian Army and the Germans during World War II], Cairo, 1993. . Al-malik Fârûq wa Almdnlya Näziya - khamsa sanawât min al-'alaqât alsirrïya [King Fârûq and Nazi Germany - Five Years of Secret Relations]. Cairo, 1992. . Misr wa Almâniyafi al-qirnain at-tâsi' 'ashara wa al-'ishrln fi dau al-wathâ'iq [Egypt and Germany during the 19,h and 20,h century as reflected in archives]. Edited by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz. Cairo, 1998. Atkinson, Rick. An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942-1943. New York, 2002. Bariety, Jacques. République de Weimar et regime hitlérien, 1918-1945. Paris, 1973. Barthel, Günter, and Kristina Stock, eds. Lexikon arabische Welt. Wiesbaden, 1994. Bauknecht, Bernd. Muslime in Deutschland von 1920 bis 1945. Cologne, 2001. Baum, Walter, Eberhard Weichhold. Der Krieg der Achsenmächte im Mittelmeerraum—Die Strategie der Diktatoren. Frankfurt am Main, 1973. Bebel, August. Die Mohammedanisch-Arabische Kulturperiode. Edited by Wolfgang G. Schwanitz. Berlin, 1999. Becker, Carl-Heinrich. Islamstudien: Vom Werden und Wesen der islamischen Welt. Hildesheim, 1967. Bedürftig, Friedemann, ed. Das große Lexikon des Dritten Reiches. Augsburg, 1993. Black, Edwin. The Transfer Agreement. New York, 2001. Braune, Walther. Der islamische Orient zwischen Vergangenheit und Zukunft. Bern, 1960. Brown, L. Carl, ed. Imperial "Legacy": The Ottoman Imprint on the Balkans and the Middle East. New York, 1996.

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. International Politics and the Middle East. Princeton, 1984. Cao-Van-Hoa, Edmund. "Der Feind meines Feindes...:" Darstellungen des nationalsozialistischen Deutschlands in ägyptischen Schriften. Frankfurt am Main, 1990. Carmel, Alex, and Ejal Jakob Eisler. Der Kaiser reist ins Heilige Land. Die Palästinareise Wilhelms 11. 1898. Stuttgart, 1999. Carpi, Daniel. Between Mussolini and Hitler. The Jews and the Italian Authorities in France and Tunisia. Hannover, 1994. Dankclmann, Otfried, ed. Biographisches Lexikon zur Weltgeschichte. Frankfurt am Main, 2001. Dann, Uriel, ed. The Great Powers in the Middle East 1919-1939. New York, 1988. Demhardt, Imre Josef. Deutsche Kolonialgrenzen in Afrika. Hildesheim, 1997. DeNovo, John A. American Interests and Policies in the Middle East 1900-1939. Minneapolis, 1963. Deringil, Selim. Turkish Foreign Policy during the Second World War: An "Active" Neutrality. Cambridge, 1989. Dessouki, Mohamed-Kamel E1-. Hitler und der Nahe Osten. Berlin, 1963. Dönhoff, Marion Gräfin. Menschen, die wissen, worum es geht. Hamburg, 1976. Döscher, Hans-Jürgen. Das Auswärtige Amt im Dritten Reich. Diplomatie im Schatten der "Endlösung". Berlin, 1987. Elpeleg, Zwi. The Grand Mufti Haj Amin al-Hussaini, Founder of the Palestinian National Movement. London, 1993. . Ha-Mufti ha-Gadol [The Grand Mufti], Tel Aviv, 1989. Eppler, John W. Rommel ruft Kairo: Aus den Tagebuch eines Spions. Gütersloh, 1959. Esser, Brigitte, Michael Venhoff. Die Chronik des Zweiten Weltkriegs. Augsburg, 1997. Feiice, Renzo de. Il fascismo e l'Oriente: Arabi, ebrei e indiani nella politica di Mussolini. Bologna, 1988. Fest, Joachim C. Hitler. Eine Biographie. Berlin, 1997. Fichtner, Axel. Die Völker- und staatsrechtliche Stellung der deutschen Kolonialgesellschaften des 19. Jahrhunderts. Frankfurt am Main, 2002. Fischer, Fritz. Germany's Aims in the First World War. New York, 1967. Flacker, Edgar. Fritz Grobba and Nazi Germany's Middle Eastern Policy, 1933-1942. London, 1998. Fleury, Antoine. La politique allemande au Moyen-Orient 1919-1939. Etude comparative de la pénétration de l'Allemagne en Turquie, en Iran et en Afghanistan. Geneva, 1977. Flores, Alexander. Die arabische Welt. Ein kleines Sachlexikon. Stuttgart, 2003. . Nationalismus und Sozialismus im arabischen Osten - Kommunistische Partei und arabische Nationalbewegung in Palästina 1919-1948. Munich, 1980. Franzke, Jochen, ed. Bagdad- und Hedjazbahn. Deutsche Eisenbahngeschichte im Vorderen Orient. Nürnberg, 2003. Friedman, Isaiah. Germany, Turkey and Zionism, 1897-1918. Oxford, 1977. Fück, Johann. Die arabischen Studien in Europa. Leipzig, 1955. Fueß, Albrecht. Die deutsche Gemeinde in Ägypten von 1919-1939. Münster, 1996. Generalkommando des Deutschen Afrikakorps, ed. Marsch und Kampf des Deutschen Afrikakorps 1941. München, 1943. Gensicke, Klaus. Der Mufti von Jerusalem, Amin al-Husseini, und die Nationalsozialis-

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257

Index 'Abdullah, Emir 142 Afghanistan 25, 26, 29,40, 56, 75, 94 Africa 223 Al-'Alamain 14 Albania 223 Alexander I, Tsar 67 Alexandria 15 Algeria 14,18,203,224,230 'All, King 122 'All, Muhammad 5, 55 All-India Muslim League 33 Allies 103 Amanullah, King 27, 57, 59, 72 America 2 Amt Rosenberg 167 ancient Greece 155 Ancient Near East 156 Ancient Near Eastern Studies 160, 170, 171 Andrae, Walter 164 Anglo-Saxon crusaders 101 Anglo-Saxon democracy 17 anti-Semitism 11, 17, 94, 98, 102, 221 anti-Westernism 17 Antonius, Hans 97 Arab-Israeli conflict 19, 236 Arabia 3 Arabian Peninsula 123 Arabistik 4 Arab Committee 101,103 Arab federation 197

Arab inmates 217 Arab nationalism 120 Arab Question 193 Arab slave workers 226 'Arafat, Mount 127 'Arafat, Yasir 236 Archaeological Museum in Istanbul 163 Archives of the Foreign Office 189 Armenia 203 Armenians 70 Armenian Question 37 Arslan, Shakib 15, 123, 129 Aryans 168 Aryan history 155, 167 Aryan research 171 asymmetrical strategy 65 Atatiirk. See also Pasha, Kemal Athenaeum Club 44 Augusta Victoria, Empress 28 Augustus, (Roman) Emperor 167 Australia 169 Austria 5, 8, 205 Austro-Hungarian Empire 69 Axis powers 18, 103, 144, 183, 193, 198 Axis propaganda 15,102 Azerbaijan 203 al-'Aziz II,'Abd 119,120,123, 126, 129, 130, 136, 144, 146 Baghdad railroad 157 Balfour Declaration 94

259

G E R M A N Y AND THE M I D D L E E A S T

Balkans 12, 105, 182, 195 Balkan Pact 183 Baltic Sea 72 Barakatullah, Muhammad 40, 54 Barbarossa, Friedrich 43 Bassewitz, Hans-Joachim von 122 Batavia 34 bâton égyptien 2 Bebel, August 4 Becker, Carl Heinrich 4, 6, 9, 11, 166 Becker, Karl 4 1 , 4 3 , 4 6 Berber tribes 103 Bernhardi, Friedrich von 32 Berve, Helmut 167,170,171 Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von 2 9 , 3 1 , 6 2 Bey, Bedri 76 Bey, Kasim 50, 52 Bilharz, Theodor 4 Bismarck, Otto von 2, 5,11, 17, 28, 92, 99 Black Sea 65,183 Bolshevism 19 Botta, Paul Emile 158 Brest-Litovsk 6 8 , 7 0 British Empire 39,196 British India 7 Briining, Heinrich 136 Buchan, John 34 Bulgaria 186,223 Biilow, Bernhard von 38 Bundesarchiv Koblenz 189 Bundesnachrichtendienst 98 Burckhardt, Johann Ludwig 4 Biirkner, Leopold 97 Burma 34 Caliphate 7 Caspian Sea 199 Caucasian-Muslims Caucasian gate 14

203

Caucasian Soviet Republics 197 Caucasus 27, 66, 183,189, 206, 207 Center for Foreign Trade 140 Central African colonies 10 Central Asia 18, 29, 3 5 , 4 0 , 4 3 , 54, 66,81, 183, 189,206 Central Islamic Institute 100 Central Powers 8, 27, 51, 54, 55, 119 Central State Archives 189 Chamber of Commerce 140 China 4 1 , 9 7 Christian-Muslim war 104 Chromerz Cannon Consortium 197 Churchill, Winston 18, 120, 146 Ciano, Count 99 Cleveland, Sir Charles 33 Cold War 82, 106, 206 colonial code 224 common European defense 21 Constantinople 3. See also Istanbul Continental Europe 121, 200 coordinator of information 101 Crete 15 Crimea-Tartars 203 cultural re-orientation 157 Curzon, Lord 33 czar 44 DAI. See German Archaeological Institute Daimler-Benz 129 Deutsche Bank 3, 163, 189, 194 Deutsche Bundesbank 189 Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft 160 Deutsche Orientbank 194 Diebitsch, Carl Wilhelm Valentin von 4 ad-Din, Saläh 101 diplomacy of mediation 2 Dodecanese 186, 197

260

INDEX

Dodecanese islands 198 DOG. See Deutsche OrientGesellschaft domino effect 6 Donovan, William J. 104 dragoman 8, 10, 87, 88 Dresdner Bank 3,194 Druze 129 Eastern Question 2,28, 87, 92,93, 104 East Muslim regiment 204 Egypt 1 , 2 , 1 3 , 9 1 , 9 4 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 3 , 156, 224 Eichmann, Adolf 221 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 104 Engels, Friedrich 5 England 8 Enlightenment 7, 11 enlightenment 9 Entente armies 32 Entente Powers 9 Erden, Ali Fuad 199 Erkilet, Hüsnü Emir 200, 202 Europe 2 Faisal, Emir 124 fatwa 7 , 8 Fellers, Bonner F. 104 Felmy, Hellmuth 96, 106 Fischer, Herbert 76 Fischer, Sebastian 4 Fleischer, Heinrich Leberecht 4 forgotten victims 217 Fortress Europe 202 Four Power Pact 196,198 France 1,3,8,19,92,183,223, 224, 226, 230 Freemason 98 French-British rivalry 158 French Levant army 193 French North Africa 7

French Résistance 226, 236 Freund, Hans 97 Friedrich Wilhelm 3 Friedrich III, Kaiser 31 Gabil, Sulaiman A. 133 gas chamber 221 Geldern, Joachim von 97 Gentz, Wilhelm 4 George V, King 52, 59 Georgi, Robert 3 Georgia 203 German-Afghan treaty 56 German-Arabic propaganda 102 German-Arab Friendship Society 105 German-Iranian rapprochement 162 German-Saudi Friendship Treaty 120 German-Soviet-Afghan axis 82 German-Soviet connection 82 Germany 1,92,217 German Academy of Sciences 4 German Africa Corps 15, 208 German Archaeological Institute 159 German Association for Islamic Studies 125 German Cold War 105 German Middle Eastern policy, pillars of 10 German Oriental Society 4, 122 German Orient Bank 3 German Orient Corps 182, 203, 207 German Orient founding years 1, 4, 106 German Reich 1,3 German reunification 235 German security police 226

261

G E R M A N Y AND THE M I D D L E E A S T

German Society for the Study of Islam 4 , 8 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 4 Golden Horn 66 Goltz, Colmar von der 5, 27, 34, 38,57 Greater Arabian Empire 18 Greater German Reich 189 Greater Syria 3, 18 Great Britain 1,3,92,183 Great Game 33, 44 Greece 166,186,198,223 Greeks 170 Grobba, Fritz 11, 15, 19, 87, 94, 100,101, 104, 106, 125, 145, 164,191, 194,201

Hindu Kush 78 Hitler, Adolf 11, 12, 15, 17,18, 82, 95,99, 101,182, 187, 195 Hoare, Samuel 101 Holocaust 15,19,98,236 Holy War 34, 57 Hoyningen-Huene, Oswald Baron von 135 Humann, Carl 159 Hurgronje, C. Snouck 6, 9 Husain, Grand Sharif 120 Husain, King 121, 122, 123, 134 al-Husainl, Amln 12, 15, 88, 95, 100, 103, 104, 190, 196, 201, 202,204,217,224 hyperinflation 161

Haas, Heinrich de 134, 137, 139, 140, 142, 143 Hablbullah, Emir 26, 3 0 , 4 4 , 4 9 , 5 1 , 5 3 , 5 6 , 58,60, 72 Haddäd, "Uthmän Kamäl 191, 196 al-Haklm, Taufiq 15 Halder, Franz 89, 96, 105 Hamza, Fü'äd 131,135,141 Hansa steamship company 140 Hanseatic League 3 Hardinge, Lord 41 Hartmann, Martin 8, 9 Hashemite-Saudi conflicts 121 Hasse, Otto 76 Hedin, Sven 2 9 , 4 6 Hentig, Werner Otto von 9, 26, 36, 37,40, 42, 4 3 , 4 4 , 4 7 , 48, 52, 56, 58,59, 62, 145,201 Hentig and Pratap 42 Hentig group 36 Herder, Johann Gottfried 5 Herzfeld, Ernst 161, 162, 168 Hijaz and Baghdad railroads 119 Hilmi, 'Abbas 42 Himmler, Heinrich 204, 221

Ibrahim, Sharif 128 Ikhwan 131 India 26, 27, 29, 36, 67, 94, 100, 101, 103, 195 Indian Congress Party 33 Indian Independence Committee 32 Indo-European 171 Indo-Germanic 168 industrialization 10 institutionalized memory 235 International Military Court 205 Iran 3,75, 168, 192 Iraq 10,91,94,100,101,103,161, 163, 164, 188, 192,197, 207, 224 Iron Curtain 106 Islamwissenschaft 4 Israel 91 Istanbul 3. See also Constantinople Italian sea 186 Italy 5, 19, 94, 217, 223 Jackh, Ernst 9 Jaeger, Werner 166, 170 Jewish assimilation 19

262

INDEX

Jewish homeland in Palestine 11 Jews 168,229 jihad 3 0 , 3 5 , 5 7 , 9 5 , 1 0 1 jihad "made in Germany" 6, 12 Judeo-Communist Empire 14 al-Kailänl, RashTd 'All 14, 100, 195, 196,201,202,217, 224, 227 al-Karlm,