Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education [1st ed.] 978-3-030-17782-9;978-3-030-17783-6

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-vi
Front Matter ....Pages 1-1
Infusing Educational Practice with Web GIS (Joseph J. Kerski, Thomas R. Baker)....Pages 3-19
Spatial Thinking Ability Acquisition Through Geospatial Technologies for Lifelong Learning (Alfonso García de la Vega)....Pages 21-40
Geospatial Thinking Learning Lines in Secondary Education: The GI Learner Project (Luc Zwartjes, María Luisa de Lázaro y Torres)....Pages 41-61
Relational Geospatial Technologies: Background Theory, Practical Example and Needs in Education (Viktor Chabaniuk, Leonid Rudenko)....Pages 63-83
Front Matter ....Pages 85-85
YouthMetre: Open Data to Empower Young People to Engage in Democracy and Policymaking (Karl Donert, Rafael de Miguel González, Alessio Luppi)....Pages 87-101
Contributions from Informal Geography to Close the Gap in Geographic Information Communication in a Digital World (Gersón Beltrán, Jorge del Río)....Pages 103-125
EarthCaching as a Possible Way to Raise Environmental Awareness? (Stefanie Zecha)....Pages 127-140
Teaching Geospatial Competences by Digital Activities and E-Learning. Experiences in Geography, Journalism, and Outdoor Education (José Jesús Delgado-Peña, María Purificación Subires-Mancera)....Pages 141-154
Front Matter ....Pages 155-155
Using Computer Games to Mitigate Disaffected Emotions in the Geography Classroom. Lessons Learned from Small-Scale Research on Teaching Sustainable Spatial Planning with Minecraft (Mark Opmeer, Anne Faber, Eduardo Dias, Henk Scholten)....Pages 157-174
The Role of Geography and Geospatial Technologies in ‘Taking on the World’ (Mary Fargher)....Pages 175-182
Geographies of the Anthropocene: Geoethics and Disaster Risk Reduction Tools Applied to Mediterranean Case Studies (Francesco De Pascale, Sebastiano D’Amico, Loredana Antronico, Roberto Coscarelli)....Pages 183-200
GIS in Secondary Education in Hungary—Experiences in Lessons and in a Study Group (Krisztina Dékány)....Pages 201-219

Citation preview

Key Challenges in Geography EUROGEO Book Series

Rafael de Miguel González Karl Donert Kostis Koutsopoulos Editors

Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education

Key Challenges in Geography EUROGEO Book Series

Series Editors Kostis Koutsopoulos, European Association of Geographers, National Technical University of Athens, Pikermi, Greece Rafael de Miguel González, University of Zaragoza & EUROGEO, Zaragoza, Spain Daniela Schmeinck, Institut Didaktik des Sachunterrichts, University of Cologne, Köln, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany

This book series addresses relevant topics in the wide field of geography, which connects the physical, human and technological sciences to enhance teaching, research, and decision making. Geography provides answers to how aspects of these sciences are interconnected and are forming spatial patterns and processes that have impact on global, regional and local issues and thus affect present and future generations. Moreover, by dealing with places, people and cultures, Geography explores international issues ranging from physical, urban and rural environments and their evolution, to climate, pollution, development and political economy. Key Challenges in Geography is an initiative of the European Association of Geographers (EUROGEO), an organization dealing with examining geographical issues from a European perspective, representing European Geographers working in different professional activities and at all levels of education. EUROGEO’s goal and the core part of its statutory activities is to make European Geography a worldwide reference and standard. The book series serves as a platform for members of EUROGEO as well as affiliated National Geographical Associations in Europe, but is equally open to contributions from non-members. The book series addresses topics of contemporary relevance in the wide field of geography. It has a global scope and includes contributions from a wide range of theoretical and applied geographical disciplines. Key Challenges in Geography aims to: • present collections of chapters on topics that reflect the significance of Geography as a discipline; • provide disciplinary and interdisciplinary titles related to geographical, environmental, cultural, economic, political, urban and technological research with a European dimension, but not exclusive; • deliver thought-provoking contributions related to cross-disciplinary approaches and interconnected works that explore the complex interactions among geography, technology, politics, environment and human conditions; • publish volumes tackling urgent topics to geographers and policy makers alike; • publish comprehensive monographs, edited volumes and textbooks refereed by European and worldwide experts specialized in the subjects and themes of the books; • provide a forum for geographers worldwide to communicate on all aspects of research and applications of geography, with a European dimension, but not exclusive. All books/chapters will undergo a blind review process with a minimum of two reviewers. An author/editor questionnaire, instructions for authors and a book proposal form can be obtained by contacting the Publisher.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15694

Rafael de Miguel González Karl Donert Kostis Koutsopoulos •

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Editors

Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education

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Editors Rafael de Miguel González University of Zaragoza & EUROGEO Zaragoza, Spain

Karl Donert European Association of Geographers (EUROGEO) Liverpool, UK

Kostis Koutsopoulos National Technical University of Athens Pikermi, Greece

ISSN 2522-8420 ISSN 2522-8439 (electronic) Key Challenges in Geography ISBN 978-3-030-17782-9 ISBN 978-3-030-17783-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Contents1

Part I

Spatial Thinking and Web-GIS

Infusing Educational Practice with Web GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Joseph J. Kerski and Thomas R. Baker

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Spatial Thinking Ability Acquisition Through Geospatial Technologies for Lifelong Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alfonso García de la Vega

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Geospatial Thinking Learning Lines in Secondary Education: The GI Learner Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Luc Zwartjes and María Luisa de Lázaro y Torres

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Relational Geospatial Technologies: Background Theory, Practical Example and Needs in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Viktor Chabaniuk and Leonid Rudenko

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Part II

Geospatial Technologies for Education in Non-Formal Contexts

YouthMetre: Open Data to Empower Young People to Engage in Democracy and Policymaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Karl Donert, Rafael de Miguel González and Alessio Luppi

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Contributions from Informal Geography to Close the Gap in Geographic Information Communication in a Digital World . . . . . . . . . 103 Gersón Beltrán and Jorge del Río EarthCaching as a Possible Way to Raise Environmental Awareness? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Stefanie Zecha 1

Note: All the chapters have participated in a blind review process with a minimum of two reviewers.

v

vi

Contents

Teaching Geospatial Competences by Digital Activities and E-Learning. Experiences in Geography, Journalism, and Outdoor Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 José Jesús Delgado-Peña and María Purificación Subires-Mancera Part III

Geospatial Technologies for Education: Practices and Case Studies

Using Computer Games to Mitigate Disaffected Emotions in the Geography Classroom. Lessons Learned from Small-Scale Research on Teaching Sustainable Spatial Planning with Minecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Mark Opmeer, Anne Faber, Eduardo Dias and Henk Scholten The Role of Geography and Geospatial Technologies in ‘Taking on the World’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Mary Fargher Geographies of the Anthropocene: Geoethics and Disaster Risk Reduction Tools Applied to Mediterranean Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Francesco De Pascale, Sebastiano D’Amico, Loredana Antronico and Roberto Coscarelli GIS in Secondary Education in Hungary—Experiences in Lessons and in a Study Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Krisztina Dékány

Part I

Spatial Thinking and Web-GIS

Infusing Educational Practice with Web GIS Joseph J. Kerski and Thomas R. Baker

Abstract Three manifestations of Web GIS are influencing the way GIS is being used to teach with GIS and about GIS. These manifestations include web mapping and analysis, teaching with and creating web mapping applications, and collecting data using field-based citizen science mapping tools. This chapter investigates how these maps, data sets, tools, and methods can be taught in a wide variety of settings, educational levels, and disciplines. The advent of Web GIS is not simply the migration of GIS tools and data to the cloud, but rather represents a shift in how GIS can be perceived, taught, and learned. Keywords web GIS · Web mapping · GIS education · GIS platform

Introduction Since the early 1990s, precollegiate schools have been using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and related geospatial technologies to enhance teaching and learning across disciplines and grade levels (Baker and Kerski 2014). In higher education, GIS is breaking out of geography, planning, and environmental sciences into new departments and programs such as health and business (Sinton 2009). Now, with the relatively recent advent of web GIS (GIS running in a web browser or mobile application), technical requirements, classroom time, and depth of knowledge about the technology have radically improved for use in the typical classroom. This chapter explores: J. J. Kerski (B) Esri and University of Denver, Denver, USA e-mail: [email protected] T. R. Baker Esri and University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. de Miguel González et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education, Key Challenges in Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6_1

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what web GIS is. why GIS in education (benefits to instruction)? requisite conditions, and three models of web GIS implementation readily found today.

What Is Web GIS? Web GIS is an interactive map and underlying database that can be displayed or analyzed by a user, requiring only an internet connection and a web browser to access. Web GIS allows users to perform basic functions such as zoom, pan, identify, and measure, but it also is capable of rich data analysis such as creating density clusters or “hot spots” of activity or determining the geographic center of a particular set of data—all at the click of a button. Modern web GIS is frequently the “front end” of a much larger GIS—where multiple Internet, mapping, and database servers can work in concert to provide highly scalable and performant maps and analyses to users. Web GIS can blend data from multiple governmental, industry, nonprofit, or community data sources, including data gathered by citizen scientists. Web GIS witnessed a marked increase in usage in precollegiate education during the emerging citizen science networks of the mid-1990s, as the technology was adopted by such networks as the Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE), the KanCRN Collaborative Research Network, Journey North, and others. These organizations and others helped to lead the development of collaborative web GIS in precollegiate education, providing interactive websites that allowed students to collect, analyze, and map their own data along a structured protocol (Baker 2005; Bodzin and Anastasio 2006; Milson 2011; Milson and Earle 2008; Milson and Kerski 2012). These networks championed web GIS implementations under “Web 1.0” technologies and thus while impressive at the time, wrangled with some technical limitations. Around 2004, the rise of “Web 2.0” began, fostering in a new way of designing and developing web content that allowed for the user to experience much richer, more interactive content. Mapping, like nearly all media on the web, greatly benefited from these advancements. Google Maps launched in 2005, capitalizing on this new trend. Esri launched ArcWeb Services (2004), serving as a forerunner to the present ArcGIS Online (2007). Web GIS was dramatically improving as the technology tide was lifting all boats! With the geospatial industry realizing a new home for GIS on the web, more data sets migrated to the online environment, first as an online location where files could be downloaded, but then beginning around 2010, as data services. Data services enable desktop, mobile, and web users to directly interact with maps and geodatabases online. These services brought about several key changes to standard GIS workflows that had existed for the prior 20 years. First, they allowed users to circumvent the “find > download to desktop software > analyze” method that was the established

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paradigm for the prior decade to a more streamlined “find > analyze” one that did not require downloading nor even the use of desktop GIS software. With the GIS tools and data both now online, users could interact with mapped data (zoom, pan, identify, measure) but also query, symbolize, and perform spatial analysis functions directly on the data while online. Once the tools and data migrated online, web GIS became an even more viable option for use in instruction than desktop GIS had ever been (Strachan 2014; Manson et al. 2013). While web GIS at present contains fewer analytical functions than desktop GIS, the functions that it does include are among those most used by educators, such as buffer, overlay, and filter (select). Furthermore, the bulk of the over 1000 tools that exist in desktop GIS were never used by most educators; being confronted with a much more streamlined set of tools helped educators’ feel more at ease with using web GIS. Desktop software, while still more analytically powerful than web GIS, was a barrier to adoption by educators for several reasons, including its rigorous hardware requirements, its installation and administration which was typically handled (or not handled!) by the technology staff of a school, and its steep learning curve (Kerski 2003, 2015; Langran and Baker 2016; Jo et al. 2016). Educators still have access to and can use desktop software, but even desktop software has changed: It is no longer a stand-alone system, but rather is connected to the web in such a way that the migration of data and results from the desktop to the cloud—or from the cloud to the desktop—is almost seamless. Also, many of the functions, such as geocoding, in desktop GIS are actually being processed in the cloud. The advent of modern web GIS wasn’t simply “doing GIS on the web” in the same way formerly done with desktop computers and software. Rather, web GIS has changed how decision-makers, researchers, and others work with mapping, analysis tools, and data (Jackson et al. 2009; Huang 2011). In education, it has changed the manner and the speed at which students access and manipulate content. Students can access these maps and tools without a configured and expensive computer lab—using their own devices, including laptops, tablets, and even personal smart phones. The speed at which maps and data layers can be used has been sharply improved for several reasons. First, the maps served in web GIS can be overlaid on each other without the need to perform a series of projection and transformation operations, thanks to projecting on the fly capabilities. Second, map data is served through “REST endpoints” and other mechanisms which stream it to the client web GIS, such as ArcGIS Online, within milliseconds, unlike in the not-too-distant past where map data had to be retrieved off of physical media or over slow internet connections. Third, the volume of map data available, aided in part by the open data movement, has greatly increased to thousands of themes. Moreover, most of these data sets are scalable—within certain limits, they allow the user to see more detail at larger map scales. Along with the volume of map data has come an increase in the types and themes of maps available, including ecoregions, hydrography, natural hazards, population change and demographics, ocean currents and topography, geology, land use, imagery from aircraft, satellites, and drones, and much more. As a result, many more disciplines can now be taught and learned with web GIS, such as science, technology, engineering, mathematics (the “STEM” disciplines) (Baker 2012), but

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Fig. 1 An educator preparing a lesson plan using GIS (photograph by Joseph Kerski, permission secured)

also history, language arts, geography, business, mathematics, environmental studies, and others (Fig. 1). Furthermore, web GIS has enabled students to go beyond simply using maps created by others to using map layers in their own projects, and even modifying the table structure and symbology if they so choose. They can transform these 2D maps into 3D views, and modify the way the data are classified, add additional data layers to them, create web mapping applications from them such as story maps, and change them in other ways. Web GIS also enables students to create their own data much more easily, from data collected using field apps, from custom expressions (such as Arcade expressions in ArcGIS Online), from their own spreadsheets, and through shared documents such as from OneDrive, Google Drive, or Dropbox. Students can also share these maps with their own classmates, with their school, and even with the entire world. The technology has opened the door to many new and exciting learning opportunities. Indeed, web GIS represents a platform, which by definition is something that others can build upon. A desktop GIS served as a set of tools that could be used in a decision-making environment. However, in web GIS, web mapping applications, such as multimedia maps including story maps, code that students create that allows maps and data to perform specific functions or display in specific ways, map layers as data services, are combining to create a platform. This platform is ever-changing, as students, educators, and others create databases, layers, and web applications, and can be used as a basis for research and instruction.

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Why Web GIS in Education Today? Teaching with GIS has traditionally been about problem solving, pursuing lines of inquiry, and testing hypotheses against real-world data. It was seldom about teaching tools, buttons, or capabilities, but always was done within the context of teaching a concept, issue, or theme, such as biodiversity, natural hazards, or demography (Kidman and Palmer 2006). Doing this effectively in the classroom required the data sets to be easily accessible and usable, that the tools would be understood and able to be applied, and that the results of the investigations could be easily communicated, shared, and assessed.

Improved User Experience Web GIS offers the educator and student a much more approachable and usable method and toolset than desktop GIS software offered in the past. It is accessed in an application already familiar to the educator and student—a standard web browser—and requires no installation of software or loading of data. The graphical user interface that is used, such as ArcGIS Online, first and foremost, presents a map to the user. This is quite different from the large set of buttons, windows, and tools that desktop GIS users first see. Furthermore, web GIS begins with a basemap, instead of the blank canvas that users of standard desktop GIS saw for decades, upon which they would need to create or add data. The web GIS toolset is streamlined from the desktop GIS, offering the educator and student rigorous functionality but one that is much more understandable. These tools, such as the one to create a map overlay, offer the user a wizard-based graphical user interface that is intuitive and do not require a lengthy immersion in GIS terms or procedures. Having the maps and data available in a familiar web browser with an easy-touse toolset makes it much easier than desktop GIS for educators to teach with. This allows student interaction, debate, and the ability to pursue the same questions in a different region, or with a different data set, or with different questions or with a different operator in a filter or buffer. Another major advantage to web GIS is that the maps can be modified by anyone. In ArcGIS Online, for example, the interface contains a “modify map” button, through which, the symbology and classes can be changed, layers can be removed, and new layers can be added. While the original map is not overwritten, this ability allows for inquiry to take place quickly and easily. Furthermore, the results of student investigation can be more quickly and easily assessed by the educator or student simply by accessing the URL. This can be used in an oral presentation by the students in the company of their peers, embedded in a web page, video, or another form of multimedia, or shared as a web mapping application such as a story map.

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Improved Geographic Content GIS-based instruction was also stymied for years due to the lack of data sets that educators needed to teach with, such as ocean currents, population change, river systems and watersheds, historical maps, satellite imagery, land cover, biomes and ecoregions, and other themes core to the sciences and social sciences. Because of the advent of the open data movement, with its associated increase in the types of data available, metadata standards that allowed educators to assess the quality and suitability of the data that they were considering, and the ability to easily add that data to the current map that they were investigating with their students, working with geospatial data is much less of a challenge. Many of these data sets cover the area in which the students and teachers are located, which in itself encourages engagement. While this plethora of data is not ubiquitous nor error-free, and while the challenge now is often “too much” data rather than “not enough”, the volume and variety of spatial information at the educator’s fingertips is what has encouraged many educators to begin using GIS on the web. The arrival of data portals and libraries, such as Esri’s Living Atlas of the World, offers further incentive because not only are the libraries expanding in scope and content, but they are curated and updated on a regular basis, and their data sets can usually be seamlessly added to the web GIS environment.

Improved Access to Software Equally important has been the increased availability of the web GIS tools to the instructor. Thanks to free or substantially discounted, and enterprise-wide licensing for an entire university or school, schools the world over have no cost access to one of the major web GIS platforms, ArcGIS Online. The Esri schools program and the free software offering launched globally during the summer of 2017 included ArcGIS Online, ArcGIS Desktop, and Community Analyst, all of which are powerful, educationally relevant, and free (http://www.esri.com/schools).

Improved Instructional Materials The creation and availability of GIS instructional materials have greatly encouraged the adoption and use of GIS by educators in a wider diversity of disciplines. GIS instructional materials have a rich history. As far back as the early 1990s, educators realized that they needed material that was different from training material from software vendors that was geared to GIS professionals and scientists. University

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level textbooks began to appear, and then books such as Mapping Our World from Esri Press and libraries of lessons such as ArcLessons that were specifically geared to primary and secondary educators. In 2014, Esri created GeoInquiries™ (http://www.esri.com/geoinquiries)—short, inquiry-based activities that teach subject-focused concepts using web GIS to enhance precollegiate instruction (Baker 2015a). GeoInquiries are available for Earth science and geography but also history, math, literature, and more. Not only are these instructional materials bound to national content standards, but the procedures and the maps they are based on are curated. This is essential for any materials based on a rapidly evolving technology such as GIS, and particularly so for web GIS, which relies on data services that can be easily moved between servers, taken offline, or changed. The format of these short, content-specific, standards-based lessons is being adopted in Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Canada, Spain, the UK, Poland, and elsewhere. Other GIS-based libraries of lessons for higher education in particular are Learn ArcGIS (http://learn.arcgis.com), the Instructional Guide to the ArcGIS Book, SpatiaLABS (http://www.esri.com/training/Bookmark/PKDMWUFPS), and the “Analyzing issues with public domain data” exercises (http://spatialreserves.wordpress. com). Each of these was designed to provide immersion in GIS tools but also foster spatial thinking, problem solving, and content knowledge on a variety of topics.

Empowering Digital Literacy and Media Competency The use of web GIS encourages competency in other components of media fluency (Jukes et al. 2010) such as manipulating different file format types, multimedia, HTML, effectively searching the web for content, managing accounts and logins, organizing one’s data holdings, and running a web browser. Using web GIS can also help foster non-technology skills. For example, building, saving, and sharing web maps and encourages discussions about societal issues such as location privacy and youth protection. Creating multimedia maps with content that may be authored by others encourages discussions about copyright, proper citations, permissions, and plagiarism. Sharing map content encourages discussions about location privacy and potentially sensitive information.

Necessary Pedagogical and Technical Contexts for Success Pedagogical Contexts Some time ago, there was a belief that a set of defined pedagogical requirements were necessary to successfully use GIS in precollegiate classrooms. Today, we

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understand the story to be more complicated, as for example, the level of technology adoption can significantly change what pedagogical requirements are applicable to a given instructional setting. Almost all of the traditional assumptions about pedagogical contexts assumed that project -based learning (PBL) model was ideal if not necessary to facilitate the use of geospatial tools in the classroom. While the use of PBL-GIS model is powerful and tends to have a more robust set of pedagogical assumptions, it’s clear today that GIS can be used to enhanced standards-based instruction in more common, didactic approaches. The advantage of this later instructional scenario is that it can be faster and simpler to implement, suggesting that more teachers can use GIS more often throughout the school year—rather than using it with students during the data analysis stage of a project-based unit. These standards-based, didactic approaches teach content knowledge with the aid of GIS in short, powerful, reoccurring intervals. This model of implementation supports single subject areas of study while still using inquiry models of instruction. An exemplar of this effort can be found in the Esri GeoInquiries project and the wide range of subject areas supported, from mathematics and literature to world history and biology (Baker 2018). For those innovative educators using project approaches to teaching with and about GIS, we believe that at least three pedagogical contexts are advantageous for GIS to be successful in education. First, support for cross-curricular or workforce-oriented instruction must be in place. This has been evident through ongoing interest in online and face-to-face professional development opportunities for educators and interest in implementing purposeful, content-rich instruction with technology (the TPACK model; Koehler et al. 2013). Impactful professional development opportunities have included the Esri T3G (Teachers Teaching Teachers GIS) Institute (beginning in 2009) and the Michigan GRACE project in the USA, and the iGuess and SPLINT initiatives in Europe. Second, there needs to be a willingness and competence in delivering inquiry-based learning experiences. Third, there needs to be support for alignment of instructional activities tying GIS to relevant content standards. When using GIS, just as the spatial data do not stop at national borders, the problems being addressed do not stop at disciplinary boundaries. Thus, the focus over the past decade on Science Technology Engineering Mathematics (STEM) education (a form of multidisciplinary learning) in the USA and in some other parts of the world has aided the attention paid to the use of GIS as an instructional tool. It has done so by allowing educators at least partial freedom in teaching in a crossdisciplinary mode. The focus on workforce skills, led in the USA by those in Career and Technology Education (CTE) but also by such organizations as the Partnership for twenty-first Century Skills (P21), has also caused educators and administrators to become interested in GIS. The focus on project-based learning, using real-world data to solve problems (Bell 2010), also has lent new attention to GIS, because the very creation of GIS was as a problem-solving toolkit. At community and technical colleges, GIS is increasingly seen as a set of workforce skills across a widening set of fields, resulting in the spread of GIS into more courses. In universities, a focus on cross-departmental collaboration through “one university” initiatives, a focus

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on higher order thinking skills, and emerging programs such as Data Science are combining to broaden the influence of GIS. For those educators using project approaches, content standards have acted as both a hindrance to the use of GIS as an instructional tool and an encouragement. The way in which most standards are assessed, using standardized multiple-choice tests that rely on memorization and on facts rather than on investigation does not often mesh well with project or problem-based pedagogies. However, the goal of the standards, to encourage investigation, higher order thinking skills, and critical thinking do encourage the use of project-based learning with tools like GIS. Indeed, at the heart of the standards are goals that are embodied in the spirit of and the reason why project-based learning is used and why GIS can be a powerful addition. By 2000, most countries had some national or subnational (state, province, district) educational content standards in place, specifying what students should know and be able to do at each grade or year, in most of the core subjects. A continual cycle of update to content standards since then has presented a challenge to those linking specific GIS tasks to current standards, and research studies are understandably few that link GIS to increased student performance on standardized tests (Baker et al. 2015). As a result, project-based educators are often not permitted or do not feel that they have the time to innovate and use open-ended, investigative instructional methods and data analysis tools such as GIS.

Technological Contexts Despite the lowering or eliminating of most of the technological barriers in the transition from desktop to web GIS, one technological piece still needs to be in place: For web GIS to be successful, sufficient Internet bandwidth needs to be in place. Maps and imagery in 2D and 3D forms with their accompanying spatial databases are complex, requiring robust Internet speeds. While many educators use GIS with a single computer connected to the Internet and a projector, if the bandwidth is slow, even this instructional model will suffer if running queries or drawing maps requires long wait times. In more and more educational institutions, bandwidth is sufficient to accomplish the bulk of what educators seek to accomplish with web GIS.

Implementations As previously noted, the authors assert there are essentially three common instructional implementations for web GIS in classrooms today. In this section, each implementation is presented with data considerations and at least one exemplar scenario. i. Web GIS

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Web GIS is a platform upon which more educators are embracing (Hong 2014). ArcGIS Online is one of the most popular of the manifestations of web GIS. In the USA, as of the end of 2018, nearly 7000 schools had signed up for the ArcGIS Online school subscription, with hundreds of schools in Canada, Germany, the UK, and Australia, as well. Other web GIS platforms exist, such as Carto (formerly CartoDB), MangoMap, MapBox, Nextgis, and QGIS Cloud, but because of the lack of associated curricular materials, professional development for educators, the need for coding or web development skills that some of these tools require, and ties to a robust set of spatial data, these tools have not been adopted by many educators. Another key to successful web GIS implementation is the provision of some data sets and functionality without any login required. This enables educators and students new to spatial analysis to be able to access content in a matter of seconds. Educators can make maps, classify and symbolize data, measure, and perform other functions with ArcGIS Online, for example, as well as use the GeoInquiries curricular pieces without logging in. The advantage of obtaining an account and logging in is access to the premium content of data from the Living Atlas of the World, and the ability to use the spatial analysis tools. Data is the fuel of GIS and provides much of the core content in teaching. The open data movement has freed up much spatial data around the world to the user, including educators and students, from government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and private companies. The construction of user-friendly portals to obtain data, and the concept of data as a service, allowing data to be streamed into maps that students construct, rather than downloaded and added manually, was another force that enabled web GIS. In the past, the preparation of spatial data occupied most of the allowed time for any GIS-based project, leaving little time for analysis. Today, the seamless integration of data libraries with web GIS itself allows for data to be accessed at the touch of a button, leaving the bulk of whatever time is available during a lesson for analysis and investigation. While the advent of data as a service has been a great enabler for GIS to be used in the classroom, those data services by their very nature are dynamic. Organizations who host them might change, move, or even delete them. Therefore, the curation or maintenance of those data services is critical, so that educators will be able to count on those data services being there when they need to teach with them. Another important aspect of web GIS data is knowing which data sets are authoritative. The advent of metadata standards and the ability to easily view and understand metadata associated with map layers have been an important enabling force. But because anyone can contribute to the web GIS data banks, and the resulting content ranges widely in terms of quality, it is important for educators to have a reliable library of authoritative content that they can trust. The Living Atlas of the World represents the first manifestation of such a content library. Online geospatial portals from USGS and other agencies had existed for over 15 years before the advent of the Living Atlas, but these portals required, and still do require, some GIS expertise on the part of the data user. The data user had to understand what formats of data are compatible with the GIS he or she was using, how to unzip or otherwise extract the data, how to structure local files and databases, how to deal with map projec-

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tions, and how to add the data to the GIS software. The Living Atlas content can be added directly to ArcGIS Online by selecting “add to map”, thus eliminating all of the format, projections, and other challenges inherent in traditional data portals. Furthermore, the data housed in the Living Atlas from NOAA, United Nations Environment Program, World Health Organization, and others, while not perfect, is well documented and pulled from most reliable sources with rigorous quality checks. Finally, the ability for students and educators to create their own data sets, map them, and share them, has also fostered the use of web GIS in the classroom. An example of a user-created data set is the set of data that one of the authors of this chapter created to support a lesson focused on the reasons for the spatial pattern of seasonal temperature extremes in the USA and in Australia. Students examine the location of day-by-day extreme high temperature and extreme low temperature throughout the year, noting the influence of coastlines, seasons, elevation, air front mass flow direction, and latitude. The data were gathered from their original sources, input into Excel, and uploaded as a set of Comma Separated Value (CSV) files to ArcGIS Online. Once there, feature service map layers were created from the data tables. The map layers were symbolized, classified, and saved as shared maps. Once the maps were shared in ArcGIS Online, students anywhere and on any device can access the data, and quickly examine the spatial and temporal relationships, patterns, and trends. In the case of daily temperature extremes, students in primary school can study the map to uncover the relationships of the temperature extreme locations to each other, and to the oceans and mountain range. Students in secondary school and universities can perform spatial analysis on the map, determining the mean center of the extremes or generate a surface from the temperature points. ii. Web mapping applications Another way in which educators and students can use web GIS is through web mapping applications. These are built on the web GIS infrastructure but do not use the full web GIS interface. These web mapping applications are generally singlepurpose, cannot be modified by the end user, and contain embedded multimedia, in the form of audio, video, web maps, and photographs, along with the narrative. The applications themselves can be embedded in web pages, in online presentation software such as Sway and Prezi, and in Learning Management Systems (LMS). This helps make GIS tools, and specifically, interactive maps, more familiar to a wider audience. Web mapping applications allow educators to build on top of web GIS, showcasing its ability to be a platform. At the simplest level, educators and students can create a group, add their maps to the group, and then create a gallery that can act like a library of content. An example of a more robust body of content is the http://atlas-escolar.maps.arcgis.com/apps/MapJournal/index.html?appid= 77ae3efc94174a2fb216abda32b564f4 Atlas Digital Escolar, an effort led by Esri and professors of higher education in Spain. This atlas includes a story map introduction to the project, and a rich set of curricular activities and map layers. The atlas is aligned to content standards in Spain and provides a starting point for educators there seeking to use web GIS with data for their own country.

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One example of a web mapping application that has existed for nearly 10 years is the “Change Matters viewer” (http://changematters.esri.com/compare). This application allows human impact on the landscape (such as Las Vegas urban growth or the shrinking of the Aral Sea) and natural processes (such as coastal erosion and the eruption of Mt St Helens) over space and time to be analyzed through a sequence of three Landsat images that can be zoomed and panned together in the web browser. The third image is a “change detection” image that shows the change in vegetation cover or impervious surfaces through urbanization. Another example of a powerful yet easy to use web mapping application is an international migration map by country (http://coolmaps.esri.com/#10). This map allows the user to query detailed incoming and outgoing migration from the 1990s to the present, for each country, in a compelling 2D and 3D interface. The Urban Observatory (http://www.urbanobservatory.org/compare/index.html) is a web mapping application created by TED founder Richard Saul Wurman and Esri founder Jack Dangermond. It allows the user to compare 50 variables for over 100 cities through a series of interactive maps; some of the variables are real-time feeds, such as traffic. The USGS historical map viewer, as the name implies, allows for change over time for any terrain in the USA to be examined through 100 years of topographic maps at a variety of scales. Story maps are a family of web mapping applications that incorporate audio, narrative, video, photographs, and interactive maps. Educators can teach with any one of thousands of story maps that currently exist, such as on the topic of the removal of dams, the sinking of the Titanic, historical battlefields, the Age of the Anthropocene, and many others. Instructors can also create their own story maps as a teaching aid, and their students can create their own story maps to communicate the results of their own investigations. Story maps can also be used to support student oral and written reports and as assessment tools for the instructor. In one example, students at a bilingual Spanish and English high school in Boston took photographs of positive things (http://arcg.is/2jcv8MO) in their neighborhoods, and things they feel should be changed (http://arcg.is/2j83LTU). The instructor cited the benefit of this project as a direct way in which students could create their own data. Other web mapping applications are a set of tools and data on a specific topic. Community Analyst, for example, is a web GIS built on ArcGIS Online that allows the user to create choropleth maps, infographics, drive-time buffers, and other products in over 100 countries. Data in Community Analyst includes millions of business locations, demographic data, and consumer preference data. The maps from Community Analyst can be moved back and forth to and from ArcGIS Online. The benefits of this tool, like other tools described here, are that it runs online with no software to install, but the other major feature is the amount of data to which it provides access. A major advantage of web GIS over desktop-only GIS is that data libraries are directly connected to the platform. Rather than having to be searched for, formatted, and projected, data can be easily added and are reprojected on the fly. Students can also easily add their own data. With this new plethora of geospatial data come some data quality concerns that offer key teachable moments. In the past, only major

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government organizations, private companies, and nonprofit organizations created spatial data. But in today’s web GIS environment, everyone is a producer of data as well as a consumer of data. It is more important than ever that students are critical of data—that they know its source, when and how it is updated, who created it, its scale, and other metadata. How can instructors and students decide whether a particular data set or not is fit for their use? It is only through fostering critical thinking about data and reading the metadata. Students and instructors want and expect robust metadata to exist for data that they will use, but also, in this new era of “everyone is a data producer”, instructors can and should require students to document any data that they create themselves. The Internet of Things is also transforming web GIS. As more everyday objects are connected to the web, and as these objects increasingly contain location information, real-time feeds have become commonplace. These feeds are transforming what is available in terms of data and also can be effectively used in instruction. For example, real-time stream gauges can be used in conjunction with weather data in a physical geography course to teach about stream response and watersheds. Traffic patterns can be used in cultural geography and planning courses to teach about commuting patterns, land use, and employment. iii. Field-based citizen science mapping An example of a field data collection application useful for education is Survey123 (https://survey123.arcgis.com/). Survey123 for ArcGIS is a simple and intuitive form-centric data gathering solution that makes creating, sharing, and analyzing surveys possible in four steps: (1) Ask questions and plan the survey. (2) Design the survey by dragging and dropping questions with a web-based form or with an Excel spreadsheet. (3) Collect the data in the form using a smartphone. (4) Analyze the survey results through the resulting ArcGIS Online map. The data can be symbolized, classified, queried, spatially analyzed, and published as a variety of web mapping applications, such as story maps. Survey123 can be used in such applications as mapping trees and shrubs on a school campus, on field trips focused on bird species, weather, water quality, soil chemistry, historical buildings, noise level, pedestrian counts, or for any other phenomena. Several other field data collection apps are available; some apps, like Esri’s Collector allow for data display and analysis within a GIS. While others, such as iNaturalist, allow data to be exported and then imported into a webGIS for analysis. Still, other tools such as CyberTracker, Story map Crowdsource, Fulcrum, Ushahidi, and other 411 apps are available and depending on the instructional need, can be deployed for instruction. Data supporting crowdsourced and field data collection mapping can draw on the same rich, curated data used in web GIS and web mapping applications. Highresolution basemaps and relevant operational and contextual data can be key for supporting either the data collection or data display aspects of field data collection. Of course, the human-collected data is the third and arguably the most important component of field data applications (Figs. 2, 3 and 4).

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Fig. 2 Educators in the field collecting information using geo-enabled apps on data that will be mapped and analyzed (photograph by Esri, permission secured)

Recommendations Everything changes. The maps, data, analyses all evolve with better science behind geographic information and allied science. However, we see a few key areas linked to web GIS that seem especially likely to dramatically change over the next decade, these ideas include: • • • • •

3D data and mapping Building information modeling and interior mapping Real-time data and mapping, especially via sensors Mapping as a part of most tools that people use The use of big data to support and extend geographic analysis.

Moving forward, a research center should be developed that would support spatial thinking research, provide professional development opportunities for educators, curricular materials, and promote best practices for teaching with GIS at an international level (Baker et al. 2013). Ideally, such a center would sit independent of a university discipline such that it is built and viewed as a multidisciplinary collaboration of teams from cognition to computer science and learning theory. A key focus of this center should be the effectiveness and implementation of web GIS. Web GIS, web mapping applications, and field data collection applications are the three implementations of web GIS commonly seen in the classroom today. Each implementation brings critical advantages to instruction with geospatial technologies

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Fig. 3 Campus tree survey on tree species, height, condition, and location, created with Survey123

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Fig. 4 Map of vegetation created while the survey was filled out in the field using smartphones on a school campus in Australia

in education. Each implementation promises even greater improvements to instruction in the coming years. We recommend to all educators that they learn the basics of using web GIS technology and the best pedagogical practices of its inclusion across the instructional landscape.

Bibliography Baker TR (2005) Internet-based GIS in support of K-12 education. Prof Geogr 57(1):44–50 Baker TR (2012) Introduction. In: Advancing STEM education with GIS. https://www.esri.com/ library/ebooks/advancing-stem-education-with-gis.pdf. Esri e-book, pp 3–4 Baker TR (2015a) GeoInquiries: maps and data for everyone. Geogr Teach 12(3):128–131 Baker TR (2015b) Web GIS in education. In: Muñiz Solari O, Demirci A, van der Schee J (eds) Geospatial technologies and geography education in a changing world. Springer, Japan Baker TR (2018) Geospatial technologies in mainstream classrooms: a brief examination of pedagogical diffusion. In: Proceedings of society for information technology & teacher education international conference 2018. Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Retrieved online https://www. academicexperts.org/conf/site/2018/papers/51997/. Accessed Mar 2018 Baker TR, Battersby S, Bednarz SW, Bodzin AM, Kolvoord B, Moore S, Sinton D, Uttal D (2015) A research agenda for geospatial technologies and learning. J Geogr 114(3):118–130 Baker TR, Kerski JJ (2014) Lone trailblazers: GIS In K-12 science education. In: MaKinster JG, Trautmann NM, Barnett GM (eds) Teaching science and investigating environmental issues with geospatial technology: designing effective professional development for teachers. Dordrecht: Springer, pp 347–372 Baker TR, Kerski JJ, Tu Huynh N, Viehrig K (2013) Call for an agenda and center for GIS education research. Rev Int Geogr Educ Online 2(3):254–288 Bell Stephanie (2010) Project-based learning for the 21st century: skills for the future. ClearingHouse: J Educ Strat, Issues Ideas 83(2):39–43 Bodzin AM, Anastasio D (2006) Using web-based GIS for earth and environmental systems education. J Geosci Educ 54(3):295

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Henry P, Semple H (2012) Integrating online GIS into the K–12 curricula: lessons from the development of a collaborative GIS in Michigan. J Geogr 111(1):3–14 Hong J (2014) Promoting teacher adoption of GIS using teacher-centered and teacher-friendly design. J Geogr 113(4):139–150 Huang KH (2011) A GIS-interface web site: exploratory learning for geography curriculum. J Geogr 110(4):158–165 Jackson M, Schell D, Taylor DRF (2009) The evolution of geospatial technology calls for changes in geospatial research, education, and government management. Dir Mag. 7 April. https://www. directionsmag.com/article/2366 Jo I, Hong JE, Verma K (2016) Facilitating spatial thinking in world geography using Web-based GIS. J Geogr Higher Educ 40(3):442–459 Jukes I, McCain T, Crockett L, Prensky M (2010). Understanding the digital generation: teaching and learning in the new digital landscape. Corwin Kerski JJ (2015) Opportunities and challenges in using geospatial technologies for education. In: Solari Muniz et al (eds) Geospatial technologies and geography education in a changing world. Springer, Japan, pp 183–194 Kerski JJ (2003) The implementation and effectiveness of GIS in secondary education. J Geogr 102(3):128–137 Kidman G, Palmer G (2006) GIS: the technology is there but the teaching is yet to catch up. Int Res Geogr Environ Educ 15(3):289–296 Koehler MJ, Mishra Punya, Cain William (2013) What is technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK)? J Educ 193(3):13–19 Langran E, Baker TR (2016) Special issue: geospatial technologies in teacher education: a brief overview. Contemp Issues Technol Teacher Educ 16(3). Retrieved from: http://www. citejournal.org/volume-16/issue-3-16/editorial/geospatial-technologies-in-teacher-education-abrief-overview. Accessed 1 Jan 2017 Manson S, Shannon J, Eria S, Kne L, Dyke K, Nelson S, Batraa L, Bonsal D, Kernik M, Immich J, Matson L (2013) Resource needs and pedagogical value of web mapping for spatial thinking. J Geogr 113(1):1–11 Milson AJ (2011) The cultivation of spatial-civic decision-making through WebGIS. In: Jekel T, Koller A, Donert K, Vogler R (eds) Learning with geoInformation: implementing digital earth in education. Wichmann, Berlin, pp 12–18 Milson A, Earle B (2008) Internet-based GIS in an inductive learning environment: a case study of ninth-grade geography students. J Geogr 106(6):227–237 Milson A, Kerski J (2012) Around the world with geospatial technologies. Social Educ 76(2):105–108 Sinton D (2009) Roles for GIS within higher education. J Geogr Higher Educ 33(S1):S7–S16 Strachan C (2014) Teacher’s perceptions of Esri story maps as effective teaching tools (Master’s thesis). Retrieved from the University of South Carolina

Spatial Thinking Ability Acquisition Through Geospatial Technologies for Lifelong Learning Alfonso García de la Vega

Abstract Geospatial Technologies (GST) have opened the doorway to a globalised field of knowledge that geospatial technologies have given shape to. Citizens are demanding open-access geospatial data to understand and, where possible, participate in providing a most accurate interpretation on geo-references, and thus contributing to empowering citizens to shape local policies. Upon leaving compulsory education, citizens still show an interest in geo-referenced information and they are able to associate the acquired knowledge with geospatial data. Today, acquiring geospatial thinking abilities is considered an outstanding goal of education. Formal thinking development encourages a student’s cognitive abilities of different reasoning kinds that need to be fostered in order to succeed in lifelong learning. Cognitive processes associated with spatial thinking demand wide-ranging mental abilities. Basic cognitive skills are to observe, identify, relate and compare. Instruction should engage in complex cognitive abilities that lead to reasoning strategies, including classification, hierarchy and analogy, for problem framing and solving at varying scales and by using diverse geospatial tools. In this chapter, the capacities of spatial thinking and reasoning abilities are thus interrelated through geospatial information technologies. By means of this interaction, citizens may learn how to autonomously manage daily spatial situations, or how to put forward effective and efficient solutions in professional environments. Keywords Spatial thinking · Lifelong learning · Geospatial · Iberpix

Introduction Soon after mid-day black curling ripples stole along the hitherto glassy surface; sail was made, the sea breeze freshened, and we steered towards the entrance of that magnificent harbour, Rio de Janeiro. Robert FitzRoy 1819 A. García de la Vega (B) Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. de Miguel González et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education, Key Challenges in Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6_2

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Since remote antiquity, farmers and shepherds have identified natural places by their toponyms. Among these places, trails were traced out from first-hand experience in their immediate natural environment. Observation is one of the basic skills in spatial thinking. This observation was regularly practised, and it developed simple hypotheses that were drawn on the basis of numerous previous observations and information handed down from generation to generation. Places were associated with the most outstanding natural landmarks, such as a spring, a noticeable mountain peak, or a cave. Over time, the inhabitants engaged in tasks dependent on nature using observation and identification as basic cognitive processes for their survival. Thus, a cloudless skyline in a summer morning along the Mediterranean ranges assures good weather, but then, a light mountain breeze comes up and clouds with vertical growth begin to pile up covering the mountains. Altocumulus clouds predict summer thunderstorms by late afternoon. Successive developments of navigational instruments have provided a powerful means to better determine the orientation and establish direction and global positioning. Acquiring such skills is essential for navigational map-reading in the domain of cartography. During the nineteenth century, numberless cartographic measurements were completed by scientific expeditions, contributing to the development of accurate understandings of geography, such as continental coastlines. Every day, each and every one of us uses spatial skills to carry out routine duties. In the morning, we move in customary ways, such as fetching bread, driving children to school, or commuting to work. While travelling by public transport, we must decide to get off at the underground station next to our workplace, or at the bus stop closer to the meeting-point with friends. According to our perception, scale and distance are constantly changing, no matter whether we go on a cross-country journey or wander along a sightseeing trip in a city. On a journey exploring the diverse landscapes across a country’s regions, two major cities in-between are chosen and their distance and ride time need to be estimated for route and transport planning. An underground map or a city map on a portable device navigation app offers a view of a city at a large scale. However, the perception of the area shifts when actually facing the city’s real scale outward. They are all everyday movements, particularly when the trips are done on foot or by public transport, but they greatly differ in route times. Currently, a citizen has immediate access to information about places referenced by breaking news and may start or join a chat session in real time. For instance, news of a hurricane is broadcasted through Geospatial Technologies (GST). Big data concerning climate, coming from geospatial technologies, are used for climate model building. In real time, the geographical pathway of the hurricane is monitored, and thanks to the climate model interpretation, its pathway may be forecast. This information allows, in turn, the authorities to adopt measures to minimise the population-related risk of power generation sites. GSTs have opened the doorway to the realm of global knowledge, where all citizens must be prepared to assimilate the available geodata.

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In the context of global information, where planet-scale images and cartographic interpretations share places and play a major part in the citizens’ lives, individuals are demanding open-access geospatial data to understand and, where possible, participate in the accurate interpretation of such geo-referenced data. They may thus contribute to empowering citizens to shape local policies. This information needs to be processed and interpreted for effective decision-making.

Conceptual Approach Formal spatial thinking development encourages student’s cognitive abilities and varying reasoning skills that need to be fostered from primary/elementary educational contexts in order to succeed in lifelong learning. Cognitive processes associated with spatial thinking demand wide-ranging mental abilities. The simple skill set particular to the geospatial thinking domain is to observe, identify, relate and compare. Instruction practices instigate complex thinking abilities that dictate reasoning strategies linked to classification, hierarchy and analogy for problem framing and solving at different scales and by varied geospatial tools. Some decades ago, Bednarz and Bednarz (1995) identified five main geographical abilities: asking and answering questions on geography, and acquiring, organising and analysing geographical information. Catling (1978) pointed out the three essential organisational concepts that structure geography: spatial location, spatial distribution and spatial relation. This author, following Piaget (Piaget and Inhelder 1967), suggested that a child’s progressive understanding of the spatial concept takes place along three stages—topological, projective and Euclidean stages—and over two continually maturing levels—perceptual and conceptual levels. This paper is intended to show a spatial development cycle where the adult, who has already acquired the spatial concepts particular to the projective stage, is confronted with a Euclidean environment that turns him back to the topological stage. Thus, in the first place, scale is chosen as the intuitive proximity level in map use on portable devices. Also, representation is presented as the map-reading and analysing support in geospatial technologies. These two cartographical elements that have been normally acquired during the projective stage are constantly implemented in day-today life. Second, navigation is addressed because almost everyone needs to interpret codified cartographic language for communication purposes. While examining the notion of navigation, they are revised both geospatial abilities and their linkage to the spatial thinking. This section bears direct relation to the third stage of Euclidean spatial acquisition. Finally, citizens are faced with everyday situations in real settings where a reasoning ability is selectively processed according to its closest affinity with the geospatial thinking involved. In this respect, there stands out analogical reasoning. Analogical reasoning activates relationships of similarity applied to the spatial domain. Besides, this sort of reasoning benefits from prior experiences that enable the citizen to link specific, varying and comparable situations or contexts. At this third level, together with the analogical reasoning, informal thinking is envisaged as

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the one related to everyday life. A return to the topological stage occurs during this phase as a consequence of the individual’s coming back to intuitive processes, to daily routines and real-world settings, since wayfinding lies on factual experience. This does not mean, though, that several logical reasoning processes are not stimulated over the course of geospatial-ability acquisition for lifelong learning. In brief, this chapter describes the interrelation between spatial thinking skills and reasoning abilities through geospatial information technologies. By means of this interaction, citizens may learn how to autonomously manage daily spatial situations, or even, how to put forward effective and efficient solutions in professional environments. This paper poses a challenge to the qualitative interpretation of geospatial abilities from the perspective of geography. The aim hereto is to explore geospatial reasoning in open and real contexts that leads to lifelong learning.

Elements of Cartographical Language and Spatial Thinking Skills According to Gersmehl (1991), the cartographic concepts are location, distance, direction, area and volume, scale and representation. Sinton (2016) classifies them into two groups: on the one hand, location, scale and representation; distance and direction, on the other. Gersmehl (1991) argues that, in order to attain a degree of competence, each element or cartographic concept ranges in complexity from identification, comprehension, expression to translation. This means that, for instance, the identification of a capital city in the world, like Rome or London, is the minimum level of the location concept amid the elements of cartographical language. Both expressing and translating a geographical location represent the complex levels of geoskill acquisition related to spatial thinking. Among the cognitive processes related to the concepts, we learn at an early age and that govern our daily routine, there stand locating a position from varying viewpoints, estimating the distance of a route, and deciding on the best direction to reach a destination. These concepts, when applied to individual navigation through either well-known or unknown, open or closed, wide or limited settings, lead us to consider other relevant cartographical concepts for lifelong learning. These are precisely scale and representation. Gregg (1997) found that we may learn geospatial concepts while performing varying tasks such as they were designed to cover each single type of the Multiple Intelligences formulated by Gardner (1983). However, this attempt of research has been dismissed from spatial thinking mainstream studies. The cartographical baseline in Spanish compulsory education is established at locating and identifying spaces, and estimating distances between varying selected landmarks. De Miguel González (2018) recently denounces the lack of reference in the Spanish curriculum to geospatial technologies and geoinformation via digital atlases, virtual viewers and geo-positioning apps, in contrast to their well-established development in the core curriculum of other European and Western countries.

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Scale. The Key Cartographic Factor in All Disciplines and Everyday Life Rasmussen (1959) asserted the similarity in shape of the spaces in Villa Foscari. As conceived by Andrea Palladio in Venice, their rooms are designed according in the 16th Century to the proportion of musical harmony. Architectural proportion suggests a perceptive scale upon urban planning, either by a narrow adjustment or by a remarkable disproportion. These urban benchmarks, as highlighted by Lynch (1960), show the human capacity for adaptation to the environment. In an empirical study, Montello (1991) reckoned that oblique urban routes may influence spatial measuring since they lack in points of reference. Perhaps, the type of urban planning we are used to nowadays should need reconsideration in the future. An urban area results in quite a different arrangement whether its layout dates back to the Medieval Ages, it belongs to a district enlargement of the nineteenth century, or it consists of a labyrinth lane network in a Moroccan ancient medina. Jones and Taylor (2009), Taylor and Jones (2009, 2013) and Jones et al. (2007, 2011) pointed to scale as a key cross-cutting theme in science, according to a report that was published in 1989 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. These spatial concepts pertain equally to the domains of physics (Pallrand and Seeber 1984), archaeology (Lock and Molyneaux 2006) and engineering (Stevens et al. 2009). Montello, Grossner and Janelle (2014) underlined the cross-cutting significance of spatial thinking for certain professional activities such as architecture, geology or surgery; or for certain trades or jobs such as carpenters, taxi drivers or policemen. Sinton et al. (2013) have written a handbook on spatial thinking where they propose tasks that cover all abilities in different disciplines, especially those related to the STEM domains (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics). Taylor and Jones (2009) affirmed that there exists a focus shift in the object of study on scale. Thus, early research addressed scale as a component of lineal distance perception, navigation and shape finding. In current studies, the primary focus is on the conceptualisation of scale in scientific learning environments. The value of their empirical contribution lies in the subjects’ use of ‘cognitive anchor points as conceptual benchmarks when applying scale in their job’ (Jones and Taylor 2009). Besides, these authors found that we develop the sense of scale by playing kinetic sports (cycling, walking, etc.) as well as by performing tasks related to transport systems (car or bus driving). Hegarty et al. (2006) empirically found that we acquire the scale concept in an associative way while comparing different scales in real settings and in virtual settings for estimating real distances. These authors advocate that the direct experience on scale learning yields far better results in comparison with doing estimations in the classroom. In this paper, scale is addressed from daily-life practice. While actively reading the map or identifying real-life locations, map users are constantly transferring locations from the real world onto the map, and vice versa (Figs. 1, 2 and 3). This association is found in many scientific disciplines between their tasks and applied materials (Tay-

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Fig. 1 City map of San Sebastián-Donostia (Spain). Source Instituto Geográfico Nacional (Spain), 2018

Fig. 2 A view of Playa de la Concha (San Sebastián-Donostia) at low tide from South to North. Source Photograph taken by the present article’s author

lor and Jones 2009). Both using tools to approach real-world phenomena, such as a microscope or a telescope, and scale-model building contribute to scale development. As for the expression of quantity, distance, measurement, estimation, proportion and perspective, Taylor and Jones (2013), in reference to the National Research Council (2006), assure that ‘scale includes understanding that different characteristics, properties, or relationships within a system might change as its dimensions are increased or decreased.’

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Fig. 3 A view from Monte Igueldo facing San Sebastián-Donostia city and Playa de la Concha, and to the right, Playa de Ondarreta at high tide. Source Photograph taken by the present article’s author

Cartographic Representation: Language for Spatial Communication and Expression Some decades ago, Cole and Beynon (1969, 1970) developed a geography teaching project based on cartography-applied goals. These goals consist of establishing spatial relations among varying places, accessing to and selecting information, solving out problems associated with geographical situations, and finally, applying geometry and statistics to geomathematical situations. The authors acknowledged the influence of quantitative geography on their work and saw considerable teaching potential in this geographical paradigm. The widespread adoption of the quantitative geography fundamentals based on Chorley and Hagget’s ideas and Christaller’s theory was behind the numerous geography exercises that later appeared in modern academic textbooks. In their respective works, these authors advanced many applied exercises that were targeted at locating a position on a coordinate axis, at measuring distances on journeys, and along both economic and communication routes, and finally, at correlating geographical data (topographical, weather or population data). These works differ from the one by Lacoste and Ghirardi (1983), where the basics of geography are revised alongside a nourished graphical support. This support includes maps, diagrams, flow charts and schemes allowing for comparison of diverse worldwide situations. Hence, prominence is given to city models coming from different cultures and continents, and to location maps on deserts and devel-

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oped countries. In this case, Lacoste adheres to the radical geography paradigm, using cartography with contents stirring up controversy and developing critical thinking. Over the past decades, different geography schools have exerted significant influence upon the geography core curriculum, syllabus design and teaching resources. Geospatial abilities have played a cross-cutting role in geography teaching. These abilities were sometimes considered conceptual contents; they were often regarded as hands-on procedures, but most frequently, as techniques to master or languages to read, interpret or transmit. None of these approaches is less important than the other. Still, from the geography education viewpoint, it may be convenient to identify the most relevant issues for the academic curriculum and the most appropriate strategies for teachers to implement these curricular contents. Cartographic representation corresponds to the reading and interpreting levels of the maps and plans that usually fall into our hands. In this age of information and communications technologies, anyone should be able to understand and convey cartographic information. Classroom cartographic tasks prove useful in developing these skills. It is on map-reading, whether in print or in any digital format and in different settings, and on the understanding of map keys that certain studies were conducted, leading to some research work on both free and Cartesian cartographic representations of spaces. Guelke (1979) found that spatial understanding was far better achieved through textual information on maps than by means of cartographic symbols. He is amid those theorists for whom a map’s structural information helps improve map-reading comprehension rather than symbols, scale or projection (Kulhavy and Stock 1996: 133). Kulhavy and Stock (1996) conducted research on the assumption that learning a map improves memory for associated text information. This study was based on the dual coding theory by Paivio (1986) and the conjoint retention theory proposed by Kulhavy et al. (1992). Reading a map that is shaped as a structural unit rather than a collection of individual features was found to enhance cartographic learning and improve map-related text recall. According to their model, ‘intact maps facilitate memory for facts and events that take place within their geographic space.’ (Kulhavy and Stock 1996: 136). They supply further evidence that, on learning both verbal and image information that overlap in meaning, memory is enhanced for both types of stimuli. The idea behind is that text and the map are processed by different memory systems, namely semantic and visuospatial. Thus, the map’s mental representation, stored in long-term memory, can be easily retrieved, helping recall text facts (Verdi and Kulhavy 2002). All these theories uphold that using a text with map-related facts and cartographic images encourages spatial learning. This learning is achieved by encoding both verbal and spatial cognitive information as well as by raising efficient mental associations between images and facts. However, Kulhavy et al. (1992) acknowledged that graphic representations improve text recall provided that their feature and structural properties are available during encoding. Verdi and Kulhavy (2002) specified that what is learned from a map may be determined by our prior knowledge, individual skills and the map model when geographic maps are presented together with a related text. In addition, the map’s model and format (either in print or digital medium), and the way

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the cartographical and verbal information is located and ordered on the map, may have an effect on effective map learning in the classroom. Map learning improves while reading the map before the associated text, and when the geographical features are located on the map’s edge rather than on the inside. Willis et al. (2009) conducted an experiment in urban areas leading to differences related to orientation and estimate of distance on maps supported on portable handheld devices in comparison with printed maps. These authors concluded that such differences are due to the fragmented information displayed on the portable devices. There is a significant difference in the subject’s development of spatial knowledge depending on the urban large-scale setting that is selected. In sum, Cartesian cartography learning is enhanced when fact textual information becomes associated with spatial information on maps, and also when varying cartographic formats and displays are used. Hence, the spatial representation of cognitive maps gives place to the navigational experience.

Navigation. A Daily-Life Geospatial Experience Every one of us daily goes on many routine runs, for specific or professional purposes, through all-type settings, to places located either in proximal areas—around our house, neighbourhood, city or town—or in a remote unfamiliar area from our comfortable knowledge environment. These routes are covered on foot or by a ride on a bicycle, a drive in a personal vehicle, or even a transit on public transport, such as the bus, train or plane. Orientation resources for navigation have moved from using a printed map onto handling portable devise cartography on a Smartphone, Tablet o GPS support. The original navigational sense has shifted onto the symbolic meaning of virtual navigation on portable devices. When navigation is motivated by a need to do some sport (e.g. jogging, cycling or hiking), a specific portable device may facilitate the wearing of route cartography handy. If the use of cartography is a must for the profession, there exist wide-ranging tools to access plenty of geospatial data sources. Yet, if the need for navigation arises from everyday human endeavours including routine, professional and leisure activities, then individuals should be given free access to online and offline cartography. Mayer (1983) stated that thinking involves a set of mental operations on knowledge in the cognitive system. Besides, thinking is prompted to solve problems of any kind. Therefore, spatial thinking is targeted at solving out spatial-related real-life situations, in which geospatial cognitive abilities begin to operate when spatial factors come into play. According to Uttal (2000), the most distinctive feature of maps associated with the acquisition of spatial information lies in the fact that they make us aware of the world far beyond our direct experience in the environment. By using a map, we are able to observe and examine sets of spatial relations without actually navigating through the space.

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From Navigational Geospatial Abilities to Spatial Microgenesis Theories Sinton (2016) holds that spaces become manipulable by the use of digital GIS technologies. A camera allows for inserting oneself into the space, moving around and focusing whether from a bird’s-eye view, from an on-the-ground perspective or from an oblique perspective. On the screen, space can be rotated, oriented and scaled by zooming in and out. Portable device navigation furthers diverse geospatial abilities. Several authors have conducted empirical research on the different geospatial abilities involved in the individual’s capacity for navigational map-reading. First, concepts such as space identification and location stand out, and second, magnitude and scale. Moreover, further research has addressed the subject’s varied decisionmaking on the route direction of choice, on the landmarks for correct direction on turns, and, where possible, on the structure to design a route in real settings. Bell (cited by Golledge et al. 2008) carried out studies on certain geospatial abilities in preadolescents, such as identity, location and magnitude. The author underlined that identification corresponds to recognising a place, location refers to retrieving precise landmarks and magnitude stands for discriminating forms of various shapes. The study concluded that scale represented a major factor in the process of geospatial concept comprehension. This means that real-world-based situations generate the most effective learning environments in comparison with spatial situations in small and abstract areas. Cubukcu and Nasar (2005) found that navigation (wayfinding) through largescale residential areas became more effective provided that there exist clear physical differentiation and fewer choices at nodes. Klippel et al. (2013) analysed the concept of direction, accounting for changes of direction, decision points and specifications for performing actions. In their work, the authors presented a systematic approach to route direction data analysis that illustrated the difference between the structure and function of direction. They identified the integral set of features defining the structure and function of route direction. This defining set includes the spatial structure of an intersection, the actions performed at an intersection for pertinent functional purposes, the existing points of reference for decision-making and action-taking; and finally, the conceptualisation of the action that takes place according to the direction pattern. Lobben (2004) considered that memory is a key factor in both learning and mapinformation retention processes. This author identified two cognitive processes in the task of navigating with a map: visualisation and self-location. She defined navigation as map-reading while interacting and relating the map and the environment with and between one another. The map-reading cognitive process related to visualisation involves the following actions: locating landmarks and spaces, mentally transforming the two-dimensional map into a three-dimensional form area, identifying patterns, and finally, conceiving a strategy. Montello (1998) explained that the experience gained from directly experienced places by travelling around them fosters knowledge on their spatial layout, including

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location and scaling of distances and directions. The author maintains that the experience in the place’s spatial layout begins as soon as one arrives in that place, triggering the individual’s cognitive planning. According to Montello (1998: 143), ‘landmark knowledge is knowledge of distinctive objects or scenes stored in memory. Route knowledge is knowledge of travel paths connecting landmarks’. The theoretical framework of spatial microgenesis, developed by Siegel and White (1975), and later nuanced by Montello (1998), advanced ideas on the human capacity for the conceptualisation of spatial knowledge on the environment. Siegel and White (1975) brought forward the ‘dominant’ framework for microgenesis defining the features and stages to attain such spatial conceptualisation. On the contrary, Montello (1998) elaborated on a continuous theoretical framework of spatial microgenesis on the basis of five main principles: 1. Knowledge on metric configuration is initially acquired on first exposure to a novel place. 2. Relatively continuous increase in the quantity, accuracy and completeness of spatial knowledge occurs as a consequence of an increase in familiarity and exposure to places. 3. ‘The integration of knowledge about separately learned places into more complex, hierarchically organized knowledge structures represents a significant and relatively sophisticated step in the microgenesis of spatial knowledge.’ 4. Individual differences are deep in relation to the degree of knowledge integration. Even if the individuals show equal levels of exposure to a place, they will differ in the extent and accuracy of their spatial knowledge. 5. ‘The linguistic system for storing and communicating spatial knowledge provide for the existence of relatively pure topological knowledge, or at least nonmetric knowledge.’ Aber (2012) proposed a comparative study of the two theories on spatial microgenesis, the dominant model by Siegel and White (1975) and the continuous one conceived by Montello. His findings better support the principles of the continuous theory rather than those of the dominant one. Nonetheless, the dominant theory constitutes a key model to describe the conceptualisation process of spatial knowledge on places, where the selected landmarks and routes may be pinpointed.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Capacities in Spatial Thinking The proposals revised so far refer to the geospatial abilities. Nevertheless, the cognitive capacities sensu lato should be examined in order to verify whether they are present or not in spatial thinking. This section is aimed at identifying the cognitive and metacognitive capacities concerning geospatial abilities. Besides, it is intended, when appropriate, to select those abilities facilitating lifelong learning acquisition through portable devices and the information and communications technologies.

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Thinking provides for simple and complex cognitive abilities. Amid the former, they are included observation, identification, differentiation, comparison, classification and memory. Additionally, a group of mental operations that demand increased cognitive development may be included, such as synthesis/analysis, logic inference, evocation, comparison, encoding/decoding, mental representation, mental transformation and projection of virtual relationships. Taking them all, they are only those fitting the spatial thinking dimension that are of some interest here. Hence, for instance, location is, relatively speaking, one of the simplest elements related to cartographical representation. In the context of geospatial thinking, however, locating a place involves deploying further cognitive operations. Gersmehl (1991) suggested varying operations: ego-location, landmark location, line of side location, network location, enclosure location and coordination location. Equally, in the geospatial context, the cognitive ability of differentiating, or even comparing, entails a greater degree of difficulty. Measuring the shortest distance between two places in order to choose the most suitable route implies estimating the extent between two landmarks and then comparing them. Deductive thinking comprises reasoning of different kinds—transitive, syllogistical, logical, propositional, analogical and hypothetical—as well as the divergent and convergent thinking subtypes. This group of mental operations enables the individual to perform tasks of a higher degree of complexity. These complex tasks encourage metacognitive capacities aiming at building significance on the concepts and pieces of thinking that target planning, supervision and assessment. Amid these types of reasoning, it should be convenient to individuate the ones having a spatial nature. To do so, it is pertinent to identify spatial reasoning targeting those tasks of planning, supervision and assessment that are closely related to the spatial abilities. Usually, divergent and convergent reasoning types stand in an opposite relation. The creative nature of the former clashes with the resolutive condition of the latter. Besides, one or the other reasoning type seems to be dominant depending on both the individual’s cognitive nature and the action which the reasoning is applied to. For instance, while promoting urban planning, it is relevant to count on individuals with dominant convergent reasoning. Moreover, deductive hypothetical thinking represents the highest acquisition level according to Piaget’s formal reasoning. Nonetheless, some studies dispute gradual acquisition, inasmuch as the resulting evidence points to social environment as the determining factor in cognitive development (Smith-Kitsikis 1977). Analogical thinking is a mental process by which we apply the knowledge learnt from previous experiences to facing novel situations, according to the three basic constraints of similar, structure and purpose (Holyoak and Thagard 1997). Notwithstanding the aforementioned, geography education should encourage the disciplinary principle singled out by Gersmehl (2008: 135) by which ‘geography is not just a kind of knowledge, it is a specific way of looking at the world.’

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Geospatial Abilities and GST Resources for Lifelong Learning Geospatial thinking abilities are encouraged in childhood, fully developed at the adult age and regularly applied all over one’s life. The National Research Council report (2006, ix) explicitly states that ‘spatial thinking—one form of thinking—is based on a constructive amalgam of three elements: concepts of space, tools of representation, and processes of reasoning’. Nevertheless, each of these three elements needs a life’s span for development and acquisition. In as much as education pursues instructing citizens to cope with everyday spatial situations, or to seek effective and efficient solutions in their professional environment, it may be suitable that the competences linked to acquiring geospatial abilities are incorporated into the national educational core curriculum. These three elements of geospatial thinking are developed along the compulsory educational stages, while it is through life experience and higher academic scholarship that the reasoning processes are particularly widened and enhanced. In opposition to the historical trend of geometry in favour of the Euclidean space and relations among its varying components (straight line, angle, distance and plain figure), Piaget and Inhelder (1967) found that during early childhood it does prevail a topological spatial proximity. Children approach space by spatial properties such as proximity and separation, or continuity and closure. The acquisition of metric spatial knowledge would come later on. As previously mentioned, Catling (1978) focuses on the threefold stage in the spatial capacity development during childhood: topological, projective and Euclidean. Over the first one, the child begins to set simple connections between the parts and the whole. Through the second stage, the child is able to localise and reference objects and places in more abstract terms. At the last stage, it is attained a spatial comprehension level allowing for the integration of the variety of relationships established among places. These three stages keep an intimate link with the two aforementioned maturing development levels. The perceptual level is based on the child’s direct relationship to the environment during early childhood. The conceptual level includes processes such as the development of more abstract concepts, the approaching to cartographic language, map-reading and interpreting, and finally, the drafting of simple sketches. Even today, regardless of the robust educational research conducted on children’s spatial ability development, the curricular contents show certain contradictions and discrepancies. Thus, in the elementary/primary education levels, they are still present Euclidean geometrical contents. Piaget’s theories have influenced knowledge acquisition along the subsequent core curricular stages. However, Egan (2002) has raised numerous objections to Piaget’s development of learning acquisition. This author advocates an early stimulation in the acquisition of the many concepts that Piaget associate with the different development stages. Thus, for instance, the Piagetian model suggests a gradual proximity knowledge acquisition from the abstract to the concrete, from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex. These are learning processes that are

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not equally developed by all of us (Egan 2008). Hence, by applying Egan’s line of thought to geography learning, a student may be able to acquire knowledge related to the continent he lives in, even before that he acquires knowledge linked to his neighbourhood. This fact becomes even more conspicuous when using Geospatial Technologies. The development of spatial thinking and its abilities have been promoted by the European Union (2006) through key competence acquisition for lifelong learning. In this respect, the European Union has made some recommendations in their guidelines for lifelong learning. Digital competence requires developing further capacities, such as the ability to search, collect and process information, and to use it in a systematic and sound manner, as well as the ability to access, search and use internet-based services. Furthermore, the European Union suggests it is an essential skill to use digital tools for producing, presenting and understanding complex information. The European Union sets forth a critical use of Information Society Technology (IST) to support critical thinking, creativity and innovation (European Union 2006; Carretero et al. 2017). Therefore, the formal-schooling development of such abilities constitutes a common and outstanding goal not only within the European Key-Competence Reference Framework but also for national education policy-making. As a consequence of GST and portable device widespread use, together with the increasing demand for worldwide information, the citizens, upon leaving compulsory education, show a deeper interest in geo-referenced information. This implies that the technological media should provide the citizen with online and offline information access on portable devices. Accordingly, the citizen’s technological demand fosters lifelong and ubiquitous learning (Cope and Kalantsis 2009). Baker et al. (2015) denounce the lack of structured and systematic research studies on knowledge around geospatial technologies and learning. They singled out spatial thinking as one of the variables involved in the full domain of GST and learning within formal and informal educational settings. They define it as ‘a set of abilities to visualize and interpret spatial concepts and geospatial thinking, a specialized form of spatial thinking focusing on patterns and processes that take place on or near the earth’s surface, and at the scale of human experiences’ (Baker et al. 2015: 118). They propose a Research Agenda for Geospatial Technologies and Learning, alongside recommendations for advancing this agenda, around four key research foci: (1) connections between GST and geospatial thinking; (2) learning GST; (3) professional development with GST; and (4) curriculum and student learning through GST. With a view to acquiring lifelong and ubiquitous learning, the citizen needs to know how to manage geospatial technological tools for searching and downloading documentation, or simply, for instantly connecting onto and interacting with a variety of networks. Access to online cartography has been favoured in the past years, but not always entirely free of charge. In the following sections, a group of three cartographical tools and portable device apps are presented in relation to the geospatial abilities that foster lifelong learning. These resources are Iberpix™, Collector for ArcGIS and Wikiloc™. The first two resources address essential cartographical

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Fig. 4 Historical map of Madrid city by Iberpix™ geospatial digital tool (IGN 2018)

Fig. 5 Modern map of Madrid city by Iberpix™ geospatial digital tool (IGN 2018)

concepts, such as scale and representation, whereas the third one approaches those concepts from either the individual’s own prior experiences or somebody else’s ones.

Iberpix™. An Everyday Approach to the Use of Scale and Representation Cartographic viewers, including Iberpix™, facilitate users’ access to visualisation of varying-scale maps by zooming in and out. Besides, this tool makes available historical maps and images granted by Instituto Geográfico Nacional in Spain (Figs. 4 and 5). Iberpix™, like GoogleEarth™ and GoogleMaps™, enables the user to locate cities and estimate distances between them, and it provides measurements for a surface of choice. Iberpix™ also offers information on land exploitation usage and geo-referenced location, and it displays cartography projected in a three-dimensional view through anaglyphs. Sebastián-López and De Miguel-González (2017) highlight that this digital viewer is being currently used as a teaching tool in the classroom.

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This cartographical tool facilitates online navigation that helps citizens develop their geospatial abilities. These range from the simplest abilities—observation, identification, differentiation, comparison and classification—to the most complex abilities related to spatial thinking—analysis, logical inference, decoding and mental representation. These abilities gather together in the intuitive use of scale through the zooming utility. Scales, measurements and geo-references of a chosen area in a cartographical representation system can be incorporated into this zooming utility.

Collector for ArcGIS: Collaborative Networking of the Users’ Community ArcGIS is a platform of cartographical representation that makes apps available for interactive map building. This collector for ArcGis comprises a set of apps and maps handy on the ESRI Company’s server. This company encourages the individual’s engagement in cartographic settings for database building and information sharing. In this respect, this tool has proved extremely interesting to the extent that users are invited to log in the exact location of damages resulting from natural havoc wreaked in places, as well as to enter data on eventual emergencies arising from contingent natural risks (ESRI’s Public Safety solution). All these efforts are targeted at enriching a cartographical database with the collaborative networking help of the users’ community. Still, the most attractive app of ArcGIS represents the Story Map Collector where personal stories may be posted at the story points alongside photographs illustrating the narrative. Bruner (2004) has been a pioneer in recognising the importance of stories and narratives as mental constructs in a distinct form of constructivist thought far from logical reasoning. He appreciated narrative as ‘a selective achievement of memory recall’. The term ‘digital storytelling’ has been coined by Lambert (2009) as a way of formulating self-telling stories deeply rooted in the social media. In this case, ESRI encourages the creation of individuals’ stories marked by cartographic landmarks and supported by photographs, which results in an appealing task for lifelong learning. This activity reinforces the ubiquitous learning and informal thinking thanks to personal experiences learnt in open spaces. Besides, it requires applying geospatial abilities associated with formal thinking, such as the aforementioned simple and complex abilities.

Wikiloc™. An App for Collaborative and Ubiquitous Learning Wikiloc™ is a free app for downloading online and offline cartography, jointly with routes, photographs and trip advices provided by other users. Wikiloc™, like any wiki network, constitutes a virtual collaborative learning environment, where the user

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interacts with the map. Bersbehsi et al. (2012) have concluded in their experimental studies that map interaction strongly differs from multimedia object manipulation, and they considered the interface design of interactive maps to be of great interest. This app may be very well correlated with the continuous theoretical framework of spatial microgenesis put forward by Montello (1998), in the sense that this app helps the user integrate spatial experience into unknown spaces on the basis of the collaborative environment. In fact, Wikiloc™ speeds up the process of spatial metric configuration, since the app provides with absolute route references. Moreover, according to Montello’s theoretical framework, this app aids the individual by increasing in the quantity, accuracy and completeness of spatial knowledge. Even the places learnt could be integrated in different situations, which may give rise to an individual spatial network. At the same time, individuals are assimilating prior learning that was built on spatial thinking acquisition during their childhood. That is to say, the adult is simultaneously applying concepts such as continuity, distance estimating and absolute metrics through waypoints. According to Sinton (2016: 27), ‘thinking spatially integrates spatial concepts with processes of reasoning, often relying on internal or external representations to enable or facilitate and support the experience’. All in all, this app furthers informal thinking jointly with the spatial abilities examined along the present article. Open spaces result in some type of learning whenever and wherever. Wikiloc™ facilitates a collaborative learning environment among wiki-users where all participants generate and convey information, while designing new paths and sharing photographs of the visited places. Therefore, this free app is used in a collaborative and ubiquitous learning environment that fosters lifelong learning, what is perfectly in tune with the European guidelines for digital competence.

Conclusion Geography is not like most disciplines. It is not the province of a small band of experts. It is something much broader, older and diverse. And we cannot do without it. Alister Bonnett 2012

Throughout this chapter, it has been established that spatial thinking encompasses a wide range of cognitive abilities and different kinds of reasoning. Cartographical concepts and map-reading lead to geospatial competence acquisition, in which navigation-related prior experiences, everyday needs and routines also play a part. This is a twofold navigation: one is centred on route experiences, and the other is based on cartographical knowledge. The coming of portable devices into our lives has entailed the development of new personal abilities by the use of both cartograph-

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ical tools and online and offline portable device apps. This intuitive use has furthered more complex spatial constructs. Formal thinking lays the foundation for the logical reasoning by which we can perform shifts of scale by drawing simple comparisons. Locating places and estimating distances have become trivial tasks performed on intuitively accessing digital apps, which stimulates more complex cognitive processes. All these geospatial virtual tasks have given rise to a ubiquitous learning and lifelong learning by virtue of informal thinking. Such is thinking based on the direct experiences undergone in open and real-life settings, which challenge various kinds of reasoning. The convergence of global access through both portable devices and cartographic apps in real-life settings has originated a reactivation of lifelong learning, where geospatial abilities have been integrated in an intuitive and almost unconscious manner.

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Geospatial Thinking Learning Lines in Secondary Education: The GI Learner Project Luc Zwartjes and María Luisa de Lázaro y Torres

Abstract Geospatial thinking is a learning outcome mainly based on ways of thinking and reasoning related to pattern recognition, spatial description, visualization, spatial concept use and the spatial use of tools. It comprises a collection of different skills in order to achieve the critical application of spatial information to deal with real-world problems after studying and making sense of the characteristics and the interconnected processes of nature and human impact in time and at appropriate scale. The European Erasmus + project “Developing a learning line on GIScience in education” (GI Learner) developed therefore a geospatial thinking learning line for secondary schools, so that integration of geospatial thinking can take place. As a result of an extended literature review, a list of ten spatial thinking competencies was defined. The learning line concept used hereby different levels of complexity, referring to the taxonomy of Bloom, taking into account age and capabilities of students. For each of the competencies, lesson materials related to the curriculum were produced, thus facilitating the implementation in education on short term. To measure the impact of the learning lines on spatial thinking, a self-assessment test was therefore developed, taking into account the level of complexity of each competence (A, B or C) for each age group. The GI Learner project website (http://www.gilearner. eu) provides access to the materials developed as well as the research publications and the developed teaching resources. Keywords Geography · GIScience · WebGIS · GeoICT · Geospatial literacy · Learning line · Education

L. Zwartjes (B) Department of Geography, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium e-mail: [email protected] M. L. de Lázaro y Torres Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. de Miguel González et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education, Key Challenges in Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6_3

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Introduction The use of GI tools to support spatial thinking has become integral to everyday life. Through media agencies that use online interactive mapping and near ubiquitously available tools like GPS and car navigation systems, the general public has started to become aware of some of the potential of spatial data. GI is a booming sector. As part of the digital economy, it’s seen as vital for innovation and jobs (European Commission 2016), but at the same time in many countries it is a shortage occupation sector. One of the reasons that not many students choose an education in the GI sector is lack of knowledge, caused by the absence of introduction and use of it in secondary education. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, however, it was not seen as worthy as now. Albert and Golledge (1999), Abbott et al. (2001) concluded that there are not many differences between students using GIS and those who do not use GIS. Today, after introducing GIS in geography lessons, positive results have been noted (Kerski 2003; de Lázaro and González 2005; NRC 2006; Demirci 2009). A new big step is now pending on GIScience, as teachers are using GIS on the cloud for their lessons (Milson 2012; Milson et al. 2012; Düren and Bartoschek 2013; Buzo 2014; Buzo Sánchez 2015; De Miguel González et al. 2016; de Lázaro et al. 2017a, b; Fargher 2018). WebGIS (GIS in the cloud) and story maps improve learning after visualizing, manipulating, reading, inquiring, summarizing and analysing; they also enhance learners’ geographical concepts through dynamic geographical presentation and help them to construct knowledge and develop the concepts of space and reasoning (Huei-Tse et al. 2016). Slocum et al (2008) note that there is an increased use of WebGIS. Many teachers combining it with PBL (Liu et al. 2010) or inquiry-based learning (Kerski 2011, Favier and Van der Schee 2012; Buzo 2014; Buzo Sánchez 2015). Others use virtual globes (Google Earth, Schultz et al. 2008; de Lázaro et al. 2008), augmented reality (Carbonell and Bermejo 2017) or 3D (Carbonell et al. 2017). The increasing use of geospatial technologies in geography lessons demonstrates that it contributes significantly more to the development of students’ geospatial relational thinking than the conventional lesson series (Favier and Van der Schee 2014). These new technologies make an introduction easier today than before; they revolutionized lecture halls and classrooms alike facilitating new ways of learning. The cloud is helping in looking for geoinformation and being easily integrated into daily lessons and research. Active methodology improves spatial and digital competencies (De Miguel González et al. 2016). As such the twenty-first century has been rich in spatial thinking and GIS lessons experiences, but perhaps they are isolated, or they respond to national exams assessment. There were community of learners and training teachers opportunities such as EduGIS Academy (http://www.edugis.pl/en/), iGuess (http://www.iguess. eu), I-Use (http://www.i-use.eu) and SPACIT (http://www.spatialcitizenship.org) projects, the digital-earth.eu network (Lindner-Fally and Zwartjes 2012) with the “Centres of Excellence” launched (http://www.digital-earth-edu.net) or School on

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the Cloud (Lázaro et al. 2017). Other initiatives, such as Geo For All, stress the students work on Open Source Geospatial Labs around the world (http://geoforall. org/). They are collecting and disseminating good practice examples and organizing sessions with teachers. But these are not systematic approaches; they create no learning line along secondary school. Another problem to overcome is the attitudes of some teachers who are difficult to persuade in this direction, in spite of the progressive increase in the presence of the geospatial sector in the professional sector. Other problems to overcome are that GI is not a compulsory item in teacher training, it is taught by non-specialists, and GIScience is not included on the curriculum (Bednarz and van der Schee 2006).

The increasing initiatives give an idea of the increasing availability of data and easy-to-use software, but these initiatives have not a learning line which is the main contribution of GI Learner project, a 3-year project supported by Key Action 2 of the Erasmus Plus education programme, with seven partners from five European countries. It has been coordinated by Sint-Lodewijkscollege (Brugge, Belgium), involved four other schools—Borg Nonntal secondary school (Austria), Dimitrie Cantemir secondary school, Iasi (Romania), King’s Ely secondary school, Ely (United Kingdom) and one Spanish school invited, two European universities—Ghent University (Belgium) and the Complutense University of Madrid (Spain), and the European Association of Geographers (EUROGEO). The main key research question has been: Is it possible to teach and learn by developing a learning line and using GIScience? We will reply to this question explaining the project and organizing the chapter as follows. After explaining the GI Learner main project objectives, the method to achieve them will be the next part, followed by the learning line created and the lessons plan organization. Finally come to the results, discussion, limitations and conclusions.

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Method GI Learner aims at integrating geospatial literacy in secondary schools. This is done by means of a learning line with 10 different competencies taking into account different levels of complexity, age and capabilities of students, referring to the taxonomy of Bloom. Two previous essential steps were needed. The first step consisted of a reflexion upon spatial thinking, now embodied in two publications (Donert et al. 2016; Zwartjes et al. 2017a, b) that summarize the most important literature on learning lines and spatial thinking to have a solid scientific base. Geospatial thinking goes much further than the traditional interpretation linked to spatial visualization, orientation, spatial perception and mental rotation (Fig. 1). But geospatial thinking is more. It is a distinct form of thinking, which helps people to visualize relationships between and among spatial phenomena (Stoltman and De Chano 2003). It strengthens students’ abilities to conduct scientific inquiry, engage in problem-solving and think spatially. Zwartjes (in press) summarizes geospatial thinking as “the ability to deal with a mental model of the Earth and the ability to operate using this model” (Álvarez and Lazaro 2017), the model being a constructive combination of three mutually reinforcing components: the nature of space, the methods of representing spatial information and the processes of spatial reasoning (Fig. 2) (Lee and Bednarz 2009, Michel and Hof 2013).

Fig. 1 National Research Council, 2006, learning to think spatially: GIS as a support system in the K–12 Curriculum, Washington DC, National Academy Press

Fig. 2 Spatial Thinking dimensions and related terms (Michel and Hof 2013)

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Because of its capabilities, GIS is inherently an excellent vehicle for geospatial inquiries, as it deals with the five themes of geography, as defined by The Joint Committee On Geographic Education (1984): location, place, relationships with places, movement and region. GIS can be used to ask or answer different sorts of spatial question, which can be related to many different study areas. It helps foster geographic skills, knowledge and understanding by developing the spatial thinking capabilities of students. Also, when manipulating a map students can learn a lot about the way maps function, thus better understanding the importance of correct communicating with maps (Barnikel and Ploetz 2015). The second step is the search on the curricula of the country’s participants in the project, for opportunities to introduce spatial thinking and GIScience in the daily lessons (Zwartjes et al. 2017a, b). With these previous researches, it has been possible to distillate a distinct and essential set of geospatial thinking competencies from the previous steps; to develop an evaluative tool to analyse the impact of the learning lines on geospatial thinking and create learning lines translating the competencies into learning objectives, teaching and learning materials for the whole curriculum from K7 (around 11–12 years old students) to K12 (around 17–18 years old).

The Learning Line: A Necessary Frame for Lessons Plan A learning line is an educational term that refers to or progression in the construction of knowledge and skills throughout the whole curriculum. This learning line reflects an increasing level of complexity, ranging from easy (more basic skills and knowledge) to difficult (Zwartjes 2014).

The Ten Learning Line Competencies The ten GI Learner competencies find out for the learning line progression make student learn to think about the space, act with knowledge and participate and respond collaboratively based on civic responsibility, after acquiring the knowledge and the digital and spatial competences necessary for this purpose. They have three levels of complexity: A, simple; B, medium; and C, complex (this should be achieved at the end of secondary school). Some practical examples illustrate it (Table 1). We can summarize the difficulty in schooling years in Table 2 according to the cited scale: A, simple; B, medium; and C, complex.

3

2

1

Example: be able to evaluate and apply a variety of GI data representations

C: Be critically aware that geographic information can be represented in many different ways

Example: discuss outcomes like survey results/maps online or in class, referring to a problem in own environment

B: Communicate with geographic information in suitable forms

C: Be able to use GI to exchange in dialogue with others

(continued)

Example: produce a mental map, be aware of your own position Example: basic map production for a target audience—using old and new media, Share results with target group

A: Transmit basic geographic information

Communicating

Example: employ some different representations of information (maps, charts, tables, satellite images…)

B: Demonstrate that geographical information can be represented in some ways

Visually communicate geographic information

Example: describe GPS, GIS, Internet interfaces; be able to identify geo-referenced information

Example: critically evaluate maps identifying attributes, representations (e.g. inappropriate use of symbology or stereotyping) and metadata of the maps

C: Be critically aware of sources of information and their reliability

A: Recognize geographical (location-based) and non-geographical information

Example: use scale, orientation; understand meaning, spatial pattern and context of a map

B: Be able to interpret maps and other visualizations

Learning about, understanding

Example: use legend, symbology…

A: Be able to read maps and other visualizations

Be aware of geographic information and its representation through GI and GIS

Reading, interpreting

Critically read, interpret cartographic and other visualizations in different media

GI Learner competencies

Table 1 The ten GI Learner competencies

46 L. Zwartjes and M. L. de Lázaro y Torres

5

4

Example: collect data and compare to set the best route from school to home and back; get a topographical map for a walk Example: find and use data from various data portals (SDI) to look for the best facilities of a specific region, or for the “best” place to live using parameters like infrastructure, noise, open spaces,…

B: Use more than one GI interface and its features

C: Effectively solve problems using a wide variety of GI interfaces

(continued)

Applying, using

Example: assess the functionality and use for society of a GI application (emergency services, police, precision agriculture, environmental planning, civil engineering, transport, research) and present the results

C: Evaluate how and why GI applications are useful for society

Example: find your house in a digital earth browser; finding a certain location; measuring the distance between two points by different means; use applications for mobile phones (e.g.. GPS) to locate a place

Example: problem-solving oriented with GI application like navigating; use an app to read the weather, environmental quality, travel planner

B: Use some examples of (daily life) GI applications

A: Perform simple geographical tasks with the help of a GI interface

Example: know about GPS-related/locational (social networking) applications including Google Earth; produce a listing of known GI applications or find them on the internet/cloud

A: Be aware of GI applications

Use (freely available) GI interfaces

Describing

Describe and use examples of GI applications in daily life and in society

Table 1 (continued)

Geospatial Thinking Learning Lines in Secondary Education: The … 47

8

7

6

Example: changes in environment, influence, connections and hierarchy of ecosystems Example: evolution of ecosystems over time is complex and is related to many variables; problem-oriented exploration of interrelationships like where do my jeans or my mobile phone come from

B: Demonstrate interrelationships between a variety of factors

C: Valuate different relationships and judge causes and effects

(continued)

Example: recognize simple relationships between things, e.g. heat and sunshine, or city size and traffic jams//inverse relationships//some things are not related

A: Recognize that items may, or may not, be related (connected) in different ways to one another

Example: use data on climate change from ESA, IPCC compared to Facebook graphs

C: Fully assess value/usefulness/quality of data

Analysing, relating

Example: identify multiple data sources, for example, of population or pollution and be able to assess their level (scale), detail, frequency, accuracy and other considerations; analyze different sources and decide which is the most useful

B: Acknowledge that there is different qualities in data, not everything is useful

Examine interrelationships

Evaluating

Example: design a methodology which explains the data collection for land use change, like how to collect data from different sources and classify them appropriately

C: Solve issues concerning data gathering and select the most suitable alternative approaches to data capture

Example: find and download data on migration and be able to use it

Example: when investigating environmental factors choose what data is needed

B: Compare different qualitative and quantitative data and select an appropriate data gathering approach, tool, etc.

A: Locate and obtain data from source maps (different visualizations)

Example: gather data during fieldwork (coordinates, pictures, comments…), e.g. sound data to analyse impacts of traffic; map attractive places for children in your city

A: Collect simple data

Be able to identify and evaluate (secondary) data

Producing/gathering

Carry out own (primary) data capture

Table 1 (continued)

48 L. Zwartjes and M. L. de Lázaro y Torres

10

9

Evaluating, action, and decision making/applying in real world Example: use geodata to assess which new road system should the local authority build Example: conclude there will be winners and losers for each road proposal Example: develop a campaign to persuade decision-makers concerning traffic planning; make a blog or a website with collected and visualized data; write a documented article in a magazine using GI information

B: Judge implications for individuals and society

C: Design future actions to stakeholders—including themselves

C: Assess the analysis in depth, create new meaning and make links to the bigger picture

A: Recognize the decisions that had to be made

Example: responding and suggest solutions on climate change

B: Combine elements from the analysis to make sense of the outcomes

Reflect and act with knowledge

Example: understand there are different types of climate Example: realize that climate is changing

A: Read what the analysis says

Producing

Extract new insight from analysis

Table 1 (continued)

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Table 2 Competency and school year to achieve it (according to the level of complexity)

Competency 1. Reading, interpreting 2. Understanding 3. Communicating 4. Describing 5. Applying, using 6. Producing, gathering 7. Identify 8. Relate/analyse 9. Producing 10. Evaluating/take proper actions

K7–K8 K9 A B A B A A B A B A A A A

K10 K11 K12 C C B C C C B C B C B C A B C B C

Lessons Plan This learning line is based on enjoyable activities which have been developing in lessons plan to improve spatial thinking using GISciences in general and WebGIS in particular. They fit with geospatial competencies the following curriculum opportunities. It has not been an easy task to create common learning material for the learning line as not all the European curriculum have the same topic in the same year (de Lázaro and Zwartjes 2018). The project mostly used the webGIS platform ArcGIS Online (Esri) as this offers many advantages for schools: • • • •

No software to instal. Accessible via as well pc’s, laptops or tablets. Accessible in the classroom and also on fieldwork using mobile devices. Providing for the derived 10 competences enough possibilities, including spatial analysis tools and access to standardized and interoperable spatial data infrastructure (SDI). • Also, Esri is providing free access for all schools to the platform. The lesson material created is embedded in the TPCK approach, as described by Mishra and Koehler (cited by Favier and Van der Schee 2012): «the knowledge a teacher should have about how to use technology in instruction in such a way that students develop knowledge and skills in a certain domain». The TPCK framework is added with the GIS component in his GIS-TPCK framework approach (Fig. 3). The template for the activities has five steps, the first one to engage students, the second to understand the pattern, the third one to analyse the pattern, the fourth to reflect and the fifth to share (Table 3).

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Fig. 3 The general TPCK model (left) and the GIS-TPCK framework (Favier and Van der Schee 2012)

All necessary teaching and learning material are available as well as tests that are being elaborated to measure learning outcomes on the project website: www. gilearner.eu (or http://gilearner.ugent.be). It is possible to adapt the topic to another age group, as all material is available with creative commons license.

Results The project involved students from five different European countries. Their role was double: on the one hand, providing feedback and provide amendments on the first versions of the developed learning materials; on the other hand, they were needed to measure the impact of the learning lines on geospatial thinking. There were initially 311 students (Table 4), and it was fully completed by 120 of them (2018). The assessment of progress from the beginning to the end of the project (summative evaluation) has been carried out through self-evaluation tests, carried out at the beginning and end of the project (test for K7, K9–10 and K12) which have made it possible to verify what pupils have learned. The students self-evaluated using the Likert scale, which has been used for its simplicity. The self-evaluation tests have some questions that allow us to follow their learning using specific items. It is important to stress that students learn also to improve their own self-evaluation. Most of them haven’t done it before. These self-assessment

K-9 (13-14 years)

How secure is your water supply?

Water security

Why and how to conserve biodiversity?

Biosphere biodiversity Why economic disparities?

What are the challenges of urbanization?

Urbanization

Economic disparities

Why people travel for tourism and where they go to?

Tourism

How are the landscapes created by?

Physical landscapes

K-8 (12-13 years)

How local are you?

Student location

K7 (11-12 years)

Research question to engage students

Topic

Year (age)

Table 3 GI learner lessons plan

Cartograms, maps online, Google docs, Story map

Kahoot, AGOL WebGIS, ESPON map, Survey 1,2,3. YouTube

Scribble maps, YouTube

Different cities in different countries (AGOL WebGIS, Google Earth, Google Street view, online atlas or maps—)—Global cities

Conventional maps in paper, digital maps, geolocation questionnaires: Survey 1, 2, 3 (AGOL WebGIS)

ArcGIS Online (AGOL WebGIS) map layer and images

Compass/Google Maps/Scribble maps/What3Words/Public profiler (World Names)

Tools for analysing and understanding the pattern

Problems on water

Sustainable Development Goals

Conservation

The future of the cities

Sustainable tourism

Why are landforms different

Observe your location

Reflect

(continued)

Campaign on bottled water—link to ocean plastics, Story map

A WebGIS for explaining disparities

AGOL WebGIS

A presentation (ppt, sway, Prezi, video, Story Map) about your city and its problems

Promote your region/city in a poster, map, info-sheet…

AGOL WebGIS Map

Text, presentation

Suggested tool for sharing

52 L. Zwartjes and M. L. de Lázaro y Torres

K-12 (16-17 years)

How finite are raw materials?

Sustainability: raw materials

Do tsunamis affect me? Where do tsunamis occur?

Tsunamis How global am I? Globalization consequences

Who is hungry?

Hunger in the world

Globalization

What will happen with a sea level rise?

Climate change fact or fake? Local or global?

Climate change

Sea level rise

Is overpopulation the problem? Where are the differences?

Human population

K-11 (15-16 years)

Why and where do refugees go? What would be the best destination?

Migration

K-10 (14-15 years)

Research question to engage students

Topic

Year (age)

Table 3 (continued)

AGOL WebGIS, Gapminder, YouTube

AGOL WebGIS

AGOL WebGIS

AGOL WebGIS, Global Hunger Index

AGOL WebGIS

Maps online, AGOL WebGIS, Statistics, Gapminder, YouTube

Statistics online, AGOL WebGIS,

Scribble maps/AGOL WebGIS, YouTube, Sway, Linoit

Tools for analysing and understanding the pattern

Raw material environmental problem

Essay/dissertation on sustainable development or globalization problems

Risk of tsunamis/earthquakes

Hunger and food production

Risk of a sea level rise

Climate change

Sustainable population

Challenges and opportunities of destination countries

Reflect

Presentation and discussion

Sharing your essay and assess other essays on Aropä

Action Plan on building safe nuclear power plants

Discussion and summarize discussion

Story map

Reply SMART questions

Share the data in your country with others. Use a worksheet and write results

Poster (Sway, Linoit) with screenshots of a previous work and discussion on different perspectives of migration

Suggested tool for sharing

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Table 4 Students involved in the project with valid tests results Level

Average age

Male

Total

Female (%)

Male (%)

K7

12.54

Female 27

42

69

39.13

60.87

K9

14.01

27

32

59

45.76

54.24

K10

15.58

67

67

134

50.00

50.00

K12

17.2

34

15

49

69.39

30.61

Total

–

155

156

311

49.84

50.16

Fig. 4 Improvement of learning outcomes along the project

tests have made it possible to verify that they have learned and advanced in their competence knowledge. We can see the main results from test in Fig. 4. Regarding reading and interpreting maps and images (Q1), there is a clear improvement from K7 to K12. K10 has better self-assessment than K12, a result of more cautiousness in the self-evaluation. The learning of the students helps them to know better the limits of their own knowledge. The next two questions (Q2 & 3) have shown an undoubtedly improvement. Students have learned that geographic information shows not only where things are located, but why, perhaps this is the reason for the slow down on improvement in the question about geographical information. Regarding gathering, communicating and using quality geographical information (GI), there are two clear levels, the K7–K9 and the K10–K12, with an imperceptible improvement in the task (Q4). Most students feel able to use an app, maps and images and show the results to other people, for example, indicating their way to school or

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the institute. However, when we add some nuance about the quality of these data, self-assessment is reduced, as in the answers to Q5 (K9–K12). Students have seen the complexity of the world and the huge quantity of available data (Big geodata), as in the current world, the raw material begins to be the data. Regarding Q6, there were low scores. In general, students are more confident in the use of the closest data than in the use of data far from their living place. But in Q7 their scores increased. This question is perhaps the most important of all, since it requires all the skills and competences of the designed learning line. The students provide year by year a greater appreciation of nuances, in relation to the contamination by plastics in the ocean, which was the proposed theme for application, being a major contemporary issue (de Lazaro and Zwartjes 2018).

Discussion and Limitations One of the main limitations in the GI Learner project has been the continuity of the students during the 3 years. The students’ mobility between schools has also meant that a few of those who completed it were not always the same as those who started it in some cases, having joined partway through the learning line. The project began with more than two hundred students and finished with just over half the original cohort. Also, to map the impact over the whole K7–K12 curriculum thus following the same pupil for 6 years the project should have lasted 6 years. The conclusions obtained in the whole process are not just geoinformation, but there are also technological and pedagogical aspects that students have learnt, all of them useful for learning to think critically. Some reflections on the learning line after the project are collected on the SWOT analysis (Table 5). The results of the project have provided suggestions for the implementation of the official curriculum to promote the construction of critical spatial thinking, which some authors assimilate with learning to think. The viability of the proposals made is based on the improvement of the technology and its usability, and on the initial and continuous teacher training or on the selftraining of the professors who take advantage of the wealth offered on the Cloud to work in school classrooms with the cartography available in the cloud. Therefore, a change in the teaching methodologies related to geography is invited, which is still to come. This requires connecting the training of secondary school teachers that is taught from universities in this line of work; therefore, we can point out that the technology is already here, but for it to be possible to integrate its advantages, it must be used in school’s education and teacher training. It is essential to recycle in real time, to have materials adapted to the classrooms or examples of good practices, which integrate these tools in a reasonable and well-designed manner in the teaching of Geography, as has been done in all the projects mentioned here. The improvement of equipment in schools is not enough. It is necessary to promote teacher training in the integration of geographic information sciences, SMART

The quality of the connection is important. Not all EU countries have the same broadband The access to the web maps, and to the WebGIS, does not guarantee that knowledge will be generated, an adequate methodology using a learning line is essential

Today, there are powerful tools to share and work collaboratively using GeoICT and Geoinformation The flexibility of the tools allows to customize and create maps of specific topics Existing geoinformation, which the agencies responsible for each data make available, is a guarantee of quality It is possible to work with real data in real time

Interaction between students and the teacher is encouraged, also between teachers from different places. Network is important Spatial and digital competencies (European agendas) are developed It is possible to get reliable and transparent results, from anywhere, at any time and using any support

Students can organize information, discover interrelations and alternative answers There are no unique solutions to spatial problems It is a very attractive way of learning for students

Technological

Pedagogical

Learning to think

(continued)

There is an underutilization of free quality data available on the network Would be very interesting to empower a responsible and supportive citizen, for example, with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

More didactic, concrete and simple proposals are necessary to make it possible the inclusion of the GISscience in the school curricula The curricular continuums changes make the teachers strive to respond to legislative changes instead of focusing 100% on student learning

WEAKNESSES

STRENGTHS

Table 5 SWOT analysis after the project

56 L. Zwartjes and M. L. de Lázaro y Torres

THREATS There are some questions on the table: • The dependence on technology and those that support it • Who should pay for the free data? • Will remain available free data and opportunities that exist today for teachers in relation to viewers, virtual globes and WebGIS? For how many times? The current curricular situation does not allow us to leave a memorized and repetitive learning that are outside the problems of the real world, and therefore, without the option to improve it. It is not working to learn to think that a good orientation of the GeoICT would allow. The irruption of WebGIS in the classrooms offers unexplored possibilities (Fargher, 2018)

Identify the sources of information and analyse their reliability The quality of the data improves with its use, it is possible to offer feedback It is necessary to learn to distinguish the quality level of the data, for example, by consulting the metadata European roaming offers communication opportunities never before explored in schools

Experience the existence of incessant increase of information available online, which is possible to reuse Collect, process, analyse, interpret and visualize geodata, and as a result, communicate geographic information, in the right place and time, is something to learn on the learning line

A better knowledge of the territory allows to act with knowledge and co-responsibility about it The challenge of learning using GIScience has the necessary steps

OPPORTUNITIES

Technological

Pedagogical

Learning to think

Table 5 (continued)

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learning and WebGIS as fundamental pillars to achieve a spatial thought that integrates critical thinking derived from territorial analysis. The change of methodologies in the classrooms, the adequate training of teachers and equipment in schools will summed up if it is possible a greater interaction within the classrooms, between the classrooms and with elements outside them that allow learning to think through the conclusions derived from adding and eliminating data layers, collecting them, processing them, analysing them, interpreting them, visualizing them and communicate them to others, who have been the focus of the projects proposed in this work. This must be done sequenced in a line of learning, ranging from the simplest to the most difficult, gradually integrating different degrees of complexity. With all this, a teaching model should be reached in which the student will be able to communicate, beyond the traditional exam, what he has learned. At the end of the project amendments have been proposed for inclusion on the national curricula (Zwartjes 2018). This is the only possible way for a real integration of GISciences in secondary schools. Something that has not taken place yet in most of the countries in the world.

Conclusions The main hypothesis has been shown in this work: visualization provided by GIScience, in most of the cases using WebGIS, facilitates the understanding of the space in which we move and brings us closer to the characteristics and problems of spaces that we could not otherwise access. It allows to enrich the user’s data, with other free data, obtaining new conclusions of inquiry and investigation. In addition, it facilitates the communication of data and its meaning, for a better understanding of its thematic, temporal and spatial component, in a world in which the raw material is the data. The project has tried to help teachers to implement learning progression lines for spatial thinking in secondary schools, using GIScience, but the official curriculum implementation is essential to promote the construction of critical spatial thinking using GI. The results achieved and agreed upon have been, on the one hand, the common framework of learning outcomes (GI Learner competencies) (Table 1), despite all the difficulties encountered in the diversity and disparity in the official programmes of the participating countries, and on the other hand, the specific issues developed (lessons plans) and experienced that have allowed to apply them (Table 3). There is still a long way to achieve geospatial competencies in schools for future professional use. Space and location make spatial thinking a distinct, basic and essential skill that can and should be learned in school education, alongside other skills like language, mathematics and science. Keeping this in mind as the objective not only is teacher training and availability of user-friendly software, ICT equipment in schools neces-

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sary but a community of learners and learning materials created by the project and available on the website http://www.gilearner.ugent.be are also essential. Acknowledgements We would like to thank all the partners (and especially the pupils) involved in the GI Learner Project “Developing a learning line on GIScience in education” (2015-1-BE02KA201-012306) funded by the European Commission and Erasmus + KA2 and coordinated by Luc Zwartjes.

References Abbott TD (2001) An evaluation of geographic information system software and its utility in promoting the use of integrated process skills in secondary students. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Connecticut, Storrs Albert WS, Golledge RG (1999) The use of spatial cognitive abilities in geographic information systems: the map overlay operation. Trans in GIS 3(1):7–21 Álvarez Otero AJ, de Lazaro y Torres ML (2017) Spatial data infrastructures and geography learning. Eur J Geogr 8(3):19–29 Bednarz S, Van der Schee J (2006) Europe and the United States: the implementation of geographic information systems in secondary education in two contexts. J Technol Pedagogy Educ 15(2):191–205 Barnikel F, Ploetz R (2015) The acquisition of spatial competence—fast and easy multidisciplinary learning with an online GIS. Eur J Geogr 6(2):6–14 Buzo, I. (2014) Incorporación de un WebSIG a la enseñanza de la Geografía en 3º de ESO. En Ramón, A. (Ed) Tecnologías de la Información para nuevas formas de ver el territorio (pp 711–720) Alicante: Universidad de Alicante, Asociación de Geógrafos Españoles. Retrieved from: http:// congresotig.ua.es/index.php/tig/tig2014/paper/view/38/139 Buzo Sánchez I (2015) Los SIG como herramienta para el estudio del paisaje cultural. Íber, Didáctica de las Ciencias Sociales, Geografía e Historia 81:37–40 Carbonell C, Bermejo LA (2017) Augmented reality as a digital teaching environment to develop spatial thinking. Cartogr Geogr Inf Sci 44:259–270 Carbonell C, Avarvarei BV, Chelariu EL, Draghia L, Avarvarei SC (2017) Map-reading skill development with 3D. Technologies. J Geogr 116(5):197–205 de Lázaro ML, González MJ (2005) La utilidad de los sistemas de información geográfica para la enseñanza de la Geografía. Didáctica Geográfica 7:105–122. http://www.age-geografia.es/ didacticageografica/index.php/didacticageografica/article/view/213/195 de Lázaro ML, González MJ, Lozano MJ (2008) Google Earth and ArcGIS explorer in geographical education. Learning with Geoinformation III–Lernen mit Geoinformation III 95–105 de Lázaro ML, De Miguel R, Morales FJ (2017a) WebGIS and geospatial technologies for landscape education on personalized learning contexts. ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf 6(11):350. https://doi.org/10. 3390/ijgi6110350 de Lázaro ML, de Miguel González R, Sánchez IB (2017b) El Proyecto school on the cloud: Lecciones Aprendidas (School on the cloud project: lessons learned). Espacio Tiempo y Forma Serie VI, Geografía 10:103–120 de Lázaro ML, Zwartjes L (coord) (2018) Geospatial thinking test analysis. GI Learner project. www.gilearner.eu Demirci A (2009) How do teachers approach new technologies: geography teachers’ attitudes towards geographic information systems (GIS) IGU-commission on geographical education, geography education specialist De Miguel González R, Buzo Sánchez I, Lázaro y Torres ML (2016) Nuevos retos para la educación geográfica y la investigación docente: el Atlas Digital Escolar. In: En Aportación española

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al XXXIII Congreso de la UGI (Beijing 2016) (pp 199–209), Beijing: Comité Español de la UGI. Disponible en: http://cchs.csic.es/es/article/aportacion-espanola-xxxiii-congresouniongeografica-internacional Donert K, Desmidt F, Lázaro M, González R, Lindner-Fally M, Parkinson A, Prodan D, Woloszynska-Wisniewska E, Zwartjes L (2016) The GI learner approach. GI_Forum—J Geogr Inf Sci 2:134–146. https://doi.org/10.1553/giscience2016_02_s134 Düren M, Bartoschek T (2013) Assessing the usability of WebGIS for schools. In: Jekel T, Car A, Strobl J, Griesebner G (eds) GI_Forum 2013. Creating the GISociety (pp 388–398). Berlin, Wichmann Esteves MH, Rocha J (2015) Geographical information systems in portuguese geography education. Eur J Geogr 6(3):6–15 European Commission (2016) Council resolution on a new skills agenda for an inclusive and competitive Europe. Available on https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ES/TXT/?uri=CELEX% 3A32016G1215%2801%29 Fargher M (2018) WebGIS for geography education: towards a GeoCapabilities approach. ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf 7(3):111. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi7030111 Favier T, Van der Schee J (2012) Op zoek naar een kennisbasis voor lesgeven met GIS. Aardrijkskundeonderwijs onderzocht, Landelijk Expertisecentrum Mens- en Maatschappijvakken – Centrum voor Educatieve Geografie, pp 135–146 Favier T, Van der Schee JA (2014) The effects of geography lessons with geospatial technologies on the development of high school students’ relational thinking. Comput Educ 76:225–236 Huei-Tse H, Tsai-Fang Y, Yi-Xuan W, Yao-Ting S, Kuo-En C (2016) Development and evaluation of a web map mind tool environment with the theory of spatial thinking and project-based learning strategy. Br J Edu Technol 47(2):390–402. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12241 Kerski JJ (2003) The implementation and effectiveness of geographic information systems technology and methods in secondary education. J Geogr 102 (3):128–137 Kerski JJ (2011) Sleepwalking into the future—the case for spatial analysis throughout education. In: Jekel T, Koller A, Donert K, Vogler R (eds) Learning with GI 2011. Herbert Wichmann Verlag, Berlin/Offenbach, Germany Lee J, Bednarz R (2009) Effect of GIS learning on spatial thinking. J Geogr Higher Educ 33(2):183–198 Lindner-Fally M, Zwartjes L (2012) Learning and teaching with Digital Earth—teacher training and education in Europe. In: Jekel T, Car A, Strobl J, Griesebner G (eds) GI_Forum 2012: Geovisualization, Society and Learning, 272–282. http://gispoint.de/fileadmin/user_upload/paper_gis_ open/537521027.pdf Liu Y, Bui EN, Chang CH, Lossman HG (2010) PBL-GIS in secondary geography education: does it result in higher-order learning outcomes? J Geogr 109(4):150–158 Michel E, Hof A (2013) Promoting spatial thinking and learning with mobile field trips and eGeoriddles, GI_Forum 2013: creating the GISociety Milson AJ (2012) SIG en la Nube: WebSIG para la enseñanza de la Geografía. Didáctica Geográfica 12:111–124 Milson AJ, Demirci A, Kerski JJ (eds) (2012) International perspectives on teaching and learning with GIS in secondary schools. Springer, New York NRC (2006) Learning to think spatially: GIS as a support system in the K–12 curriculum. National Academies Press, Washington, DC Schultz RB, Kerski JJ, Patterson TC (2008) The use of virtual globes as a spatial teaching tool with suggestions for metadata standards. J Geogr 107(1):27–34 Slocum TA, McMaster RB, Kessler FC, Howard HH (2008) Web mapping, In Thematic cartography and geovisualization (pp 441–459). New Jersey, Pearson/Prentice Hall Stoltman J, De Chano L (2003) Continuity and change in geography education: learning and teaching. In: Gerber R (ed) International handbook on geographical education. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 115–137

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Zwartjes L (2014) The need for a learning line for spatial thinking using GIS in education. In: de Miguel R, Donert K (eds) Innovative learning geography. New challenges for the 21st Century (pp 39–63). Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle-upon-Tyne Zwartjes L, De Lázaro ML, Donert K, Buzo I, De Miguel R, Wołoszy´nska-Wi´sniewska E (2017) Literature review on spatial thinking. GI Learner project. www.gilearner.eu Zwartjes L, Lázaro De ML, Lindner-Fally M, Parkinson A, Prodan D (2017) Curriculum opportunities for spatial thinking. GI Learner project. www.gilearner.eu Zwartjes L (ed) (2018). The need for geospatial thinking in education. A manual for implementing geospatial competencies in the curriculum. GI Learner project. www.gilearner.eu Zwartjes L (in press) Developing geospatial thinking learning lines in secondary education: the GI Learner project. Eur J Geogr

Relational Geospatial Technologies: Background Theory, Practical Example and Needs in Education Viktor Chabaniuk and Leonid Rudenko

Abstract In geography and cartography categories, “space” and “time” are considered not only as the main but also influencing the structure and essence of spatial information displayed in cartographic works. The complexity of understanding and displaying certain entities of space predetermines the need to form a special viewpoint, recognizing long-time existence of its substantive and relational understandings. In the authors’ opinion, first of all modern cartography should pay much more attention to the relational interacting processes between the space entities, which will improve the objectivity in its modeling and visualization. The features of the relational space are modeled today by geospatial information systems, which are often integrated systems. Examples of such systems are modern National or thematic atlases that correspond to “large” relational spaces. Thus, National atlases model relational spaces throughout the country and, as a rule, integrate with the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) and some other systems. The work consists of three parts: theoretical, practical, and which are shortly applied to education. In the theoretical part, inter-system and intra-system relations are considered. They exist and are repeated in all modern models of relational spaces. The main types of such relations are epistemological, transformational, and evolutional. A well-known example of evolutional relation is the evolution of the atlas base maps of the Web 1.0 formation into the geo-/carto-platforms of the Web 2.0 formation. An example of the latter is OpenStreetMap. Examples of relational geospatial technologies, realizing theoretical results, are examined in the practical part. They were used for the first time in the electronic “Atlas of natural, technogenic, social hazards and risks of emergencies in Ukraine” (AtlasES). In the last part, it is shown how theoretical and practical results can be used in geography and cartography education.

V. Chabaniuk (B) · L. Rudenko Institute of Geography, National Academy of Sciences, Kiev, Ukraine e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] L. Rudenko e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. de Miguel González et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education, Key Challenges in Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6_4

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Keywords Epistemological, transformational, and evolutional relations · Conceptual framework (CoFr) · GeoMash-ups: GeoComposer, GeoRelator, GeoCollager · Solutions framework (SoFr)

Introduction The main geospatial challenges of the twenty-first century for geography and cartography are theoretical. They are primarily the result of dramatic changes in the field of geospatial human activity. These changes will cause geography and cartography to change substantially. On the other hand, nowadays, it is impossible to do something without geospatial technologies. Since geospatial technologies belong to a practice, we must cover both theoretical and practical issues. Geospatial technologies are used for creation of carto- and geo-information systems (CIS and GIS), which are the most popular spatial models of real-world phenomena. Electronic atlases (EA) and Atlas information systems (AtIS) have a special place among these systems. Hurni (2017) does not distinguish between EA and AtIS, and defines AtIS as systematic, targeted collections of spatially related knowledge in electronic form, allowing a user-oriented communication for information and decision-making purposes. As in a conventional atlas, an AtIS mainly consists of a harmonized collection of maps with different topics, scales, and/or from different regions. The maps usually come in standardized scales or degrees of generalization, respectively. Actually, atlases have always been, and are remained, the best, the most complete and at the same time simple representations/models of the complex natural and/or socio-political systems, defined at and related to some territory. These cartographic works are well known from the school, so most readers have some knowledge about them. At the same time, modern EA/AtIS are products of at least three disciplines: geography/cartography, computer science, and systemology. As a result, atlases have significant prospects in response to the geospatial challenges of the twenty-first century. Therefore, EA/AtIS are the main practical means for analyzing the state and development of geospatial technologies. In this paper, the following chain of generalizations (isA) is used: EA isA AtIS isA CIS isA GIS isA IS (Information system). To explain the main reasons for the performed research, we use the work (Iivari 1989), where three interacting levels/contexts are introduced for each IS: Datalogical/Technological (Datalogics) ↔ Infological/Language (Infologics) ↔ Organizational/Usage world (Usagelogics). Iivari (1989) named the relation ← by the “transformation”, → by the “verification”. Cauvin et al. (2010) by the “transformation” named the relation →. Inverse relation ← is not analyzed in (Cauvin et al. 2010), but it exists and can be named by the “verification”. We adhere to a “cartographic” view of the names of “horizontal” relations between levels/contexts. That is, the transformation is carried out as follows: Datalogics → Infologics → Usagelogics. Here we do not consider the meanings of

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Fig. 1 Description of relief is shown in the left frame instead of Contents Tree

these relations. The main thing is that they exist always and independently of our relation to them. Datalogics. In the past decade, the Electronic version of the National Atlas of Ukraine (ElNAU2007) has been created (Rudenko 2007). Its pilot version, known as Atlas of Ukraine (ElNAU2000), issued in 2000. ElNAU2000 screen from (Ormeling 2008) (Fig. 1) is explaining the problem of Datalogics. Shown screen can be obtained in the case of incorrect work of the component, responsible for the Contents Tree functioning. In 2000, this component was built on the Microsoft HTML Help Workshop, and it did not work in 2008 the same way as in 2000. In ElNAU2007, it was replaced by the component of own development. Most likely, because of the problem with the Contents Tree component, F. Ormeling did not have the opportunity to access all the ElNAU2000 features and therefore classified it as a read-only instead of interactive atlas (Kraak and Ormeling 2010). Infologics. Infological problems can be explained by the works of the Dutch atlas school (Aditya 2007; Köbben 2013). The essence of the problem reflects the title of work (Aditya 2007), where, actually, it is stated that the National Atlas of the Netherlands (NAN) comparing with the paper versions changed the Language context (Infologics). Now Infologics of NAN should consider the presence of at least two systems, which are advisable to call the atlas front end and back end. For informal definition, we note that in (Köbben 2013) the atlas front end includes the useraccessible atlas maps, and the atlas back end includes the National SDI. Some idea on the abovementioned in this paragraph NAN paper versions and electronic front end can be obtained from the site http://www.nationaleatlas.nl/ (accessed December 7, 2018).

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Usagelogics. At the end of the last decade, it became clear that EA/AtIS Usage world changed dramatically. Interest in National atlases significantly decreased. For example, the USA National atlas in 2014 was even ceased support (https:// nationalmap.gov/small_scale/, accessed December 7, 2018). In addition, many new and popular spatial phenomena arose: neo-geography, neo-cartography, GeoWeb, GeoSpatial Web, Volunteered Geographic Information, maps crowdsourcing, mapping mash-ups, geo-stack, etc. Their nature is not sufficiently understood from the viewpoint of geography/cartography. These new spatial phenomena include carto/geo-platforms (OpenStreetMap) and SDIs (INSPIRE/ELF). Most of the phenomena mentioned can be defined with the notion of the spatial information system. Therefore, each of the listed phenomena (systems) has the corresponding Usagelogics, which can intersect with the Usagelogics of EA/AtIS. In 2010, we launched the project AtlasES. In this project, we meet above-described datalogical, infological, and organizational problems altogether. Further, for brevity, these problems are called Web 1.0 atlas problems. The purpose of the AtlasES project was scientific-practical—to create scientific-based thematic AtIS. However, the synergistic effect of Web 1.0 atlas problems made us perform more profound theoretical researches. Simplistic goals of the researches (for all the three levels/contexts) can be formulated as follows: 1. Present/Structure. Explore new spatial phenomena on the example of EA/AtIS and apply the knowledge gained to construct modern scientific-based EA/AtIS. 2. Past/Operability. Ensure the operability of previously created EA/AtIS. 3. Future/Direction. Find out the direction of future EA/AtIS development and exploit this understanding to develop practically useful tools for future EA/AtIS.

Research Method and Related Works To deal with the Web 1.0 atlas problems, an analytical method (also called improvement, scientific approach) was applied at first. That is how we acted during the 2000–2009 when Atlas systems (AtS = EA/AtIS) of the so-called classical static type were created. An example of the improvement is the described above replacement of the incorrectly running component by the new Contents Tree. It is known as refactoring. Not immediately it became clear that the improvement does not help AtlasES creating. The situation prevailing in atlas activity between past and present decades was revolutionary; so, we should use reengineering as minimum. van Gigch (1991) identifies two main ways of building systems: improvement and design. The design way is related to the system approach. The explanations given indicate the direction and approach to theoretical researches: to exit the revolutionary situation, it is necessary to use system approach. We used the theoretical construction of monograph (van Gigch 1991), built by three inquiring systems, corresponding levels, and relations between elements of

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Fig. 2 ElNAU2000/ElNAU2007 and their Atlas infrastructure

these systems/levels. The levels were called, respectively, 1—Intervention level, 2—Object level, and 3—Metalevel. Instead of already used term “level”, we are using the term “stratum” from (Mesarovich et al. 1970). Between levels/strata, there are stable relations that are decisive for many spheres of human activity (van Gigch 1991). van Gigch (1991, p. 256) states that a dialectic relation exists between the two elements of each dyad (object stratum  metastratum, etc.) because each element is said to originate in inquiring systems of different strata of abstraction or logic. When we neglect the metastratum, we also overlook the process of design that takes place at the metastratum and by which lower stratum inquiring systems are formulated. This neglect can lead to dysfunctions and to system failures. The work (Chabaniuk 2018) shows that ElNAU2007 on DVD (end-user product) is related to certain Atlas infrastructure. In the Atlas infrastructure, there are two practical hierarchical strata: Application (α) and Conceptual (β). “Over” Conceptual stratum, there is a theoretical General stratum (γ). There are the stable relations between the elements of neighboring strata. End-user products belong to the Operational stratum (ω). The strata are hierarchically ordered: the bottom is the Operational stratum, and the upper one is the General stratum. Higher strata are decisive for the lower ones. Taking into considering the Datalogics, Infologics, and Usagelogics, the obtained theoretical–practical construction can be shown as in Fig. 2. It is considered that the same construction is valid for ElNAU2000 on CD. 2000 marked elements of ElNAU2000. 2007 marked elements of ElNAU2007. Horizontal arrows designate transformational relations. Vertical arrows designate epistemological relations.

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Mentioned strata agree with certain phases of AtS creation and correlate with some computer science constructions. For example, Ambler (1998) defines four typical development phases: Initiate, Construct, Deliver, Maintenance, and support. The Initiation phase correlates with the AtS Research phase. Artifacts of the Research phase (βAtS) belong to the Conceptual stratum. Construct and Deliver phases are correlated with the AtS Development phase. Artifacts of the Development phase (αAtS) belong to the Application stratum. The AtS Operational phase (ωAtS) includes the Maintenance and support phase (Ambler 1998). Another example of strata usage in computer science is Model-Based Engineering [MBE, defines processes, (Holt and Perry 2014)] and System Modeling Language (SysML, defines products, http://www.omgsysml.org/, accessed December 7, 2018). Here, the hierarchy consists of the elements denoted as follows: “product X [process X from MBE, stratum X from (van Gigch 1991)].” The following hierarchy is truth: System (Model-Driven Architecture, Intervention stratum)  Model (Model-Driven Development, Object stratum)  Metamodel (Model-Driven Engineering, Metastratum)  Meta-metamodel (MBE, Meta-metastratum). van Gigch (1991, p. 257) indicates that the imperative of the metasystem paradigm is to study each object stratum system from the metastatum. Applying this imperative is metamodel. It is not sufficient just to model; we must metamodel, i.e., we must complement the formulation of models with an inquiry which raises the stratum of logic and abstraction. To resolve the Web 1.0 revolutionary situation in the atlas cartography theoretical constructs from cartography, geography, computer science, systemology, and some other disciplines were investigated. The aim was to find theoretical constructs for use on the theoretical General stratum (Fig. 2), but for modern and future AtS. Without being able to describe all useful constructions from all of these disciplines, let’s dwell only on the facts of cartography and geography. Two major problems, identified in cartography, are called systems and language. The systems problem lies in the fact that cartography does not deal with systems. In general, system is an ordered pair (A, R), where A is a set of elements, and R is the set of relations between the elements of the set A that form the unity or the organic whole (Klir 1985). The elements a ∈ A and the relations r ∈ R can get different values. For example, the concept of “relation” in Klir (1985) includes the set of related concepts, such as structure, information, organization, interaction, coupling, linkage, interconnection, dependence, correlation, pattern, etc. Further, in this work, we obtain specific classes of systems through the specialization of their elements and relations. Let’s take the “official” definition of cartography1 : art, science, and technology of making and using maps. Sui and Holt (2008) highlight in concentrated form three main paradigms of cartography in accordance with three different conceptualizations of the map essence as (1) image (communicative/cognitive paradigm); (2) model or computational tool (analytical paradigm); and (3) idea, intent, or social construction (critical paradigm). In these paradigms, research subject is map. Same research sub1 http://icaci.org/mission/,

accessed January 19, 2018.

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ject is in other paradigms [see reviews in (Azócar 2014; Berlyant 1996; Cauvin et al. 2010; Liuty 2002(1988))]. There is nothing said about systems. Available monographs on atlas cartography (Svatkova 2002) relate primarily to paper atlases. But relations in such systems are not the main research subject. The language problem lies in the fact that Language paradigm of cartography has not been properly disseminated in the world. This paradigm was seriously developed in the Soviet Union and some socialist countries in the 70–80 years of the last century (Berlyant 1996). We will recall and comment only two monographs. “Language of map” and “Cartographic method” are the two most important elements of metacartography (Aslanikashvili 1974). A. Aslanikashvili proved that the cartography research subject should be not only the real-world phenomena (Intervention stratum) and maps (Object stratum). It should be also the Language of map quite clearly belonging to the Metastratum. Indeed, the ideal map notion was introduced, defined as the relation of the mutual location of the spatial reference system and the symbols localized at the point, line, and polygon, indicating the investigated real entities (at the present time or the time period). The symbolic expression of the ideal map understood as its logical model, that is, the model of the model, through which further research was carried out (Aslanikashvili 1974, p. 40). In particular, the syntactics, semantics, sigmatics, and pragmatics of the Language of map were studied. A. Aslanikashvili considered Cartographic method not as a method of making maps, but rather as a relation between elements of the Object stratum and Metastatum. It is probably because of the de facto Metastatum introduction, the theoretical construction of A. Aslanikashvili is called metacartography.2 Liuty (2002(1988)) investigated the Language of map as a system and described its essence and function in detail. In this system, both its elements and the relation between them were studied. For example, in the A. Liuty’s Language of map (Liuty 2002(1988)), there are three Sublanguages. The relations between Sublanguages I and II are very important for the AtS developers, since they can be used for the explanation of relations between the base maps and thematic layers. The Sublanguage III provides integration of geographical names and terms into the Language of map system. Berlyant (1996) in the Language paradigm besides Soviet authors included only (Bertin 2010) and “Pravda J. Zaklady koncepcie mapoveho jazyka.- Bratislava, 1990”. Liuty (2002(1988), p. 310) named his own Language paradigm of cartography3 as “cartonomy” (carto + Greek “nomos”—law) with such definition: “cartonomy unites the subsystem of sciences about Language of map, the rules of its structuring, functioning and development, relations with nature, society, consciousness and thinking. Cartography in general appears as an even larger system: it includes cartonomy and set of disciplines devoted to the technologies of cartographic works.” 2 A.

Aslanikashvili does not define the “metacartography” term.

3 It was “‘object-language’ conception–hypothesis of science” in original. A. Liuty used term “con-

ception” to all reviewed cartography paradigms. So, we suppose correct to use everywhere unifying term “paradigm”.

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From the definition of cartonomy, it follows that cartography “outside” of the A. Liuty’s Language paradigm is just only technology. In the West, Language paradigm was considered to a significantly lesser extent and the main attention was drawn to the Object stratum elements. For the argumentation, we turn to (Azócar 2014). Let’s start from the fact that authors use term “Cartographic language” instead of “Language of map” thus they “bring down” the usage stratum of language. Aslanikashvili (1974, p. 20) explained the dependence of meanings of similar terms “map as language” and “language of map” from investigation stratum (without usage of stratum notion). It should be noted that the monographs (Aslanikashvili 1974; Liuty 2002(1988)) were not translated into English. Therefore, these results are not influencing the world cartographic thought. It is also appropriate to give an example of the monograph (Bertin 2010). A. Aslanikashvili, A. Liuty, and A. Berlyant knew this work before its English translation in 1983. English speaking world had 16-year delay in using J. Bertin’s Semiology of graphics. It seems similar situation with the bigger delay is repeating with Language of map. Let’s conclude an overview of cartography constructions with reference to the monograph (Azócar 2014), where the main paradigms of cartography and trends in its development are considered. The authors believe that the future belongs to postrepresentative cartography, which “is contrary to the viewpoint of ‘maps as truth’ and wants to go beyond the ‘maps as social constructions’ approach. The former represents the view of modern or traditional cartography, and the latter one is framed in postmodern cartography.” The viewpoint “maps as social constructions” (Sui et al. 2008) called the critical paradigm. By the term “postmodern cartography,” authors (Azócar 2014) denote the theoretical constructs considered in a series of works initiated by the original source of critical cartography—the article (Harley 1989), using postmodern philosophy. Investigation of theoretical constructs in geography revealed several useful results that can be used in practice. Let’s look briefly at just two sources. Bunge (1967) expected that “… geography will no longer be divided into human and … physical, but into geography of points, lines and areas,” and they all “will be adorned by an abstract … general science, the theoretical geography.” We cannot analyze this monograph in detail, so we turn only to the “‘cartographic” part of it by Cauvin et al. (2010, p. 22). According to this source, the fundamental work of W. Bunge includes an entire section on metacartography—the scientific and nontechnical domain of cartography. Metacartography provides a key to understanding how maps reveal spatial properties of a given phenomenon. The second useful theoretical construction in geography is a “relational space.” The relationality theme is the “heart” of post-structural geographies. Cresswell (2013) performed an overview of modern theoretical constructions of geography. In particular, he points out that: One way of thinking about post-structural geographies is as relational geographies. Instead of thinking about the inhabited world as a set of discrete things with their own essences (this place different from that place), we can think about the world as formed through the ways in which things relate to each other.

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Relational space is a view of space as the product of relations between entities. Space, in this view, arises at the same time as entities in it and can thus be contrasted with absolute space. It is associated with post-structural geographies (Cresswell 2013, p. 280). Absolute space is a view of space as independent of what occupies it: a potentially unlimited expanse within which everything else exists (Cresswell 2013, p. 275). Absolute (substantial) space is also may be called as container space. Summarizing an overview of the development trends of theoretical constructs of cartography and geography, we notice a significant influence of the post-structuralism and postmodernism philosophical paradigms in both sciences. These paradigms are accompanied by a large amount of literature that we cannot comment. Let us also recall thoughts (Crampton 2010, p. 1) about the problems of using results from geography in cartography and vice versa. On the one hand, well-known manuals on cultural, political, or social geography devote little or no attention to mapmaking, cartography, or GIS. On the other hand, cartographers and GIS practitioners have little to say about politics, authorities, discourse, post-colonial resistance, and other themes enchanting large ranks of geography and social sciences.

Main Theoretical Result Our practical results and their theoretical comprehension leads to the conclusion that the future of both geography and cartography will be based on the “ability” to work with relational spaces. This conclusion is founded on rather obvious tendencies of increasing “relationality” and “systematics” of new geographic and cartographic phenomena and their research approaches. Our approach provides “controllability” of the transition in geography/cartography (or at least in atlas cartography) from structuralism to post-structuralism constructs. The possibility of such controlled transition is approved by the theoretical–practical construction we have revealed, which is called the Conceptual Framework (CoFr) of Cartographic Systems (CaS). Three main types of relations, epistemological, transformational, and evolutional, exist between the elements of CoFr. CoFr elements are mainly cartographic systems and systems cartographic elements of various types. CaS is defined as a system from (Klir 1985), where between the elements of set A there are maps or map layers. CaS CoFr is fair for many types of CaS. The epistemological () and transformational (↔) relations of this framework are mentioned above for Atlas systems. Among all CaS, most attention paid to the class of so-called two-dimensional cartographic information systems (Fig. 3). Epistemological and transformational relations exist between systems of five types (Fig. 3): 1. Real-world systems. These systems are called geographical systems (geosystems) or spatial systems (spa systems). Geographical (spatial) system is defined as an ordered pair (A, R), where A is the set of things, among which

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Fig. 3 The relations of investigated systems at the fixed time period

2. 3.

4.

5.

are geographical (spatial) and R is the set of relations between elements of set A that form the unity or the organic whole. The term “geo-system” is left for synchronization with physical geography and topography. One-dimensional cartographic (information) systems. These are CaS that exist in cartography at the moment: EA, AtIS, and “classical” CIS. Two-dimensional cartographic (information) systems. These are the CaS, constructed and studied in this work. Such system is described by the ElNAU CoFr (Fig. 2). They have a non-empty intersection with one-dimensional CIS (Fig. 3). It means that some classical CIS are elements of two-dimensional CIS. (Extended) information systems. In Fig. 3, CIS are shown in the rectangle of (extended) IS. It means that all CIS in this work are kinds of IS, studied in computer science. Already acquired knowledge of these systems is used by us. The “extension” concept of both IS and CIS is fundamental for this work understanding. Cartographic general systems. This is the CaS, obtained by abstracting of two-dimensional CIS. In such a way, general systems are constructed in systemology (Klir 1985). It is possible to do the opposite and construct a CIS from the inquiring systems (van Gigch 1991). We showed the informal relations among strata and inquiring systems (van Gigch 1991) with similar constructions from two-dimensional CIS, and through them with the systems of the physical, abstract–physical, and abstract worlds of the part of reality from the left on Fig. 3.

CIS in the so-called narrow understanding (CISn) can be understood as a “classical” CIS, defined, for example, as “a digital visualized environment with a graphical user interface, geo-databases, function models, visualization tools for depicting spatial phenomena and time processes, analytical, as well as research functions for

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geo-data selects, creating new knowledge and navigating through the information space” (Shulei and Yufen 2004). CIS in a broader (extended) sense (CISb) is an adaptation of the term “information system in a broader sense” (Falkenberg and Lindgreen 1989) and is defined as the totality of all formal and informal representations of data, including spatial, and processing activity within an organization, including the associated communication, both internally and with the outside world. Falkenberg and Lindgreen (1989) define IS in the narrow sense (ISn) as computerbased subsystems, intended to provide recording and supporting services for organizational operation and management. This ISn definition does not contradict the definition of IS from (Olive 2007), which we usually are using. Two variants of reality, modeled or represented by CIS, are shown in Fig. 3. The first variant is shown from above. This is part of the reality, modeled, or represented by one-dimensional CIS. In this case, the goal of developer is operational elements, CISn (e.g., ElNAU2007 on DVD). These systems can be called “map-centric” because their main part is map. As a rule, the developers of these systems pay little attention to the elements of the higher strata. With the CaS CoFr usage, the main goal of development is CISb. In this case, we are dealing with two-dimensional CIS. Application, Conceptual, and General strata of these systems are the models/representations of abstract–physical and abstract systems, determined in the second variant of reality to the left side in Fig. 3. Vertical  (epistemological) and horizontal ↔ (transformational) relations are fair for extensions of all CIS. Moreover, CaS CoFr is a pattern—a typical solution to a typical problem in a given context (Booch et al. 2000). Framework is architectural pattern, providing an application template in a certain subject area (Booch 2000). ElNAU2000/2007 CoFr (Fig. 2) and CaS CoFr (Fig. 3) depend on the period of time they can be applied. AtS CoFr consists of several “smaller” patterns. According to (Chabaniuk 2018; Chabaniuk and Dyshlyk 2016), the product package of such smaller patterns—Atlas Solution Framework AtlasSF1.0—consists of eight patterns: (1) user interface, (2) contents tree, (3) base map, (4) thematic layers, (5) cartographic component, (6) non-cartographic content, (7) search, and (8) presentation. If in the end-user AtS these patterns are implemented as unchangeable elements, then we have AtS of classic static type or AtS of so-called Web 1.0 Formation. If at least one of such element could be modified by end user (in any way provided by developer), then we have AtS of the classical dynamic type or AtS of Formation Web 1.0 × 1.0. Entire AtS CoFr can be shown in Fig. 4 (Chabaniuk and Dyshlyk 2016; Fig. 7). It is possible to use a three-dimensional representation, where the third axis is the Formations, showing corresponding AtS. There is a two-way relation ⤢ (diagonal arrow on Fig. 4) between Formations, which in one direction is called evolution , in another—de-evolution or reduction . These relations are very important to ensure long-term AtS performance, as well as the inheritance from early to late versions. These relations allow us to argue the possibility of controlled AtS evolution. In Fig. 4, studied AtS items are highlighted with green. The two-way arrow on the right indicates the epistemological relations , the two-way arrow from the bottom—the transformational relations ↔.

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Fig. 4 CoFr of AtS of classical and neoclassical types

Practical Example On the site http://erra.pprd-east.eu/ (accessed December 7, 2018), choropleth maps of the Electronic Regional Risk Atlas (ERRA) are presented. They visualize the components of the risk calculation formula for six emergency phenomena (p: wildfire, flood, landslide, earthquake, technological, multi-hazard):   Riskp = Hazardp + Exposure + Vulnerability /3

(1)

We use the so-called Atlas Extender AtEx, allowing ERRA transformation to a two-dimensional CISb (Fig. 3), which will be more useful and effective model for operating with the studied phenomena, because it will be a model of relational space.

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Fig. 5 The data table of formula (1) for the wildfire risk

Example of Transformational Relations Let’s use the notion of family of transformations T1–T5 from (Cauvin et al. 2010) for Operational stratum. Transformation T1 is related to the knowledge of studied theme and selected geographical entities identified as appropriately reflecting the real world, and their transformation into map objects with locations [XY] and attributes [Z]. Transformation T2 consists of [XY] (structuring, generalization, change of spatial base, etc.) and [Z] (research, generalization, modeling, etc.) transformations. The results of T2 for each phenomenon are certain elements in the table (Fig. 5). This table contains the data of ERRA/AtEx Operational stratum Datalogics in the (ERRA) designated columns. Transformation T3 (cartographic—metrics, coordinate system) and T4 (semiotic—system of symbols displayed in the corresponding environment) transform it into map of Infologics. Thus, the transformations T3 and T4 implement the transformation of Datalogics (T2) → Infologics (T3, T4) on the Operational stratum. Transformations T2–T4 in brackets are explaining their correspondence to transformations of (Iivari 1989). Finally, the transformation T5 (presentation—visual, tactile, sound, static on a dynamic object) coincides with the transformation Infologics → Usagelogics on Operational stratum. The AtEx Operational stratum coincides with the ERRA’s front end.

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Fig. 6 Comparison of operational and application echelons

Example of Epistemological Relations Let’s consider the epistemological relations for the Infologics and Usagelogics. Since Usagelogics is associated with users, then we also use an alternative name of strata for organizational systems—echelons (Mesarovich et al. 1970). The relations  between Operational and Application strata/echelons are clarified in Fig. 6. Figure 6 shows four windows: (1) AtEx Application echelon content, which includes risk assessment experts and developers—“AtEx Tree” window; (2) wildfire hazard choropleth map of AtEx Application echelon, selected in the AtEx Tree —“Content” window (AtEx, in the ERRA absent), (3) wildfire hazard choropleth map of Operational echelon—“Hazard” window (map from ERRA); and (4) wildfire risk choropleth map of Operational echelon—window “Risk” (map from ERRA). As shown in AtEx Tree, the user of Application echelon can change the method of choropleth map constructing by selecting from Fixed Ranges, Equal ranges, Quantile, Natural breaks, Standard deviation, and Pretty breaks. These methods are well known in thematic mapping (Dent et al. 2009). The specificity of AtEx is to provide this dynamics to end user with knowledge of the subject area (expert and/or developer). In ERRA is implemented unchangeable Fixed Ranges method. The ↑ relations between the elements of the Operational and Application echelons in the computer science are most often referred to as the relations “instanceOf” (Olive 2007). The same relation between systems in systemology is called “meta” (Klir 1985), which means the system of the Application stratum is the metasystem of the corresponding system of the Operational stratum.

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Fig. 7 Scheme of AtEx usage

Example of Evolutional Relations AtEx shown in Fig. 7 between ERRA and AtlasESb [AtlasES in a broader sense (Chabaniuk 2018; Chabaniuk and Dyshlyk 2016)] is the implementation of AtS CoFr. GeoSF (GeoSolutions Framework) (Chabaniuk 2018), used on the Conceptual stratum/Infrastructure echelon, provides, in particular, AtlasSF interaction with the OpenStreetMap geo-platform. Base map is the example of the evolution of corresponding AtlasSF1.0 pattern, described in (Chabaniuk 2016). Here, we only indicate that in the Web 1.0 epoch base maps were files, separated from AtS. To be used in the AtS, they had to be properly transformed. That is, the base map in the Web 1.0 epoch belonged to the AtS Conceptual stratum and was not a subsystem of the end-user product. In the Web 2.0 epoch, AtS have to integrate with carto-/geo-platforms. Let’s note that all eight AtlasSF1.0 patterns have evolved. AtS architecture evolved also, which for modern systems already includes elements of three strata: Operational, Application, and Conceptual.

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Patterns for the Additional “relativization” of Space Epistemological, transformational, and evolutional relations are the relations of CaS, which can be considered as adequate models of systems of relational space. In AtS Web 1.0 × 1.0 Formation, in addition to the evolved eight AtlasSF1.0 patterns, we need to use other patterns that we call “GeoMash-ups”. Chabaniuk and Dyshlyk (2016) presented a general system model of Atlas Base Maps (ABM) that allows formal identification to the ways of integrating various ABM into an integrated hierarchical system. Two methods were used: structured system and metasystem (Klir 1985). As an example, a structured system SD of base map was constructed, consisting of abstractions of four subsystems: topographic, administrative address division, cadaster, aerial, and space images. ABM SD can be expanded to the choropleth maps using the concept of a group. So, AtEx has six thematic groups that match the emergency phenomena. Depending on the display method, we distinguish three types of GeoMash-ups: (1) GeoComposer, (2) GeoRelator, and (3) GeoCollager. Combining different types of GeoMash-ups is allowed. The most evident GeoComposer example is the same theme presentation on each interpretation from the four of ABM subsystems, for example, on the TopoMap (first window), on the image (second window), and on the administrative-address division map (third window). The theme may appear in one or another window or may not be displayed in any window. Other examples of GeoComposer are time, spatial, and group dynamics. In Fig. 6, GeoComposer is represented by the Risk and Hazard horizontal windows. In the language of Klir’s systemology (Klir 1985), we can say that GeoRelator pattern is intended to represent the various subsystems of an integrating system obtained using the concept of a metasystem. In Fig. 6, GeoRelator is represented by vertical Content and Hazard windows. It is also advisable to use GeoRelator to find the relations between theme representations of various scales or subjects. GeoCollager is a very simple concept: throwing in GUI container, we combine everything we can, for example, several thematic layers, even from different thematic groups (lying on different layers). GeoCollager is already used in atlas technologies. For example, in the map window, we can display both the map itself and the map data tables in many solutions. Described GeoMash-ups are implemented in AtlasSF1.0 × 1.0, which is the evolution of AtlasSF1.0 Web 1.0 Formation into Web 1.0 × 1.0 Formation.

Usage of “Relational” Theory and Practice in Geography and Cartography Education It seems, in the previous sections, we have talked about electronic atlases. We must warn the reader: we have talked about relational spaces and about modeling of them by

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the known today spatial information systems like cartographic information systems, INCLUDING electronic atlases. Last are used simply as a known example. But let’s look again Fig. 2. Only the Operational stratum atlas is electronic atlas in usual sense. Atlases of upper strata are called models (Application stratum) and metamodels (Conceptual stratum). Here, we should remind that the end-user atlas (system) is a model of actuality (modeled reality). So, elements of all three practical strata are models and simultaneously are computer systems corresponding to some spatial systems in reality (actuality). For example, as we say, model of ElNAU can be the so-called ElNAU_Edited (metamodel). ElNAU_Edited is the real Atlas information system, which is used by developers to change something in final atlas. If we will take some model of ElNAU_Edited, then we will have real GIS. Such GIS was realized in the case of ElNAU as a platform, including (base) data, DBMS PostgreSQL/PostGIS, and Internet cartographic server GeoServer. This GIS at the Conceptual stratum is used by system administrators and coordinators of the ElNAU project. To unite the vertical models (systems) of all three practical strata in ElNAU project, we are using extension of information system notion—Information system in the broader (b) sense. It is the direction related with the end-user atlas: upper atlas is the model of atlas below. But from other side, atlas of each stratum is modeling the part of reality (actuality or relational space). As a result, we have network of atlases, called as ElNAUb = ElNAU(Atlas) ∪ ElNAU_Edited(AtIS) ∪ ElNAU_Platform(GIS). It is clear that there are many-to-many relations between atlases of neighboring strata. It is also clear that we have hierarchy of user echelons for ElNAUb. Unfortunately, users from different echelons have different knowledge about domain of inquiry. From Fig. 3, we see that domains are also different—we pointed physical, abstract–physical, and abstract worlds. Comparing definitions of geospatial system and relational space, we can conclude that the relational spaces (geospatial systems) can and must be constructed in all three worlds. From the simple description above, there are the following requirements to the professional user education and training. As an example, we have produced the so-called Educational–practical system of choropleth map (Chabaniuk 2018, Chap. 5), which is simultaneously the simplification of the discussed topic. By the way, this Educational–practical system includes two Solutions Frameworks (SoFr) from Application (named αSoFr(ChMap), ChMap—Choropleth Map) and Conceptual (named βSoFr(ChMap)) strata. αSoFr(ChMap))  AtlasSF, βSoFr(ChMap)  GeoSF—see Fig. 7 for the place in the conceptual structure and the description of AtlasSF and GeoSF. For each SoFr (Chabaniuk 2018, Chap. 3), we are defining the main triad between elements of Products, Processes, and Basics packages. Really, we have the four main dyads. Two of them are discussed by van Gigch (1991): product–metaproduct (or Products.Product–Basics.Product) and process–metaprocess (or Processes.Process–Basics.Process). If we are fixing the stratum, for example, Application stratum, the described dyads can be named as, for example, αProduct–βProduct. Another pair of dyads is Products.Product–Processes.Process and Basics.Product–Basics.Process. As usual, we are not using “upper” (metaproduct–metaprocess) dyad, so we are talking about the main triad of each SoFr and not main quad dyad.

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Inclusion of the processes into the SoFr triad is very principal from the practical viewpoint. In reality, the relations between “product” and “metaproduct” are not simple classification/instantiation relations. In the Model-Based Engineering (Holt and Perry 2014), instead of “instanceOf” relation most often is used “confirmTo” relation. conformTo relation is constructed with participation of processes or transformational relations. There are needs for model transformations between models of the same stratum also as for model transformations between strata. In our practice of CIS and GIS creation, we prefer to work with employees, which have “dynamic” or “process” knowledge. The explanations of this opinion can be found in the theory of Relational cartography (Chabaniuk 2018). Let’s remind here that each transformation or process is the relation in the most “clear” sense. Unfortunately, in practice of CIS/GIS creation, we need educated employees, which knew three Solutions Frameworks: Application, Conceptual, and General. In Conceptual Framework, education and training are elements of General stratum. So, in geography and cartography education, it is needed to educate students as minimum, to general Solutions Framework for some class of CIS/GIS. As an example of such general framework, we are addressing the reader to Chap. 5 of Donohue R. (2014). R. Donohue is describing prototype of the web-cartography patterns library. Among patterns of the library there is of course choropleth map pattern, which is used in our Educational–practical system of choropleth map. Moreover, in monograph (Chabaniuk 2018), we are proving that in the education activity it is needed to talk about education system, based on some General Solutions Framework. In the described example, this framework can include web-cartography patterns library. The library is element of Basics, but we also needed all elements of Solutions Framework triad: Products and Processes. The discussed above patterns library is not in open access, but some elements of R. Donohue’s “education system” can be found in the New Maps Plus programs and online courses (https://newmapsplus.as.uky.edu/, accessed December 7, 2018). There are also other analogs of some our constructs in geography and cartography education, but we have not possibility to describe them here.

Conclusions The theoretical–practical construction AtSb is investigated in this paper. Comparing to existing AtS, AtSb is a model of relational space that allows solving much more practical problems, and with higher accuracy. This model has a fixed structure defined by the Conceptual Framework and can be reused without changes for different classes of CIS and, possibly, GIS. In this framework, three types of relations are decisive: epistemological, transformational, and evolutional. An epistemological relation should be used in research of each future CIS. Transformational relations need to be used for each CIS development. Evolutional relations need to be used in solving long-term tasks and long-term projects.

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In the practical part, the AtS Conceptual Framework is used to build the Atlas Extender AtEx for ERRA (http://erra.pprd-east.eu/). AtEx is based on the relational geospatial technologies used in the AtlasESb, with AtlasSF being the main. In a practical example of production, we focused on the Technological context (Datalogics). However, it is easy to see that the use of relational geospatial technologies allows us to obtain a more adequate model of relational space. The current implementation of ERRA is the container space model. That is inappropriate model to solve the tasks associated with emergencies. AtEx shows how to use epistemological structure for investigation of emergency phenomena and their models in practice. The partial result of epistemology is a demonstration of geographical (upper strata) and cartographical (lower strata) knowledge united in one system. In addition, the work of new relational cartographic patterns has been demonstrated, which is direct consequence of a practical understanding of the concept of relational space. To make geography and cartography education practically useful, we need to produce three Solutions Frameworks: Application, Conceptual, and General strata. These Solutions Frameworks must be constructs, defining transformational relations between each pair of strata: theoretical (metastratum) and practical (stratum). As minimum, education should provide transfer between General theoretic stratum and three practical strata for each model of relational space. From the structural viewpoint, it is fair to conclude that modern Atlas systems should be pattern-based integrated hierarchical (three-level and four-stratum) relational–spatial systems that evolve from Web 1.0 Formation into Web 2.0 Formation. If we formulate conclusions concerning directions of AtS development, then we will highlight the main thing—Language of Map. At the moment, it seems that without the creation of universally accepted Language of Map, neither atlas cartography, nor cartography in general, has scientific perspective. In this case, the comparison of the General strata of Web 1.0 and Web 1.0 × 1.0 Formations give the following conclusion. In Web 1.0 Formation, it was enough to modify the A. Liuty’s Language of Map to use it in atlas cartography, as well as to realize it in geospatial technologies. In Web 1.0 × 1.0 Formation, it is not enough. After all, this Formation is on the “boundary” of Web 2.0, which includes, in particular, post-structural and/or postmodern theoretical constructions of geography and cartography. We draw attention to the fact that language is the central concept of post-structuralism and postmodernism; therefore, one can expect their influence on the Language of Map of Web 1.0 × 1.0 and Web 2.0 Formations.

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Part II

Geospatial Technologies for Education in Non-Formal Contexts

YouthMetre: Open Data to Empower Young People to Engage in Democracy and Policymaking Karl Donert, Rafael de Miguel González and Alessio Luppi

Abstract The Joint Report of the Council of Europe and the European Commission on the implementation of the renewed framework for European cooperation in the youth field (2010–2018) recognized that the participation of young people in democratic life is central to delivering successful EU youth policy, in which employment and entrepreneurship, education and social inclusion are priorities. YouthMetre (http://www.youthmetre.eu) establishes an innovative Geo-ICT solution in the youth field, in at least 20 European countries, with the potential to improve and/or transform youth policies and practices. The project aims at directly providing youngsters with necessary skills and knowledge to foster effective implementation, by policymakers, of the guidelines provided by the ‘Youthmetre’. YouthMetre is established to support the engagement of young people in developing relevant youth initiatives in Europe addressing the European Union Youth Strategy Priority 7, using e-participation as an instrument to foster young people’s empowerment and active participation in democratic life, under the Erasmus Plus Programme. A data benchmarking process led to the establishment of a data dashboard and visualization of EU Policy achievements using geotechnologies. Keywords Geospatial technologies · Open data · Visualization · Youth policy · Empowerment · Democracy

K. Donert (B) EUROGEO, Liverpool, UK e-mail: [email protected] R. de Miguel González University of Zaragoza & EUROGEO, Zaragoza, Spain e-mail: [email protected] A. Luppi ARS for Progress of People, Brussels, Belgium e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. de Miguel González et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education, Key Challenges in Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6_5

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Introduction YouthMetre: a tool for forward-looking youth participation is the title of an Erasmus+ Key Action 3 funded project for support policy reform, developed between 2016 and 2018. It belongs to the projects so-called European Forward-Looking Cooperation as it contributes to the initiatives for policy innovation in the field of youth. It has been coordinated by EUROGEO, being other partners in the project consortium: University of Zaragoza, ARS for Progress of the People, CESIE, the Association of Local Democracy Agencies, and European Youth Press. YouthMetre connects young people and their needs to the initiatives of EU Youth policy and public sector actions. Through the Open Method of Coordination, YouthMetre empowers young people to interact with policy actors. The YouthMetre instrument is based on the fact that power in advocacy is based on access to and the effective use of information. It is an e-tool providing access to open EU information, closing the gap between youth and institutions. YouthMetre presents data on the perceived needs of youth in key policy areas. To use the YouthMetre, youngsters (and youth workers) were provided with necessary skills and knowledge to use the information and data provided for advocacy based on a YouthMetre training resource implemented through multiplier training. A detailed research process examined youth policy documents, papers and other published sources. Twenty key areas to address were identified. European open data was used to build a data dashboard and to communicate an index of youth well-being at NUTS 2 level in the EU with authorities and policymakers. A set of indicators, based on the opinions of youngsters, was used to measure the ‘performance’ of authorities in youth policy fields, encouraging openness, exchange and inspiration for policy developments. Previous good practices were documented and catalogued. In consultation with youth groups, filtered by policy aim and location/scale, visualized and added to the data dashboard. Youth consultation was undertaken across Europe through open surveys, a crowdmap and an app (GeoCitizen). Training resources for YouthMetre were created and tested with different target groups. A final version of the YouthMetre training materials was created in three different formats for a range of audiences. High profile events and meetings with key stakeholders promoted the achievements of the YouthMetre approach. Follow-up actions were developed to increase the evidence base.

Youth Research The period when a person is considered to be ‘young’ differs across Europe according to the national context, the socio-economic development of society and time. Common to all countries is that the period of youth—the transition from being a child to being an adult—is marked by important life changes: from being in educa-

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tion to have a full-time job, from living in the family home to setting up one’s own household, and from being financially dependent to managing one’s own money. In 2009, the Council of the European Union endorsed a renewed framework for European cooperation in the youth field (2010–2018), also known as the EU Youth Strategy, which targets young people between 15 and 29 years of age, defining eight ‘fields of action’: Education and Training, Employment and Entrepreneurship, Social Inclusion, Health and Well-being, Participation, Voluntary Activities, Creativity and Culture, and Youth and the World. The EU Youth Report 2015, drawn up by the European Commission at the end of the first 6-year cycle and built on the dashboard of EU youth indicators—a selection of 41 indicators which measure the most crucial aspects of young people’s lives in Europe—focuses on the most recent data and information on the current situation of young people in Europe and illustrates trends which have emerged since the publication of the previous Youth Report in 2012. Besides the specific indicators and trends related to the eight ‘fields of action’, the EU Youth Report 2015 includes an introductory overview of the key demographic trends in the European youth population over the last few years in relation to the ratio and composition of young people in the total population and patterns of youth mobility across the continent. According to the EU Youth Report 2015, on 1 January 2014, almost 90 million young people aged between 15 and 29 years lived in the European Union. This represents around 18% of the total population of EU-28. The proportion of young people in the total population varies across countries. While it is comparatively smaller in Greece, Spain, Italy, Portugal and Slovenia, it reaches the highest levels in Cyprus, Malta and Slovakia. Albania and Turkey report the highest figures in neighbouring states outside of the EU. While respecting Member States’ overall responsibility for youth policy, the EU Youth Strategy, agreed by EU Ministers, sets out a framework for cooperation covering the years 2010–2018. The EU youth policy framework for cooperation in the field of youth aims to foster the achievement of Europe 2020 goals. The EU Youth Strategy 2010–18 has two main objectives: to provide more and equal opportunities for young people in education and the job market, and to encourage young people to actively participate in society (Commision of the European Communities 2009). The EU Youth Strategy’s implementation is carried out by EU Member States with the support of the Commission, through a dual approach that aims to take specific initiatives in the youth field, targeted at young people to encourage non-formal learning, participation, voluntary activities, youth work, mobility and information, and to promote ‘mainstreaming’ cross-sector initiatives that ensure youth issues are taken into account when formulating, implementing and evaluating policies and actions in other fields with a significant impact on young people, such as education, employment or health and well-being. Cooperation between Member States and the Commission is based on seven implementation instruments: Knowledge building and evidence-based policymaking, mutual learning, progress reporting, dissemination of results, monitoring of the process, structured dialogue with young people, mobilization of EU programmes and funds.

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State-of-the-art report of the YouthMetre project was the expression of a deep research on EU youth policies, and in particular across the eight fields of action from the EU Youth Strategy. This report finds that European programmes and initiatives for youth are succeeding in fostering the attainment of high level of education for young Europeans, as well as promoting a positive attitude of the target population towards international mobility and exchanges. On the other side, the report finds that the improved level of education among young Europeans do not automatically lead to better working opportunities. On the contrary, the youth unemployment rate, including long-term unemployment, continued to rise in EU since the start of the actual economic and financial crisis in 2008. More in details one concern seems to be commonly recognized throughout Europe: the difficulty for youngsters to deal with their transition from education to the workplace. The main cause being identified in the mismatch between the skills that young people acquire at school and the ones demanded by the labour market. This issue leads to very negative, sometimes even dramatic, consequences in almost all the eight areas identified by the European Commission as ‘strategic’ for youth empowerment. Intuitively, the economic crisis and the subsequent recession have a deeply negative impact on young people in terms of poverty and social exclusion. Surveys and statistics show that young Europeans often feel ‘marginalized’ or ‘excluded’ from economic and social life. As for the topic of youth participation, it is evident that an increasing perception of the deterioration of their own condition and future perspectives leads young Europeans to be less confident in society, thus less engaged in sociopolitical activities. However, the research shows that indicators of voting and engagement in political parties are no longer adequate measures of youth participation, especially since the spread of online discussions and of new Internet media. Hence, it seems more correct to state that young people ‘participate differently’ nowadays and this is partly linked to a widespread loss of confidence towards traditional ways of participation. In 2014, one European out of four got engaged in voluntary activities and just 15% of the volunteers have received a certificate or diploma formally recognizing their experience. It seems evident that the widespread perception of mistrust towards the society does not foster youth participation in voluntary activities. This negative trend is probably even worsened by the generally missing formal recognition of such activities. In general, it seems that young Europeans do not perceive the participation in voluntary activities as a priority for their personal and/or professional growth. In this sense, researchers and educationalists encourage European a different and more open approach in European youth educational policies. In particular, it is strongly encouraged the adoption of modules of formal and/or non-formal education aimed at developing the ‘social dimension’ of learners; in other words, people’s sense of their place in the world, helping to bestow citizenship (Luppi et al. 2016). On the same line, an analysis of good practices and common approaches in youth work encourages the development of new personalized approaches to youth education. It demonstrates that the principles of voluntary participation, youthcenteredness and mutual respect are appealing for young people and might strongly contribute to their transition from education to employment.

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YouthMetre Tool The EU Youth Strategy concluded with a section that underlined the importance of a data-driven policy activity and proposed to design a ‘table of indicators and existing references on youth in education, employment, inclusion and health’. As a consequence, the European Commission itself developed a first database—EU Youth Monitor, but with an unattractive visual design, limited in time, quickly outdated and lacking some of the basic indicators to explain the spatial development of the young population. YouthMetre innovative approach clearly shows the relevance of sectorial statistics. Thus, the added value of the project is becoming attractive to young people users and being able to use it in a structured dialogue with youth policymakers (Graham et al. 2015; Hite et al. 2018). This approach is developed in a new web available tool, different from EU Youth Monitor because of YouthMetre seeks: Making a more visual and seductive design; Completing the time series of data; Adding the missing strategic indicators; Establishing a synthetic indicator of all the indicators; Incorporating methods of collecting and processing information in a qualitative way, in which results are recognizable and identifiable for young people. These requirements have conditioned the five-section structure of YouthMetre tool, but also the mixed combination of methodologies for gathering and using data, as shown in http://youthmetre.eu/youthmetre/: – – – – –

Synthetic Youth Index Maps: quantitative. Dashboard: quantitative. Good Practices Maps: qualitative. Indicators by Country Maps: quantitative. Youth Preferences Maps: qualitative.

For the three quantitative sections, the main source has been Eurostat, although certain statistical series come from the Eurobarometer and other sources such as PISA or the European Parliament. The second section and the fourth section express the same data, one temporally, one spatially, and reflect 56 indicators for each of the eight areas of the EU Youth Strategy, plus a ninth indicator on demographic trends, such and as detailed in Table 1. For the elaboration of the Youth Development Index, a weighted index was established for each of the nine indicators, where the maximum value (100) has been calculated from the sum of the mean plus the standard deviation. In this way, the higher values are equal to this one in order to have a sample as homogeneous as possible, in order to emphasize the deficits and to identify the problems and their spatial scope (De Miguel et al. 2017). The geographical scale of analysis has been the national one, but in numerous indicators—synthetic index, demographic, education, employment and social inclusion indicators—it has proceeded to mapping at a regional scale-NUTS 2—and even in some data at scale local-NUTS 3. More than 50 indicators, for 10 years, in 28 Member States means a statistical production of thousands of data contributing to the YouthMetre project, and creating an accurate scope of the young population in Europe. How to handle this huge amount of information for non data-user experts?

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Table 1 Indicators from YouthMetre project Data

Source

Time

Eurostat

2006–2015

Demographic indicators Youth population Ratio of young people in the total population

Eurostat

2006–2015

Mean age of young people leaving the parental household

Eurostat

2006–2014

Share of young people living with their parents

Eurostat

2006–2013

Early leavers from education and training

Eurostat

2006–2015

Low achievers in reading

PISA

2003–2012

Low achievers in maths

PISA

2003–2012

Low achievers in science

PISA

2006–2012

Tertiary education attainment (people 30–34)

Eurostat

2004–2015

Young people 20–24 having completed at least upper secondary education

Eurostat

2007–2015

Young people 15–19 by educational attainment level lower secondary

Eurostat

2004–2014

Participation rate in non-formal education and training

Eurostat

2007–2014

Youth unemployment rate

Eurostat

2006–2014

Long-term youth unemployment rate

Eurostat

2006–2014

Youth unemployment ratio

Eurostat

2006–2014

Self-employed youth

Eurostat

2006–2014

Young people who would like to set up their own business

Eurobarometer 2011–2014

Young employees with a temporary contract

Eurostat

2006–2014

Regular smokers

Eurostat

2008

Obesity

Eurostat

2008

Alcohol use last 30 days

Eurobarometer 2006–2009

Education and training

Employment and entrepreneurship

Health and well-being

Suicide rate

Eurostat

2001–2010

Psychological distress

Eurostat

2008

Injuries: road traffic

Eurostat

2008

Self-reported cannabis use last 30 days

Eurobarometer 2011–2014

Long-standing illness

Eurostat

2004–2012

Young people at risk of poverty or exclusion rate

Eurostat

2005–2013

Young people at risk of poverty rate

Eurostat

2005–2013

Severe Material deprivation rate

Eurostat

2005–2013

Living in households with very low work intensity

Eurostat

2005–2013

Social inclusion

(continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Data

Source

Time

Self-reported unmet need for medical care

Eurostat

2004–2012

NEET rate

Eurostat

2006–2014

Housing cost overburden rate

Eurostat

2005–2013

Culture and creativity Performing/taking part in amateur artistic activities

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Participation in cultural activities

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Participation in sports clubs

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Participation in leisure time or youth organizations

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Participation in cultural organizations

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Young people learning at least two foreign languages

Eurostat

2005–2012

Frequency of going to cinema, cultural sites or live sport

Eurostat

2006

Youth participation Participation in international youth cooperation activities

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Participation of young people in local, regional, national or European parliamentary elections

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Young people 18–30 who got elected into the European Parliament

EU Parliament

2014

Young people who use Internet for interaction with public authorities

Eurostat

2011–2015

Young people using Internet for accessing or posting opinions on websites for discussing civic and political issues

Eurostat

2013–2015

Participation in activities of churches or religious organizations

Eurostat

2006

Volunteering Young people’s engagement in voluntary activities

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Share of young people making a voluntary contribution to their local community

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Share of young people who have stayed abroad for the purpose of volunteering

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Formal recognition for taking part in voluntary activities

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Youth and the world Young people’s participation in political, community or environmental NGOs

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Young people’s participation in NGOs active in the domains of global climate change or global warming

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Young people’s participation in NGOs active in the domains of human rights

Eurobarometer 2011–2015

Frequency of use Internet daily

Eurostat

2011–2015

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The dashboard has been designed on intuitive, user-friendly and easy-to-understand set of coloured figures, charts and diagrams. The cartography was developed with the ArcMap desktop application, while the project has been published on the web in the ArcGIS online Story Map format, both products of the commercial firm Esri. For its part, the two qualitative sections have been done taking two complementary sources of information. The good practices section includes the cartography of the Saltho-Youth database, complemented by a selection of case studies. The preferences section has been made from the data obtained by the focus group or study group carried out by the YouthMetre project itself in fourteen European countries, with their respective 14 groups of young people. They have developed a series of activities based on the participant test and observation related to their practices as agents of youth policies. The following maps present the Youth Development Index (Figs. 1 and 2), confirming the spatial imbalances for young people in Europe, in social, demographic, but above all, economic terms. The synthetic indicator of youth development by country includes all the set of indicators detailed in Table 1. The lowest youth development belongs to the countries with the lowest GDP per capita, the highest unemployment and the worst public services. On the contrary, the main European economic powers—the United Kingdom, France, Germany—are not the countries with the highest level of youth development, but the Scandinavian countries and the Benelux, where the quality of education, health, social inclusion or access of young people to culture is taken into account. However, the more detailed scale—at the regional level shows the growing difference between urban and rural spaces, and a prominent position in the European capital cities. Ramstad, Stockholm, London, Luxembourg, Vienna, Bavaria, Copenhagen, Hamburg, Helsinki, Flanders, Paris, etc. are metropolitan regions that have indexes superior in 30 points (from 100) to Bulgarian, Greek or Romanian rural regions. This map allows us to raise youth awareness that, within each member state of the European Union, there are equally important differences in the spatial development of youth people. For example, in Italy and Spain, there are more than 15 points of difference between northern and southern places.

Training for YouthMetre YouthMetre training is a free to access and use set of resources that explores a new and creative way to empower and engage young people across Europe in influencing youth policy, in particular through the use of the innovative e-tool YouthMetre and the advocacy toolkit. The materials can also be downloaded for local use. In order to use the YouthMetre, youngsters (and youth workers) need to be provided with necessary skills and knowledge to use the information and data provided and develop soft skills for advocacy. To do this, a YouthMetre training curricula were created, tested and implemented. YouthMetre training resources were defined and a first draft of training resources was created, piloted and tested. This led to further

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Fig. 1 Youth development index, by country

versions and then following consultation with NGOs working with young people, the final training curricula and training resources were created in three different formats for a range of different target groups and purposes: (a) online as an e-toolkit at http://youthmetre.eu/etoolkit/, (b) an open Moodle course (full course) with guest access to access the materials, (c) three downloadable files (the YouthMetre training package) that includes the YouthMetre Curriculum (theoretical inputs and practical activities), plus Annex 1 YouthMetre Training Plan (sample training agenda and instructions on how to deliver the training face to face) and Annex 2 YouthMetre Training Materials (printable working sheets, resources and presentations to use during face-to-face training sessions). Six modules of training set up the YouthMetre curriculum: introduction, youth participation and YouthMetre approach, EU Youth Policy, Good practices and Youth perception, YouthMetre e-tool, YouthMetre Advocacy toolkit and Campaign. Through YouthMetre training attendees have discovered more about European Youth Policy and get to know examples of good practices across Europe that improved young people lives. They also have been able to approach young people in a creative way to help them express their ideas for Europe of the future. And finally, they have known how

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Fig. 2 Youth development index, by NUTS 2

to use the YouthMetre to support young people to get involved in decision-making processes and use data visualization to advocate forward policymakers. These YouthMetre training materials have been produced, published and promoted. YouthMetre partners then undertook multiplier training, testing and disseminating the YouthMetre instrument among youngsters and policymakers. The multiplier training has taken place with young people and youth groups, NGOs working with youth (including via the INGO Conference at the Council of Europe) and policymakers at an open event organized in Brussels during the ‘European week of regions’. But YouthMetre training materials is open to everyone interested in youth empowerment. They are also available for others who want to know how to use the YouthMetre to develop a campaign for their cause, improve information and advocacy skills, better understand data behind policymaking and learn how to communicate with policymakers, authorities and the general public.

Youth Engagement and Participation The YouthMetre approach combines together aspects that contribute to the construction of a European identity among young people. It fosters the creation of connections

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among young Europeans (through international Study Groups, cross-border trainings and events), to the youth empowerment and valorization of youth work (access to information ICT enabled and facilitation of the understanding of the EU and youth policy, training for youth workers). All single elements of this approach are proposed also as key elements of the new EU Youth Strategy, as presented in the Commission proposals for EU Youth Strategy 2019–2027. In order to get information on the perceived needs and opinions of the target group on policy, measures, a series of youth Study Groups took place in different countries and youth contexts across Europe, supported by networks of youth groups and NGOs. A story map calendar of their activities, containing study group reports, videos and images representing youth voices and possible actions is available at: http://youthmetre.eu/study-groups/as well as a blog of their outcomes and subsequent reflections, at: http://youthmetre.eu/blog/. Through the project website, the opinions of youth were crowdsourced using surveys in respect of the relative importance of the youth policy data indicators used in YouthMetre and also in crowdmapping the ideas and opinions youngsters have for policy implementation. An interactive, non-formal education methodology was applied to the Study Groups to animate their sessions. The methodology was composed of group activities, individual surveys and games that introduced the EU Youth dashboard, the data and tools and highlighted the importance of indicators in understanding youth well-being in Europe. A set of indicators, based on the opinions of youngsters, was then used to measure the ‘performance’ of authorities in youth policy fields. Based on the opinions and perceptions collected from participants of the 15 Study Groups—in 15 different European countries—and the target groups disseminated to, partners believe YouthMetre has started to demonstrate the potential of creating ‘a sustainable and systemic impact on Europe’s youth systems’. Evaluation indicates that the approach and methodology have been successful, but that to enable a true ‘Structured Dialogue’ between youth and policymakers takes time, and that further longitudinal actions are necessary. New pilots in Belgium, Germany, Slovakia, Italy and Lithuania, mostly emerged from Study Groups, have been initiated and in some cases already funded. This and ongoing developments in the data dashboard suggest the methodology and approach adopted has been successful. Support has been given to local multipliers—members of the Study Groups—in organizing follow-up events and YouthMetre promotion and dissemination. These included activities involving the sharing of knowledge, advice, offering opportunities to use YouthMetre. Several follow-up activities have been implemented thanks to the contribution of the multipliers across Europe: in Italy (400 youngsters involved), in Germany (the youth Council of Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf, Berlin, are using the YouthMetre as tool for youth consultation and inspiration), in Cyprus (the informal group ‘SeeWhy’ is using the YouthMetre in combination with GeoCitizens for youth consultation) and in Upper Austria with more than 100 young people engaged. In Slovakia, YouthMetre actions have grown out of our local Study Group and this is being managed by a local NGO, European Dialogue. Following indications from the Study Groups, innovative ways of online data gathering were launched using:

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– Crowdmapping, where map allows users to indicate ‘My Ideas for my community’, linking to a specific geographical location and one of the eight EU Youth Strategy Key Areas’. – Online surveys for youth to collect further feedback and record the perceived importance of key areas. – Innovative data-visualization tools, such as interactive maps and Story Mapping, that allow the results of the project to be displayed on the web in a format that is therefore open and cross-platform. – Highly innovative concept and app like GeoCitizen to create meaningful dialogue, share their ideas, perceived needs and priorities. Dissemination has been undertaken, with European institutions such as the Council of Europe, Committee of Regions, European Commission, Parliamentary Assembly, Anna Lindh Foundation; The Youth Partnership between the Council of European and European Commission; youth organizations; NGOs working with youth (especially Young European Federalists, le Conseil de la Jeunesse Belgium); youth groups; youth workers; young people; policymakers; policy advisors and researchers. YouthMetre has been also disseminated twice at United Nations: Youth Forum and Commission for Social Development. A final project event was held at the Committee of Regions in Brussels on the innovative aspects associated with ‘Digital tools to foster youth engagement at the local level’. Representatives from more than 60 European institutions, local and regional authorities, civil society associations, experts and ordinary citizens to exchange knowledge, establish clear messages for the European Commission and consider further developments needed for the future. At this event, it was confirmed that the Structured Dialogue ought to be based on the fact that power in advocacy is strongly related to access to and the effective use of information. The fact that YouthMetre can be empowering indicates that the opinions and actions of youth can lead to advocacy campaigns and thus have a real impact on policy. To achieve this, it is strategically important to transfer the information and outcomes related to YouthMetre to policymakers. This implies ongoing sustainable actions. Other important events have allowed promoting YouthMetre among the three target groups: youth, public authorities at all levels, and non-profit organizations, such as the European Youth Event 2018 (EYE), at the European Parliament in Strasbourg, the European Youth Media Days 2017 in the European Parliament in Brussels or the EU Youth Week focused on future of the EU Youth Strategy (Brussels, May 2017). YouthMetre partners discussed with decision-makers and provided comments on how new EU Youth Strategy should look like. They also promoted YouthMetre as a tool that has a potential to be used to collect feedback on European policies and monitor their implementations. Local authorities were involved in the YouthMetre process. 56 local authorities received information directly and more than 200 local authorities received information about the project indirectly. A group of 15 municipalities was created by a partner (ALDA) as an assessment group for the project and as potential cases to develop for policy change. They have been informed about the project aims and

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expected outcomes and reviewed the tools and resources. Bilateral and multilateral meetings were organized to showcase the potential of the tool. The second stage of the project involved local authorities in a more structured way. The launch event engaged a wide variety of stakeholder organizations, policymakers at the local and regional level, youth organizations, European media and academics/researchers. Workshop events and meetings for local authorities were held during the aforementioned European Week of Regions in Brussels. YouthMetre outputs are conceived to inspire and guide young Europeans to action in many countries, on different topics and at different scales. The framework for the YouthMetre data dashboard and good practices is transferable across all countries where data is available and can be used to present other data sets, like those on the environment, politics, transport or other available indicators, as well as data gathered by the young people themselves at regional, city or even local (street) level. The approach could be also easily applied to other issues at international level that young people care about, for instance, in monitoring the UN Sustainable Development Goals or environmental issues.

Conclusions The YouthMetre online tool closes the gap between youth and institutions by collecting the perceived needs of youth in key policy areas and providing guidelines to public institutions. In so doing, YouthMetre thus addresses ‘Priority 7- Using e-participation as an instrument to foster young people’s empowerment and active participation in democratic life’. The project is highly relevant insomuch as it equips youngsters with an innovative, open-access, multi-platform tool that can be used to influence youth policies at local, regional and European levels. An app to generate dialogue among youth and with policymakers has been configured and is being used with young people in some local regions. It has also been used in the context of multiplier events and dissemination activities. YouthMetre therefore directly addresses the Structured Dialogue, initiated by the European Commission as a means of ‘mutual communication between young people and decision-makers in order to implement the priorities of European youth policy cooperation and to make young people’s voice heard in the European policyshaping process’. Regional authorities have, by and large, implemented their own e-communication tools and arranged a few face-to-face meetings with young people. But it seems these actions are not being followed up and the voices of youth are therefore not really being heard and dialogue does not result. This is because they are by and large ‘tokenist’ actions and have developed as a reaction to criticism. On the other hand, YouthMetre is based on the desire for active engagement with youth. The result is real dialogue, rather than ‘one-off’ expressions of needs. Some policymakers and youth groups have recently approached the project team, looking to use YouthMetre in their own regions to build an effective solution for Structured Dia-

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logue and even establish data gathering by young people at the local scale. This is a clear development of the YouthMetre bottom-up principle that there is ‘no empowerment without information’. The principles behind the project are thus based on EU policy as ‘access to information’ is power and without it reasoned meaningful dialogue between the target groups cannot take place. This implies access to and use of open data and EU information in order that young people are empowered to state their needs and reasoned views, thus participating actively in democratic processes. In turn, this relies on relevant information presented/visualized in suitable ways, combined with guidance, support and training of those working in the field. Ultimately, integrating YouthMetre activities into formal and non-formal education systems should become a goal for future initiatives and projects and projects to involve youth in their own data gathering so they can challenge policymakers. It is clear that education needs to employ the use of freely available EU data and statistics, with safe and interactive communication to allow the needs of young people to be expressed through apps like GeoCitizen and citizen science tools like Survey123 (Atzmanstorfer et al. 2014). Some final conclusions should be highlighted as expression of the project outcomes, which are as follows: – YouthMetre has proposed and field tested an innovative solution to current or future challenges in the education, training or youth field which have the potential to improve and/or transform policies and practices. – YouthMetre has demonstrated the potential to generate a sustainable and systemic impact on Europe’s education, training and youth systems. – YouthMetre has identified, tested, developed and assessed an innovative education approach concerned with information literacy and advocacy. – YouthMetre has demonstrated the approach and tools have the potential to be mainstreamed and transformed to other fields of action. – YouthMetre has connected youth and those working with youngsters to youth policy with the aim of impacting on new policy design. – YouthMetre has collected substantive evidence from research and good practices for innovative and effective policies and practices to be developed in the youth field. – YouthMetre has provided recommendations concerning concrete methodologies for future implementation. – YouthMetre has created useful tools that can be used to help policies to develop. – YouthMetre has increased attention to policy innovation in the youth and education fields.

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References Atzmanstorfer K, Resl R, Eitzinger A, Izurieta X (2014) The GeoCitizen-approach: communitybased spatial planning. An Ecuadorian case study. Cartography Geogr Inf Sci CaGIS 41(3):248–259 Commision of the European Communities (2009) An EU strategy for youth: investing and empowering—a renewed open method of coordination to address youth challenges and opportunities. Brussels De Miguel R, Valdivielso S, Zúñiga M, Sebastián M (2017) Población joven, educación y desequilibrios territoriales en Europa. In: Naturaleza, territorio y ciudad en un mundo global. Asociación de Geógrafos Españoles-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid Graham M, De Sabbata S, Zook MA (2015) Towards a study of information geographies. Geo Geogr Environ 2(1):88–105 Hite R, Solís P, Wargo L, Larsen TB (2018) Exploring affective dimensions of authentic geographic education using a qualitative document analysis of students’ YouthMappers blogs. Educ Sci 2018(8):173 Luppi A et al (2016) YouthMetre: a tool for forward looking youth participation. State of the art Report. (Unpublished)

Contributions from Informal Geography to Close the Gap in Geographic Information Communication in a Digital World Gersón Beltrán and Jorge del Río

Abstract Contemporary challenges and problems of society demand decision support systems that use geographic information. Even though geography since its origins has been a science with a strong transversal character, society has now made it become the focus of its agenda. Novel and other already established actors are involved in this rediscovery and popularization of geography. Both groups are promoting known and unknown geographical tasks thanks to technology, which is revealing new landscapes of our old territories and showing us the agency capacity of Geography Science. In this chapter, the authors review the offers and demands of communication on geographic information from the informal geography point of view and discuss the most outstanding current and future factors. In a digital world and in a networked society, the authors extract some hypotheses about the future of geographic information communication based on evidence from scientific literature, case studies, as well as their own professional experience. Keywords Global geography · Geographical outreach · Informal education · Public engagement · Marketing · Neogeography · Spatial communication · Online marketing

G. Beltrán (B) Dpto. Geografía, Universitat de València, Av. de Blasco Ibáñez, 28, 46010 València, Spain e-mail: [email protected] URL: https://gersonbeltran.com J. del Río Junta de Castilla y León. Delegación Territorial de Valladolid. Servicio Territorial de Medio Ambiente, Duque de la Victoria, 5, 47001 Valladolid, Spain e-mail: [email protected] URL: https://www.orbemapa.com © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. de Miguel González et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education, Key Challenges in Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6_6

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Global Geography From Contemporary Geography to Global Geography Geography is a living science and has evolved throughout history, being necessary to know not only at what moment it finds itself, but also in which schools of thought this research is inserted. This determines, therefore, what it will provide in terms of value or knowledge to geographical science. The epistemological analysis of geography as a science has been studied by numerous authors, from the paper of Capel Sáez (1981) to more recent articles such as Edin (2014) or Buzai (2014). These works reflect how geographical science has evolved and, over the last century, we can identify the conceptual path that has been followed up to the present moment, in which we speak of a Global Geography and Neogeography. All of them agree that contemporary geography was born with illustration, and authors such as Humbolt, Ritter, and Ratzel among others (Edin 2014). From this time, many schools of thought have coexisted until reaching the current situation, which could be called post-modernity, and whose beginning, although there is no general consensus, could be established at the end of the last century, in 1989, with the fall of the Berlin Wall and everything that this meant (Table 1). From the point of view of geography as contemporary science, some authors claim that at present there are two paradigms of geography: the neopositivist and historicist, which have produced an alternation in the development of geographical science cyclically in the last century (Buzai 2014b). Within these, geography approaches have been developed through different schools of thought, establishing a division between traditional approaches (general geography, regional geography, anarchist, and human and cultural ecologies, among

Table 1 The conceptual path toward global geography and neogeography Conceptual line

Influence

Decades

Positivism in Human Geography (Ratzel 1882)

Positivist based on Biology

1900–1940

Rationalist Geography (Hartshorne 1939)

Historicist

1940–1950

Quantitative Geography (Burton 1963)

Positivist based on mathematics

1950–1970

Automated Geography (Dobson 1983)

Positivist based on computing

1980–2000

Global Geography (Buzai 1999) Neogeography (Turner 2006)

Positivist based on computing

2000–2010

Source Global Geography + NeoGeography: current areas of scientific and social integration in digital environments (Buzai 2014a)

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others) and current approaches that arose after the Second World War (quantitative, systemic, cultural, perception, radical, humanistic, environmental, and automated). One of the most recent trends in which this research could be ascribed is the latter. The first question is that there is no consensus on the name that may be given to this geography, and although they do not refer exactly to the same aspects, there are many types of approaches such as Automated Geography (Edin 2014), Collaborative Geography (Ruiz i Almar 2010), Cyber Geography (Barbachán 2009), Virtual Geography (Hudson-Smith et al. 2009), Voluntary Geography (Bosque Sendra 2015), or Geoinformatics (Buzai 2014b). Undoubtedly, however, Goodchild (2007) and Buzai (2014a, b) are two of the geographers who have been analyzing the geographical schools of thought the most in recent years, and they state that two approaches coexist: a global geography from scientific diffusion and a new geography (neogeography) from social diffusion. Therefore, this chapter is framed within both approaches, from a global geography perspective, in that it works from the scientific impact of this science closely linked with new technologies and automation, and from that of a new geography, since the study tools imply knowledge of social impact and is directly involved with the ability of citizens to generate and share geographic information. Informal geography, to which we will refer later, participates in both approaches, since it uses technology, as a global geography tool, for a social use, somewhat typical of new geography or neogeography.

Stages of Global Geography Global geography has been developed chronologically in recent years based on changes linked to new technologies and, therefore, a series of phases can be established over the last 50 years (Beltrán López 2017) (Table 2). A first stage, (1964–1989), ranges from the appearance of the first Geographic Information System in 1964 up until the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, in which geography begins to use technologies from what has been called Automated Geog-

Table 2 Stages of global geography Stages

Tools

Dates

1st stage

Geographic information systems

1964–1989

2nd stage

Internet

1989–1999

3rd stage

Web 1.0.

1999–2005

4th stage

Web 2.0.

2006–2009

5th stage

Social, Local and Mobile (SoLoMo)

2009–2015

6th stage

Internet of things

2015–2016

Source Self-elaboration

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raphy, linked to the use of computers and large volumes of information that allow complex and multivariable spatial analysis. A second stage, (1989–1999), is linked to the Global Geography to which Buzai refers when he indicates its scientific impact, and which develops fundamentally in the 1990s, when the evolution of automated geography and the generation of Geographic Information Systems use are joined by the emergence of the Internet on a global level. A third stage (1999–2005) appears with the development of the Internet and the ability to generate information that is distributed globally by the Internet to users over cyberspace. This stage is based on geo-technosphere and geo-information and coincides with the stage called web 1.0, in which information is unidirectional. The fourth stage (2006–2009) is that of a new geography based on the ability to generate and share information by the user, coinciding with the stage of web 2.0, based on bidirectional information (Capel Sáez 2009). This new geography appears with a new vision of geography with Google Maps and Google Earth, and where users participate voluntarily in geographic information and where geo-semantics appear. The fifth stage (2009–2015) is involved with the emergence of social media, where user participation is active and mobile devices will begin to have as much importance as to surpass the use of desktops. At this time, the concept of a Social, Local and Mobile world (SoLoMo) appears, in addition to social geo-location as a communication tool between the physical and digital worlds. The sixth stage (2015–2016) is in which we find ourselves immersed and is involved with artificial intelligence, new sensors, gadgets, virtual reality, augmented reality, etc., basically, the total integration between both worlds (physical and digital) and with the explosion of the Internet of things. It evolves toward the concept of SoCoMo (Buhalis and Foerste 2015) in which local is replaced by contextual as a key factor.

A New Spatial Analysis The New Ecosystem Emerging from the Internet: Cyberspace The analysis of humanity from the globalization perspective places us at the moment in the third globalization, based on the digital data flows (Buzai 2014b). These digital data flows move in a digital space, or cyberspace, which is supported by two elements, the geo-technosphere and geo-information (Fig. 1). We are always talking about two independent but interrelated elements; the instrumental element, in which the human being interacts in a digital space, and the informational element, the information generated in that digital space and the flows that circulate through it.

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Fig. 1 Systemic analysis spheres. Source Buzai (2015)

One of the peculiarities of cyberspace is that it allows us to overcome the logical and traditional concepts of centrality, since “the lack of geographical limits invites us to think of a space whose logic is totally different from real space, where there is a tremendous structural horizontality” (Barbachán 2009). This fact could make us think that the spatial concept as we know it disappears or is replaced by digital space, although we cannot affirm such an approach: While NCITs, especially the Internet, offer an emerging virtual space that handles a particular space-time regime, one cannot speak of deterritorialization or, what is worse, the substitution of geographical space for a virtual one. (Barbachán 2009: 22)

Therefore, the change represented by speaking of cyberspace in new geography is not that it is a new approach adapted to the times, but rather how production modes and information exchange are changing. It is not a simple structural change regarding the space where human relationships take place, but a functional change with respect to how these relationships develop. That is why neogeography speaks of “a new relationship with physical spaces” but above all it is talking about there being a “blurring of boundaries between the traditional roles of subject producers, marketers and consumers of geographic information” (Capel Sáez 2009) and new communication and information technologies are the tools that have facilitated this fact, the catalysts of change. In this sense, the present text is not analyzing the part related to the geotechnosphere itself, but in the information flows that happen, but rather affects what Moreno (2015) calls the distribution of digital geo-information, asking oneself how, when, where, etc. All this is integrated into another concept that must be commented on here, because of the transformation it represents for geography, and is linked to this new form of spatial perception. As previously mentioned, parallel to the popularization of web 2.0, a tool appeared which was going to revolutionize geography: Google Earth. Beyond its technological value, its impact can be analyzed from the social point of view, where perceived space is transformed, as the sociologist Diego Cerdá showed

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“We are witnessing, with Google Earth, the birth of a new way of perceiving space, which affects our planet’s virtual space and real space at the same time” (Cerdá 2005).

The Energy that Moves Cyberspace: Spatial Data With the arrival of automatic geography and the popularization of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), GNSS positioning systems and remote sensors within the neopositivist school of thought, information was converted into data and these were analyzed using algebra and mathematics so that reality could be expressed in the form of points, lines, polygons, and pixels. Nowadays, given the ubiquity of TIG resources, spatial data is any type of data that refer, directly or indirectly, to a space. Therefore, geographic information would be related to the way in which these data are stored and most of the products they offer (Ariza 2015). This new digital environment has brought about a change in the way geographic information is managed that was traditionally associated with the map as an element of representation of reality to manage spatial data from the perspective of their production and consumption. The contexts in which spatial data moves are the socioeconomic, industrial and technical, and individual. Therefore, spatial data is the object of consumption and the prosumer is the subject of consumption (Del Río 2015). Regarding the consumption of maps, we find that we have gone from mass production mode, characterized by mass consumption, to the mode of production of “informationalism”, a term developed by Castells and characterized by the personalization of production and consumption, which represents a change in the development and use of spatial data (Del Río 2015). If we are talking about a large amount of data that moves in cyberspace, we must make a reference to the concept of big data which, although it could be directly related to new geography, must be granted a certain scientific prudence when demonstrating this impact (Bosque Sendra 2015). In short, the object of space consumption today is spatial data, and new consumers are responsible not only for consuming these data but also for producing them, thereby providing a new collaborative geography which represents a rediscovery of geography as a transversal science in other areas of knowledge.

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Informal Geography Successive Redefinitions of Informal Geography Informal geography is a concept that has evolved over time. A pioneer definition was to consider it as the geography contained in nonscientific works such as newspapers, magazines, travel guides, literature, and poetry (Wright 1947). A geography born in the media and intended for society. This early acceptance was extended by Gangas and Santis (2001) among others, to include in it any person who applies geographical skills outside the prescription of the Academy, away from cartography and official scales. It is an unregulated state or preformative mode that originates in a personal and subjective geography that we use to situate our place in the world and make everyday decisions. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, informal geography is driven by the impossibility of applying educational competences acquired at the school stage in certain contexts. The previously everyday environment is now novel, multidisciplinary, and changing. Citizens, organizations, companies, and administrations encounter geographical facts, spaces, and novel issues where they must make decisions. It is not always possible to deploy the skills acquired at their academic stage. The integration and activation of knowledge, skills, and geographical attitudes to achieve their goals is not an easy task. There are a variety of reasons: globalization, information availability, the development and distribution of technology linked to the capture, production, analysis, and exchange of spatial data and maps, accentuated by the Internet, mobility, social networks and the sensorization of the environment, people, cities, or organizations are but a few of these. This brief chronology shows us how interests and areas covered by informal geography have been expanded, as a diversification of the agents involved has taken place.

Geospatial Technologies and Informal Geography Geospatial technologies have a strong impact on the diffusion of informal geography that goes beyond the liberalization of computer tools to display maps (Beltrán and Del Río 2018). First, geospatial technologies facilitate massive data capture and the systematic recording of information on geographical facts which, even though they were already enunciated by geography, had a difficult quantitative approach. These technologies make these geographical facts visible on unusual scales. The examples of neoterriotrios that geospatial communication shows include economic, physical, and human geography facts in fields as diverse as geo-marketing, logistics, urban mobility, pollution, ecological connectivity, or social inequality, among others. As a result of this

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phenomenon, society, professionals, and researchers from other areas are rediscovering the transversal and integrating nature of geography. Second, geospatial technologies enable the creation of virtual and global work environments. These tools can succeed in replacing traditional geographic fieldwork with virtual spaces in a secure, controlled environment. We are not witnessing a simple scenario change from off-line work to globalized online work; educators are also implementing learning forms such as gamification, which until now had not been widely used. Both practices are an evolution of teaching methods by case study, aimed at exploiting the students’ engagement. Third, informal education has encouraged and used communication spaces the Internet allows to gain students’ interest and commitment to enroll them in user communities. For this reason, Mooc and other activities or common training practices in informal education are taking full advantage of globalization to disseminate their activity on the Internet, thus allowing the student access to educational activities in training centers far from their place of residence.

Informal Learning in Informal Geography All these phenomena lead to an informal geography, eager for a permanent learning that has generated a diversity of informal training in the form of services learning, hackathons, blogs, videos, wikis, forums, courses, workshops, seminars, and MOOCs, whose recognition is not always transferred to the labor market (Beltrán and Del Río 2018). When it is, it is in the form of certifications, diplomas, scoring systems, and curriculum vitae focused on showing the recognition, expertise, and skills acquired. Informal geographic education develops activities which train students but lack any formal education characteristics (Eraut 2000): a regulated learning framework, an organization, a teacher or trainer, a degree or certification, or an evaluation of the student’s results. These informal training activities are offered through multiple online and off-line channels. This offer is aimed at audiences with different interests and needs that display a heterogeneous demand of approach to geography, of self-taught management. In this extracurricular setting, once formal education has been completed, it allows us to distinguish three large groups of audiences in informal geography depending on the way in which they face daily decision-making. 1. A majority group that consumes and uses geographic tools and that usually shows an anemia of interest (Atkin and Helms 1993), fostered because techno-science products are conceived so that the users do not have any need to know the scientific principles in which they are based to be able to use them. 2. A second group composed of professionals from various fields who use and demand geographic data and analysis.

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Geographics facts

knowlodge

111

Personal experiences, Communities experiences

Problem-based learning

Fieldwork

Affinity and commitment

Teamwork collaborative learning

Spatial technology

Skills

Profiency in spatial thinking

Interdisciplinary point of view

Attitudes

Fig. 2 Concepts, skills, and attitudes of informal learning in informal geography

3. A third group of nonexperts in geographical matters: they use geographic tools usually of a technical nature for information production and analysis (neogeography). Informal geography teaching is produced through participatory structures aimed at communities of people who are interested in acquiring proficiency on spatial thinking in action, that is, knowledge which is put into practice in activities valued by students because of their high level of association with their daily activities (Cole 1996; National Research Council 2009). In informal geographic education (Rapp et al. 2007), personal experiences, fieldwork, (Hoalst-Pullen and Gatrell 2011), problem-based learning (Drennon 2005), and geospatial technologies (Sinton and Lund 2007) are the main skills used to develop and strengthen attitudes necessary for the study of broad and complex analysis units (Fig. 2). These units include geographic facts which are attractive to the student as they are linked to cultural, economic, political, or social activities close to their experience. The absence of the award of a qualification or credit and the external specification of outcomes, both common characteristics in informal education, has been met by the geospatial industry through the creation of professional certifications to accredit competence in the use of technology. Formal education seeks to import engagement strategies and learning progress evaluation from informal education. In practice, the reaction to informal education has been competition, and it is usually reduced to incorporating subjects on attractive technologies that facilitate the student’s transition to the labor market, forgetting to work with the skills and attitudinal contents involved in informal education. To correct this situation, Bednarz et al. (2013) recommend establishing collaboration channels between both types of education and checking their effectiveness when developing proficiency in geographic thinking.

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The Structure of Informal Geography The composition of informal geography can be summarized in a nucleus formed by geospatial products and the agents that interact with them. The classical actors such as media, administrations, schools, academia, companies, students, citizens, scientists, and technicians are blurred and roles appear. These are classified by different criteria according to their ability and knowledge, by the type of interaction with the geoproduct and with other users, and by the purpose to which they assign to it. The size of informal geography is difficult to evaluate. Multiple indicators are tested to try to measure its popularity in terms of the amount of content, the number of users, and the interaction pattern with the geospatial products, their degree of satisfaction, or an economic balance of cost and benefit. One possible indicator is popularity, as a percentage of the number of searches per country, related to the field of geography and the Google Maps website (Figs. 3, 4 and 5). In informal geography, relationships are established around communities of informal networks. Studies are commencing on how they are organized, how they are governed, what these relationships are like, and how they interact with each other. In geo-communities, there is a hybridization of online modes such as MOOC, virtual learning platforms, forums, mailing lists, social networks and off-line modes such as workshops or conferences (Beltrán López 2016b).

Fig. 3 Popularity of the terms Geography and Google Maps over time (2012–2017) from Internet user searches. Data source Google trends

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Fig. 4 Map of interest in geography and evolution over time (2012–2017). Data in percentage of Internet user searches. Data source Google trends

The function of geospatial communities is also very heterogeneous. It includes aspects such as learning, opinion, data production, data dissemination and analysis, data interoperability, software users, and programming code. There is a great popularity among professionals who use data but a lesser acceptance of decision support systems.

Geographic Dissemination Programs in Informal Geography To meet the demands of informal geography, different geographical science society approach models and programs have been implemented. With some caveats, this evolution has taken place in geography in a manner very similar to that experienced by dissemination programs in other sciences, although with some temporary delay (Table 3). Each model has deployed scientific dissemination programs that have not only varied and adapted their purposes, channels, public, but also the relevant social group responsible for their implementation to adapt to the reality and needs of each moment. The evolution and description of each program transcend the scope of this chapter, but all of them have had to face the following question: how to relate science, technology and, by extension, geography to awaken interest in society and show their value?

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Fig. 5 Map of interest in Google Maps and evolution over time (2012–2017). Data in percentage of Internet user searches. Data source Google trends

Each model has also contributed a collection that allows the measurement of scientific culture incorporated into the general culture in terms of interest and available information, search and critical reading of information, and development of a scientific attitude which allows the acceptance and incorporation of science and technology in the explanation and prediction of everyday life. This offer of dissemination models faces the demand of informal networks to have a scientific framework in the identification and analysis of more or less novel geographical facts, but which are now more visible than before. They reveal neoterritories to the public in areas as diverse as marketing, banking, real estate, public opinion, public health, tourism, and sociology, among others. This demand goes beyond acquiring skills in the use of tools and algorithms, and focuses on the following four areas: • • • •

Transfer with other sciences, Content curation and evaluation of data and content, Technological transfer, and Dissemination, training, and participation of society.

The main difference with previous programs is that the target audience is not exclusively society, but also the relevant social groups that were responsible for the execution of previous dissemination programs. In order to face this challenge, geospatial communication is developed in which all of them participate as senders and receivers of the dissemination program and geographical transfer.

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Table 3 Geographical approach of scientific dissemination programs Models

Scientific dissemination programs

Geographic approach

Relevant social group

Canonical

Diffusion transfer

Diffusion transfer

School

Cognitive deficit

Scientific literacy (Shen 1975)

Geospatial citizenship training (Williamson et al. 2007)

School

Public understanding of science (Bodmer 1985)

Data journalism

Mass media

Validation agency

Public communication of science (Fensham 1985)

Media science

Disseminators

Cultural-ethnographic

Popularization of science (Miller 2004)

Popularization of geography

Company school administration media

Participative

Citizen commitment (Dierkens and Von Grote 2003)

PP-GIS, UGC-GIS (Chilton 2009; Atzmanstorfer and Blaschke 2013)

Organizations citizens

Citizen science (Irwin 1995)

Geographic volunteering (Goodchild 2007)

Investigators administration citizens

Public engagement (Rowe and Frewer 2005)

Geospatial communication

Geospatial communities

Prosumer producer

Geospatial Communication Geospatial communication is the geographic approach of the dissemination and network transfer program, characteristic of the prosumer and producer model. Global geography and informal geography are linked to the prosumer (Toffler 1980) and producer (Bruns 2008) arguments which incorporates individuals, organizations (industry 4.0), machines (Internet of things), and even geographical fact (smart cities), which has a simultaneous role as producer and consumer of data, information and knowledge. Both geographies have found their niche in the cyberspace ecosystem, regardless of the criticisms of the motivations that gave rise to the prosumer argument (Leszczynski 2014). It is a geographic content dissemination vehicle that is used both by formal and informal geography education. The transmission of relevant information which may be used by the message’s recipient in their daily working life is sought, not the recipient’s learning. Informal geographic education and geospatial communication

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Number of publications

1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1997

2001

2005

2009

2013

2017

Year Fig. 6 Evolution over time (1997–2017), number of publications about informal education and communication and geography. Data source Google scholar

share strategy and tactics—the search for the interest of the receiver and channels, albeit for different purposes. The research area in which geography intersects informal education and this communication has received great attention in the last 40 years, with a marked transversal and multidisciplinary approach. At present, the number of publications has surpassed 1600 articles per year (Fig. 6). In this chapter, we wish to make a comprehensive review of this field, however, stopping at two contributions that clarify two issues that we raise. What is the reason for the acceptance of informal geographic education? And how can we know which issues are addressed by informal education which are not treated from the formal point of view? To answer the first question, we must recognize the diversity of forms that informal education adopts and the plurality of contexts in which educational activities take place. This prolific environment has led some authors such as Eraut (2000) to propose classifications of informal learning according to the intention of learning. For this author, informal education is deliberate or active, implicit or unconscious, and reactive. The experimental studies of Gear et al. (1994) found that for 80% of respondents, the learning activity is deliberate, but it is done without planning, taking advantage of teaching opportunities as they arise. What is the reason for this reactive behavior, so widespread in informal education? The answer may well be in the Horvath et al. (1996) phrase: “to know what works with what in the world.” In this quote lies the hypothesis that there are training needs not covered by formal education. The rapid technological and scientific change around geographic information

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(Del Río 2015) favors the emergence of training needs, which are commonly used by informal education to design its content offer. But to go further, what role does informal education and communication play in this process? To answer this question, we must stop at the tacit knowledge (Polanyi 1967) accumulated in professional practice. Tacit knowledge in action is embodied in products and services and is linked to the economic development of nations (CITA). Tacit knowledge is usually registered in patents, in the gray and obscure literature of organizations, and it sometimes even remains unregistered when organizations lack knowledge management plans. Geospatial communication gives visibility to tacit knowledge. Observation of the topics it addresses is useful to know the topics of interest offered by informal geographic education. Companies in the geospatial sector are very dynamic when collecting the imaginary scientific and technological geospatial in their vision, revealing the phenomena derived from a global geography: Graduates go to informal education when the combination of formal and tactical knowledge they possess is insufficient to solve the problems they must face. Informal education, unlike formal education, exploits commitment or “engagement” and takes advantage of training demands to minimize the risk of losing students. This reason keeps informal education vigilant to discover and exploit the demand for graduate education related to their daily personal, working, or community life. Geospatial communication is a tool used by informal education to favor enrolment and to articulate structures for community participation. The role of industry stands out among the different actors involved, contributing to a rapid exploration and content development in which the ability of technology to solve problems is explained. This discourse is motivated by the need to achieve a rapid technological adoption of the products offered by the market.

The Mechanism that Governs Geospatial Communication: Relevance The type of network diffusion that Castells (2010) described as “individual mass communication” has generated an exponential growth of online content managed by search engines that negotiate visibility in the economy of attention and attraction. Content visibility in search engines is performed by means of algorithms that measure relevance (Fig. 7). To do so, they create a balance between accessibility of the content offer, as well as reputation and geo-location, with the popularity (links and visits by users). This mechanism is a crowd intelligence application measured by algorithms. It controls the natural positioning or Search Engine Optimization (SEO) in search engines. However, it is not the only way to achieve visibility of our content; it may be promoted through paid or sponsored marketing, called Search Engine Marketing (SEM), which allows us to create ads that are displayed in search engines, high-

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Fig. 7 Agents and indicators of the visibility of a map on the Internet (Del Río 2011)

lighting our content, or we may use social media marketing called Social Media Optimization (SMO). A final option may be Geographic Engine Optimization (Geo) or Web Geo-positioning, a term that refers to the importance of geo-location in web positioning, mainly through Google Maps and Google My Business.

The Challenge of Geospatial Communication: The Invisibility Paradox One of the relevance management consequences is the map invisibility paradox, which can be extended to other products. This paradox has two components. The first is conditioned by the economy of attention. The audience has increased, but the creation of content much more so, which is why attention is the new currency, a scarce commodity, for which our maps, data, software, or geospatial products have tough competition. They have stopped being unique and scarce content and have hybridized in multimodal channels from infographics to control panels, where they enter into symbiosis with other communication media. The second component is based on the economy of attraction. We can design maps, collect data, and pose analysis easily, and at a much lower unit cost than at any other time in history. Data reuse and technology allow us to do so. The consequence is that many of these do not differ greatly from others, it is a production environment of cloned maps, of serial geospatial products.

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Geospatial Communication Strategies Overcoming the invisibility paradox leads us to generate and manage new communication guidelines in geospatial product dissemination and transfer very close to marketing, improving their positioning on the two axes proposed by the previous paradox. This communication marketing has two central ideas: the diffusion plan and the brand plan. The Internet diffusion plan focuses on attracting attention by offering what the user demands. The brand plan pursues attraction, engagement, trust, affection, and commitment, offering to establish a relationship by appealing to the user’s wishes and aspirations. Therefore, geospatial communication becomes a communication tool linked to geographical space; on the one hand, there is a reality of the territory with a physical form, tangible, and real, and on the other hand, a translation of that territory to the Internet, where the form is digital, intangible, and virtual. Far from thinking that it is two different geographies, it may be claimed that there is only one geography, with different manifestations that occur in the different abovementioned spheres. The physical and digital worlds come together through geo-location, which therefore becomes a communication tool between supply and demand in a Social, Local and Mobile (SoLoMo) world. A huge amount of information is generated daily, shared through social networks, with a local component and through mobile devices anywhere (Beltrán López 2012). It may be said that geospatial communication is based on three elements: the issuer (the offer), which is the person or business that is located in space, whether physical or digital; the receiver (the demand), which is the person or business that receives localized information; and the medium (the tool), which is the mobile phone with a built-in GPS and programs enabling it to share its location. Finally, we are also seeing how the SoLoMo concept is evolving toward SoCoMo, in which the local element is surpassed by the contextual element. That is, importance is given not only by the location of where things happen but by the spatial context of where they take place (Buhalis and Foerste 2015).

Geospatial Products: Between Maps and Geo-Location Geospatial product diversity has increased and the geographical document concept has been broadened and blurred. Today, we find algorithms and geographic data and analysis encapsulated in infographics, videos, blogs, wikis, forums, documentaries, news, control panels, scientific articles, websites, maps, atlases, apps, reports, executive summaries, even in governmental decisions, business, commercial, and tourism. From all the geospatial products, we are going to highlight online maps and online geo-location, the first as the geographical basis of communication, and the second as an active communication tool.

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Online maps According to the Dictionary of Applied and Professional Geography, the geospatial web is used for “the integration of geographic information on the web.” Maps were initially static on websites, but new browsers provide all kinds of geo-referenced spatial information. Therefore, these platforms “allow cartographic data integration with repositories of geo-referenced data (public or private)” (López Trigal 2015: 284). Websites that base their information on a map as a main web tool are called geoportals, which are defined as a “website that allows access to a geographic information web service, whether a search, visualization, download or any other type” (López Trigal 2015: 281). The emergence of the Internet has been a revolution in the field of cartography. As in the 1990s, Geographic Information Systems (GIS/SIG) represented a radical change in the development, use, and management of geographic information, at the beginning of this century these maps have been transferred to the online environment (Abargues et al. 2010). From the point of view of the type of tools used on the geospatial web, different typologies may be discussed depending on online maps ownership, distinguishing between private maps, public maps, and collaborative maps. Online geo-location The key concept that develops around neogeography is localization, which in turn has several variants that should be analyzed as it been (Fuenzalida et al. 2015: 58, 62, 65): Location: “all entities (with their associated attributes) have a specific location in a geographical space”; either a specific and fixed place supported by local topography (absolute space) or a relative and changing position with respect to other sites (relative space). Geographic information: “information about associated phenomena, implicitly or explicitly, with a location relative to the land.” Spatial distribution: “set of entities of the same type which are distributed in a certain way in the geographical space.” Spatial association: “the study of coincidences found when comparing different spatial distributions.” Spatial interaction: “the structuring of a relational space in which the locations (sites) distances (ideal or real) and links (flows) are fundamental in the definition of functional spaces.” Spatial evolution: “the incorporation of the temporal dimension through considering spatial configuration states which change for others.” There has been confusion in the uses of geo-location, since traditionally they have been more associated with tools than functionalities. This is an important mistake, since the tool (means) is put before the functionality (end), so tools are analyzed as ends and not as means. In this sense, it is inserted as an online communication tool “Geo-location is a logical development for social interaction on the Internet

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and social networks” (Rodríguez Benito 2010). Social geo-location is not only a communication tool, but the digital maps themselves (created in kml format) are also understood as mass media (Cerdá 2014). Geo-location is a relatively recent term and perhaps for this reason it is sometimes confused with others such as location, geo-referencing or GPS. The concept of location is defined by the Royal Spanish Language Academy as “the action and effect of locating,” which in turn has three meanings: “to fix, enclose in certain limits,” “to find out where someone or something is located,” and “to determine or indicate the location that someone or something must have” (Royal Spanish Academy 2016). The National Institute of Information Technology defines geo-location as the “set of technologies that combine the geo-referencing of elements in the real world with information obtained through an internet connection” and, therefore, Online geo-location applications allow us, from any device connected to the Internet, to obtain all types of information in real time, as well as its location on the map with total accuracy. (San-José 2011: 5)

On the other hand, the importance of the social element that characterizes the current web leads us to talk about social geo-location, which “refers to the new forms of social relationships that arise thanks to the geo-location of individuals with their mobile phones and which may be developed using diverse tools” (Beltrán López 2015). Finally, based on the above concepts, online geo-location can be defined as follows: the set of applications that allow us to locate an entity in physical space (locate) with some attributes (information) obtained through the internet, which are visualized on a representation of the surface (map), by means of a technique (geo-referencing) and analyzed through the use of cartographic instruments and spatial statistics tools (geo-marketing). (Beltrán López 2016a, b: 34)

Conclusions The diffusion of spatial data, Internet, and smartphones have acted as some of the most outstanding catalysts of various processes related to spatial data manufacture and consumption. Some examples in this sense are voluntary geographic information, user-generated content, crowdsourcing, citizen science, neogeography, or the Internet of things. These processes are creating small and large data sets that seek to be valued from an intelligent perspective. The speed with which new demands arise and that of data and application diffusion have sparked a growing interest in geographic information communication, which is being addressed by Informal Geography—driven by multiple players such as startups, consolidated companies, institutions, universities, and professionals through MOOCs, webinars, tutorials, post, infographics, apps, or books available in IDES, Atlases, cloud solutions, apps, or blogs, accessible on various the Internet platforms

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such as YouTube or social networks, among others. In the digital age, Informal Geography is showing us that it is not possible to use old maps to navigate in a new world. The authors propose a pragmatic definition about Informal Geography and informal education which allows its integration within Global Geography, defining it as the set of cases on spatial data uses made by citizens, companies, and organizations, thanks to the socio-technical possibilities offered by global geography. On the other side of the scale, Geography’s capacity to develop support systems for decision-making and to achieve encounter and commitment with society has evolved throughout history with varying degrees of success. Partly due to technology, methods, data, decision theory, and communication channels available in each period, and partly due to a constant redefinition of the discipline by schools of geographical thought to adapt to society’s needs. It is proven that the challenges for geography development will increase, both due to the complexity of the problems to be addressed, and also because of the difficult diffusion of the ability and usefulness of geography in solving the problems of society in a multidisciplinary work environment saturated with messages. It is concluded that closing the current gap between the demand and supply of geospatial communication involves incorporating communication and marketing strategies closely linked to the digital environment. This effort revolves around two roles with different needs. First, aimed at producers interested in making geographic information, models, or decision-making systems visible and being able to provide a friendly reading of complex geographical analysis, and second to the role of consumers who are the agents make them popular. Without this double investment in communication, seeking both accessibility and popularity, geographic education will not be able to acquire the necessary relevance to strengthen its emotional bond, involvement, and complicity with society.

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EarthCaching as a Possible Way to Raise Environmental Awareness? Stefanie Zecha

Abstract EarthCaching is a special form of geocaching. An EarthCache offers an earth science lesson by visiting a unique geological feature. The aim of the study was to find out if people who are involved in EarthCaching act more environmentally friendly than other persons, because the intensive study of physical geographic phenomena in nature could have positive effects on environmental awareness. The questionnaire from Schahn’s SEU 3 survey (1999) was used as the basis for the questionnaire the author used. The data was collected at the EarthCaching event in Goslar 2015. The answers were evaluated with the help of the program SPSS 24. First, the typical characteristics of EarthCachers are shown, which are then related to the results of Schahn’s questionnaire. The results suggest that there is a connection between environmental awareness and EarthCaching. In particular, the creation of EarthCaches can be conducive to environmental awareness. As the results show, this type of cache could be used even more in the future in the context of environmental education. Keywords EarthCaching · Environmental awareness · Germany · Empirical study

Introduction EarthCaching is a variation of a recreational activity known as geocaching, which features unique geologic formations or geomorphologic landforms. Today, more than 270,000 caches are active in over 180 countries (www.geocaching.com). The activity has attracted over three million participants worldwide. The intention of EarthCaching is to provide a learning lesson about a geomorphological feature in nature in each cache. It is a good way for nonprofessionals to learn independently about earth science in nonformal learning settings. Different international studies have shown that the nonformal learning processes contribute 60–80% to total learning (OECD S. Zecha (B) Department of Geography, Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Eichstätt, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. de Miguel González et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education, Key Challenges in Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6_7

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2012). When solving individual EarthCaches, people spend time in nature, even more when creating EarthCaches, as they work in depth with the local geospatial geographical peculiarities to create the perfect cache. By dealing directly with nature, many nature experiences can be collected, which then have a positive impact on environmental awareness. Lude (2005), Bögeholz (1999), Gebhard (2013) established a clear connection between environmental awareness and nature experiences in their investigations. EarthCaching takes place in nature and EarthCachers therefore must spend a lot of time in nature. This raises the question of whether people who dedicate their lives to EarthCaching and spend a lot of time in nature have especially high values in the field of environmental consciousness. The data for this study was collected during the International EarthCaching Event in Goslar in October 2015.

Theoretical Background Literature on EarthCaching and Environmental Awareness Studies on geocaching can be divided into environmental education (Zecha 2012; Lude and Schaal 2013) or training media competences (Ihamäki 2012). Another differentiation can be made between formal learning settings (Zecha and Hilger 2015; Lude and Schaal 2013) or informal learning settings (Mayben 2010; Ihamäki 2012). Until now, there are only a few articles that focus on EarthCaching. Hagevik (2011) describes in her article, how you can include and use geospatial technology and EarthCaching in everyday teaching lessons. Zecha and Hilger (2015) show how EarthCaches influence nonformal geoscientific learning using glacial features. Zecha (2012) published a qualitative study on the topic GeoCaching, a tool to support environmental education?—An explorative study. It showed how far geocaching is used in the area of environmental education, where the limits of this method lie. There is still no literature on EarthCaching and environmental awareness, this gap could be closed with this article.

What Is an EarthCache? In the last few years, EarthCaching has been developed and used as an educational tool. The Geological of Society of America (2007) defines an EarthCache site as a specific geological location that people can visit to learn about a unique feature or aspect of the Earth. An EarthCache adventure is treasure hunting for geological caches that the Earth itself has stored. The treasure is the lesson people learn about our planet. Visitors see how the planet has been shaped by geological processes, how we resources are managed, and how scientists gather evidence. (http://www. earthcache.org/; Zecha and Hilger 2015) All EarthCaches have to pass a review

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Fig. 1 Simplified representation of the processes when creating and finding the EarthCaches (Telaar 2007)

process, controlled by a reviewer from the Geological Society of America. After a positive review, the EarthCaches can be uploaded onto the international EarthCaches website. EarthCaches have to conform to the following criteria (The Geological Society of America 2007). “(1) EarthCaches must provide an earth science lesson. (2) EarthCaches must be educational. The cache page, including the description and logging tasks, must assume a basic knowledge of geology. (3) EarthCaches must be developed to provide a unique experience for the location’s visitors and to teach a unique lesson about the feature at the site.” Before an EarthCache chaser can log the cache, he or she has to send the results of the tasks to the cache owner. By doing this the owner can make sure that the exercise was completed (www.earthcache.org). The figure demonstrates how EarthCaching works (Fig. 1). Around the world, there are, at the moment, 17,093 earth caches in 188 countries. Most of them—38%—are in the United States, while 19% are in Germany (www. earthcaching.org). Since this program started, over 3.5 million people have logged their visits to EarthCache sites, a lot more people have visited the site but did not log their visits and the number is growing exponentially. In total, there are more than 18 different features (Fig. 2). Here are the most common features in Germany. It becomes clear that EarthCaching gives a broad insight into physical geography, as in first place are sedimentary features, glacial features, and volcanic features.

Environmental Awareness Questions about environmental awareness have been investigated for some time. In the English-speaking professional world, the first work was carried out in the 1970s and 1980s (Gifford et al. 1982/1983). In Germany too, environmental awareness studies have a tradition of more than 20 years. The first empirical study on this

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Fig. 2 EarthCaches after themes (Zecha and Hilger 2015)

topic, for example, was Braun (1983) in geography didactics. Braun was followed by authors from other disciplines: Bögeholz (1999), Lude (2001) and Zecha (2010). The first attempts to define the concept of environmental awareness came from Maloney and Ward (1973). On this basis arose the investigations of a wide variety of authors: Kley and Fietkau (1981), Braun (1983, 1995, 2009), Gebauer (1994), Lude (2001), Zubke (2006), Federal Environmental Agency (2016). Accordingly, no uniform definition of environmental awareness is yet to be found in the literature. According to Pinquart and Silbereisen (2007, p. 85), under the label of environmental awareness, even though different descriptions exist, the following three aspects are commonly summarized: • environmental knowledge, i.e., knowledge about the state of the environment and about environmental problems, ecosystems, and ways of life; • environmental attitudes; and • environmental action. The questionnaire Scale System for Recording Environmental Awareness (SEU 3) by Schahn (1999) is also based on this scale system. The questionnaire collects the concepts of environment-related attitude (corresponds to environmental knowledge), environmental behavioral preparedness, as well as self-reported behavior. Environmental knowledge Environmental knowledge is described by Schahn (1993, p. 33) as “not a sufficient but necessary condition for environmentally sound action”. Of crucial importance is not the quantity of knowledge, but its quality. Of particular importance here is the knowledge of action compared to the often sluggish factual knowledge (Gräsel 2000). According to Rost et al. (2001), studies have shown that environmental knowledge correlates with environmental attitudes at a moderate to low level. This component is recorded in Schahn’s questionnaire (1999) with the environmental adjustment scale.

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Environmental attitude The environmental settings dimension makes statements about anxiety and concern about environmental hazard or destruction. The environmental concern approach of Maloney and Ward (1973) is used in the studies as a basis for the further development of the theoretical construct in the settings area. Maloney and Ward distinguish four indicators: perceived seriousness of an environmental problem, personal involvement (affect), responsibility (intra- versus extra-personal attribution of causes and solutions) and verbal commitment. Schahn’s questionnaire (1999) captures this area of competence with the scale of environmentally relevant behavioral preparedness. Environmental behavior The literature sometimes uses the term “environmental activities” and sometimes “environmental behavior”. In sociological theory, a fine differentiation (Rost et al. 2001, p. 13; Schlüter 2007) is often detailed between the terms behavior and action. In the GeoCaching literature, however, they are usually equated, especially in empirical studies. Corral-Verdugo (2002) and Kollmuss and Agyeman (2002) give an overview of this discussion of action. It has been shown that people who are environmentally friendly in one area (for example, saving water) are far from doing so in another area (Diekmann and Preisendörfer 1998). This may lead to the conclusion that there are areas where environmental action is easier for humans than in others. This insight led Diekmann and Preisendörfer (1998) to the formulation of the low-cost hypothesis. Also in the questionnaire of Schahn (1999) this aspect is registered with the scale self-reported behavior. The main objectives of this study are: What are the essential characteristics of EarthCachers? In which dimensions of environmental consciousness do EarthCachers have high values? Are there correlations between the typical characteristics of EarthCachers and Schahn’s environmental consciousness scales?

Methodology Questionnaire The questionnaires consist of two different parts: the first part captures the general characteristics to describe an EarthCacher. The second part is based on the scales of Telaar (2007) and the Scale System for Recording Environmental Consciousness SEU questionnaire by Schahn (1999). The questionnaire collects information associated with the concepts of environmental attitude, environmental behavioral readiness, and self-reported behavior. These are collected into seven important areas of environmental protection: energy saving, social commitment, waste separation and recycling, sports and leisure, environmentally conscious shopping, environmentally friendly traffic, and water saving. A total of 84 Items are divided among the seven

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Table 1 Structure of the questionnaire First part: General characteristics How often do EarthCachers go EarthCaching? How many EarthCaches do they search for in one location? Have they ever visited an EarthCaching location a second time? Why people do EarthCaching? Do EarthCachers get attracted to physical geology by EarthCaching? Second part: Environmental awareness of EarthCachers Scale

Items

Environmental adjustment

1

4

Environmental behavioral preparedness

1

4

Self-reported behavior

7

28

Table 2 Example items for environmental adjustment (leisure and sport) 1. I am against new sports and leisure facilities that cause landscape and nature consumption (for example, tennis, golf, and camping) 2. I find that cable cars and gondolas corrupt nature and I condemn their use Table 3 Example items for behavioral readiness 1. In my free time, I use the car, for example, for trips, short breaks, visits or rides to leisure activities 2. On vacation, I like to fly to distant lands (is reversed) Table 4 Example items for self-reported behavior 1. I go alpine skiing (downhill skiing) 2. When I play sports outdoors (for example, walking, jogging, horse riding, skiing, cycling/mountain biking) I stay on marked trails

subject areas. Since the survey took place during the World EarthCache day in Goslar (11.10.2015), with the consent of the author of the questionnaire, certain scales were selected from the questionnaire: all scales for the concept area self-reported environmental behavior and all scales for sport and leisure were selected, because they are close to the theme of EarthCaching. The questionnaire was shortened because people at events do not have too much time for answering a questionnaire (Table 1). The items consist of statements to which the subjects indicate their approval on a 7-digit Likert scale. Subsequently, individual items for individual scales will be presented (Tables 2, 3, 4). Due to the limited on-site time, only selected scales from Schahn’s SEU 3 questionnaire (1999) were used: the self-reported environmental behavior for all topics, because the author was especially interested in the environmental behavior. All scales

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related to sport and leisure were chosen because EarthCaching belongs to this kind of entertainment and to get some more detailed information about environmental awareness specially related to EarthCaching.

Sample and Data Evaluation The sample consisted of 199 people, of which 115 are male and 84 are female. Since gender is not equally distributed, a weighting factor has been inserted. Of the 199 respondents, the youngest was 10 and the oldest was 64 years old. This corresponds to a span of 54 years. On average, respondents were 41.7 years old with a standard deviation (SDA) of 10.198 years. The data was collected during the World EarthCache day on 7.10.2015 in Goslar. The participants were selected at random. The data from the questionnaires was inputted in a mask created for SPSS. Spearman’s nonparametric correlation was used, because the data was not normal distributed. Objectivity The evaluation of objectivity was given by the fact that it was a standardized paperpencil test with a template evaluation. Since the scales were normed scales, the objectivity of interpretation is also given. Validity The validity relates to the validity of the measurement. The scales were all taken from already validated studies and reexamined by factor analyses. Reliability The reliability was tested with the Cronbach alpha. To prove the homogeneity of the scales, Cronbach alphas were computed for each scale. The lowest value was 0.510 and the highest was 0.610. Limitation of the study The limitation of the study is that there was no control group and that not all scales of the Schahn’s SEU 3 have been used. Also, there is a wide range of age, which gives a very general result.

Results: EarthCaching and Environmental Awareness The following results from the collected data provide interesting insights into the structure of environmental knowledge, as well as attitude and behaviors among the surveyed participants. The evaluations relate only to the sample.

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Some Characteristics of EarthCachers To better understand the EarthCaching phenomenon, users were first asked about the intensity and frequency with which they operate EarthCaching, and how many EarthCaches they visit during a trip. Very few EarthCachers go daily (2.3%). More than 17.2% go EarthCaching once a week and almost 70% once a month (7.5). The results could be explained in such a way that although there are occasionally EarthCaches in cities, most caches are located in the open air and it usually takes a certain amount of time to get there (Table 5). To describe the EarthCacher in more detail, they were asked how many caches users search for on a typical trip. Thus, not only information on the frequency but also the intensity of individual excursions is available. Visitors mostly look for a single EarthCache (56.1%) (Table 6). To measure the importance of the places where EarthCaches are placed, the number of visits to that place after solving an EarthCache was recorded. The data shows that EarthCaching is an attractive method for bringing people to places where they have not been before. In total, over 78% revisited a place at least once and 45% even came back several times. This might merely confirm that EarthCaching selects places that leave an impression on the visitor. Either way, the finding could be very valuable from a tourism perspective (Table 7). Next, the reasons why a person is motivated to go EarthCaching are pursued. It is particularly clear that the discovery of previously unknown places (4.62), spending time with nature (4.45) and the related aspect of getting acquainted with

Table 5 Frequency of EarthCache visits Frequency

Percentage (%)

Daily

2.3

Twice a week

6.7

Every week once

8.2

Twice a month

21.7

Once a month

28.7

Less than once a month

32.4

Table 6 Number of EarthCaches visited on a trip Number of EarthCaches

Percentage (%)

1

56.1

2

13

3

8

4

1.7

or more

6.3

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Table 7 Number of return visits to a cache location Percentage (%) Several times

45.50

Once

28.80

Never

25.70

Table 8 Reasons to do EarthCaching Self-reported behavior

Mean

Standard deviation

To discover new sites

4.62

0.96

To get to know an area better

4.54

0.92

To spend time in nature

4.45

0.96

To relax

3.92

1.15

To improve my knowledge about physical geography

3.91

1.16

To enjoy solving the tasks in the EarthCache

3.77

1.22

To spend time with my family or friends

3.84

1.22

For the challenge

3.52

1.28

For the thrill of searching

3.17

1.21

(5-digit Likert scale) Table 9 Interest in physical geological phenomena Percentage (%) I was interested in physical geological features before starting EarthCaching

40.7

EarthCaching started to raise my interest in physical geological features

59.3

one’s own environment (4.54) provide the respondents with the central and most important aspects of EarthCaching. To improve one’s knowledge of physical geography came fifth. Perhaps this could be because laypeople were questioned and the term “physical geography” is not very well known to them. Relaxing, solving tasks, spending time with friends, seeking new challenges, or seeking excitement are also well above average, but not as significant as the first aspects (Table 8). EarthCaches were invented by the Geological Society of America to teach people about physical geography and enable them to independently deal with physical geographic phenomena. This raised the question of whether EarthCaching really does pique interest in physical geographic phenomena. More than half of respondents said EarthCaching did arouse their interest in physical geography (Table 9).

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Results in Relation to Environmental Awareness Results of the scales on sports and leisure The environmental adjustment scale sports and leisure has a mean of 3.68 (SDA 1.39651) and behavioral readiness has 4.01 (SDA 1.6670). These values are both above average. Statistically speaking, there is a highly significant correlation between these two individual scales (Table 10). This means there was a positive relationship between sports and leisure knowledge and sports and leisure environmental preparedness behavior. These two factors seem not to have any influence on self-reported behavior, because there is no correlation. Results of the scale of self-reported environmentally aware behavior Self-reported environmental awareness behavior factors do reflect actual environmental behavior, according to information from the respondents (Table 11). Participants showed above-average scores in different scales except for the save water and keep the water clean and health-conscious behavior scale. Since there is no control group, it can be concluded only tentatively that EarthCachers generally have good self-reported behavior. Relationship between the environmental awareness scales and the EarthCaching scales In order to map a possible connection between environmentally conscious behavior and the previously described characteristics of an EarthCacher, the different scales are correlated with each other.

Table 10 Correlation between different scales on sports and leisure Sport/leisure environmental adjustment scale Sport/leisure environmental behavioral preparedness a High

0.581a

significant

Table 11 Participation in environmentally aware behavior (Schahn 1999) Self-reported environmentally aware behavior

Mean

Standard deviation

Save energy in the household

4.92

1.03

Environmentally friendly buying

4.61

1.33

Environmentally friendly transport

4.56

1.42

Sport and leisure

4.29

0.96

Separation of waste and recycling

3.51

0.97

Save water and keep the water clean

3.23

0.88

Social commitment

2.25

1.28

(7-digit Likert scale)

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Table 12 Correlation between environmental awareness and EarthCaching scales Self-reported behavior scale

Numbers of EarthCaches constructed

Sport and leisure

Social commitment

0.210a

–

Numbers of EarthCaches found

–

0.196a

a Highly

significant

The correlations indicate that there is a highly significant relationship between the number of constructed EarthCaches and self-reported behavior scale in the field of social commitment. This means that people who construct EarthCaches are often more involved in nature conservation, meaning they tend to be better informed about environmental themes. There is also a high positive correlation between the number of EarthCaches found and self-reported behavior factors in the field of sports and leisure generally (Table 12). Visiting EarthCaches could have a positive impact on the environmental outcomes of sports and leisure, for example, this group of people often undertake environmentally friendly outdoor sports, which means they stay hiking or mountain biking on the marked trails, for example.

Discussion The aim of this study was to investigate how EarthCaching is related to environmental awareness. The data was collected at the World EarthCache Day in Goslar. First, the author tried to describe the typical characteristics of an EarthCacher. The analysis of the age group demonstrates that EarthCaching is not only an interesting leisure time activity of adults but also for young people. This group is not really considered in the EarthCaching program yet. Around 70% go EarthCaching once a month, the majority to look for an EarthCache. The results could be explained as EarthCaching being a time-consuming leisure activity, as you first go to the appropriate location in nature and then try to solve the EarthCache’s tasks in order to log it. To match this result, various log entries also show that in many cases you are limited to an EarthCache which is the destination of the excursion (Table 2) log entries: “After the New Year’s jump of the Four Hills Tournament, we wanted to get some fresh air and chose this EarthCache. After a short walk, we reached the location and admired it. We had been here many times without having noticed this interesting place. We sincerely thank you” (1.1.2018) (Ur-Main) Half of the EarthCachers returned to a special place in nature more than a second time. It is clear that people who create EarthCaches select a special feature in nature, as stipulated by the guidelines of the Geological Society of America (2009) and guaranteed by the review process. Also in the log entries to the EarthCaches this is reflected again and again: “Once again an interesting beau-

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tiful place that we probably would never have seen without our hobby” (5.1.2017) (Friesenquelle, Franconian Switzerland, Bayern). “On a beautiful hike, we came here too. We’ve been to this area so often - but we’ve never been to the glacier springs … It’s really nice here - and certainly more in the summer, because we’ll definitely stop by again.” (15.12.2017) (The glacier source in Ramsau). 59.3% of respondents said EarthCaching aroused their interest in physical geographic phenomena. In order to be able to act in an environmentally conscious way, one also needs a certain knowledge, e.g., about the physical geographical phenomena on site. Schahn (1993, p. 33) also writes that environmental knowledge is “not a sufficient but necessary condition for environmentally sound action.” The following log entries of EarthCachers also prove that EarthCaching acquires environmental knowledge in a very vivid way: “I was biased a little bit negatively against Geology after the boring geologist in Kiel Museum had explained to me the elemental structure of all the rocks. But once it is vividly substantiated with practical references, as with this cache, geology is actually interesting (16/1/2017).” The correlations between the items from the general characteristics of EarthCaching and self-reported environmental behavior scales show that there are positive relationships. Visiting EarthCaches could have a positive impact on the environmental outcomes of sports and leisure. Through firsthand experience, people develop a relationship with nature. Individuals who solve EarthChips engage intensively with nature on the ground. They enjoy its many natural beauties and are passionate about nature. Lude, Bögeholz, and Zecha have shown in their studies that nature experience has a positive effect on the level of action in environmental awareness. The construction of EarthCaches could have a positive impact on the commitment to nature conservation. People who create EarthCaches are very dedicated, as they have to deal intensely with natural phenomena to make the caches. A study by Liarakou et al. (2011) has shown that, among other things, environmental knowledge can be seen as a driving force for volunteering. People who create EarthCaches have a high level of environmental knowledge, as they usually need specialist environmental knowledge to create a cache, especially when devising the tasks.

Summary EarthCaching becomes more and more well known. It is a way to entice lay people into nature where they may improve their knowledge of physical geographic phenomena. Especially in the field of environmental education, EarthCaches offer new opportunities, as they are always created with the aim of offering an earth science lesson, as opposed to traditional geocaches. The guidelines of Geological Society of America do not mention environmental awareness specifically, but they could now be included as a consequence of this research perhaps a new type of EarthCache would have to be introduced, which meets the needs of these specific target groups.

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Teaching Geospatial Competences by Digital Activities and E-Learning. Experiences in Geography, Journalism, and Outdoor Education José Jesús Delgado-Peña and María Purificación Subires-Mancera

Abstract The huge development of the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) promotes a set of changes in the way of teaching all disciplines (geography, journalism, education, history, art history, biology, geology, environmental sciences, etc.), of designing and implementing activities and resources oriented to the improvement of the learning process and event to conceiving a new specialized didactics of each area in the beginning of the twenty-first century. In this chapter, we will face the definition of geospatial competences and their relevance in the career of any geographer first of all, but too in other disciplines, where the geographical information is important, for example, communication, with the data journalism and the so-called geo-journalism, geo-marketing, and outdoor education, among others. We will also analyze the role of ICT in the scenario of the geography, with an interdisciplinary perspective, and how different methodologies such as cooperative learning, problembased learning, and serious games could present a vital position in the framework of teaching geospatial competences. Moreover, nowadays, there are different types of e-learning courses using different online software such as Moodle, Open Course Ware (OCW), or Massive Online Open Courses (MOOC). Different examples and cases in this line, particularly about geography, journalism, and outdoor education, are shown in this chapter. Keywords Geospatial competences · Digital competences · Cooperative learning · Problem-based learning · Serious games · Geo-journalism · E-learning

J. J. Delgado-Peña (B) Department of Geography, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain e-mail: [email protected] M. P. Subires-Mancera Department of Journalism, University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. de Miguel González et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education, Key Challenges in Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6_8

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Introduction We are living in an information-society era, where the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) is present in all the areas of our lives: communication, culture, economy, entertainment, etc. There has been a broad shift from analogue to digital, and the arrival of Internet has caused a big change in the way we communicate with and contact other people, have access to information, and also in the way we learn. In this increasingly interconnected and globalized world, the Internet turns into a place free from spatial-temporal barriers, but where geographic information plays a very important role. Human beings need to be physically placed on the territory, and the digital environment, as a virtual extension of the real world, clearly reflects that need. As an example of this, we can highlight the use of Internet to spread and share geolocated information; this is the case of Google Maps or Google Earth, and other map applications developed under the shelter of web 2.0 or social web. The area of education has also benefited from these geographic digital resources and tools, which are useful not only in the field of geography but also in many other disciplines where geographic information plays a prominent role, such as journalism, marketing, outdoor education, archaeology, geology or environmental sciences, to name a few examples.

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in Education Irruption of ICT in education has brought about a true revolution, by providing teachers and students with new tools in the teaching and learning process and new channels for interaction and participation, where distance is not a barrier but an opportunity to contact people living in different parts of the world and sharing a common interest in learning. Use of digital media and virtual education offer added value from the point of view of didactics for enhancing students’ digital competences (Schleicher 2006, p. 207). The UNESCO, meanwhile, argues that, as long they are used properly: Information and Communication Technology (ICT) can contribute to universal access to education, equity in education, the delivery of quality learning and teaching, teachers’ professional development and more efficient education management, governance and administration (2017a)

In short, ICT “can complement, enrich and transform education for the better” (UNESCO 2017b). The challenge, according to the UNESCO, is to know how to use them effectively, so that they “serve the interests of students as a whole and those of the education community” (2017c). This requires that both students and instructors develop sufficient digital competences, which means the critical, safe, and responsible use of the information disseminated through the Internet and the technology itself. We should consider that ICT is always a means, but never a goal.

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ICT have promoted changes in the learning processes of different disciplines (geography, journalism, education, history, art history, geology, environmental sciences, etc.), and in the actual design of educational activities and resources, by opening up the way to new didactics specialized in every area of knowledge. There are professions directly and closely linked to technology progressing uniformly with its development and evolution, and for them, universities face the challenge of training new professionals in this changing technological context. That is the case for geography, journalism, and education. In the area of geography the relevance of ICT is such that a new term related to them has emerged, Geographic Information Technologies (GeoICT). Geographers must use databases, GeoICT, Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI), Global Positioning System (GPS), online maps (Google Maps, Google Earth). At present, the image of the Earth represented by three multi-resolution dimensions has become widespread, due to the increasing power of computers and programs, expansion and improvement of the Internet, creation of virtual globes such as Google Earth; Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) within the framework of the European INSPIRE directive (Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe), increasing number of remote and terrestrial sensors, and emerging technologies that come together from mobile devices (applications, apps) (De Lázaro y Torres and Delgado Peña 2013). This is also true for journalism, a profession closely linked to technology, that has evolved as new techniques and resources (press, photography, telegraph, cinema, radio, television, Internet, etc.) have emerged, and where every new technological progress has been a milestone in its history. Journalism professionals face the challenge of adapting themselves and learning how to use these new tools and devices, and they also have to do it at high speed, since changes come about very quickly. In addition to the use of ICT in the entire process of journalism work, web development, digital media, social networks, interactive video or the emergence of new areas of specialization and work such as data journalism, where, among other resources, maps as visualization resources are used. The field of Education has also similar circumstances, with the development of virtual education—where elaborating materials and establishing communication channels are fundamental—and the use of the Web-2.0 resources—such as blogs, videos, and social networks—as learning tools. Particularly, and related to Geographic Information, we must emphasize the case of outdoor education, where GPS, online map applications such as Google Maps and other apps for mobile devices can be used to acquiring digital and geospatial competences.

Digital and Geospatial Competences The term competence is fundamental in the current education landscape, although it has a certain complexity due to its polysemic character. For Herrero and Pastor (2011, p. 76) competence is a “complex know-how,” resulting from integration, mobilization, and adequacy of skills and abilities (of cognitive, affective, psychomo-

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tor or social character), and from knowledge effectively used in situations having a common feature (similar situations, not able to be generalized to any other situation). In our work, we will study two particular competences: digital and geospatial competences.

Concept of Digital Competences As pointed out at the beginning, digital competences are fundamental for the efficient and effective use of technology in the learning and teaching process. Instructors and students should have sufficient competences to cope confidently with this environment and make the most out of using the new resources available to them. In a report published in 2016 within the project The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens Update (DigComp 2.0), developed by the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, a proposal on a common framework is made and five general areas are identified together with their respective competences: The DigComp Conceptual reference model Competence areas Dimension 1

Competences Dimension 2

1. Information and data literacy

1.1. Browsing, searching and filtering data, information, and digital content 1.2. Evaluating data, information, and digital content 1.3. Managing data, information, and digital content

2. Communication and collaboration

2.1. Interacting through digital technologies 2.2. Sharing through digital technologies 2.3. Engaging in citizenship through digital technologies 2.4. Collaborating through digital technologies 2.5. Netiquette 2.6. Managing digital identity

3. Digital content creation

3.1. Developing digital content 3.2. Integrating and re-elaborating digital content 3.3. Copyright and licences 3.4. Programming

4. Safety

4.1. Protecting devices 4.2. Protecting personal data and privacy 4.3. Protecting health and well-being 4.4. Protecting the environment

5. Problem-solving

5.1. Solving technical problems 5.2. Identifying needs and technological responses 5.3. Creatively using digital technologies 5.4. Identifying digital competence gaps

Source DigComp 2.0. Joint Research Centre (EU 2016)

In the case addressed here—development of geospatial competences through digital activities and e-learning—there are key aspects such as search, assessment, and

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management of data and digital information. Likewise, so are other elements such as the development of content, problem-solving, creative use of digital technologies or to know how to interact and share content with other people using these technologies.

Concept of Geospatial Competences With regard to geography-related competences, Bailey (1981, pp. 21–22) stated that, apart from those shared with other disciplines, such as literacy, numeracy, drawing, oral expression, and logical thinking, in geography other competence that stands out, what he calls “graphicacy” (the ability to communicate spatial information that cannot be adequately transmitted by oral or numeric means). Elaboration and interpretation of maps and command of statistical methods would be a part of this competence. These geographic realities, these phenomena, and their occurrence in the territory have a clear aspect of spatial distribution, so it is just here where the term geospatial competence should be introduced, a competence that helps to capture on a visual format some correctly geo-referenced information (spatially located), by indicating its distribution, magnitude or nature. It is obvious that before being able to display that distribution, we have to use our spatial-orientation competences, not only in the space where we are moving, our actual territory, but also within the space represented by an image, a map or a graphic.

Development of Geospatial Competences for Geography The White Paper on the Bachelor’s degree in Geography and Spatial Planning for Spain (Libro Blanco del Título de Grado de Geografía y Ordenación del Territorio para España, ANECA 2004, pp. 180–181) analyzes the specific competences of geography. In general, it defines them as the set of skills that allow relating territorial information by taking a cross-cutting approach, generating explanations of territorial phenomena and making proposals of land-use intervention and management, which are patterned along four main lines: 1. Combination of temporal and spatial dimensions to explain territorial processes. 2. Recording of geographic information, at both mapping and statistical levels, and its use as a tool to interpret the land. 3. Fieldwork and direct knowledge of the land. 4. Proposals for land-use management and organization. It is obvious that geospatial competences are present in all these lines since they are fundamental, as indicated above, to establish the spatial distribution of phenomena, its subsequent transmission to other physical devices and its ensuing interpretation, linked in many cases to tasks for the land-use management. In the following sec-

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tions, we will present ideas and particular cases to improve the acquisition of these competences so vital for the professional geographer.

Development of Geospatial Competences in Other Disciplines Geography is an interdisciplinary branch of knowledge that has close links with other disciplines such as tourism, economics, geology, or environmental sciences, and that is applicable to a wide range of fields of study. In this case, the focus is on two disciplines in the area of social sciences where geographic information plays an important role: Journalism and outdoor education. Journalism Physical location is an essential element for the information of the media, since any event happens in a certain time and place. “Where?”—the location of the event—is one of the questions which a journalist must obligatorily answer when writing a piece of news. Geographic information has an immense presence and value in the mass media. An example of that is the regular use of maps in written and digital press, and on television. Maps are used in infographics, showing to the readers where a particular event has taken place. They also are indispensable elements for weather forecast in any media (with the exception of radio where the words replace the images). Now, with data journalism, maps have won even more weight and value in the media content, due to their important role as a tool to visualize the information. This has even led to the development of concepts like Geo-journalism, promoted by Faleiros (2014), coordinator of the project Infoamazonia.org, and used with reference to the aspect of data journalism—and by extension, of Journalism, that resort to geographic information and data visualization by using maps. The close link between geography and journalism is evident; therefore, journalists need to develop geospatial competences for the practice of their profession, not only because of the fact that journalism is an occupation that requires constant traveling and search for locations—which involves knowing how to find their way around, use a map, consult a street directory—but because it is necessary to have these competences for data searching and preparation of the information. The development of data journalism entails, in turn, to know how to use new tools such as Geographic Information System (GIS) or online map applications for geolocation or for the preparation of interactive thematic mapping. Knowing these tools and how to use them is also an element of added value over other applicants, especially in countries like Spain, with a highly competitive labor market and a quite low level of employability as is the case for journalism. In addition, it should also be noted that journalism is not the only discipline from the area of communication where geographic information and geolocation play a crucial role. That is also the case in Advertising with the so-called geo-marketing.

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Outdoor Education It is very important in outdoor education to acquire geospatial competences. Traditional fieldwork is essential to make learning more attractive and effective for students of different disciplines (Friera 1995, p. 209; Hernández 2007, p. 108; Liceras 1997, p. 297; Souto 1998, p. 370). Fieldwork benefits are diverse: direct contact with certain kind of source, intense methodical work; improvement for acquiring conceptual and attitudinal content; higher motivation of students; and knowing how to deal with actual problems and cases (Hernández 2007, p. 108). In addition, with the development of ICT, there are systems such as GPS embedded in everyday mobile communication devices whose use in the classroom could be highly advisable. In this line, a widespread example is Geocaching. It is an integrative activity of physical and mental exercise and technology command (web applications, mobile telephony, etc.), it was in May 2000, in the USA. In general, the object of the activity is to hide containers in the country or in town, note down their coordinates, and make them public so that other people can seek them with a GPS location device (Cameron 2004; Dyer 2004; Sherman 2004; Gillin and Gillin 2010).

Methodologies and Practical Examples for the Development of Geospatial Competences Once the concepts of digital and geographical competences have been examined and the possibilities offered in geography, journalism, and outdoor education are exposed, it is time to assess how these competences can be trained in a better way. The acquisition of geospatial competences can be trained with different learning methodologies, both classroom-based and online. In this case, the focus is on three of them: cooperative learning, problem-based learning, and the so-called serious games, by giving practical examples of every typology.

Cooperative Learning The first issue we must focus on before describing the practical examples is the very concept of cooperative learning. Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec explain it as follows in their book Cooperative Learning in the Classroom: Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals. Within cooperative situations, individuals seek outcomes that are beneficial to themselves and beneficial to all other group members. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. It may be contrasted with competitive (students work against each other to achieve an academic goal such as a grade of “A” that only one or a few students can attain) and individualistic (students work by themselves to accomplish learning goals unrelated to those of the other students) learning. (1999: 5)

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In consequence, the key to cooperative learning is teamwork and the generation of synergies among the different members of the team, as a method opposed to other strategies such as individualistic and competitive work, since knowing how to work in a team, is also a key competence in today’s society; The application of this methodology in any discipline is highly pertinent. A few examples are described below. Journalism As an example of the use of cooperative learning in journalism education to develop geospatial competences with digital resources, we describe the experience of the elaboration of a collaborative map of world media by using Google Maps as a tool. This activity was carried out with students of the subject “Global Structure of the Media” of the first year of the Bachelor’s Degree in Journalism at the University of Malaga. In the teaching guide of the subject—which deals with the global structure and system of the media—it is recommended the consumption of international mass media. The activity follows that line, and it is proposed with the objective that students, while studying the structure of the big corporations of the world media, can know, identify, and locate those media on the map, and also share that geolocated information with their fellow students. To carry out this task, where more than 120 students participated, five work groups were created. The task involved, firstly, searching on the Internet mass media of the different countries in the world, and secondly, geolocating every one of them in a map from Google Maps, including a fact sheet with information of each medium (name, country, location, typology, ownership, communication group, and Uniform Resource Locator—URL). In this way, a map of the world mass media was created. This activity makes possible for journalism students the acquisition of both digital and geospatial competences; on the one hand, by learning how to use Google Maps—a tool that, in spite of being digital natives, they never before had used as a geolocation tool, and on the other hand, by using a map where they should situate the media on their respective places of origin. Outdoor Education and Geography The objective of the project Outdoor ICT (outdoorict.uma.es) was to combine outdoor education and ICT in the same activity, thus, it was necessary to carry out a dynamic where participants would reinforce their interest in geography, and develop different competences and skills useful in their everyday life: use of digital devices, geolocation, spatial positioning, appreciation of the heritage in their environment, stimulation of healthy lifestyles, etc. In addition, since the activity was carried out by teams, social competences were enhanced. For the activity, we chose some key monuments and established a route from one to another one by following a list of coordinates entered in the devices, whose screen displayed the way to get to the site (Delgado and Fernández 2013). We also used Google Goggles, a computer application that allows identifying, through an image taken with our own device, the object or monument, providing

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information about the site. It should be highlighted that the database and the information about the different places are uploaded by the users themselves (as in Wikipedia), what is a significant example of the so-called web 2.0 or social web. Teaching that application can have two perspectives: (1) development of digital competences, by using and uploading images and texts, searching for information, etc.; and (2) promotion of heritage and environmental awareness, since this application can help to value specially relevant, or even not widely known, monuments or natural sites. Very interesting was an activity developed in the framework of the official Master program set up by Linköping University (Sweden), “Master of Social Sciences in Outdoor Environmental Education and Outdoor Life” (Delgado et al. 2017), where the class was divided into three groups. Each one worked in a collaborative way and with the help from the instructor for producing a route. The intention of taking into consideration for the route a thematic aspect was that instead of finding a cache, a physical object, as they usually do in geocaching activities, the “cache” would be the place itself. Besides, it was fostered the obtaining of relevant geographical skills such as orientation, map interpretation (map of the town) and observation of the environment, together with digital skills by means of geolocation software (Google Maps and Google Street View) in common devices such as tablets or smartphones. Regarding the thematic aspect of the routes it must be highlighted a very high motivation for their elaboration and originality, as well as interesting and even entertaining. (The routes were: A walk through Central Park in Linköping; Swedish typical food, visiting different shops; Sweetshops, visiting three of the most popular ones in the city.)

Problem-Based Learning Problem-based learning is another methodology that can be most useful and adequate to acquire geospatial competences. Hung, Jonassen, and Liu note that its origin was in 1950s, when it started to be used in medical school programs and the define it as: An instructional method initiates students’ learning by creating a need to solve an authentic problem. During the problem-solving process, students construct content knowledge and develop problem-solving skills as well as self-directed learning skills while working toward a solution to the problem. (2008: 486)

The key to this methodology is, therefore, to solve an actual daily-life problem, faced by any student in the future in their professional practice. As indicated above, since geospatial competences have a cross-cutting nature, and being useful for highly varied disciplines, ranging from geography to journalism, education, la archaeology, tourism, architecture, or environmental sciences, this pedagogy and its goal can be applied to all those fields of knowledge; as for Journalism, for example, by proposing the elaboration of an interactive map about any subject—related to any newsworthy event- with geolocated information, to be published in a digital medium; as for Archaeology, by exporting georeferenced information from a real excavation to a

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Geographic Information System for its ulterior processing and analysis; or, in the case of Tourism, by elaborating a guided route for tourists visiting a particular town. An exemplary case is the former online subject from the Andalusian Virtual Campus (Campus Andaluz Virtual, CAV) “Fundamental Mapping: Elaboration and Interpretation” (Cartografía Fundamental: elaboración e interpretación). It was a subject where work teams were created with students from the ten Andalusian Universities and different disciplines. In its last lesson, map resources on the Internet, the student should deal with the activity called “Málaga Twister”, based on an actual case: the tornado that lashed the city of Málaga on February 1, 2009. With aerial photographs after the disaster and a geo-browser (Iberpix, available at www.ign.es) they had to make a report about damage description and location. The use of satellite images is shown as a powerful and useful element in geography education, where a lot of examples of good practices can be found (Roseeu 2004, pp. 159–187).

Serious Games As a first approach to the concept, Ritterfeld, Cody, and Vorderer define serious games as “any form of interactive computer-based game software for one or multiple players to be used on any platform and that has been developed with the intention to be more than entertainment” (2009: 6). Other goals are, as stated by those authors, to “educate, motivate, and change behavior” (2009: 3). The educational purpose is, therefore, fundamental in this kind of games. Videogames can help to this objective by evening up the individual differences in the development of spatial competences (Subrahmanyam and Greenfield 1994). Basic capacities that videogames can foster, with regard to spatial cognition, are various, so studying them may contribute to an improved understanding of the mechanisms of learning and may offer new approaches to teach spatial skills (Spence and Feng 2010). Within this line, an interdisciplinary team from institutions of six countries, led by the University of Málaga, is developing, within the framework of the project Erasmus+ E-Civeles (www.e-civeles.eu), a videogame on a 3-D scenario, based on a real geographic setting, the historic centers of four European towns: Antequera (Spain), Évora (Portugal), Udine (Italy) and Velenje (Slovenia), by creating scale models of them, where players interact with those settings and with objects placed on them to achieve the goal of the game. Players must get around downtown streets, seeking relevant monuments where they will find pieces of partial information about aspects related to important personalities and events of their history and art heritage. The more monuments and clues they find on their way, the more information they will know to be able to answer a final test and win the game. The objectives intended to achieve with that videogame are: (1) improvement of digital competences, since participants are engaged in a three-dimensional spatial environment, in a digital world that approaches them to a real setting. Actually,

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they act in that setting by using mouse and keyboard, as a fundamental interface; (2) enhancement of orientation competences or geospatial competences, as they are situated in a three-dimensional virtual space, where they must go around to reach some targets; (3) fostering cognitive functions, as they must tackle a numbers of tasks, collect and organize information, and make sense of it to complete the game; and (4) better understanding of the historic and artistic heritage of a particular site, and consequently, higher awareness of its conservation. In short, the purpose of this videogame, as it is the case with others in the area of humanities, is to achieve a wider range of skills, more appropriate for the technological development of our society.

The Development of Geospatial Competences by Using E-Learning Resources In teaching, in general, and at universities, in particular, subjects and courses have become virtualized to a larger or lesser extent. Introduction of learning platforms like Moodle made possible the blended learning, by using them as repositories of materials, communication spaces (internal mail, forums, consultation), collaborative work (Wikipedia), evaluation (questionnaires), or management of the learning results (tasks), among other functionalities. A good example in this sense was the launch of a virtual course about general Mapping contents in the Virtual Andalusian Campus (Campus Andaluz Virtual, CAV), within the framework of the program Digital University (Universidad Digital), sponsored and funded by the regional Council of Innovation, Science and Business of the Andalusian Government—Consejería de Ciencia y Empresa de la Junta de Andalucía (Delgado et al. 2009). CAV offered the students from the ten public universities in the Autonomous Community of Andalusia (Spain), so some of the particular features of the campus were the geographic dispersion of students and instructors, the diversity of the degrees involved, the different interests and expectations of the students, and, specially, the specific methodologies needed to develop a totally virtual subject. Unfortunately, with the change in degree programs and removal of free choice subjects, this unique and interesting proposal disappeared in 2005 after 6 years functioning well. The developed subject was called “Fundamental Mapping: Elaboration and Interpretation” (Cartografía Fundamental: elaboración e interpretación). It was of 16 weeks’ duration and had 50 students from degrees as different as topography, history, biology or economics. Collaborative work was the cornerstone on which instructors and students together constructed the subject building, by following a participative model characterized by “know-how,” teamwork, communication, and creativity (López Noguero 2007: 51), focused on interchange processes, and collective construction of knowledge by the people of the group (López Noguero 2007: 57). The creation of teams and the use of forums was an excellent interactive tool promoting communication and even the tutoring between peers (Exley and Dennick 2007: 159).

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More recently, new formulas have emerged within virtual education such as OCW (Open Course Ware) and MOOC (Massive Open Online Course). The ultimate basis of their courses are similar: to offer virtual courses worldwide, although on the former there is no connection with instructors, so courses can be taken in an asynchronous way; while in the MOOC there is a time schedule to be followed, promoting with different formulas (forums, peer assessment, etc.) the relations among students and between students and instructors or curators of the course. Courses are free in both cases, although in the second case students have the opportunity to obtain an official certificate from organizers upon payment of certain fees. MOOC represents a novel method with a huge potential to spread and teach any discipline. Geography should not stand aside this process. A proposal in this line was “Knowing the Mediterranean” (Conocer el Mediterráneo), a course for the academic year 2014/15, created by a teaching team from the University of Málaga on the platform MiriadaX (Delgado and Almeida 2015).

Conclusions We are living in an information-society era, where the use of ICT is present in all the areas of our lives. Expansion of ICT in education means a revolution, by providing teachers and students with new tools in the teaching and learning process and new channels for interaction and participation. Digital competences, as well as geospatial competences and geographical information, present an interdisciplinary character, as they don´t confine themselves to the geography, but also to other disciplines. For this reason, it is important to promote their learning, as well as the collaboration between knowledge fields with common needs, and hence the creation of interdisciplinary working teams. Bailey (1981, pp. 21–22) highlights the relevance of what he calls “graphicacy”—the ability to communicate spatial information that cannot be adequately transmitted by oral or numeric means, including production and interpretation of maps as well as application of statistical methods would be a part of this competence. Education in order to gain geospatial skills is fundamental to develop any work in order to resolve any spatial problem, even in daily life. As shown in the practical examples above, for the professional geographer to establish the spatial distribution of phenomena, its subsequent transmission to other physical devices and its ensuing interpretation, linked mainly to tasks for the land-use management is vital. Moreover, regarding journalism, geographic information has a great presence in the mass media. Nowadays, with data journalism, maps have won even more value due to their important role as a tool to visualize the information (e.g., interactive thematic mapping), emerging new concepts such as Geo-journalism (Faleiros 2014). For journalists to acquire competences for data searching and preparation of the information is crucial. Obtaining geospatial competences is also very important in outdoor edu-

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cation where fieldwork is essential to make learning more attractive and effective for students. Moreover, with the development of ICT, there are systems such as GPS embedded in everyday mobile communication devices whose use in the classroom is highly advisable. The acquisition of geospatial competences can be trained with different learning methodologies, both classroom-based and online such as cooperative learning, problem-based learning, and serious games, among others. By using ICT can reinforce the interest of participants in geography regarding their everyday life: use of digital devices, geolocation, spatial positioning, and satellite images. In addition, other issues such as appreciation of the heritage in their environment, stimulation of healthy lifestyles, improvement of social competences, etc. can be enhanced. To adapt different learning methodologies to the use of everyday ICT offers, as shown above, a real universe of possibilities to discover in the field of education.

References ANECA (2004) Libro Blanco del Título de Grado de Geografía y Ordenación del Territorio. Agencia Nacional de Evaluación de la Calidad y Acreditación, Madrid, España Bailey P (1981) Didáctica de la Geografía. Editorial Cincel, Madrid, España Cameron L (2004) The geocaching handbook (Falcon guide). The Globe Pequot Press, Guildford, EEUU De Lázaro y Torres ML, Delgado Peña JJ (2013) Geolocation, a world of possibilities for people in later life. In Delgado JJ (ed) Geographic and geolocation competences for people in later life. BPS Creatividad, Málaga, España, pp 18–25 Delgado JJ, Aguilar D, Subires MP (2009) La Enseñanza Virtual de las Competencias Geográficas y el Aprendizaje Colaborativa. Una experiencia desde la asignatura del Campus Andaluz Virtual (CAV) “Cartografía Fundamental”. In: Sande E (ed) A Inteligência Geográfica na Educaçao lo Século XXI. Associaçao de Professores de Geografia, Lisboa, pp 170–176 Delgado JJ, Almeida F (2015) Conocer el Mediterráneo. Reflexiones y perspectivas de un MOOC en el ámbito de la Geografía. In: Ruiz-Palmero J, Sánchez-Rodríguez J, Sánchez-Rivas E (eds) Innovaciones con tecnologías emergentes. Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, España Delgado JJ, Fernández JC (2013) Competencias digitales y geolocalización en la enseñanza del adulto mayor: ejemplo en el casco histórico de Antequera. En: Moreno MC, Gallego MM, Gallego CI (eds) Retos educativos de la cultura andaluza en una sociedad global. Málaga, España: Grupo de Investigación HUM-689, pp 55–65 Delgado JJ, Subires MP, Arias J (2017) Spatial skills development in outdoor education: a comparison between graduates students at the Universities of Málaga (Spain) and LInköping (Sweden). Eur J Geogr 8(3):41–66 Dyer M (2004) The essential guide to geocaching. Fulcrum Publishing, Golden, EEUU Exley K, Dennick R (2007) Enseñanza en Pequeños Grupos en Educación Superior. Narcea, Madrid, España EU (2016) The digital competence Framework 2.0. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/ digcomp/digital-competence-framework Faleiros G (2014) Geoperiodismo: Relatos que dialogan con el territorio. Cómo los reporteros pueden participar en el proceso de mapeo contemporáneo. In: VV.AA. Manual de Periodismo de Datos Iberoamericano. Retrieved from http://manual.periodismodedatos.org/gustavo-faleiros. php

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Friera F (1995) Didáctica de las Ciencias Sociales. Geografía e Historia. Ediciones de la Torre, Madrid, España Gillin P, Gillin D (2010) The joy of geocaching. Linden Publishing, Chicago, EEUU Hernández FX (2007) Didáctica de las ciencias sociales, geografía e historia, 3ª edn. Graó, Barcelona, España Herrero C, Pastor M (2011) Las competencias en Ciencias Sociales en el título de Maestro de Educación Primaria. Didáctica Geográfica 12:73–90 Hung W, Jonassen DH, Liu R (2008) Problem-based learning. En: Spector JM, Merrill MD, Van Merriënboer J, Driscoll MP (eds) Handbook of research on educational communications and technology. Routledge Handbooks Online. Retrieved from http://www.aect.org/edtech/edition3/ er5849x_c038.fm.pdf Johnson DW, Johnson RT, Holubec EJ (1999) El aprendizaje cooperativo en el aula. Paidós SAICF, Buenos Aires, Argentina Liceras A (1997) La observación y el estudio del paisaje. In: García AL (ed) Didáctica de las Ciencias Sociales, Geografía e Historia en la Enseñanza Secundaria. Grupo Editorial Universitario, Granada, España, pp 297–325 López Noguero F (2007) Metodología participativa en la Enseñanza Universitaria. Narcea, Madrid, España Ritterfeld U, Cody M, Vorderer P (2009) Serious games: mechanisms and effects. Routledge, New York Roseeu R (2004) Digitale Satellitenbilder. En: Schleicher Y (ed) Computer, Internet & Co. im Erdkunde-Unterricht. Cornelsen, Berlin, Alemania Schleicher Y (2006) Digitale Medien und E-learning motivierend einsetzen. In: Haubrich H (ed) Geographie unterrichten lernen, München. Oldenburg, Alemania Sherman E (2004) Geocaching. Hike and Seek with your GPS. Springer, New York, EEUU Souto XM (1998) Didáctica de la Geografía. Problemas sociales y conocimiento del medio. Ediciones del Serbal, Barcelona, España Spence I, Feng J (2010) Video games and spatial cognition. Rev Gen Psychol 14(2):92–104 Subrahmanyam K, Greenfield PM (1994) Effect of video game practice on spatial skills in girls and boys. J Appl Dev Psychol 15:13–32 UNESCO (2017a) ICT in education. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/themes/ icts/ UNESCO (2017b) ICT in education. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/themes/ict-education UNESCO (2017c). Las TIC en la educación. Retrieved from https://es.unesco.org/themes/ticeducacion

Part III

Geospatial Technologies for Education: Practices and Case Studies

Using Computer Games to Mitigate Disaffected Emotions in the Geography Classroom. Lessons Learned from Small-Scale Research on Teaching Sustainable Spatial Planning with Minecraft Mark Opmeer, Anne Faber, Eduardo Dias and Henk Scholten Abstract In this chapter, we try to assess the affordances of digital game-based learning (DGBL) for teaching sustainable spatial planning in high school geography education. In particular, it is our aim to study the mitigating influence of the commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) game Minecraft on children’s negative emotional engagement with a project-based assignment on sustainable spatial planning. A Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) test was administered to obtain information on the control and treatment groups’ affective state at the start (week 7) and at the end of the intervention (week 15). The results of this pretest–posttest control group study provide new insights about DGBL and engagement in the geography classroom. In the Minecraft group, we witnessed significantly decreased negative affect compared to the control group. Based on these results, we can argue that employing COTS computer games, such as Minecraft, successfully mitigates the development of disaffected emotions during a longer term project based on sustainable spatial planning in a classroom environment. Keywords Minecraft · Digital game-based learning · Negative emotional engagement · Sustainable spatial planning · PANAS

Introduction A growing body of knowledge exists relating to the impact of computer games on affective and cognitive learning (All 2014; Arnab et al. 2015; Boyle et al. 2016; Perttula et al. 2017). Specifically, the empirical highlighted affordances of serious games and commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games for formal and informal teaching purposes have boosted the academic debate on digital game-based learning (DGBL) in M. Opmeer (B) · A. Faber · E. Dias · H. Scholten Spatial Information Laboratory, School of Business and Economics, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. de Miguel González et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education, Key Challenges in Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6_9

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the past two decades (Arnab 2012; Boyle et al. 2016; Byun and Loh 2015; Dankbaar and Saase 2015). Parallel to this discussion, there has been enormous academic interest in investigating the external and internal mechanisms that contribute to student engagement in classroom situations. Since the 1980s, scholars have increasingly advocated the need to study engagement because of its possibilities for solving educational problems such as disinterest, procrastination, and dropping out (Fredricks et al. 2016). In educational psychology and pedagogy, achieving high and consistent student engagement is seen as the holy grail for creating deep learning experiences in the classroom (Deater-Deckard et al. 2014; Eseryel et al. 2014; Skinner et al. 2008). Because of the positive relationship between student engagement and study performance, we would expect that scholars have assessed the affordances of DGBL for achieving high levels of affective learning outcomes. Surprisingly, only a few empirical studies have been conducted in order to understand the potential of digital games for improving affective learning outcomes throughout the educational process (Byun and Loh 2015; Deater-Deckard et al. 2014; Martey et al. 2014). We, therefore, suggest there is a need for more empirical studies that thoroughly investigate how computer games can effectively improve student engagement in the classroom environment. This chapter aims to contribute to the academic debate on DGBL and student engagement. In particular, we investigate how the COTS game Minecraft can prevent school children becoming distressed, upset, nervous, or irritated with a 16-week project-based assignment on sustainable spatial planning. In other words, to what extent does a digital game-based approach to prevent disaffection, a combination of enervated and alienated emotion and pressured participation (Skinner et al. 2008), during a long-term learning task in the geography classroom? Studying game-based approaches to geography education is not new. As a result of the digital revolution in geography education, a substantial body of research has been published on the affordances of geospatial technologies (GSTs) for spatial thinking, geographical thinking, and geospatial thinking. GSTs, such as geographical information systems (GISs), and computer games are considered important geospatial tools to teach and learn geography in an innovative and challenging way (Muñiz Solari et al. 2015). Accordingly, different studies have investigated the learning effect of these tools in geography education (Favier and van der Schee 2014). However, some questions remain about how GSTs, especially computer games, can successfully enrich learners’ engagement with geography curriculum. Therefore, we aim to answer the following research question: Does the employment of the COTS game Minecraft mitigate the development of disaffected emotions more effectively during a long-term learning task involving sustainable spatial planning than when a nongame instructional medium is used? This article draws upon the theories of affective learning and user engagement from motivational literature and the field of human–computer interaction. The selfsystem model of motivational development (SSMD) (Skinner et al. 2008) and O’Brien and Toms’ (2010) theoretical discussion on users’ experiences with interactive systems will be employed as theoretical frameworks to carefully measure and explain the effects of Minecraft on school children’s levels of emotional engagement.

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We begin this chapter with a short introduction on the affordances of DGBL for affective learning. Subsequently, the (motivational) engagement theories of Skinner et al. (2008) and O’Brien and Toms (2010) are discussed. We continue by providing a thorough description of the project-based assignment and the research procedure that was applied to answer this study’s research question. Last, we share our findings, lessons learned, and suggestions for using COTS games in general and Minecraft in particular for geography education.

Background DGBL in Support of Classroom Engagement Analyzing DGBL is trending. In the past 5 years, the body of knowledge on the affordances of digital games for educational purposes has grown by more than 400% (Boyle et al. 2016). It has become widely accepted that computer games have pedagogical benefits in different educational settings. Almost a decade ago, various scholars and the media focused on the negative aspects of computers games, such as the risk of addiction and exposure to violence. Fortunately, a growing number of researchers have highlighted the positive effects of digital games, which helped to establish a positive perspective on the influence of DGBL on learners’ knowledge, skills, motivation, and behavior in the classroom (Arnab et al. 2015; Boyle et al. 2016; de Freitas et al. 2010). However, the empirical demonstrated pedagogic potential of game-based learning does not mean that all games in all educational settings contribute to the cognitive, affective, and behavioral learning process. Integrating DGBL in the classroom is difficult and involves different factors that need to be carefully considered (Proulx et al. 2017). For example, the use of computer games in formal education requires an advanced and robust digital infrastructure; teachers must feel confident and capable of applying games in their teaching practice; and the existence of different learning styles, personal circumstances, and digital literacy among school children require multiple strategies to ensure the whole class is involved in the computer gameenhanced learning process. Accordingly, it is very important to stress that a digital game is a vehicle to facilitate learning; if the game does not match the target audience’s needs and expectations, the educational process may be significantly disrupted. For this reason, Kim and Shin (2016) suggest that providing extended training sessions and detailed manuals for teachers is essential to teach the basics of employing games for learning tasks (Kim and Shin 2016). Another aspect that must be considered is the important role of traditional classroom materials. As the game is used as a tool to stimulate the learning process, it does not replace the instruction, plenary discussion, and debriefing sessions of the lesson. From the field of educational psychology we know that by stimulating school children to share their ideas, feelings, and achievements aloud with their classmates,

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an improved understanding of the topic under discussion occurs. Furthermore, pedagogy has demonstrated that children experience increased learning when teachers help them to structure chunks of information during a question and answer conversation. Arnab et al. (2013) suggest using a blended game-based learning intervention that combines the affordances of the interactive game-based approach with traditional classroom didactic strategies (Arnab et al. 2013). Different game mechanisms can be identified to improve knowledge and skill development, motivation, and behavior change. Commercial computer games are in general characterized by strong visual graphics and engaging sound effects. These features can contribute to the level of motivation and behavior change. For example, realistic video games about the Second World War, such as Call of Duty, may stimulate learners’ interest in this historical period, which consequently may result in increased motivation to learn more about the topic. Appealing graphics and sounds immerse learners in a virtual but realistic world, which helps to create better feelings about the subject being taught (Byun and Loh 2015). Another game mechanism that contributes to the learning process is the ability to play together. A cooperative goal structure allows school children to engage with each other in the virtual world (Boyle et al. 2016). They have the opportunity to help each other or to compete with each other in a digital environment. This social aspect of gaming contributes to the learning process because the children are prompted to share their impressions and ideas in their own words using the chat function of the game. Learners, therefore, become aware of their current state of knowledge, which may trigger new learning activities to acquire more knowledge. Digital learning communities emerge that do not stop after class but continue outside school (Sung and Hwang 2013). Although a significant number of studies stress the educational importance of using computer games in the classroom, a lack of research exists in which the impact of these media on children’s actual engagement with a learning task is investigated (Byun and Loh 2015; Connolly et al. 2008). Only a few researchers have empirically tested the effect of serious (educational) games on the emotional and behavioral engagement of children in the classroom (Lamb et al. 2018). Studies that investigate the impact of COTS games on learners’ disengagement are unfortunately even scarcer (Byun and Loh 2015). For this reason, this paper tries to shed more light on this research topic.

Theorizing Emotional Engagement There is a substantial body of knowledge on student engagement. Since the 1980s, a large group of scholars from different fields of study have tried to conceptualize engagement as an educational construct, aiming to understand its relationship with emotions, motivation, and knowledge acquisition (Eseryel et al. 2014). Generally speaking, four reasons can be given to explain the popularity of researching student engagement. First, engagement is significantly linked to high-

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quality learning. Second, engagement is a meta-construct and comprises studies in behavior, emotions, and cognition. Third, engagement and disengagement are very concrete phenomena for teachers and researchers and are highly recognizable in classroom environments. Fourth, teachers and their classroom settings have a strong influence on learners’ engagement; consequently, a constructive debate about how to improve children’s engagement with learning activities exists in schools (Fredricks et al. 2016). Currently, a consensus exists among researchers regarding the multidimensionality of engagement. However, the number of components or dimensions that typify this multidimensionality is still a subject of debate. For the purposes of this study, we adopted Skinner et al. (2008)’s SSMD. According to SSMD, engagement is characterized by a combination of behavioral and emotional dimensions. It postulates that a significant degree of positive motivation and behavior is necessary to achieve high-quality learning results. The learner must experience a high level of enthusiasm, involvement, and absorption to achieve a profound understanding of the subject under study. Therefore, emotions and behavior play an important role in this conception of engagement (Skinner et al. 2008). Behavioral engagement in classroom environments includes learners’ effort, attention, and persistence to successfully accomplish the learning goals of the assignment. Emotional engagement includes visible signs of emotion during a learning activity, such as enthusiasm and enjoyment. Skinner et al. speak of “patterns of action” that comprise a combination of emotions and behaviors, attention, and intentions that result in goal-directed, emotion-laden functional packages (Skinner et al. 2014). Emotions and behavior are strongly interrelated but operate autonomously (Skinner et al. 2008). However, according to multiple motivation methodologies, such as self-determination theory (SDT), emotions have a significant influence on the level of engagement and knowledge acquisition (Ryan and Deci 2000). From this perspective, emotional engagement fuels behavioral engagement during a learning activity in the classroom, which implies that a reciprocal interaction between both components may occur. The interaction between behavior and emotion is dynamic; these components strongly influence each other during an educational activity in a classroom environment. And because this reciprocal interaction has a place in the action of the learning task, Skinner et al. (2008) speak of the internal dynamics of the interaction between two components that indicate the level of learners’ engagement. The internal dynamics of interaction are facilitated by self-system processes (SSPs). These engagement facilitators can be defined as personal resources that are developed over time in response to the interaction with the social environment (Skinner et al. 2008). Key SSPs are relatedness (the natural desire to connect with others), competence (the need to master specific skills to be able to interact with the environment), and autonomy (the need to act as the true self and to express one’s own preferences).

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Beside the internal dynamics of interaction, external dynamics also influence learners’ engagement. These dynamics are generally facilitated by the teacher and the classroom environment. A warm relationship between the teacher and the children and a clean and structured classroom are important facilitators that influence learners’ level of engagement within the learning activity. The conceptual framework of Skinner et al. (2008) provides interesting insights regarding the internal and external dynamics of learners’ engagement in the classroom. This model helps us to understand which factors contribute to children’s engagement (or disengagement) with a specific learning task. As stated above, in this study, we will assess whether Minecraft significantly mitigates the development of disaffected emotions during a long-term learning task on sustainable spatial planning in a geography classroom. More specifically, we investigate the potential of this COTS game to prevent the development of emotional disengagement from the project-based assignment. To investigate this, the following hypothesis is tested: H1 Using Minecraft for a long-term learning task mitigates the development of disaffected emotions more effectively than when a nongame instructional medium is employed To assess this hypothesis, we administered the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) test to obtain information about the experimental and control groups’ affective state in the first week and the last week when the game/nongame intervention was applied. More information about the research design and the instruments is provided in Fig. 1.

Method and Procedure Research Design A quasi-experimental research design (pretest–posttest control group study) was employed in this study. In total, 101 school children aged between 12 and 15 anonymously participated. The students were in their third year of pre-university education. Because of privacy concerns, we were not allowed to ask for specific information about the children’s backgrounds and characteristics. The 45 children of class 3A and class 3B were allocated to the control group (nongame intervention), and the 56 children of class 3C and class 3D were allocated to the experimental group (game-based intervention). Two teachers with a similar pedagogic background and didactic approach were responsible for the educational process in the classroom. Teacher one taught classes 3A and 3B, and teacher two taught classes 3C and 3D. All lessons started with a plenary introduction and a plenary ending. In between, the school children had the opportunity to work on their learning task.

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Fig. 1 The self-system model of motivational development (SSMMD) (Skinner et al. 2008) and the schematic depiction of this study’s hypothesis (H1)

The project started in September and ended in December. The students worked through four lessons of 50 min each per week spread over 2 days, Tuesday and Thursday. In weeks 1–6, the children gathered important information to be able to develop a sustainable spatial design. In week 7, the design process started. In the experimental group, Minecraft was used for this purpose. In the control group, the children worked with paper and pencils. The Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) questionnaire was administered by the teachers during the game/nongame intervention in week 7 and week 15. The PANAS questionnaire was developed by Watson, Clark, and Tellegen in 1988, and is translated and validated in the Dutch language by Peeters et al. 1996. The questionnaire was originally developed as a psychometric measure to obtain insights in the patients’ mental wellbeing, but proved also to be highly helpful for educational scientist that aim to assess their student’s affective state prior, during and after a learning task (Brom et al. 2016; Peeters et al. 1996; Watson et al. 1988). More information about the learning task and the research procedure is provided below.

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Project-Based Assignment on Sustainable Spatial Planning A framework was developed to prepare and structure the development of the projectbased assignment on sustainable spatial planning. We labeled this framework the Stakeholder-Scientist-Teacher Model (SSTM). The SSTM Model is largely based on Brundiers and Wiek’s (2011) empirically validated framework of sustainability research education. This framework is created for teachers in academia as a tool to develop meaningful inquiry-based learning assignments about the real world, twenty-first-century issues, such as climate change, migration and extreme poverty (see Fig. 2). It consists of four roles: (1) the stakeholder or decision maker that faces sustainability problems which need to be resolved; (2) the university that offers domain-specific and methodological knowledge, and teaches students to link knowledge to action, and important interpersonal and collaborative skills; (3) a transacademic interface manager (TIM) that is responsible for bringing the stakeholders and universities together, and for freeing these participants from project-related management tasks; (4) the students that conduct the actual research (Brundiers and Wiek 2011). In line with the framework of sustainability research education, three comparable roles are defined in the SSTM model: (1) the stakeholder, (2) the scientist/engineer, and (3) the teachers and school children. As such, the SSTM model aims to function in this project as the secondary education equivalent of Brundiers and Wiek’s framework for academic sustainability research education (see Fig. 3). In the SSTM model, each role has its own responsibilities and objectives. The stakeholder is responsible for formulating a challenging research question that the children need

Fig. 2 Framework of Sustainability Research Education (Brundiers and Wiek 2011)

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Stakeholders

ScienƟsts and engineers

Teachers and school children

Fig. 3 The Stakeholder-Scientist-Teacher Model (SSTM)

to solve. This question should be closely related to the stakeholders’ daily practice. The Dutch Road Authority (Rijkswaterstaat) took the role of a stakeholder in this project. During multiple feedback sessions, the stakeholder was invited to assess the children’s (preliminary) spatial designs. Scientists and engineers played an important role in preparing the digital infrastructure of the employed computer game. Furthermore, they were responsible for the research component of the project (literature review, conceptual model) and disseminating their knowledge via academic publications, conference presentations, and other channels. The authors of this chapter were assigned to this role. The teachers and school children formed the cornerstone of this project. The teachers were responsible for developing the lesson plan, safeguarding the learning process, and informing the children of important dates, milestones, and deadlines. The teachers administered the questionnaires in week 7 and week 15. Lastly, the school children iteratively developed multiple solutions for resolving the stakeholder’s sustainability problem.

Development of the Project-Based Assignment During the first phase of the project, a meeting was planned in August 2015 at the Rijkswaterstaat in Lelystad. One of the aims was to define a central topic and research

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question for the project-based assignment. After consideration, the theme of the learning task was decided to be the design of future scenarios for the Marker Wadden, an artificially created group of islands in Lake Markermeer in The Netherlands1 using the “building with nature” methodology. The project-based assignment is situated in the year 2020. Phase one of the Marker Wadden project—the development of islands from sediment in Lake Markermeer—has been successfully realized. Because of its success, there are sufficient financial resources left to initiate a second phase. This second phase entails the spatial planning of the islands. An important criterion for this design is the integration of nature, recreation, and energy functions. The students in the treatment group are asked by the stakeholder (Rijkswaterstaat) to use Minecraft to make a spatial design of these islands, where these functions are integrated on the islands in a sustainable way. The children in the control group are asked to do the same using a paper-based approach. In addition, the students have to advise the stakeholder about the following: • In which direction the islands can be extended; • How this design contributes to the environmental quality of Lake Markermeer.

Project Booklet The project booklet to inform the children about the aims and schedule of the assignment consisted of five parts: (1) Crucial project information with background information about Lake Markermeer and the contemporary challenges for Society for the preservation of nature monument in the Netherlands (Natuurmonumenten) and Rijkswaterstaat; (2) A stepping-stone plan to guide the students through the overall process: a. Find (historical) information on the creation of Lake Markermeer in the 1970s; b. Explore the water system of Lake Markermeer in the past (e.g., currents, water depths, waterfronts); c. List the current social–economical activities associated with Lake Markermeer (e.g., fishing, freshwater facilities, recreation); d. Describe the current water quality of Lake Markermeer; e. Inform yourself about the roles of Natuurmonumenten and Rijkswaterstaat in the Marker Wadden project; f. Analyze the functions to be considered for the spatial planning of the islands (nature, recreation, food, and energy). In the final phase, the learners are asked to deliver two products, a design in Minecraft and advice on paper. The design and the report will be presented at the stakeholders during a public meeting. 1 For more information, see: https://www.natuurmonumenten.nl/marker-wadden/english and https:// boskalis.com/csr/cases/marker-wadden.html.

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(3) Background information and a short manual for the computer game Minecraft; (4) An overview of bachelor and master programs that allows one to prepare to work at organizations such as Rijkswaterstaat and Natuurmonumenten; (5) A timetable with important milestones and deadlines.

Instruments In the field of DGBL, a various number of data techniques have been employed to obtain information on learners’ cognitive and emotional states, such as physiological measures, eye tracking and attention, behavioral observation, analyzing mouse movements, and self-report measures (Martey et al. 2014; O’Brien and Toms 2010). In line with O’Brien and Toms (2010) and Martey et al. (2014), we argue that self-report questionnaires are highly appropriate techniques for assessing learners’ perceptions of their emotional and behavioral engagement, as these instruments provide more information about the individuals experienced state of engagement than performance indicators or physiological metrics tell us. For this reason, we administered a scale that was adopted from Brom et al. study on computer games and cognitive and affective learning (Brom et al. 2016). The PANAS questionnaire contains two mood scales of 20 items in total that allow the researcher to obtain information about an individual’s positive (PANAS PLUS) and negative (PANAS MIN) level of affect at that moment. The questionnaire contains ten positive affect items (e.g., enthusiastic, interested, determined) and ten negative affect items (e.g. scared, afraid, upset), and is based on a 5-point Likert Scale ranging from “not at all” to “very much”. In this research, the Dutch version of the PANAS questionnaire is used to assess the children’s level of emotional disengagement throughout their learning task (Peeters et al. 1996). At every lesson, the children are asked to complete the questionnaire after 30 min working on the assignment. This allowed us to carefully measure the affective state of the children in the experimental and control groups during the treatment in week 7 and week 15. Since this research is specifically aimed at investigating the student’s development of disaffected emotions, only the results of the PANAS MIN items (number 11–20) were analyzed (Table 1).

Intervention: Minecraft Minecraft is a so-called open world or sandbox game that was released in 2011 by the Swedish company Mojang. Minecraft can be compared with virtual Lego; the whole game consists of big blocks that can be created or demolished by the player. Minecraft comes in two game modes, survival and creative. Survival mode allows the player to roam in a borderless (open) world. The main goal is to survive in a world full of dangerous creatures by building a house and producing food. In the creative

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Table 1 Outline of procedure and interventions Schedule

Treatment groups 3C and 3D: Game-based instructional medium (n = 56)

Control groups 3A and 3B: Nongame-based instructional medium (n = 45)

Week 1 Thursday 100 min

Instruction and discussion led by teacher and stakeholder Creating groups of four children

Instruction and discussion led by teacher and stakeholder Creating groups of four children

Weeks 2–6 Tuesday 100 min Thursday 100 min

Tasks 1–6 1. Identifying the problem 2. Investigating the solution: Marker Wadden phase 1 3. Understanding the “Building with Nature” philosophy 4. Investigating the current challenges with regard to sustainable spatial planning 5. Marker Wadden: making plans for phase 2; how to combine recreation and/or green energy production with the protection of environmental conditions

Tasks 1–6 1. Identifying the problem 2. Investigating the solution: Marker Wadden phase 1 3. Understanding the “Building with Nature” philosophy 4. Investigating the current challenges with regard to sustainable spatial planning 5. Marker Wadden: making plans for phase 2; how to combine recreation and/or green energy production with the protection of environmental conditions

Weeks 7–8 PANAS: administered in week 7 after 30 min working on the learning task with the game/nongame-based intervention

6. Minecraft: create a first version of your spatial design, where the nature and energy and/or recreation functions are combined

6. Paper: create a first version of your spatial design where the nature and energy and/or recreation functions are combined

Week 9

Presenting first draft. Receiving feedback of stakeholder

Presenting first draft. Receiving feedback of stakeholder

Weeks 10–15 PANAS: administered in week 15 after 30 min working on the learning task with the game/nongame-based intervention

Implementing feedback Working on final design in Minecraft

Implementing feedback Working on final design on paper

Week 16

Presenting final design Discussion

Presenting final design Discussion

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mode, the player already has access to all materials and tools, which allows them to build anything they can imagine. This mode proves to be an excellent starting point to engage learners in spatial planning and design. The multiplayer option allows players to work together on a communal design in real time. The commercial version of Minecraft is already a very solid and reliable piece of software. Embedding this package in a school curriculum can, however, be a bit difficult because special knowledge is needed to set up a server and to adjust the settings in a preferable way. Because of—its stable hosting and easy management opportunities, we chose MinecraftEdu,2 an educational Minecraft version developed by Teacher Gaming in Finland. MinecraftEdu allows teachers to host and personalize their own servers through a dashboard interface. No knowledge of the command line is required. We found this very important, as the teachers should feel comfortable using Minecraft in their lessons. Location plays an important role in Minecraft. The open world consists of different regions with their own (visual) characteristics and place identity. Players ask each other where they are and can “warp” (teleport) to places using the Minecraft coordinate system. Of course, it is also possible for a player to walk or run; it depends mostly on the distance one has to travel to reach a specific location. Reasoning about distances, directions, and movement fosters simple spatial thinking. Minecraft also contributes to the development of learners’ complex spatial thinking skills. To be able to build in this computer game requires a profound understanding of gradient, relief, and scale. For example, constructing a house stimulates one to reason about the relief of a specific location, the density of the walls, and the gradient of the roof. Moreover, if Minecraft is used for analytical purposes, it is crucial to have even more spatial skills. Analyzing the patterns of roads and railways, calculating the clustering and distribution of garbage facilities in urban regions, and depicting the network structure of 4G antennas in a specific area are all examples of challenges that foster the ability to think spatially. Because various GIS datasets can be converted to Minecraft for visualization and analytical purposes, this computer game proves to be, in the words of Jo and Bednarz, “a vehicle for student acquisition of knowledge and skills supporting spatial thinking” (Jo and Bednarz 2009) (Figs. 4 and 5).

Results and Discussion Results The Cronbach’s alpha value of the children’s disaffected emotions (PANAS MIN) measure was 0.936, which demonstrates acceptable reliability in internal consistency. The data of 101 school children were analyzed for the PANAS MIN test of this study.

2 https://minecraftedu.com/.

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Fig. 4 Example of a sustainable spatial design in Minecraft of the Marker Wadden. This learning group decided to integrate the functions recreation and nature in their plan

Fig. 5 Using green means of transportation (electric hovercraft and glide aircraft) for recreation purposes to generate sustainable income for the maintenance of the Marker Wadden

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Table 2 Descriptive statistics for pretest and posttest negative affect scores Control group (nongame)

Experimental group (game)

N

Mean

27

15.89

Posttest 27

25.52

Pretest

SD

N

Mean

SD

Score difference

p

7.6

43

16.86

7.8

0.97

0.851

10.09

43

18.28

8.8

7.24

0.002

Score difference

9.63

1.42

p

0.001

0.471

A total of 31 children did not return or complete the pretest and/or posttest forms. These participants were excluded from the statistical analysis. As stated above, in week 7 a PANAS pretest was conducted to measure the children’s affective state during the first lesson with the game/nongame intervention. The assumption of homogeneity of regression slopes and variance was satisfied. Calculations revealed a nonsignificant difference among the variances of the PANAS MIN scores (p = 0.851) for the analyzed control (M = 15.89, SD = 7.6) and experimental groups (M = 16.93, SD = 7.8). The analysis of the PANAS MIN pretest scores indicated that there was no significant difference in emotional engagement between the experimental and control groups. We can, therefore, conclude that both groups had similar negative emotional engagement levels when the game/nongame intervention was applied in week 7 of the learning task (Table 2). Subsequently, a paired t-test was conducted on the PANAS MIN posttest outcomes, which was administered in week 15 of the project. The children in the control group had a mean PANAS MIN score of 25.52 (SD = 10.09), whereas those in the experimental group had a mean score of 18.28 (SD = 8.8). The paired t-test revealed that this 7.24 difference in scores is statistically significant (p = 0.002, α = 0.05), which suggests that the children working with Minecraft demonstrated a smaller increase in disaffected emotions than the children in the control group where a nongame medium was used. We can, therefore, conclude that hypothesis H1 is supported.

Discussion In conclusion, our findings provide interesting insights into the affordances of COTS games for fostering children’s engagement with a learning task in geography education. The outcomes of this research project answer small but important questions on the employment of COTS games for affective learning in the geography classroom,

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especially for academics in the field of educational psychology and DGBL research. Despite some difficulty in critically assessing the learners’ engagement during the action of the learning event, this study was able to provide additional insights for the academic debate on the impact of DGBL on school children’s affective state during a long-term project-based assignment. The children who participated in the experimental group in this study demonstrated a smaller increase in disaffected emotions than the children in the control group in which a nongame medium was employed. This key finding is in line with the results of similar studies on the relationship between computer-enhanced education and children’s affectivity vis-à-vis a learning task (Brom et al. 2016; Nebel et al. 2016; Proulx et al. 2017). We hope that this research adds to the body of knowledge concerning the affective effects of COTS games in general and of Minecraft in particular for long-term project-based learning in geography education. Although this research was carefully conducted, there are some obvious limitations. First, we did not measure the children’s prior experience with (a) playing games in general and (b) playing games for educational purposes at school. Some studies have demonstrated the influence of prior gameplay experience on learners’ achievements during a project-based assignment (Byun and Loh 2015). Therefore, future studies on this matter should incorporate such a measure. Second, the conclusions of this research are based completely on the self-reports of the participants. Although these reports are accepted as valid measures, it would be better if a mixedmethod approach was employed. In a follow-up study we could, for instance, choose to physically observe the children’s (dis)affected emotions during the learning task. Third, we were, unfortunately, unable to perform a randomization of subjects to create equal groups of learners. For practical reasons, a randomization of classrooms was conducted, and this might have biased our sample. Fortunately, the group of children who participated in this research was fairly mixed in terms of gender and age. Fourth, the experimental and control groups were led by two different teachers. Although instructions were developed by the researchers and the teachers shared important characteristics (same gender and sociocultural background, positive attitudes towards DGBL), there still might be an effect related to the characteristics of the teachers (All et al. 2016). Fifth and last, the quality of the control groups’ questionnaire responses was lower than expected. A substantial number of children did not complete the whole form. It was therefore decided to remove these results from the analysis, which resulted in a smaller sample group.

Conclusion Based on the outcomes of this study, we may conclude that COTS games in general, and Minecraft in particular, effectively mitigated children’s disaffected emotions during a long-term project-based assignment on sustainable spatial planning in geography education. In the context of digital game-based learning, further investigations are recommended to critically assess the game components that specifically con-

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tribute to these affective outcomes. Moreover, we encourage researchers to study the impact of negative affect on the student’s knowledge acquisition and the retention of geographical concepts and skills, and the role that computer games can play in fostering (long-term) cognitive learning gains in the high school geography classroom.

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The Role of Geography and Geospatial Technologies in ‘Taking on the World’ Mary Fargher

Abstract Grasping an understanding of the global is a crucial element of geography scholarship. This chapter examines how geospatial applications can be used in school geography is to develop young people’s understanding at a planetary level. Despite the proliferation of virtual globes and other such geospatial tools in everyday use, their role to explicitly teach the global through geography in schools remains underexplored. This chapter argues for a more subject knowledge-led use of geospatial tools to teach the global in geography. The discussion centres on what powerful geography knowledge about the global looks like and how geospatial tools may contribute to this. An analysis of using a Digital Earth application––the Climate Hot Map––is presented as one example to show how such a tool could be used to enhance analysis, explanation, and generalisation about global climate change. The chapter concludes with recommendations for using geospatial applications to teach the global based on robust geographical knowledge foundations. Keywords Geospatial technologies · Powerful disciplinary knowledge · Geography education

Introduction Geography is unique in having the conceptual tools to draw together and make sense of the physical and the human elements of our planet (Matthews and Herbert 2008). In ‘Taking on the World’ (2014) Doreen Massey argued that understanding the global is in fact complex and challenging and that we should teach it more explicitly through geography because it is one of the only disciplines that has the potential to address the full depth and breadth of the global. This chapter draws on her rationale in making a case for geography teachers to ‘take on the world’ via a ‘knowledge-led approach’ to teaching the global with the tools that geospatial technologies now M. Fargher (B) Institute of Education, University College London, London, UK e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. de Miguel González et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education, Key Challenges in Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6_10

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have to offer. The discussion also draws on the substantive current debate on the role of disciplinary knowledge in young peoples’ geography education (Lambert 2015). This chapter therefore specifically focuses on the role of geospatial technologies in geography education and their role in constructing powerful geography knowledge. The discussion begins with a review of how virtual globes can be used to contribute to the construction of powerful geography knowledge. An example of a virtual globe application––the Climate Hot Map––is then discussed to model how geography teachers can use such tools to construct specific powerful geographical knowledge about the global. The chapter concludes with further recommendations for future use of geospatial technologies in constructing the global.

Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education New geo-technologies have made the world ‘virtually accessible’ to the individual internet user in ways that were not feasible until relatively recently. If we think back to the launch of Google Earth in 2005, we can see how this growth, influence and ubiquity of web-based geovisualisation have become marked. Internet users can now interact with digital geography through an immense range of diverse application programming interfaces (API). As a result, virtual globes are now widely used in schools. These include Google Earth, Bing Maps and Earth Viewer amongst others. Though these applications have less to offer in terms of the in-depth analytical capacities, they do offer some impressive ways of visualising geography in the classroom. Easier access to a wider array of new types of online maps and spatial data is changing the ways in which many geographers (and the general public) can view and interact with digital geographical information. In articular, virtual globes have opened up a new era of geospatial representation. Observing, documenting and analyzing with geo-technologies is therefore now much more commonplace in the form of use of applications such as ArcGIS Earth, NASA World Wind and Google Earth. Users (both professional and public) can now view recently captured satellite imagery and aerial photographs from vertical, oblique and increasingly available (though not always perfect) three-dimensional perspectives. In school education, these and associated animations and visualisations can bring to life teaching about a vast array of human, physical and inter-related geographical phenomena across our planet (Tooth 2015). More recently, the availability of updated virtual globe applications such as Google Earth 8.0 and NASA World Wind 2.1 and the recently introduced ArcGIS Earth can be accessed almost automatically and with a fast internet connection so that any user even with limited experience can access a wide range of physical and human data about the globe. These resources have expanded beyond the more familiar virtual globes to a range of new applications including mapping apps such as Esri’s Story Map, digital atlases such as Living Atlas of the World and specialised interactive learning sites such as Climate Hot Map. To the educated geographer’s eye, the educational potential of these kinds of geospatial applications may be taken for granted. The trained geographer can use

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such applications to comprehend the earth in its entirety, understand the interconnections between the human and physical and place and extrapolate to reach informed conclusions about the causes and consequences of the many processes occurring at the global level and the cross-scale interactions between the global and the local. This chapter makes a case for enabling young people more specifically to step back and use virtual globes to formulate and develop a truly global geographical perspective in a similar way. For, it can also be argued that understanding the global in geography is a little taken for granted, almost assumed as part of what is ‘done’ by geography teachers and educators. It is important that this, the idea that global geographical knowledge and understanding is automatic, is challenged. This chapter therefore makes a case for using geospatial applications in tandem with a geography knowledge-led approach to promote high quality teaching about the global in geography education.

Powerful Geographical Knowledge The term ‘powerful knowledge’ originates in the work of Young (2008), who argues that school subject knowledge can be powerful when it enables young people to think in ways beyond their direct experience. Young argues that all young people regardless of background are entitled to be taught this kind of specialist, powerful subject knowledge as opposed to experiencing a more skills-based schooling. It can be argued that young people who have access to disciplinary knowledge and the intellectual capacities they may develop with it are afforded a crucial element of their true human potential (Young 2008; Young and Muller 2010; Young et al. 2014). In his discussion on how we can categorise powerful knowledge more specifically, Lambert (2015) argues that it is important that powerful knowledge involves a defined rigour and attention to scholarly detail. He argues that powerful knowledge is • evidence based • abstract and theoretical (conceptual) • part of a system of thought • dynamic, evolving, changing—but reliable • testable and open to challenge • sometimes counter-intuitive • outside the direct experience of the teacher and the learner • discipline based (in domains that are not arbitrary or transient) (Taken from Lambert 2015)

On one level, it is easy to be convinced by the argument that gaining powerful knowledge is a worthy intellectual endeavour in itself. However, as Lambert argues, powerful knowledge can have another key role to play. Where individuals are educated through a ‘capabilities approach’ powerful knowledge can help to maximize their broader contribution to society (Young and Muller 2010; Young et al. 2014). The

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capabilities approach, originally derived from the work of Amartya Sen’s on welfare economics and social justice, centres on enabling young people to think with their subject and to reach critical and informed decisions based on that knowledge. In his most recent work (Maude 2017a, b) he identifies an alternative to identifying powerful knowledge by the way it is produced and considers instead the intellectual power it gives to those who have it. He provides an example of what powerful geographical knowledge could look like in an Australian geography curriculum Year 8 unit, ‘Changing Nations’. Maude uses geography’s concepts of place and space to examine ways in which teachers can enable their students to explain, analyse and generalise about geographical patterns both within their own country, beyond it and between nation-states. Using statistical evidence his approach enables students to compare spatial differences, to examine different outcomes in different places and to consider counter-intuitive alternatives on what urban concentrations in Australia. This chapter argues that there are similarities in the capabilities approach to the ways in which Doreen Massey has argued that geography as a discipline is central to ‘Taking on the World’ (2014). Comprehending the concept of the planet as a whole and the implications for the individual and society in operationalising this kind of powerful geographical knowledge about the global can be considered as an example of ‘geocapability’. For Massey, teaching the global did not mean teaching the world as an inventory of regions but that the global as a concept is a valuable framework for learning in itself within the study of geography. Massey argues even further that teaching about trans-planetary phenomena such as climate change, international migration and geopolitical shift requires scholarly induction into geographical thinking for students through a global lens and at a global scale. One of the ways of capitalising on the potential use of geospatial technologies in geography education is through deeper curriculum thinking about how such tools can enhance young peoples’ understanding of all of geography’s central concepts but particularly in this case, about the global. Massey argues that the extra conceptual depth that can be derived from teaching the global can be particularly realised via the notion of connectedness or interdependence (Massey 2014). It can be argued that excellent geography subject teachers may have always been able to achieve this. However, operationalising powerful disciplinary knowledge is not as this chapter has already acknowledged, a given. It can be argued that what is required to achieve this is deep ‘curriculum thinking’ (Lambert 2015). In the case of using geospatial technologies this involves developing teachers’ technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK (Mishra and Koehler 2006)) about how to enable pupils to think geographically about our complex world on a global scale with geospatial technologies. The next section considers this challenge for teachers with specific reference to teaching and learning about climate change in geography with specific reference to the United Kingdom.

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Powerful Knowledge, Geography and the Climate Hot Map It can be argued that understanding global climate change can only be appreciated by standing back and considering the phenomenon from a truly global perspective. Many of its inherent processes are planetary in their scope and a case can be made for geography being one of the only disciplines that has the potential to bring these together and make sense of them collectively. That said, the global can also be a product of the local and vice versa. (Massey 2014), and, geography can be the medium within which young people develop their understanding of the dynamic interplay of the causes, consequences and possible mitigating human responses to this one of the most pressing global issues of our time. Having said this, the Geography National Curriculum for England (DfE 2013) does not specify global climate change with a clear emphasis on the possible implications of global warming. The curriculum programme for study does state that taught content should include knowledge that enables students to: ‘understand how human and physical processes interact to influence, and change landscapes, environments and the climate; and how human activity relies on effective functioning of natural systems’ (DfE 2013)

The pressing question to be asked at this point in this chapter is what exactly can a combining the use of a geospatial application with a knowledge-led approach bring to the table in the possible development of powerful geography knowledge about global climate change? The discussion that follows examines one particular geospatial application, the Climate Hot Map (Union of Concerned Scientists 2011). Drawing on Maude’s typology of powerful geography (2016) what follows illustrates approaches to teaching with the Climate Hot Map (Fig. 1) that can be beneficial in enabling young people to gain access to powerful geographical knowledge about climate change by using it as a medium for: (1) Analysing climate change impacts and solutions through geography’s meta-concepts of place, space and interconnection (type 2 powerful geographical knowledge) (2) Using generalisations to explain climate change (type 2 powerful geographical knowledge) (3) Introducing students to knowledge beyond their direct experience (type 5 powerful knowledge) (Adapted from Maude 2017a, b)

Type 2 Analysing Climate Change Impacts and Solutions Using Place, Space and Interconnection Of course, geography’s concepts can be used analytically to study global phenomena such as climate change without engaging with Digital Earth applications. However, there are a number of advantages of using such tools in tandem with geography’s

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Fig. 1 The Climate Hot Map

core concepts. In the case of teaching about climate change with the Climate Hot Map, signs of global warming can initially be explored through the interactive base map (or via Google Earth). One of the major strengths of using an application such as this is its capacity to store and display information at specific locations. Students can explore places in detail, observing specific variables of climate change and comparing a number of places similar in one particular characteristic but different in others. For example, by comparing areas with similar issues of drought such as Southern Africa, the Sahel, the Mediterranean, the U.S. Southwest and making links between how global warming raises evapotranspiration in these already fragile areas. In considering anomalies, exploring reasons why some areas are losing ice more quickly than others—Greenland, for example rather than other ice caps due to the extraordinary rises in Arctic temperatures, in particular, can be visualised and explored. For students, this can involve them in considering first the overall global spatial distribution of climate change impacts and possible solutions at a global scale in relation to people, freshwater provision, oceans, ecosystems and changing temperature. This could include describing and explaining areas at greater risk from sea level rise, others where glaciers are shrinking, places with record high temperatures and those with the less often taught about effects of climate change, severe rainstorms and drought. There is a strong case to be made with regards to the use of interconnection as an analytical concept in geography to teach about a phenomenon such as global climate change. Using an application such as the Climate Hot Map give students access to thinking about connections between climate impacts, for example the reduction of agricultural yields related to high temperatures and drought-related stress, the

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warming waters caused by increased El Nino connected to acidification of coral reefs and affected fishing yields.

Type 2 Using Generalisations to Explain Climate Change Generalisations can be powerful in geography because they allow us to summarise large amounts of information and for students allow them to apply what they have learnt in new settings (Maude 2016). The Climate Hot Map can be used in this way to make powerful generalisations about global warming. For example, through exploration of the base map students could make the generalisation: ‘Global warming results in multiple stresses affecting our physical and human environments in each region. However the presence of other stresses in a region suggests that the consequences of global warming in particular will be enhanced’

This statement synthesises a range of information about global warming allowing students to consider causes, effects and the impact of underlying vulnerability to hazards. Through further exploration of the Climate Hot Map students can discover that the world has a number of key global warming hotspots, where a combination of factors are contributing to the extreme impacts of climate change. They may discover, for example that in coral reef ecosystems such as the San Andres island Reef in Columbia rising temperatures are adding to unprecedented coral bleaching events and threatening the highly prized local tourist industry already under threat from pollution, overfishing, hurricanes and a growing population.

Conclusion This chapter has introduced the principle ways in which geospatial applications can be useful in teaching the global in geography education. It has identified a range of applications now available including virtual globes, digital atlases and specialised geo-referenced web applications such as the Global Hot Map. The chapter has discussed the deep significance of Massey’s argument (2014) for teaching the global as an essential but not always given element of geography scholarship. It has made a case for teaching the global in geography that is subject-led and which gives young people access to powerful disciplinary knowledge via the advantages that geospatial applications now have to offer. An example of how powerful knowledge could be part of teaching the global supported by a geospatial application, the Climate Hot Map was explored using elements of Maude’s powerful geography knowledge typology (2016). The example revealed that this particular application can be used to supplement geography teaching about global warming via the use of geography’s core concepts of place, space and interconnection and through useful generalisations about climate change. It can also be noted that geospatial applications such

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as Climate Hot map can be used to engage students with knowledge which would normally be beyond their direct, everyday experience (Type 5 powerful knowledge in Maude’s typology (2006). Geospatial technologies have a great deal more to offer geography teachers as a tool for teaching particularly if coupled with a subject-led approach. Drawing on the discussion in this chapter it can be recommended that such an approach can be used to further develop geography teachers technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) in the use of geospatial applications in high quality knowledge-led geography education.

References Climate HotMap. http://www.climatehotmap.org/. Last accessed 1 Apr 2018 DfE (2013) National curriculum in England: geography programmes of study. Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-geographyprogrammes-of-study. Last accessed 1 Apr 2018 Lambert D (2015) Curriculum thinking, ‘capabilities’ and the place of geographical knowledge in schools. J Educ Res Soc Stud 81:1–11 Living Atlas of the World. Available at https://livingatlas.arcgis.com/en/. Last accessed 1 Apr 2018 Massey D (2014) Taking on the world. Geography 99:36 Matthews JA, Herbert DT (2008) Geography: a very short introduction, vol 185. Oxford University Press Maude A (2016) What might powerful geographical knowledge look like? Geography 101:70 Maude A (2017a) Applying the concept of powerful knowledge to school geography. In: The power of geographical thinking. Springer International Publishing, pp 27–40 Maude A (2017b) Geography and powerful knowledge: a contribution to the debate. Int Res Geogr Environ Educ:1–12 Mishra P, Koehler MJ (2006) Technological pedagogical content knowledge: a framework for teacher knowledge. Teach Coll Rec 108(6):1017 Tooth S (2015) Spotlight on … Google Earth as a resource. Geography 100:51 Union of Concerned Scientists (2011) Climate Hotmap. http://www.climatehotmap.org/. Last accessed 1 Apr 2018 Young M (2008) From constructivism to realism in the sociology of the curriculum. Rev Res Educ 32(1):1–28 Young M, Muller J (2010) Three educational scenarios for the future: lessons from the sociology of knowledge. Eur J Educ 45(1):11–27 Young M, Lambert D, Roberts C, Roberts M (2014) Knowledge and the future school: curriculum and social justice. Bloomsbury Publishing

Geographies of the Anthropocene: Geoethics and Disaster Risk Reduction Tools Applied to Mediterranean Case Studies Francesco De Pascale, Sebastiano D’Amico, Loredana Antronico and Roberto Coscarelli

Abstract This chapter seeks to analyze the new processes of the Anthropocene epoch by examining, in the first part, the relationship with human geography and geoethics. In fact, Anthropocene is also faced with an ethical and cultural perspective. Geoethics focuses on how scientists (natural and social), arts and humanities scholars working in tandem can become more aware of their ethical responsibilities to guide society on matters related to public safety in the face of natural hazards, sustainable use of resources, climate change, and protection of the environment. Furthermore, some case studies in the Mediterranean basin, where the transformations imposed by human action and society on the Earth’s environment are evident, will be analyzed in relation to Disaster Risk Reduction practices: social perception and communication, community resilience, participative approaches, using CIGIS and neogeographic technologies. These case studies constitute some examples of “geographies and cartographies of the Anthropocene”. In this framework, two case studies in the Central Mediterranean will be analyzed with the support of Web 2.0 and geohydrological risk perception using Community Integrated GIS. Keywords Anthropocene · Calabria (Italy) · Community Integrated GIS · Disaster Risk Reduction · Geoethics · Maltese Islands · Neogeography

F. De Pascale (B) · L. Antronico · R. Coscarelli Italian National Research Council, Research Institute for Geo-Hydrological Protection, Rende, Italy e-mail: [email protected] L. Antronico e-mail: [email protected] R. Coscarelli e-mail: [email protected] S. D’Amico Department of Geosciences, University of Malta, Msida, Malta e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. de Miguel González et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education, Key Challenges in Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6_11

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Introduction The first aim of this chapter is to briefly analyze some aspects of the contemporary debate about the geological time of the Anthropocene and the relation with geography and geoethics. Indeed, for human geography, the Anthropocene can also be the opportunity of contributing to overcome the historical separation between physical and human studies, not in order to reach an unlikely holistic view but to really understand the processes of interaction between human beings and nature. The prospect of the Anthropocene seems to be able to put forwards the interconnections and perspectives in an ecological key, highlighting the direct relationship between the future of the physical planet and one of human species and anthropic systems. The idea of Anthropocene seems to have two strengths: (a) the aggregative concept, which allows to give a meaning and to link together a vast set of knowledge and approaches ranging from physical geography to cultural one, and (b) the ecological concept, which allows to ask questions, to analyze the contemporary world and identify adaptation strategies and behaviors when facing changes (Giorda 2016, p. 7). In this area, Anthropocene appears to be richer and stronger than other concepts, thanks to its recent successes such as those of sustainable development, resilience, which in part assume the sense of cultural responses to the problem of the Anthropocene “governance” (Giorda 2016). A second aim of this chapter is to develop research frameworks and ethical guidance for Anthropocene in light of recent contributions from geoethics. The expected purpose of geoethics also includes developing disaster risk reduction, resilience, vulnerability strategies and proper dissemination of risk communication. In this context, the third objective of the chapter is to recognize and examine some geographies of Anthropocene through two case studies in the Mediterranean basin: geo-hydrological risk perception in Calabria (southern Italy) with the support of Community Integrated GIS (CIGIS) and seismic risk perception in Malta through neogeographic1 participatory technologies. Natural hazards, that historically mark Mediterranean coastal communities’ life and culture, reinforce the image of land suspended and lacerated by nature, but often with the complicity of the society, able to transform an extreme event to a disaster one. Therefore, it will be important, at this stage, to study the social construction of disaster risk perception of populations falling under the case studies, through quantitative, qualitative methods and the use of social media and Web 2.0, with the view to: – demonstrate how and to what extent local communities are aware of the Anthropocene processes and, hence, evaluate human responsibilities on environmental processes;

1 Neogeography

is a term that refers to techniques, tools and practices of geography that have been traditionally beyond the scope of professional geographers and geographic information systems (GIS) practitioners (Turner 2006).

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– conceive new participatory approaches like community-based approach to reduce disaster vulnerabilities and risks and to build resilience through effective disaster prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery, with the support of geospatial information technology.

The Anthropocene: Contemporary Debate and Geoethical Implications The debate about the concept of Anthropocene, coined by the microbiologist Eugene Stoermer in the 80s of the twentieth century and made famous by the Nobel Prize in Chemistry Paul Crutzen since 2000, has become a sort of fashion in recent times, a catchy word, particularly in the context of the social sciences. Proof of this is the launch of three influential international journals exclusively related to the topic: “Anthropocene”, “The Anthropocene review” and “Elementa”. Also some well-known newspapers, such as “The Guardian”, “New York Times”, “Economist”, reacted with various articles on this subject. The authors of this chapter also founded an international scientific book series called “Geographies of the Anthropocene”2 which will discuss the new processes of the Anthropocene epoch through the various worldviews of geoscientists and humanists, intersecting disciplines of Geosciences, Geography, Geoethics, Hydrology, Philosophy, Socio-Anthropology, Sociology of Environment and Territory, Psychology, Economics, Environmental Humanities, and cognate disciplines. The effects of the debate’s dissemination are a profound polysemy of the notion of Anthropocene, which, if on one side it produces a lot of confusion, on the other one it widens the analysis and highlights various aspects concerning politics and which, therefore, underlies the interaction and the clash among the positions in the field (Leonardi and Barbero 2017). From a geological perspective, the concept of Anthropocene refers to the planetary scale of anthropogenic influences on the composition and functions of the Earth System and on the forms of life that inhabit it. The original proposal of Crutzen and Stoermer (2000) was based on mainly ecological considerations such as the accelerated extinction of a large number of species, the progressive reduction in the availability of fossil fuels and the increase in greenhouse gas emissions, including carbon dioxide and methane (Leonardi and Barbero 2017). It has been established that human activity, as a geological force, is a direct cause of these phenomena and therefore it has profoundly influenced the transformations of the environment on a global scale (Steffen et al. 2011). However, it should be noted that the existence or not of the Anthropocene is not merely a scientific question, but instead implies a series of ethical and political considerations. Jason Moore, for example, defines the era as Capitalocene, meaning the capital as a way of organizing 2 The

website of the book series “Geographies of the Anthropocene” is: www.ilsileno.it/ geographiesoftheanthropocene (accessed March 5, 2018).

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nature, to face the urgency of the environmental disasters that surround us (Moore 2016). Indeed, according to other scholars (Paál 2015), the focus of geoethics is the analysis of the way humans think and act with the purpose of advising and suggesting appropriate behaviors where human activities interact with the geosphere. For this reason, geoethics is dialectically linked to the complex concept of Anthropocene. In this framework, geoethics provides guidelines for human behavior, by introducing ethical principles in order to deal with the natural resources of our planet. It guides anthropic use of the earth’s resources for meeting current human needs and their impacts on both environment and society (Limaye 2015). It has been proposed that an ethical pledge similar to the medical “Hippocratic Oath” has to be established for geoscientists (Matteucci et al. 2012). In the context of significant ethical issues, one of the areas that raise greater attention to geographers was the spatial dimensions of social justice (Harvey 1973, 1996; Smith 1994, 2000; Gleeson 1996). According to geoethics’ principles, it is not the universality of human species, but the universality of common human faculties, including the intellect, the language, the intelligence and the ability to appeal to responsibility, that distinguishes our species from other living ones. It is to these capabilities and to the sense of responsibility that geoethics appeals in addressing the global effects of climate change, which involves the need to review our ways of “acting in the world” and taking care of the place where we live. It is no coincidence that geoethics has recently been defined as the investigation of and reflection on the operational behavior of humans toward the geosphere (Peppoloni and Di Capua 2012). Geoethics, therefore, appeals to noosphere, a concept proposed by Le Roy (1928) and de Chardin (1959), and then resumed by Vernadsky (1991) who wrote: «I accept Le Roy’s idea of noosphere. He has further developed my biosphere. Noosphere was formed in post-Pliocene era human thought covered the biosphere and is changing all processes from a new angle, and as a result the biosphere energy increases». Actively developing the concept of Le Roy (1928) and de Chardin (1959) on an increasing role of intellect in development of civilization, Vernadsky proposed an idea of noosphere becoming the main direction of development of humanity as a base of its future survival. He believed in human sense (intellect), which obliges us moving to very different relationships with Nature (Nikitina 2016). The classification of geoethics into an independent discipline owes to the Czech scientist Nˇemec (2005). Therefore, Anthropocene is closely related to geoethics, which deals with moral questions concerning human impacts on the Earth System: climate change, ocean acidification, shifts in the geochemical cycles, exploitation of land and natural resources, Disaster Risk Reduction policies.

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Digitized Interaction Between Communities and Governments: A Geoethical Approach Even two decades ago, interactions between communities and governments as well as between different groups and individuals within communities took place face to face. Today, interaction has been moving from streets to cyberspace, where digital urbanism, deep mapping, neogeography, and e-government converge to create online spaces for citizenship (Pavlovskaya 2016, p. 161). Digital place-making involves the production of place through its representations on the Internet. In the age of communication and information technologies, images of a place circulated on the Internet play a fundamental role (Pavlovskaya 2016). Localities—from small villages to urban giants—actively use digital place-making to brand themselves to attract investment, creative classes, and tourists (Bachin 2015; Koning 2015). Local governments shift many of their services (from education to social welfare) to the Internet, which reconfigures citizenship as dependent on access to digital technologies. The Internet is becoming populated with various neogeography projects that produce place-based collective geographic knowledge by the efforts of the self-selected groups of people (Polson 2015). The shift of the control of production of knowledge to the decentralized public is another pivotal shift (Warf and Sui 2010). In fact, the paradigm shift to Web 2.0 allowed the production and representation of geography and the sense and spirit of places (or genius loci) to move into the hands of the masses on the Internet (Graham 2010). In combination with digital media, mapping becomes a highly interactive and multilayered way to construct places in the cyberspace that can directly involve inhabitants of the place themselves (Pavlovskaya 2016, p. 163). In relation to the perception of the earthquake risk, digital deep mapping projects juxtapose historical maps, census statistics, and memoirs of past residents while also inviting citizens to identify the vulnerabilities of the place in which they live and therefore allow to the local administrations to act in the framework of Disaster Risk Reduction policies. These projects could potentially become collaborative place-making modes in which community-based participatory (neogeographic) representations of places merge and interact (Pavlovskaya 2016, p. 164). The authors of this chapter participated in a workshop made possible by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), focused on developing ethical principles and guidelines, as well as drafting best practices, for the use of remote sensing and volunteered geographic information (VGI) in crisis situations. The workshop addressed ethical issues surrounding the use of location-based technologies in the most difficult types of situations—during conflict, natural disasters, humanitarian response, and other crisis events. From the workshop, it emerged that when using location-based data in a crisis situation, each stage of the data management cycle—from data collection to analysis, and communication—gives rise to different risks and ethical obligations (AAAS 2017).

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In fact, as we will examine in the next paragraphs, the use of Web 2.0 and CIGIS technologies involves a certain ethical responsibility of the institutions that will have to assess needs, insecurities and problems reported by the volunteers of information in the context of seismic and geo-hydrological risk perception.

Anthropocene and Disaster Risk Reduction Practices: Some Mediterranean Case Studies An interdisciplinary approach is an important way to understand the origin of disasters and the role of society, responsible for disrupting the impact of a natural force on certain territories and social categories. In the international context, the term DRR (Disaster Risk Reduction) refers to a complex series of public actions covering both prospective, preventive and reactive actions in sectors such as health, land use, ecosystem conservation, and social development (Ruiz-Rivera and MelgarejoRodríguez 2017). Nowadays, it is also well established that disaster risk and disaster events are based on the presence of potentially damaging physical elements but seriously and dominantly conditioned by society’s perceptions, needs, demands, decisions, and practices. However, the understanding of risk and disaster is still severely impeded by visions of “natural” disaster, the dominance of the physical factors affecting risk and the marginalization of more fundamental social processes. This means that disaster risk management practice is still very much dominated by reaction and response, to the detriment of development-based risk reduction and avoidance interventions (Oliver-Smith et al. 2017). Recent studies, however, point out that the role of local communities in relation to the disastrous events is far wider than the first phase of first aid, and that, on the contrary, the ability of a society to respond to disaster depends on the pre-disaster situation. The effects of the earthquake in Ischia, Hurricane Harvey in Texas, floods in Vietnam, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, the mudflow in Sierra Leone are recent cases where vulnerability, or the society, is definitely responsible for the causes and extent of damage due to natural phenomena (Kelman 2017). It is well known that the Mediterranean area has been affected, even recently, by earthquakes, long periods of drought, famine, ruinous floods, landslides, and fires. These natural extreme events have interacted to build the reality of a precarious, unbroken mobile earth where the impact of human factors has contributed to making today’s layout of this area as one of the representative cartographies of Anthropocene. In this context, we propose a double methodology to analyze the perception of the population living along the Mediterranean coastal areas, for implementing initiatives that could contribute to reduce the risk adaptation and increase mitigation strategies. We examined the perception of two communities: Malta and Calabria (southern Italy).

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Quantitative and qualitative methods will be used, with the support of Web 2.0 and CIGIS, thus experimenting new participative approaches such as bottom-up to reduce disaster vulnerabilities and risks, and build resilience through the implementation of effective measures of DRR.

Preliminary Results on Seismic Risk Perception in Maltese Archipelago by Using Neogeographical Participatory Approach This section will briefly illustrate some preliminary results obtained by using a neogeographical participatory approach in order to investigate the perception of seismic risk within the Maltese islands. The study was carried out with the aid of a simple questionnaire designed to gather data, but at the same time to be understood by a broad audience (e.g., youths, people with different education levels, etc.) in order to try a holistic approach on the seismic risk perception in the study area (Fig. 1). These objectives include questions that ask the public about their knowledge and opinion on earthquakes around the Maltese Islands using community-based participatory approaches. Finally, few questions were devoted to understand the awareness of the local population about the existing Civil Protection Plan and the recent update of the National Risk Assessment Plan. The questionnaires allowed the standardization and integration of the data collection process and were designed in such a way that this survey could be repeated in the future. The questionnaire was given to 432 participants using simple modern technologies such as online resources and apps on electronic devices. The advantages of this method are that in the absence of the interviewer, the respondent would still able to fill in the questionnaire, and thus, the data would still be collected (Phellas et al. 2011). Moreover, the use of online survey sites facilitated the easiness of editing the questionnaire and the possibility of pre-sampling testing to be carried out. Ideally, various methods and locations can be used; these include sending surveys via email and sharing them through social networks such as Facebook, which embraces several groups with different purposes, reaching a good number of the people. The majority of the interviewed perceive the archipelago at risk from earthquakes (Fig. 2a). This result is mostly based on the fact the recently several earthquakes of moderate magnitude have been felt on the islands. One-fourth of the interviewed are convinced that either the Maltese islands will never be hit by a catastrophic earthquake or that the risk is nil (Fig. 2a). In the event of a moderate to a strong shake, 64% believe that a tremor may leave behind several damages, such as fractures in walls, collapsed roofs of old dwellings, and damage on several historical buildings such as churches and fortifications. On the other hand, 21% do not think that it is possible that an earthquake could leave any kind of damage in the Maltese Islands. While 15% do not know if any tremor

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would result in any important or severe damage, however, they are not sceptic about the possibility (Fig. 2b). Additionally, loss of historical buildings would leave a repercussion on the long run as these are part of touristic attractions and 33% of Malta’s income is from tourism. Figure 2c shows that in general people are aware that a large magnitude event can result in severe damage to the infrastructure as well as can trigger a chain of disaster (e.g., tsunamis). After infrastructural damages (23%), one finds collapsed buildings (19%), which means people believe that several buildings are not capable to resist an earthquake due to, for example, old dwellings and the fact that most buildings are not built for such resistance. Most people that picked infrastructural damage picked as well power outages (Fig. 2c). When asked about their choice, responders claimed that they believe there will be damages within the power station and the cables along the roads. Ground displacement was picked by 15% of interviewed, making it significant (Fig. 2c). Those who picked ‘None’ were mainly the same responders disagreeing with the fact that earthquake can be considered as a serious risk. The majority of the people seem to have felt an earthquake or a tremor in the past, showing that it is something active, and actually happened in the past.

Fig. 1 The population distribution of Malta based on the national census (National Statistics Office 2011). Map contours indicate the local council boundaries

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Nevertheless, the tremors felt by the people saying ‘Yes’, were mainly either a result of an earthquake in Greece or low magnitude earthquakes in the seas of vicinity. Whilst 5% were not sure if it was an earthquake or not, as it could have been a shake cause by something else. While one-fourth of respondents seem to have never felt an earthquake, or remain sceptic about a shake that has been felt in the past. From all the respondents no one picked a violent shake, meaning that in the last about 85 years there was no tremor that could have been considered a large event felt on the Maltese islands. The majority felt or have seen a slight shake, which would be a short in time shake, the same feeling as when there is a strong explosion (comparisons were made to a fireworks factory explosions). While a little more than a third of the respondents felt a mild shake and claimed that objects were moving or rattling, and some even found hairline fractures in the wall after it happened. When a tremor was felt, confusion was the main emotion (Fig. 2d). The reason could be that some of the people were not sure which were the causes of the shake. On the other hand, the emotion of fear and anxiety are at a similar level, but have also similar traits in this case, as both are the result of uncertainty of what happens afterward and unease of the mind with thoughts of what could happen. Last, the minority with 11% did not care about what was happening around them, and continued with their everyday life, as it did not affect them (Fig. 2d).

Fig. 2 a Graph presenting public’s opinion on the risk of earthquakes striking the Maltese Islands; b Pie chart presenting the opinion of the public on if an earthquake can leave several damages behind; c Types of hazards imposed by earthquakes agreed by respondents in total counts and percentage; d Pie chart showing emotions perceived during an earthquake; e Pie chart displaying the knowledge about any existence of a plan. Source Modified from Custò (2015)

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The majority of the respondents that felt an earthquake was two times, with 37% occurrence. This means that approximately two tremors were strong enough to be felt by the majority during certain lifetimes. Meanwhile, three times was the second most picked felt tremors with a little more than a quarter of the replies, which keeps the average of 2–3 times. The third majority was that it was felt only once, which is expected especially from younger age groups, and also several people that might have not felt any other occurrence due to different sensitivity or the location of when other tremors took place. More than four times was picked for a total of 14% this could be either the result of certain sensitivity to certain shakes, but could also be the fact that the elderly might have felt more tremors due to a longer lifetime. Almost half of the respondents have an idea of what to do in the event of an earthquake. When asked the majority mentioned three main procedures. These were either get out of the building and got to an open space, or run under a strong table or find the first door opening and stand under a lintel or an arch. Whereas, 30% stated that they have no idea what to do if something had to happen, as they said they would be stunned and confused of what is happening around them. While 23% were not sure if the known procedures were correct, and some of which revealed the same procedures that were mentioned earlier, by those who knew several procedures that should be taken. An evacuation drill is very important in a management plan. The question also included places in the past, as for example, housewives do not have any evacuation drill, as evacuation drills are mainly meant for public places, schools, and work. This is also due to the fact that evacuation drills are mandatory (like in the other EU countries) since the last few decades. Hence elderly people never had one. Almost three-fourths of the replies state that they have evacuation drills, however, this includes primary and secondary students which have a compulsory fire drill in their schools every year. While a little more than quarter of respondents stated that they never had any drills. The majority picked ‘Fire’ as the type of evacuation practiced in at their working place or school. On the other hand, 11% have an evacuation for any type of emergency, which makes it more ideal in case of an earthquake or a tsunami. Floods and earthquakes were not picked by themselves, however, one cannot exclude that they can be included within the ‘Any Evacuation’ section. Finally, eight people listed that the evacuation drill practiced at their location is in the case of a Bomb scare, contributing 2% of the evacuation types. This result could be a part of any risk plan, as an evacuation is a very important part to manage and get people to safety. A little more than half of the respondents indicated that there is no earthquake management plan in existence. Some of which also stated that if there is one, no one ever heard of it, and if no one heard of it there is no point, as the majority of people do not know what to do. Only 8% claimed that there is an Earthquake management plan, while 40% do not know or are uncertain if there is a plan in the event of an earthquake (Fig. 2e).

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Meanwhile, the majority (89%) consider the fact that there should always be a management plan just in case. Respondents that disagreed with the risk in the earlier questions still preferred that there should be a management plan as preparedness and awareness are always important. The preliminary collected data showed significant findings that encourage to put several efforts for a larger data collection as well as toward an holistic approach in order to properly evaluate the risk perception in the area. Overall, it was observed that more needs to be done in educating communities about seismic risk in the Maltese Islands, as some of the respondents were sceptic about the possibility of risk imposed by earthquakes. However, this is not surprising since the last strong earthquakes that cause damage in Malta occurred in 1693. The public perception of the Maltese Islands was used in order to discover the needs and the vulnerability of the Maltese Islands’ community in terms of seismic risk and the methods with which this risk should be addressed. It is interesting to note that almost 90% of the respondents indicated that a contingency plan is needed in the case of any similar emergencies. It is fair to point out that Malta has a comprehensive contingency plan at the national level. This study proved to be significant in acquiring the opinion of the Maltese Islands’ public regarding the Islands’ risk to earthquakes and their impacts, using a community-based participatory approach. Moreover, this study also proved noteworthy in the need for the dissemination of the existing and tested management plan especially in case of earthquakes even though they are not common to the Maltese Islands. Summarizing, the vulnerability factors of the Maltese Islands’ community, identified through the community-based participatory approach are given as follows: – the necessity to increase preparedness and education to seismic risk; – the need to better communicate (for example, through seminars, more school visits, use of social media, etc.) the content of the Civil Protection Plan to all levels of the civil community; – the insecurity due to the perceived fragility of some of the infrastructures and residential buildings some of them are considered old and not adequate to withstand a severe ground shaking. Citizens’ worries concern not only the earthquake risk but also the tsunami risk given that population see other countries within the same region facing earthquakes, and also possible tsunamis. This case study, therefore, can be treated as an exercise related to a ‘geography’ of the Anthropocene because the anthropic factors, i.e., the vulnerability due to the absence of education and risk communication, the presence of buildings realized without any anti-seismic norms, the communication’s absence of the Civil Protection plan, could contribute to transforming a natural extreme event, i.e., an earthquake or a tsunami, in a disaster. Therefore, it is necessary to recognize the responsibilities of a man in creating the conditions of vulnerability to natural processes; in fact, according to some scholars, disasters derive from acts of society (Alexander 1991; Furedi 2007).

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Malta, and especially the local scientific community is striving to increase the knowledge about seismic hazard and risk for the Maltese island. Several EU projects were implemented in order to tackle this issue.

Analysis of a Case Study About Geo-Hydrological Risk Perception in Calabria (Southern Italy) Through a Community Integrated GIS (CIGIS) In this paragraph, we want to analyze the main results related to a research about the perception of geo-hydrological risk, carried out in a coastal stretch of the southern Tyrrhenian Sea (“Costa degli Dei”), located in the province of Vibo Valentia (Calabria, southern Italy); in the three-year period 2009–2011, this stretch has suffered the effects of numerous debris flows and floods, caused by rain events, even if not particularly exceptional (Antronico et al. 2017a) (Fig. 3). A structured questionnaire was administered to 300 citizens of the Municipalities of Tropea, Parghelia, and Zambrone (Antronico et al. 2017b). The sampling method chosen in this survey is non-probabilistic and nonproportional quota sampling. The instrument through which the sampling was carried out is a structured questionnaire, composed of 58 questions, designed by following some models for the analysis of the geo-hydrological risk perception (De Marchi et al. 2007; Alcántara-Ayala and Moreno 2016). Each question includes one of the follow-

Fig. 3 A provincial road in the Municipality of Tropea involved by a debris flow during the 2009 event

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ing types of answers: single-choice, multiple-choice, yes/no, open-ended, five-point scale (Antronico et al. 2017b). The first data from the survey are alarming: communication between institutions and citizens is perceived by the citizens themselves as nonexistent. In addition, the majority of respondents believe that landslides and floods are man-made, indicating “illegal constructions”, “land management”, “local public administrators disinterestedness” among the factors that most affect the occurrence of landslides and floods. This is deeply indicative of how the population is aware of human responsibilities during extreme events such as landslides and floods. Instead, the percentage of respondents who believe in “divine punishment” as a cause of disasters is low. The illegal construction, according to the majority of respondents, is the real social scourge, the determining factor for the occurrence of damage due to landslides and floods. Then, there is the “land management” that most of the respondents rejected, often expressing a negative opinion about the policies of local authorities. In fact, according to a high percentage of respondents, the “local public administrators disinterestedness” is another relevant factor for the occurrence of landslides and floods. The majority of citizens do not know if their municipality prepared the Emergency Plan. The sample perceives as high the probability of damage to people and property in case of landslides and floods. The main reasons according to the citizens are the lack of adequate protection measures against phenomena, houses built in some areas at risk of landslides and floods, and lack of information. In case of adverse event related to geo-hydrologic hazards, the population would feel scarcely prepared to face it, especially for lack of information and communication from the institutions. Therefore, a governance model characterized by a “democratic and participative state of emergency” emerges from the analysis of the main results. This case study represents another “geography” of the Anthropocene; in fact, the research shows an increase in the percentage of citizens who consider decisive the human factors in the unleashing of a disaster linked to possible landslides and floods. This is indicative of how men, in the role of transforming agents of the dynamics of the Earth system, have an indispensable ethical responsibility toward the territory, of which they should be more aware. Recent studies about geoethics have highlighted this issue and represent the future challenge in order to promote sustainability and a rigorous and transparent territory’s planning that must be, however, bottom-up. This perspective would stimulate the creation of forms of territorial subjectivity aimed at planning the risk area in the most sustainable and resilient way for its inhabitants. We considered appropriate and functional to insert the collected data within a section of a GIS project, which includes a participatory mapping system that can be placed in the category of the Integrated Community GIS (CIGIS) (Casti 2013). In fact, studying the historical memory of landslides and floods occurred in the Costa degli Dei, highlighting the risk areas through new geospatial technologies is essential especially for younger generations, since the collected data indicate a lack of preparation and information about natural hazards. For this reason, we have implemented a CIGIS application aimed at educating school students about the historical

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memory of the extreme historical events that occurred in their territory. Improving communication and knowledge of historical memory means strengthening the resilience of the territory. Furthermore, it is necessary to remember that due to the particular beauty of the landscape, the municipalities located within the area are among the most populated tourist resorts of Calabria during the summer. Therefore, it is important to reinforce the Disaster Risk Reduction policies to preserve the integrity of the territorial ecosystem. This CIGIS application, which will be proposed in the context of the primary and secondary schools located at the “Costa degli Dei” area, could be the first useful tool to raise awareness of the geo-hydrological risk among young students in the Calabrian territory.

A Section About Historical Memory of Geo-Hydrological Risk Within a Community Integrated GIS (CIGIS) All the collected data have been included in a section of a CIGIS (Community Integrated GIS) project, already containing other data on the seismic risk perception in Calabria and used for educational purposes (De Pascale et al. 2015; Bernardo et al. 2016; De Pascale 2016; De Pascale and D’Amico 2016). The GIS employed was based on the open source framework NASA World Wind Java and it used Microsoft Virtual Earth maps. The maps in this platform were taken in real time from the World Wind web server, displayed and stored in a cache memory on disk (De Pascale and D’Amico 2016, p. 124). This plug-in tool allows collected data to be imported via an Excel spreadsheet and features manual data insertion and editing. Our plug-in split the data into another section, “perception of geo-hydrological risk”, which is added to the others (“places of memory”, “perception of places”, “perception of earthquakes”) and is allowed to insert reports, images, or cartography and geographic element overlays (Fig. 4). This platform can automatically generate documents and edit, track and annotate cartographical, and georeferenced images. It also allows 3D visualization of geographic areas through the application of the contour lines on cartographic images. A version with reduced functionality is also provided for mobile platforms (tablets and smartphones). The nature of the open source GIS and plug-in architecture makes this platform extremely flexible and adaptable to various needs and applications, especially in the educational field (De Pascale and D’Amico 2016, p. 124). GIS, comprising in turn Community Integrated GIS (CIGIS), is built and used by agents outside the local communities but also feature data gathered through participatory methods (Casti 2013). Therefore, the CIGIS shows as mediators the researchers, who give priority to their ethical responsibilities when conducting collaborative research with nonscientists and citizens and when interpreting results and teaching education to reduce natural risks in the schools, using this application.

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Fig. 4 A screenshot of the CIGIS project with the points of interest and the photo of debris flow damages caused by the 2010 event in the Municipality of Parghelia. Source Photo of debris flow damages by Basin Authority, Calabria region

Concluding Remarks The authors of this chapter analyzed the two case studies about the perception related to two significant natural hazards: seismic and geo-hydrological risk. In the first case study, Maltese citizens have identified, through a questionnaire administered using Geoweb, some important factors which local authorities have to consider to reduce the disaster risk and to increase territorial resilience. In fact, this way of producing geographical contents fosters a dynamic and collective construction of knowledge, creating a transversality among users, setting the conditions for working democratically in order to share information in an effective and constructive way. Neogeographic technologies are fundamental in this context because the sharing of information and the community-based approach are the essential prerogatives of neogeography, especially when citizens have to express their opinion on a relevant issue such as the perception of natural risks. Therefore, with the advent of social media and Web 2.0, news was easily shared through various online platforms, typically using smartphones. The extended online audience reached by these shares is difficult to quantify, and, of course, easily reaches a good percentage of the population on the islands. Moreover, the neogeographic and participatory approach could help to improve awareness and communication of seismic risk and, consequently, strengthens the resilience of the Maltese community. The second case study, concerning a Community Integrated GIS which includes a section on historical memory and perception of geo-hydrological risk in the “Costa degli Dei” (Calabria—Southern Italy), is mainly aimed to educational purposes and is an useful tool to stimulate the young people to become resilient and aware of this

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risk in the Calabrian territory. More precisely, the processing and visualization of the data gave rise to a set of documents, which showed the dimension of the phenomena and the territorial dynamics, highlighting the social processes that produce stability or change. The CIGIS geospatial technology uses a chorographic perspective, which recovers the cultural and social sense of the territory in the relationship that the citizen establishes with the place, expressed by the landscape reality. Therefore, CIGIS put at the center the recovery of the subject, as a social actor who builds, represents and communicates the cultural function of the place in which he lives (Casti 2013). In both case studies, the participative intervention of the local population characterizes the entire constructive process: from the collection of data and, therefore, from the construction of information to the cartographic transposition obtained through the participation of the interviewed communities on the issues in question. The two case studies represent two geographies of the Anthropocene in which the presence of vulnerability factors due to anthropic causes is evident and could contribute to breaking the dynamic balance between population, environment, and resources, in case of extreme natural event. Therefore, these criticalities of anthropic origin are fundamental to understand a cultural specificity of the Anthropocene, which, if is exercised negatively, could lead a territorial system to a collapse on both a local and global scale: the need for interaction between human activity and physical space, during successive phases of territorialization and reterritorialization (Turco 2010). Consequently, educating on geoethics using participatory technologies is an essential approach to reducing the risk of disasters and preserving the territory. In fact, participatory mapping systems have the advantage of communicating the social significance of the territory, expressing a shared perception based on socially produced skills and knowledge. Acknowledgements The section related to the Maltese case study is an excerpt from the dissertation by the undergraduate student Jeffrey Custò (University of Malta 2015) under the scientific supervision of Dr. Sebastiano D’Amico. Francesco De Pascale is the author of paragraphs “Introduction”, “The Anthropocene: Contemporary Debate and Geoethical Implications”, “Digitized Interaction Between Communities and Governments: A Geoethical Approach”, and “Anthropocene and Disaster Risk Reduction Practices: Some Mediterranean Case Studies”. Sebastiano D’Amico is the author of the paragraph “Preliminary Results on Seismic Risk Perception in Maltese Archipelago by Using Neogeographical Participatory Approach”. Loredana Antronico and Roberto Coscarelli are the authors of the paragraphs “Analysis of a Case Study About Geo-Hydrological Risk Perception in Calabria (Southern Italy) Through a Community Integrated GIS (CIGIS)”, “A Section About Historical Memory of Geo-Hydrological Risk Within a Community Integrated GIS (CIGIS)”, and “Concluding Remarks”. All authors have contributed, in the same way, to revision and improvement of the chapter’s sections.

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GIS in Secondary Education in Hungary—Experiences in Lessons and in a Study Group Krisztina Dékány

Abstract Two central themes in public education today are first, how to motivate students, and second, what tools help to support more effective learning in the classroom. Geoinformatics has been implemented in several countries’ educational systems to address these themes, which could be the case in Hungary as well. Using Geoinformatics in education has started slowly, but at this time there are more and more international examples in this special field assisted by several international organizations. These entities provide data and software for teachers, and in some places, training, and textbooks to help developing projects that engage the capabilities of information technology to conduct spatial analysis to help students. That is why many countries have also incorporated basic GIS applications into their national curriculum. Month after month many innovations are displayed in different languages in the world (although most of in English); we could take advantage of these novel education methods in Hungary. In Hungary, there are few opportunities to implement geoinformatics in school. That is why—based on internationally well-established experiences—I implemented and tested numerous good practices of online web applications to introduce GIS in education. In addition, I established a GIS study group at II. Rákóczi Ferenc High School where I obtained new insights. Keywords Geoinformatics · Curriculum · Geography · Education

Introduction ‘A geographic information system (GIS) lets us visualize, question, analyze, and 1 interpret data to understand relationships, patterns, and trends.’ Nowadays, a lot of people use the word GIS in an incorrect way: they think that interactive maps 1 https://gisgeography.com/what-gis-geographic-information-systems/.

K. Dékány (B) Department of Cartography and Geoinformatics, Eötvös University, Budapest, Hungary e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. de Miguel González et al. (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Geography Education, Key Challenges in Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17783-6_12

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equal Geoinformatics, but there is a big difference between them. GIS is more than an electronic map: it is just only a visual representation of a huge spatial database. Behind that, there is a structured system with exact locations on the earth’s surface. We can use this database to ask geographical questions at different cognitive levels (Fig. 1) and especially to find answers and solutions to environmental and economic problems, to plan the best/fastest/cheapest routes, and numerous other uses. The utilization of these systems are already widespread in the public and business sectors, but in secondary education it is still hard to find geospatial technologies As an educator, I believe we should use GIS and the most obvious and perhaps the simplest solution is to try geoinformatics as a tool in geography lessons. It is impossible to imagine a geography class that does not use maps as a key tool of analysis. Geographical methods, such as mapping, map reading, statistical analysis, calculating, the interpretation and production of images, texts, graphs, and diagrams are hopefully widespread in many schools. Nowadays, it is no longer necessary to emphasize the benefits of information and communication technologies (ICT) in education, which GIS can support in the following areas: – acquire up to date knowledge through lifelong learning by developing new skills and exploring new understandings; – easily access information and integrate it into existing knowledge; – implement new and innovative methods for teaching and learning with web-based information, and to enhance communication and cooperation; – visualize multi-dimensional environmental issues related to geography locations;

Fig. 1 Questioning with GIS

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– promote higher thinking skills like synthesis and evaluation, because GIS does not contain or present the answer to a problem: people define answers according to the questions they ask and the parameters they use; – practice digital media education with a focus on the principles of teaching and learning with them, media and digital literacy; and – develop understanding, new skills, attitudes, and values necessary in the twentyfirst century.

GIS Usability in Public Education According to the International Cartographic Association, a map is a symbolized representation of geographic reality which depicts elements chosen as desired, primarily to illustrate spatial relationships. In a cartographic view, a map is a structural model of spatial information about reality (Faragó et al. 2010). The appearance of digital maps can be explained by the rapid development of information technology. The first digital maps were created by cartographers in Canada and the United States in 1958–1960 (Buris 2008), however, their application to other areas was started later. GIS has disseminated from English speaking areas like it is a spatial information system that not only contains information, data, events, but also their accurate spatial location (Longley et al. 2005). Geoinformatics has developed in several areas over the last few years: companies use them to optimize delivery routes, national parks plan their operations with them, and many major transnational companies use them to locate new stores or offices. GIS was later introduced to education. According to literature sources, like in the book of Green (2001), GIS ideally could be used in lessons due to its ability to develop and motivate students. The best example of this is the most well-known international network in the world (and in Hungary too) promoted by the ESRI (ESRI for Schools). They provide a range of materials for teachers, including: – GeoInquiries™ : These are 15-min instructional activities using premade, online maps for subject-focused teaching. These free resources target environmental science, human geography; – The Mapping Our World collection: This is an assorted set of hour-long lessons for teaching world geography in middle school and above using online mapping; – Thinking Spatially Using GIS collection: These are hour-long lessons for teaching elementary world geography with hands-on, online mapping; – Learn ArcGIS: This instructional website hosts scenario-based, hands-on lessons providing free access to ArcGIS Online, trial versions of ArcGIS Pro, and other ArcGIS apps. In education, it is very important to give the best answers to the right questions. You need to be able to ask accurately, just as everyone says, and it is also true

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in geography. According to Green (2001), GIS can help answer more complicated questions also (Fig. 2). Figure 3 illustrates different ways to introduce and utilize GIS in geographical, geopolitical and environmental education: we need hardware and software of course, but the most important things are educational development, teacher training, and usable teaching material. In the educational map of Europe, there are many places where GIS teaching tools have been used (Table 1 and Fig. 4). Several countries have a national curriculum which includes the use of Geoinformatics at some level, but it is still relatively rare. However, more and more schools use GIS in education, for example, for geostatistical calculations, spatial analysis and the visualization of social or economic relationships on maps. I think we could find opportunities on every level of education where geoinformatics can be used as a teaching method (Fig. 5). Students meet different types of maps in the lower grades of primary school, and they can do tasks with them, for instance, with the use of the map legend they can tell where something is located. In middle school, pupils can notice logical connections and geographical associations

Fig. 2 General approach to teaching geography with GIS (Green 2001, pp. 82)

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Fig. 3 Important aspects from remote sensing and GIS didactics (Green 2001, pp. 140) Table 1 Examples of GIS in education GIS in curriculum China South-Africa India Turkey United Kingdom

Good practices with GIS in education Finland Taiwan Norway

Austria The Netherlands Spain Canada South-Korea Rwanda

Germany Portugal Switzerland USA Australia

by comparing different maps, for example, a climate map and a map of agricultural products. Moving on to high school, a higher level of synthesis and analysis can be assisted by GIS. And by expanding the set of skills, programming and database management skills that require more complex thinking are needed. An additional benefit of using GIS in education, I point out, is that it supports the development of critical thinking, where exploration and discovery are the key. Geoinformatics provides methods with which to explore alternative responses for specific problems and situations. It could be helpful for problem-based or projectbased learning too. Along the way, students can learn how to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate geographical information. GIS also can be one of the tools which might change educational reform. As a new technology and educational paradigm, GIS helps promote change and growth for skill development, classroom organization, instructional methodology and curricular

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Fig. 4 GIS usage in the education

Fig. 5 GIS introductory areas for education

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content (Green 2001). With GIS, students can develop their analytical skills, exercise integrative thinking and practice expressing their ideas effectively to others. Meanwhile, students’ logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial and interpersonal intelligence can be developed. Logical-mathematical intelligence includes numeracy and technological capacity, linguistic intelligence covers the field of literacy and graphicacy, spatial intelligence consists of map literacy and interpersonal intelligence focus on communication.

Laws and Chances to Use GIS in Hungarian Educational System The Hungarian Education System is governed by several decrees issued by law and government decree from the Ministry of Human Resources. In my view, it is possible to introduce geoinformatics to teaching at several levels, but at present, I focus at specifically the 7–12 grades at public education. According to the current regulation in public education, the whole structure is based on the Act on Public Education (Fig. 6), which is a general legal framework for the education system applicable from young children to adult education. Every single step up to the top has more detailed specification until the specific educational programs, for example, Geoinformatics. To present these, Table 2 contains the most important directions of the education system related to the introduction of GIS in teaching processes.

Fig. 6 Structure of Hungary’s Education System

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Table 2 Legislation and regulations about Hungary’s public education system Act on National Public Education

National Core Curriculum

Frameworks for the National Curriculum

Structure of the Hungarian Educational System, types of lessons in and outside classroom Schools could settle non-compulsory lessons (for example study groups and non-formal education) in their pedagogical program

Details of education goals can be connected to geoinformatics: • Moral education • Patriotic education • Education for democracy • Self-knowledge and social culture • Sustainability, environmental awareness • Career orientation • Economic and financial education • Educating media literacy • Teaching of studying

Education and development tasks in two-year phases in public education (grades: 1–2, 3–4, 5–6,7–8, 9–10, 11–12) the schools make own local curriculum based on that

Teachers should use multiple and varied teaching methods

Declaring nine key competence areas—I present their relationship with geoinformatics (Table 13.4)

At the subject level, it gives specific development goals, thematic units, preliminary knowledge, system of key concepts, expected results at the end of the stage

Pedagogical service has to promote further teacher training and self-study

Education and training program may cover one subject or area of education, for example: • Pedagogical concept • Description of the learning-teaching program and units • Tools for implementation • Special training programs • Evaluation and their tools • Support, guidance, forums

Generally describes the tasks of competence development, the principles of uniformity and differentiation, connection points between the subjects

The current National Core Curriculum became mandatory in the autumn of 2013 beginning with the 1st, 5th, 7th and 9th grades. It is known that the Government plans to introduce a New National Core Curriculum in 2020, in which a major change will be made by mandatory teaching methods and new competence areas. GIS can be introduced to public education based on these current regulations. It can also be implemented in the form of ‘Good Practice’—it is an educational project form in the Institute for Educational Research and Development, who deals with it within the framework of an EU project. The main goal is to renew and develop the methodological culture of teachers. Because much depends on what kind of skills teachers have when they finish university and what teaching methods they want to use in different types of schools,

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I have also examined what competences and skills are needed for a pedagogical career. Furthermore, I overviewed the elements in the current higher education system (Table 3) that can help to use geoinformatics in public education. For this, it seems necessary to start accredited teacher training that would help and motivate teachers to use GIS. I am not saying that into today’s education system Geoinformatics can be easily integrated, because—especially at the beginning—quite a lot of time is needed to do the preparation. It also takes time to develop effective learning strategies, but it is helpful and successful according to the key competence areas in the Hungarian National Core Curriculum (Table 4). Like all new educational methods, teaching with GIS could have advantages, but also disadvantages too (Fig. 7). I think that the positive part is obvious; it supports experiential teaching and interdisciplinarity. On the other hand, most of the negative side of it can be easily removed. Unfortunately, we do not have a direct impact on the education system, but teacher training and instructional materials can help to support this method in more and more schools. If we could start teaching this way, experience and good practices could help to reduce the time required to prepare lessons.

Geoinformatics During Geography Lessons What can we do with geoinformation? I’ve collected a few easy-to-use websites and good practices about the basics of GIS. I hope a lot of people will want to try these in their own lessons. At school, it is worth starting from an introduction to the many digital maps that surround us and an explanation of what is behind and supporting these systems. In Hungary, there are many institutions who have recognized the economic importance of GIS: government, telecommunication enterprises, and also commercial companies. In many other areas of the economy, there is the possibility to display not only existing business locations on maps, but they plan the growth of their organization and expansion to new locations. The best Hungarian examples for the actual, accessible application of geoinformatics can be found on the ESRI Hungary Ltd. website (http://www.esrihu.hu/terkepgaleria/) organized in topics like population, hydrology, and migration. Overall, there are several ways to introduce geoinformatics in public education. Here is a short list2 just to show you some ideas which I have tried in my classes: – Earth observation applications for education, observation satellite data to education [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Eduspace_EN/] – discovering the cartography of the past from over 400,000 maps [http://www. oldmapsonline.org/] – a blog about a variety of types of maps, charts, infograms posted several times a day on different themes [http://mapsontheweb.zoom-maps.com/] 2 Access

date: January 28, 2018.

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Table 3 Legislation and regulations about Hungary’s pedagogical training system Act on National Higher Education

Regulation on common requirements for teacher training

Regulation on the system of improvement of teachers

Regulation on teacher training

Determines the types of pedagogical training, their academic period and specializations

Teachers have to participate in the educational development program in a creative way and use effective methods

Possibility to start study groups in the school system

It is compulsory for every teacher to complete 120 h of training every seven years, with the aim of expanding existing knowledge and skills

The teacher training centre ensures the coordination of professional, content, organizational and scientific tasks of teacher education and the organization of theoretical and practical training in those higher education institutions where elementary or high school teacher training is being carried out

Eight different categories of skills and abilities that can be achievable for teachers: • Talent management • Cooperation between groups • Information processing in the field of science • Planning pedagogical process • Development of special competences • Evaluation • Communication, professional cooperation • Responsibility

Those pedagogic competences that can be realized in education with geoinformatics as well: • Specialist knowledge • Planning activities • Support the learning process • Developing student’s personality • Social and cultural integration • Continuous evaluation, analysis • Communication and problem-solving • Commitment and professional responsibility

Currently, there are 1403 optional coursesa , of which 128 are in the field of information technology, especially interactive and e-learning but here and in the pedagogical—methodological category none of the courses related to GIS

Order higher education institutions to participate in teacher training

Requirements of a geographer’s teachers: specialty knowledge includes geoinformatics and new methodological knowledge related to GIS

Further teachers training is free of charge for public service tasks; it must be centrally accredited to initiate; but only be allowed for five years

Source Teacher Training Accreditation System, http://pedakkred.oh.gov.hu/PedAkkred/Catalogue/ CatalogueList.aspx (access date: January 23, 2018)

GIS in Secondary Education in Hungary—Experiences in Lessons … Table 4 Key competences of the Hungarian National Curriculum with GIS Key Competences

GIS goals

Native communication

Transfer between Hungarian–English professional language

Foreign language communication Mathematical competence Science and technical competence

Distance measurements with various GIS tools, the use of GIS programs, problem-solving

Digital competence

Geoinformatics as a tool

Social competence and citizenship

Presentation of results, evaluate real-life situations and problems

Initiative and entrepreneurial skills

GIS companies in various industries and services

Aesthetic and artistic awareness and expression skills

Learning our environment, expression of spatial thinking

Efficient, self-study

Learning, problem-based thinking, and critical thinking

Fig. 7 SWOT table of introduction GIS to the public education

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– quiz about who knows the world more, with the possibility to create new maps. The pictures can be located through recognition of geographic clues. [https://www. geoguessr.com/maps] – real-time 3D view of the Earth [http://www.earth3d.org/] – real-time information on airplanes around the world [http://www.flightradar24. com/] Several international projects prepared teaching materials to help integrate GIS into the teaching process and not just only for geography lessons. These are still available today3 : – GIS Applications for Schools (GISAS 2003–2006): Directed to schools and students to support experiments in use of GIS applications. The project was funded by the European Commission Minerva action and it included schools from eight European countries. The participating teachers were not all from the field of geography but represented physics, languages, and computer science, as well. The teachers disseminated the educational materials, exercises, results and innovations at their own schools and later on provided training for other teachers to use GIS in the classroom too [http://www.xplora.org/ww/en/pub/xplora/eu_projects_new/ eu_projects/gisas___geographical_informati.htm]. – Integrating GIS Use in Education in Several Subjects (iGuess 2008–2010 and 2010–2013): tools and plans for teachers with courses. iGuess was a EU-funded project that aimed to develop a teacher training course to promote GIS and to instruct teachers in using it. Underlying the project was the assumption that using GIS in class or in an extracurricular way would produce new, innovative approaches to teaching [http://www.iguess.eu/]. Here, I present additional ideas which I think could inspire others to begin to teach with Geoinformatics: – GIS crossword with Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates: It was created with a simple and free application (EclipseCrossword (Fig. 8), [http://www. eclipsecrossword.com/]4 ). It can be easily used for any subject; I created a UNESCO World Heritage crossword (Fig. 9) for my geography class. – World News: Where is the news coming from? Which areas are connected? Using current events to analyze cause-and-effect relationships, with maps and other information sources, can inspire spatial awareness. – Where Does It Come From? Ask students to analyze where things come from, for example, the raw materials of electronic equipment derived from one part of the world to another place, where it is finished and stored, and which route is best to deliver it to the costumers. – Globalization Before the Internet. Have students considered in different periods which products were common and used around the known World.

3 Access 4 Access

date: January 29, 2018. date: January 30, 2018.

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Fig. 8 Making EclipseCrossword

The Beginning—The First Year of My GIS Study Group As stated previously, geoinformatics is now common in public and business sectors but it is still relatively rare in education contexts. To test the utility of GIS usage in education, I started a GIS special course in II. Rákóczi Ferenc High School (in Budapest, Hungary) in the 2014/2015 academic year, where I was a geographymathematics teacher at that time. Unfortunately, only a few students chose this course, but they were very enthusiastic. The aim of my course was to try out some of the ideas gleaned from GIS programs in other countries in the context of my country. I asked my colleagues what maps they would need for their lessons, attempting to involve as many teachers as possible. Like all educational programs, a curriculum was needed setting out the terms and themes. Therefore, I defined the whole teaching-learning framework with organizational and technical conditions, requirements and future goals (Table 5), which aligned with the Hungarian National Curriculum. Geography teachers in Hungary do not teach detailed mapping in any of our topics in general, thus I had to start with the basics, such as different types of maps, map scale, and projections. From there I built students’ understandings to the point where real questions could be answered supported by geoinformatics tools. I developed a website for the course [http://maps-and-gis.wikispaces.com] (Fig. 10), but for now, it is available only in Hungarian, but the English version is in progress. It is continually updated and has full details about the course. The site itself has a free platform (Wikispaces) and an easy-to-use interface, which can also be edited by the students (collaborative writing). It allows a range of types of objects to be placed on it such as pictures, videos, and text, and it can help manage projects with deadlines by organizing and monitoring students’ work. The site includes the theoretical material (definitions about maps, for example, projections, vector, and raster maps, the fundamentals of GIS) covered the whole year and practical examples as well. Furthermore, the site has links about other interesting

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Fig. 9 UNESCO World Heritage crossword with GPS coordinates

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Table 5 The syllabus of the GIS study group Program name: Geoinformatics study group Topics: creating digital and interactive maps, using GIS tools to solve global problems Recommended: students with geographical and IT interests Grade: any (mixed ages) Number of participants: max. 19 people Duration: two semesters, 2 h per week Objectives and Tasks: • Skill development: presentation, communication in public and in small groups, independent research, problem-solving, critical analysis • Development of key competency areas: foreign language communication, natural science, digital competence • Educational tasks: environmental awareness, economic responsibility Organizational framework: class lessons, study visits, field trip, invited speakers Learning methods: introduction and presentation, pairs and/or teamwork, practice, individual work, project Curriculum Module 1: Introduction to Mapping • The concept of the map, parts, types • Tasks with different maps • The use of interactive maps, digitizing maps • When do you need maps and why?—making of own (interactive) map Study visit: Hungary’s official map printing press Module 2: basics of Geoinformatics • Basic concepts, examples of applicability of GIS • GIS on the web—tasks • Simple online GIS programs (operations, functions) Study visit: ESRI Hungary Ltd. Module 3: detailed work with a couple of GIS software Fieldwork: mapping the school’s surroundings based on different aspects with ArcGIS mobile applications Project: creating a story map or interactive map for an optional school subject (preparation, presentation, evaluation) Teaching material: self-developed course curriculum based on English, American and Spanish experiences • Worksheets, databases, base maps, program user guides, online resources • Each learning material is available on the study group’s website, but only for members Conditions for realization: • Personal: a program leader and instructor, IT support (if needed) • Technical: computer room (with active board, if available), students mobile phones • Financial: 0 HUF (software—free of charge or trial) (continued)

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Table 5 (continued) Evaluation: create a real project in an optional GIS program, peer reviews Program communication: creating own webpage, publishing on the school’s website, publishing case study articles in various Hungarian and international journals Future objectives: after acquiring basic GIS knowledge, students could be taught to further GIS levels (analyzes, geostatistics), making complex projects (integration of subjects, project method), further training for teachers (Geoinformatics in other subjects), opportunities for student exchange programs

Fig. 10 The homepage of my GIS website

things in the map and GIS world, expanding knowledge with further reading material as well. Our first project was finished in November of 2014 when we participated in the International GIS Day. The students had the opportunity to promote the GIS study group and the following maps were prepared for this program in various online mapping applications: – – – – –

the largest extension of the English Empire for English class shipping routes, railway networks for Technique lesson Nobel Prize by country for Physics (Fig. 11) Mozart’s life on map for Arts Middle Ages’ castles and monasteries for History class

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Fig. 11 Nobel Prize by country in Physics

In the spring semester, we got to know better with ArcGIS and QGIS software to create and analyze maps with free datasets of USA and Hungary. The students learned the basics of Geoinformatics: how to query from GIS databases (Fig. 12) and visualize with different types of symbolizations and legends in order to create thematic maps as well.

Summary Many of the planned modules have been completed so I am satisfied with this introductory year. Unfortunately, we could not accomplish the fieldwork which was planned. Instead, we spent more time with the special functions available in GIS programs. I have gained a lot of good experience with GIS in my own geography lessons too, and since then I have been specifically looking for the new opportunities and applications to introduce more GIS programs into education. Moreover, I recommend them to my colleagues. To be widespread in public education, we should get GIS textbooks and workbooks and of course, teachers need special courses to learn to use Geoinformatics as an educational tool. To start there are a number of free ‘Desktop GIS’ software programs available on the Web, which include free databases and well-documented didactic

Fig. 12 SQL query about USA cities above 4000 m

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documentation. Additionally, there are lots of websites that can be successfully used as an introduction to this teaching process. Only the enthusiasm and curiosity of the teaching society are missing—in my opinion.

References Buris K (2008) Térképek a neten. Szakdolgozat, Debreceni Egyetem, pp 17–18 Faragó I, Gercsák G, Horváth I, Klinghammer I, Kovács B, Gy Pápay, Szekerka J (2010) Térképészet és Geoinformatika I. ELTE Eötvös Kiadó, Budapest, pp 103–104 Green DR (2001) GIS: a sourcebook for schools. Taylor & Francis, London Longley PA, Goodchild MF, Maguire DJ, Rhind DW (2005) Geographical information systems and science, vol 4. Wiley, West Sussex, England, pp 39

Internet Sources (Access date: 31 Jan 2018) Crechiolo AL (1997) Teaching secondary school geography with the use of a geographical information system (GIS). Thesis and Dissertations (Comprehensive), Paper 390 [http://scholars.wlu. ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1389&context=etd] ESRI for Schools [http://www.esri.com/industries/education/schools#] ESRI website [http://www.esri.com/what-is-gis] Wikispaces website [http://www.wikispaces.com]