Geneses: A Comparative Study of the Historiographies of the Rise of Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism, and Islam 2018054390, 2019005460, 9781351113311, 9781351113304, 9781351113281, 9781351113298, 9780815362074

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Contributors
Introduction
PART I: Narratives of triumph and defeat
1. The contours of Abrahamic identity: a Zoroastrian perspective
2. The twilight of the ancient gods
3. Simon the god: imagining the other in second-century Christianity
4. Contested ground in Gaza: the narrative of triumphalist Christianity
5. Between Jerome and Augustine of Hippo: some intellectual preoccupations of Late Antiquity
PART II: Forging legal paradigms
6. What is “Islamic” about geonic depictions of the Oral Torah?
7. Reevaluating the role of the Epigons (tabiʿun) in the formation of Islamic ritual and jurisprudence
8. Recording debts in Sufyānid Fusṭāṭ: a reexamination of the procedures and calendar in use in the first/seventh century
9. Slavery and sexual ethics: divergence and change in Hanafi legal discourse
PART III: Contemporary echoes
10. Teaching early Islam: the gap between school and the internet in British schooling
11. The Shahada and the creation of an Islamic identity
Index

Citation preview

GENESES A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE HISTORIOGRAPHIES OF THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY, RABBINIC JUDAISM, AND ISLAM Edited by John Tolan

Geneses

What is a religion? How do we discern the boundaries between religions, or religious communities? When and how does Judaism become Judaism, Christianity become Christianity, Islam become Islam? Scholars have increasingly called into question the standard narratives created by the various orthodoxies, narratives of steadfastness and consistency, of long and courageous maintenance of true doctrine and right practice over the centuries, in the face of opposition (and at times persecution) at the hands of infidels or heretics. The 11 chapters of this book, Geneses: A Comparative Study of the

Historiographies of the Rise of Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism, and Islam, written by an international group of specialists in the languages, religions, laws and cultures of early Judaism, Christianity and Islam, tackle these questions through a comparative study of these narratives: their formation over time and their use today. They explore three key aspects of the field:

(1) the construction (and scholarly deconstruction) of the narratives of tri­ umph (and defeat) of religions, (2) how legal imperatives are constructed from religious narratives and sacred texts, and (3) contemporary ramifi­ cations of these issues. In doing so, they tap into the significant body of research over the past 30 years, which has shown the fluidity and mallea­ bility of these religious traditions in relation to each other and to more tra­ ditional "pagan" and Zoroastrian religions and philosophical traditions. This book represents an important contribution to, and a valuable resource for, the burgeoning field of comparative history of the Abrahamic religions.

John Tolan has studied at Yale University (BA Classics), University of Chicago (MA and PhD History ) and the Ecole de Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales in Paris (HDR); he is Professor of History at the University of Nantes, France and member of the Academia Europaea. He has been awarded numerous prizes and distinctions, including two major grants from the European Research Council and the Prix Diane Potier-Boes from the Academie Franc;aise (2008). He is author of numerous articles and books, including Petrus Alfonsi and His Medieval Readers (1993), Saracens: Islam

in the Medieval European Imagination (2002), Sons of Ishmael (2008), Saint Francis and the Sultan (2009) and Muhammad the European (2019).

Taylor & Francis Taylor & Francis Group http://taylorandfrancis.com

Geneses

A Comparative Study of the Historiographies of the Rise of Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism, and Islam

Edited by John Tolan

I� ���:�;n��;up LONDON AND NEW YORK

First published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint ofthe Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 selection and editorial matter, John Tolan; individual chapters,

the contributors The right of John Tolan to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Tolan, John Victor, 1959- editor. Title: Geneses : a comparative study of the historiographies of the rise of Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism, and Islam I edited by John Tolan. Description: First [edition]. I New York : Routledge, 2019. I Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018054390 (print) I LCCN 2019005460 (ebook) I ISBN 9781351113311 (ebook) I ISBN 9781351113304 (web pdf) I ISBN 9781351113281 (mobi/kindle) I ISBN 9781351113298 (epub) I ISBN 9780815362074 (hardback: alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Abrahamic religions-Historiography. I Christianity-Origin. I Islam-Origin. I Judaism-Origin. Classification: LCC BL80.3 (ebook) I LCC BL80.3 .G465 2019 (print) I DDC 200.72/2-dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018054390 ISBN: 978-0-8153-6207-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-351-11331-1 (ebk) Typeset in Source Sans Pro by Cenveo"' Publisher Services

Contents

Contributors Introduction

vii 1

JOHN TOLAN

PARTI

Narratives of triumph and defeat

17

1 The contours of Abrahamic identity: a Zoroastrian perspective

19

YISIWKIEL

2 The twilight of the ancient gods

35

DANUTA SHANZER

3 Simon the god: imagining the other in second-century Christianity

64

DUNCAN E. MACRAE

4 Contested ground in Gaza: the narrative of triumphalist Christianity

87

CLAUDIA RAPP

5 Between Jerome and Augustine of Hippo: some intellectual preoccupations of Late Antiquity MOHAMED-ARB! NSIRI

98

vi

Contents

PART II

Forging legal paradigms

115

6 What is "Islamic" about geonic depictions of the Oral Torah?

117

MARC HERMAN

7 Reevaluating the role of the Epigons (tabi'un) in the formation of Islamic ritual and jurisprudence

132

MOHAMMED HOCINE BENIisha's milk uncle. Consequently, she could receive him because he was a relative within the prohibited degrees

(ma"f:i.ram). There is a similar story about his other wife l:faf�a. We also have other stories about other women who were close to the Prophet. We should note that we do not have any similar anecdotes about Companion such as cumar or Abu Bakr, except perhaps 'Ali. Furthermore, it is through these stories alone that we learn that cA_lisha had a milk uncle, who even had a name and a patronym! Thus, if we ignore the case of 'Ali as well as the Companions about whom the Prophetic tradition reports anecdotes that are in fact stories about the Prophet (using the following method: the Companion encounters a difficulty, the Prophet intervenes in the form of a narration to indicate the correct solution), all of the traditions pre­ sented in the form of a narrative concern the Prophet exclusively-his daily actions (eating, sleeping, walking, cleaning, etc.) as well as his mar­ ital life and his exercise of power in various ways Uudging, correcting an idea or practice, interpreting a dream, etc.). In this perspective, it would be interesting to verify which specific areas of daily life were covered by hadiths and which ones were omitted. We may suggest that if the hadith was the manifestation of a memory that Muslims had of their Prophet, this memory would involve many diverse issues and not exclu­ sively issues that were related to one chapter of the Law or another. For this reason, we might propose that only hadiths that have no normative scope (including ones that defined a correct belief ) could hypothetically be considered authentic. Also, these pseudo-eyewitness accounts of the Prophet's life were intended to make the Law rooted in the person of the Prophet: the conduct of the Prophet is given legal weight when it is first attested. Thus, we may suggest that those who promoted the Prophetic tradition were not seeking to preserve the memory of the Prophet, but rather to draw the outline of a figure that would be a model of normative law. The Prophet would be the originator of the Law not only through

The Epigons and Islamic ritual/jurisprudence

143

his explicit prescriptions (injunctions, recommendations or prohibitions), but also through his everyday behavior. The true innovation was surely this second role, as the first was similar to the rather traditional role of a ruler. This is what leads us to believe that if those who promoted the Prophetic tradition were seeking to cement Islamic norms in the conduct

(sira) of the Prophet, this was surely because they wanted to contrast this Law with the casuistry that had been popular among the generation of the Tabi'iin. So the appearance and diffusion of hadith are the expression of a conflict among men of religion themselves. This "context," which was at the heart of efforts to create "Islamic" law, an effort made by learned men and not established authorities, was therefore divided between those who sought to define this law through casuistry and those who sought to harken back to the very person of the Prophet. In the eyes of members of this "party" the figure of the Prophet necessarily had to prevail over any other authority. It was surely also due to this party that the idea of the impeccability of the Prophet arose: if the conduct of the Prophet was the source of norms, this conduct could not be ascribed to any ordinary indi­ vidual. Also, when the "classical" jurists made hadith one of the "sources" of the Law, they took into account the entire body of hadith that had been transmitted to them, but refused to consider it irrefutable. Thus, those who later saw the hadith corpus as a statement of Islamic law, the ahl

al-Q.adith, were the heirs of this "party," if not its continuators. Laban al-fal)ti1 In legal literature, the phrase laban al-fasy refers to the doctrine that nurs­ ing creates impediments to marriage both for the nurse and her spouse. Thus, there are several hadiths stating that the impediments due to nurs­ ing are symmetrical with those due to birth. All the religious groups and schools adopted this doctrine. However, this idea triumphed only in a later period. Numerous ancient authorities were hostile to it. The opponents of this doctrine, called laban al-faQ.l, felt that nursing led to impediments only for the nurse, not for her spouse. In particular, included among them were numerous Epigons. In Medina, they included 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr (d. between 92/710 and 101/720), Sa'id b. al-Musayyab (d. 94/712), Abu Salama b. 'Abd al-RaI:iman b. 'Awf (d. 94/713 or 104/723), Sulayman b. Yasar (d. 107/726) and his brother 'Ata' b. Yasar (d. 103/722), al-Qasim b. MuI:iammad b. Abi Bakr (d. 106/725), Salim b. 'Abd Allah b. 'Umar (d. 106/725), Abu Bakr b. Sulayman b. Abi Hatma; in Iraq, l:lasan al-Ba�ri (d. 110/728), Iyas b. Mu'awiya (d. 122/739)-both from Ba�ra-Ibrahim Nakha'i (d. 96/715), al-Sha'bi (d. 103/721) and l:lammad b. Abi Sulayman (d. 120/738) of Kufa. In Yemen, there was Tawus b. Kaysan (d. 106/724) and in Syria, 'Abd Allah b. Zayd Abu Qilaba (d. 104/723) and Makl:tUl (d. between 112/730

144

Mohammed Hocine Benkheira

and 118/736). Thus, we can see that the majority of the opponents were from Medina. Conversely, there were no opponents among the authorities from Mecca. According

to Ibn

I:Iazm,

in KU.fa,

several students of al-Nmas

(d. 147/764), including 'Umara b 'Umayr (d. between 96/715 and 99/717), were opposed to the

laban al-fa"f:il, but they were converted to

it by al-I:Iakam b. 'Utayba (d. 115/733), one of the great muftis of KU.fa at the time and a partisan of this doctrine.18 This is evidence that the debate over nursing and milk kinship was in full force in the first dec­ ade of the second Islamic century, which corresponds to the end of the Umayyad caliphate. Among the continuators of the Epigons, there are only two who opposed the doctrine of laban

al-fa"f:il: in Medina, Rabi'at al-Ra>y (d. 136/755), and

in Ba�ra, Isma'Il b. Ibrahim b. 'Ulayya (d. 193/809). Thus, in the second half of the second/eighth century, the opponents of

laban al-fa"f:il were

limited to two cities: Medina and Ba�ra. In KU.fa, the last opponent of the doctrine was probably I:Iammad b. Abi Sulayman (d. 120/738); after him, there was no further hostility to the doctrine of

laban al-fa"f:il in this city.

Likely in the same period, opposition ended in Syria. Likewise, opponents decreased in number throughout the Islamic world. However, we still encounter opponents even in later periods, includ­ ing Bishr al-Marisi (d. 218/833), Dawud (d. 270/884), the founder of the Zahiri school Abu 'Abd al-RaJ::iman Ibn bint al-Shafi'i (d. 295/909), Abu-1-'Abbas MuJ::iammad b. Ya'qub al-A�amm (d. 346/957) and Abu 'Abd Allah al-Thalji. Even Malik and Shafi'i are sometimes cited as opponents. It should be noted that Bishr, al-A�amm and al-Thalji were I:Ianafis or

favorable to I:Ianafism. While the number of opponents decreased over time, the number of partisans starkly increased. Among the Tii.bi'ii.n who supported the laban al-fa"f:il doctrine were, in Medina, al-Qasim b. MuJ::iammad, 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr, Salim b. 'Abd Allah, Zuhri (d. 124/742) and 'Abd Allah b. Abi Bakr b. 'Amr b. I:Iazm (d. 135/754). However, as the first three were also depicted as opponents of the doctrine, we may wonder if they should be omitted from the list. This would essentially be an argument that the introduction of the doctrine of

laban al-fa"f:il in Medina was due

solely Zuhri, as claimed in another source. In Mecca, we find the names of Mujahid (d. 102/721), Yusuf b. Mahik (d. between 103 and 113/722 and 731) and 'AW b. Abi Raba.J::i (d. 114/732); in Ba�ra, Jabir b. Zayd (d. 103/722), Ibn Sirin (d. 110/728) and I:Iasan al-Ba�ri (d. 110/728); in KU.fa, al-I:Iakam b. 'Utayba and al-Sha'bi; in Yemen, Tawus b. Kaysan (d. 106/724). Several of these authorities are depicted as members of both camps at the same time, both partisans and opponents of the doc­ trine. Even if we ignore disputed cases, it appears that in Mecca there were only partisans and no opponents.

The Epigons and Islamic ritual/jurisprudence

145

Among those who came after the Epigons, we can cite al-Awzaci (d. 151 or 158/768 or 775), Layth b. sacd (d. 175/791), Malik, Shafici, Sufyan al-Thawri (d. 161/778), Abu l:lanifa (d. 150/767 ), Abu Yusuf (d. 182/798), Shaybani (d. 189/804), IsQ.aq b. Rahuyah (d. 238/852), Zufar b. al-Hudhayl (d. 158/775), Abu Thawr (d. 240/854), AQ.mad b. l:lanbal (d. 241/855), Abu cubayd (d. 224/838), Dawud (d. 270/884) and Abu Bakr b. al-Mundhir (d. 318/930). The discussion about the doctrine of

laban al-fal:tl seemed to shift

between the late Umayyad period and the rise of the cAbbasids in 132/750. In the third century, while a significant number of leading jurists defended the doctrine of

laban al-faJ:il, only a handful of jurists

persisted in opposing it, all of whom were members of the l:lanafi school, with the exception of two who were part of the

ahl al-J:iadith.

Ignoring the Companions, whose opinions are questionable, we can see that starting in the late first century, there was a discussion about the legal effects of nursing as a result of the diffusion of a doctrine that was presented as an innovation and stated that nursing caused impediments to marriage both for the nurse (milk mother) and her spouse (milk father). Later, the classical schools adopted this doctrine and justified it on the basis of numerous hadiths. It is very clear that these hadiths appeared during the controversy and are likely all apocryphal. Otherwise, how could we explain why the doctrine was contested by numerous ancient authorities? The reasons for which this doctrine was formulated are not in question here. However, the doctrine of

laban al-fal:tl was adopted in

the end because it worked better than the doctrine that it replaced. The hadiths were a decoration to give it the authority that it lacked. Can we assign a date and context to those responsible for these forgeries? It is very clear that the doctrine of

laban al-fal:tl was developed before

the hadiths with which it was later associated and had been dissemi­ nated on a large scale. In this specific case, hadith supported a preexist­ ing doctrine. If the Prophet had advocated the doctrine of the Companions and the

laban al-faJ:il, why were Tii.bi'ii.n opposed to it? One objection may be that

the sayings attributed to the Companions are of doubtful authenticity and should not be quoted. This is certainly true for the Companions, but not for the

Tii.bi'ii.n, whose sayings should be considered authentic. The

only doubtful case is when two contradictory sayings are attributed to a

Tii.bi'i, unless we can identify which of the two is authentic and which Tii.bi'ii.n as well as their

is false. Thus, if we limit ourselves only to the

successors-who for the most part include all of the authorities from the second century-we must then ask why they did not follow the Prophet, whom they recognized as the ultimate Authority, and did not adhere to the same doctrine as he did. Since there were the doctrine of

Tii.bi'ii.n who promoted laban al-faJ:il, is it possible to believe that those who did

146

Mohammed Hocine Benkheira

not were simply not aware of the teachings of the Prophet on this sub­ ject, because it had not been transmitted to them? This does not seem likely, especially since we can imagine the same thing occurring for every teaching. If the doctrine of

laban al-fa"f:il

was accepted in Mecca around

114/732 at the latest, how would we be able to explain why it was still opposed by Rabi'at al-Ra'y (d. 136/755) two decades later in the nearby city of Medina? Considering how relatively persistent the opposition was, it seems that not only was the doctrine not perceived as originating with the Prophet, but also that even despite being associated with the author­ ity of the Prophet it was rejected for reasons related to the very idea of milk kinship that the doctrine espoused. Without going into all of the complex details of this issue, what we can conclude from this particular case is that the doctrine of

laban al-fa"f:il was

without a doubt initially developed by a few Epigons (al-ZuhrI seems to have played some role, according to certain sources). It was only afterwards that sayings from the Prophet were circulated to defend it. Despite this, it continued to encounter opposition, especially among the I:Ianafi jurist. Only later was it unanimously accepted and adopted even beyond Sunni circles, but at the expense of undergoing some amount of reinterpretation.

Notes 1. A term usually translated as "Followers," "Successors" or "Epigons." They are presented as the students and disciples of the Companions. 2. These are the authors of works on the subject of ikhtilii.f. 3. Syria was the seat of the Umayyad caliphate for a century. Why were there so few authorities from this territory? 4. Just as a modern judge might have the same ideas as an editorialist, a new kind of opinion maker who is seen as an "intellectual" or a "philosopher." 5. We know that these ritual prescriptions said to be obligatory were four in number: fasting, prayer, zakii.t and pilgrimage. This question must be recon­ sidered: if, as has been claimed, the credo ('aqida) was established under the Umayyads, it took longer to establish the list of obligatory ritual prescriptions. For some time, efforts were made, with no success, to give certain ritual pre­ scriptions the status of obligations-such is the case for the 'aqiqa sacrifice. 6. cumar II does not stand out from the other caliphs in this point of view, except perhaps that he seems to have been more sensitive to the ideas of the proto-jurists. 7. Among them there were very few Syrians. This is surprising, as Damascus was the Umayyad capital. This seems to be an addition argument in favor of the idea that "Islamic law" was developed by a particular strain of religion. 8. By "hadith," we mean here the traditions associated with the Prophet. We know that this is the dominant usage among the Sunni. In this sense, hadith is closely related to the Sunna: the Sunna could be accessed only through the hadith corpus. This is why, when the Sunna is said to be one of the sources of the Law, what is meant is hadith. However, hadith does not always neces­ sarily refer to a norm and often requires interpretation. To the hadith corpus must also be added those that deal with the "sacred history" of Islam (Sira).

The Epigons and Islamic ritual/jurisprudence

147

9. Here we do not mean the hadiths that are normative in scope in a wider

10.

11.

12. 13.

14.

15. 16. 17.

18.

sense: they may refer to more than just legal, religious (worship and ritual) and moral obligations. As Joseph Schacht observed over half a century ago, in reality many "historical" traditions have normative intentions. This is, in part, one of the difficulties with using the corpus of sira to write a biogra­ phy of Muhammad. In theory, as long as the Imam was alive, the words of his predecessors could not be compiled, because it was the living imam who was the source of law and religion. However, it seems that the historical process of creating compilations of traditions violated this doctrinal assumption, since the first compilations preceded the Major Occultation. This should be confirmation that the development of the doctrine of the Major Occultation occurred later than we would like to admit. The history of Shi'ism suffers from lack of a historical and philological approach, particularly in France, as Henry Corbin, the founder of Shi'ite studies, was hostile to it. Aside from being ambitious, this proposed method is also highly rigorous. However, except for a few rare cases, it does not provide any results. But this does not mean that we should abandon it. Knowledge of contemporary debates can sometimes clarify ancient discus­ sions in unexpected ways. This should be the starting point: a hadith is a statement that is interlinked with all of the statements on the same subject. We can therefore study a hadith abstractly. It should be compared not only with other analogous hadiths, but also with the sayings of the Companions and the Tiibfiin, as well as with "classical" doctrine. Sometimes, it may be necessary and fruit­ ful to step outside the narrow circle of the legal religious text. This is surely the case for the adage al-walad li-l-firash, which, as J. Schact observed, is a transcription of the famous adage of the jurist Paulus. We may also cite the rule that in cases where there is no matrimonial guardian (due to absence, incapacity or disagreement), public authorities (sultan) are responsible for carrying out this duty, as was true for the representative of the Emperor in late Roman law. Ibn Abi Shayba, al-Mu�annaf, ed. Shahin, 7 vol.+ 2 vol. of index (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-'ilmiyya, 1995, VII), 276-326. On this subject, see Bravmann. For a detailed analysis, see our previous publications, especially "Donner le sein c'est comme donner le jour. La doctrine de l'allaitement dans le sun­ nisme medieval," Studia Islamica, no. 92 (2001) 5-52 and Chapter 4: "Il y a aussi des peres de lait," in La famille en islam, d'apres les sources arabes, M.H. Benkheira, Avner Giladi, Catherine Mayeur-Jaouen and Jacqueline Sublet, eds. (Paris: Les Indes savantes, 2013). See also our contribution "The milk of the male. Kinship, maternity and breastfeeding in medieval Islam," in Medieval and Renaissance Lactations-Images, Rhetorics, Practices, Jutta Gisela Sperling, ed. (Farnham-Burlington: Ashgate, 2013), 21-36. Ibn I:Iazm, al-Mul;tallii., X, 181.

Chapter 8

Recording debts in Sufyinid Fustit: a reexamination of the procedures and calendar in use in the first/seventh century1 •

•

Mathieu Tillier and Nairn Vanthieghem

Introduction The Arabic documents that have come down to us from the first 60 years after the conquest are still not widely known. 2 Few in number, they come mostly from the old city of Fustat, where they were discovered by illegal diggers in the early twentieth century in circumstances that have been well documented by Adolf Grohmann. 3 These papyri, which for the most part are held by the Oriental Institute in Chicago, the Austrian National Library,

the

Egyptian

National

Library

(Dar

al-Kutub),

Cambridge

University Library and the Louvre Museum, were written in a very char­ acteristic script that has been classified as IJ_ijii.zi. 4 The documents from this era include incipits, usually introduced by the demonstrative hcidhii., which have nothing in common with what we know of Arabic documen­ tary styles attested in later periods: for instance, we find papyri that begin with the words hii.dhii. kitii.b madad (This is a document of the auxiliary troops)5 or even hii.dhihi 'iddat 'iyii.l6 (Here is the number of families). Among these documents are a large number of letters,7 as well as a still larger number of lists recording the names of people attached to mili­ tary units,8 and the names of Arabic families living in Fustat.9 Aside from these epistolary documents and documents relating to population surveys or accounts, there are also a few documents of a legal nature: these are

registers of receipts (barii.)ii.t), perhaps issued for debts paid by debtors,10

registers listing the names of those who had been paid their pensions ('atii.))11 and lastly acknowledgments or registers of debts. These different documentary styles are evidence that, very early on in the neighborhoods of Fustat, there was a developed and organized military-tribal administra­ tion that kept detailed records about everyday life. In this chapter, we will focus on acknowledgments of debt from this period. The documents that allude to debt records or payments can be divided into three distinct categories:12 1

The first group includes acknowledgments of individual debts, in which a person recognizes that he owes a sum of money that will be

Recording debts in Sufyanid Fustat

149

paid on a specific date. Three documents fall into this category: P. Louvre Inv. E 7106

P. Bruning Sunna

=

P. Berol. Inv. 15002

=

P. Ragib An

(44/664) as well as probably 22 ( 2 2 /642-643) and P. Utah

52 0 4 (47/667). 2 The second group includes portions of registers in which various debt =

acknowledgments have been recorded. The documents that fall into this category are more numerous: P. Louvre Inv. JDW 20

=

P. RagibJuridiction

1 (42 /662-663); P. Camb. UL Inv. Michael. Pap. 893 3 (47/667-668), P. Vindob A.P. 11191 P. RagibJuridiction 2 2 (57/676-67 7) to which the unedited fragments 11153 (49/670), P. Vindob. Inv. A.P. 11012 (54/674), 11074 (57/676-677), 11076 (57/676-67 7), 11086 (47/668 or 57/677), 11078 (not specifically dated) as well as P. P aris BNF Inv. 7075 (9) (not specifically dated) can probably be added.13 =

=

=

3 The last group consists of receipts establishing that a payment has been made. Two examples are attested so far: P. Vindob. Inv. A.P. 519 Chrest.Khoury I 48 1 ( 2 0/641) and P. Ness. III 56 (rajab 67/18 January 687).14 =

=

Whichever category they fall into, all of these documents have one thing in common: they are dated using a unique calendar system. This calendar is characterized by the addition of the expression sanat qaan to evoke the passage of time, and that in later papyri the root is used in a temporal sense. He therefore

Recording debts in Sufyanid Fustat

157

suggests that the root may have acquired the secondary meaning of "pas­ sage," and that the expression could mean "the year according to the reckoning of the believers.''42 Although there is no doubt that Shaddel is essentially correct, as we will try to show, his arguments can be disputed. It is no coincidence that the root q. from 691 to 692 (accessed 20 October 2018). 32. See for instance, the example from 694 to 695 (accessed 20 October 2018). 33. See for instance the example http://numismatics.org/collection/ 1917.215.230 9 ?lang=en from 687 to 688 (accessed 20 October 2018). 34. See for instance the example http://numismatics.org/collection/ 1989.81.l?lang=en from 668 to 669 (accessed 20 October 2018). 35. See for instance the example http://numismatics.org/collection/ 1972.169.182?lang=en from 695 to 696 and http://hcr.ashmus.ox.ac.uk/ coin/HCR10180 from 694 to 695 (accessed 20 October 2018). 36. http://numismatics.org/collection/1975.238.21?lang=en, http://numismatics.org/collection/1917.215.3351?lang=en and http://numismatics. org/collection/1973.3.l?lang=en, respectively (accessed 20 October 2018). 37. For an image of this coin, see Lutz Ilisch, "The Muhammad-Drachms and Their Relation to Umay yad Syria and Northern Mesopotamia," Supplement to the Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society 193 (20 07): 18, figure 5; Bacharach, "Signs of Sovereignty," 6, figure 6; Heidemann, "The Evolving Representation," 167, figure 15. 38. Bacharach, "Signs of Sovereignty," 6. Bacharach avoids using the expres­ sion Shahada in order to distinguish between the modern Shahada and very early versions that did not strictly adhere to the specific phrasing of the modern Shahada. 39. Ilisch, "The Muhammad-Drachms," 18. 40. The same is encountered as well on dirhams minted in Damascus in 693-694. See http://numismatics.org/collection/1971.316.35?lang=en (accessed 20 October 2018). 41. http://numismatics.org/collection/1970.63.l?lang=en (accessed 20 October 2018).

The Shahada and Islamic identity

237

42. See Ilisch, "The Muhammad-Drachms," 17, figure 1; and Stefan Heidemann, "The Evolving Representation of the Early Islamic Empire and Its Religion on Coin Imagery," in The Qur'an in Context: Historical and Literary Onves­ tigations into the Qur'anic Milieu, A. Neuwirth, N. Sinai and M. Marx, eds. (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010), 172, figure 18. 43. See Ilisch, "The Muhammad-Drachms," 18, figure 4. 44. Johns, "Archaeology," 431. 45. Johns, "Archaeology," 429 to 433. 46. For some examples (dating between 767 and 803) from Tabaristan, see the list at http://hcr.ashmus.ox.ac.uk/coin/?page=8 (accessed 20 October 2018). 47. Johns, "Archaeology," 426-7. 48. For an image of this coin, see Malek I. Mochiri, "A Pahlavi Forerunner of the Umayyad Reformed Coinage," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 113.2 ( 1981): 169, plate 1; Heidemann, "The Evolving Representation," 168, figure 16. As far as we can tell, this is the only specimen that has survived. For a discussion of this coin, see Mochiri, "A Pahlavi Forunner." 49. I am thankful to Y ishai Kiel for bringing this possibility to my attention. 50. For example, Donner, Muhammad, 205; and Bacharach and Sherif, "Early Versions." (accessed 51. http://numismatics.org/collection/1917. 216.87 8?lang =en 20 October 2018). 52. See Garth Fowden, Empire to Commonwealth: Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). 53. Fowden, Empire to Commonwealth, 116. 54. Two of these milestones are discussed in Moshe Sharon, Corpus Inscriptio­ num Arabicarum Palaestinae (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997-present), 3: 95 and 104-5. 55. For this commemorative road-building inscription, see Sharon, Corpus Inscrip­ tionum, 1: 103-6. The stone is broken in the part that states the date, with only the digit number preserved. Given the name of the person in charge of the works-Yahya b. al-Hakam (d. ca. 699) who was 'Abd al-Malik's uncle­ the decimal must be 70, when Yahya was governor in Palestine. 56. For an image and transcription of the text on the tombstone, see Bacharach and Sherfi, "Early Versions," 62-63. 57. I am assuming the tomb marker was made shortly after the death of 'Abbasa bt. Jurayj. 58. Abu Hanifa (ascribed), al-Fiqh al-akbar, 96-98.

Bibliography Classical sources Al-Ghazali, Al-Iqtisadfi al-i'tiqad, 'Abd Allah M. al-Khalili, ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya, 2004). Al-Tha'labi, Al-Kashf wa-l-bayan 'an tafsir al-qur'an, Abu Muhammad Ibn ' Ashur, ed. (Beirut: Dar Ihya' al-Turath al-'Arabi, 2002). Al-Tirmidhi, Sunan, Bashshar Ma'ruf, ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1998). Ibn Babawayh, Kamal al-din wa-tamam al-ni"ma. Husayn al-A'lami, ed. (Beirut: Mu'assasat al- A'lami, 1991).

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Abu Dawud, SIDlan, Muhammad 'Abd al-Hamid, ed. (Sayda, Lebanon: al-Maktaba al-'Asriyya, 1996). Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, Shu'ayb al-Arna'ut et al., eds. (Beirut: Dar al-Risala, 2001). Abu Hanifa (ascribed), Al-Filch al-akbar, Muhammad al-Khamis, ed. (Dubai: Maktabat al-Furqan, 1999). Ibn Abi Shayba, Musnad, 'Adil al-'Azazi and Ahmad al-Mazidi, eds. (Riyad: Dar al-Watan, 1997). Ibn Taymiyya, Al-Iman, Muhammad al-Albani, ed. (Amman: al-Maktab al-Islami,

1996). Abu 'Ubayd, Kitab al-Iman, Muhammad N. al-Albani, ed. (Riyad: Maktabat al-Ma'arif, 2000).

Modern sources Album, Stephen and Tony Goodwin. Sylloge of Islamic Coins in the Ashmolean. Vol. 1: Pre-Reform Coinage of the Early Islamic Period (Oxford: Ashmolean Museum, 2002). Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali. The Silent Quran & the Speaking Quran: Scriptural Sources of Islam Between History and Fervor, Eric Ormsby, trans. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016). Bacharach, Jere L. "Signs of Sovereignty: The Shahada, Qur'anic Verses, and the Coinage of 'Abd al-Malik," Muqarnas 27 (2010): 1-30. Bacharach, Jere L. and Sherif Anwar, "Early Versions of the Shahada: A Tombstone from Aswan of 71 A.H., the Dome of the Rock, and Contemporary Coinage," Der Islam 89. 2 (2012): 60-69. Donner, Fred M. Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam. (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010). Elad, Amikam. "Community of Believers of 'Holy Men' and 'Saints' or Community of Muslims?": The Rise and Development of Early Muslim Historiography," Journal of Semitic Studies 47.1 (2002): 241-308. Fowden, Garth. Empire to Commonwealth: Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). Heidemann, Stefan. "The Evolving Representation of the Early Islamic Empire and Its Religion on Coin Imagery," in The Qur>iin in Context Historical and Literary Onvestigations into the Quriinic Milieu, A. Neuwirth, N. Sinai and M. Marx, eds. (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010), 149-95. Hoyland, Robert G. Seeing Islam as Others Saw It A Survey and Evaluation of Christi.an, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam. (Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1997). Ilisch, Lutz. "The Muhammad-Drachms and Their Relation to Umayyad Syria and Northern Mesopotamia," Supplement to the Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society 193 (2007): 17-23. Johns, Jeremy. "Archaeology and the History of Early Islam: The First Seventy Years," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 46.4 (2003):

411-36. Khalidi, Tarif. "Review of Fred Donner's Muhammad and the Believers," Al-Abhath

58-59 (2010-2011): 59-62.

The Shahada and Islamic identity

239

Kister, M. J. " ... illa bi-haqqihi ... : A Study of an Early Hadith," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 5 (1984): 33-52. Mochiri, Malek I. "A Pahlavi Forerunner of the Umayyad Reformed Coinage," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 113.2 (1981): 168-72. Milwright, Marcus. The Dome of the Rock and Its Umayyad Mosaic Inscriptions. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2016. Al-Sharistani, 'Ali. "Ashhadu anna 'Aliyyan waltyyu-llah" ft al-adhan bayn al-shar'i­ yya wa-l-ibti.da'. Mashhad, Iran: Manshurat al-Ijtihad, 2009. Sharon, Moshe. Corpus Inscripti.onum Arabicarum Palaesti.nae (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997-present). Walker, John. A Catalogue of the Arab-Sassanian Coins (London: the British Museum, 1941). Wensinck, A.J. The Muslim Creed: Its Genesis and Historical Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1932).

Index

Alexandria 2

Note: Italicized page numbers refer to figures.

al-Fath (The Victory) 165

'Abbasids 133, 134, 135, 191 Abi Bakr, al-Qasim b. Muhammad b. 143 Abi Sulayman, Hammad b. 144 Abraham 7, 19, 21, 34n59; as antithesis to Zarathustra 22, 25; as counterpart of Yima 32n33; identification of 34n59; othering 22-7; as the priest (dastwar) of the Jews 25; as the recipient of Torah from Dahag 24, 25; transmission of Torah to Moses 26; Zoroastrian appropriation of 27-8 Abrahamic identity 19-28; in Pahlavi tradition 20; in Zoroastrarian tradition 20 Abu Qilaba,'Abd Allah b. Zayd 143 Acts of Peter 8-9, 64, 72-6 Acts of the Apostles 9, 64, 103 Actus Vercellenses 73-4 Adam 119 adherents 35-6 'Affan, 'Uthman b. 135 African Church Councils 98 Against the Heresies 71, 71-2 ahl al-hadith 143 ahl al-kitab 8, 28 Ahmed, Leila 14, 190 Ahmed, Shahab 125 Ahura Mazda 25, 32n33, 230 Alain de Lille 38 al-A'mas 144 Alaric 107 al-Awzai 145

Ali, Kecia 190 'Alids 135 Alim.org 209 Al-Islam.org 208 al-Jami'al-Kabir 191 al-Safi'i 11 al-Sha'bi 135, 143, 144 al-Tha'labi 223 al-Zuhri 135, 136 ama 191, 192, 194 ama mankuha 191 amam mamluka 191 A'mas, al- 144 Amir,Uqba b. 150 Anglophone Muslims 212 Ansari, Al-Baraa ibn Malik al- 208 Ansari, Sahl b. Sa'd al-Khazraji 162 ant-exceptionalism 65 Anticlaudianus 38 Antioch 2 Antoninus Pius 66 Aphrodite 89 Apocolocyntosis 70 Apologeticum 70, 71-2 Apologia aduersus libros Rufini 101 Apologies 66 Apology 8, 66, 71 apotheosis 75 aqarra (confess) 153 Arab-Byzantine dinars (solidi) 225 Arab-Sassanian dirhams (drachms) 224-5,225 Arcadius 89 Arch of Titus 75 archaeology 52

Index

'arif152 'arifu-hu 152

b-ism Allah (In the name of God)

Aristotelianism 126 Armstrong, Karen 203 As, Amr b. al- 150 Asamm, Abu-I-Abbas Muhammad b. Ya'qub al- 144 Ascough, Richard 65 ashab al-shajara (people of the tree) 167 'ashira (military-tribal unit) 151, 152 Ashraf, Kab ibn al- 209 'Asqalani, Ibn Hajar 162 Asr. Umar b. 151 'ata (pensions) 148 Atget, Eugene 87 Athena 2 audiences 52 Augustine 106-8; City of God 105; De Doctrina Christiana 105; episto­ lary exchange with Jerome 99-101; Epistula 166 107; Epistula 28 101; first period of exchange 101-2; Letter 67 102; Letter 82 102, 103-4; Pelagianism and 106-8 Augustine of Hippo 98-108 Augustus 75 Austrian National Library 148 autobiographical texts 52 Avesta 31n23 Awzai, al- 145 'azl 194 Azmeh, Aziz Al- 166

'bligat (cultural obligations) 132

Bab Amara al-mawla 'abdahu bi al-nikah 191 Babawayh, Ibn 218 Babuyah, Ibn 137 Bacharach, Jere 220, 228 Baghdadi Talmudic academy 117 Bakr, Abu 166 bara'at (registers of receipts) 148 Basari, Hasan al- 143 basmala 150 Basra, Iraq 135 Basri, Hasan al- 135, 144 bay'a 165 bayan 137 bay'at al-ridwan 167 Beck, Roger 37 ben Hofni, Samuel 122-3, 124 Bibliotheque Nationale de France 99

241

224-5 blood sacrifice 45 Bonnardiere, Anne-Marie la 105 Book of Beliefs of Opinions 122 Book of Dating 158 Bouhot, Jean Paul 102 Bousquet, Georges Henri 190 Boyarin, Daniel 2 Bruning, Jelle 154-7 Buddha 203 Caesarea Maritima 88 caliphs (rashidun) 10-11 Cambridge University Library 148 Cameron, Alan 8 Capitoline Jupiter 2 Carmen 45 Casanova, Paul 6 Cassius Dio 74 Castor 68 Cato the Elder 69 Celestius 108 cellula 47 Chabbi, Jacqueline 164-5 Chalcedonic Christianity 4

Chrestomathie de papyrologie arabe 168-71 Christian Jews 4 Christianity 1, 8-9, 14; Abrahamic identity of 19; as Abrahamic reli­ gious tradition 19; adoption by the Roman Empire 2, 4; blood sacrifice in 44, 50; Chalcedonic 4; conver­ sion and narrative 87-90; division between Judaism and 3, 124; as monotheistic religion 19; primacy of four bishops 2; as religion 3; second form of Judaism 27; second-century 64-7 7; shahadas and 231-2; targets of conversion 90-2; triumphalist 87-96 Chronicle of Zuqnin 167 Chrysostom, John 4, 94-5 church councils 52 Chuvin, Pierre 90 circumcision 9 City of God 105 Cohen, Shaye 118 coins 224-31 Companions of Muhammad 207-9

242

Index

Companions of the Prophet 207-9 Companions of the Prophet (YouTube channel) 210-11 concubinage 190, 191 Cone, Patricia 4-5 Confucianism 3 Constantine 2 Constantinople 2, 93 Constitution of Medina 163 conversion: Life of Porphyri as narrative 88-90; narrating from distance 92-3; narrative 87-8; targets of 90 -2; triumphalist view from the capital 93-5 Cook, Michael 4-5, 162 Corinthians 8:4 231 Corippus 39 corporal punishment (hudud) 14 Council of 415 108 Crone, Patricia 162, 203 cult of martyrs 48

Da'a'im al-Islam 137 Dahag: Arab descent of 23; as counterpart of Ahura Mazda 32n33; handing down Torah to Abraham 20, 24-7; keeping the Torah in Jerusalem 31n23; as originator of Arab race 7 Dajjal 208 dananir qada al-mu'minin 160 Darius 31n23 Darstellung 52 dastwar (priest) 21 David, King 122 Dawud 145 Dawud, Abu 156, 223 Day of Atonement 122 De defectu oraculorum 37 De Doctrina Christiana 105 de la Puente, Cristina 190 De Menasce, Jean Pierre 22-3 De Nuptiis 38-9 de Vathaire, Dom J. 99 De Viris Illustribus 101 De Virtutibus S. Juliani (VSJ ) 47-50

Death of a Prophet (Shoemaker) 5-6 debts 12; calendars 153; fragment of debt acknowledgment 177-9; Hijra calendar 160-8; individual debt receipt 168-71; recording procedures 153; register of debt

acknowledgments 172-9; regis­ ters 149-52; in Sufyananid Fustat 148-79 defectus oraculorum 39 den 32n33 Denkard 20; 3.227 26; 3.227.14 23; 3.229 24; 3.229.15 27; 3.288.12 24, 27; final redaction 22; polemic against Judaism 22-3; reference to Abraham's lineage 26-7 Denkard 7 "Denys L'Auxerrois" 37 Deuteronomy 6:4 232 devotees 35-6 dhill 192 dhimmi 5, 28

Dialogue on the Life of John Chrysostom 94

Dialogue with Trypho 66 Dialogus contra Pelagianos 107-8 Di'ama, Qatada b. 165 diaspora 119 Dickinson, Eerik 121 Dionysius of Halicarnassus 69 Diopolis 108 Dioskoros (son of Zeus) 69 Diovis Filius (son of Diovis) 69 dirhams 224-30, 225, 227 Dius Fidius 69 diva/divus 70 Divjak, Johannes 100, 102 diwan al-jund 151 documentary evidence 52 Dahler, Marietheres 73 Dome of the Rock 233 Donner, Fred 5, 156, 220 dowry 193 doxographers 132 drachms 224-5, 225 d-shultono d-Tayoye 168 Dual-Shahada 220-1, 228 Eastern Roman Empire 88

Ecclesiastical History 64, 232 Education Act 1944 (United Kingdom) 201-14 EducationQuizzes.com 207 Edwards, Mark 65 Egyptian Monophysite creed 232 Egyptian National Library 148 elilim 37 Entzauberung 39 Epigons (tabi'un) 10, 132-6, 143-4

Index

Epistle 102, 104, 118, 121 Epistula Apostolorum80n16, 101, 107 Eshleman, Kendra 65 ethnos2 Eudoxia ( Empress) 89 Eusebius of Caesarea 3, 64-5, 104 ExploringReligions: Islam (Geldart) 203,203- 4 fanum47 Fasti Ostienses70 fathan mubinan165 Fatimid Ismailis 137 feasting 41-3 Felix 44-7 Ferreiro, Albert 65 Festus 69 fiqh14, 137 First Apology 64, 68, 69-70 First App68 First Book 21 Followers of the Followers

(Atba' al -tabi'in) 11 Foucault, Michel 21, 139 Fox, Robin Lane 90 Francavilla, Domenico 3 Freemasons 208 Frend, W. 4

furu' 118, 137 futuh 13,207, 210-11 FutuhMisr166 futuhat206,212 Gaius Caesar 74

Galatians 102, 104 Gaon, Sherira 118 Gaul43 Gaza 88,90,93-5 Geldart, Anne 203-4 General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) 202 Genesis, 17:5 19

geonim 117-21 Germania68 Germanicus 74 Gewalt und religioser Konfl.i.kt90 gharib14 ghurur194 Gloria Confessorum 43 God's "messenger" (waxswar; paygambar). 27 Goldziher, Ignaz 4, 10 Gospel 25

243

Goths 105 Gotterdammerung 36 Gradel, lttai 75 Graeco-Roman paganism, fate of 35 Graetz, Heinrich 4, 118 Greco-Roman paganism 8 Gregory of Tours 43, 47 Gregory the Great 40-1 Grohman, Adolf 148 Grohmann, A.168 Grottanelli, Cristiano 44-5 Habib, al-Rabi b.

137 hadha 148 hadith 120, 121, 123, 125, 133, 136-43, 191, 192,223 Hadrian 75 Hagarism 5 Hagarism (Cone and Cook) 4-5 hagiography 52 Hahn, Johannes 89 hajara 166 hajj6 Hakam, Ibn 'Abd al- 166, 167 Hanafi school of law 12, 193 Hanafism 144 Hanbal, Ahmad b. 134, 145 hanif19,26 Hanifa, Abu 134, 145,218 Hanukah 119 Harland, Philip 65 hashab al-hadith 141 Hatma, Abu Bakr b. Sulayman b.Abi143 Hazim, 'Abd al-'Aziz b. Abi 144, 162

Hebraica veritas 104, 106 Helena 65 Heraclius 167 Hercules 69 heresy 65 Heros of Arles 107 Hexapla 105 Hijaz 132, 133, 135 hijazi 148, 177 Hijra calendar 12, 160-8 Hilarius43 Hinduism 3,204 Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum 40-1, 104 historiography 52 History of the Monks in Syria92 Hodgson, Marshall 125 Hudaybiyya treaty 12

244

Index

Hudhayl,Zufar b. al- 145 Hughes,Aaron 206 hukm al-jahiliyya Uudgment of igno­ rance) 158 Hyeronimian method 101 Ibadi 135, 137 Ibn Hazm, Abu Muhammad 119, 144 Ibn Q utayba 121-2, 124 Ibn Sina 125 Ibrahim, Isma'il b. 144 ijma 120 ijtihad 14 'Ikrima 135 In the name of God, Muhammad is the messenger of God statement on coins 226-7 incriptions 52 indictio 160 inqada 157 Institut du Pluralisme Religieux et de l'Atheisme 37 Internet, Islam on 206-10 interpretatio 68-9, 76 interpretatio Christiana 68 interpretatio Graeca 68 interpretatio Romana 68

Introduction to the Mi.shnah and Talmud 122 Iohannis 39 Irenaeus 71-2, 76 Isaac 25 'i.shrin 155 Islam 1,3,5; as Abrahamic reli­ gious tradition 19; early 201-14; on Internet 206-10; post-Sasanian response to 22-3; spread of 205; teaching 201-14 Islamic law 10; creation of 143; establishment of 134; formation of 10-11 Islamicate 125 Islamophobia 206 IslamQA.info 212-13 IslamReligion.com 207 i.snad 136-7,138 Itala 105

jariya 191, 195 Jerome 3, 98-108; Apologia adu­ ersus libros Rufini 101; death of 100; Dialogus contra Pelagianos 107-8; epistolary exchange with Augustine 99-101; first period of

exchange 101-2; Letter 134 106-8; Pelagianism and 106-8; Vulgata 104,105 Jerusalem 2, 6,24,31n.23, 93, 94 Jesus 6, 7, 19,25,26,33n49, 64, 65, 70, 74, 75,203,219,222 Jews 2,4, 14,20-1, 22-7,66, 117, 123-4, 125-6,208,209,219,220, 221 Johansen, Baber 193 John: 5:44 231; 8:37 25,33n49 John of Ephesus 232 Joseph,Se'adya ben 117 Judaism 1,232; as Abrahamic reli­ gious tradition 19; division between Christianity and 124; Rabbanite 120, 124; as a religion 2-3; Torah's change with forms of 27; Zoroastrian response to Judaism 23 Julian of Brioude 47-51 Julian the Apostate 39 Justin Martyr 8-9, 64, 66-70, 76 Juynboll, G.H.A. 138

kafa'a 192 kalam 126 Kaysan,Tawus b. 144

Kellia 163 Kerr, Robert 167

khabar 161 Khayyat, Khalifa b. 158, 161, 165

khiyar 194 Khoury. R.G. 168

Kitab al-Asl 195 Kitab al-radd 'ala Abi Hanifa 141 Kitab al-ta'rikh (Book of Dating) 158 kitaba 194 Kufa,Iraq 135 Kulayni 137 kura 168 kutiba 150

La revolution surreali.ste 87 laban al-fahl 143-6 laban al-fasy 143 Lampadaridi,Anna 92, 94 Larentina 72 "The Last Conversions" 87 Last Pagans of Rome, The (Cameron) 8 Late Antiquity period 92 Lausiac History 93- 4 Lausos 93 Law of Moses 103, 104

Index Lazarus of Aix 108

Les derniers jours de Muhammad (Ouardi) 6

Les freres ennemis 103-6 letters 52-3 Leucothea 48 Libanius 41-3

Libri Miraculorum 47-50 Life of Anthony of Agen 91 Life of Porphyri 88-90 Linder, Amnon 3 logia 141

longaevorum chori 40 Louvre Museum 148 Lucius, Ernst 48 Lukan Acts 67 Lyman, Rebecca 65 Madaba, Jordan 89

madhahib 12 madhhab 190 Maghribi, Samau'al al- 123

mahdi 134 Mahik, Yusuf b. 144

mahill (maturity date) 158 mahram (prohibited degrees) 142 Maimonides, Moses 121 Major Occultation 137 Makhul 135, 143 Malik, Abd al- 144, 145, 223, 229, 231, 232 Malik, Qunayla bint 151 Maliki school of law 12 Malikites 134 Mamertus (Bishop) 47 Mango, Cyril 89 Manichaeanism 90, 107 maqdam 161 Marcellus 74, 76 Marcion 67 Marcus Agrippa 74 Mardanfarrox i Ohrmazddadan 21 Marisi, Bishr al- 144 Mark the Deacon 89 Marongiu-Perria, Omero 14 Mars, temple of 51 Mars Mullo (god) 68 Martianus Capella 38, 40 Martyrdom of Peter 73 martyrs, cult of 48 Marwan, Abd al-Malik 133 masdar 157 Maslama, Muhammad ibn 209

245

Mas'ud, Ibn 132 Masuzawan, Tomoko 1 material culture 224-31 Mawdudi, Abul-A'la 14 Maximus of Madaura 38 Maximus of Turin 39 Mecca 6, 12, 135 Medina 6, 12, 135 Meeks, Wayne 65 Mellitus 40 Menander (student of Simon) 67, 69-70 Mercury, temple of 51 Mernissi, Fatima 14 milk 190 milk mother/sister 138 Mishna 4 Mishnah 124 Misopogon 39 Missionislam.com 208 Mons Helarius 43 Moses 7, 19, 21, 22, 124, 203; as counterpart of Zarathustra 32n33; as God's messenger 20, 27; God's revelation of Oral Torah to 117-19; handing down of Torah to 24-6; observance of Law of 103-4; as third prophet of the Jews 27 Motzki, Harald 138 mu'amalat (legal obligations) 132 Mu'awiya, Iyas b. 143, 150 Mudabbira 191, 192 muhajir(un/in) 166, 208 Muhammad 5-6, 161-2; arrival in Yatrhib/ Medina 161-2, 167; ascension to sovereignty 167; banishment from Mecca 164-5; biography of 203- 4, 206, 207; companions of 120, 166, 207, 210-11; death of 11, 166, 167, 205; early shahada and 220-2; flight to Mecca 12; founding of Islam and 5; as God's messenger 218, 220, 221, 222, 224-33, 227; hijra of 181; Islamic religious identity during time of 219; as preferred arbiter in Medina 163; as a prophet 5-6; reimagining of 13; religious iden­ tity of early Muslims and 219-20; revelation to 25, 125-6; sayings 4-5; in seventh-century material culture 224-31 Muhammad, al-Qasim b. 144

246

Index

Muhammad and theBelievers (Donner) 220 Muhammadan jurisprudence 11 Mujahid 135, 144

Mukatiba191, 192, 193, 194 Mukhallad, Maslama b. 150 mukhtalif al-hadith (countertraditions) 139 mumin5 Mundhir, Abu Bakr b. al- 145 Municipal Library of Marseille 99

Musannaf 141 Musaylima 208 musha/ 135 muslim5 Muslims: categories 123; contempo­ rary 13; creation of Islamic identity 201-14, 218-34; first generation 15; geonic depictions of Oral Torah 123-6; growing number in Europe 201; hadith 142; Hijracalendar 142, 156, 158-9, 161, 162; practice of 6; religious identity 219-20; religous education in the UK 201-14; Shahada(profession of faith)

218-34 muslimun(submitters) 219 Mussayab, Sa'id b. al-, of Medina 132,

135, 143 Mu'tazilites 119

muttersicit 137 nabi27 Naharvali 68 Nakha'i, Ibrahim al-, of Kufa 132, 135,

143 Nasafi, Abu Muti' Makhul al- 28 Nash, Ogden 37

naskh126 Nasrallah, Laura 65

Natalicium44, 46 Nazzam, Ibrahim al-119

neosDionysos 75 neosPythios 75 neos theos74 Nero 74 Nicaea 2 Nicene Creed 2 Nietzsche, Friedrich W. 21

nikah190 nisba 152 Nock, Arthur Darby 75 Nola 44-7

nova117 Numan, Qadi al- 137 Old Testament 105-6 One Touch of Venus (Weill-Nash) 37 Oral Torah 9-10, 36, 117-26; Aramaic translations of 119; divine authority of 118; geonic depictions

117-26 Oriental Institute 148 Origen 101, 105 Origenism 107 Original Scripture (bun-nibeg) 21 Original Sin 106-7

Origines69 Orozco, Ivan 21 "Other Kingdom" 37 Ouardi, Hela 6 Pact of Yathrib 163 paganism 8, 35; fate of 35; problems of evidence of 51-3 Pahlavi tradition 7, 20 Palestine Orosius 108 Palladius of Helenopolis 93-4

pars occidentalis 105 pars orientalis 99 Parthian period 27 Pater, Walter 37 Paul of Tarsus 65 Paulinus 44-6 paygambar (messenger) 21, 27 payroll taxes 21 paywand (lineage) 21, 26 Pelagian naturalism 106 Pelagianism 107 Pelagius 99, 106-8 Pentateuch 118 Pentateuchal Decalogue 23, 24 People of the Book (ahl al-kitab) 22 Peter 72-6 Plutarch 37 poleis74 Pollux 68 polytheists 35-6 Porphyry ( bishop of Gaza) 9, 88-90 Prayer of Azariah 1:22 232 Prophet, daily life of 142 Prophetic Tradition (hadith) 133, 136-43 prosopography 35-6 proto-Dual -Shahad a229-30, 232-3 proto-jurists 133

Index Prudentius 37

Psalm 37 Pseudo-Clementine literature 65, 76-7 Psychomachia 37 Ptolemaic dynasty 159 Pulcheria 93

qada 156; as decree or power 159-60; as reimbursement 157-9

qada al-mu'minin 154, 156, 160 qadar (vision of God) 133 Qadari 135 qadi 151 Qahqawa 168 qahramana (administrator of the harem) 191 Qaraism 10, 120 Qaraites 121 qayna (slaving singing girl) 191 Qirqisani, Ya'Qub al- 121 qiyas 119, 134 Qur'an 5, 10; 2:124 26; 2:275-289 158; 2:282 150; 3:18 223; 3:20 219; 3:52 219, 222; 3:67 19; 3:130 158; 3:199 219; 4:23b 138; 4:161 158; 5:11 219; 5:111 222; 6:145-146 219; 9:33 230; 24:6 222; 24:8 222; 29:46 222; 48:28 230; 48:29 222; 53:3536 25; 59:22 222; 61:9 230; 63:1 224; 65:02 222; 87-19 25; 112:1 222; 112:1-3 231; exegesis 139; legal potential 133; mahdi and 134; Shahadas in 222-4 Quranic Studies (Wansbrough) 4-5 Quraysh 203 Qutb,Sayyid 14 Rabah, 'Ata' b. Abi 135, 144 Rabbanite Judaism 10, 120, 124 Rabbinic Judaism 4 Ragib, Yusuf 154 -7 Rahman, Abu Salama b.'Abd al- 143 Rahman, al-Rabi'a ibn Abi 'Abd al- 134 Rahuyah, Ishaq b. 145 Ramadan, Tariq 203 Rashidun caliphs 13, 203 rasm argument 155 rasul 27 Ray, Man (American visual artist) 87 Ra'y, Rabi'at al- 144, 145 religio 1 religion, overview 1-2

247

Religion, Peace and Conflict: Islam (Hill) 205

Religion in Focus: Islam (Ward) 205 religious education (RE) 201-14 religious identity 219-20 religious studies 1 Revell, Lynn 201 riba (interest) 158 Righty Measure (payman dad) 23 Risala 138 Rise of Christianity, The (Frend) 4 ritual slaughter 45 Roman-Byzantine Empire 160 Romanorum salvator 74 Romans 2 Romans (Bible): 3:29-30 231; 4:11 19; 4:13-17 32n43 Rome 2 Rosenthal, Franz 190

Rouvrir les portes de l'islam (Marongiu-Perria) 14 Rubin, Ze'ev 89 Russell, James 23, 27

sacra via 75 sacrifice 41-3, 44-7 Sa'd, Layth b. 145 sahib al-diwan (head of financial administration) 151 Said, Edward 5 sajjala sijillan 151 sakk (debt acknowledgment) 158 sana 155 San'ani, 'Abd al-Razzaq al- 153, 165 sanat qada' al-mu'minin 159, 161 Sancus 69 Saradi, Helen 90 Sasanian period 27 Schacht, Joseph 10, 138, 147n9 Schneider, Irene 189 schwach 118 Second Day of Festivals 119 Secunda,Shai 31n23 Semo Sancus Dius Fidius 68, 69 Semoni Sanco deo 68 Seneca 70 Septuagint 38, 104-5, 105 Serapis temple 89 Sha'bi, al- 135, 143, 144 Shaddel, Mehdy 162 Shafi'i, Muhammad ibn Idris al121-2, 124, 134, 138, 145 Shafii school of law 12

248

Index

shahada (profession of faith) 3, 6, 218-34; as an anti-Christian statement 231-2; on coins 224-31; definition of 218; dual-shahada 218, 220-1, 228; early 220-2; formation stages 220; on inscriptions 232-3; Islamic religious identity 219-20;

In the name of God, Muhammad is the messenger of God statement

on coins; proto-dual 229-30, 232-3; in the Qur'an 222- 4; in seventh-century material culture 224-31; Shi'i version 218; Sunni version 218; triple-shahada 221,228 shaha-dat al-mawta (testimony of dead people) 153 Shaked,Shaul 23 sharia 10 Shayba, Ibn Abi 141 Shaybani 134, 145 Sheffield, Dan 28 ShiaStudies.org 208 Shi'ism 134, 135,137, 138, 147n10,218, 221,222,224,228,229,230,234 Shoemaker, Stephen 5-6 sijill 151 Sikhism 204 Simon Magus 8-9, 64, 66, 67, 69-70; in Acts of Peter 72-6; the Roman god 76-7; the young god 72-6 Sira 203; military history in 204-6 Sirin, Ibn 144 Skand Gumanig Wizar (SGW) 21, 25; 15:119 25 slave women: acceptable behavior towards 195; children of 193; conception as a sexual and repro­ ductive commodity 193- 4; legal capacity of 194; marriage 193; per­ sonhood of 193-5; proper behavior in the market place towards 195; regulating sexual access to 190-1; sexual ethics and 189-90; social hierarchy 191-3 solidi 225 soter 74 St. Stephen Church 89 Stacey, Aisha 207 stoicism 107 "The Story of a Panic" 37 Stroumsa, Guy 39 Sufyan, Utba b. Abi 150

Sulayman, Hammad b. Abi 143 Sulayman, Muqatil b. 165 Sunna 11, 133, 138, 146n8 sunna 13, 120, 141 sunnat rasul Allah 120 sunnatan 155 Sunni 10, 14, 137, 146n8, 193, 204, 218,221,224,228,233- 4 Sunnism 138 sura 165 suspiria 37 Tabernacle 118 tabi'un 10, 132-6, 138, 140, 143, 143-4 tadbir 193 tahrif 126 Taib, Ali b. Abi 134 Talmud 119, 122 tarawih prayers 135 Targumim 119 Ta'rikh 166 taz 23 Teachers of Old 20, 23 teaching early Islam 201-14; British textbooks on 202- 4; Internet 206-10; public history vs. academic history 211-13 temple 43 Tertullian 70, 71-2, 76 Tha'labi, al- 223 Thalji, Abu 'Abd Allah al- 144 Thawr, Abu 134, 145 Thawri, Sufyan al- 134, 145 Theodoret of Cyrrhus 92 Theodosian Code 2 Theodosius 41, 93, 94 Theodosius II 2, 91, 93, 94 theos 74 theos soter 74 Thiyudur,Yuhannis b. 151 Thompson, Jan 205 Thrope, Samuel 21 Tiberius 51 Torah 7, 22, 23- 4; Abraham as recip­ ient from Dahag 26; Abraham's transmission to Moses 26; as the "first book/scripture" 25; forms of 27; Mosaic 27; Oral 9-10, 36, 117-26, 118, 119 Treaty of al-Hudaybiyya 165, 166 Triple-Shahada 221, 228 Trombley, Frank 90

Index Trout, Dennis 44 tubayyinu 138 Tujibi, Sulaym b. Itr 151 Twelvers 137 'Ubayd, Abu 134, 145, 218 ulamas 10 Umar, Salim b. 'Abd Allah b. 143 'Umay, 'Abd Allah b. 168 Umayr, Umara b. 144 Umayyad dinars 225, 228 Umayyads 5, 132, 133, 229-30 umm walad 191, 192 umma 13, 208, 209, 211 umrat al-qadda 166 umrat al-qaddiya 166 ushe 118 usul al-fiqh 136, 139 Utayba, al-Hakam b. 135, 144 Valentinus 71 Vesta 2 veterum cultura deorum 37 Vita 9 Vita Porphyri 89 Viilkerwanderung 100 von Karabacek, J. 168 votive animals 49 Vulgata 104, 105 Walid, Khalid ibn al- 210-11 Wansbrough, John 4-5 waxswar27 Weill, Kurt 37 Wensinck, A.J. 220 wet nurses 138, 142 What is Islam? (Ahmed) 125 Willis, James A. 51 Wirklichheit 52 withdrawal (contraception) 194-5 World Religions Compared: Islam (Quaglia) 205

249

Yamam 208 Yasar, 'Ata' b. 143 Yasar, Sulayma b. 143 Yavneh/Jamnia council 4 Yeshiva 4 Yima 7, 20, 23, 24, 32n33 Yohanan ben Zakkai (Rabbi) 4 Yunus, Ibn 166 Yusuf, Abu 134, 145 Zahiri school 144 zakat135 Zarathustra 7-8, 20, 22, 25, 32n33, 34n59, 230; Abraham as evil coun­ terpart of 25; Abrahamic identity 20, 28; as God's messenger 27; identification of 3 4n59; law of the Right Measure 23; receiving den from Ahura Mazda 32n33 Zayd, Jabir B. 135, 144 Zaydis 137 Zeus Mamas 89 Zoroaster see Zarathustra Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrians, tradition 20, 23 Zoroastrianism/Zoroastrians 7-8; Abrahamic identity and 19-29; Ahura Mazda as deity 230; Islamic identity formation and 230, 232; People of the Book and 165; symbols of 225 Zoroastrians 31n23, 230; appropriation of Abraham 27-8 Zubayr, Urwa b. al- 143, 144 Zucker, Moshe 119 Zuhri, 'Abd Allah 144 Zuhri, al- 135, 136 Zwielicht 36