Gender inequality in role leadership in the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) denomination: A phenomenological research study 9004158057

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GENDER INEQUALITY IN ROLE LEADERSHIP IN THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN AMERICA (PCA) DENOMINATION: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH STUDY by Laura A. Keyser

JOAN COMEAU, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair MARY ELLEN COOPER, PhD, Committee Member TERRENCE BROWN, PhD, Committee Member

Charles Tiffin, PhD, Dean, School of Public Service Leadership

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University May 2011

UMI Number: 3453968

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

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© Laura A. Keyser, 2011

Abstract This study evaluated how women experienced gender inequality within the role leadership of the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) denomination. A phenomenological approach was used to reveal the lived experiences of 11 women who were members of three PCA churches in the suburban Philadelphia area. Some participants were satisfied with and accepting of gendered leadership roles in the PCA. Others did not accept the roles and felt oppressed and marginalized by the restrictions. The majority of women felt confused by scripture passages interpreted to put women in submission to male authority. They believed that men in the PCA should find a way to include female input in the decision-making process of the church. Overall, the women felt that looking at how Jesus treated women was the best way to understand how women were supposed to be treated.

Dedication

I dedicate this study to the women in the PCA church who have allowed Jesus to love, name, and respect them.

To the men who have seen Jesus and have done likewise.

Soli Deo gloria

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Acknowledgments A big shout out to my mom and dad, Ed and Irene Kliszus. You sacrificed so much to make sure each of your four children were educated. Thanks for teaching me how to treasure the journey toward the Celestial City. Always remember John 3:16! To my husband, Tom. It takes a special man to be married to a woman writing a dissertation on gender inequality! Thanks for loving and supporting me every inch of the way. Your historical insights were priceless. Many thanks for so many things. To my children, Melissa and Tom (aka Ted). You have taught me so much about life. Thanks for your love, patience, acceptance, and support. Lots of love to you both. Much gratitude for the two blessings that appeared during my time at Capella: son-in-law Brian and grandson Tommy. Brian, thanks for having the courage to join our family. Tommy, you are a bundle of sweetness. Stay that way forever. To my dear friend, Roy Shirley. You always had a sense of where I belonged and what I could do. Deep, deep, gratitude for your belief in me. Thanks to my extra special friend, Nanette Hanniford. Our friendship has been quite a journey. I appreciate your strong convictions about life. You inspire me. Thanks to the women who courageously spoke very precious words. Participant 8 entered the Celestial City before this study was published. I miss hearing her voice. Thank you Dr. Jocelyn Sherman for being my mentor through the darkest moments of this project. I thank you from the bottom of my heart. A final thank you to Dr. Comeau, Dr. Brown, and Dr. Cooper. You walked with me through this process and cheered me on to the finish line. I am very grateful.

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Table of Contents Acknowledgments

v

List of Tables

ix

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1

Introduction to the Problem

1

Background of the Problem

3

Purpose of the Study

9

Rationale and Significance

9

Research Questions

10

Nature of the Study

10

Definition of Terms

11

Delimitations

16

Limitations

17

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

17

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

19

Introduction

19

Theoretical Framework

20

Crucial Theoretical/Conceptual Debates

25

Bridging the Gaps or Resolving Controversies

29

Historical Framework

57

Evaluation of Viable Research Designs

94

Chapter 2 Summary

96

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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

98

Introduction

98

Restatement of the Problem

98

Restatement of the Purpose

98

Rationale and Significance

99

Research Questions

102

Research Strategy

102

Research Design

103

Data Analysis

110

Field Test

111

Limitations of the Research Design

112

Internal Validity

113

External Validity

113

Data Collection

114

Data Analysis Procedures

116

Expected Findings

120

Ethical Considerations

121

Chapter 3 Summary

124

CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

125

Introduction

125

Data Collection

125

Description of Sample

128

Presentation of Data

129 vii

Chapter 4 Summary

260

CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

262

Introduction

262

Summary of the Results

262

Discussion of the Results

270

Discussion of the Conclusions

271

Limitations of the Study

274

Recommendations for Future Research

275

Conclusion

276

REFERENCES

278

viii

List of Tables Table 1. Demographic Information

129

Table 2. Individual Themes by Participant

238

Table 3. Structural Themes by Participant

255

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Introduction to the Problem Gender beliefs and stereotypes exist within social structures (Ridgway & Correll, 2004; Risman, 2004). Cultural beliefs about innate differences between male and female continue to be institutionalized throughout society (O'Neil, 1981; Risman, 2004). These cultural beliefs occur within and between individuals (O'Neil, 1981; Risman, 2004). Men and women are narrowly defined by societal beliefs about how men and women should function in relationships throughout all levels of society (Ridgway & Correll, 2004; Risman, 2004). Many gender norms exist in response to the biological differences between men and women (West & Zimmerman, 1987). Gender can be seen as something people do rather than something they are (West & Zimmerman, 1987). Identifying gender norms and beliefs can be a complicated process (Enns, 2008). Layers of gender are often invisible to those living within a particular social context (Enns, 2008). People categorize themselves and others based on obvious physical sex differences, gender normed appearances, and behaviors (Blair & Lichter, 1991; Ridgway & Correll, 2004; Stangor, Lynch, Duan, & Glass, 1996; West & Zimmerman, 1987). Gender role expectations may cause conflicts between men and women that result in psychological distress (O'Neil, Helms, Gable, David, & Wrightsman, 1986; O'Neil, 1981). People become restricted in their abilities to reach their full human potential (Enns, 2008). Men and women become insecure about their gender identities (O'Neil et al., 1986; O'Neil, 1981). Insecurities cause men and women to devalue and violate one another in an effort to feel better about themselves (O'Neil et al., 1986; 1

O'Neil, 1981). This mutual devaluation of one another perpetuates the role of sexism in American society (O'Neil et al., 1986; O'Neil, 1981). Men and women are often depicted and defined by narrow definitions and features (Ridgway & Correll, 2004). Research by Ridgway and Correll (2004) showed that men were seen as being more worthy of status and were viewed as being more competent than women. Women were viewed as being more communal and relational. In public settings both men and women expected men to be more competent than women. Even within smaller subsections of society in which the stereotypes did not apply, people expected the norms to apply when they were in public settings. Prejudice and discrimination against women as leaders has made it difficult for women to gain positions of authority (Carli & Eagly, 2001). Since the 1900s, there has been an increase in the number of women in major positions of public leadership alongside men (Carli & Eagly, 2001). Despite women's increase in the labor force and in lower level management, they continue to be underrepresented in leadership roles that have substantial decision-making responsibilities (Killeen, López-Zafra, & Eagly, 2006). Women are better able to imagine themselves in leadership roles when the organizational environment is considered to be a more feminine one (Killeen et al., 2006). Some conservative religious communities strive to maintain independence from societal norms and beliefs (Gallagher, 2004; Ringel & Belcher, 2007). Involvement in religious communities often entails adherence to gender roles that are said to come from religious books such as the Bible and the Torah (Gallagher, 2004; Ringel & Belcher, 2007). In evangelical Christian and orthodox Jewish communities, men have positions of

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leadership and women have roles of submission (Gallagher, 2004; Ringel & Belcher, 2007). The Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) is a conservative evangelical denomination that subscribes to a doctrine stating that men and women have distinct gender roles that complement one another (Gallagher, 2004; Morgan, 2006). The goal of this study was to explore the personal experiences and feelings of women who were members of PCA churches in which only men were assigned leadership roles. All of the women being interviewed had careers within the secular world that differed from the expectations and roles assigned to them within the PCA church. Gathering the shared experiences of women resulted in a deeper understanding of the essence of gender inequality in role leadership. Background of the Problem America's identity as a nation was founded on principles and beliefs that were both biblical and philosophical (Tessitore, 2004; de Tocqueville, 1997). British citizens came to America in the seventeenth century bringing with them already established gender roles in which women were expected to be subservient to men (Tessitore, 2004; de Tocqueville, 1997). Women lacked both status and voice (Belzer, 2004; Brown, 1993; Hogan, 2000). Many women were aware of how biblical and societal ideals had been used to oppress them (Belzer, 2004; Brown, 1993; Hogan, 2000). Women were not allowed to speak in public (Brown, 1993; Hogan, 2000). They were considered to be quiet, frail, timid, and passive (Brown, 1993; Hogan, 2000). Women were expected to use their nurturing, spiritual qualities within the home while men used their strength and competitiveness in the public arena and marketplace 3

(Hogan, 2000). Women were viewed as inferior to men, with smaller brains and weak bodies that rendered them unable to handle the demands of public life (Hogan, 2000). Contrary to societal expectations, Methodist and Quaker women openly preached and taught in England and the American colonies (Brown, 1993; Hogan, 2000). They argued against the deprivation of women's rights by stating that women had spiritual equality with men (Mott, 1849; Phipps, 1976). Despite religious and political differences, women formed partnerships for the purpose of empowering women within all domains of society (Farrell, 2006; Mobley, 2005). Commitment to social reform allowed women to work closely together to secure the rights of women and other oppressed persons (Farrell, 2006; Mobley, 2005). By the end of the eighteenth century, colonists were loudly protesting the Puritanical religious beliefs that kept women in submission to men (Daniel, 2006). Religious feminists used scripture to advance social and political viewpoints about their equality with men (Styler, 2007). By 1912, feminists of all genders, ages, and religious persuasions began to use militant tactics to force the government to give them the right to vote (Styler, 2007). By 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment gave all citizens the right to vote regardless of sex (Styler, 2007). In the 1950s, suburban middle class women in America began to question their roles as homemakers in a world where their significance seemed to exist only in relation to a man (de Beauvoir, 1949). A variety of books sparked debates about the roles of women in America (de Beauvior, 1949; Kassain, 2005; Meade, 2001). Feminist writers began to use the word patriarchy to define the problem with women's discontent (Kassian, 2006). Society was still espousing female inferiority as a result of biological 4

traits (Kassian, 2006). Evangelical feminists began to use scripture to argue for egalitarian views espousing the equality of men and women in all aspects of society (Kassian, 2006). Theologians within the evangelical Christian world rallied to support their complementarian views of manhood and womanhood (Grudem, 2006a; Ware, 2002; Ware, 2008). Biblical passages were used to prove that men and women were created equal but different in function and role, complementing one another (Grudem, 2006a; Ware, 2002; Ware, 2008). Women were urged to embrace their gendered vocation of quiet and gentle submission to their husbands who were to lead, protect, and provide for them (Impson, 2001). Feminist theologians attacked Christianity's subordination of women using the same scriptures men used to prove subordination (Carr, 1982; Kassian, 2006). A feminist liberation theology was developed (Carr, 1982; Kassian, 2006). The Bible was interpreted through the eyes of liberation and freedom for women and all oppressed persons (Carr, 1982; Kassian, 2006). Women's experiences were finally being placed at the center of the theological process (Kassian, 2006). The evangelical community divided into two views: egalitarianism and complementarianism. Complementarians criticized feminists for their inability to help women embrace biblical womanhood (Grudem, 2006a; Impson, 2001; Mouser, 2006; Ware, 2002). Evangelical feminists criticized complementarians for their adherence to rigid, hierarchical gender roles (Van Leeuwen, 2005). Egalitarians espoused their belief that marriage partners were equals in all aspects of life (Colaner & Warner, 2005). Men and women were seen as being subject to one another with the mutual goal of selfless 5

love (Ressmeyer, 1980). In the church, men and women were equal with both having positions of authority (Gallagher, 2004). Women became confused by conflicting doctrines that attempted to explain what it meant to be a female (Van Leeuwen, 2005). Women began to protest theological beliefs that limited their use of gifts and abilities within the church (Nash, 2006). Evangelical feminists lamented that women in evangelical churches were oppressed by patriarchal power structures (Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). In 1973, the Evangelical Women's Caucus was formed to argue for full equality of both men and women (Cochran, 2005; Olson, 2003). By 1987, the Council for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood was founded to espouse the complementarian belief of gendered roles (Gallagher, 2004). Prominent theologians argued that the authority of the Bible was being undermined by feminist beliefs in the church (Gallagher, 2004). Evangelical feminists reaffirmed their commitment to scripture and biblical justice (Gallagher, 2004). The PCA is a religious denomination that adheres to a complementarian theology of gender (Sande, 2005). Men and women are viewed as being created equal in dignity, value, and glory (Sande, 2005). Gender roles are viewed as being assigned by God and supported by scriptural interpretations (Sande, 2005). Leadership positions are reserved exclusively for qualified men (Grudem, 2004; Presbyterian Church in America [PCA], 2007). Women are seen as helpers to the men (Grudem, 2004). Women cannot be ordained to leadership positions in the church (PCA, 2007). Women are expected to defer to male leadership according to their assigned biblical roles (Gallagher, 2004).

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A significant number of women in PCA churches work outside the home in leadership positions in the secular world. Some women own and operate businesses while others manage financial and social organizations. They regularly engage in the supervision of male employees. However, within the PCA church women defer to male leadership, knowing that their gifts and abilities will only be used within the context of women's and children‟s ministries. Research Related to the Problem Literature abounds on the topics of patriarchy, religion, and gender stereotypes but research on religion and gender inequality within the evangelical community is sparse. Studies have shown how Christian women negotiated traditional, conservative gender roles within the context of church, family, career, and education (Bartkowski, 1999; Beaman, 2001; Mihelich & Storrs, 2003; Nash, 2006; Sellers, Thomas, Batts, & Ostman, 2005). Gender negotiations have been researched within the evangelical Protestant and Islamic populations (Bartkowski & Read, 2003). Gender differences in professional values and orientations have been studied within the female clergy population (Bartkowski & Read, 2003; McDuff & Mueller, 2002). Research is available on the effect of gender role attitudes on Christian women's career aspirations (Colaner & Warner, 2005). Male God imagery and its relation to the doctrine of wifely submission was explored within the Southern Baptist denomination (Colaner & Warner, 2005; Pevey, Williams, & Ellison, 1996). Mormon women were studied regarding their ability to negotiate boundaries within the venues of church and education (Beaman, 2001; Mihelich & Storrs, 2003). Roles of women within the

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Orthodox Jewish and Evangelical Christian communities were compared (Ringel & Belcher, 2007). Gender roles were explored in a study that showed how men and women changed their views on gender norms after a divorce (Walzer, 2008). Men in marriages with traditional gender roles experienced decreased marital satisfaction over time (Faulkner, Davey, & Davey, 2005). Female clergy revealed how they coped with working in a typically male dominated profession (Frame & Shehan, 2005). Egalitarian beliefs were studied within the Jewish American community (Charmé, 2006). The influence of biblical feminism was researched by interviewing evangelicals across a wide range of denominations (Gallagher & Smith, 1999). A study of females in traditional and egalitarian churches revealed women's experiences in regaining their voice as they became adults (Lybeck & Neal, 1995). There is a paucity of research available on gender inequality and leadership roles in the evangelical community. There are no studies addressing the experience within the PCA denomination. This study will address the gap in knowledge about the lived experience of gender inequality in the leadership of the PCA denomination. Statement of the Problem Women continue to experience gender inequality in the leadership roles of the PCA church. They are excluded from leadership roles. Women are expected to defer to the leadership of the men in the church and in their homes. When the church chooses leaders, only the abilities, talents, and education of male church members are considered. This research study focused on evaluating how women experienced gender inequality within the church and how they coped with these inequities. 8

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to evaluate how women experienced gender inequality within the leadership of the denomination of the PCA. The goal of the study was to document the essence of the phenomenon of gender inequality related to leadership roles in the PCA church. Face-to-face interviews were used to obtain a detailed, rich, concrete, and extensive account of how women were understanding, experiencing, and coping with this problem (Giorgi, 1997). Rationale and Significance Pevey et al. (1996) emphasized the importance of examining women's participation from their own viewpoints in seemingly oppressive cultural practices such as those within the evangelical church. This research study exposed the viewpoints of women about the ongoing controversy between male and female roles in evangelical Christian churches. Gathering data about gender inequality in churches is relevant to the field of Human Services. Women revealed how they related spiritually, psychologically, and emotionally to gender inequality. The scientific community was enriched by obtaining a perspective about women that can be used in future comparative studies of other patriarchal faith traditions that teach female submission. This study revealed the skills and adaptations of women as they navigated the conflicting cultural and religious messages regarding gender inequality as experienced in patriarchal religious institutions.

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Research Questions The research questions were designed to examine the issue of gender inequality and how women experienced it within the PCA church. The following questions were used to define and bring clarity to the research problem as stated above: 1. How do women experience gender inequality in the PCA church? 2. How do women feel about participating in a religious community that assigns roles based on gender? 3. What strategies do women use as a way to cope with gender inequities in the leadership of the PCA church? Nature of the Study This study was a transcendental, phenomenological research study that examined and described the experience of gender inequality through the lived experiences of women (Clegg, 2006; Giorgi, 1997; Larkin, Watts, & Clifton, 2006; Osborne, 1994). The way people relate to things is not always verbal (Moran, 1999). Words can be used to bring an experience into conscious awareness (Moran, 1999). Intuition was used by the researcher to bring women‟s shared experiences into conscious awareness (Giorgi, 1997). The phenomenological tradition explores and reframes concepts and relationships into a holistic paradigm of interrelationships (Adams, 1999). Consciousness gives meaning to experience and a phenomenon exists because a person is consciously experiencing it (Sadala & Adorno, 2002). A transcendental approach to this study presupposed that people's interpretations were shaped by their assumed perceptions and understandings (Gavridis, 2004; Richardson, 2006). Phenomenological research is able to bring together and analyze 10

people's conscious experiences as seen through their own viewpoints (Giorgi, 1997; Moustakas, 1994). In this study, participants revealed their experiences related to gender roles. The data was synthesized into a structural-textural component that resulted in a holistic description of the essence of gender inequality in the PCA church. The use of a transcendental, phenomenological approach was appropriate for this study due to its emphasis on deep inquiry into what lies hidden within the questions being asked (McGinley, 2006). What was previously not seen, yet has existed, was brought to light as women spoke of experiences within their lifeworld of this previously unseen, preexistent phenomenon (McGinley, 2006). Phenomenology states that individuals create themselves and their worlds through discourse (Moustakas, 1994; Walker, 2007). This study used verbal language to reveal the worlds women have created in order to function within an environment of gender inequality. The results of this study contributed to the existing body of knowledge by offering a clearer description and deeper understanding of the essence of gender inequality within the PCA church. Definition of Terms Complementarianism. Complementarianism for the purpose of this study is the belief that there are distinct roles between men and women (Colaner & Warner, 2005). The man has headship, authority, and ultimate responsibility in a marriage (Colaner & Warner, 2005). Roles of manhood and womanhood are divinely appointed by God in the home and in the church (Schemm, 2000). Men and women complement one another as they affirm God's design (Schemm, 2000). Deacon. In the PCA church the office of deacon is one of “sympathy and service” (PCA, 2007, p. 71). Deacons are to minister to people who are distressed and who are in 11

need. Deacons are under the supervision and authority of the session (PCA, 2007). They collect funds and use them to help people with material needs. In the PCA church, the office of deacon is available only to men (PCA, 2007). Egalitarianism. Egalitarianism for the purpose of this study is the belief that marriage partners are equals in all aspects of life including home, church, and career (Colaner & Warner, 2005). Men and women are recognized as having biological differences (Ressmeyer, 1980). They are subject to one another with a mutual goal of selfless love without discrimination (Ressmeyer, 1980). Evangelical. An evangelical is a person who is committed to the authority of the Bible (Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). It is important to have a personal relationship with Jesus Christ as one's Savior and Lord (Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). Evangelicals are marked by their belief in the power of Christ's atonement on the cross to bring personal spiritual transformation throughout the lifespan (Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). Evangelicals believe in the importance of evangelizing others to become Christians (Cochran, 2005). Evangelical feminism. Evangelical feminism, sometimes known as biblical feminism, is the belief that the Bible supports and demands full equality for women (Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). Evangelical feminists believe that all humans, male and female, were originally created by God as mental, social, and moral equals (Ruether, 1999). The domination of men over women is viewed as a form of human injustice (Ruether, 1999). The silencing and subordination of women are considered as betrayals of the teachings of Christ (Ruether, 1999).

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Feminism. Feminism is the belief in and commitment to the full equality of men and women in the home, church, and society (Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). This striving towards equality includes the transformation of social and legal systems that have denied the rights of women (Ruether, 1999). Feminism strives toward the restoration of women to a state of interpersonal equality with men (Ruether, 1999). Gender inequality. Gender inequality is the belief that there are assigned expectations and roles in which females are to be subordinate to males (Capitani, 2003). In traditional evangelical churches, gender expectations state that women are in submission to men who are expected to protect and lead the women (Denton, 2004). A woman's gender expectation is that of helper to the man and teacher of children and other women (Hughes, 1999). Gender equality. Gender equality is the belief that men and women are completely equal in rational and moral aptitude, dignity and authority, worth and function (Derkson, 1999). Men and women are not defined or restricted by the other. In an egalitarian church, men and women are equal (Gallagher, 2004). Both men and women have positions of authority over one another (Gallagher, 2004). In marriage relationships, submission is mutual and shared by both partners who make the choice to submit to one another (Gallagher, 2004). Hierarchy. Hierarchy is a form of power structure (Moore, 2006). Within a community, people can be assigned different status levels based on qualities such as competency and popularity (Moore, 2006). Power may also be conferred based on the most important position which is at the top, with the least important position down at the bottom (Moore, 2006). 13

Lifeworld. The concept of a lifeworld is the ordinary, everyday world as experienced by each individual (Moustakas, 1994). The experience of the lifeworld is a perceptual experience (Moustakas, 1994). Perceptions are expected to reveal the essence of a phenomenon as it precedes or transcends any investigation or examination of an experience (Moustakas, 1994). Ordination. According to Presbyterian tradition, ordination consists of prayer and laying on of hands to publicly confer the title of elder or deacon (van der Borght, 2007). The person being ordained is recognized as having been called by God to carry out a particular ministry (van Der Borght, 2007). In the PCA church, the offices of elder and deacon are available only to men (PCA, 2007). Patriarchy. Patriarchy is the dominance of men over women as defined by biological differences (Abraham, 2004). Control is essential to the maintenance of patriarchy, with men maintaining their privileged status by controlling women (Johnson, 2005). Biological realities create a power structure that defines the roles, purposes, activities, and jobs of women (Eisenstein, 1999). Male force and control is used to maintain this societal structure (Eisenstein, 1999). Session. In the PCA church, the session is the group of men who are in authority over the particular congregation (PCA, 2007). The session consists of the pastors, associate pastors, and ruling elders (PCA, 2007). Elders possess a variety of callings such as teaching, evangelizing, visiting the sick, and overseeing the spiritual interests of the congregation (PCA, 2007). The session maintains the “spiritual government of the church” (PCA, 2007, p. 87).

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Assumptions Assumptions are basic issues without which the research problem could not exist (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). The researcher assumed that there were women in the PCA who were willing to give their viewpoint on gender inequality. Women were expected to be interested in having their viewpoints conveyed in some way to men who were in leadership positions in the church. The researcher hoped that the women would give honest answers when they were interviewed. There might be men in leadership positions who will be interested in the findings of this study and who would participate in discussions about the issues revealed. There could be negative repercussions toward the researcher who was prepared to answer any questions that might arise as a result of the topic. The researcher assumed that a phenomenological research design would yield findings from which common themes relating to gender inequality would be identified (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). Findings were expected to reveal a general description of the phenomenon of gender inequality in the PCA church as seen through the eyes of women who have experienced it firsthand. Data analysis included bracketing of the researcher's assumed presuppositions so that the researcher could understand the meaning of what the person was trying to say rather than what the researcher expected the person to say (Hycner, 1999). The researcher assumed that this study would reveal an example of social dominance theory and its existence within the PCA church. Women's experiences will show that women in some ways perpetuate the supposed higher status of men by deferring to their theological stance regarding church hierarchy (Sidanius, Pratto, van 15

Laar, & Levin, 2004). The researcher assumed that participants have found ways to cope with the discomfort, or cognitive dissonance, that occurs when internal beliefs do not match the external realities of a woman's life (Burns, 2006). Findings from the study are expected to provide in-depth information about the role of evangelical feminist theory in the PCA church. Since feminist theory seeks to empower women, the researcher assumed there would be women who have found ways to be empowered within the confines of a patriarchal church (Hoggard-Creegan & Pohl, 2005; Neuman, 2006; Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). Women are expected to have experienced a wide range of struggles trying to cope with conflicting beliefs (HoggardCreegan & Pohl, 2005; Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). There may be a variety of experiences regarding gender inequality and not all experiences will have been negative. Some women would probably feel comforted and supported by the male hierarchy while others would report experiences of discomfort, conflict, and anger. The researcher expected that some women might reveal experiences of past or present abusive relationships. They might need to obtain psychological counsel after participating in this research study. If so, the researcher would agree to meet with the participant for a session in which the issues would be briefly discussed. Referrals to other professionals would be provided. Delimitations A phenomenological design was chosen for this research study due to its focus on the lived experiences of a phenomenon and the ability to discover shared essences as experienced by a group of people (Patton, 2002). The study was delimited to the

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exploration of the phenomenon of gender inequality and did not attempt to interpret or question its validity. The sample population for this study was delimited to adult females who were members of PCA churches in a suburban area outside of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. All the participants were employed in a variety of careers. All had college degrees and some had master‟s and doctoral degrees. The ability to generalize to other evangelical populations was limited; however, the sample is representative of the female PCA population residing in suburban Philadelphia and can be generalized to other PCA churches in the area. Limitations Generalizability was decreased due to purposive sampling of participants within the PCA church (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005; Neuman, 2006). Due to the researcher's membership in a PCA church, bracketing was employed before and during the data collection and analysis process (Creswell, 2003; Giorgi, 1997). Despite careful attention to the process of phenomenological reduction, the results of the study may be seen as being limited in scope due to the researcher's personal experience with gender inequality. The research was limited due to its homogenous sample consisting of White females with careers and higher educational accomplishments. Organization of the Remainder of the Study The remainder of this study begins with a literature review. Chapter 2 presents a detailed analysis of the theoretical framework of this study: (a) gender structure theory, (b) gender role conflict theory, (c) evangelical feminism theory, (d) social dominance 17

theory, and (e) cognitive dissonance theory. Next is a brief discussion of male dominance in the PCA and the ongoing debate between the complementarians and egalitarians. The literature review gives a historical account of issues related to gender roles. Chapter 2 ends with an evaluation of viable research designs. Chapter 3 offers the researcher's philosophy, the phenomenological research strategy and design, sampling design, data collection analysis and procedures, limitations of the research design, internal and external validity, expected findings, and ethical issues. Chapter 4 presents the data collection and analysis, description of the sample, and presentation of findings. Chapter 5 concludes with a summary and discussion of the results, discussion of the conclusions, limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research.

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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction The purpose of this study was to understand how women experienced gender inequality in leadership in PCA churches. The theoretical framework of this study included the following components: (a) gender structure theory, (b) gender role conflict theory, (c) evangelical feminism theory, (d) social dominance theory, and (e) cognitive dissonance theory. Following is a brief description of each theory along with some ideas on how this theory might be more fully understood as a result of this study. Gender structure theory states that gender is socially constructed within the levels of societal interaction (Risman, 2004.) A gender hierarchy occurs based on expected and assumed differences between the genders (Ridgeway & Correl, 2004; Risman, 2004). Men and women perpetuate hierarchy by choosing gendered behaviors that align with their particular goals and desires (Risman, 2004). This study increased the understanding of how women responded to gender hierarchy within a religious organization. Gender role conflict theory shows that both men and women have psychological distress as a result of gender roles (O'Neil et al., 1986; O'Neil, 2008). Men and women together participate in keeping gender roles in place, sometimes criticizing and devaluing one another as a way to feel better about their gender difficulties (O'Neil et al., 1986). This study revealed some psychological distress felt by women who were upset about gender roles in the PCA. Feminism stresses the importance of theory based on the viewpoint and experiences of women (Neuman, 2006). Feminism strives to create social change in the face of oppression and domination (Neuman, 2006). Evangelical feminism takes into 19

account women's religious beliefs and their desire to interpret the Bible from a women's point of view (Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). This study showed how women in the PCA managed the tension between men's interpretations of Scripture about gender roles that differed from women's beliefs about gender roles. Women‟s experiences that were not typically verbalized were revealed. Participants offered personal viewpoints from a female point of view. Social dominance theory (SDT) is similar to feminist theory. SDT looks at social situations of oppression and domination with the goal of creating interventions to modify the process (Sidanius et al., 2004). The higher the status of a group, the higher the level of orientation toward dominance (Sidanius et al., 2004). This research study examined the social situation of gender inequality in which men were considered to be the higher status group in the church. Women offered their insights about the reality of male dominance in the PCA. Cognitive dissonance theory explains how people deal with the discomfort that occurs when faced with conflicting beliefs (Burns, 2006). Women in patriarchal churches find ways to work around the beliefs that cause them discomfort. This study showed how woman coped with what they said they believed and how they lived out their beliefs. Theoretical Framework This section will give more detailed information about the theoretical framework of this study. The following theories will be presented: (a) gender structure theory, (b) gender role conflict theory, (c) evangelical feminism theory, (d) social dominance theory, and (e) cognitive dissonance theory.

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Gender Structure Theory Gender structure theory posits that gender is a socially constructed system that is hierarchal in nature (Risman, 2004). Gender is embedded within society individually as people develop their gendered selves and as men and women interact with one another (Risman, 2004). Men and women are placed into separate and distinct categories based on their differences (Risman, 2004). Inequality is then organized based on those differences (Ridgeway & Correl, 2004; Risman, 2004). Gender as a social structure constrains people to behave in gender defined ways (Ridgeway & Correl, 2004; Risman, 2004). However, people do choose to make gendered decisions as a way to further their own interests and goals (Ridgeway & Correl, 2004; Risman, 2004). People may fight against gender structure but the structure still remains (Ridgeway & Correl, 2004; Risman, 2004). Gender structure theory (GST) seeks to understand how gender becomes embedded within society (Risman, 2004). Risman (2004) stated that one of the goals of GST is to offer alternatives to the creation of gender so that society can be transformed. Gender structure theory questions what happens to people when they consciously or unconsciously rebel against social gender norms. A gendered social structure is usually not seen as oppressive unless people begin to view themselves as equal entities within society. When people see themselves as equal to the opposite gender, they begin to notice discrepancies between genders. People then try to make changes within society. As changes occur, people's identities begin to be shaped in different ways. Societal norms are challenged and hopefully modified.

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Gender Role Conflict Theory Men and women experience psychological distress due to conflicts resulting from gender role expectations (O'Neil et al.,1986). O‟Neil et al. (1986) found that gender role conflict (GRC) caused restrictions in people's abilities to reach their full human potential. Insecurities about gender identity caused men and women to devalue and violate one another in an effort to feel better about themselves. This mutual devaluation of one another perpetuated the role of sexism in American society. Men and women need to take personal responsibility for the problems resulting from GRC. Evangelical Feminist Theory Evangelical feminist theory (EFT) is similar to feminist theory in that it empowers women in the advancement of the values of nurturance and equality (Neuman, 2006; Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). EFT highlights everyday experiences that are difficult to see or discern (Heyer-Gray, 2000). EFT insists that women develop their own theories based on their individual experiences rather than use theories only from the male viewpoint (Bryson, 2004; Miles, 2006). Evangelical feminists are women who support feminism while upholding the belief that when interpreted correctly, the Bible teaches the equality of men and women (Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). Evangelical feminists responded to women‟s experiences as defined by patriarchy, desiring to give a voice to those who had been silenced (Gross, 2001). The identity of the feminist is based on the assumption that men and women do have differences but that both have the equal right to choose whatever role they want (Manning, 1999). In secular society, feminist values support a woman's decision to be employed in a job that is an actual career (Manning, 1999). There are laws prohibiting 22

gender discrimination (Manning, 1999). Women are in leadership positions over men (Manning, 1999). Women maintain employment in jobs traditionally considered as male such as the military and construction (Manning, 1999). Evangelical feminists adopted an egalitarian view stating that gender inequality disregarded the fact of the image of God as present in every person (Gallagher, 2004). Feminists wanted gender inequality to be opposed, resisted, and eventually changed (Gallagher, 2004). Gender inequality was seen as a perversion of the cooperation and partnership described in the biblical concept of the trinity, with gender differences being socially constructed to justify women‟s subordination to men (Gallagher, 2004). The central issue became the identification of the reality that women were suffering injustices and discrimination as a result of their sex and the Bible offered a solution to these problems (Cochran, 2005; Gallagher, 2004). Social Dominance Theory Similar to feminist theory, social dominance theory (SDT) explains situations of people in social positions of oppression and dominance (Sidanius et al., 2004). SDT posits that the higher the supposed status of a group, the higher the level of orientation toward social dominance (Sidanius et al., 2004). Studies have shown that men more than women tend to promote hierarchies, ranking social groups as superior versus inferior (Ekehammar, Akrami, Gylje, & Zakrisson, 2004). SDT explains patterns of relationships that occur within cultures and societies (Ekehammar et al., 2004). Differences and similarities are viewed at many levels of analysis such as institutional, structural, interpersonal, and individual (Ekehammar et al., 2004). SDT does not endorse oppression

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but identifies the process so that morally driven interventions can be developed to modify it (Sidanius et al., 2004). SDT posits that the higher the arbitrary status of a group, the higher the level of social dominance orientation (Levin, 2004; Snellman & Ekehammar, 2005). This is due to the desire to sustain social and economic privileges afforded by group membership (Levin, 2004; Snellman & Ekehammar, 2005). Males have been shown to have higher levels of social dominance orientation than females due in part to complex interactions that have highlighted gender differences across time and cultures (Levin, 2004; Sidanius et al., 2004; Wilson & Liu, 2003). Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive dissonance theory is a widely accepted model of social learning stating that individuals seek to have consonance rather than dissonance between thoughts and behaviors (Burns, 2006). When a previously existing belief is challenged by a credible and new cognition, a person experiences psychological tension or dissonance (Burns, 2006). The greater the concept challenged, the greater the dissonance experienced (Burns, 2006). The greater the dissonance, the greater the intensity to reduce the dissonance (Burns, 2006). This alleviation of discomfort typically operates outside of a person's conscious awareness (Burns, 2006; Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959). Sometimes this causes an immediate rejection of new information without examination (Burns, 2006; Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959). People cope with dissonance in a number of ways. They may deny the dissonant element while increasing the importance of the consonant element, or may add new consonant elements to justify the dissonance (Burns, 2006; Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959; 24

Scheier & Carver, 1980). Sometimes people agree that new conflicting information is credible (Burris, Harmon-Jones, & Tarpley, 1997). Others change their opinions to match what was said (Burris et al., 1997; Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959) while others minimize the differences between the beliefs (Burns, 2006; Scheier & Carver, 1980). Dissonance can be decreased by ensuring that rewards or threats are larger that the minimum needed in order for change to occur (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959). Crucial Theoretical/Conceptual Debates This section highlights two issues within the evangelical community at large. The first is that evangelicals typically align themselves with either the complementarian or egalitarian viewpoint regarding the roles of men and women. The second issue is the reality that the PCA church is a male dominated denomination. During the 1960s, the secular feminist movement began to directly affect evangelical churches. Controversy emerged between men and women in the church (Cochran, 2005; Gallagher, 2004). Disagreement over biblical definitions of manhood and womanhood threatened the theological foundations of churches (Cochran, 2005; Gallagher, 2004). People were upset that there were challenges to long-standing, accepted, and clearly defined biblical views and roles regarding women and men (Cochran, 2005; Gallagher, 2004). Feminist theology brought women together to argue against the oppression of a socially and theologically defined patriarchal religion (Gross, 2001). Conservative theologians banded together to argue against the cultural relativism of evangelical feminism (Gallagher, 2004). Theologians began to espouse the complementarian view of manhood and womanhood (Gallagher, 2004).

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Complementarianism Religious communities with hierarchies typically either prohibit or discourage women in positions of church leadership (Braude, 2004). Church members may question the authenticity of a woman's religious faith if she challenges the male viewpoint (Braude, 2004). In 1987, the Council for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood was founded (Gallagher, 2004). The purpose of the Council was to espouse the complementarian view of men and women in equal but different roles as the biblical answer to feminism (Gallagher, 2004). Complementarianism stated that men and women were created in the image of God with equal dignity and value in the eyes of God (Grudem, 2006a; Grudem, 2006b). Evangelical theologians Grudem (2006b) and Ware (2006) stated that men and women were created with different roles that were expressed in how they related to one another in marriage and the church. Male and female roles reflected the equality and differences of the biblical trinity. Grudem (2006b) and Ware (2006), convinced that Biblical authority was being undermined, worked diligently to discredit evangelical feminism (Gallagher, 2004). Many conservative Protestants believed that the doctrinal and moral foundations of evangelicalism were being affected by secular feminism (Gallagher, 2004). Evangelical feminists stated their commitment to biblical justice and strong faith in the authority of scripture (Gallagher, 2004). They believed there was the need for a new kind of community that was different than what the secular feminists wanted (Gallagher, 2004). Evangelical feminists began to espouse the egalitarian view of manhood and womanhood (Gallagher, 2004).

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Egalitarianism In 1973, the Evangelical Women's Caucus was formed, arguing for full equality of women and men (Cochran, 2005; Olson, 2003). This was the official creation of the Evangelical Feminism movement in which the egalitarian view of manhood and womanhood was presented and defended (Cochran, 2005; Gallagher, 2004). The central issue was the identification of the reality that women were suffering injustices and discrimination as a result of their sex (Cochran, 2005). Evangelical feminists believed that gender inequality disregarded the fact of the image of God as present in every person (Gallagher, 2004). Gender inequality needed to be opposed, resisted, and eventually changed (Gallagher, 2004). Gender inequality was seen as a perversion of the cooperation and partnership described in the biblical concept of the Trinity (Gallagher, 2004). Evangelical feminists believed that gender differences were socially constructed to justify women‟s subordination to men (Gallagher, 2004). The Bible was seen as offering a solution to the problem of gender differences (Gallagher, 2004). As a result of discussions regarding inequality, some denominations altered their statements of faith to officially ban women from ministry (Olson, 2003). Others gave women equal rights and access to leadership positions (Olson, 2003). Evangelicals had difficulty discussing these issues to the point where both sides could not respectfully communicate with one another (Olson, 2003). In 1986, the Evangelical Women's Caucus (EWC) split as a result of a resolution that supported lesbian and gay rights (Gallagher, 2004; Gross, 2001). Members who did not believe that the Bible supported alternative sexualities and practices formed a group known as Christians for Biblical Equality (CBE) (Gallagher, 2004; Gross, 2001). In order 27

to be more clear about their expanding, inclusive mission the EWC renamed their group the Evangelical and Ecumenical Women's Caucus (EEWC) (Gallagher, 2004; Gross, 2001). Despite their differences regarding sexuality, both the EEWC and CBE continued to promote egalitarian partnerships of male and female individuals with unique gifts, all created in the image of God (Gallagher, 2004; Gross, 2001). Male Dominance in the PCA Denomination The PCA states that the constitution of its denomination is subject to the Old and New Testaments of the Bible. Its doctrinal standards are contained in three additional documents: the Book of Church Order of the Presbyterian Church in America, the Westminster Confession of Faith, and the Larger and Shorter Catechism (PCA, 2007). The Book of Church Order (BCO) outlines the denomination's form of government including the leadership positions or offices of elders and deacons. “In accord with Scripture, these offices are open to men only” (PCA, 2007, p. 25). A total of three references in the BCO allude to the role of women in the church. These references are concerned with issues related to deacons, women's groups, and marriage: (a) “The Session of a church should select and appoint godly men and women of the congregation to assist the deacons” (PCA, 2007, p. 30); (b) The Session has power “to establish and control all special groups in the church such as Men in the Church, Women in the Church, and special Bible study groups” (PCA, 2007, p. 36); and (c) “Marriage is to be between one man and one woman” (PCA, 2007, p. 171). During the writing of this study, the PCA General Assembly proposed a change to the BCO that is subject to approval by the votes of individual presbyteries. The purpose of the change

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was to clarify that “persons who assist deacons may not be ordained” (Taylor, 2010, Assembly Approves Overture 7 section, para. 2). Some churches in the PCA believed that selecting and appointing women as assistants was “often cited as pretext for this practice of electing and commissioning female deacons” (Eastern Carolina Presbytery, 2010, Overture 9 section, para. 1). This change to the BCO sought to tighten up the roles of women so that under no circumstances should female deacon assistants ever expect to be ordained. Bridging the Gaps or Resolving Controversies This section will view each theoretical component of the study. A brief discussion of each theory will show how the results of the study might contribute to the body of knowledge about that theory. Results might be expected to bridge a gap or resolve a controversy. Gender Structure Theory Literature about gender structure theory stated that gender was embedded in all levels of society (Risman, 2004). People chose to enact roles in ways that perpetuated gendered roles in society (Risman, 2004; West & Zimmerman, 1987). This study will advance the body of knowledge by showing that gender is embedded within a specific religious community. Women enact the gendered roles given to them in the church. Theory will be advanced as women verbalize reasons for choosing to submit to gender structures within the PCA church. Compliance with limited opportunities in the church will show how this contributes to the perpetuation of gendered structure in regards to leadership roles.

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Gender Role Conflict Theory The majority of literature about gender role conflict theory applied mostly to men. This study will advance the body of knowledge by exploring women's experiences with gender role conflict. They will offer their viewpoints about psychological distress that has resulted from conflicting expectations in the home, church, and community. Women will speak about how they have been affected by their exclusion from leadership positions within the church. This study will contribute to the body of knowledge by gathering information about how women are coping with gender role conflict. This study will bridge the gap between women who have careers in which they are in positions of authority and their experiences in patriarchal churches that deny them leadership positions. Theory will be advanced about how women are affected by the devaluation of their gifts and talents in the church. Information gathered in this study will support the importance of churches discussing how gender role expectations might cause conflict, insecurity, and mutual devaluation between male and female members. Evangelical Feminist Theory The current literature offers little research on the lived experiences of women who are members of evangelical churches that maintain a theology of male headship. This study will advance the body of knowledge by inviting participants to talk about the phenomenon of gender inequality as experienced within the PCA church. Women will verbalize the internal struggles they are facing as they try to navigate their way through the gendered messages of their church community.

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This study will contribute to the body of knowledge by showing the impact of feminism on the beliefs of the female PCA community. Findings will help bridge the gap between what women believe about gender roles and how they live their lives. Women will verbalize their disagreements with PCA theology while maintaining membership in the PCA church. This study will expose beliefs that exist despite the silence of women who are disenchanted with the gender inequality in PCA leadership. As women's voices are heard, theory will be advanced about how they attempt to rise above or acquiesce to gender roles. The information gathered during this study will support feminist evangelical theory regarding the need to verbalize issues that are of importance to women who are deeply committed to their religious beliefs. Silence about the issue of gender inequality does not mean that female church members have necessarily accepted the roles assigned to them. Women will learn about the importance of verbalizing their concerns when they believe they are in positions of gendered oppression and submission. There is hope that a dialogue will occur between men and women in the PCA church as a way to further highlight the thoughts and concerns of female members. Social Dominance Theory There is a paucity of literature on how the tenets of social dominance theory exist within evangelical churches. This study will advance the body of knowledge as women verbalize their experiences of how they have been dominated by men in the church environment. Theory will be expanded as social positions within the church are highlighted along with women's viewpoints about a theology that gives men a higher status. 31

Findings will contribute to the body of knowledge as insights will be gained as to why women allow themselves to be in situations where gender inequality exists. This study will help bridge the gap between the idea of men having a higher status than women even though men are often perceived as the inferior social group. Theory will be advanced as clarity is gained about how women function within a context of gender inequality. Social dominance theory seeks to modify oppressive structures with morally driven interventions. The information gathered will help to explain the experiences of women in the PCA church. By participating in this study, women will begin to understand the importance of verbalizing their experiences, thoughts, and feelings and how their compliance helps to perpetuate the inequality. Perhaps at some future date this information could be used as a catalyst for change within the PCA church. Cognitive Dissonance Theory The literature is sparse on how women are bridging the gap between the two seemingly incompatible concepts of feminism and the evangelical theology of male headship and leadership. This study will advance the body of knowledge of cognitive dissonance theory by showing how religious women modify strongly held internal beliefs in response to doctrines that promote gender inequality. Women will reveal the variety of strategies they use to adapt to the inconsistencies of gender inequality. Strategies may include denying, reducing, minimizing, or trivializing doctrines that cause women to experience dissonance between beliefs and behaviors. Findings will reveal any rewards or threats that exist so that consonance is maintained. This study will help bridge the gap

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between how women desire to be treated by men and what they do to stabilize or reframe their beliefs when they are not being treated as they would like. The information gathered during this study will support cognitive dissonance theory. Data will show how women adapt when faced with contradictions to their strongly held beliefs. Women are expected to verbalize experiences that brought dissonance into their lives and the strategies they used to regain consonance. The data may show how some women changed their religious beliefs so that they could remain content within a hierarchal structure that limits the ability to fully use their gifts, talents, and abilities. Review of the Critical Literature This review of the critical literature will begin by describing and evaluating the research studies connected with (a) gender structure theory, (b) gender role conflict theory, (c) evangelical feminism theory, (d) social dominance theory, and (e) cognitive dissonance theory. The next section of the literature review will present the historical framework of the study beginning with America‟s early religious roots and ending with America as a country known for its diverse religious landscape. The subsequent section will show the progression of gender role beliefs in both the secular and religious worlds followed by literature showing the array of theological beliefs espoused throughout the centuries. The stories of various feminist women will highlight the struggles women have endured in their quest for equality. The literature review will conclude with a discussion of political changes leading up to the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment that gave women the right to vote. 33

Gender Structure Theory Gender structure theory (GST) views gender as a socially constructed, hierarchal system (Risman, 2004; West & Zimmerman, 1987). Individuals enact roles by choosing to follow gender expectations within a social context, both as an outcome of interactions and a reason for gendered behaviors (West & Zimmerman, 1987). People expect to be judged as to whether or not they have enacted the proper feminine or masculine role (Deutsch, 2007). Central to GST is the idea that differences between sexes are identified as a way to justify inequality (Risman, 2004). These differences are then used to continue to subordinate women to men (Risman, 2004). Gendered selves are developed individually and in relationship to the opposite sex (Risman, 2004). Within the constructs of society, people follow social guidelines and cultural expectations about how to interact with others (Risman, 2004). Differences between men and women are used to separate them into distinct, unequal categories (Ridgeway & Correl, 2004; Risman, 2004). People learn to behave in gender defined ways, making decisions that will further their own interests and goals (Ridgeway & Correl, 2004; Risman, 2004). As long as women view themselves as different than men, they may not notice the discrepancy between their opportunities in life as compared to men (Ridgeway & Correl, 2004; Risman, 2004). GST is embedded within all levels of society as a basis of stratification. Sex categories are used to structure opportunities and constraints (Risman, 20004). There are consequences on three dimensions: (a) individually as gendered selves are developed, (b) during interactions between men and women who follow cultural expectations even when interacting in identical structural systems, and (3) in institutional domains where there are 34

gender specific regulations about resource distribution and material goods (Risman, 2004). GST strives to understand how gender becomes embedded within society so that changes can be made (Risman, 2004). Risman (2004) stated that alternatives are offered in the hopes of helping to transform society. An important part of gender structure theory is to assess what occurs when people consciously or unconsciously rebel against social gender norms. When people begin to see themselves as equals in society regardless of gender, the social structure will be seen as oppressive. When people challenge gender norms, their identities begin to change along with the society. As people make the choice to enact gender roles, not only is inequality perpetuated but pleasure is experienced. Risman believed people needed to find socially acceptable ways to replace that pleasure so that inequality was no longer perpetuated. Walzer (2008) researched how men and women revised gender expectations following a divorce. Interview excerpts were reviewed from the Family Transformations, 1981-1982 data set, a longitudinal study of 170 divorced, mostly European American families. Walzer selected data that revealed insights about gender related stresses in the marriage. After the divorce, participants revised their beliefs about current behaviors that previously would have been viewed as gender violations. Gender was in effect redone as gender norms were reevaluated and restructured. Walzer's study revealed a number of areas in which men and women restructured gender norms after divorce. The research showed that some women felt free to enjoy their jobs and pursue careers that developed their own interests and potential. Other women stopped making elaborate evening meals and no longer cared if their houses were clean or lawns well manicured. Some men made 35

their personal lives more of a priority with some losing their motivation to work now that they no longer had a traditional family. Walzer's (2008) research showed that gendered work was either not appreciated or not sufficient for the desires of their spouses. Gendered demands worked against the marital ideal of being loved and sharing life with a spouse. Spouses who tried to stray from traditional gender expectations felt uncomfortable and were not necessarily appreciated for their efforts. Negative interactions in marriages were shown to cause problems, however the gendered content and process of the interactions compounded the difficulties. Some men were better fathers once they were divorced and some women reported more support from their husbands after the divorce. Walzer suggested that future studies should address the issue of whether redoing gender affects the wellbeing of families. Interventions could be created to address gender issues during marriage as a way to decrease conflict, possibly helping marriages to stay intact rather than end in divorce. A limitation of the study was the lack of diversity. Future studies could include couples from diverse cultural and racial backgrounds including those with alternative lifestyles. A study by Faulkner et al. (2005) examined marital satisfaction and marital conflict and their gender-related predictors. The researchers wanted to see if gender influenced marital satisfaction and conflict over time and the effect of “his and her” distinctions on the marriage relationship. Longitudinal data was taken from the first two waves of the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH). Data was collected by phone interviews between 1987 and 1988 (N = 13,008) with respondents reinterviewed between 1992-1994 (N = 10,008). Respondents were mainly White, married 36

for more than 16 years, with the average age for husbands at 46 and wives, age 42. Participants' answers measured frequency of marital conflict, type of conflict management, level of marital satisfaction, and religiosity. Depression was measured with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD). Wellbeing was measured via the Global Positive Affect measure from the Quality of Life Survey developed by the Institute for Social Research in Michigan. Three items from the Conflict Tactics Scale assessed the presence of marital violence. Likert scales measured gender role attitudes, perceived relationship fairness, marital commitment, and marital equity. This study by Faulkner et al. (2005) revealed that husbands in marriages with traditional gender roles were less satisfied with their marriages. Dissatisfaction increased in men who worked more hours outside the home. Husbands who attended religious services more frequently were more satisfied with their marriages. Positive well being for husbands and wives predicted husbands' increase in marriage satisfaction. Poor conflict management skills predicted a decrease in husband's satisfaction over time. For wives, the more hours husbands spent at work negatively influenced marital satisfaction. Wives who did not believe their relationships were equitable experienced greater marital conflict with their husbands. Wives' conflict management was predictive of husbands' levels of marital conflict but not vice versa. Wives' perceived fairness in their relationship predicted husbands' levels of marital conflict but not vice versa. Husbands' depression and poor wellbeing did predict wives' levels of marital conflict. The researchers stated that this study supported the idea that women were socialized to be sensitive to relationships, with the wives' functioning more predictive of the husbands' functioning

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than vice versa. Wives without religious affiliation had husbands with decreased marital satisfaction over time. Results of the study by Faulkner et al. (2005) showed that men with traditional gender role marriages had a decrease over time in marital satisfaction. Women who lost their jobs had increased levels of satisfaction and decreased marital conflict over time. Husbands who worked many hours outside the home showed decreased marital satisfaction for both partners. This study supported the belief that gender roles do influence marital satisfaction and conflict over time. Gender role expectations were restrictive for both men and women. Further research should include a more diverse population including observational data in addition to self-reporting data. More studies are needed to address marital satisfaction and conflict in couples with egalitarian marriages. Frame and Shehan (2005) examined the impact of female clergy in a typically male-dominated profession. The researchers found that women who pursued training as pastors felt they had to constantly prove they were adequate to perform the job as well as men. Clergywomen experienced increased stress due to parishioners‟ assumptions that clergy would be male. Many church members maintained traditional gender roles and rejected the idea of gender equality. Female clergy were expected to be weak leaders with emotional problems and maladjusted children. Even though the United Methodist Church has allowed woman to be ordained as clergy since 1956, clergy positions were typically structured to require the work of the minister and his wife. Clergywomen were unable to accomplish the demands of the position because their husbands usually had careers of their own. Those who had families were still expected to fulfill their family obligations 38

along with their jobs in the church. Female clergy often found themselves experiencing severe stress as they tried to fulfill all the responsibilities of their gender roles at home and at church. Frame and Shehan's (2005) study was part of a larger study about stress and coping among female clergy. Frame and Shehan used self-report questionnaires that were distributed at a United Methodist national conference with 199 ordained clergywomen, mostly White, completing the questionnaire. The average age was 44.7 years and 63.9% were married for an average of 16.1 years. Most of the clergywomen's husbands were professionals or managers and 33% of the clergywomen had an average of two children. Participants answered four questions related to (a) how gender influenced their pastoral performance, (b) their greatest challenge as a pastor, (c) what they wanted to change about their professional experiences, and (d) their stresses and coping strategies. The results of Frame and Shehan's study (2005) showed that clergywomen who had nurturing relationships with their parishioners believed this was a result of their being female. Other respondents expressed unhappiness about the gendered discrimination that caused them to have low status and pay, lack of role models, and lack of authority. Clergywomen had difficulty balancing their personal and family lives with their professional demands. Some struggled to find time to develop their spiritual lives. Others felt lonely in a job that offered little tangible success. Coping strategies consisted of taking time for oneself, having friendships, being involved in support groups, and getting counseling and help with spiritual direction. Clergywomen in Frame and Shehan's study had added burdens in their lives simply because they were women. They had to deal with sexism, resistance to their authority, low salaries, stress, fatigue, and expectations that 39

two people were expected to fulfill. Future studies regarding female clergy should include a larger sample with a more diverse population and age range. Gender Conflict Theory In the 1980s, researchers began to seriously study how men were affected by gender role expectations. O'Neil (1981) presented a model of how masculine gender role conflicts caused men to experience psychological distress resulting in negative consequences. In 1986, the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRC) was developed as a way to measure the patterns of men's stress and anxiety that resulted from trying to adhere to traditional gender role expectations (Burn & Ward, 2005; O'Neil et al., 1986). The GRC measured four domains of gender role conflict: (a) success, power, and competition, (b) restrictive emotionality, (c) restrictive affectionate behavior between men, and (d) conflict between work and family (Burn & Ward, 2005; O'Neil et al., 1986). Over the next 25 years in the United States more than 230 studies explored how gender role expectations caused conflicts between men and women (O'Neil, 2008). Since the GRC measured the viewpoints of men, most of the research studies offered results from the viewpoints of men (Enns, 2008; O'Neil, 2008). Research by Burn and Ward (2005) examined how men's attempts to conform to traditional male roles affected relationship satisfaction for both men and women. The study by Burn and Ward had 137 female and 170 male participants, mostly White, from a central California university. Participants filled out the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI) and the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS). Burn and Ward's study showed that conformity to traditional masculine norms was negatively associated with women's relationship satisfaction. Women were less satisfied with their relationships 40

when they were with men who conformed more to traditional masculine roles such as emotional control, winning, violence, dominance, power over women, and self-reliance. Women who were more satisfied with their relationships viewed their men as having less conformity to masculine norms. The study confirmed results of previous studies that showed that negative outcomes may result when men are trying to fulfill the requirements of the traditional male role. This study was limited by its lack of a diverse population. Further research suggested by Burn and Ward included using a more diverse population that includes couples with relationship difficulties who are working with mental health professionals. The researchers offered suggestions for a counseling model using the CMNI as a way to explore masculine norms that may be causing difficulties in relationships. Rochlen and Mahalik (2004) modified the GRC so that women could answer the questions relating to their perceptions of their partners. Rochlen and Mahalik‟s study consisted of 176 undergraduate students at two universities in Texas and Massachusetts, 126 of them White with romantic male partners. Participants filled out the Brief Symptom Inventory-18 (BSI-18), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), and the Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale (KMSS). The Gender Role Conflict Scale-I (GRCS-I) was modified so that women could evaluate the dimensions of their male partners. Participants evaluated their partners' personality, thoughts, and behaviors by using questions from the modified GRCS-I. The BSI-18, RSES, and KMSS were used to assess women's somatic complaints, depression, anxiety, self-esteem, and relationship satisfaction. Gender role conflict factors significantly predicted women's depression, anxiety, and women's satisfaction with the relationship. Women who were in 41

relationships with men with high levels of success, power, and competition were more depressed, anxious, and less satisfied with their relationships. Women in relationships with men with restrictive emotionality reported less relationship satisfaction. Greater relationship satisfaction was reported by women with male partners who were less emotionally constricted and less focused on success, power, and competition. Future research should explore how men with high needs for success, power, and competition may become less involved in housework and caring for their children. Research should address how emotionally unavailable men contribute to the negative experiences of women that may result in depression, anxiety, and increased stress. Rochlen and Mahalik suggested that futures studies should have women assess the items on the GRCS-I as to what extent the traits has caused conflict or been problematic in their relationship. This study was limited by having a majority of mainly heterosexual White females. Future studies should include a more diverse population. A study by Breiding (2004) explored the effects of male partner's gender role conflict on their female partners. Breiding‟s study consisted of 60 mostly White couples, married or living together. In separate rooms, initial interviews were done as part of a larger study on married couples and depression and criticism. Husbands filled out the GRCS and both partners filled out the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and some other questionnaires not related to the study. Each couple sat in a room together where there were two video cameras. Each person made two lists of five items ranked by order of importance: (a) what they agreed the other person would like to change about him or herself, and (b) what they agreed the other person would like to change about his or her partner. The couple was videotaped for 10 minutes while 42

discussing one of the topics. They were debriefed and filled out questionnaires to assess any emotional distress that might require follow up by a licensed professional. Breiding‟s study showed that gender role conflict in husbands correlated significantly with decreased marital adjustment and depressive symptoms in their wives. Marital adjustment and wives‟ depressive symptoms were significantly related to the subscales normally associated with men with high gender role conflict. Researcher's review of video tapes showed that gender role conflict was significantly related to hostility. Wives married to men with low gender role conflict had fewer depressive symptoms and healthier marriages. Men lower in gender role conflict were less hostile while participating in videotaped marital interactions. Breiding's (2004) study revealed that gender role conflict in husbands had a negative impact on marriages. Greater levels of hostility were shown by husbands when the couple's videotaped interactions focused on potential changes in the husbands rather than changes in the wives. Future studies should examine behaviors of men with low gender role conflict and how those behaviors influence their wives‟ psychological wellbeing and marital adjustment. Behaviors such as criticism or withdrawing from relational discussions should be reviewed to see how they contribute to negative marital outcomes. Evangelical Feminism Radical feminists of the late 1960s insisted that women should develop their own theories based on their own experiences (Bryson, 2004). Patriarchy was highlighted as a concept that was often being used to oppress and subjugate women in their private and public lives (Bryson, 2004). Men were benefitting from the then current gender division of labor in both the workplace and home (Bryson, 2004). By the end of the twentieth 43

century, questions were raised about historical accounts of religion and society that offered only the male viewpoint (Miles, 2006). In 1974, Letha Scanzoni and Nancy Hardesty (1992) published the book, All We're Meant to Be: Biblical Feminism for Today. This book was considered by many to be the most influential book on the evangelical feminist movement (Cochran, 2005). Modern hermeneutical methods were used to show how biblical Christianity liberated rather than oppressed women (Cochran, 2005). Scanzoni and Hardesty (1992) accepted the authority of the Bible and used cultural contexts to explain the treatment of women in the Bible. They argued that the Bible never referred to women as being subordinate to men. Scanzoni and Hardesty (1992) advocated the egalitarian view of marriage in which both partners were equal with no assigned head of the household. Women agreed to submit to men only if the men agreed to submit to them (Gallagher, 2004). Family authority was viewed as a shared, mutual submission (Gallagher, 2004). Evangelical feminists felt that Christ was being betrayed by churches that were teaching and practicing a theology of female silence and subordination (Ruether, 1999). Ruether (1999) argued that evangelical feminism offered a perspective about women that questioned a theology that placed women in a position of subordination to men. Women who espoused egalitarian viewpoints were passionate about their faith in a God who created them with as much dignity and equality as men (Ruether, 1999). Evangelical feminists were careful and diligent in their use of hermeneutical methods to show how Christianity liberated rather than oppressed women (Ruether, 1999). Their desire was to

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give a voice to all women by encouraging them to speak confidently of their experiences so that others would listen with open hearts and minds (Ruether, 1999). There is a paucity of literature related to evangelical feminism. A number of studies addressed the effects of gender role attitudes in religious communities. Research by Charmé (2006) examined the progression of egalitarianism within the Jewish American community. Charmé‟s study showed that historically, Jewish children were typically socialized into gendered behaviors in the Jewish family and religious institutions. Over the years, the Jewish community addressed many of the issues that caused women to feel excluded and disenfranchised. Many Jewish communities emphasized the role of women, allowing them to participate in practices and rituals previously reserved only for men. Jewish feminists acknowledged the many changes within the Jewish American community with some believing that egalitarianism had erased Jewish gender distinctions. Charmé wondered if the absence of gender differences was a result of how gender was being measured more so that the annihilation of gender roles. The researcher believed that if children were asked specifically about gender roles, the nuances of gender would be revealed. Charmé‟s (2006) study consisted of 67 Jewish American children, 39 girls, 28 boys, ages 7-11, who were recruited from various synagogues and a Jewish Community Center in the northeastern United States. Children were shown pictures of Jewish rituals and traditions that were traditionally assigned to men or women. The children were asked to discuss the gender roles that were implied by the pictures. Next, children were asked to name and discuss the people they saw as being the most important Jews in history. The children often cited tradition as reasons for the gender roles, stating that men and women 45

could certainly both do the task but tradition usually took precedence. In most instances, egalitarianism and female inclusions were maintained. Tradition was frequently cited as the reason for a boy or girl to do or not do the task. Girls asserted their rights to participate in all traditions while recognizing some traditions as male. Girls showed ambivalence as they wrestled with being allowed to do certain tasks while viewing the tasks as masculine, therefore choosing to not participate. Responding to one picture, more girls than boys thought the tradition gave an unfair privilege to the men. Girls were upset about this and some saw it as sexist. Findings showed that boys and girls agreed that they were both capable of doing the same things. Gender roles were a source of ambivalence for Jewish girls. Girls more than boys were sensitive to equal rights and sexism and were more aware of stories about significant Jewish women. Boys were more likely to defend the importance of gender roles while being less familiar with historical Jewish women. Girls revealed a stronger desire than boys to advocate egalitarianism. Further research could study Jewish Americans in different parts of the country and the world. Colaner and Warner (2005) explored the effect of gender role attitudes on the career goals and desires of evangelical female college students. The researchers used a random sample of 271 female students from a private evangelical Christian university in the Midwest area of the United States. The Dunn Marriage Role Expectation Inventory (MREI) was adapted and used to measure gender role attitudes of evangelical Christians. Fifteen questions were used to assess aspiration and future goals of the women. A complementarian emphasis emerged from the data. There were high correlations between evangelical women and hierarchal views on male leadership. This study aligned with a

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study by Hoffmann and Miller (1997) that showed that fundamentalist protestants typically maintained conservative attitudes about gender roles. Colaner and Warner's (2005) study revealed a highly significant relationship between gender role attitudes and career aspirations. Women with egalitarian gender role attitudes had career aspirations that required higher education and commitment. They viewed themselves as equal with men and revealed a willingness to adapt their lifestyles around their career goals. Women who identified with complementarian attitudes had goals for working but not aspiring. They believed that men should have jobs with leadership positions while women should have jobs with less responsibility and authority. This study showed that gender ideology does impact evangelical women by limiting the aspirations of women of the complementarian persuasion. Limitations of this study included the lack of research on the reliability and validity of the MREI as adapted for this study. Generalizability was increased due to the use of random sampling, but was limited by the sample of females from one evangelical Christian university. Future studies should include women from more universities in different parts of the country plus the opinions of evangelical men. Research by Sellers et al. (2005) explored the lives of Christian women who participated in both motherhood and careers in full or part-time positions. The researchers interviewed 11 married women who were faculty members of a small Christian university. The research showed how women coped with what they considered to be their dual calling in life, that of mother and career woman. This study by Sellers et al. (2005) revealed the frustration of evangelical women. They were confused by mixed messages exhorting them to use their gifts and express their individuality as long as their choices 47

agreed with church doctrine. The women reported significant support by husbands and partners who helped them live out their calling and commitments by participating in parenting plans that suited each family. Findings of this study showed the resourcefulness of women as they applied theology to fit their lifestyles. These evangelical women expressed confidence that church teachings on submission were to be challenged in ways that allowed them to negotiate the boundaries of their behaviors and their belief systems. The women seemed to appreciate a theology that set them apart from the secular world but found ways to reframe their beliefs to match their lifestyles. Women with full-time careers referred to callings that must be obeyed while others minimized church teachings by accepting that mistakes were made by men as they interpreted scripture. The research showed that evangelical women were skilled at using theology and church doctrine to the advantage of themselves and their families. Many were willing to negotiate their beliefs in order to remain in their chosen religious communities. Social Dominance Theory In social dominance theory (SDT), social dominance orientation (SDO) is the individual measure of whether a person preferred equal or hierarchal relationships (Snellman & Ekehammar, 2005). High SDO people tend to promote hierarchies within groups, ranking social groups as superior or inferior (Snellman & Ekehammar, 2005). A study by De Crèmer, Cornelis, and van Hiel (2008) investigated the moderating role of (SDO) in shaping people's voice. Voice was defined as the ability for people to have their input considered in decision-making processes (De Crèmer et al., 2008). The purpose of the study was to see if respondents whose input was taken seriously would perceive more procedural fairness than respondents who lacked voice (De Crèmer et al., 2008). 48

De Crèmer et al. (2008) studied 97 students at a university in the Netherlands. SDO was continuously measured and procedural justice was coded as voice or no voice. The researchers randomly assigned students to the procedural justice condition. Each filled out the 5 point Likert SDO scale. A higher overall score revealed a greater willingness to favor social inequality (high SDO). Participants were told to imagine a situation in which they were part of a team in an organization that was going to make multiple changes. Some participants were told their feedback (voice) was requested by their supervisor to help guide these changes. Other participants were told their input was not being requested (no voice). Participants filled out a 7-point Likert rating (a) to what extent they felt they received voice, (b) how happy they felt in their group (voice or no voice), (c) and to what extent they considered their supervisor's treatment to be honest, respectful, fair, and dishonest. Findings by De Crèmer et al. (2008) showed that high SDO people were affected by voice more than low SDO people. The research showed that perceptions of voice impacted beliefs about procedural fairness and emotional reactions of high SDO people. High SDO respondents increased their beliefs about fairness and experienced more happiness when their input was desired. People with high SDO valued procedural fairness more than low SDO people. Results showed that voice affected high and low SDO participants differently. Voice manipulation strongly impacted high SDO people's perceptions of procedural fairness and emotional reactions but did not strongly impact the low SDO people. Results indicated that high SDO people preferred to have control over outcomes, with voice being viewed as control. Voice and procedural fairness were shown

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to affect the presence of positive emotions. Future research should address SDO within the context of a more diverse population in the Netherlands and other countries. Caricati (2007) studied the relation among gender, SDO, and social values. Social values were defined as goals that acted as people's guiding principles. Caricati‟s study consisted of 162 Italian University students, 80 men, 82 women, 20-51 years old. Participants completed the Italian version of the Portrait Value Questionnaire (PVQ) related to the typologies of conformity, tradition, security, self-direction, stimulation, hedonism, power, achievement, benevolence, and universalism. The PVQ presented short verbal portraits of 40 people showing their aspirations, goals, or wishes that pointed to the importance of a value. Participants filled out a 6 point scale indicating how much the person was similar to them. Participants then completed the Italian version of the Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) scale. Eight items of the scale related to group based social dominance and the other eight related to group based social inequality. Women scored higher on conformity, tradition, and benevolence, and marginally on security (Caricati, 2007). Caricati (2007) suggested that SDO expressed a value that is more similar to power and achievement than benevolence and universalism. Data showed that universalism, a form of humanitarianism linked to the well being of social groups, is the best predictor of SDO. Researchers believed their results challenged SDO by conceptualizing it as an expression of a value that refers to domination among groups (universalism). The study showed that gender differences in SDO were more a consequence of people's socially learned attitudes and beliefs about social equality rather than the cause. Future studies should include the PVQ edited for use in a diverse American population and members of other countries. 50

Snellman and Ekehammar (2005) studied how people ranked various ethnic groups and formed them into ethnic hierarchies. The researchers examined the relationship between racial prejudice and social dominance orientation (SDO). There were 150 students recruited from a variety of educational centers including high school and university. The ethnic background varied and more than 29 countries were represented. Four subgroups were formed comprised of 46 Swedish women, 48 Swedish men, 25 immigrant women, and 31 immigrant men. Participants filled out a questionnaire with scales for social distance, modern racial prejudice, and classical racial prejudice. Social distance was a Likert scale measuring people's beliefs about a variety of interactions they would or would not participate in with people from other countries. The higher the score, the larger the social distance between people from other countries. Participants then ranked ethnic groups with the option of not ranking them by giving all of them the same social distance. Participants filled out the SDO with the higher score indicating a high SDO. The modern and classical racial prejudice scales contained statements with which the participant either agreed or disagreed. The higher the person scored, the higher the prejudice shown. Findings revealed social distance scores that were similar across the four subgroups. People tended to form ethnic hierarchies when judging people with a variety of ethnic backgrounds. Each subgroup was consistent in their ethnic rankings. Results indicated that people's rankings were guided by their acceptance of the dominating group's lifestyle and values. Future research should use a larger sample of participants with different ethnic groups including immigrants who have assimilated into the Swedish culture.

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Cognitive Dissonance Theory Research by Joule and Martinie (2008) showed that people trivialized situations in order to reduce dissonance rather than change their attitudes when in situations of misattribution. Participants were 100 undergraduate male and female students, with 80 randomly assigned to 4 experimental situations, 20 to the control. Those in the experimental groups were given the choice to write down arguments that favored selective admission to the university. Some of the groups were told they could refuse to write the essay. Some participants were told that ultrasound waves, a cause of tension in humans, would be emitted into the experimentation room. Ultrasounds waves were not used in either instance but were introduced as a misattribution factor, meaning the waves could be blamed for causing stress. Before and after the session in the experimentation room, participants revealed their attitudes about the issue of selective admission. The control groups wrote down their arguments in favor of selective admission but were not given the choice to accept or choose the task. Two scales measured attitude and trivialization. Each person rated themselves on their opinion about selective admission to universities. Only attitude was measured with the control group. Joule and Martinie‟s (2008) study showed that when people were placed in situations of dissonance they used whatever was first available to them to reduce dissonance. If attitude was presented before trivialization, people changed their attitudes. If trivialization was presented before attitude change, they trivialized the issue. This study offered yet another way for people to reduce dissonance, that of trivializing the situation as one way to reduce stress. Future research should aim to understand what happens to dissonance reduction when participants receive a variety of misattribution situations. 52

Galinsky, Magee, Gruenfeld, Whitson, and Liljenquist (2008) conducted an experiment that compared the attitudes of high power versus low power people. Galinsky et al. hypothesized that high power participants would perceive a higher sense of choice than low power participants and would reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes. The experiment consisted of 42 undergraduates, 9 male, and 33 female. In mass testing sessions 84 additional participants pretested for attitude topics to get an attitude baseline condition. Researchers chose two topics of which students held strong, negative opinions. In the first task, each participant wrote about an incident in their lives in which they had power over another person (high power group) or another person had power over them (low power group). In the next task each participant drew a picture of a creature they discovered while visiting another galaxy. Some participants were shown a drawing of a creature someone else had drawn. Drawings were then coded as to whether or not they were influenced by the wings in the sample picture. Participants were instructed to record a persuasive audio taped message to help the university make decisions about campus policies. Each person was assigned a topic that they recorded in a 1-3 minute speech. Each participant marked their agreement of disagreement with the topics they recorded along with how much choice they had in making their speech. Findings by Galinsky et al. (2008) showed that high power participants expressed more positive attitudes toward the topics under discussion that did low power participants. Perceptions of choice positively predicted attitudes and significantly reduced the effect of power. Powerful people saw themselves as having choice, thus increasing their experience of choice. People felt they had voluntarily chosen to argue for a viewpoint that contradicted their own attitudes. They saw themselves as having a choice 53

which then allowed them to change their attitudes to reconcile the dissonance. This study showed that one component of having power is the ability to be free from situational influence. When the study attempted to limit creativity, powerful participants resisted conformity, reduced the influence of the situation, and increased creativity. The powerful person's disposition and internal process was stronger than the situation in determining the attitude and creative expression. Powerful people were driven by their own personalities, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes more so than social pressures. By implication of this study, low power people perceived barriers and opposition while high power people saw potential. Future research suggested that power be used to improve organizations, empowering individuals to discover and express viewpoints and initiatives for the good of the organization. Research should explore what happens when the participants are either all male or all female. Matz and Wood (2005) conducted three studies that demonstrated how dissonance occurred and was resolved in discussion groups. The researchers conducted the first study with 142 female and 47 male students who met in groups of 4–6 people to fill out a survey about attitudes toward a number of issues. Some were told that one of the issues would be chosen for a group discussion (discussion condition), others were told the group would need to reach a consensus (agreement condition), while others were told there would be no group discussion (no interaction condition). Participants rated their attitudes about seven issues. Each participant in the experimental groups were told whether they would be discussing issues with others who either agreed or disagreed with them. Participants wrote down what they thought would happen during group discussions. They rated their expected reactions to the pending group discussion by filling out a 24 item 54

emotion scale. This scale contained words or phrases that assessed feelings of dissonance discomfort, positive feeling, and negative self-evaluation. No discussions ever took place. Findings by Matz and Wood (2005) showed that participants were more motivated to reach consensus when others agreed with them, believing consensus was more likely to happen when others were in agreement with them. The researchers found that participants viewed others as being more similar to them when they agreed with them. Data suggested that with more group pressure, disagreement would generate greater dissonance discomfort than agreement. One dissonant reducing strategy was employed by some participants, that of bolstering positions by giving reasons why their positions were correct. This study showed that being grouped with people who held opposite opinions created feelings of dissonance discomfort. Discomfort was heightened when participants were expected to interact in a group that disagreed with them, when they were expected to reach consensus, and when they were told that others in the group did not agree with them. Study number two by Matz and Wood (2005) consisted of 33 male and 14 female college students divided into groups of 4-6. The researchers had participants individually evaluate information about a legal case, write down their verdicts, and fill out a scale about how guilty they believed the person to be. Three conditions were set up. Participants in the first group were told they would be assigned a position to defend. In the second group, participants were told that other group members disagreed with their position. They then participated in a self-affirmation task. In the third group, participants received information about other group members' positions. The study ended with participants filling out the 24 item emotion scale used in study one and a six item 55

questionnaire assessing their position on the verdict. Findings showed that all three groups experienced some form of discomfort. Discomfort increased when people expected to interact with people who disagreed with them and people with whom they were expected to reach consensus. To a lesser extent, discomfort increased when people were told group members did not agree with them even when they were not expected to interact with them. Discomfort decreased when participants completed the self affirmation task and when participants were told to defend an assigned position in which they were in agreement. The first two studies by Matz and Wood (2005) showed that dissonance occurred when people were grouped with people who disagreed with them. When participants predicted group interactions disagreeing with their views, they bolstered their views by giving reasons about why their views were correct. In both studies, people tended to dissociate from the group when others disagreed, rating those other group members as different from themselves. Higher levels of discomfort and dissociation occurred when people perceived less similarity. The third and final study by Matz and Wood (2005) focused on the changing of one's own attitude to match the opinions of others. Matz and Wood‟s study tested the belief that social groups were both a source of dissonance and dissonance resolution. There were undergraduates, 93 women and 79 men. As in Study 2, participants were mock jurors in a group with other jurors who supposedly disagreed with participants' verdicts. Participants filled out an emotion measure. Researchers manipulated participants so that they either changed their own positions to agree with others (yielded), persuaded others to agree with them (persuaded), or left the dissenting group to join a 56

more congenial group (joined). Afterward some participants were told that group agreement had been achieved while others were told agreement had not been achieved. Participants' emotions were then measured to see if participants' discomfort was reduced. This final experiment showed that dissonance generated by disagreement could be reduced using strategies that achieved agreement among group members. When the attitudes of group members changed so that agreement was reached, discomfort decreased. When people were told to change their opinions to match those of the group, discomfort decreased. Those who went to another group that agreed with them had a decrease of discomfort. These three studies by Matz and Wood (2005) showed that interpersonal relations can be both a source and resolution of discomfort experienced by group disagreement. People in groups felt pressured to establish and maintain similar beliefs. Group members used a variety of strategies as a way to decrease discomfort. Future research could explore other modes of dissonance reduction in diverse populations. Historical Framework America's Religious Identity America's identity as a nation has been connected to its religious development (Bucher, 1976; Stoll, 2008). In seventeenth century Britain, preachers of religious groups such as the Calvinists and Puritans denounced the tyranny and persecution of the British church and state (Witte, 2008). Thousands of people who wanted to practice their own religions left England to go to America (Witte, 2008). Motivated by religious zeal and a desire for philosophical and political freedom, the Puritans went to America to practice their orderly, moral faith without government 57

interference (Daniel, 2006; De Tocqueville, 1997). In 1620, Puritan families from England landed on the coast of what is now Massachusetts (De Tocqueville, 1997). With the drafting and signing of the Mayflower Compact, 41 men established a government with just and equal laws whose purpose was to advance the Christian faith for the glory of God (Daniel, 2006; Thorpe, 1906). America was founded on principles that were both biblical and philosophic, with many of its early laws coming directly from the Bible (De Tocqueville, 1997; Tessitore, 2004). Religion was viewed as having a positive effect on the virtues of early American culture (Grenda, 2006). The rhetoric of freedom for all people was seen as a way to enact the purposes of God (Suchocki,1976). Fighting for independence and liberty was viewed as a way to serve God (Stoll, 2008). Liberty and religion worked together to protect morality and secure freedom (Bucher, 1976; Stoll, 2008). Religious and political views intertwined, forming a civil religion that combined the kingdom of God with the kingdom of the world (Bush, 2004). Religious faith in America with its basis of morality was seen as essential for the good of the government and families (Bellah, 1976). Legal documents spoke of God, the Christian faith, and the Creator (Suchocki, 1976). Spiritual and political goals were fused as people worked together to achieve what they saw as the moral purposes of God (Suchocki, 1976; Tessitore, 2004). America's founders and politicians often invoked the name of God, whether the stern Puritan God or the remote cosmic God who watched over the universe (Stoll, 2008). Many colonists believed that only religious people could be rulers or officeholders (Daniel, 2006). Protestant religious beliefs about the total corruption of humans by sin moved from the church into the political realm (Mulder, 1976). Colonists discovered that 58

previously accepted beliefs about absolute power and moral perfection of rulers were not necessarily true (Bucher, 1976). Rulers were criticized by colonists for how they used the name of God in order to threaten and take control of people (Bucher, 1976). Power became viewed as a male trait, aggressive and dominating. Liberty was given the trait of femaleness as she had to defend herself against powerful men (Bucher, 1976). Political liberty began to be aligned with religious freedom. The union of church and state was often viewed as satanic (Bucher, 1976). By the time of the American Revolution (1775-1783), various liberation movements were viewing freedom as a way to meet the goals of the government and its people (Bucher, 1976). Frontier life before the American Revolution demanded that men and women abandon traditional gender roles to work together to build their new land (Rowland, 2004). During the American Revolution when men were off to war, women were left to manage the home and finances (Rowland, 2004). Human dignity and freedom were being redefined as something all people had by nature of their humanity (Rowland, 2004). The Protestant church in America had a significant influence on societal attitudes toward woman (Hogan, 2000). Biblical arguments were used to help define the roles of both men and women (Hogan, 2000). Protestant churches practiced and taught the religious and public silencing of women (Hogan, 2000). Women lacked status and voice and were very much aware of how society used biblical ideas to contribute to their oppression (Belzer, 2004; Brown, 1993; Hogan, 2000). Women who desired change realized they had to devise a rhetorical strategy that would respect and question the traditional social boundaries of the day (Belzer, 2004; Brown, 1993; Hogan, 2000). 59

In 1776, the Declaration of Independence was signed by 56 men (National Archives, 1776). Although the document sought to protect religious diversity without state control, religion was still viewed as crucial to the moral functioning of society (Grenda, 2006). The equality of all men was stated as a right of birth as given by the Creator (National Archives, 1776). However, despite the document's attention to equality, all people residing within the colonies were not viewed as being created equal (Schleifer, 1992; Taylor, 1976). Indians were seen as savages, slaves and women were viewed as property (Schleifer, 1992; Taylor, 1976). Kings and nobles were seen as being better than everyone else with their divinely given rights (Schleifer, 1992; Taylor, 1976). The Declaration ended with a statement about the people's reliance on the protection of divine Providence (Grenda, 2006). By the end of the eighteenth century, groups were spreading through the colonies to protest Puritanical beliefs (Daniel, 2006). Protestantism began to change by embracing more heterogeneous beliefs (Daniel, 2006). When the Constitution of the United States of America was written in 1787, religious freedom was not connected to God or any divine presence (Daniel, 2006; National Archives, 1787). Discovering truth without governmental authority was being seen as a sacred right of all people (Daniel, 2006). With the drafting of the Constitution, church and state were finally separated (Mulder, 1976). The Constitution did not mention God or any other divine presence (Daniel, 2006; National Archives, 1787). The Constitution spoke of a society in which all faiths could exist together (Daniel, 2006; National Archives, 1787). Some dissenters were concerned that freedom of conscience without God would cause the abuse of power (Daniel, 2006). Others believed America was finally fostering a sense of toleration and 60

cooperation, with equal opportunity for all religious groups (Daniel, 2006). American Protestantism continued to deny religious diversity and sought to dominate the culture with its Christian beliefs (Mulder, 1976). By the nineteenth century, immigration from Ireland, Italy, Germany, and Eastern Europe enriched the religious landscape of America (Daniel, 2006). In the twentieth century, Catholicism, Judaism, and Asian religions changed the religious composition of America (Daniel, 2006). One group could no longer claim to be the one voice of Christianity (Daniel, 2006). Gender Roles in America Although one of the purposes of coming to America was to establish justice and equality, the colonists brought with them already established gender roles as accepted by British tradition (Daniel, 2006). British citizens living in the American colonies followed the British law of marital coverture (Dolan, 2003; Murray, 2008). The law of coverture stated that upon marriage a husband and wife became one, the wife in effect being covered by her husband (Dolan, 2003; Murray, 2008). Coverture required that the wife be legally subordinate to her husband (Murray, 2008). Women were absorbed into their husbands, losing any legal existence they might have had previously (Rowland, 2005). Married women were unable to vote, could not become attorneys, and were unable to buy or possess land in their own names (Curtis, 2008). The husband became the dominant figure, the wife became subservient, and her personal property became her husband's (Rowland, 2004). Theological arguments to support women's roles included a divine order in which God assigned men to be earthly heads of families and nations (Hogan, 2000). Research 61

by Hogan (2000) showed that women were viewed as being man's inferiors, created to be obedient and silent. Biological reasons for female inferiority included the belief that women were emotional, illogical, hysterical, and nervous. Women supposedly had smaller brains and weak bodies that rendered them unable to handle the demands of public life. Society believed it was important that women stay in their homes for the good of society. Narrowly defined roles for men and women helped perpetuate America's history of gender inequality (Ridgway & Correll, 2004; Wood, 2007). Speaking in public was considered to be a masculine activity, unsuitable for a real woman (Brown, 1993; Hogan, 2000). The typical woman was seen as quiet, demure, frail, timid, and passive (Hogan, 2000). Women were expected to use their nurturing, loving, and spiritual qualities within the home (Hogan, 2000). Men were considered to be strong, competitive and ruthless, ready to thrive within the boisterous public arena and competitive marketplace (Hogan, 2000). In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Methodist women openly preached and taught in England and the American colonies (Brown, 1993; Hogan, 2000). Upon the death of Methodist founder John Wesley in 1791, women in America's colonies were prohibited from public ministry in the church (Brown, 1993; Hogan, 2000). Women seeking to have a voice in America began to understand that they would have to fight against the male monopoly in the church pulpit in order to further their rhetorical freedom (Brown, 1993; Hogan, 2000). Many of the instructions guiding the expected behavior of women were influenced by John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost (Styler, 2007). Women were seen 62

as subordinate to men as a result of being created after Adam in the biblical story of the creation (Styler, 2007). Victorian society restricted the roles of women by limiting their influence to that of the home (Hinson-Hasty, 2006). Women were expected to follow intricate rules in all area of life include eating, relationships, clothing, home management, and children (Hinson-Hasty, 2006). When young girls reached adolescence, they were expected to comply with these rules (Hinson-Hasty, 2006). The dilemma for women was that they wanted to argue for social change but were limited regarding their status and voice (Hogan, 2000). The culture was hostile to women who were trying to claim any kind of spiritual authority or insight (Styler, 2007). Women were denied the ability to study theology or to interpret the Bible (Styler, 2007). They were allowed to be engaged in literature as long as they did not offer any new thoughts and perspectives (Styler, 2007). Hundreds of books were published by secular and religious companies highlighting the biographies of significant secular and biblical women (Styler, 2007). As women read these books, they became mobilized to rebel against their lack of constitutional equality with men (Brown, 1993; Hogan, 2000). By the 1900s, women were starting to express themselves in public (HinsonHasty, 2006). Women became involved in social movements such as helping the poor and advocating for the education of women (Hinson-Hasty, 2006). They were participating in efforts to end slavery and ban the use of alcohol (Wood, 2007). Women began to understand that securing the right to vote and speak in public would increase their sphere of influence (Wood, 2007). As they stepped outside of their gender roles, women were criticized and accused of losing their morals (Wood, 2007). Scriptural principles were used as a starting point to advance social and political viewpoints (Styler, 63

2007). The social gospel, a liberal person-centered form of Christianity, was beginning to emerge within the American culture (Bush, 2004). Human error was no longer being blamed on sin but more so on poor training and lack of social reform (Bush, 2004). As secular feminism expanded its role, women began to break away from the need to justify themselves with scripture (Styler, 2007). By the 1960s, evangelical feminists were beginning to question theological justifications for women's subordination (Ruether, 1999). Feminists recognized the work of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and began to interpret the Bible from a gendered viewpoint (Styler, 2007). Women began to argue against what Stanton called the “silence and subjection” (Stanton, 1898a, p. 8) of woman as man's dependent. People's views of masculinity and femininity were being challenged throughout the nation (O'Neil, 1981). The feminist movement highlighted the oppression of women, resulting in anger and conflict between men and women (O'Neil, 1981). Society developed terms such as sexism, sex roles, gender, and androgyny to help explain what was happening (O'Neil, 1981). Gender role conflicts were portrayed in television shows and movies such as All in the Family (Lear, 1972) and Kramer vs. Kramer (Jaffe, 1979). In 1981, psychotherapist and professor O'Neil (1981) argued that society had a pressing need to understand how sexism and gender role socialization worked together to affect relationships between men and women. O'Neil created the Gender Role Conflict Scale as a way to measure how men were affected by restrictive gender role socialization (O'Neil, 1981). Secular feminism began to affect the evangelical church (King, 2004). Controversies occurred within the evangelical community at large as women tried to find 64

their place in society and religion (King, 2004). Male authority and female submission was being taught as the only true biblical standard for marriage and the church (Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). To some evangelicals, Christianity and feminism were viewed as incompatible (King, 2004). Others saw the global implications that could conceivably motivate men and women to work for social, religious, and political change for all people (King, 2004). Issues of gender were addressed as denominations continued to restrict women's leadership roles (Hoggard-Creegan & Pohl, 2005). Women stated reluctance to participate in research related to gender roles (Hoggard-Creegan & Pohl, 2005). They were suspicious about the intentions of studies and did not want to be seen as problems within their conservative institutions (Hoggard-Creegan & Pohl, 2005). In 1974, Scanzoni and Hardesty (1992), evangelical feminists and authors, launched what became known as the biblical feminism movement. The Evangelical Women's Caucus (EWC) was formed with the goal of supporting the Equal Rights Amendment, the ordination of women, inclusive language in religious documents, and the end of discrimination for women in Christian institutions. Scanzoni and Hardesty (1992) and fellow dissenters challenged the current religious dogma of patriarchy. They became convinced that their biblical religious beliefs were supposed to help make them whole people, free from restrictive social roles. Women became outraged at how Christianity had restricted, blinded, and oppressed women throughout the centuries. Prominent theologians within the evangelical community argued against evangelical feminism. Feminist evangelical Christians challenged the patriarchy within the church and began to espouse a theology of mutual submission of male and female to one another.

65

Women began to study the teachings of feminist theologians such as Nelle Morton, who influenced the establishment of women's centers within schools and seminaries (Thompson, 1987). Women read and discussed feminist critiques of theology that emerged from the writings of Valerie Saiving, Mary Daly, Anne McGrew Bennet, Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, Beverly Wildung Harrison, and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Plaskow & Fiorenza, 1988). Churches responded by telling women to embrace biblical womanhood by submitting to the male system of patriarchy (Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). Evangelical feminists were torn between their desire to agree with the beliefs of their church and their personal experiences of oppression and disempowerment (Nash, 2006). Women were confused by conflicting doctrines that attempted to explain what it meant to be a female (Van Leeuwen, 2005). They were told they were called to fulfill a cultural mandate that included the assigning of gender roles (Van Leeuwen, 2005). Two prominent theologians in the evangelical Christian world espoused the complementarian viewpoint of gender roles. Grudem (2006a) and Ware (2002) argued that the doctrine of male headship was a biblical mandate that existed before the creation of the world. The relationship between God the Father and God the Son was one of headship and submission (Grudem, 2006a; Ware, 2002). Therefore, relationships between men and women must emulate that same kind of power structure (Grudem, 2006a; Ware, 2002). Men and women were viewed as equal in creation, complementing one another with their different functions and roles (Grudem, 2006a; Ware, 2002). Men were in biblically appointed positions of leadership while women were in joyful submission to the men and if married, to their husbands (Grudem, 2006a; Ware, 2002). 66

Within marriage, decisions were the ultimate responsibility of the husband (Grudem, 2006a; Ware, 2002). Grudem (2006a) believed that to deny the theology of hierarchy meant the church had succumbed to the pressures of modern culture. Men and women were viewed as partners who humbly served one another within the constraints of God's design (Schemm, 2000). Sande (2005), well-known author and attorney within the PCA community, stated that women were expected to respect and submit to their husbands even if being mistreated. Sande explained that God would ultimately deal with injustice as women grew through godly submission. Impson (2001), English professor at a Christian college, agreed with Sande in her book, Called to Womanhood: the Biblical View for Today's World. Impson (2001) spoke of how women must embrace their own “vocation of gender” (p. 189). She underscored the need for a woman to quietly and gently submit to her husband. Both Sande (2005) and Impson (2001) adhered to the belief that men and women had innate differences that caused men to seek roles of leadership, protection, and provision. Women were expected to gravitate toward roles of nurturance and service (Impson, 2001; Sande, 2005). Impson (2001) believed that feminism had failed because it was unable to identify the source of the problem. Men and women needed to embrace biblical manhood and womanhood and act womanly rather than manly. Van Leeuwen (2005), feminist, psychologist, and university professor, acknowledged the reality of innate differences between the sexes but did not agree to mandated, rigid, hierarchical gender assignments. She believed that Christians, influenced by early Pagan and Greek thought, composed a doctrine that divided and 67

assigned roles to men and woman. Van Leeuwen considered these views as unjust to both men and women. The PCA denomination, the religious community being researched in this study, aligned with the complementarian theology of Grudem (2006a) and Ware (2002). The PCA espoused a theology consistent with the beliefs of theologian John Calvin (Baldwin, 1991). Calvin taught that women were ordained by God to be in submission to men in all domains of society (Baldwin, 1991). In marriage, women were to be modest and must obey their husbands (Baldwin, 1991). Calvin's theology stated that God established this divine order and Christians were obligated to be obedient to the word of God (Calvin, 1996). In the PCA denomination, women cannot hold leadership positions in the church and must limit the use of their talents and abilities within their spiritual community (Grudem, 2004; PCA, 2007). Women are viewed as helpers to the men (Grudem, 2004) and are trained to be leaders only in women's ministries (PCA, 2007). Women are exhorted to fulfill their biblical mandate of nurturing other women (Grudem, 2004). Hunt (2006), a PCA pastor's wife, author, and speaker, highlighted this view by stating that headship and submission were reflections of God's plan to create women as helpers and life-givers. Women were expected to teach other women how to live out this calling (Hunt, 2006). Mouser (2006) is a writer for the Journal of Biblical Manhood and Womanhood, a religious journal that espouses traditional gender roles for men and women. She stated that women who were competent, intelligent, and gifted should not use that as an excuse to perform the offices and duties of a man. Mouser believed that doing so would cause a 68

breakdown in God's created order in which men are supposed to lead and protect while women help and nurture. However, she contended that if there were no men available to lead, women could perform the duties of the men as long as the women limited their authority. Mouser believed this ensured that the “fabric of society” (p. 33) was not destroyed. By the year 2000, America had experienced major changes to the system of gender inequality (Wood, 2007). However, the feminine role continued to be defined as subordinate to the masculine role (Wood, 2007). Unequal values were assigned to roles depending on whether they were considered to be masculine or feminine (Wood, 2007). Women still earned less money than men when performing the same tasks with the same level of education (Wood, 2007). Within the evangelical protestant community, the majority of churches continued to subscribe to a theology espousing God's design for the family (Gallagher, 2004; Sande, 2005). This included the belief that at the creation of the world, God set up a patriarchal relationship between men and women (Gallagher, 2004; Sande, 2005). The biblical story of the creation of Adam and Eve had been used for centuries to prove that women were created to be subordinate to men (Gallagher, 2004; Sande, 2005). The majority of theologians throughout history saw Eve in a negative light (Hutchins, 2008). Many negative views helped form society's opinions and laws about women's roles (Hutchins, 2008). Theological Reform The story of Adam and Eve has been used as a basis for patriarchal theology (Hutchins, 2008). Theologians throughout the centuries placed a huge burden of guilt on Eve (Hutchins, 2008). Scripture has been used to highlight Eve's flaws as a basis for 69

female inferiority (Claassens, 2006). Women were viewed as weak and intellectually inferior to men. They were correlated with misfortune, irrationality, passivity, and weakness (Claassens, 2006). Jewish and Christian theologians upheld male hierarchy when they interpreted the biblical creation story (Claassens, 2006). Ancient writings blamed Eve for the sinful and wicked nature of all humanity (Hutchins, 2008). Some authors labeled Eve as the sexual partner of Satan (Hutchins, 2008). Hebrew scripture documented women as inferior to men, the property of men, dependent on men, and without protection of basic human rights (Conn, 1987). Women were regarded with contempt (Derksen, 1999). They were doomed to a life of obedience to their fathers and then to their husbands. Evangelical feminists openly disagreed with theology dating back to the fourth and fifth centuries (Ruether, 1999). Ruether‟s (1999) research showed that scholar and theologian St. Augustine taught that male and female souls were made in the image of God in a spiritual form that was without gender. He equated maleness with spirituality and rationality, therefore women as females could not represent God. Augustine taught that women by nature were created as subordinate to men for the purpose of sex and procreation. Women's subordination was made worse when God punished Eve with servitude to men after she ate the fruit in the garden of Eden. Augustine's teachings have contributed to society's negative views of women, the body, and sexuality (Ruether, 1999). He believed that the Bible taught a distinction of roles in which only men reflected the higher, masculine part of God's image (Paul, 1997). The wife with her husband portrayed the image of God while the man in his totality was the image of God (Paul, 1997). Augustine's views influenced Catholic and Protestant 70

theology for centuries (Miles, 2005). His influence was seen in the writings of Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153), an influential theologian and mystic (Reid, 1978). Clairvaux used the Bible to support his view of Eve as the source of all evil (Krahmer, 2002). He taught that Eve used charm and flattery to cause Adam to sin (Krahmer, 2002). A fifteenth century document, Malleus Maleficarum, viewed women as imperfect, lustful beings who were dangerous to men (Claassens, 2006). This document led to the persecution of women as witches for two centuries (Claassens, 2006). Rabbinic traditions described Eve as the mother of all lies and evil, more at fault than the man in bringing on the punishment of mortality (Conn, 1987). Eve was said to have been seduced by the devil because she was foolish, ignorant, and irrational, her feminine weakness a fact of creation (Krahmer, 2002). Augustine's beliefs were propagated in the writings of Thomas Aquinas (12251274), Martin Luther (1483-1546), and John Calvin (1509-1564) (Miles, 2005). Aquinas, Luther, and Calvin influenced Protestantism by continuing to espouse theologies of male headship and female submission (Ruether, 1999). Aquinas accepted a biological theory of man's superiority and saw women's main purpose as that of bearing children (Derksen, 1999). Luther taught that female subordination was a punishment resulting from Eve's sin (Derksen, 1999). Theologian John Calvin was influenced by the beliefs of Clairvaux and Aquinas (Hutchins, 2008; Miles, 2005; Reid, 1978). Calvin viewed woman as subordinate as a result of a divinely created order in which men rule and women submit (Hutchins, 2008; Miles, 2005; Reid, 1978). Because of Eve, all women must be subject to men as a way to show women's inferiority in role and status (Hutchins, 2008). Women were made in the 71

image of God but not entirely equal with man (Hutchins, 2008). Calvin (1996) wrote, “Let the woman be content in her position of subjection, and not feel indignant because she has to play second fiddle to the superior sex” (p. 234). Medieval women mystics argued that men's domination of men over women was not God's design nor was it a punishment for the sin of Eve (Ruether, 1999). Female mystics believed that Christ gave women equality with men (Ruether, 1999). Men refused to accept women's leadership equality and continued to subordinate them (Ruether, 1999). In the twelfth century, mystic and nun Hildegard de Bingen argued against the belief that women were inherently weaker than men. She saw men and women as being “so involved with each other that one of them is the work of the other” (De Bingen, 1173/1987, p. 123). In 1405, Christine de Pizan challenged patriarchal interpretations of the Bible in her publication, The Book of the City of Ladies (Ruether, 1999). De Pizan (1405/1999) stated Eve's sin led to the honoring of humanity by having a woman named Mary, the mother of Joseph, become one with God (De Pizan, 1405/1999). She wrote, “I could find no evidence from my own experience to bear out such a negative view of female nature and habits” (De Pizan, 1405/1999, p. 6). Sixteenth century writer Jane Anger emphasized Eve's purity and moral superiority at the time of the Creation story (Ruether, 1999). Anger (1589) wrote, God “doth evidently showe [sic], how far we women are more excellent then [sic] men. Our bodies are fruiteful [sic] wherby [sic] the world encreaseth [sic], and our care wonderful, by which man is preserved. From woman sprang mans [sic] salvation” (p. 12). John Milton (1604-1674), influential English poet, philosopher, and political thinker, believed in the rational abilities of humankind (Raath & De Freitas, 2005; Witte, 72

2008). In Paradise Lost, he commented on Eve's temptation by the serpent as being less sinful than the sin of Adam (Hutchins, 2008; Sumers, 2004). Milton viewed Eve as having had the freedom to choose what was right, but as lacking the intellectual ability to argue against Satan (Sumers, 2004). Eve was a seductress responsible for the wickedness of humanity (Hutchins, 2008; Sumers, 2004; Witte, 2008). Prominent theologian and preacher Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) found ways to praise rather than criticize Eve (Hutchins, 2008). Edwards (1722) saw both man and woman as being imperfect without the other, with Eve's creation completing them both. He acknowledged Eve as being worthy of respect and honor, her name an honorary title promoting her role as the “mother of every living one” (Edwards, 1722, p. 398). Adam‟s naming of Eve, which meant Life, pointed to Eve as the one who would procure life for all people, thus delivering them from the “death and ruin which the serpent had brought upon them” (Edwards, 1758, p. 255). John Stuart Mill, nineteenth century advocate for the liberation of women, believed that if women had lived apart from men throughout history they would have written their own literature (Mill, 1869; Styler, 2007). In his essay, The Subjection of Women, Mill (1869) declared that the legal subordination of one sex to another was not only wrong, but was a hindrance to the improvement of the human condition. He called for perfect equality between men and women with no disability, power, or privilege afforded to either sex (Mill, 1869). Nineteenth century abolitionist feminists fought for women's civil rights on biblical and theological grounds, teaching what they believed to be the true message of Christ and the gospel (Ruether, 1999). Abolitionists spoke of how the world and society 73

needed to be transformed so that justice and peace could be applied to all humans (Ruether, 1999). Feminists who spoke against the norms of the day were frequently condemned because of their public behaviors, often labeled as street prostitutes (Frisken, 2000). Fanny Wright, an abolitionist who spoke openly about slavery and women's equality, was viewed as being unwomanly and anti-Christian (Frisken, 2000). Suffragist Susan B. Anthony was derided for being a manly woman and an asexual shrew (Frisken, 2000). Helen Cougar, temperance advocate, was accused of committing adultery (Frisken, 2000). Suffragette women became known for defending unconventional women who were involved in scandals such as divorce and murder (Frisken, 2000). Many women throughout the centuries contributed to the feminist voice demanding equality between the sexes (Ruether, 1999). These were intelligent, educated women who were committed to their beliefs despite personal costs. Their stories spoke volumes about their courage and desire for equal recognition within the context of a hostile male population. Feminist Women According to Valentine (1935), “The history of woman is the story of her achievements in the face of protests and active impediment from man” (p. 736). This remark was made to the all female Radcliffe College graduating class of 1935. Valentine praised the educational achievements of the graduates whom he viewed as escaping from the domination of men. Women were praised for moving beyond the beliefs of men such as John Milton, who believed women worthy of developing only one trait, that of physical beauty. Following is a discussion highlighting the lives of a number of prominent feminist women throughout history. 74

Anne Marbury Hutchinson (1591- 1643) was raised in England by a British minister who spoke openly against the Anglican church (Buchanan, 2006). Hutchinson was well educated by her militant father who stressed the importance of defending one's personal beliefs (Buchanan, 2006). In 1634, she and her husband and children emigrated to Massachusetts (Buchanan, 2006). One of their desires was to become involved in a more tolerant religious climate (Buchanan, 2006). Hutchinson quickly became a well respected women known for her wisdom and expertise in healing and midwifery skills (Smith, 2006). She upheld the acceptable Puritan practice of having weekly meetings in her home for women to review weekly sermons (Smith, 2006). Men began to attend these meetings, including the governor and powerful members of the community (Smith, 2006). Hutchinson began to be viewed as a threat to the hierarchy of the Puritan world by failing to honor the “fathers of the commonwealth” (Tobin, 1990, p. 253). The idea of a woman publicly advising men caused the magistrates to condemn her for stepping up to a place in society that was reserved only for men (Buchanan, 2006; Smith, 2006). Hutchinson was viewed as seducing men, similar to Eve's seduction of Adam in the garden of Eden (Traister, 1997). She not only criticized and questioned the theology of powerful men, but she was doing it as a woman (Tobin, 1990). Hutchinson was not behaving as a woman was supposed to behave in Puritan society (Tobin, 1990). Hutchinson's deliverance of a friend's deformed, stillborn child along with her own stillborn child were viewed as divine punishments (Buchanan, 2006; Smith, 2006). After being found guilty in a civil examination in 1637, Hutchinson was banished from the colony (Buchanan, 2006; Smith, 2006). She and her family relocated to Rhode Island. 75

A church trial in 1638 determined her to be a dangerous person full of evil and filth, with her public speaking viewed as a sexually aggressive act (Buchanan, 2006; Smith, 2006). The theological issues Hutchinson argued against became irrelevant to the fact that she was a woman (Buchanan, 2006; Smith, 2006). Hutchinson was excommunicated from the church (Buchanan, 2006; Smith, 2006). Upon the death of Hutchinson's husband in 1642, the family moved to Dutch New Netherlands (Buchanan, 2006). By 1643, the entire family with the exception of one daughter was killed during a Native American attack (Buchanan, 2006). Mary Astell (1666-1731) was a British feminist, metaphysician, and political theorist who advocated for the education of women (Bryson, 1998; Derksen, 1999; Hansen, 1985). In 1694 she wrote, A Serious Proposal to the Ladies for the Advancement of Their True and Great Interests (Astell, 1990). This philosophical document made Astell a celebrity, proving her to be a serious advocate for the rights of women (Deluna, 1993). She believed that women's souls were equal to those of men, denouncing the long standing tradition stating that a woman's body was inferior to a man's (Bryson, 1998; Schnorrenberg, 1982). Astell advocated for a women's seminary so that women as well as men could advance their God given duty to improve and perfect themselves (Astell, 1990). She understood that men might resent women “being invited to taste the Tree of Knowledge that they have so long unjustly Monopoliz'd [sic]” (Astell, 1990, p. 205). Astell decried women's roles of perfecting themselves outwardly so as to be worthy of men's praise and attention (Astell, 1990). In 1739, a woman who called herself Sophia wrote, Woman Not Inferior to Man: Or a Short and Modest Vindication of the Natural Right of the Fair-Sex to Perfect 76

Equality of Power, Dignity, and Esteem, with the Men (Fox, Porter, and Wolkler, 1995). Sophia (1739) wrote that males and females were different, with sexless souls. She denounced the male view that women had small brains and were inferior to men (Sophia, 1739). She insisted that women had brains identical to men and that men's claims of superiority revealed their lack of intelligence (Sophia, 1739). Sophia advocated for women to have the same rights and esteem including leadership positions and educational opportunities (Sophia, 1739). Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) was a British philosopher known for her writings on oppressive relationships throughout society for both men and women (Halldenius, 2007; Sen, 2005). Even before her writings circulated around America, school textbooks were remarking on women's abilities in the area of speaking (Eastman, 2007). Wollstonecraft was mocked by some who believed she was trying to create women who were manly rather than feminine (Lewis, 2005). She stated that women needed rigorous education and exercise to strengthen their bodies and minds so that they could learn how to be independent (Lewis, 2005). She questioned why people continued to follow cultural norms without questioning the relevancy of those norms (Sen, 2005). Wollstonecraft wrote about how victims of social inequality reinforced the inequality by becoming partners in its perpetuation (Sen, 2005). Wollstonecraft's visionary book, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (Woolstonecraft, 1996) impacted the views of nineteenth century women's rights advocates in Europe and America (Botting & Carey, 2004). She advocated human rights based on reasoned morality that asked questions without prejudice or preconceived answers (Sen, 2005). Woolstonecraft stated that if women had the same educational, 77

civil, and political rights, they could attain moral, intellectual, and political excellence equal to that of men (Botting & Carey, 2004; Woolstonecraft, 1996). She contested the idea that women were passive and expected to be dominated by men, living to please them before and during marriage (Botting & Carey, 2004; Woolstonecraft, 1996). Woolstonecraft believed that the corruption of society caused women to be enslaved and neglected (Botting & Carey, 2004; Woolstonecraft, 1996). She espoused an egalitarian ideal in which one's birthright guaranteed all individuals civil and religious liberty (Halldenius, 2007). Woolstonecraft desired social liberty for all people that allowed them to be independent from the arbitrary will of others (Halldenius, 2007). Judith Sargent Murray (1751-1820) was one of the first women to argue for a feminist view of Eve (Hutchins, 2008). Murray contributed numerous essays to magazines espousing ideas that were not typically found in literature of that day (Jorgenson, 1940). She dedicated her life to the promotion of education and equality for women as courageous, intellectual and moral equals with men (Jorgenson, 1940; Kritzer, 1996; Lewis, 2005). Murray wrote a number of plays in which she portrayed confident, independent, strong, resourceful women with economic, political, and social power (Kritzer, 1996; Jorgenson, 1940; Lewis, 2005). Her book, Observation on Female Abilities was a collection of stories about independent, strong women who accomplished meaningful lives filled with intelligence, skill, and compassion (Ranta, 2008). Following the American Revolution (1775-1783), women began to write novels, poems, letters, and essays that were published in newspapers and journals (Kelley, 2008). Women were reading and writing in a variety of places such as reading circles, literary societies, and cultural organizations (Kelley, 2008). Hannah Mather Crocker (1752-1829) 78

organized a literature circle for the purpose of helping women improve their minds (Kelley, 2008). In 1818, Crocker wrote the first philosophical American book on women's rights, Observations on the Real Rights of Women with their Appropriate Duties, Agreeable to Scripture, Reason, and Common Sense (Botting & Carey, 2004). Crocker stated that it was impractical for women to be totally independent (Botting & Carey, 2004). She believed that women functioned differently than men according to moral virtues that were specifically feminine (Botting & Carey, 2004). She argued that her reading circles were proof of the equal power and intelligence of women when compared to men (Kelley, 2008). Quaker women were some of the first women to participate in public ministry, preaching in England and the American colonies (Hogan, 2000). Kent and Spickard (1994) wrote about how Quakers viewed God as living inside the hearts of men and women through an inward spiritual movement of the conscience. Quakers believed the human soul contained the presence of God. Spoken ministry was seen as coming from God himself, with no need for paid preachers or professionals. Lucretia Mott (1793-1880), a notable Quaker woman, used the argument of spiritual equality to advance the cause of women (Mott, 1849). She wrote Discourse on Woman in response to a theologian who had lectured in defense of patriarchal gender roles (Strange, 1999). Mott argued that the Creator had called women to a high position that men were trying to suppress (Strange 1999). Biological differences between men and women should not cause a woman to be “the mere plaything or toy of society” (Mott, 1849, p. 8). Mott (1849) used biblical passages to show that women were not excluded from preaching, speaking, or prophesying. God offered blessings to both men and women 79

(Mott, 1849). In the creation story, dominion was given to both male and female over the animals but not one another (Strange, 1999). Mott (1849) argued against women's deprivation of rights in civil society including how the reality of liberty applied only to men. Women were being deprived of their true dignity by not having a voice in marriage, society, and the church (Mott, 1849). Mott (1849) demanded that married women be equal with their husbands. Women were urged to read the Bible in a critical manner, using their intelligence to judge for themselves about what they were reading (Strange, 1999). Christianity was compared to barbaric countries with harmful, superstitious practices (Strange, 1999). Mott spoke against people who used the truths of the Bible to abuse others in society (Strange, 1999). Mary Lyon (1797-1849), teacher, preacher, and educator used the teachings of theologian Jonathan Edwards to inspire her passion for education (Conforti, 1993). Lyon used the supposedly male attributes of self-assertion and self-expression to further her educational and religious mission (Conforti, 1993). In 1837, she founded Holyoke College, a low cost college in Massachusetts for female evangelical women (Conforti, 1993). Prominent clergymen influenced by Edwards supported Lyon‟s activities and accepted her as she sought to improve the lives of women (Conforti, 1993). Angelina (1805-1879) and Sarah Grimké (1792-1873) were sisters and Quaker abolitionists who grew up on a plantation in South Carolina (Phipps, 1976). They wrote what was considered to be the first treatise on women's rights written by American women (Phipps, 1976). In their Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, the Grimké sisters emphasized the equality of the sexes during the biblical creation story, with domination over the creatures of the earth, not each other (Strange, 1999). Angelina viewed the status 80

of women as a companion who was equal to man, by his side, governed only by the laws of God (Phipps, 1976). The two sisters spoke against abolition to audiences of both men and women in New York City and New England (Phipps, 1976). They were often criticized for violating biblical rules about women remaining silent and for stepping out of the home into the public sphere that belonged to men (Tetrault, 2010). Angelina was the first American women to address a legislative body (Phipps, 1976). Angelina‟s lectures were designed to call people to the need for justice, kindness and righteousness rather than wisdom, riches, and power (Phipps, 1976). The Grimké's writings became the basis for nineteenth century feminist philosophy (Phipps, 1976). Angelina argued that all humans have the same moral nature, thus the same religious and civil rights and duties (Phipps, 1976). To the Grimké sisters, the religious experience was egalitarian and all people were called to the same lives of service to God (Phipps, 1976). Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902) insisted that the Bible had been used to oppress women and teach them false moral lessons and truths (Stanton, 1898b; Strange, 1999). She rejected the Bible as the word of God and viewed the Bible as a huge stumbling block to women's freedom (Strange, 1999). Stanton wrote, “The Church has done more to degrade woman than all other adverse influences put together” (Stanton, 1898a, p. 12). She attacked organized religion and called for a more rational religion as a way to empower women (Strange, 1999). Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906) and Helen Barrett Montgomery (1861-1934) were both committed to social reform (Mobley, 2005). Anthony was considered to be the leader of the nineteenth century woman's movement (Farrell, 2006). Montgomery was a Baptist who was best known for her work in the ecumenical women's missionary 81

movement (Farrell, 2006). Anthony was a first generation feminist, a Quaker turned Unitarian who was considered to be a suffrage radical (Farrell, 2006). Despite their religious and political differences, Anthony and Montgomery worked together as leaders in the women's movement for about ten years (Farrell, 2006). They formed a partnership for the purpose of empowering women politically and improving women's access to educational opportunities (Farrell, 2006). Anthony demanded political power for women through voting (Farrell, 2006). Montgomery believed women's power was in their moral influence in the home and society and she sought to enlarge that influence (Farrell, 2006). Victoria Woodhull (1838-1927) was part of the radical wing of the suffrage movement (Frisken, 2000; Gutierrez, 2005). In 1870, she declared herself as a presidential candidate and became infamously known by the press for a campaign that challenged the sexual status quo (Frisken, 2000; Gutierrez, 2005). Woodhull advocated for a utopia in which sexuality was based on love and desire and in which women were completely equal to men in all aspects of life (Frisken, 2000; Gutierrez, 2005). She called marriage a form of legalized prostitution in which women were unable to divorce and were legally tied to men who could be abusive (Frisken, 2000; Gutierrez, 2005). Religious women were outraged and declared Woodhull‟s behavior as being against Christian womanhood, indelicate, and lacking propriety (Frisken, 2000; Gutierrez, 2005). Woodhull confronted the anti-female prejudice by starting the first and only female stock brokerage company on Wall Street (Frisken, 2000). Even those who supported the idea of women working believed that women were not suitable for the brokerage business (Frisken, 2000). Woodhull and her associates were considered as immodest, vulgar transgressors of basic social customs (Frisken, 2000). They were 82

criticized for being seen in public and for touching or looking directly at people (Frisken, 2000). People declared them unfit for motherhood and unable to perform the duties that were expected of a woman in her home (Frisken, 2000). Belva Lockwood (1830-1917) was the first woman to argue a case in the Supreme Court (Norgren, 2008). Despite being harassed by male students and forced to learn in segregated classrooms, Lockwood attended law school and earned her degree (Norgren, 2008). She ran her own law firm and waged a five year fight to allow women attorneys to practice in the federal courts (Clark, 2005; Norgren, 2008). In 1879, Lockwood was sworn in as the first female member to practice law before the Supreme Court (Clark, 2005; Norgren, 2008). As a result, women began to sponsor other women to become members (Clark, 2005). By 1884, the cause of women suffrage had stalled and women were permitted to vote in presidential elections in only three states (Norgren, 2008). Lockwood became the presidential nominee of the Equal Rights Party (Clark, 2005). She promised equal political privileges for all men and women (Clark, 2005; Norgren, 2008). Anthony and other suffrage women criticized Lockwood for trying to run for office when she could not even vote for the office for which she was running (Norgren, 2008). Lockwood hoped that her nomination would promote the need for a constitutional amendment giving women the right to vote (Norgren, 2008). She was nominated again for president in 1888, increasing her public appearances on behalf of human rights (Norgren, 2008). Lockwood made multiple appearances to Congress regarding an amendment giving women the vote (Norgren, 2008). She died three years before the nineteenth amendment was ratified in 1920 (Norgren, 2008). 83

Vida Dutton Scudder (1861-1954) was a professor, lay leader in the Episcopal church, and Christian socialist who wrote extensively about theological and social issues (Hinson-Hasty, 2006). Research by Hinson-Hasty (2006) showed that Scudder devoted her life to radical social change, helping women increase their sphere of influence. She believed that if the inequalities of the economic systems were addressed, problems with sexism, classism, and racism would improve. Laboring to redefine the Victorian concept of femininity, Scudder worked hard to help the poor. She believed society stunted the growth of women's intellectual development by relegating them to the home as the property of their husbands. Scudder wanted women to be educated, religious, moral, and professional, using their influence and skills in leadership and cooperation outside the home as a way to enact social reform. During the 1940s, Phoebe Palmer and her husband Walter led religious revivals in the United States, Canada, and the British Isles (Hogan, 2000). Research by Hogan (2000) revealed that Palmer and her husband believed that living a holy life meant that men and women must evangelize and witness to others about their spiritual lives. They both felt it was the church's responsibility to view women and men as spiritual equals and to encourage and support the public speaking of both men and women. Palmer wrote a monthly journal and a book, Promise of the Father, that advocated women's right to speak. This book stated that God intended and demanded that both men and women speak in public about issues of faith. Palmer wanted women to do what God wanted them to do, which was to demonstrate their spiritual equality with men by speaking to others about their faith.

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In 1953, French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir's book, The Second Sex, was translated into English and brought to America (de Beauvoir, 1949). De Beauvoir (1949) stated: For a long time I have hesitated to write a book on woman. The subject is irritating, especially to women; and it is not new. Enough ink has been spilled in quarrelling over feminism, and perhaps we should say no more about it … the voluminous nonsense uttered during the last century seems to have done little to illuminate the problem. (Woman as Other section, para. 1) De Beauvoir (1949) argued against the idea that women only had significance in relation to a man. She decried the fact that the world belonged to men. She argued against religions invented by men who reflected their wish for domination by making women subordinate to them. De Beauvoir believed that women needed to collectively declare war on male superiority in order to become equal and liberated. De Beauvoir's book became widely read in America along with journalist Betty Friedan's, The Feminist Mystique (Friedan, 1963; Kassian, 2006). Freidan's book was considered to be a pivotal work in the feminist movement, sparking numerous debates challenging the roles of women in America (Kassain, 2005). The Feminine Mystique provided an analysis of the frustrations felt by American middle class housewives in their roles as wives and mothers (Miller, 2005). Friedan's (1963) provocative book unveiled the discrepancy between women's lives and the stereotypes to which they were trying to conform. Despite magazine articles and advertisements espousing the glory of the allAmerican suburban housewife, women reported they were lonely, unhappy, unfulfilled, and dissatisfied (Friedan, 1963). Friedan (1963) wrote about how women in the previous century had fought for the right to be educated. She was upset that girls were now going 85

to college to find husbands, with many dropping out of school to get married (Friedan, 1963). By the late 1960s, feminists such as Kate Millett and Adrienne Rich used the word patriarchy to name the problem that was the cause of women's discontent (Kassian, 2006). Men used their power to oppress women by keeping them subservient (Kassian, 2006). Society still espoused views of female inferiority due to biological traits (Kassian, 2006). Evangelical feminists began to espouse egalitarian views, using the works of highly respected anthropologist Margaret Mead to support their beliefs (Kassian, 2006). Meade's cross cultural perspectives on human behavior provided fresh insights into the roles of men and women (Kassian, 2006). Her renowned work in other cultures provided evidence that culture not biology shaped people's personalities (Kassian, 2006). Mead (2001) wrote, “For our humanity rests upon a series of learned behaviors, woven together into patterns that are infinitely fragile and never directly inherited” (p. 172). Mead (2001) acknowledged biological differences and believed that both women's and men's special gifts should be used in whatever environment they were needed. “If any human society is to survive…it must have a pattern of social life that comes to terms with the differences between the sexes” (Mead, 2001, p. 161). Mary Daly, twentieth century author and professor, attacked Christianity's subordination of women based on a belief in women's inferiority (Carr, 1982). In Daly's 1968 book, The Church and the Second Sex, she accused the church of sexism, urging women to leave the church in protest (Carr, 1982). Her 1973 book, Beyond God the Father, challenged accepted traits about God such as his maleness and omnipotence (Kassian, 2006). Daly argued that doctrines such as Eve's moral inferiority to Adam were 86

harmful to women (Kassian, 2006). She decried the exclusivity of church leadership to males only (Kassian, 2006). Unlike de Beauvoir, Daly offered a hopeful message to the church, believing that the church could make changes in practice and doctrine that would liberate women (Kassian, 2006). In the early 1970s, feminist theologians Rosemary Radford Ruether and Letty Russell began to develop a feminist liberation theology (Kassian, 2006). They agreed that the Bible supported the liberation of all people oppressed as a result of their gender (Kassian, 2006). Ruether and Russell viewed the Bible through the lens of the liberation of women and interpreted the Bible according to their own definitions of words such as liberation and freedom (Kassian, 2006). Women's experiences were placed at the center of the theological process (Kassian, 2006). Russell (1998) believed the Bible contained a message of “radical freedom and human transformation” (p. 68). Russell (1998) understood the Bible to be a source of identity for suffering and marginalized people. She believed that the white male Christian population felt threatened by Christian feminism due to its threat against the status quo. Russell stated her desire for conservatives, evangelicals, reformists, radicals, and rebels to all work together for the cause of liberation. She espoused the need for contextual biblical interpretations to uncover the universal truths of the Bible without sexism. Russell (1998) expressed her need to work together with all kinds of people as a way to build a “house of freedom” (p. 69). Ruether (1996) understood that early Christianity was structured by a patriarchy that supposedly reflected the cosmic order created by God. She was aware of the teachings of St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas that defined the oppressive view of 87

women espoused by Protestantism for centuries afterward. Ruether called for a global, genuine respect for diversity in which oppressive cultural patterns would be questioned. She called for dialogue between groups as a way to move beyond Christian male dominance to mutual flourishing. Women throughout the history of America differed in their beliefs about gender roles. Some women used scripture to justify the unconventional roles of women while others used the same scriptures to justify traditional roles. Others exalted the maternal role as sacred because women directly influenced the morality of society by educating their children. No matter what the underlying belief about gender roles and their purposes, women struggled for centuries to enhance the power of their voice by winning the right to vote. Political Reform Prior to the American Revolution in 1783, voters were primarily White, protestant males who owned property (Varsanyi, 2005). According to Varsanyi (2005), in some states people could vote as long as they either owned some kind of personal property, paid taxes, or were somehow involved in the finances of the city. Definitions of what constituted an actual citizen were different from state to state. When slavery was abolished, race no longer determined who was or was not a citizen. However, women were still excluded. In 1787, the United States Constitution was signed by 39 men who declared the establishment of justice and the blessings of liberty for the people of the United States (National Archives, 1787). Women, however, did not receive the equality promised to citizens of the colonies. The Bill of Rights stated that any powers not delegated or 88

prohibited by the Constitution were left to the discretion of the states or to the people (National Archives, 1787). Since women were not specifically mentioned, state laws about the family and women continued to be in effect (National Archives, 1787). With the ratification of the Constitution in 1788, most of the states still required a person to own property or have a particular net worth in order to vote (Cogan, 1997). Ownership of property was seen as proof of a man's virtue, integrity, respectability, independence and intelligence (Cogan, 1997). Women believed that the ability to vote, a basic right of citizenship, would prove that women were equal with men (Belzer, 2004; Brown, 1993). However, since women still could not own property they were unable to vote (Belzer, 2004; Brown, 1993). By 1820, people began to argue that qualities associated with wealth were present within the character of all men (Cogan, 1997). According to Cogan (1997), by the 1840s both rich and poor men were able to vote. Since married women were unable to own property in their own names, they were still not even considered as being able to vote. Widows and unmarried women did not vote as men assumed they did not want to vote. Women were still perceived to have inferior minds that needed to be under the control and protection of men. When the Fifteenth Amendment removed the criterion of wealth for voters, women still did not vote due to their lack of education and supposedly inferior intellect. The equality of the Declaration of Independence still was not applicable to women. In 1837, Stanton and Anthony had the first meeting of their feminist-abolitionist group, the Woman's National Loyal League (Farrell, 2006). It was a group run by women who stressed petitions as a way to gain political influence (Farrell, 2006). In the summer 89

of 1869, they formed the National Woman Suffrage Association whose purpose was to add a Constitutional amendment giving women the right to vote (Farrell, 2006). This Nineteenth Amendment would eventually become known as the Susan B. Anthony Amendment (Farrell, 2006). In 1848, a group of men and women gathered in Seneca Falls, New York to participate in the first convention ever held to discuss the civil and political rights of women (Botting & Carey, 2004). Mirroring the Declaration of Independence, a Declaration of Sentiments was presented to the group by Stanton (Brown, 1993; Stanton, Mott, Wright, McClintock, & Hunt, 1848). This document declared, “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal” (Stanton et al., 1848, p. 2). Similar to the Declaration of Independence, a list of indignities was presented. The first indignity suffered by women was men's refusal to let a woman “exercise her inalienable right to the elective franchise vote” (Stanton et al., 1848, p. 3). Stanton et al. (2004) stated that mankind had repeatedly injured women by establishing absolutely tyranny over them. Men throughout history had usurped the authority of God by oppressing women and depriving them of their rights in both Church and State. This Seneca Falls convention resulted in the adoption of a number of resolutions emphasizing that a woman was equal to a man. Participants agreed that a woman should be allowed to address a public audience without being labeled as indelicate or improper. Women were urged to move out into the world that the Creator assigned to them, not the world assigned to them by men.

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After the Seneca Falls Convention, men and women continued to speak out against women's suffrage (Wood, 2007). Dissenters claimed that women who voted, were educated, or owned property would be going against their natural roles of wife and mother (Wood, 2007). By the 1870s, wives of socially prominent men often formed and led public organizations that opposed women‟s suffrage (Wood, 2007). By 1895, Stanton felt that the feminist movement had stalled (Strange, 1999). She expressed anger that women were not aggressive enough in their fight for suffrage (Strange, 1999). Stanton believed that Bible stories were a stumbling block for equal voting rights (Strange, 1999). She argued against what she believed religion had done to keep women in submission to men (Strange, 1999). Stanton's (1898a) Woman's Bible appeared in print as a challenge to the patriarchal interpretations that she believed caused woman to be subjugated to men (Strange, 1999). Biblical feminists were embarrassed because they did not agree with Stanton's views about the Bible (Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992). The book was rejected and officially censured by the National American Woman Suffrage Association (Strange, 1999). Stanton passed away in 1902 at the age of 87 without seeing the result of her many years of labor on behalf of women (Strange, 1999). By 1912, feminists Alice Paul, Lucy Burns, and Harriot Stanton Blatch, Stanton's daughter, became involved in the British militant suffrage movement (Library of Congress, n.d.). Motivated by their experiences in Britain, they sought to inspire American women to use militant tactics to force the ratification of the nineteenth amendment (Library of Congress, n.d.). Paul approached the National Women's Suffrage Association to ask their support in organizing a suffrage parade that would maximize media coverage (Library of Congress, n.d.). On March 3, 1913, over 8,000 participants 91

met in Washington, D.C. the day before Woodrow Wilson's inauguration as president (Harvey, 2001). Crowds of men mobbed the parade route insulting, shoving, and grabbing women, telling them to go home where they belonged (Harvey, 2001). Marchers paraded from the Capitol to the Treasury building where they presented a pageant enacting the struggles of men and women through the ages (Harvey, 2001). Paul and Burns continued their militant campaign using street meetings, billboards, parades, petitions, and train tours occurred throughout the county (Library of Congress, n.d.). Documents from the Library of Congress (n.d.) showed that by 1916, women were picketing national conventions, meeting with presidential and congressional candidates, and lobbying for a federal suffrage amendment. When the United States entered World War I, President Wilson became less tolerant of the presence of pickets in front of the White House. Some women were arrested, beaten, and force fed when on hunger strikes. By 1918, women were performing the jobs of men who were drafted into military service. Their ability to take over these jobs made it difficult for government officials to refuse women the vote because of their supposed mental and physical inferiority. In 1918, President Wilson endorsed the Nineteenth Amendment. On August 24, 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment was signed into law and women throughout the nation had finally earned the right to vote (Dumenil, 2007; Library of Congress, n.d.). Once the vote was secured, women's groups sought to lobby for social reform especially for poor women and children (Dumenil, 2007). Women became divided by race, class, age, and political beliefs in their attempts for social equality (Dumenil, 2007). Divisions between women became especially evident when the

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proposed Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), was introduced to Congress in 1923 (Dumenil, 2007). The ERA sought for equality of rights for all people regardless of sex at the federal, state, and local levels (Critchlow & Stachecki, 2008; Soule & King, 2006). The goal of the ERA was to stop numerous state laws that restricted the rights of women and treated them as lesser citizens (Soule & King, 2006). Some women's groups opposed the ERA, believing that it would take away labor protection laws for women (Dumenil, 2007; Freeman, 1988). By the 1970s, the ERA had become the political focus of a number of feminist and counter feminist political and religious groups (Critchlow & Stachecki, 2008). Evangelical Christian women and other conservative religious groups became a powerful political force in opposition to the ERA (Critchlow & Stachecki, 2008). The Total Woman Movement led by Marabel Morgan and the STOP ERA movement led by Phyllis Schlafly urged women to return to traditional roles as homemakers and helpers to their husbands (Wood, 2007). The ERA was passed by Congress in 1972 but by 1982 the ERA failed ratification as not enough states voted its acceptance (Critchlow & Stachecki, 2008). Despite the failure of the ERA, society had increased its awareness of gender role issues (Davies & Bohon, 2007). Davies and Bohon (2007) explained how federal law mandated that any education program or activity that used federal funds could not discriminate by sex. Professional organizations, journals, and textbooks were developed in the hopes of understanding gender roles and related issues between men and women. Men and women reevaluated their feelings, beliefs, and behaviors related to masculinity, femininity, and androgyny. People asked questions about how gender roles negatively 93

affected their lives. Feminists verbalized their feelings about being oppressed. Overall, society had made important changes that affected both men and women in positive ways. Society was becoming more sensitive to the needs of all its members. Evaluation of Viable Research Designs This section will examine the research supporting this study. The theoretical framework of this study is: (a) gender structure theory, (b) gender role conflict theory, (c) evangelical feminism theory, (d) social dominance theory, and (e) cognitive dissonance theory. A brief summary of each research study will be presented. Strengths and weakness of quantitative and qualitative studies will be briefly discussed. The section will end with an explanation about the researcher‟s choice of design. Gender structure theory was examined qualitatively in Walzer's (2008) study that showed how men and women restructured gender norms following a divorce. A quantitative study by Faulkner et al. (2005) revealed that men with traditional gender role marriages experienced decreased marital satisfaction over time. Frame and Shehan's (2005) qualitative study showed how female clergy coped with difficulties experienced in a profession that was typically male dominated. Gender conflict theory was examined quantitatively in three studies. Burn and Ward (2005) showed how relationship satisfaction between men and women was negatively affected by men's attempts to conform to traditional male roles. Rochlen and Mahalik (2004) showed that the presence of male gender role conflict factors predicted women's depression, anxiety, and lack of satisfaction in relationships. Breiding's (2004) research showed a correlation between male gender role conflict and wives' decreased marital adjustment and presence of depressive symptoms. 94

Feminism in a religious Jewish environment was explored in a qualitative study by Charmé (2006). Charmé (2006) showed that Jewish American girls were ambivalent about gender roles and their connection to Jewish tradition. One qualitative study on gender roles showed how evangelical women coped with being mothers and career women (Sellers et al., 2005). A quantitative study by Colaner and Warner (2005) showed that women's career aspirations were impacted by their egalitarian or complementarian beliefs. Social dominance theory was studied quantitatively in three studies. Research by De Crèmer et al. (2008) showed that people with high social dominance orientation value procedural fairness and voice as a way to have control over outcomes. Caricati's (2007) study showed that social dominance orientation was a result of social life rather than its cause. Snellman and Ekehammar (2005) showed that people tended to form ethnic hierarchies when judging people with differing ethnic backgrounds. Cognitive dissonance was studied quantitatively in three studies. Joule and Martinie (2008) showed that people used trivialization as a way to reduce dissonance. A study by Galinsky et al. (2008) showed that people in high positions of power were motivated by internal beliefs, opinions, and attitudes more than social pressures. Matz and Wood (2005) showed how interpersonal relations can be both a source and resolution of dissonance discomfort caused by group disagreement. Strengths of the quantitative design include the ability to precisely measure variables and test hypotheses that can be linked to general explanations related to cause and effect (Neuman, 2006). Neuman (2006) stated that quantitative research is highly organized, restated, and reconstructed into rules and terms that are logical, consistent, and 95

linear. Variables and hypotheses are used and precisely tested and techniques and measurements are standardized, objective, and can be replicated. A weakness of quantitative design is related to its strength of precision and objectivity. The depth of human experience is not explored and data is confined to statistics that do not factor in the humanness of each participant. When using a qualitative design, there are fewer rules and a sensitivity to social, personal, and historical context. There is a reliance on implicit knowledge about practical issues and particular experiences. The researcher uses personal insight, feelings, and perspectives to enable a full understanding of the phenomenon being viewed. A weakness of qualitative design is that results can be skewed by researcher's biases. Skewed results may occur due to the impossibility of fully extricating oneself from previous experiences related to the topic being studied. A qualitative design was the best choice for this study due to its reliance on implicit knowledge about personal experiences and its sensitivity to a variety of contexts. The purpose of this study was to clarify and bring to light the shared experiences of women. Participants interpreted their thoughts and feelings as they spoke about gender inequality, the unspoken but real phenomenon found in the PCA denomination. The researcher used personal insight, feelings, and perspectives when interpreting the data. The results yielded a deeper, fuller understanding of gender inequality within the leadership of the PCA church. Chapter 2 Summary Chapter 2 presented the previous research and theory relevant to the problem of gender inequality in the role leadership of the PCA church. The researcher identified gaps in the literature and offered a brief discussion of male dominance in the PCA church. A 96

controversy was identified between the theological viewpoints of complementarians versus egalitarians. Research studies were described and evaluated to show the connection between the theoretical framework and key factors relevant to the investigation of the research problem. The next section of the literature review presented the historical framework of the study. The review began with a description of America‟s evolution from its early Protestant roots to a more evolved country with a diverse religious landscape. Next came the progression of gender role beliefs in both the secular and religious worlds. Despite changes throughout America, the PCA church continued to teach male authority and female submission as the only biblical standard for marriage and the church. Next came literature showing an array of theological beliefs espoused throughout the centuries. The lives of various feminist women were presented to highlight the struggles women have endured in their quest for equality. The literature review concluded with a discussion of political changes leading up to the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment that gave women the right to vote. Chapter 2 ended with a evaluation of viable research designs. Previous research was briefly described in the context of its design. Strengths and weaknesses of both quantitative and qualitative designs were listed. The research questions of this study were designed to elicit rich, detailed experiences of women in the PCA church. The researcher decided that a qualitative design was the best choice for the problem being studied. This study was expected to yield a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of gender inequality in the PCA church.

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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY Introduction The Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) denomination teaches and practices a doctrine of gender inequality in role leadership. Men are in leadership positions over women who are expected to submit to male authority. This qualitative research study used a transcendental phenomenological method of data collection and analysis. Findings were expected to reveal the essence of gender inequality as highlighted through the perceptions of women who were members of the PCA church. Restatement of the Problem Women experience gender inequality in the leadership roles of the PCA church. Denominational theology excludes women from leadership roles. Women are required to defer to the leadership of the men in the church and in their homes. Leadership positions are assigned by gender. The abilities, talents, and education of all church members are not considered when leaders are being considered. In some instances, women are not allowed to vote on issues in which they have given significant input and consideration. This research study will examine how women experience gender inequality within the church leadership and how they cope with these inequities. Restatement of the Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine how women experienced gender inequality within the leadership of the PCA church. The goal was to document the essence of the phenomenon of gender inequality related to leadership roles in the PCA church. Face-to-face interviews were used to obtain a detailed, rich, concrete, and

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extensive account of how women were understanding, experiencing, and coping with this problem (Giorgi, 1997). There is a paucity of previous research on gender inequality and leadership roles in the evangelical community. There are no previous studies addressing women‟s experiences within the PCA denomination. This study will address the gap in knowledge about the lived experiences of gender inequality that occur in the role leadership of the PCA church. Rationale and Significance Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Gerbino, and Pastorelli (2003) viewed religion as a socially grounded phenomenon. Religious congregations were seen as providing models of behavior and reinforcing particular values, interests, competencies, and lifestyles (Bandura, 2001; Bandura et al., 2003). Bandura (2001) stated that competent modeling should encourage people‟s aspirations by showing them how to pursue challenges and increase knowledge, skills, and life strategies. Bandura et. al (2003) noticed a discrepancy between what was being preached in churches and what was being practiced. Behaviors seemed to be influenced by people‟s beliefs about their ability to produce change within an environment (Bandura et al., 2003). People had little incentive to act or persevere in the face of difficulties unless they believed they had some measure of control over their lives (Bandura, 2001). Bandura (2000) stated that collectively, people can work together to attain their goals. Perceptions of collective power have been show to affect how much effort people put into a group endeavor (Bandura, 2000). Efficacy beliefs affected the ability to persevere when results were not quickly seen or when there was opposition (Bandura, 2000). These beliefs affected the goals people set, how much effort they put into an 99

endeavor, and how much stress and depression they felt when dealing with difficulties (Bandura, 2000). Bandura et al. (2003) believed that dependent passivity might result if people deferred the ability to control their lives to a divine agency such as God or a Higher Power. This deferment could reduce the person's ability to exercise personal efficacy (Bandura et al., 2003). In this current study, participants talked about their perceived ability to affect change in the PCA. Some of the women stated a desire to approach the men in the church about some of the issues raised in the study. Others wondered whether they should try to be more involved in the Women in the Church group as a way to initiate dialogue between women. Some women felt hopeless about any future change. Others dealt with the inequities by concentrating on what they were able to do, rather than what they could not do. Some of the women seemed passively resigned to staying in a denomination for which they had theological disagreements. Others realized they will have to leave the PCA when they feel they are ready to fully use their gifts and abilities. Pevey et al. (1996) emphasized the importance of examining women's viewpoints when participating in oppressive cultural practices. The results of this study offered a perspective about women that can be used in future comparative studies of other patriarchal faith traditions that teach female submission. Participants were able to reveal the skills and adaptations they have used as they sought to balance their internal beliefs and life experiences with the theology of the church. The choice of research design was qualitative. One purpose of qualitative research is to gain understanding about a phenomenon (Merriam, 2002; Moerer-Urdahl & Creswell, 2004). The primary interest of the researcher was to understand how women

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have interpreted their experiences of gender inequality in the PCA church. This study showed how women attached meaning and perception to their experience of gender inequality. In a qualitative study, the researcher interprets the data, filtering it through a personal lens existing at a particular historical moment in time (Creswell, 2003). Interpretation of data includes developing a description of the experience, analyzing data to find common themes, drawing conclusions, and suggestions for future research (Creswell, 2003). The researcher took steps to ensure that the reported information was accurate, neither oversimplified or misinterpreted (Lewis, 2009). Recordings were carefully transcribed. Any body language or environmental factors relevant to the study were noted and analyzed as to their importance. Transcendental phenomenology was the chosen methodology for this study due to the researcher's desire to understand the meaning of the participants' experiences (Moerer-Urdahl & Creswell, 2004). Phenomenological inquiry offers a lifeworld account of phenomena that cannot be measured or observed and that must be seen from the inside (Osborne, 1994; van der Zalm & Bergum, 2000). Phenomenology provides a design that is well suited to the exploration and illumination of all aspects of the issue of gender inequality (Osborne, 1994; Wilding & Whiteford, 2005). Transcendental phenomenology uses a design that acquires and collects data that explicates the human experience (Moerer-Urdahl & Creswell, 2004). The experience of gender inequality was revealed through language that revealed whatever the participant wanted to show to the researcher (McGinley, 2006). Because the researcher is a member of a PCA church, bracketing was used throughout the data analysis process to ensure an objective, open approach to the

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data. Individual experiences were compared and analyzed to form a composite description that revealed the essence of gender inequality in role leadership in the PCA church. Research Questions The research questions were designed to examine the issue of gender inequality and how women experienced it within the PCA church. The following questions were used to define and bring clarity to the research problem as stated above: 1. How do women experience gender inequality in the PCA church? 2. How do women feel about participating in a religious community that assigns roles based on gender? 3. What strategies do women use as a way to cope with gender inequities in the leadership of the PCA church? Research Strategy The research strategy for this study was phenomenology which focused on the essence or structure of the experience of gender inequality (Merriam, 2002). Phenomenology is a strategy that is used to study how people describe and experience situations through their senses (Patton, 2002). Perception is viewed as being the highest form of knowledge as it transcends or goes beyond scientific inquiry (Moustakas, 1994). Individuals can only know what they are experiencing as they attach meanings and perceptions to occurrences (Moustakas, 1994). A phenomenological study uses the process of describing, explicating, and interpreting experiences as a way to awaken conscious awareness (Moustakas, 1994). According to Moustakas (1994), interpretations and experiences are perceived as being so 102

intertwined that they are basically one. The goal of the phenomenologist is to focus on meaning making as the essence of human experience. Multiple experiences and their interpretations lead to the essence of shared experience. As commonalities are identified from the shared experiences, the essence of the experience becomes more closely defined and understood. This results in a transcendent understanding of the experience that goes beyond any conclusions offered by empirical science and the natural world. Research Design The model used for this study is found in the work of Moustakas who presents a transcendental phenomenological approach (Moustakas, 1994). Moustakas stands in the tradition of Edmund Husserl, a pioneer in the world of philosophy and science (Giorgi, 1997). Husserl developed a system of inquiry stating that true knowledge comes from intuition and essence (Giorgi, 1997). The only certainty that exists is people's perceptions which become the basis for all knowledge which is then open to further verification and review (Giorgi, 1997). Husserl believed that the way people relate to things is not always verbal (Moran, 1999). The absence of words does not allow for the conclusion that interpretation is absent (Moran, 1999). Transcendental phenomenology is a science of pure possibilities (Moustakas, 1994). Moustakas (1994) explained that phenomenology focuses on essences and possible essences that existed before any conclusions were reached by empirical science. Data analysis strives to give a naïve and fresh look that is connected to the knowing of ordinary experiences within ordinary worlds. Moustakas stated that “phenomena are the building blocks of human science and the basis for all knowledge” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 26). The data to be used in this study is what is available to consciousness through 103

personal reflection. Presuppositions, prejudgments, scientific prejudices, habits of the natural world, customs, and beliefs, will all be set aside to reveal a fresh, open and transcendent knowledge (Moustakas, 1994). Intuition In transcendental phenomenology, intuition is considered to be the beginning place where knowledge of the human experience is derived (Moustakas, 1994). Moustakas (1994) stated that intuition is an inborn talent that allows individuals to know themselves and all things in ways that are clear and evident to themselves. Errors in judgment can be made. However, since judgments are based on internal knowledge, errors will not be perceived by the individual. This study will not seek to question a women's judgment of her experience nor will the study strive to question theological accuracy. Rather, the research questions were designed to help women explore their perceptions of gender inequality through the use of intuition. Intentionality The concept of intentionality is crucial to the philosophy of phenomenology (Moustakas, 1994). Moustakas (1994) stated that intentionality refers to how self and the world are intentionally related to one another. Inclusion of multiple individual meanings of a phenomenon leads to the essence of the shared experience of a phenomenon. In keeping with the phenomenological tradition, this essence is available for others to review, validate and interpret. In this study, a woman's perception of gender inequality will remain as a concrete, intentional phenomena even when not being directly experienced. The data analysis process will synthesize the individual perceptions into a

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composite description. This description will develop into an identification of the essence of the shared experience of gender inequality. Phenomenological Analysis The process of phenomenological analysis has four steps: epoche, reduction, imaginative variation, and intuitive integration (Moustakas, 1994; Patton, 2002). The philosophical concepts of intentionality and intuition present challenges that will be addressed through epoche, the first step in phenomenological analysis. Epoche is a Greek word that refers to the absence of judgment in which a new way of thinking is required (Moustakas, 1994; Patton, 2002). This thinking transcends everyday understandings to see what is standing directly in front of the eyes (Moustakas, 1994; Patton, 2002). Epoche is an ongoing, fluid process that shifts the attitude of the researcher and continues throughout the process of analysis (Patton, 2002). The goal of epoche is to remain true to the belief that a fresh and unbiased description of experiences is where scientific knowledge begins (Moustakas, 1994; Wertz, 2005). In this study, epoche was practiced by the researcher before any of the interviews occurred and throughout the data analysis process. Since the researcher was the instrument that collected data, it was crucial that the researcher's intuition be challenged and explored. The researcher wrote down biases, suppositions, and prejudgments about gender inequality and shared the information with an objective licensed mental health professional. The professional asked questions in an effort to explore what the researcher was thinking and feeling, thus increasing the validity of the findings. Phenomenological reduction focuses on thick descriptions of the experience itself as separate from what was experienced (Moustakas, 1994). Reduction reduces a

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phenomenon to the purity of its original meaning without preconceptions or biases as if being seen for the very first time (Patton, 2002). Interview questions for this study were designed to elicit thick, textural descriptions of the experience of gender inequality. The task of reduction was to explore these descriptions and reduce them to their purest forms. During data analysis, the task of reduction was to construct a complete description of the phenomenon by viewing each statement separately and of equal value (Moustakas, 1994). In this study, each separate and equal statement was organized into a textural description. The researcher examined transcriptions of the interviews and clustered statements into themes that took into account the nuances and textures of each word. Themes were integrated into a description of what was conveyed to the researcher during the interview. Each description was returned to the participant to ensure that the researcher understood what the participant was trying to say. The task of reduction continued with individual descriptions being integrated into a composite textural description. Upon the completion of a composite textural description, imaginative variation was used to view the phenomena in new ways (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher used imagination and intuition to explore numerous meanings and possibilities from a variety of perspectives. As the structural essence of the phenomenon of gender inequality appeared, the intentional, conscious experience of gender inequality became clearer to the researcher (Groenewald, 2004). The end result of this task was the creation of structural themes that emerged from the textural descriptions of the reduction (Moustakas, 1994). Intuitive integration involves a synthesis of structural and textural qualities and themes (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher developed a statement of the essences that

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made up the experience of gender inequality. These shared experiences were understood as being representative of this group of women in this one particular time and place (Moustakas, 1994). As is the nature of qualitative research, this knowledge was considered to be in a state of flux and was expected to be open to constant change and interpretation (Merriam, 2002). In summary, the processes involved in the transcendental phenomenological model included (a) epoche, in which presuppositions and judgments were set aside; (b) reduction, in which textural themes were created; (c) imaginative variation, in which structural themes were derived; and finally (d) intuitive integration in which structure and texture were integrated (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher was the instrument of data collection in this study. Therefore, epoche was used before and throughout the entire study so that the data was seen for the very first time, without bias, judgment, or presupposition. Sampling Design The population at large consisted of all women in the Presbyterian Church in America. The women were experiencing gender inequality by participating in a denomination that uses church doctrine to define gender roles. Qualitative inquiry strives to understand meaning from the perspectives of participants (Merriam, 2002). Purposive sampling was used to select participants that would be able to give the most information possible on the phenomenon being studied. General criterion for selecting participants was they had to be members of PCA churches with a general knowledge of the PCA doctrine of male headship. Essential criteria included: (a) the ability and desire to talk about their experiences of gender inequality, (b) a willingness to participate in an individual interview and possibly one or 107

more follow-up interviews as needed, (c) allowing the researcher to record the interview, and (d) agreeing to publication of data in a dissertation, online in a dissertation database, and other publication such as a journal or a book. Seventeen female members of the PCA church were invited to join the study. Their contact information was taken from the researcher's personal address book or publicly accessed from a local phone directory. A Research Study Invitation and a document of Informed Consent were sent to each of the women. In keeping with a recommended number of participants for phenomenological research, the target sample number was eight women (Mertens, 2005). Fourteen women returned the document of Informed Consent to the researcher. Eleven women made appointments to be interviewed. Because of the current discussion in the PCA regarding women‟s roles, the researcher decided to interview all 11 women. Data Collection Because the researcher is the instrument of data collection, the relationship between the researcher and participant was crucial during the interview process (Wilding & Whiteford, 2005). The researcher used a holistic relational approach that allowed participants to freely describe their experiences in a comfortable, relaxed environment (Larkin et al., 2006; Wilding & Whiteford, 2005). Each interview focused on what it meant to be in the world of the participant as she described her experiences with gender inequality (Giorgi, 1997). Having a plan for the actual interview will increase the validity of the data (Patton, 1980). Moran (1999) stated that careful attention to questioning was imperative in phenomenological research. The researcher designed questions based on prior 108

knowledge of the subject matter with the goal of allowing the women to reveal the subject manner on their own terms (Larkin et al., 2006). During the interviews, the researcher listened carefully to the responses to make sure participants were staying on track with information needed for the study. When needed, the researcher gently probed for further clarification. Other considerations regarding data collection included choosing a quiet place for the interview (Giorgi, 1997). Interviews occurred in locations chosen by the women. The researcher spoke clearly and at a moderate rate of speed so as to encourage the participant to do the same. During the interview the researcher attempted to reduce any extraneous noises. The recorders were turned off after the questions were asked and answered. Validity in phenomenological research depends on the accuracy of the data (Osborne, 1994). Phenomenological statements describe phenomena without the use of empirical evidence or logical arguments (Osborne, 1994). The researcher made sure the recordings were clear and the transcriptions were accurate. Notes were made during and after each interview regarding any body language or emotions that gave additional insight into the actual interview. The process of phenomenological reduction increases validity through the bracketing or setting aside of presuppositions about the phenomenon (Osborne, 1994). Past knowledge about the phenomenon of gender inequality was put aside through the process of epoche. This enabled the phenomenon to be as free as possible of past interpretations (Giorgi, 1997). The researcher considered the statements of each participant to be of equal value exactly as stated.

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Heidegger maintained that it was impossible for researchers to transcend their own subjective experience (Wilding & Whiteford, 2005). Heidegger believed that researchers bring presuppositions to their work and that they should be identified and put aside so that the research can be seen with fresh eyes (Wilding & Whiteford, 2005). To improve objectivity, the researcher used bracketing before conducting the interviews and throughout the data analysis process (Giorgi, 1997). Value judgments were suspended from consciousness and separated from any beliefs that might have hindered the present subjective experience (Sages & Szybek, 2000). Data Analysis Epoche is the first step employed in the phenomenological model (Moustakas, 1994). Throughout the data analysis process, the researcher practiced epoche by reflecting on the experience of gender inequality in her own life. Thoughts and feelings were written down. The researcher met with a licensed mental health professional to discuss identified biases and prejudgments. This enabled the researcher to feel an internal sense of closure indicating a new spirit of receptiveness toward the interviewee. The process of epoche continued throughout the data analysis process. The researcher bracketed personal life experiences so that the data could be viewed in a naïve and open manner. The next step of the data analysis process was phenomenological reduction. The researcher focused on the uniqueness of each participant‟s experience (Moustakas, 1994). Perceptions, thoughts, and feelings were repeatedly considered and explored in an attempt to correct perspectives and clearly recognize, describe, and find layers of

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meaning. The essence of the lived experience emerged and was described with textural terms that explained and clarify the phenomenon. The next step was imaginative variation. The researcher used intuition to move away from the facts to the structural themes (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher explored multiple possibilities in an attempt to grasp the true essence of the experience. Underlying and universal themes were considered and structural themes were created. The final step of the process was intuitive integration, which synthesized textural and structural descriptions of the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher created a comprehensive, imaginative, and reflective study of the phenomenon. This final step resulted in a complete knowledge of the essence of the phenomenon at one point in time, open to further review and expansion by others. Field Test Sproull (2002) stated that the reliability of interview questions need to be tested along with a pilot study to test the data collection process. Four professional colleagues in the field of human services reviewed the research questions. They responded as to what they believed the questions were asking. All colleagues agreed that the questions were clearly stated and modifications to them were not necessary. A field test was conducted at the home of a 28 year old married woman who has a ministry leadership position at a local PCA church. The participant had no trouble understanding or answering the questions, which took 35 minutes. The participant felt that the researcher's coming to her home for the interview was a comfortable way to do an interview. The recording equipment was easy to use and recordings were clear and accurate. There was some discussion about the wording of one of the questions. Both researcher and field test 111

participant agreed that research questions and recording methods were ready to be used with research participants. Limitations of the Research Design There are some limitations inherent in a phenomenological design. The interview process has some disadvantages (Sproull, 2002), the researcher‟s intuition is the primary means of data analysis, and the researcher needs to bracket biases and presuppositions (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenology typically uses an interviewing method in which to collect data. According to Sproull (2002), interviewing has several disadvantages: (a) the amount of time needed for each interview, (b) less information is gathered in a larger amount of time than with other methods, and (c) data may be inaccurate. People may omit important facts due to psychological discomfort, inaccurate recall, biases, or difficult interactions between the interviewer and the respondent. The researcher was aware of Sproull‟s concerns and took them into consideration while interviewing participants. The researcher's intuition is primary in the extraction and synthesis of data (Moustakas, 1994). Summaries of interviews were presented to the participants to see if the researcher correctly understood what the participants actually said. The phenomenological research design requires that the researcher bracket biases and presuppositions. The researcher made a fluid list of biases related to the study. Throughout the research process, regular meetings were scheduled with a licensed mental health professional. The purpose of these meetings was to assess the researcher's ability to hear the data with openness and naiveté.

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Internal Validity Validity is used to determine whether the findings of the research are accurate from a number of perspectives (Creswell, 2003; Creswell & Miller, 2000; Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). A number of strategies were used to strengthen validity in this research study: (a) interview summaries were given to participants for their input about whether or not the researcher understood what they were trying to say (Creswell & Miller, 2000), (b) rich, thick descriptions including quotations were used to substantiate findings, thus allowing others to draw their own conclusions (Creswell & Miller, 2000), (c) the researcher kept notes on biases and presuppositions throughout the research process, and (d) the researcher met regularly with a licensed mental health professional to work through the process of epoche by suspending biases and judgments (Creswell & Miller, 2000). With these safeguards in place, the researcher hoped to present a research study that was accurate, meaningful, and credible. External Validity External validity refers to what extent the research findings can be generalized to other contexts (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). According to Leedy and Ormrod (2005) research that is generalized has implications that go beyond the study to contribute to the already existing body of knowledge in the world at large. Strategies that increase external validity include the use of real-life circumstances as opposed to a laboratory setting, the use of a sample that is representative of a larger population, and the ability to replicate findings that have occurred in different contexts. External validity was increased because this study occurred in a real-life situation of an interview. The use of purposive sampling reduced validity in that the sample was 113

not necessarily representative of all women within the PCA church. However validity was increased because the findings advanced the knowledge of previous studies about religious communities that practice the doctrine of male authority. Data Collection Seventeen female members from three local PCA churches were invited to join the study. A Research Study Invitation and a document of Informed Consent were mailed to each of the women. In keeping with a recommended number of participants for phenomenological research, the target sample number was eight women (Mertens, 2005). Fourteen women returned their signed documents of Informed Consent to the researcher. Eleven women responded to the researcher's request to schedule an interview. The researcher decided to interview every one of the respondents. The decision to interview all of them was related to recent discussions in the PCA regarding women‟s roles in the church. Each respondent was assigned a number in order to maintain anonymity. In preparation for data collection, the researcher practiced epoche by meeting with a licensed mental health professional. The researcher prepared a list of issues, biases, and judgments related to her personal history of gender inequality. These issues were shared and discussed with the professional. The researcher left the session ready to proceed with the field test and interviews. A field test was conducted at the home of a woman who attends a local PCA church. She was able to answer the questions in 35 minutes, rather than the original 1 ½ hours the researcher thought would be needed. The participant felt that having the interview at her home was a very comfortable and convenient experience. A digital recorder and laptop computer were both used to record the participant. There was some 114

discussion about the wording of one of the questions. After the interview, both researcher and participant agreed that both modes of recording were effective and easy to use. The participant felt that the questions were easily understood and she had no problem answering any of them. As a result of the field test, there were no changes made to the questions or recording modes. Ten of the eleven participants were interviewed in their homes. One was interviewed in a church. Before the interview began, the researcher reviewed the signed document of Informed Consent. The participant was reminded that at any time she could choose to not participate in the study without any negative repercussions. Each woman filled out a checklist to collect information about her age, level of education, race, marital status, and how long she had been a member of the PCA denomination. The raw data of interviews consists of actual quotations of participants. It was crucial that data be collected in a reliable manner (Patton, 1980). Data was recorded using a digital audio recorder and a laptop computer. Upon assurance that the recording devices were working properly, the researcher began asking questions. The questions were designed to elicit stories of participants regarding their experiences with the doctrine of male authority in the PCA church. The researcher focused on the participant and adjusted the pace and content of the interview as needed. Questions were open-ended and broad as a way to develop rich, thick descriptions of the experience. Using a general interview guide as suggested by Moustakas (1994) the following questions were used to guide the disclosure of the participants during the interview: 1. What are your beliefs about gender roles in the PCA church? 2. How has your life been impacted by gender roles in the church? 115

3. What do you think the Bible teaches about gender roles? 4. How do you cope with the reality of gender roles in the PCA church? 5. What feelings are associated with talking about gender roles? During the interview, written notes were taken regarding key phrases and major points, terms, and words that stood out (Patton, 1980). This allowed the researcher to form new questions as the interview progressed and to locate important quotations when reviewing the recording. The researcher wrote down any body language, verbal inflections, and questions that came to mind. The interview was complete upon the researcher's satisfactory collection of a concrete, detailed description of the participant's experiences and actions (Giorgi, 1997). The researcher wrote notes about the participant's reaction and any other observations that would give a richer context (Patton, 1980). The recordings were checked to make sure they were successful. Upon returning home, each audio recording was uploaded to a password protected computer. File names were created with previously assigned numbers as a way to protect anonymity. Data Analysis Procedures Quotations are the raw data of interviews. The researcher prepared word-by-word transcriptions of the interviews (Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003; Patton, 1980). Each transcription was loaded in ATLAS.TI to create one analytic unit. The data analysis process followed the steps of a phenomenological study as designed by Moustakas (1994). When viewing the transcriptions in ATLAS.TI, there were places to record notes and comments related to nonverbal cues and liguistic details such as rate of speech, tone, volume, and inflection (Hycner, 1999; Patton, 1980). All of the transcripts were read together multiple times in order to get an overall effect of the interviews. A summary of each interview was sent to 116

each participant. They were advised to let the researcher know if the essence of what they had said was captured. Some of the participants offered minor clarifications regarding their summaries. The researcher noted those changes within the transcriptions and summaries. Epoche The researcher bracketed preconceived meanings and interpretations of the data by practicing epoche (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher made a list of presuppositions and biases that were present during data analysis. These thoughts were verbalized to a licensed mental health professional who helped the researcher clear the mind of any biases. The researcher was better prepared to appreciate and understand the unique world of the interviewee from her own viewpoint, not the researcher's (Hycner, 1999). Epoche was practiced throughout the data analysis process. Phenomenological Reduction A phenomenological approach is a holistic one that necessitates the reading of transcripts multiple times (Giorgi, 1997; Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003; Hycner, 1999). The researcher read through the transcripts to gain an overall understanding of the data and to provide a context for units of meaning and possible themes. While reading transcripts, the researcher wrote down specific thoughts, impressions, and perceptions in an ongoing attempt to bracket biases and prejudices (Hycner, 1999). As issues and biases were discovered, the researcher wrote them down and discussed then with a licensed mental health professional. With the transcriptions loaded in ATLAS.TI, general units of meaning were listed and coded into themes that illuminated the experience (Hycner, 1999). This was the

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process of horizontalization in which every part of every statement was considered to be of equal value, with unlimited horizons of possibility and discovery (Moustakas, 1994). Hycner (1999) suggested that researchers divide transcripts into two columns per page when working to identify general units of meaning. The researcher was able to identify units of meaning in one column while linking the units to themes in the other column. All units of general meaning were included even if there was uncertainty or ambiguity (Moustakas, 1994). The next step in the process was to consider the relevance of each general unit of meaning to the research question, eliminating units that were vague and repetitive (Giorgi, 1997; Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003; Hycner, 1999). The researcher determined if each unit contained a necessary, essential, and illuminating piece of the experience and whether or not it could be extracted and labeled (Moustakas, 1994). General units that fit criteria were listed separately as relevant units with the understanding that further clarification would occur as multiple transcriptions were reviewed (Hycner, 1999). Next, the units of relevant meaning were reviewed in an effort to eliminate any redundancies (Hycner, 1999). The researcher considered literal content along with how many times a meaning unit was mentioned along with its context (Hycner, 1999). The next step in the process of reduction was to cluster together the units of relevant meaning into related themes that more specifically addressed the research question and the core themes of the experience (Hycner, 1999; Moustakas, 1994). The researcher once again bracketed presuppositions in an effort to maintain the purity of the phenomenon (Hycner, 1999). The researcher used intuition and judgment to review the units of relevant meaning in their contexts and determined what common themes united

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them (Giorgi, 1997). The units were then divided into clusters of relevant themes that portrayed the language of the study (Giorgi, 1997). The researcher made lists of the final themes and their accompanying units of relevant meaning. At times, there was ambiguity or overlapping within the clusters. The researcher added comments in ATLAS.TI related to whether or not further clarification or context was needed in order to understand the choice of theme. The researcher synthesized the clustered relevant meaning units into an individual textural description of the experience (Moustakas, 1994). The clusters were reviewed to determine what central theme best expressed the essence of the clusters (Hycner, 1999). Quotations directly from the data were listed to give a description of the experience and to form a central theme that accurately described the essence of each interview. The researcher prepared a description that incorporated all of the themes that emerged from the data. Imaginative Variation The process of imaginative variation was used to transform meaning units into a description of the essential nature of the experience (Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003). This description stated the structures or patterns of the experience as verbalized in the ordinary, everyday words of the participants (Giorgi, 1997; Osborne, 1994). The researcher used intuition and imagination to create a structural description of each interview. As the researcher reflected on the phenomenon from a variety of perspectives, multiple meanings and possibilities emerged. A list of structures underlying the experience were created, revealing an array of feelings and thoughts related to the

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experience. These structures were clustered into themes resulting in a narrative that offered a structural description of the experience for each participant. In the final step of the data analysis process, the researcher used intuition and reflection to create a unified, composite description of the essences of the experience of gender inequality (Moustakas, 1994). This description represented the shared meanings of the participants and placed the phenomenon into a context that respected the personal experience of each participant. The final result was a comprehensive, detailed description of the essence of the shared experience of gender inequality within the PCA church. Expected Findings The researcher expected there to be differences in perspective depending on the age of each participant. All of the women were expected to have had some kind of experience with gender inequality that might have caused them to alter previously held beliefs. Some of the women might be distressed by the changes they have made. Others might have accepted changes without discomfort or struggle. The younger women were raised in a different society than the older women. They might be experiencing some ambivalence or confusion about the church doctrines regarding gender roles. The older women were expected to have found a way to make their lives work, regardless of any type of gender role assignment within the church. The researcher expected to find women who were angry about the choices they have made, women who did not care about the issue of gender inequality, and women who were happy with the gender roles, feeling safe and comforted by the restrictions. It was expected that some women would be quietly fighting the assigned roles while others might be openly fighting them, either in the church or in their homes. The researcher 120

expected to find women who have previously been or are currently involved in abusive relationships with men in their lives. Some of these women may have asked the church for support and did not receive the help they felt they needed. Maybe the women know of someone who has gone through that type of situation. Ethical Considerations Researcher's Position Statement The researcher is a member of a PCA church and has a number of friends who have experienced difficulties related to gender inequality. Some friends have dealt with their pain by seeing the big picture, offering forgiveness, and moving on to have successful and fulfilling lives within the PCA denomination. Others have reported difficulties trying to get past their struggles to a place where they can feel successful and fulfilled while still participating in the PCA church. Others were more recently introduced to the struggle. As women committed to their faith and doctrine, some of them were trying to find new ways to cope and evaluate gender related issues. The researcher has been aware of gender inequality in the PCA church and other churches since childhood. Difficulties within an evangelical church that was attended in childhood have made this issue a reality. The researcher understood the challenges in being so close to the experience being studied. Bracketing biases and presuppositions might be difficult to achieve. However, the researcher also viewed this as a strength of the study. Participants may find it easier to trust a researcher who not only understood but who has experienced the issues at hand. During the process of data analysis, the researcher participated in ongoing bracketing and sought counsel from a licensed mental

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health professional as a way to increase the integrity of the analysis. The researcher had confidence that bracketing, while difficult, was attainable. The main reason for choosing a phenomenological research design was because of the emphasis on bracketing biases, presuppositions, and prejudgments throughout the entire research process. The researcher documented the process of phenomenological reduction by keeping notes throughout each phase of the reduction. A licensed mental health professional questioned the researcher about the research process and gave input on data collection and analysis. Multiple experiences related to gender inequality occurred in the life of the researcher long before the experiences were described as such. The researcher understood the importance of viewing all of those experiences through the process of epoche and was committed to that process. In addition, the researcher has high regard for people on both sides of the controversy and maintained a viewpoint that honored the beliefs of each side. Ethical Issues This research study was approved by Capella University's Institutional Review Board (IRB). A Research Study Invitation was sent to each potential participant informing her of the nature, purpose, and requirements of the research study (Bordens, 2005). The invitation stated that at any time they could choose to not participate in the study without any negative consequences. The ethical issues guiding this research study were (a) protection from harm, (b) informed consent, (c) right to privacy, and (d) honesty with professional colleagues (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). The participant could make the choice to offer as much or as little information as she would like. If someone experienced

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psychological distress during the interview process, the researcher was prepared to refer her to a licensed mental health professional. The Informed Consent document was mailed to each participant before the interview was scheduled (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). The document included information on the general purpose of the research, how the research would be done, how long the interview might take, benefits to the participant, any risks, confidentiality and its limits, the voluntary nature of participation, and information regarding individuals to contact in order for additional information about the study (Bordens, 2005). This document of informed consent was signed by each participant. The participant was told she could have a summary of findings upon completion of the study. Each participant understood that the findings would be published in a dissertation and possibly a journal or book. The researcher did not use identifying information when publishing data (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). A phenomenological design uses direct quotations as data. To maintain anonymity, participants were assigned number codes. Details that might reveal the participant‟s identity were modified. Data was not fabricated or intentionally misleading. Honesty and validity of initial results was verified by sending each participant a summary of her own interview for review. Digitally recorded interviews and transcripts were saved on a password protected computer. The researcher reported findings that were accurate and attempted to conduct the research without distortion, fraud, misrepresentation of data, or deliberate bias (American Counseling Association, 2005). Copyright laws were observed and contributions of other professionals were acknowledged with full credit given to appropriate persons. The researcher did not present someone else's work as her own and listed the names of those

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who contributed to the research or the development of the concept. Credit was taken for work actually performed by or contributed to by the researcher (American Psychological Association, 2001). If significant errors are found in the published data, the researcher will take reasonable steps to correct the errors by publishing a correction or retraction or whatever is deemed suitable. Chapter 3 Summary Chapter 3 began with a restatement of the problem, a restatement of the purpose, rationale and significance, and the research questions. Research strategy and design was discussed as being a qualitative study utilizing a transcendental phenomenological approach. Detailed information was presented regarding sampling design, data collection and analysis, and validity. Chapter 3 ended with expected findings and ethical issues related to the study.

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CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Introduction The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the lived experiences of women who were members of the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) denomination. The participants offered personal accounts of their experiences in the PCA as related to gender inequality in leadership roles. The data collection and analysis of this study were guided by a phenomenological approach that helped to explore and illuminate multiple aspects of each woman‟s personal experience (McGinley, 2006; Moerer-Urdahl & Creswell, 2004; Moustakas, 1994; Osborne, 1994; Patton, 2002; Wilding & Whiteford, 2005). Each woman contributed to a collective understanding of the phenomenon as a whole. Chapter 4 begins with a review of the data collection and analysis process and a description of the sample. For each participant, verbatim meaning units were listed and divided into textural themes followed by textural and structural descriptions. A table of individual themes was presented and followed by a composite textural and composite structural description. Chapter 4 ended with a composite textural-structural narrative that described the phenomenon of gender inequality in role leadership in the PCA church. Data Collection In preparation for data collection, the researcher practiced epoche by meeting with a licensed mental health professional. The researcher prepared a list of issues, biases, and judgments related to her own personal history of gender inequality. These issues were

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shared and discussed with the professional. The researcher left the session ready to proceed with the interviews. A field test was conducted at the home of a woman who attends a local PCA church. She was able to answer the questions in 35 minutes, rather than the original 1½ hours the researcher thought would be needed. The participant felt that having the interview at her home was a comfortable and convenient experience. The digital recorder and laptop computer were both used to record the participant. There was some discussion about the wording of one of the questions. After the interview, both researcher and participant agreed that both modes of recording were effective and easy to use. The participant felt that the questions were easily understood and she had no problem answering any of them. As a result of the field test, there were no changes made to the questions or recording modes. Seventeen female members from three local PCA churches were invited to join the study. A Research Study Invitation and a document of Informed Consent were mailed to each of the women. In keeping with a recommended number of participants for phenomenological research, the target sample number was eight women (Mertens, 2005). Fourteen women returned their signed Informed Consent documents to the researcher. Eleven women responded to the researcher's request to schedule an interview. Results of the field test regarding length of time for the interview and the current climate in the PCA regarding gender related issues led the researcher to decide that every respondent could participate in the study. While meeting with each participant for her interview, the researcher reviewed the signed document of Informed Consent. The participant was reminded that at any time she

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could choose to not participate in the study without any negative consequences. The participant filled out a checklist designed to collect demographic information. Information was collected about age, level of education, race, marital status, and how long she had been a member of the PCA denomination. Each interview was recorded on a digital voice recorder and laptop computer. The researcher assigned numbers to each participant in order to maintain anonymity. The time immediately after each interview was used by the researcher for reflection and elaboration as a way to increase the validity and reliability of the data (Patton, 1980). Within 24 hours, the researcher listened to the recorded interview in order to get a sense of the whole. While listening, notes were made about key words, phrases, statements, and inflections that seemed important. The researcher prepared word-by-word transcriptions of the interviews (Giorgi & Giorgi, 2003; Patton, 1980). Each transcription was loaded into ATLAS.TI to create one analytic data unit. The data analysis process followed the steps of a phenomenological study as designed by Moustakas (1994). When viewing the transcriptions in ATLAS.TI, there were places to record notes and comments related to nonverbal cues and linguistic details such as rate of speech, tone, volune, and inflection (Hycner, 1999; Patton, 1980). All of the transcripts were read together multiple times in order to get an overall picture of what was said. The researcher prepared a summary of each interview and sent each participant a copy of her own summary. The women were advised to let the researcher know if the summary captured what it was each of them were trying to say during the interview. Participants 3, 4, and 6 offered minor clarifications regarding their summaries. The researcher noted those changes in the summaries and data units.

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Before proceeding with the process of horizontalization, the researcher practiced epoche with a licensed mental health professional. Biases were listed alongside each summary. These biases were discussed as a way to increase the researcher's ability to objectively consider every statement to be of equal value and importance. ATLAS.TI was used to isolate and list general units of meaning that described and illuminated the experience (Hycner, 1999). This was the process of horizontalization in which every part of every statement was considered to be of equal value, with unlimited horizons of possibility and discovery (Moustakas, 1994). ATLAS.TI allowed the researcher to view the transcript while identifying units of meaning to be linked to codes created by the researcher. All units of general meaning were included even if there was uncertainty or ambiguity. The researcher expected that as the context became clearer during data analysis, the units of meaning could possibly change (Hycner, 1999). Description of Sample Seventeen White female members from three local PCA churches were invited to join the study. A Research Study Invitation and a document of Informed Consent were mailed to each of the women. Fourteen women returned their signed documents of Informed Consent to the researcher. Eleven women responded to the researcher's request to schedule an interview (see Table 1). Results of the field test and the current climate in the PCA regarding gender related issues led the researcher to decide to include every respondent in the study. Three of the participants who declined to participate were in the 20-30 year old age bracket.

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Table 1 Demographic Information P1

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

P8

P9

P10

P11

Age

61

31

53

59

31

27

31

62

57

54

56

College degree

y

y

y

y

y

y

y

y

y

y

y

Master‟s Degree

y

y

n

y

y

n

n

n

y

y

y

Doctoral Degree

n

n

n

y

n

n

n

n

n

n

y

Married

y

y

y

y

y

y

n

y

y

n

y

Years in the PCA

18

18

30

5

22

4

9

10

20

15

20

Presentation of Data This section begins with a presentation of data for each individual participant. To protect confidentiality, some names have been changed such as when referring to educational institutions or specific people, churches, or ministries. Names of people in the church have been replaced with pseudonyms such as Mr. John Doe, Mrs. Jane Doe, and Dr. Jane Doe. For each participant, meaning units and textural themes are listed followed by a textural and structural description. There were a total of 26 individual textural themes. They are leadership, boundaries, control, communication, being heard, teaching, ordination, empowerment, equality, Bible, context, belief system, calling, career, ministry, marriage, conservative, personality, not fitting in, tolerance, praise, stereotypes, heart issue, support, synergy, and feelings. Table 2 on page 238 lists each individual theme by participant. Next is a composite textural description followed by a composite structural description. Chapter 4 ends with a composite textural and structural description that presents the experiences of the participants as a whole. 129

Meaning Units and Textural Themes for Participant 1 (P1) Conservative 1. “I was born conservative. I still am pretty conservative.” 2. “I spent a lot of emotional energy on the women's issue on which I came down on the conservative side.” 3. “I probably agree mostly with gender roles in the PCA church. That's the background that I came to the church with and so it actually fit in better with the denomination I was in before the PCA.” Stereotypes 1. People tried to discourage me from going to seminary. Wasn't Bible college good enough? That's a gender role kind of thing. I'm a woman, so isn't Bible college enough for you? Of course, the guys were all going to seminary. 2. “I was involved in Inter-Varsity [Evangelical Campus Ministry]. They had a stand of gender. Men did certain things and women did or didn't do certain things.” 4. “It was basically a man's world in terms of schooling.” 5. All the speakers were men. Anytime people were leading worship that I can remember it was men. We would learn the 1 Timothy 2 passages and I had no problem really with that at all. In that sense I always knew kind of where I fit and I didn‟t really have a problem. Tolerance 1. “I know that there's a lot of different denominations in which there's a lot of fine Christian people.” 2. “You sit at the table at Liberal Seminary and everybody had different views on something. The thing I like about that was we had more dialogue.” 3. “We banded together as evangelicals not denominational people. I saw us all as being part of the evangelical world.” 4. The thing that bothers me theologically about the PCA is there's not as much room for any kind of dialogue or acceptance of what other people do. I have feelings that they think just because you don't agree with them that makes you some kind of horrible creature; that we're wrong. That makes me mad because I'm not sure why we're wrong.

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Ordination 1. “I'm not so sure I'm ready to say that women should be ordained as ministers. I never had a personal calling to be a minister. I never had a feeling about being ordained.” 2. The women at seminary were pretty much divided between those of us who did not think that women should be ordained and those that were going for ordination. They were a little radical and they had some very strong opinions. I didn't fit in with them in any way, not that we were unfriendly. 3. “I was very aware of the fact that the PCA was going to be developed. One of the main reasons they were leaving the United Presbyterian church was because of women's ordination.” 4. I have a friend from seminary who was part of the non-ordination crowd. I found out she had been recently ordained as a pastor in a church. I really respect her and she's an amazing teacher, and she preaches and all that kind of stuff. 5. “I am not going to stake my life on that particular scripture [1 Timothy 2].” 6. [My husband's] parents were dyed-in-the-wool Presbyterians and very committed to church. His mother was an ordained elder in the church. He came to Liberal Seminary feeling totally different than me, feeling there's no problem whatsoever with women being ordained. And here's me feeling like it wasn't. I wasn't particularly thrilled but I fell in love with him and he wasn't a woman. He just had a different belief than I did. 7. When [my husband] became a pastor in the United Presbyterian Church, they had women elders. Women were going to seminaries and getting their Master's in Divinity. The denomination was demanding that any church had to interview women and consider women to be their minister. I had a hard time with that. The church we were in didn't want women ministers. I didn't like that the denomination was telling them they had to interview women. Most of the people were much more conservative than the administrative people were. 8. [My husband] wrote a whole paper for Conservative Seminary about women's ordination, pro women's ordination. I know several women have read it over the years. I don't know that I've ever read it. When he was writing it, I was raising three small children and I couldn‟t give a rip if any women were ordained or not. 9. “There is now the Evangelical Presbyterian Church. I feel this issue could make this church grow a lot faster than the PCA.”

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10. The PCA does have a stance but I think it's going to affect the future. You've talked to younger women, which is why I'm interested in what you're doing. I'm coming from a totally different perspective than the younger women. 11. If I was a deacon I could care less one way or the other. I'm at the point in my life, if you have ministry, and you feel that you're called to it, the big question to me is, what is ordination anyway? 12. When we were in the United Presbyterian church we had deacons. And they were men and women I'm almost positive. They probably were ordained. At this point in my life it's emotionally not anything I would have gotten upset about. 13. “In choosing to marry [my husband] and in knowing where he was going there were just some things I wasn't going to get all upset about.” 14. “Whatever the PCA decides to do will not affect me at all, about the deacon's issue. I won't pack up and leave either way.” 15. I think the whole deacon ordination issue is kind of a watershed issue. For me it's not a big deal, but for the denomination it's a big deal. If it bothers us that much, that would be enough reason to go because there is now this Evangelical Presbyterian Church. Teaching 1. “I've never felt any draw nor ability or calling to [teach theology]. But if someone else was to do it I don't know how much that would upset me anymore.” 2. About ten years ago we wanted to do a women's Bible study during Sunday School. We approached the elders and they wouldn't let us. The classes were mainly men teaching theology. Years later they started one because women weren't going to the classes but were sitting out in the lounge chit chatting. We were laughing because the session had changed somewhat over the years. Leadership 1. I began to appreciate the fact that women bring something to the table. When you're trying very hard in a small church to come up with enough men elders, sometimes they would take people who were leaders and not had any spiritual background whatsoever. 2. “There are times where I really wonder what the heck God was thinking when he made that particular decision that men were supposed to be leaders because I've seen so many examples of poor leadership.”

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3. I still feel strongly that if men didn't have to be leaders, that many of them would never step up and that women could so easily run everything. It just would be too easy because it happens at homes all the time. Right? Feelings 1. Thirty years ago I would have had strong feelings. I'm just too old to have strong feelings anymore. So talking about it is much more interesting. It will be very interesting to hear what some of the younger women have to say. I would have very little emotional feeling one way or the other. 2. “I would have to say that I have, especially had strong feelings that 1Timothy just talks about men being leaders in the church.” 3. “I kind of roll my eyes when I hear that people don't want women reading scripture in the service. I'm like, PULEEEEZZ.” Textural Description for Participant 1 (P1) Conservative P1 was very emphatic about her extremely conservative background. “I was born conservative.” When she attended seminary she spent a lot of emotional energy on women's issues. It was no surprise to her that “I ended up on the conservative side” of the issue. P1 agrees with most of the gender roles in the PCA church. The roles fit in with her church background before she came to the PCA. She is comfortable with the roles and is still pretty conservative in her beliefs. Stereotypes During college, P1 became interested in participating in some kind of ministry related to missions. She realized that she needed more education in order to pursue her interest. Friends tried to discourage her from going to seminary. Because she was a woman she was supposed to be satisfied with attending a Bible college as opposed to a seminary. However, all the men were going to seminary and no one was discouraging

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them. She met a woman who had gone to a Liberal Seminary which her friend described as “a very welcoming place for women.“ Since P1 knew that “it was basically a man's world in terms of schooling,“ she decided to take the advice of her friend and attend that seminary. While involved in Inter-Varsity, P1 noticed that “all the speakers were men.“ When people were leading worship, “it was men.“ They learned the 1 Timothy 2 Bible verses in which women were told they could not teach or have authority over men. [A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent (1 Timothy 2: 11-12, New International Version). P1 had no problem with those passages. “I always knew kind of where I fit and I didn't really have a problem.” Tolerance While in seminary, P1 became very aware of the fact that there were a lot of fine Christian people in a lot of different denominations. It was a common occurrence to sit at a table or listen to professors with different viewpoints. P1 appreciated this. “The thing I like about that was we had more dialogue.” People “banded together as evangelicals, not denominational people.” She saw all these people as being part of the evangelical world. When P1 moved to Pennsylvania it was astounding to her that people were so dedicated to their theology that they were willing to sacrifice relationships for theological purity. She is very much bothered by the idea that in the PCA “there's not as much room for any kind of dialogue or acceptance of what other people do.” It upsets P1 that just because someone does not agree with the PCA point of view you are “some

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kind of horrible creature.” People who disagree with the PCA viewpoint are seen as being wrong. This makes her angry because “I'm not sure why we're wrong.” Ordination P1 is “not so sure I'm ready to say that women should be ordained as ministers.” She has never felt called to be a minister or to be ordained. While in seminary, the women “were pretty much divided between those of us who did not think that women should be ordained and those that were going for ordination.” The women were “a little radical” with “some very strong opinions.” When P1 met her husband, he was a “dyed in the wool” Presbyterian and his mother was an ordained elder in the church. P1 and her husband had totally different beliefs about women being ordained. She fell in love with him and realized that “he just had a different belief than I did.” While in seminary, P1 became aware that the PCA denomination was going to be developed by members of two other Presbyterian denominations who were against the idea of women being ordained. A former roommate from seminary who had been “part of the non-ordination crowd” recently became ordained as a pastor in a church. When P1 found out about this, it made sense to her because she believed this woman would be an excellent pastor. “I really respect her and she's an amazing teacher, and she preaches and all that kind of stuff.” Regarding the 1 Timothy passage about women not teaching or having authority over men P1 said, “I am not going to stake my life on that particular scripture.” After seminary, P1's husband became a pastor in the United Presbyterian denomination where they had women elders and pastors. The denomination was demanding that all the churches had to interview women and consider women to be their

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ministers. P1 had a hard time with that because the people in their particular church were very conservative and did not want women ministers. It was upsetting “that the denomination was telling them they had to interview women.” This situation was a huge struggle for P1 because most of the people who attended the church were very conservative and the people making the rules did not seem to care. P1's husband wrote a thesis for a Conservative Seminary in favor of women's ordination. When the paper was being written, P1 was too busy raising her children. and “couldn‟t give a rip if any women were ordained or not.” She believes that over time, the PCA church may experience slower growth because the Evangelical Presbyterian Church allows congregations to choose whether or not they want to ordain women. Churches that will be leaving more liberal Presbyterian churches will be looking for a denomination that gives them the freedom to choose or not choose ordination. P1 is very interested in what the younger women are saying about these issues. She realized, “I'm coming from a totally different perspective than the younger women.” P1 feels that if she was a deacon in the church she does not think she would care whether or not she was ordained. She believes “if you have ministry and you feel that you're called to it” then what does ordination have to do with that? She understands that for the PCA, “the whole deacon ordination issue is a watershed issue.” Personally, she does not see it as a big deal. If it bothered someone that much, they could go to another denomination. Teaching P1 has never felt any calling to teach theology in the church. She does not think she would be upset if a woman taught a Sunday School class. P1 told a story of the

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women at church wanting to do a women's Bible study during Sunday School. The session did not approve their request. What happened was that over time, the women basically sat out in the lounge “chit chatting” during Sunday School. Years later the session approved a class for the women. P1 and her friends thought it was funny. They realized the change occurred probably because the men on the session had changed over the years. Leadership P1 appreciates the fact that women are very much able to “bring something to the table” in the church environment. A small church may need elders and may have trouble getting enough qualified men. They might choose men with no spiritual background whatsoever. That makes no sense to P1. She wonders what God was thinking when he decided that men were the only ones who could be leaders. She has seen so many examples of poor male leadership. P1 does feel that if men did not have to be leaders, “many of them would never step up.” Women could so easily run everything in the church and in the home. “It just would be too easy because it happens at homes all the time. Right?” Feelings P1 recalled that thirty years ago she had strong feelings about a lot of issues. Now, she believes she is “just too old to have strong feelings anymore.” P1 finds it very interesting to talk about issues. Currently, she has “very little emotional feeling one way or the other.” P1 was able to identify one particular situation in which she became frustrated with people's beliefs. Some people complained about a woman reading

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scripture during the church service. Her response was to roll her eyes and think, “PULEEEEZZ.” Structural Themes for Participant 1 (P1) The structural themes that described the experience of P1 are perception of self, perception of church, and perception of ministry. She grew up in a very conservative household in a southern state known for its conservative views. P1 is an outgoing woman who is extremely tolerant of the views of others. She chose to attend a liberal seminary where differing views within the evangelical world were encouraged and accepted as the norm. P1 always ended up on the conservative side of an issue. She appreciated the “back and forth” about controversial issues and the way people respected one another‟s viewpoints. P1 was confident about what she believed and was not threatened by someone with an opposing view. Her confidence led her to marry a man who had opposing theological views in a variety of areas. He had different beliefs than she did and she was okay with that. The next structure is perception of church. P1 has no problem with gender roles and is in agreement with the PCA church structure. However, her experience within the PCA continues to amaze her. The PCA will not tolerate people who disagree with them. This makes her angry because she does not know how they can be so certain that other people‟s views are wrong. Over the years, P1 has been shocked to discover that the PCA does not encourage any kind of dialogue that might go against their beliefs. They do not tolerate other people‟s points of view and do not want to have an honest dialogue about differences. This bothers her a lot and it makes her angry that people in the PCA are like this. 138

The next structure is perception of ministry. P1 has never wanted to teach theology and does not believe it would bother her if a woman taught Sunday School in the church. She is not ready to say that women should be ordained as pastors. However, it made sense to her when one of her female friends recently became ordained as a pastor. Regarding the scripture passage prohibiting women from being in authority over men, P1 emphatically stated she will not stake her life on its interpretation. She appreciates that younger women might have a different perspective about ordination than she does. P1 believes the PCA is in danger of losing possible members to the Evangelical Presbyterian Church, which gives more freedom to each congregation regarding ordination. Regarding the issue of being a deaconess in a PCA church, P1 would do the work whether or not she was ordained to the position. She knows the ordination of women as deacons or anything else is a huge issue for the PCA. It‟s just not a big issue for her. One thing P1 does not appreciate is when men have leadership positions simply because they are men. She wonders if God said men had to be leaders because otherwise the men would let the women do everything in the church and in the home. Meaning Units and Textural Themes for Participant 2 (P2) Conservative 1. “I'm fairly conservative when it comes to gender roles and all that.” 2. “I guess I do go with Presbyterian church structure with men as elders and pastors.” 3. “I feel pretty comfortable with the gender roles but I think each church tends to play it out differently.” Calling 1. “Not every woman is going to feel called to be home with her children, and that's it.” 139

2. “I've always wanted to have a good balance of things going in my life.” 3. “I think any woman should try to open herself up to this notion that she isn't just what she is; that there is more she can do, more that she can embrace.” 4. I'm one of those women who really struggles to call [being home with the children] a calling. I see it as a duty. I see it as a virtue. I don't know that I see it as a calling, even though I want to in a sense. That's what I struggle with inside of me, and it's hard work, and it's not always fulfilling. Ministry 1. “We don't have a constitution of Women in the Church (WIC) anymore which is a shame. My mother was president of WIC for many years in her home church.” 2. I think they lost the woman power to fuel it. There was a strong [group]. Now there's nothing. I think that would really help us as a church. We don't seem to have enough strong, I don‟t know if I want to say strong, but available women now to help. 3. “I think they're doing a more laid back approach to WIC. They do a yearly retreat and on a more informal basis they have a weekly Bible study. I don't know why they have that title anymore.” 4. I'm perfectly okay with women deaconesses or women serving in a variety of capacities in the church. I don't have any problems with women's public role in worship or in the life of the church. The deaconess issue is very gray it seems like to me. 5. “I'm drawn to men discussing theology because that's what I studied and that's what I love.” Teaching 1.

“I feel fine with [a woman teaching Sunday School]. I think Mrs. Jane Doe is talented. Her gifts should and could be used. I think it's fine so long as the church has a clear position on it.”

2.

“If the church's position is Mrs. Jane Doe shouldn't be teaching, then she shouldn't be teaching. If the church is okay with it, then fine. They should come up with a clear view of what they believe.”

Personality 1. It was predominantly women in my family. Even though my dad has more of the patriarchal tendencies I think it's a bit of a show. His daughters are very 140

outspoken confident women who have achieved a lot. His wife is very present and knowledgeable. That's informed my own view. 2. “I'm more of a dominant type more aggressive female, so it's kind of like, what do you do with that, personality wise?” 3. “So long as I know that the Lord has control of my own spirit so I'm not railing and raging, then I know that I can still be who I am and that's okay.” 4. “I was outgoing and boisterous and just came in and I kind of make fun of [male seminary students] when they got too much into their seminary-ese.” 5. “I think I was probably a little intimidating to some guys. From some men, I definitely felt [from them], „What are you doing over there?‟” Communication 1. “I think because of Presbyterian church structure there can be a communication gap.” 2. “A lot of people feel that there's these men off in this room cloistered off and they're making these decisions without counsel coming from the congregants and without a back and forth.” 3. “I think it does create some problems, a communication gap, and as far as I've noticed men can be lacking in communication skills.” Leadership 1. Sometimes I feel that if you had a strong woman leading a committee you'd probably get further than some of the men we have on the committees who don't always have an agenda. I don't know if that's just a male/female giftedness in regards to skills or what not. 2. Sometimes I guess that if there's a stronger woman who seems to know what she's doing and is a little bit more organized in that way, that she should just take the lead in the committee and just let that be. 3. “The men will lead the committees just because they're an elder or sometimes maybe just because they're a man. That doesn't always seem to work very well.” 4. It does seem to me that we need to use a lot of grace and understanding of very different situations. And at times if we're holding strong to a structure that doesn‟t seem to fit, maybe we need to rework the structure.

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5. Paul says, “I don't give permission for a woman to teach a man or have spiritual authority over a man.” I guess I take that to be where I stand in terms of not having a woman preacher. 6. “I guess in an extreme situation if there is a need for a woman elder, I would be okay with that. For the most part I wouldn't say that it's okay from what I read of the Bible.” 7. I see rooted in creation the fact that man was created and then he brought Eve to be the helpmeet, whatever that means. Of course you know I think they had a different kind of a society. It was an agrarian society where the men and the women together were working the land and the children were expected to be a part of this family, agrarian culture. Being Heard 1. “I was always given a voice in my home as a woman.” 2. “I was expected to rise intellectually to discuss any topic that anybody was discussing, whether it was a man or a woman. I always felt very strengthened in that way.” 3. There have just been a couple times now and then when I had a sense that maybe because I was a woman that I wasn't being heard. I felt that sometimes in seminary, because I attended seminary with predominantly men. 4. “I gave my two cents to the session about a [theologically weak issue]. I don't know how well it was received.” 5. “It would be helpful to have a dialogue at some point. I don't know how you would set that up between men and women on these issues.” 6. I do see areas where women could have more of an overt role especially in the advising of the men on the session. That's where I think our particular church is very weak, that women are not consulted or asked enough about dealings especially in regard to people's issues. 7. “Women have a pulse on the body life in a lot of ways probably better than men.” 8. “My mother was a kind of consultant on the session and attended many of the meetings and gave her perspective. She was sort of highly regarded in that sense so I think that's a shame.” 9. “I think women should be able to voice the concerns or the opinions [of church members].” 142

10. “You're putting the bug in my ear for making a strong appeal for advising the session. Pick any woman you want. If there can be some serious advising I think that needs to happen.” Not Fitting In 1.

I remember a time in seminary when I attended a get together for the students and their wives. The wives over here were talking about kids and diapers and the men over there were talking about theology. I was standing there. I wasn't married and I didn't have any kids. I didn't know, am I supposed to go hang out with the women and talk about something I quite literally cannot talk about? Or I just go over there and seem like this weirdo to the women because I'm hanging out with their husbands?

2. “I still to this day feel a little weird like I just don't fit in.” Marriage 1. My marriage is so egalitarian. It's such a different marriage than probably many of the women that I know and many of the women of my mother's generation. I don't mean that we think that we're egalitarian. It's not some kind of agenda. It just works itself out that way. 2. “I have an enormous amount of freedom in my life. I have such a supportive husband who sees how difficult it is for me to be at home with kids and he just embraces that.” 3. “We respect each other intellectually. It's a good combination.” 4. “At times I feel bizarre and like I don't fit because I do have such a different kind of marriage.” Stereotypes 1. I think so long as people don't bring in loaded stereotypes into any situation in the church I think that we can all fare fairly well. I think it's when we bring in a stereotype, like “This is who a woman is, and this is who a man is.” 2. “Both sexes can see that women aren't just this and men aren't just that. That's where I think I will cope better; reminding myself that certain people are coming loaded and charged with stereotypes.” 3. Sometimes I want to break down those stereotypes with people and maybe I can't. But I want to have a discussion about it, you know and say, “Where are you coming from? And why do you have this idea of what a woman is? Or why woman do you have a view of a man as this?” 143

Feelings 1. “I feel pretty satisfied with the situation we have in the PCA.” 2. “I've always felt very accepted as a woman. My perspective has been welcomed, I feel, especially in our church.” 3. “Seeing women marginalized in any way is a difficult thing for me to think about or face. For me personally it's not just something I've experienced so much so I guess I'm fairly at peace.” 4. “I'm in a church that I feel overall is not denigrating to women or sexist.” 5. “There is a sense of frustration and wanting for our men to be constantly growing in their understanding of women and church relations. And that's where I get a little frustrated I guess.” 6. I'd love especially for our session to think creatively and outside the box in terms of not just, “What's our agenda tonight and what are we going to accomplish?” But, “How can we more creatively use the gifts of everyone in the church, men and women alike, to propel our vision forward and make the gospel known and felt within our church, community and the world?” That's a little bit of frustration at times. Textural Description for Participant 2 (P2) Conservative P2 talks about being “fairly conservative when it comes to gender roles and all that.” She is in agreement with the Presbyterian church structure that only has men as elders and pastors. P2 is comfortable with gender roles. “Each church tends to play it out differently.” Calling P2 recognizes that not every woman is going to feel called to only be home with her children and “that's it for her life.” She tries to “have a good balance of things going” in her life. P2 wants a woman to open herself up to the idea that there “is more she can do, more that she can embrace.” She is especially concerned about the need for men to 144

understand that “God has given to women a multitude of roles, a multitude of callings.” P2 is currently home with her children but sees it more as a duty and a virtue. She wants to see it as a calling in a sense but she is unable to do so. P2 finds caring for children very hard work that is not always fulfilling. Ministry P2 noted that there is no longer an official Women in the Church (WIC) group in the church anymore. She feels it is a shame that the group burnt out about five or six years ago. They “lost the woman power to fuel it.” The group was a strong one. “Now there's nothing.” P2 thinks that having this group would really help the church. She wondered if there currently is a strong or available woman to take on the responsibility of this group. Currently there is a somewhat laid back approach to women's ministry in the church with a retreat and a Bible study that are somewhat related to the WIC group. P2 is “perfectly okay” with women being deaconesses and serving in a variety of ways in the church. The deaconess issue appears to be “very gray.” P2 does not feel there is a whole lot of clarity on issues related to women who are in this role. She is fine with women having a public role in worship or in the life of the church and in teaching Sunday School to both men and women. Teaching P2 supported the idea of Mrs. Jane Doe teaching Sunday School. She believed that the woman was talented and had gifts that could and should be used by the church “so long as the church has a clear position on it.” P2 feels it is important that the church come up with a clear view of what they believe.” If the church is okay with it, then P2 is okay with it.

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Personality P2 came from a family that was predominantly women. Her dad had patriarchal tendencies that were “a bit of a show.” P2's sisters are very outspoken confident women who have achieved a lot. Her mother is very “present and knowledgeable.” P2 feels that her background has “informed my own view.” P2 described herself as “more of a dominant type, more aggressive female.” She wondered, “What do you do with that, personality wise?” P2 answered her own question by stating that she needs to know that “the Lord has control of my own spirit so I'm not railing and raging.” If her spirit is where it needs to be, then “I can still be who I am and that's okay.” P2 talked about attending a mostly male, conservative seminary with her outgoing boisterous spirit. She would make fun of the seminary students “when they got too much into their seminary-ese.” P2 does think she was a bit intimidating to some of the guys. She definitely felt that some of the men were thinking, “What are you doing over there?” P2's personality is such that she is very drawn to anyone who is discussing theology. “That's what I studied and that's what I love.” Communication P2 believes that the Presbyterian church structure can lead to a communication gap. People feel that the session is a group of men who are “cloistered off in a room” making decisions without any counsel or “back and forth” coming from church members. P2 believes this structure creates some problems. She has also noticed that “men can be lacking in communication skills.”

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Leadership P2 talked about how some men who lead committees do not always have an agenda. She believes that a strong woman who knows what she is doing and is more organized than a man should just take the lead in the committee. P2 is aware of some situations in which men lead the committees just because they are a man or an elder. This does not always work out so well. P2 is very aware of the need to examine structures that relate to particular situations. She thoughtfully stated that “we need to use a lot of grace and understanding of very different situations. If we're holding strong to a structure that doesn‟t seem to fit, maybe we need to rework the structure.” P2 is aware of the 1 Timothy passage stating that a woman cannot teach or have spiritual authority over a man. This passage shows her that women cannot be preachers. P2 does feel that she would be okay with a woman elder if there was an extreme situation. However, she does not believe the Bible supports this view. In a previous church experience with her family, there was more of a sharing of roles with women having a stronger more public role. P2 talked about how man was created and then Eve was brought to him as his “helpmeet.” She is not sure what it means to be a “helpmeet.” P2 knows there was a different kind of society in the Bible. Men, women, and children worked together to work the land in an agrarian culture. She wonders how that translates to the present time. Being Heard In her childhood home, P2 always was given a voice as a woman. It was expected that she would “rise intellectually to discuss any topic that anybody was discussing, whether it was a man or a woman.” P2 felt very strengthened by this expectation. While

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attending seminary, there were a couple of situations in which she believed she was not heard because she was a woman. In her current church, she “gave my two cents” about an issue that she felt was theologically weak. She does not know how well her criticism was received. P2 expressed her desire to have a dialogue between men and women about some of the issues being talked about in this research study. She admitted she did not know how this could be set up. P2 feels that women should have more of a role in advising the men on the session. She sees her current church as being weak in this area. The session does not consult with women enough about situations in the church, and especially those that relate to people's issues. P2 believes that “women have a pulse on the body life in a lot of ways probably better than men.” Women should be able to voice the concerns and opinions of church members. P2‟s mother was highly regarded as a type of consultant to the session. She thinks it is a shame her current session does not avail themselves of this opportunity. P2 decided she may need to make a strong appeal to the session for having a woman in some kind of advisory position. She is convinced that “if there can be some serious advising, I think that needs to happen.” Not Fitting In While at seminary, P2 attended a get-together for the students and their wives. The wives were in one area of the room talking about kids and diapers. The men were in another area of the room talking about theology. P2 was standing there trying to figure out what to do. She was not married and had no children. She wondered, “Am I supposed to go hang out with the women and talk about something I quite literally cannot talk about? Or do I just go over there and seem like this weirdo to the women because I'm

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hanging out with their husbands?” To this day P2 continues to feel “a little weird, like I just don't fit.” Marriage P2 stated that her marriage has worked itself out to be an egalitarian one. She finds her marriage situation to be different than many of the women she knows who are her age or her mother's age. P2 has “an enormous amount of freedom in my life.” She has a supportive husband who understands how difficult it is for her to be home with their children. He respects and embraces her feelings. P2 has the freedom to make changes based on what she would like to do with her life. They are a very good combination. Because P2 has a different kind of marriage than people she knows, she sometimes feels “bizarre” and like she doesn't fit. Stereotypes P2 believes that difficulties occur when people “bring in loaded stereotypes” to situations in the church. Problems occur when someone decides, “This is who a woman is, and this is who a man is.” P2 thinks it is important for both men and women to see that “women are not just this and men aren't just that.” When faced with challenging church situations, she reminds herself that certain people come to a situation “loaded and charged with stereotypes.” If there is the opportunity, sometimes she will try to break down those stereotypes. It would be helpful to have a discussion to find out where that person was coming from. P2 would want to ask people questions like, “Why do you have this idea of what a woman is? Or why woman do you have a view of a man as this?”

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Feelings P2 feels a sense of frustration about the men. She wants them to be constantly growing in their understanding of women and church relations. P2 would love to see the session “think creatively and outside the box.” She would like the focus to go from the agenda and how to accomplish it to their wondering how to creatively use the gifts of men and women in the church. P2 would like their creativity to “propel our vision forward and make the gospel known and felt within our church, community and the world.” P2 feels pretty satisfied with the situation in the PCA. She has always felt very accepted as a woman. “My perspective has been welcomed, I feel, especially in our church.” P2 finds it difficult to think about or face the reality of women being marginalized in any way. She has not personally experienced it so she is pretty much satisfied and at peace with the denomination. P2 does believe that she is currently in a church that is not sexist or denigrating to women. Structural Themes for Participant 2 (P2) The structural themes that highlight P2‟s experiences are perception of self, perception of church, perception of ministry. The first structure is perception of self. P2 grew up in a home where she was expected to have a strong voice about any topic being discussed. Because of her experience, P2 is a confident, outgoing woman who tends to be more aggressive and boisterous than other women she knows. Being a woman with a strong voice can be a challenge in the Christian world. P2 grew up discussing and studying theology. She loves talking about theology and is drawn to men who are discussing theology. At times her confident, intelligent, strong voice led her to experience 150

discomfort along with the feeling of not fitting in. Because her marriage is an egalitarian one, she struggles to fit in with married women of her own age, many of whom have more traditional marriages. P2 does feel that her perceptions have been welcomed in her current church. She feels very accepted as a woman and feels at peace with her experience in the church and the denomination. The next structure is perception of church. P2 has conservative views and agrees with the current Presbyterian structure with only men as elders and pastors. She feels that this structure creates a communication gap between the session and the congregation. Based on her experience growing up, it makes sense that she wants women to be heard and understood by the men. P2 experiences some frustration because men in the church are not growing in their understanding of women. She wants the session to consider the importance of having women in roles as consultants or advisors to the session. P2 believes women have a greater understanding of what is occurring relationally within the congregation and that men should take advantage of their skills. She would like to dialogue with people in the PCA about how women are limited in what they can do. P2 would be interested in knowing how their experiences formed these beliefs. The third structure is perception of ministry. P2 is currently home caring for her children on a full time basis, something she views more as a virtue and a duty than a calling. She wants both men and women to understand that God has given women a multitude of roles and callings. P2 wants women to open themselves up to embracing life and its opportunities. She feels sad that the Women in the Church group is no longer in existence. P2 feels that having this group would really benefit the church. She is fine with women being deaconesses and having a public role in worship and in teaching Sunday

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School. In the church, there does seem to be a lack of clarity on the issue of women deacons. P2 is fine with women teaching Sunday School to men and women as long as the leadership supports it. She was supportive of a woman who recently taught a class with her husband. The woman was talented and had gifts that could and should be used by the church. P2 does not like when men lead committees simply because they are men. If there is a woman better suited to the position, she believes that woman should lead the committee. P2 is aware of the scripture stating women cannot teach or have spiritual authority over men. In extreme situations she believes a woman could be an elder but is aware that scripture does not in her opinion support her view. P2 questioned what God intended Eve‟s role to be when he brought her to Adam. Families at that time all worked together because it was an agrarian culture. P2 wonders how that can translate to our present culture. Meaning Units and Textural Themes for Participant 3 (P3) Not Fitting In 1. “I think that women are not treated the way that they should be treated.” 2. “I remember Mrs. Pastor‟s Wife being able to preach but they would say „teach‟ because she had to fit in the box.” 3. “I feel like women are just expected to fit in to the box.” 4. “I kind of didn't fit into the system.” 5. “I'm used to [not being accepted and respected in my church]. Maybe that's why I was always so feisty.” 6. I've learned to network and I've learned to go beyond just the Presbytery. I went to other meetings with different Christ centered churches. I've been able to reach out to Rescue Missions, a Health Center, and a Family Learning Ministry. 152

7. “It's been neat to be able to kind of go beyond the box.” Personality 1. “I'm not like an extrovert type but I am a pretty strong woman. “ 2. “I'm kind of like an entrepreneur type.” 3. “I have an idea to do things but I've learned you have to kind of sneak and do things quietly.” 4. “I would kind of get away with stuff. Probably some of it wasn't so good. I used to kind of take over the church but God seemed to bless it.” Being Heard 1. “I have kind of learned to do things quietly because I knew that nobody would listen.” 2. “Even when women are allowed to come to speak at a session meeting they're greeted nicely and they're smiled at but is anything ever heard, who knows? It's been a number of times I've gone to the session.” 3. “Am I allowed to talk? Even my friend won't talk. She says, „It doesn't make any difference.‟” 4. “I was actually one of the first deaconesses even though some of the women should have had the stronger voice.” 5. “Even though I can tell everybody something, it's like words aren't good enough.” 6. “I've learned very much that it's not just the words that you say but it's your actions.” Feelings 1. “ I would always get frustrated at the deacon meetings because it was twenty people's opinions and it was so disorganized. Unless you got your words in when you prayed, you weren't heard.” 2. It was frustrating when I stepped down [from being a deacon]. They had me sign to step down but I don't even know if I even signed it. They wanted me to write something about why I'm stepping down. But in a sense it was kind of like they were happy to not have me there.

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3. “It's frustrating. Like my friend said, „What difference does it make? Changes aren't going to happen. What's gonna happen? Are any changes gonna happen?‟” Leadership 1. [The men] wanted to close the Particular Ministry over the holidays. I said, “I'm going to do the Particular Ministry.” I got this huge reaction from a couple of men. I'm assuming [the reaction occurred] because I'm kind of hated there. One deacon was trying to encourage me but it was just such a negative. 2. “There were going to be changes in how the Church Sponsored Business was run including the way the money was used. There was a huge battle that went on with that.” 3. “The session chose what session members would be on the board. The deacons would choose what deacons they wanted. But we [the women] weren't allowed to.” 4. [The men] basically wanted to have more control, not even to allow [people from other churches] on the board. We applied for a grant and we ended up getting a $10,000 matching grant but part of it was to have an outside person on the board. Our church was very internal, very kind of me-centered. 5. I did have a wonderful female board member. But she was so busy with work. I just remember her kind of wanting to please the church. She had to do the right thing to please the church. But she's not there anymore. Ministry 1. Why is [having to work the system] so typical with the Presbyterians? I've been really impressed with the whole “hearts for ministry” in the Lutheran churches. I've seen that a lot of the ministry they're doing is very mercyoriented, similar to the Mennonites. 2. “When I compare different churches I look at how one church would handle their Ministry. They would let anybody come. The way our church was doing it, you had to go at a certain time.” 3. When I would deliver Ministry Items [to the church] they were reacting because I kind of didn't fit into the system. I would take [items] back to the church and it was like too much for the church [leaders]. 4. “When I've been involved in the Other Ethnic Group communities, women are different, so different.” 5. “Everybody goes out to the suburbs and they don't deal with the issues in the city. That's very similar [to the church community].” 154

6. “You always have to be ready for changes.” Bible 1. “Who did Jesus go to when he rose? The first were women.” 2. “Christ was so different to women. Does our church talk about that? Do they preach that?” Communication 1. “So many women are gifted women who are able to communicate.” 2. “I'm terrible at communication but I think that's such a gift for so many women.” 3. “Maybe the men need to be better communicators so they're making them be the only ones to do that.” 4. “[Men and women] have different gifts but then everybody has different gifts.” Career 1. I had the ability to bless many people through my Church Sponsored Business. I had a great opportunity to have people come to my Business. People who would never come to church would come to the Business. In the church there hasn't been a real openness or friendliness [toward these people]. 2. “You're showing the love of Christ in the things you do and in your relationships.” 3.

“I felt like I was inspired but [the church leaders] wouldn't say I was inspired. They said I was in transition. It was a nice way of saying, I'm fired.”

4. It was almost like saying, the forgive and forget type of thing. “You're forgiven you know, and worship together.” I told them I was not going to go to the church these months while I was losing my [job]. I'm not allowed to tell anyone what happened. 5. “I hear such a contrast when someone says, „If this was in a real [secular] business this would not happen.‟” 6. “For me there's anger while continuously forgiving. It has actually come to where it has just hit me in my basic daily life.”

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Control 1. “You have to let go of being in control, of wanting it your own way. I don't know if [men] understand pain.” 2. “I don't think I would appreciate stuff without having gone through suffering and hard times. But you have to hit the pits.” Textural Description for Participant 3 (P3) Not Fitting In P3 thinks that in the church, “women are not treated the way that they should be treated.” When Mrs. Pastor‟s Wife would preach, because she had to “fit in the box,” they had to say that she was teaching. P3 is not the kind of woman who fits easily into a box. She is not used to being accepted or respected in her church. She wonders if maybe “that‟s why I was always so feisty.” P3 has learned to network and has gone outside of the boundaries of the Presbyterian church. She goes to other meetings with a variety of Christ-centered churches. P3 has been able to reach out to a variety of ministries. She thinks it is “neat to be able to go beyond the box.” Personality P3 sees herself as being a “pretty strong woman” who is not an extrovert. She is an entrepreneurial type person who has learned to “kind of sneak and do things quietly.” P3 realizes that she “gets away with stuff” some of which “wasn't so good.” She admits that she used to “kind of take over the church.” However, God seemed to bless what she was doing. Being Heard P3 expects people at her church to not listen to her. Because of that, she has learned to do things quietly. When women go to a session meeting they are greeted nicely 156

and the men smile at them. However, it is unclear if anything the women say is heard by the men. P3 has gone to the session a number of times to suggest more controversial sermon topics. In her church, she wonders if she is allowed to talk. P3 has a friend who has stopped talking about significant issues. She and her friend have resigned themselves to not being heard. “It doesn't make any difference.” P3 remembers being one of the first deaconesses in the church. She felt that there were other women who had a stronger voice. P3 can tell people things but “it's like words aren't enough.” She has learned that in the church she has to have actions to back up what she says. Feelings P3 is frustrated. She remembers going to deacon‟s meetings. It was twenty people's opinions and it was so disorganized. “Unless you got your words in when you prayed, you weren't heard.” At one point in her life P3 needed to step down from her role as a deaconess because of overwhelming personal issues. She was frustrated by the men wanting her to write and sign something about why she was stepping down. P3 does not recall whether or not she signed anything. The men seemed happy to not have her there anymore. She and her friend are at the point where they feel changes are not going to happen. P3 feels that talking will make no difference because nothing is going to change. Leadership P3 started a Particular Ministry at the church over 15 years ago. The men wanted the Ministry to be closed over the holidays. P3 decided she was going to be involved in the ministry over the holidays even though the men wanted it to be closed. She got someone to help her do what she wanted to do. There was a huge reaction from a couple of men. P3 assumed this reaction occurred because “I'm kind of hated there” in the

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church. There was one deacon who had been trying to encourage her at one point but it was just a huge negative experience. The men on the board told P3 there were going to be changes in how the Church Sponsored Business was run and especially about how the money was going to be used. “There was a huge battle that went on with that.” P3 was upset because the session and the deacons chose the board members. The women were not allowed to choose any of the board members. P3 feels that the men wanted to have more control. They would not allow board members from other churches. P3 feels that the church is very “internal” and “me-centered.” It is very difficult to get the church to look outside of itself for resources. At one point there was a female board member. P3 remembers her as “wanting to please the church” by always trying to “do the right thing.” This female board member is no longer at the church or on the board. Bible When Jesus rose from the dead, the first people he went to were women. Christ treated women differently. P3 wonders why the church does not ever preach about that. Ministry P3 wonders why “working the system” is so typical of Presbyterians. She has been very impressed with the Lutherans and Mennonites who have “hearts for ministry.” These non-Presbyterian churches are very oriented toward mercy ministries and offer a lot more flexibility for people who need help. In her current church, there were all kinds of rules about what time people could use the Ministry. One particular time P3 delivered Ministry items to her church to accommodate one particular ethnic group. People were upset because she did not follow their system. When she returned some items back to the

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church, “there was a huge reaction by the church leaders.” P3 has been involved in Other Ethnic Group communities. She has noticed that the women are different than in the Presbyterian church. P3 remembered attending a meeting with representatives from a variety of local townships to talk about the future of their communities. One pastor got up and talked about how Other Ethnic Groups are coming in to the area which is leading to changes in the church and communities. One person said that he wanted to see the community continue to be the same; small and white. The pastor said basically that it was too late because the demographics were already changing. P3 thought about people going out to live in the suburbs so they don't have to deal with the issues in the city. She feels that the church is becoming like that by not wanting to deal with issues. She stated, “You always have to be ready for changes.” Communication P3 believes that there are many women who are gifted in being able to communicate. She feels that she is a terrible communicator but that many women have that gift. P3 wondered if maybe the reason men are the only ones communicating in the church is because they need to learn how to improve their communication skills. She believes men and women have different gifts. However, she stated that “everybody has different gifts.” Career P3 has had the opportunity to bless many people through her Church Sponsored Business. She has been able to show the love of Christ in things that she has done and in her relationships. People who would never come to church would come to the business.

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P3 has had many opportunities to do ministry with people. In the PCA church, there has not been a real openness or friendliness toward people who were different than the majority of members in the church. P3 felt like she was inspired in her work at the church and as Director of the Church Sponsored Business. However, she thinks the church leaders would not say that she was inspired. They fired her from her position with the Business. They told her she was “in transition.” It was unclear to P3 why exactly they were firing her. She was told she was not allowed to tell anyone what happened while she was getting paid for the next couple of months during her “transition.” P3 thinks they wanted her to “forgive and forget” and come to church and worship with them. She told them she was not going to go to church with them while she was “losing her job.” People have told her that if this was a business in the secular world, it would not have happened this way. She feels angry about being fired because it is hitting her “in my basic daily life.” P3 is trying to continuously forgive the people who were involved in the situation that led to her being fired. Control P3 wondered aloud if men understand pain. She has learned that you have to let go of being in control and of wanting things your own way. P3 stated that going through suffering and hard times has helped her to appreciate things. The down side is, “you have to hit the pits” in order to become more appreciative. Structural Themes for Participant 3 (P3) The structural themes that describe P3‟s experience are perception of self, perception of church, and perception of ministry. The first structure is perception of self. 160

P3 is a quiet woman with an entrepreneurial spirit who will never fit into anyone‟s “box.” In her church she does not feel accepted, respected, or heard. She has learned to do things quietly and covertly. P3 has noticed that women in other denominations seem to be treated differently than in the PCA. When she interacts with people from ministries outside of the PCA, she feels that she is respected and heard. P3 was recently fired from her job as Director of a Church Sponsored Business. She believes one of the reasons for her termination was that she did not fit into their idea of what kind of woman she was supposed to be. P3 feels hopeless about any change occurring in the PCA. She has resigned herself to not being heard. The next structural theme is perception of church. P3 is weary of being in a church where women are expected to “fit into a box.” She has been to session meetings where she has spoken but does not believe she was taken seriously. P3 felt that praying during deacon‟s meetings was the best way to speak without being interrupted. Men seem to communicate more than the women in the church. She wonders if God planned that because men need to improve their communication skills more than women. In her church, the men were always trying to take control of the Church Sponsored Business and how the money was going to be used. Not only did they fire her, they told her she was not allowed to talk to anyone about what happened or else she would lose her severance pay. Their threat just seemed to underscore her negative experience in this church with these men. The next structural theme is perception of ministry. P3 feels called to a life of ministry to people who are marginalized. It distresses her that the church does not welcome certain types of people. She has started a number of ministries and has often felt

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inspired to do things, however she does not think church leaders agreed with that perspective. P3 has been able to bless people through her business. She has been able to show the love of Christ to people in her relationships and in how she ministers to them. P3 feels that her church does not like change and they try to limit their ministry opportunities. She believes there should be a lot of flexibility when ministering to others. There have been multiple instances in which church leaders became upset because she did not follow their system. P3 has found that people in other churches were more appreciative of her gifts and talents. Meaning Units and Textural Themes for Participant 4 (P4) Conservative 1. “I grew up in a fairly conservative church.” 2. “[The PCA is] working really hard to try to be biblical.” 3. “I'm fine with [gender roles in the church]. I'm comfortable with it.” 4. “ [The church] needs to give us our outlets in other places because it's not in the church.” 5. “[Gender roles] have practically no impact [on my life].” 6. “I think women who have problems with gender roles tend not to stay in the PCA.” Leadership 1. “When you have a lot of problems with women wanting to go into a church role, a lot of that comes from, there is no other outlet.” 2. “The church has acquiesced and sometimes led in restricting women's roles outside of the church.” 3. “If some guys really want to push for [total gender roles] then they need to be right, front and center on doing all of the teaching, and that includes the two and three year olds.”

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Bible 1. “I think the Bible has very little to say about gender roles that's eternal.” 2. “I'm not absolutely sure that our interpretation of scripture is what the Lord meant.” 3. My reading of Paul's business about women keeping quiet in the church and not allowing a woman to have authority over men, the way that is worded, I think a real possible interpretation of that is, “This is Paul talking, I do not allow, as is my practice.” Boundaries 1. I'm somebody who likes to have things well defined. If there were this nice clear boundary, “This is what we believe about what's inside the church and this is what we believe about what the Bible says, and this is how we're interpreting it outside the church and this is what it's going to be,” I would be fine. 2. “Where I have some problems is where what's inside the church starts morphing outside [the church].” 3. We say that women shouldn't preach, women shouldn't be elders. I'm okay with that. Often times though that seems to morph into, “Well, women shouldn't do this, women shouldn't do that, women should not be This Career, women should not be leaders.” 4. “I heard that one man in a church leadership position has said, „I'm not sure that you should employ a woman architect.‟” 5. “It all seems to be connected in some not very well defined way to bend women's roles within the church and then that goes out into society.” 6. “If you think gender roles in the PCA are restrictive, they're more restrictive in the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC).” 7. “I left the OPC because someone wondered how I could be a registered Democrat and a Christian. You had an atmosphere there where that was an okay thing to say and an okay thing to do.” 8. I don't care if everyone else in the church is a registered Republican. We can talk about politics. I know I don't agree with most of the people in the church. Let's look at what we do agree on. We agree on Jesus. 9. “People and families make their own choices about a wide variety of thingspolitics, education, finances, use of time. There are no blanket “right or wrong” choices in these areas.” 163

10. “No one especially church leadership should try to dictate choices to you or your family.” Career 1. I feel called to do my work outside the church so I kind of feel like fighting the whole [gender role issue] would just be more destructive than constructive. The Lord has called me to be a Secular Career Person. He has blessed me in being that. 2. I feel very strongly that what the Lord has called me to do in the world is something that's not a real permanent thing. When the time comes for me to leave [this world] I'm going to leave that behind. It's what I'm supposed to do now so I'm doing it. 3. “As far as a gender role in the church having something to do with that, for me it's not connected. I'm supposed to be working [outside the church].” 4. “This is probably selfish because I feel called to do my work outside the church, so I feel like fighting the whole [gender] thing would just be more destructive than constructive.” 5. “As far as people issues except insofar as they affect the way our teams work, we just don't deal with it [at work].” Ministry 1. “[A woman] had come from the United Presbyterian Church where she had been a deacon. I remember her saying all of a sudden women couldn't be deacons. I think she had a real gift for that.” 2. One thing the Bible is pretty clear on, and that is that the mercy ministry is really, really important. If parts of it are being taken care of on an unofficial or ad hoc basis that's fine as long as it's working. 3. “Ad hoc is fine as long as the ministry is working. Being a female deacon without the title might work for the particular woman. However, it might not work out so well for the mercy ministry itself.” 4. [There is] one side effect of this whole business of having very restrictive gender roles. A lot of work needs to be done. [What if] some women in particular feel led to do [the work but are not allowed]? You almost have this kind of shadow, underground, unofficial, “Whatever, that's fine as long as it gets things done” attitude. 5. I think you have to make sure the titles are there because if the title's not there, responsibility is not there and it's just not a good situation. Without a title and the clear responsibility that goes with it, sometimes it is hard to get the 164

resources which are needed to do the job right. A lot can go wrong organizationally. Context 1. “The Bible talks to us mostly as people and recognizing that men are different from women. [We] think differently.” 2. At the time the Bible was written down men and women had such different roles in society and that had to come through. It had to be written from that point of view or else it just would have had no meaning. 3. “You go back to the way the Bible deals with us. It's mostly as people.” Marriage 1. “We're supposed to be subservient, second in command I prefer to think of it, to our husbands. It's what the Bible says but how it works out is different in a lot of marriages.” 2. “My husband and I have pretty much equal back and forth.” 3. “Your desire will be for your husband and he will rule over you. That's different from saying, „You're a worse sinner and you're going to be a second class human being all your life.‟” 4. Every now and then someone has to make a decision; you don't always get the consensus. If you're at the point where you need to make the decision or a decision needs to be made, that someone is the husband. I think that's what [the Bible] says. Being Heard 1. “You want to be honest, you want to be non-confrontational.” 2. “You want to have a productive discussion, you want to get your point of view across, you want to be understood.” Praise 1. [The world and the church] overlap for me not so much in gender but in praise. When you spend your time studying the physical world you see so many wonderful things God has made and you just see how beautiful it is, how well put together. 2. “The world that God has made, that we'll leave, and the chemistry will be left behind and everything. It's just a wonderful, wonderful place.”

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3. “[The overlap occurs in] churches where we are more explicitly called to praise God. And the world to me calls forth praise but not really on a “working with people” basis.” Textural Description for Participant 4 (P4) Conservative P4 believes that the PCA church is “working really hard to try to be biblical.” She grew up in a fairly conservative church. P4 is comfortable with the gender roles in the PCA church and feels that gender roles have practically no impact on her life. P4 believes that women who have problems with gender roles “tend not to stay in the PCA.” Leadership P4 stated that the church has “acquiesced and sometimes led in restricting women's roles outside of the church.” Problems sometimes occur in the church because women cannot use their gifts outside the church so then they want to use them in the church. But then the church tells them they cannot have certain roles because they are not men. What results is then the women do not know what to do with their gifts. P3 believes that if some of the men want to have a total gender role distinction, “then they need to be right, front and center on doing all of the teaching.” That would include their leadership in teaching the two and three year children. Bible P4 believes the Bible has very little to say about gender roles that's eternal. She is not absolutely certain that the way we interpret scripture is what God really meant. P4 is familiar with Paul's verses about women keeping quiet in church and not having authority over men. She thinks a possible interpretations of that is, “This is Paul talking, I do not allow, as is my practice.” 166

Career P4 feels called to do her work outside of the church. God has called her to have a Secular Career and has blessed her in it. Fighting any gender role beliefs within the church would “just be more destructive than constructive.” She knows one day she will leave this world and will leave her secular calling behind. P4 does not feel that church gender roles are connected in any way to her career outside of the church. In her work, they do not concentrate on “people issues” such as gender roles unless there is an issue about how their teams are working. Boundaries P4 likes to have things well defined. Problems occur when roles in the church start “morphing” outside the church. There should be very clear boundaries about what we believe the Bible teaches about life inside the church and outside the church. P4 knows that in the PCA women are not allowed to preach or be elders. She is fine with that. However sometimes those kinds of beliefs morph into rules about what women should or should not do outside of the church. “Women shouldn't do this, women shouldn't do that, women should not be This Career, women should not be leaders.” Women's church roles become connected in a “not very well defined way to bend women's roles within the church” which then goes out to affect women's lives in secular society. P4 was previously in the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC) where gender roles were even more restrictive than the PCA. One of the reasons she left the OPC was because someone asked her how she could be a Democrat and a Christian. There was an atmosphere in that church that made it okay for someone to say something like that to

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another person. P4 emphatically stated that she doesn't care if everyone else in the church is a registered Republican. She is willing to discuss politics with people and knows she does not agree with most of the people in the church. “Let's look at what we do agree on. We agree on Jesus.” People and families have the freedom to make their own choices in a wide variety of areas. There are no “blanket right or wrong choices.” P4 stated that “no one especially church leadership should try to dictate choices to you or your family.” Ministry P4 had a friend at her previous church who had come from the United Presbyterian church. Her friend had been a deacon at the previous church and all of a sudden she couldn't be a deacon. That was a shame because her friend had a real gift for that. P4 believes the Bible is very clear about the importance of the mercy ministry. “If parts of it are being taken care of on an unofficial or ad hoc basis that's fine as long as it's working.” P4 thought that being a female deacon without the title might work for the particular woman. However, she questioned whether it might not work out so well for the mercy ministry itself. P4 thought there might be a “side effect” of having very restrictive gender roles. There is a lot of work to be done in the mercy ministry. What if women feel called to do something but are told they are not allowed to do it? The church might end up with a “shadow, underground, unofficial” situation in which people's attitudes become, “Whatever, that's fine, as long as things get done.” P4 believes that it is important to have titles for positions because with the titles come responsibility. “Without a title and the clear responsibility that goes with it, sometimes it is hard to get the resources which are needed to do the job right. A lot can go wrong organizationally.”

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Context P4 believes the Bible recognizes that men and women think differently. When the Bible was written, men and women had different roles in society. The Bible had to be written from that point of view or else the Bible would have had no meaning to its readers. P4 pointed out that when “you go back to the way the Bible deals with us, it's mostly as people.” Marriage P4 stated that women are supposed to be “subservient, second in command” to their husbands. She believes the Bible says this but that it works out differently in a lot of marriages. P4 and her husband have “pretty much equal back and forth.” In marriage every now and then someone has to make a decision “when you don't get consensus.” The Bible teaches that the person to make that final decision is the husband. She recalled a Bible voice stating “your desire will be for your husband and he will rule over you.” P4 has heard people talk about the meaning of this verse. It does not mean, “You're a worse sinner and you're going to be a second class human being all your life.” Being Heard P4 believes that in order to be heard by others especially regarding a topic such as gender roles, “You want to be honest, you want to be non-confrontational.” The goal would be to have a productive discussion. This would hopefully include getting your point of view across and being understood. Praise P4 feels that that the world and the church overlap for her “not in gender, but in praise.” In her studies of the physical world she has seen the wonderful things God has

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made and how beautiful and well put together the world is. The church calls people to praise God as does the physical world, which was created by God. P4 exclaimed, “The world to me calls forth praise.” She sees the overlap not in relation to people-related issues but in how both the church and the world call us to praise God. Structural Themes for Participant 4 (P4) The structural themes that describe P3‟s experience are perception of self, perception of church, and perception of ministry. P4 grew up in a conservative church and is comfortable with gender roles. She is called to a career outside of the church and gender roles have no impact on what she does. P4 is a woman who likes to have well defined boundaries. She has a very scientific, organized way of thinking and living. During the interview she took complicated thoughts and followed them to what she viewed as logical conclusions. She left a previous church due in part to someone crossing the boundaries of church and personal life by questioning her political affiliation. P4 sets boundaries between what she will and will not do in the church. She will not get involved in conflicts because she has no time or desire to do so. P4 wants people to focus on what they agree about, which is Jesus. This leads to the next structure which is perception of church. Following P4‟s logical way of thinking, if people agree to focus on Jesus, they will find themselves feeling thankful and giving praise to God. Praise is the one place where P4 is comfortable with overlapping boundaries. The beauty of the physical world causes her to offer praise to the God who created it. Christians are called by God to praise him in all circumstances. P4 is comfortable with this overlap. She believes that the Bible says very little about gender roles. P4 questions if people‟s interpretations correctly reflect what God meant to 170

say. The verse that talks about women not having authority over men and being quiet could possibly be interpreted as the writer‟s opinion, not necessarily God‟s desire for the church. The next structure is perception of ministry. It is a logical next step from praise. If people are part of a community that is praising God, then ministry to others will flow out of their gratitude. P4 believes the Bible is very clear about the importance of mercy ministry. If women feel called to mercy ministry, but the church restricts what women are allowed to do, there might be an unofficial ministry that may or may not work. Not having an official title might lead to a lack of responsibility. Then the mercy ministry would suffer. The question logically then becomes, what is more important, gender roles or mercy ministry? Meaning Units and Textural Themes for Participant 5 (P5) Career 1. I've had to pursue avenues outside the church to utilize what I feel is my sort of Christian calling. I have a seminary degree. I have the exact same seminary degree as my husband. We walked the stage together. [Ordination] is a whole career avenue that's completely closed off to me. 2. Because the training I received was from a theological institution I've had to work extra hard to pick up the slack. I prepared educationally at a seminary to do ministry work and not professional work. But the only avenue that was open to me as a woman was a professional secular avenue. 3. “I've had to take that religious degree and add on to it extra experience and education and training to be able to work in a secular environment. So that's been a little bit of a struggle.” Teaching 1. [My husband and I] were approached by the educational committee to lead a Sunday School class together. There were a few men in the church who had a problem with the fact that I as a woman would be teaching men. The day before our very first class we were preparing for Sunday School at [a local 171

restaurant]. This one gentleman came up to me and sat down and told me he had a issue with this and he thought that I was going to divide the church. 2. He said that if I went forward with this that there is going to be so much of a problem that people would leave the church because of me. When he walked away I burst into tears. I thought, “O my gosh, I don't want to make the people leave the church over this.” That was a low point really in feeling very oppressed. 3. “One thing that I did was go to our pastors. [They said] that I had the full support of the session and both pastors; that I should be teaching this class. And so I did. “ Calling 1. “I understand my vocation. I essentially feel called to gospel ministry.” 2. “If ordination were open to me as a woman in the PCA I would have pursued it. But it's not, so I haven't.” 3.

I've tried to find other outlets for my gifts. I essentially use what I have discerned as my gifts and my calling outside the church in a Secular Vocation. It's sad to me that I can't use them in the church.

4. I enjoy my work. I don't feel like I'm living less than I should. I just know that if I were a man I would be seeking or already would be ordained. I still may pursue that later in life. 5. “My generation was raised with the knowledge that women can do anything. That any type of career is open to her. And I don't think that was the case for my mother's generation.” 6. It was much more common for women to be stay-at-home moms and housewives, so I think there was more of a comfort level with, “Of course this is what the men do and what the women do.” But for my generation and younger that just doesn't seem to be right. Boundaries 1. [I ignore] problems and go on trying to use my gifts and my education as best as I can, to the fullest extent that I possibly can; even to kind of push the boundaries a little bit sometimes on what has historically been acceptable. 2. “I've tried to study the issue myself and try to make sure that when I'm asked about it that I know what I'm talking about.” 3. “It's not just a gender issue but it's also a theological issue.”

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4. “When I can, I challenge people in gentle ways.” 5. “I never attack but I will speak up and try to challenge the issue intellectually.” Support 1.

“I have thought of leaving. I have.”

2. What's kept me in the PCA is community and relationships. [I have] wonderful friends, wonderful mentors, people that I respect, and that's no small thing. It's hard to just schlep that off and just go to start a new community somewhere else. 3. “It's the relationships and the connections and the people really that keep us there.” 4. “[I talk] to other like-minded people.” 5. “I know that there are a lot of women within the PCA who feel the way I do. There are men who feel the way I do.” 6. “I try to gain encouragement from those who feel that there should be a change, that there could be a change.” Equality 1. “All the way back to the Old Testament, there is the idea that the kingdom of God would be liberating to women; that women were equal to men and should be treated as such.” 2. The only thing that was holding the church back at that time from declaring that message fully was not wanting the gospel to be a stumbling block to that culture. But now that the situation is reversed and our culture has gone through this big revolution on how it views women. Now we are the opposite, and we're the stumbling block. 3. We're putting women in this very small little box and saying women can only do this and this. It's doubly unjust and wrong for us not to embrace all the possibilities and all the potential for women to serve. If women are this inferior cursed gender, then why would God create a plan for salvation the way he did involving Mary? Leadership 1. I would describe myself as at odds with the PCA's official beliefs; but in submission to them, essentially. I think that it's important to have authority in 173

the church and so because I'm a member of the church at this time, I submit to the authority. 2. I believe that the people who have created the doctrines or established the official policy do so out of good conscience. I don't think that there's much or a lot of pernicious desire to oppress women. I think that most men who set these policies respect their Christian sisters and so forth but I believe their interpretations of scripture are wrong. 3. I believe that the church is behind the times when it comes to gender roles; that there's a lack of progress that's occurring. I think that when a man and a woman come to church, the women's gifts are automatically not as valued as the man's gifts to the detriment of the church body, in most of the churches. 4. I think women should be able to do everything men do. I think women should be able to preach and serve the sacraments and lead the congregation in worship the way they do in other churches. I think it's sad that in our church those opportunities to serve aren't there. 5. “I think that the PCA needs to change. We are actually being a stumbling block to the world. Non-Christians are looking in and saying, „Why would you perpetrate this type of injustice?‟ It becomes very difficult to explain.” Feelings 1. “One of my biggest feelings is sadness.” 2. “It makes me sad that women are often treated the way they are in our denomination. Disappointing, I think.” 3. “There's a sense of injustice. There's a sense of loss. There's kind of a heaviness to it.” Textural Description for Participant 5 (P5) Career P5 has the exact same seminary degree as her husband. “We walked the stage together.” Being ordained in the PCA church is an entire career path that is completely closed off. Her education at seminary prepared her to do ministry work. However, “the only avenue that was open to me as a woman was a professional secular avenue.” P5 has had to take her religious degree and add additional education, training, and experience to 174

be able to work in a secular environment. She has had to work “extra hard” to pick up the slack. P5 has found that to be somewhat of a struggle. Teaching The educational committee at church asked P5 and her husband to lead a weekly Sunday School class together. Apparently a few men in the church had a problem with the fact that a woman would be teaching men in a Sunday School class. A man from the church told her that “people would leave the church because of me.” P5 felt that this was “a low point in feeling very oppressed.” She went to the pastors and told them what happened. They assured her that she had the full support of the session and both of the pastors. They told her she should be teaching the class. “And so I did.” Calling P5 understands her vocation. She is called to gospel ministry. If ordination were available for women in the PCA, she would be pursuing it. P5 has found ways to use her gifts and calling outside the church in a secular vocation. She feels sad that she cannot use her gifts and calling within the church. P5 enjoys her work and does not feel that she is living “less than I should.” If she were a man, “I would be seeking or already would be ordained.” P5 was raised with the knowledge that women could do anything they wanted to do and that any career was open to them. In her mother's generation it was more common for women to be stay-at-home moms and housewives. Previous generations were more comfortable with roles for men and women. P5 believes that for her generation and younger those roles just do not seem right to them.

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Boundaries P5 tries to ignore problems and use her gifts and education as best she can and to the fullest extent possible. She will even “push the boundaries a little bit sometimes on what has historically been acceptable.” P5 has tried to study the issue and makes sure that she knows what she is talking about. This is not just a gender issue, but it is also a theological issue. When possible, P5 will “challenge people in gentle ways.” She will speak up and try to challenge the issue from an intellectual point of view. Support P5 has thought of leaving the PCA. She stays because of the community and the relationships she and her husband have built. They have wonderful friends, mentors, and people whom she respects. P5 values these connections and feels that it is “no small thing” to be connected to so many people. It would be very difficult to just go somewhere else to start a new community. “It's the relationships and the connections and the people really that keep us there.” P5 finds encouragement by talking to people who are “likeminded” about gender issues. She knows that there are men and women in the PCA who feel the way she does. P5 tries to gain encouragement by talking to people who feel there should and possibly could be a change. Equality P5 believes that all the way back to the Old Testament there was the idea that the kingdom of God would be liberating to women. The Bible showed how “women were equal to men and should be treated as such.” In the New Testament, the church was being held back from declaring the message fully so that the gospel would not be perceived as a stumbling block to that culture. P5 feels that now the situation is reversed. “Our culture

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has gone through this big revolution on how it views women.” Now the church has become the stumbling block. Women are being put into “this very small little box” and are told they can only do certain roles. It is “doubly unjust and wrong for us not to embrace all the possibilities and all the potential for women to serve.” P5 wonders about women being seen as an inferior, cursed gender. If that is true, then “why would God create a plan for salvation the way he did involving Mary?” Leadership P5 describes herself as “at odds with the PCA's official beliefs but in submission to them, essentially.” It is important to have authority in the church. As a member of the PCA church she has agreed to submit to the authority. P5 believes that people who have created the church doctrines or established the official policy do so “out of good conscience.” She does not think that the men have “much or a lot of pernicious desire to oppress women.” For the most part, the men who set these policies respect their Christian sisters. However, “their interpretations of scripture are wrong.” P5 thinks that women should be able to do everything that the men are able to do. Women should be able to preach, serve the sacraments, and lead the congregation in worship. In the PCA church these kinds of opportunities do not exist for the women. The church is “behind the times” when it comes to gender roles. She believes there is a lack of progress and that the PCA needs to change. P5 is saddened by the reality that “when a man and a woman come to church, the women's gifts are automatically not as valued as the man's gifts.” This devaluation is to the detriment of the church body. Non-Christians are looking at the church and saying, “Why would you perpetrate this type of injustice?” Gender roles in the church are very difficult to explain to people outside of the church.

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Feelings One of P5's biggest feelings is sadness along with disappointment. It makes her sad “that women are often treated the way they are in our denomination.” She feels a sense of injustice and loss. “There's kind of a heaviness to it.” Structural Themes for Participant 5 (P5) The structural themes for P5‟s experience are perception of self, perception of church, and perception of ministry. The first structure is perception of self. P5‟s life experience has been one of equality. She was raised to believe she could do anything she wanted to do and that any career was available to her. The next structure is perception of church. P5 views the PCA‟s gender roles as a huge stumbling within a culture that has worked hard to changes its views of women. There are feelings of sadness and disappointment about how women are treated in the church. P5 and her husband have equal seminary degrees and walked the stage together to graduate. However, in the PCA church she and her husband are not equal. She does not understand how a church cannot espouse the equality of men and women. There is no way to reasonably explain to non-Christians why a church would perpetrate such an injustice toward women. P5 wants the church to progress in its understanding of women and make the changes it needs to make so that all its members are able to experience equality. She and her husband stay in the PCA because of the relationships and connections they have to many people. P5 feels encouraged by talking to people who feel that it is time for the PCA to change. She believes the Bible teaches the equality of men and women.

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The final structure is perception of ministry. P5 believes women should be able to do whatever men do in the church. She has been called by God to gospel ministry within the church but is unable to pursue her calling within the current structure of the PCA church. P5 works in a secular environment where her gifts are as equally valued as the men‟s gifts. Coming from a life experience of equality, it makes no sense to her that her gifts are valued in the secular world but minimized and devalued in the religious world. If she were a man she would be possibly be already ordained as a pastor. She tries to use her talents as much as she can within the church environment. When given the opportunity she will use theological arguments to challenge people about their gender restrictive views. Meaning Units and Textural Themes for Participant 6 (P6) Tradition 1. “I don't really have an issue with how [gender roles] are right now.” 2. “I grew up in the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC) which is pretty close to the PCA so that was just kind of what I always knew.” 3. “It's comfortable. In some ways it kind of speaks to tradition too and I like tradition a lot.” 4. “I haven't really found a reason to question [gender roles]. It's not a problem for me.” 5. “I've grown up in the OPC so that's what I've always heard.” Career 1. It's kind of funny because home and work are totally different for me because I work in an almost all male place. When it comes to that I'm like, “Go woman, woman power, do whatever you want to do.” 2. “In the office I want to be treated the same as everyone else, which I am pretty much.”

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3. “Maybe it's partly what I've grown up with, what I've always known. My parents always said, „Whatever you want to do, do it. Find something that you enjoy.‟” Leadership 1. “I haven't really had the desire to take one of those roles that women are sometimes fighting for. Personally, I haven't known of anyone who wanted to be an elder or an ordained deacon.” 2. I don't have a problem with [Mrs. Jane Doe] teaching Sunday School. There are a lot of wise godly women. I go to Mrs. Jane Doe‟s class. It doesn't bother me at all that she teaches. Mr. and Mrs. John and Jane Doe together are really good teachers. I really like their class. 3. “I would think it was a little strange [if Mrs. Jane Doe wanted to be an elder] because I'm not used to it.” 4. “When I have kids we're always gonna encourage them to do what they want. I always joke that I'm going to buy our little girls airplanes and fire trucks and stuff like that.” 5. Men are to be the leaders and elders. It kind of seems like that's what the Bible says, from what I've heard. That's what I've always heard. In the home and in the church I have no problem letting the men take the leadership. 6. “Women aren't supposed to be pastors or elders or anything like that. We didn't have deaconesses or anything in my church growing up. That was just always a male role as well.” 7. Another thing at my church that was different, we had a board of trustees and my mom was the president for a while. None of the trustees are ordained or anything. There's men and women that serve on the committee. Marriage 1. I am kind of an independent “I can do it myself” kind of person. Until [we] met and we started dating and got married and stuff, I was always, “I can do that myself.” I found him to be my leader in a sense. I don't mind him doing stuff at all. Before, if my car broke down, I had no problem calling a mechanic and telling them, “This is what's wrong.” So now all right he can do it. “Whatever, you can take care of it.” 2. My dad always made me make my own decisions. It was annoying at the time. [My husband and I] always talk about things and make decisions together. I feel like he's the one making the final [decision]. The Bible says so, somewhere in Ephesians maybe? He is more qualified to make a final decision because the Bible says so. 180

3. “[My husband's] pretty good at taking my thoughts into consideration. He would not make a huge decision without talking to me first and finding out what I think about it.” Textural Description for Participant 6 (P6) Career P6 works in an almost all male environment. When she is at work, she wants to be treated the same as everyone else. P6 is all about “woman power” and doing whatever she wants to do at work regardless of gender. She has grown up with this viewpoint. Her parents always told her to find something she enjoys and then do it. Gender was never an issue. Leadership P6 has not had the desire to have a role in the church that women are sometimes fighting for. She has not known any women who wanted to be an elder or an ordained deacon. P6 does not have a problem with Mrs. Jane Doe teaching Sunday School to a class with both men and women. “There are a lot of wise godly women who have a lot to offer.” She attends the class and it does not bother her at all that Mrs. Jane Doe is teaching. Mr. and Mrs. John and Jane Doe are both really good teachers and she likes their class. She does think it would feel a little strange if Mrs. Jane Doe wanted to be an elder only because P6 is not used to the idea of women elders. When P6 and her husband have children, she plans to encourage them to do whatever they want to do. P6 believes that men are to be leaders and elders. She believes this is what the Bible says plus this is what she has always heard. In the home and in the church P6 has no problem letting the men take the leadership. Growing up there were no deaconesses in the church, only deacons. One thing in her church that was different was that there was a 181

board of trustees in which her mother was president for a while. Trustees were not ordained but there were both men and women on the committee. P6 does not have a problem with gender roles in the PCA. She grew up in the Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC) which is somewhat similar to the PCA. Gender roles are familiar to her and she is comfortable with them. P6 appreciates how gender roles speak to her appreciation of tradition, which is very important to her. She does not have a problem with gender roles. “I have never found a reason to question them.” Marriage P6 is an independent person who likes to do things herself. She was an “I can do it myself” type of person until she married her husband. P6 has found him to be her leader and she does not mind him doing things for her. Before she was married, if her car broke down she would have called the mechanic and told him what was wrong. Now P6 lets her husband do that. She thinks, “Whatever, you can take care of it.” Growing up, P6's father made her make her own decisions. She found that very annoying at times. P6 and her husband always talk about things and make decisions together. She believes that her husband is “more qualified to make a final decision because the Bible says so.” P6 feels that her husband is “pretty good at taking my thoughts into consideration.” Her husband would not make a huge decision without talking to her first to find out what she thinks about the situation. Structural Themes for Participant 6 (P6) Structural themes that describe P6‟s experience are perception of self, perception of church, and perception of ministry. The first structure is perception of self. Growing up, P6 experienced ultra conservative gender roles within the Orthodox Presbyterian 182

Church. Despite attending such a conservative church, her parents did not restrict her in any way by gender. She was expected to make her own decisions and learned to be an independent woman who was able to take care of herself. P6 has chosen a career that is comprised mainly of men. She expects to be treated just like everyone else. At work, P6 has no tolerance for being treated differently than the men. The next structure is perception of church. P6 agrees and is satisfied with gender roles in the PCA church. P6 appreciates the familiarity and sense of tradition she feels with the roles. She has never felt any need to challenge gender roles. P6 has only had good experiences with conservative gender roles. Now that she is married, P6 is happy to let her husband be the leader of the family. She believes that God wants her husband to be the one who would make a final decision if they could not agree on an issue. P6 knows that her husband would take her point of view very seriously when considering what decision to make. The next theme is perception of ministry. She does not know any women who have wanted to have a position in the church that they were not allowed to have. P6 is not necessarily against women being elders in the church. However she thinks it would feel a little strange to her because she has never been in a church where women were elders. She has no problem with women teaching Sunday School to men and women. P6 recently attended a class taught by a husband and wife who had both graduated from seminary. Meaning Units and Textural Themes for Participant 7 (P7) Ordination 1. I grew up in the Methodist church. I didn‟t really hear anything about gender roles at all. Since we joined the church the first thing I learned was they only ordain men, not women. When I found out that women aren't ordained in the 183

PCA church I felt, “Okay.” I never had a goal of being a pastor and I was fine with that. 2. “It felt strange to me the thought of having a woman pastor. I always felt like that was a man's job.” 3. “If we were ordaining women, I feel like it would be more difficult for a woman to fully give to her family and fully give to a church.” Leadership 1. “I haven't really solidified my stance on gender roles.” 2. Most of the leaders of the early church were men, so then I think, “Okay, then men should be leaders in the church.” 3. I always wondered how I would be able to be a 100% great mom and a 100% great teacher, and I just always felt like, “No way,” and I wonder how a woman would do it. I wonder how a woman would [be a pastor]. It just seems that maybe men are better able to compartmentalize, like, lead the church and lead their family, and somehow make it work. 4. [Pastoring] is a job that requires you to live the job more than just work the job. If she didn't have children, maybe not as difficult. Maybe she would feel more torn. “Whose needs should I put first? Who do I nurture more?” Maybe men don't struggle with that as much. Ministry 1. I feel like at our church the women, from what I can see, mostly minister to other women and to the children. I have still found ways to be involved in the church but it has been mostly with either other women or ministering to the children. 2. “I don't mind if the official viewpoint of my contribution to the church were to be mainly ministering to the women and the children, because I personally don't have a desire to do more than that.” 3. To say that it's only possible that [women] could have something to share [only] with other women and children, to just completely shut down that wall on women possibly having anything to share with other men, seems wrong. The words that she says [in a church service], God might use that on a man, not just a child or a woman.

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Bible 1. I remember how in the Bible women at the tomb were among the first people sent to go tell everybody what happened. There are just so many women in the Bible who God used in so many mighty ways and I think of Queen Esther. [Women] were sent out to evangelize and they were sent out to be the news bearers. So then I wonder, should women have more teaching roles, is that what God would want? 2. People will take the scripture that talks about how the woman should remain quiet in worship. I know that it doesn't mean that what they have to say is not important; that God is not speaking through them and that God is not revealing himself to them. I'm not sure what it does mean. 3. I'm sure that there's nuances of the scriptures that we're probably not understanding, and maybe women should have more roles. There are lots of women in the New Testament and the Old Testament. And I'm sure that they were evangelizing just as much [as the men]. 4. It just always seems as if [women] were in a supportive role making sure the creature comforts of the men were met. I guess that's okay as long as the men in the situation are appreciating and valuing the woman. Because I think that's what God wants. Conservative 1. I definitely go more toward the traditional and the old fashioned way of looking at things. I've always been very old fashioned and traditional about gender roles. When I got to the PCA I felt like they were also conservative so I just sort of felt like it was appropriate. 2. “I haven't had any desire to teach a Sunday school class with men.” 3. “If they told Mrs. Jane Doe to help plan a study at home with her husband but that you can't teach and you can't share, I would have a problem with that.” Stereotypes 1. Men and women are created differently with different gifts and abilities but not of different importance. Of equal importance but just with different skills. I don't believe that men and women are the same, but they are of equal importance. They're definitely not the same. 2. “God really did create us differently.” 3. I believe what the Bible teaches, that men and women have different roles within the marriage, and different roles within the church, and different roles 185

within society. I feel like God has equipped men to be in more broader roles of leadership but that he has equipped women to notice things and like they need to be supportive. 4. “Part of the Bible's teaching on gender roles is that we're supposed to not take those differences and say, „That's why men are superior‟ or „That's why women are superior.‟” 5. I just think it's stereotypes we grew up with; men build things, women cook and do crafts. Women are built to be more relational and more nurturing and men are built to be more goal oriented and more you know, concrete. 6. “I feel like God equipped women to do things that men aren‟t good at and that men do things that women aren't good at.” Career 1. “I don't feel restricted, like I don't feel there's anything I want to be doing that I can't because I'm a woman.” 2. “I feel that there are some careers that start and stop at a specific time. You show up for work and then you're done work.” 3. [Some jobs] require you to live the job more than just work the job, like teaching and pastoring. My mom was a Career Person who worked a shift. She was all 100% Career Person at her shift and then she was 100% mom at home. Being Heard 1. I don't feel like my voice has never been heard because I'm a woman. But I'm not necessarily sure. I can see where though let's say I wanted to bring something to the session I could see where it would be very easy for them, depending on what I was bringing to them, to not see where I was coming from. 2. “[It would be good ] if there was some change in the PCA where they decided to add some sort of a female role to the session, if not a voting role but like as an advocate.” 3. I think it would be a benefit if there was at least just a female voice on the session even if it wasn't a female vote. I could see where just a woman's point of view could be helpful in the session. There are certain things in which women see the big picture.

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Feelings 1.

“I have [the] desperate need to exactly explain what I am talking about without mis-wording anything.”

2. “It feels like a very delicate topic and it feels like it's very very important to carefully choose each word.” 3. I feel a sense of needing to justify how I feel because I know that the men are on different ends of the spectrum. I don't want to just put it out there and not explain or defend it. I feel like I need to defend it, and I don't know if that's healthy or not. Heart Issue 1. “I just feel like with everything else, it comes down to a heart issue.” 2. If we are looking at the Bible and trying to best interpret how God wants us to live as men and women, and we're asking him to show us and we're at least feeling like our point of view is supported by scripture, then I think it's about a heart issue. 3. The heart issue is, are we trying to search the scriptures and ask God to show us in the best way how we're supposed to live as a godly woman; how men are supposed to live as a godly man, and not pointing the finger and being unkind and being unloving to other people who have a stand different than us. 4. “I feel like I'm gonna be thinking a lot more about it now. It feels like I just sort of put it out a little bit and now I'll be thinking more about it.” Textural Description for Participant 7 (P7) Ordination P7 grew up in the Methodist church where no one ever talked about gender roles. When she joined the PCA the first thing she learned was that the PCA only ordains women. She was okay with that because she never had a goal of being a pastor. The thought of having a woman pastor seemed strange to P7. She has always felt that pastoring was a man's job. P7 thought that if women were ordained, “it would be more difficult for a woman to fully give to her family and fully give to a church.”

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Leadership P7 does not feel like she has solidified her stance on gender roles. Most of the leaders of the early church were men. That has led her to believe that men should be the leaders in the church. When she thinks about the job of a pastor, she wonders how a woman could do that. It seems to her that “maybe men are better able to compartmentalize, like, lead the church and lead their family, and somehow make it work.” P7 sees pastoring as a job that requires a person to “live the job more than just work the job.” She thought that if she was a pastor and had children, she would feel very torn in her responsibilities. She would wonder, “Whose needs should I put first? Who do I nurture more?” P7 wondered if maybe men don't struggle so much with wondering whose needs should be met first. Ministry P7 has noticed that at her current church the women mostly minister to other women and to the children. She does not mind if the official viewpoint of her contribution to the church consists of ministering only to women and children because she personally does not have any desire to do more than that. P7 does not believe that women should only be able to share spiritual insights with the women and children. She feels that it would be wrong to “completely shut down that wall on women possibly having anything to share with other men.” If a woman says something in a church service, God could use that to speak to a man's heart, not just a child or a woman. Bible P7 remembers that in the Bible women at the tomb were among the first people sent to go tell everybody what happened. There are just so many women in the Bible who

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God used in so many mighty ways such as Queen Esther. In the New Testament women were sent out to evangelize and to be the news bearers. When P7 reads those passages, she wonders if God would want women to have more teaching roles. She is familiar with the scripture that talks about how women should remain quiet in worship. P7 is certain the verse does not mean that what women have to say is not important. It does not say that God is not speaking through women or not revealing himself to them. “I'm not sure what it does mean.” P7 is certain that there are “nuances of the scriptures that we're probably not understanding, and maybe women should have more roles.” She is aware of a lot of women in the Old and New Testaments who were evangelizing just as much as the men were. Women were often in a supportive role “making sure the creature comforts of the men were met.” She is okay with women having that role as long as the men are appreciating and valuing the woman. “I think that's what God wants.” Conservative P7 goes more toward the “traditional and old fashioned way of looking at gender roles.” When she came to the PCA church she was fine with their conservative beliefs. She has not had any desire to teach a Sunday school class with men. P7 is aware of Mrs. Jane Doe teaching a class with her husband. If Mrs. Jane Doe was told to help plan a study at home with her husband but that she couldn't teach or share in the church, P7 would have a problem with that. Stereotypes P7 believes that men and women are created differently by God, with different roles within the “marriage, church, and society.” Men and women are “of equal

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importance but just with different skills.” P7 believes that “God has equipped men to be in more broader roles of leadership but that he has equipped women to notice things and to be supportive.” Part of the Bible's teaching on gender roles is that we are not supposed to take those differences and say, “That's why men are superior or that's why women are superior.” P7 thinks that people have grown up with stereotypes about men building things and women cooking and doing crafts. “Women are built to be more relational and more nurturing and men are built to be more goal oriented and more concrete.” God equipped women to do things men do not do very well and vice versa. Career P7 does not feel restricted in her career options. There is nothing she cannot do simply because she is a woman. Some careers start and stop at a specific time. “You show up for work and then you're done work.” P7 believes that some jobs require you to “live the job more than just work the job, like teaching and pastoring.” Her mother was a career woman who was “100% career woman at her shift and then 100% mom when she was home.” Being Heard P7 does not believe that her voice has never been heard just because she is a woman, but she is not necessarily sure about that. Someday she might want to bring an issue to the session. Depending on the issue, it could be very easy for them “to not see where I was coming from.” She might appreciate having one of the women there with her if she was speaking to the men. One change P7 would like to see in the PCA is to add some sort of female role to the session. “If not a voting role but like as an advocate.” It would be beneficial to have at least one female voice on the session. There are situations

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in which a woman's point of view could be helpful. “There are certain things in which women see the big picture.” Feelings When talking about the issue of gender roles, P7 feels like she has a “desperate need” to exactly explain what she is talking about. It is a very delicate topic and it is “very, very important to carefully choose each word.” She needs to justify how she feels because she knows that there are men in the church who are on different ends of the spectrum regarding the issue of gender roles. P7 does not want to just “put it out there” and not explain or defend her position. Heart Issue P7 believes that just like everything else in life, this situation comes down to “a heart issue.” The heart issue is about searching the scriptures and asking God to show us how we are supposed to live as godly women and men. We should not be “pointing the finger and being unkind and being unloving to other people who have a stand different than us.” P7 said she is going to be thinking a lot more about these issues. She feels like she put out just a little bit and now she will be thinking more about it. Structural Themes for Participant 7 (P7) The structural themes for P7 are perception of self, perception of church, perception of ministry. The first structural theme is perception of self. P7 grew up in the Methodist church where she never heard anyone talking about gender roles. Personally she embraces very traditional, conservative views about men and women. She found out about church gender roles when she joined the PCA. P7 has never felt restricted in her career options and does not believe there is something she cannot do because she is a 191

woman. She is aware that some careers require people to live the job rather than just work the job. As a woman, she would not want to have a job that made it difficult for her to care for her family. Gender roles is a very delicate subject. It is important that she speak carefully and intelligently about her position. The second structural theme is perception of church. She believes that God has created men and women with equal importance but with different skills. The Bible teaches that men are to be in leadership while women are to be in more supportive roles to the men. It is important to P7 that men appreciate what women have to offer them in the way of support. There is some ambivalence about leadership roles in the church. Men were leaders in the early church so maybe that means they should still be the leaders. P7 would like the PCA church to find a way to bring in a women‟s viewpoint to the session. Women are often able to see the big picture better than man are. The next structure is perception of ministry. P7 thinks it would be very difficult for a woman to be a pastor. Pastoring is an all-consuming job that does not end at a specific time each day. P7 knows that she would struggle to try to balance out the needs of both her family and the church. Maybe men are better able to compartmentalize the needs of both family and church so that somehow it works. Women should be able to share their spiritual insights with both men and women. Because there are quite a few women in the Bible who did some rather astounding things, she wonders if scripture is not being interpreted correctly. Maybe women should have more roles. P7 is okay with women teaching Sunday School. She would have a problem if the church said a woman could study at home with her husband but could not teach in the church. God has

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equipped men and women in different ways but that neither one is superior to the other. Both men and women need to be asking God how he wants them to live. Meaning Units and Textural Themes for Participant 8 (P8) Equality 1. “I was in the Methodist church for the first fifty years of my life. There was no gender role differentiation.” 2.

“I frequently had positions of leadership. There was equality as far as congregational leadership.”

3. “Having a female pastor or lay leader did not offend me.” Empowerment 1. “During the last fifteen years that I was in the Methodist church, the women became radical feminists who were very powerful and very organized.” 2. “They were teaching that women cannot identify with a male God because of all the years of domination of women and abuse that women had at the hands of men.” 3. “They taught that women need a female deity to fully grasp their spiritual identity.” Ordination 1. When I came to the PCA I found out they didn't ordain women. I see why after seeing what radical feminism did to the Methodist church. I said if that is something I have to accept to join the PCA then I can deal with that because to me it's a minor thing. 2. “I accepted the fact there were not going to be any ordained women.” Support 1. It would be a good idea if we would all just sit around the table every couple months and talk to each other. Too many times in our church things pop up and we end up competing with each other. Two different activities scheduled at the same time on the weekend, things too close together. You know, just support each other in all of our endeavors. 2. Things are scheduled over tops of rehearsals. To me if you're an integral member of the congregation shouldn't you have figured out by now that 193

there's a Particular Activity that rehearses after church twice a month? It's in the bulletin every Sunday. They can just move things around at their pleasure, and like I'm stuck with missing a rehearsal because I can't do something at the same time. 3. I figured if we all sat around a table and talked we would all be on the same page. There should be some mechanism for the women who do provide any kind of leadership in the church to be included in some sort of a process. I am the head of the Church Committee and I get very little support. 4. I would make a specific request to the Two Pastors. I would send copies of the minutes to them. There were times when we had members of the session on the Church Committee. They would never get back to me. They hardly ever responded to anything I ever sent them. “I'm trying to work with you guys but because I'm not part of the session I don‟t get as much attention.” Leadership 1. “I do feel there needs to be some mechanism to include women in the leadership of the congregation.” 2. I always look at people as individuals, not by gender. Each gender has something to do. I do believe men should be the spiritual leader of the family. I do believe you need strong men in leadership. I know there are scriptural references to men being the leaders and women just sort of having a passive role. 3. I think that with the setup that the church is run by male elders, I think they should recognize the gifts and talents of the women in the church and utilize them under their direction. A woman could be the chairman of the Missions Committee but I don't think they ever would do that. 4. I'm not in the position to be a crusader for anything, so it's pretty much I weigh the pros and cons. I know what I came from and I know where I am. And the long and short of it, I'm in a better place in the PCA church than I was in the Methodist church as far as scriptural authority and integrity. 5. Maybe if I hadn't been raised a Methodist these issues wouldn't even occur to me. But it's just been a real significant change for me. Like I said, I'm in my 30s, I'm sitting in the front of the room with the gavel, putting together agendas for meetings. 6. Anybody will tell you that I always have been a leadership kind of organized person in whatever I do. I was a Community Group leader, I always directed Church Groups. I usually take [a project on] and start it from scratch.

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7. When I had to join the church [I had to] to accept the authority of the elders. I came from the Methodist church where there is no authority of anybody. Nobody holds any degree of authority over anybody else. Teaching 1. “I don't have any problem if a woman is going to be teaching in the life of the church but I would accept the fact that the session would have to approve it.” 2. “I know no woman is supposed to be in the pulpit. But I'm sorry, someone like Dr. Jane Doe, when she speaks, most of the men love to hear her talk.” 3. I don't think it's the idea of a female teaching a man, I don't have any problem with that if she is qualified in what she's teaching, she has a seminary degree or a degree in psychology. I think it would be legitimate to have it reviewed [by the session]. 4. “I know in my other church, there were often Sunday School teachers that I would shake my head, „How can they be teaching Sunday School?‟” 5. In the New Testament there are specific verses that indicate that men should be the teachers and women aren't supposed to speak in church or something. I'm not good at quoting that kind of stuff. I heard by the grapevine that there was a little contention about Mr. and Mrs. John Doe teaching. She has a seminary degree. She's teaching Sunday School. That just blows my mind. Being Heard 1. “I guess it's my female prejudice, but there's a lot of things when it comes to planning that takes a female mind.” 2. “There's a whole constituency that only has a little voice. We are women of the 21st century and we have all experienced a lot of things in our lives and had a lot of responsibilities.” 3.

“The session just doesn't get some things because they're all men and a lot of them are older men. They just think differently.”

4.

I just feel like with certain issues things could be planned and handled if women were included in the process. I've asked to have a liaison to the session so that if we wanted to propose something they would clear it.

5.

Women on the whole are more educated now. To not tap that resource is foolish.

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Ministry 1. I was very disappointed when the Women in the Church (WIC) Group steering committee disbanded. There was no organization. All of a sudden it was disbanded. Nobody asked me. I've been doing women's ministry all my life. We even gathered and discussed it once. Nobody ever followed up. 2. We attended a meeting at another PCA church and heard about what the organization was supposed to be doing. We were told we needed to have a purpose. We were supposed to get together to talk about it and we never did. “What's wrong with these people, nobody wants to have a purpose?” [The women] are kind of all scattered now. 3. “The first time I organized tickets for a Women's Conference the session underwrote me [financially]. They wouldn't do it anymore because it wasn't a Presbyterian event. So they didn't want to help.” Feelings 1. In specific situations, I experience frustration but in general it's acceptance. I know I'm not the person that can do anything to change it. So I know not to make myself crazy over something that I can‟t do. If I was younger, I might be a little more outspoken. At this point I have too many other things going on in my life. 2. I do feel that the church is missing out on some opportunities because of this very rigid belief. I have felt some frustration in feeling that my voice is not heard and that my abilities have not been [recognized]. 3. “Earlier on I felt so frustrated because I knew I had a lot of leadership ability, and good ideas, and organizational skills, and nobody was interested.” Bible 1. We do infant baptism. There is nothing really firmly stated in the Bible to do or don't do infant baptism. Our denomination has interpreted that this is something that's appropriate, to baptize children as infants to bring them into the covenant family. They could interpret the Bible to bring qualified women into roles of leadership too. 2. There are legitimate Christian churches that differ on baptism. And it's been stated that's not one of the key elements of belief systems. You can differ on them. I think women in ministry is another example of that same kind of issue. 3. If you really study the scriptures through the Old Testament and with Jesus, women always had a key role. He always had a special place for women. A lot 196

of the events of the Old Testament revolved around a woman. Certain women like Ruth were part of his lineage. Textural Description for Participant 8 (P8) Equality P8 was in the Methodist church for the first fifty years of her life. There was no gender role differentiation. She frequently had positions of leadership. There was equality as far as congregational leadership. P8 was not offended by having a female pastor or lay leader. Empowerment During the last fifteen years that P8 was in the Methodist church, the women became radical feminists who were very powerful and very organized. The feminists were teaching that “women cannot identify with a male God.” This lack of identification was a result of “all the years of domination of women and abuse that women had at the hands of men.” The women decided they needed a female deity in order “to fully grasp their spiritual identity.” Ordination When P8 came to the PCA church she discovered that they did not ordain women. After seeing what happened in the Methodist church with the radical feminists, she could see why ordaining women was not always such a good thing. If “women not being ordained” was something she had to accept to join the PCA, then P8 was fine with it. She considered it to be a minor issue and accepted the fact that “there were not going to be any ordained women.”

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Support P8 is the head of a Church Committee and she gets very little support. She thought it would be a good idea if all the leaders of committees could meet every couple of months to sit at the table and talk to one another. Leaders could “support each other in all of our endeavors.” Too many times in the church things “pop up” and events end up competing with each other. Sometimes there are two different activities scheduled at the same time or too close together. P8 thinks that the church should have some kind of mechanism for women with any kind of leadership in the church to be included in some kind of process. If all the leaders sat and talked they could all be on the same page as far as scheduling. In the past, specific requests were made to the two pastors. P8 would send them copies of the minutes of her meetings. At various times there were members of the session on her Church Committee. The pastors would never get back to her about anything. They hardly ever responded to anything she sent them. P8 feels like she is trying to work with the men, but “because I'm not part of the session I don‟t get as much attention.” Leadership P8 feels that “there needs to be some mechanism to include women in the leadership of the congregation.” She believes that each gender has a task to do. Men should be the spiritual leaders of the family and there should be strong men in leadership. There are scripture references that state that men are the leaders and women take a passive role. Since the church is run by male elders, they should “recognize the gifts and talents of the women in the church and utilize them under their direction.” A woman could be the chairman of the Missions Committee but “the church would probably never

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do that.” At this point in her life, “I am not in the position to be a crusader for anything.” P8 knows where she came from and where she now is. The PCA is in a better place as far as scriptural authority and integrity. If she had not been raised in the Methodist church, maybe these leadership issues would not even occur to her. It has been a huge change. When in the Methodist church she would be “sitting in the front of the room with the gavel, putting together agendas for meetings.” P8 has always been a leadership kind of organized person. She led all kinds of groups and is used to taking on a project and starting it from scratch. When P8 joined the church she accepted the authority of the elders. In her previous denomination “there was no authority of anybody.” P8 has concerns that the men on the session think differently and do not “get some things” due in part to the age of some of the men. Teaching P8 understands that woman cannot be in the pulpit. Occasionally Dr. Jane Doe gets up in front of the church and talks. The majority of men very much love to hear what Dr. Jane Doe has to say to the congregation. P8 has no problem with a woman teaching in the church as long as the woman is qualified to teach. Of course, the session would have to approve her teaching. In her previous church, “there were often Sunday School teachers that I would shake my head, „How can they be teaching Sunday School?‟” P8 is aware of Bible verses that indicate that “men should be the teachers and women aren't supposed to speak in church.” “I heard by the grapevine that there was a little contention about Mr. and Mrs. John Doe teaching” Sunday school. She thought that was ridiculous because Mrs. Doe has a seminary degree. P8 remarked, “That just blows my mind.”

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Being Heard P8 thinks it may be her “female prejudice” but there are things that when it comes to planning that take “a female mind.” It is upsetting to know that there is a whole constituency of the church that has “only has a little voice.” Women in this century have had many experiences and responsibilities and are much more educated. For the church “to not tap that resource is foolish.” Certain issues could be planned and handled better if women were included in the process. P8 has asked to have a liaison from the session as part of her weekly Church Ministry. This would help to more quickly get approval for proposals from the group. Ministry P8 was very disappointed when the Women in the Church steering committee disbanded. A group of women from the church had attended a meeting to learn about what the organization was supposed to be doing. They were advised to have a purpose for the group. The women were supposed to get together to talk about their purpose but it never happened. She wondered, “What is wrong with these people? Nobody wants to have a purpose.” The group was very disorganized and then all of a sudden the group was disbanded. P8 was disappointed because nobody asked her to lead the group. She had been doing women's ministry all her life and no one asked for her help. The group just ended and now the women are all scattered. P8 talked about one time when she organized tickets for a Women's Conference. The session underwrote the tickets so that P8 could recruit women to attend the conference. When she asked for financial help for another event, the session would not help out. P8 said, “They wouldn't do it anymore because it wasn't a Presbyterian event. So they didn't want to help.”

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Feelings When P8 was first in the PCA, there were feelings of frustration. ”I knew I had a lot of leadership ability, and good ideas, and organizational skills, and nobody was interested.” Overall there is an acceptance of the structure of the PCA church. “I am not the person” who can do anything to change it. “I know not to make myself crazy about something I can‟t do.” P8 stated that if she was younger “I might be a little more outspoken.” There are too many other things going on in her life. P8 has felt some frustration in “feeling that my voice is not heard and that my abilities have not been” recognized. Regarding the roles of women in the PCA, “the church is missing out on some opportunities because of this very rigid belief.” Bible The Presbyterian church baptizes infants. P8 believes that there is nothing in the Bible that firmly states whether or not infant baptism should be done. The PCA has chosen to interpret the Bible regarding infant baptism. It does not upset P8 and she is fine with their preference. Women in ministry is the same kind of issue as baptism. The PCA “could interpret the Bible to bring qualified women into roles of leadership.” In the Old Testament a lot of events revolved around women such as Ruth, who was also a part of Jesus' lineage. In the New Testament Jesus gave women a key role. Jesus always had “a special place for women.” Structural Themes for Participant 8 (P8) The structural themes are perception of self, perception of church, and perception of ministry. The first theme is perception of self. P8 grew up in the Methodist church where she experienced equality in church leadership. She had multiple leadership 201

positions in that church and was the kind of person who could create a project from scratch. P8 was upset when the Women in the Church group disbanded. There were feelings of disappointed because no one asked her to lead the group. For decades, leadership and organizational skills had been used in her previous church and no one in the PCA church seemed to care. The next structure is perception of church. When P8 came to the PCA she was fine with the gender roles. Not ordaining women seemed to be a minor issue in the PCA church. It was upsetting when radical feminists in the Methodist church created a female deity so that women could relate to a female god. In the PCA, P8 believes that some issues could be handled and planned better if women were included in the process. It saddens her that part of the church has only a small voice in the congregation. It is foolish to not use the experiences and abilities of women to further the mission of the church. In her opinion, the rigid beliefs of the PCA cause the denomination to miss out on the opportunities available to them by women. The next structure is ministry. P8 was head of a committee at church and got very little support from the other leaders in the church. There should be a regular meeting of committee leaders so that they could share concerns and review their calendars. P8 has felt that because she is not part of the session, she gets no help or support. The PCA church should find a way to include women in the leadership of the church. Men and women have different tasks to do within the home and the church. Men should recognize the gifts of women and use those gifts under their direction. P8 supports a woman teaching Sunday School as long as she is qualified to do so. Women cannot give sermons but when Dr. Jane Doe gets up to speak, probably everyone wants to hear what she has to

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say. If the PCA wanted to they could interpret the scriptures to include women in leadership. Jesus had a special place for women and it is difficult to figure out why the PCA does not see women that way. Meaning Units and Textural Themes for Participant 9 (P9) Leadership 1. We don't allow women elders and I think it's fine with me. I have no interest in going to those meetings that last until 11 o' clock at night. We do have women deaconesses, although I don‟t know if they're ordained or not, which I think is a little silly, but they do at least have women working in it. 2. I am aware that there are men within the PCA church that are very strongly literal. They take assertions literally that women should not teach or be in positions of authority. There are probably many men who would stand up and have very strong convictions about gender roles. 3. It would be lovely if you could have some sort of gender neutral type of ruling body. I don't see that as happening. I think there's a lot of men that feel the Bible clearly says that the ruling guys have to be men. You see corporate boards and they don't have that kind of problem. 4. I've had positions of leadership, so I haven't been limited in that way. I've been encouraged to grow. Nobody is restricting my ability to pray or study or read and develop spiritually. I think my life has been impacted for the better by Jesus Christ. I have been able to pretty much do anything I want. I have not seen that those gender roles have limited anything. 5. I have led a group at women's Bible study. I have taught at women's Bible study. I taught one of the lectures at the women's retreat. The only thing they have not asked me to do is teach at a Sunday School but Mrs. Jane Doe has. 6. If somebody had told me twenty years ago that I would teach on a book of the Bible at a women's retreat or do lectures for Women's Bible study or even lead a small group in my home for 12 years I would be amazed. 7. “I have no interest in preaching a sermon. Although certainly doing a talk at the women's Bible study was like that.” 8. “It's the same old problem that John Piper had. He labels it the feminization of the church.”

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9. One of the comments that somebody wrote [on a blog] was, “Men need to stop hiding behind this, „Oh, if we let the women in, then they'll just take over.‟” No, if we let the women in, YOU will abdicate. That's the problem. 10. Supposedly to men, they're intimidated by women. So when the women come in, then they want to leave rather than stay and kind of work it out. They seem to blame it on the women but it's not the women's fault, I think it's the men's fault. Being Heard 1. “I cope with [gender roles] by participating.” 2. If you just show up, if anybody wants to do something, you just show up, you can participate. They had all kinds of long range visions and meetings. Anybody was welcome to show up. There were women on the long range planning committee. 3. “I think our elders want to get the opinions of women. They seek them out. It may not be an official title or official role.” Equality 1. “I think the Bible really teaches of the equality of the genders. [Jesus] appeared first to women. There was Priscilla. Esther certainly had an opportunity.” 2. “The story of the genealogy would not be complete without the Rahabs and the Ruths and those various women who factored into the story.” 3. “Jesus spoke to the woman at the well. He was pretty clear that he wanted a radical shift in the way women were perceived. Paul certainly worked alongside with all the women that he partnered with.” 4. “Look at Abigail with David. Her husband was a dolt. She knew how to take matters into her own hands. „Hey, look. He's an idiot. Don't judge me by him.‟” Feelings 1. “I often feel a little bit defensive with people outside the denomination. They just can't imagine why women can't be ordained or can't be elders.” 2. “I wish I didn't have to apologize or defend [gender roles].”

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Bible 1. “It seems a shame that the way Paul talked about women not speaking and just wait until they get home and just asking [their husbands]. It's there in the Bible for a reason.” 2. “Maybe in some ways he wanted to make sure the women were very serious about things and didn't want them gossiping and talking about what each one was wearing.” 3. “I know that the Bible is pretty clear about how they have expressed it. Sometimes you can sort of wish it could be different but that's not the way it is. It's part of what you accept.” Stereotypes 1. “I think ultimately women probably would approach a problem maybe a little differently.” 2. “Not knowing the kinds of things that come up at presbytery, I just think they argue over silly semantics.” 3. “It could be that if women were there it would make the discussion even worse. Nobody could agree on anything. I think there's a lot of women at local churches that have a lot of input.” Career 1. “[At work] I had to ask for the job. There were a lot of other men that were getting the title.” 2. “All these other guys were getting promoted right and left. What are they doing that I don't do? How is my job less valuable than their job?” 3. In that sense I did receive some sort of discrimination. I don't think I'm probably making what those other [men] are making. When I ask for more money, they say, “Oh there's a freeze on salaries this year.” Convenient. I don't know what other people make so I have no idea. Belief System 1. I must admit when Carolyn Custis James writes on her blog and does her articles I feel that she expresses her opinion so beautifully and they resonate with me. I don't think she's apologetic in any way and she is a very strong supporter of everything from a theological perspective. I think she has really figured out intellectually where all this is and why it's the way it is.

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2. I just have been probably a little bit lazy to not figure it out and really understand it and own it for myself. But I know it when I read it. That's what she's dedicating her life to do. I feel proud when I read her stuff and I think, “Yes. If I could say it this eloquently this is the way I'd want to say it. This makes me feel good when I read it.” 3. “She's not trying to cause a ruckus or any disunity or anything like that. She's trying to get everybody on board with what I think is a very well thought and biblical way of expressing it.” 4. “Words are so important, which is kind of why I can see why these guys at presbytery argue about a phrase or a preposition because the way you say something is very important.” 5. “She's done a whole bunch of books about the roles of women. She picked out various women in the Bible. We did a women's retreat [on one of her books].” 6. Her challenge to women was that she felt we really needed to be theologians. We need to understand what we believe and why. And once you do that then you have a belief system that you can rely on when troubles come, which they will, and you don't fall apart when things don't go the way you think they should go. Number one, you stop having these preconceived ideas about how things should go. If you don't have preconceived ideas, then they can't get rocked. Personality 1. When I was younger I went to a leadership thing at the Y. I'm outspoken and I think I can be decisive. I like to make a decision and just move forward. I don't like all this wishy-washy stuff. I suppose that makes you a leader. 2. “I think there's always the “can do” women types. It's a personality trait. There are women who are shy and don't want to be out.” 3. I was set to lead [the church] on Easter. Pastor John Doe calls me in. He wanted to make sure that I didn't waffle in any way; that I was extremely confident about the resurrection. He just didn't want me to be at all unsure. It had never occurred to me not to be confident. He wanted to make sure that whatever I said, I was to be unwavering in my faith and confidence. He didn't want preaching, he just wanted confidence. 4. At the time I remember thinking it was kind of funny but at the same time I thought, “Well okay, this is good. I know what he's looking for. He's trying to coach and encourage me.” I think he was a little nervous about it. 5. “We had a Church Educational Course and I was a leader.”

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Textural Description for Participant 9 (P9) Leadership P9 is fine with the PCA not allowing women to be elders. She has no interest in attending session meetings that last late into the evening. In her church there are women deaconesses who may or may not be ordained. P9 thinks the ordination issue is “a little silly.” Ordained or not, women are doing diaconal work. Some men in the PCA have “very strong convictions about gender roles.” It would be helpful to have a gender neutral type of ruling body of authority. P9 does not see that as happening in the PCA church. A lot of men feel that the Bible is very clear about only men being in authority positions in the church. In the secular world this is not a problem because both men and women are in positions of authority. P9 has had positions of leadership in the church and feels that she has not been limited in what she can do. She has been encouraged to grow and has not felt any restriction in being able to pray, study, read or develop spiritually. Her life “has been impacted for the better by Jesus Christ.” Gender roles have not limited her in any way from doing whatever she has wanted to do. P9 has been able to lead a group of women at the women‟s Bible study, has taught women in the Bible study and at the women‟s retreat, and was a group leader in the church‟s Educational Leadership Course. No one has asked her to teach Sunday School but another woman in the church has taught a class. P9 would have been amazed if twenty years ago she had been told she would one day teach, lecture, or lead a small group in her home. She and her husband have a small group in their home which she helps lead. P9 has “no interest in preaching a sermon.” Doing a talk at a women‟s Bible study was like preaching a sermon.

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P9 mentioned John Piper, who talked about “the feminization of the church.” Ther was a blog in which men were told to stop hiding behind remarks such as, “If we let the women in, then they'll just take over.” The problem is not that women come in, but that men “choose to abdicate. That's the problem.” Men are supposedly “intimidated by women.” They choose to leave rather than stay and work out issues with women. They blame this on the women. P9 responded, “It's not the women's fault; I think it's the men's fault.” Being Heard P9 participates in many aspects of the church. Anyone can show up and be involved. Both men and women were invited to participate in a number of meetings about long range visions for the church. Church elders do want to get the opinions of women and will often “seek them out” for opinions. There is no official title or role given to the women who offer their opinions. Equality P9 believes that the Bible teaches “the equality of the genders.” Jesus first appeared to women after his resurrection. There were women like Priscilla and Esther. The genealogy of Jesus included women such as Rahab and Ruth and other women. Jesus spoke to “the woman at the well.” He was very clear about wanting “a radical shift in the way women were perceived.” The apostle Paul worked alongside a number of women. In the Old Testament there was Abigail who was married to King David, whom P9 described as “a dolt.” Abigail took matters into her own hands and basically said, “Hey, look. He's an idiot. Don't judge me by him.”

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Feelings P9 often feels “a little bit defensive” when talking with people who are outside of the PCA denomination.” People just cannot imagine why women cannot be ordained in the church or cannot be elders. P9 wishes she did not have to “apologize for or defend” the gender roles in the church. Bible P9 thinks it is a shame that the apostle Paul talked about women not speaking in the church. He said that women needed to go home and ask their husband questions rather than speak in church. There must be reason why these verses were put into the Bible. Maybe Paul wanted to make sure the women “were very serious about things and didn't want them gossiping and talking about what each one was wearing.” This instruction by Paul was very clearly stated in the Bible. P9 sometimes wishes it was different “but it‟s not.” Such beliefs are “part of what you accept.” Stereotypes P9 believes that women probably would approach a problem differently than men would. At presbytery meetings, men often just “argue over silly semantics.” If women attended those meetings, the discussion would be “even worse.” No one would be able to agree on anything. Even though women do not go to presbytery meetings, a lot of women at local churches “have a lot of input.” Personality When P9 was younger she attended a leadership camp. As an outspoken woman, it is easy to make a decision and move forward with it. She does not like “all this wishywashy stuff.” P9 has personality traits that supposedly make her a leader. There are some

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women who are the “can do” types and women who are shy and do not want to be out there doing things. P9 recalled a situation where she was scheduled to lead the worship during an Easter service. The pastor called her in to explore her confidence. “He wanted to make sure that I didn't waffle in any way; that I was extremely confident about the resurrection. He just didn't want me to be at all unsure.” It had never occurred to her to not be confident. At the time she thought the conversation was “kind of funny.” Her conclusion was that “he was a little nervous” about the service. Career P9 thought about discrimination in the secular world. At her place of business, she had to ask for a promotion. What were the men were doing that she was not doing? Why was her job was being viewed as “less valuable than their jobs?” P9 felt like she was discriminated against. She did ask for a promotion and was able to get it, probably making less money than the men. Belief System P9 has enjoyed reading a blog by Carolyn Custis James, a female Christian author who is dedicating her life to her beliefs. James expresses her opinion in a beautiful way and does not apologize for her beliefs. P9 has opinions that very much resonate with those of James, who is a “very strong supporter of everything from a theological perspective.” James has “figured out intellectually where all this is and why it's the way it is.” P9 admits to being a bit lazy to not try to figure out the issues so that she really understands and owns her beliefs. However, “I know it when I read it.” P9 feels proud when she reads James‟ material and would like to speak as eloquently as James. “I feel

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good when I read it.” The ladies at the church did a women‟s retreat using one of the books written by James. P9 does not believe that James is trying to “cause a ruckus or any disunity” by what she says. The author is trying to “get everybody on board” with a “very well thought and biblical way” of expressing her opinion. Words and the way people say things “are very important.” P9 can see why the men at presbytery meetings take the time to argue about a phrase or a word In one of her books, James challenged women regarding their need “to be theologians.” P9 agreed with James that women need to understand what they believe and why they believe it. By having a belief system in place, when troubles come people can rely on what they believe rather than fall apart. Having and holding on to a belief system allows a person to let go of any preconceived notions about what is supposed to happen in life. It allows for more flexibility. Structural Themes for Participant 9 (P9) The structural themes are perception of self, perception of church, and perception of ministry. The first theme is perception of self. P9 is an outspoken, confident, decisive woman with leadership qualities that are used in the church and in her career. There are feelings of defensiveness when trying to explain the PCA leadership structure to people outside of the church. P9 does not like having to apologize for and defend the gender roles. She has been impressed with writings of Carolyn Custis James who exhorts women to become better theologians. P9 admits she has not taken the time to theologically understand issues related to gender roles. The next theme is perception of church. P9 sees women as approaching problems differently than men. Their perspectives could be of some help to the church. P9 would 211

like the church to have a more gender neutral governing body in the PCA church. She does not ever see that is happening in the PCA. P9 gets annoyed when men complain about women coming into leadership and then taking over the church. The problem is that the men abdicate their authority and then blame it on the women. In her church, she has noticed that the men do seek out the women to get their opinions. The Bible teaches the equality of men and women and Jesus wanted there to be a radical shift in the way women were perceived. However, she does believe that Paul was very clear about women not being in authority. She wishes it was different but has come to accept this. The third theme is perception of ministry. P9 is glad her church has women deaconesses and thinks the whole ordination issue is rather silly. She has had leadership positions in the church and has not felt restricted in any way by gender. P9 has been able to minister to both men and women in her home Bible study, has taught and preached to women, and has led worship. Anything she has wanted to do, she has done. In the church, there are opportunities for women to give their input to the leadership and they should take advantage of those opportunities. Meaning Units and Textural Themes for Participant 10 (P10) Leadership 1. I believe there are no differences between men and women as far as roles in the church. That's what I believe. That you should be able to do anything that you want including pastoring. 2. “All the way hard core belief is that women shouldn't have a leadership role. Not in the sense of being able to instruct a man. And that goes I know all the way to worship; of being able to do worship or lead worship.” 3. Our PCA church is probably the rogue church because the woman lead worship, in face they are very much a part of worship. We've had women speak during the service. Our church had a wide range of beliefs. There was 212

room for everybody. And the guys always respected women. I never felt discriminated against at the church. 4. “One of the more recent pastors that we had did have a more limiting view of women. It seemed like by the time he left our church his view was less limiting.” Ordination 1. “When I was invited to be a deacon we were told that women could not be ordained as deacons. Men could. The guys that were to become deacons refused to be ordained without the women.” 2. “They didn't think it was right. So they just decided to step down from being ordained as well. So everybody was brought in to being deacons and deaconesses in the same position.” Heart Issue 1. Why is it so easy for [a man] to not feel compassion for that woman who has these gifts and cannot use them? Why don't you step in their shoes? What is it that's holding you back from feeling that? That's what blew me away about the guys that were being deacons that year saying, “I'm not going to step in those shoes either. I'm going to step in your shoes and be like you.” 2. That's so Christ-like. “Why out of solidarity wouldn't we yoke ourselves to you and how you feel?” What's missing in that person's life that they can't do that and it doesn't tug at their heart? Why on behalf of another human being wouldn't they want to do that? 3. Why isn't it hard for them to say, “No, this is the way that the Bible teaches, I'm sorry.” Where's the, “I'm sorry?” That's when I know there's something in that person's story that makes it too easy for them to do that. Equality 1. “I grew up in a Methodist church as a child.” 2. “I had no sense of there being any difference between men and women in the church. The first time I was introduced to it was down at a Specific PCA Church in Philadelphia.” 3. “It was clear to me that there was the belief that for some reason women couldn't [be ordained]. They had left the United Presbyterian Church over women being ordained.”

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4. “I guess in my brain it didn't affect me because I hold to it. And I did what I wanted to do so it didn't bother me. I think if I had wanted to be a pastor of course it would have.” 5. I'm really thankful actually for my dad because he never treated me any different than my brothers. He always told me I could do and be whatever I wanted and that's from early childhood. I know now it was unusual, at the time it was normal to me, you know, but I think that's why I haven‟t fallen into a lot of places where I would be drawn into it. 6. “I think he [my dad] just respected his mother so much that he never questioned women or never needed to put women down.” 7. “I personally ignore [gender roles]. I'm not doing [gender roles]. And I'm going to invite others not to do it too.” 8. It's so silly. Here I am a single woman. I've had to take care of all roles. I do everything and I'm going to turn around and say I can't do it? I'm not capable? It's so silly. It's so bizarre. No. And the only thing that's in my brain is to subtly subvert. Support 1. There are a couple of people that I think through the years, because of having listened to me in Bible study and that kind of stuff that they actually have encouraged me to take more of a leadership role. They recognized me as a woman as bringing something to the table. 2. I feel very supported, or have felt very supported by that. I don‟t feel like I would have gotten that from the Specific PCA Church in Philadelphia if I stayed there. But that's not why I left. Since I've been at this current church, the guys, the older men who came out of that same environment; they've changed their view because of me. I feel like I've gained authority. 3. When I was going to Spiritual College to do the spiritual direction and all of that, [the men] were very supportive of me being in that kind of role where I would impact the spirituality of men and women. Context 1. I just feel that Jesus constantly worked against his culture's image of women and named them as people, as human beings. And yet I think he was teaching it in such a way that it wasn't about a power struggle, you know, which I think is what a lot of the teaching around all those passages gets to be about. Who has the right, who has the power?

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2. I look at it as a point in time as to what was going on culturally at the time. And how people were saying, “How do you fit into your culture in a way that is going to bring life and not in-your-face distractedness?” 3. It's like, this is how your culture feels about life. So, men and women have certain roles in that culture and therefore how do you expect that and subvert it at the same time? And I think that's what a lot of that teaching was about. How do you honor and respect people and love them and yet not allow it to go against who you are really called to be. Control 1. “I think gender roles are a way of capturing and controlling life. You feel like things can be counted on.” 2. God is in control, believe it or not. It's the whole thing of, are we really the center of the universe or not? It's really scary to say, “I'm not and I have to trust somebody who is.” It's scary. 3. I don't know if you have times where you feel like you've defined the world and then something happens. You think, “Everything that I've trusted, foundationally built, and structured life around all this time doesn't make sense anymore. So what is real?” That's a scary place to be in. 4. It takes away all of the need to relate if you can define things. “This is your little role in life and this is your little role in life.” I think it is just as binding to a man as it is to a woman. It doesn't allow certain men to be more than that picture. 5. If you were to take [Scripture] lock, stock, and barrel, without really allowing it to be informed, you just want to parrot it, it kind of binds you. I don't think it's that easy. It doesn't allow for dependency on God, to really struggle through it and allow him to teach you and mold you and change you. It's way, way, way too easy. And that leaves the door open for being wrong, really wrong, pharisaic wrong. 6. “Anything that starts to really bind another human being against the creation of who God has made that individual to be, you've got to question.” 7. Why did Jesus hold up some women as, “You are going to be remembered.” I think of Mary anointing, oh my God, anointing [Jesus] feet. That was the cultural nightmare. And Jesus was like, “Guys, this is teaching right here, you know?”

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Bible 1. I think that anybody who holds the position that [Eve is lesser than Adam because of what she did] hasn't really looked at their heart, whether they're man or woman. What person in the world hasn't eaten the apple? Show me them. 2. The fact that [Eve] may have eaten the apple, you may have eaten it after, you know what I mean? You would have done it if you were first in line. That's really hard to even believe that you could believe that. That's the original blame game. Take the log out of your own eye, you know? 3. It's just never been in my consciousness about [women being lesser than men]. It's not something that I take seriously. I, which may be a difference between the generations, may not say that to a person who strongly believes it because I know where it's going to get me; nowhere. But I certainly wouldn't agree. Empowerment 1. Somebody talked the other day [with] a man who was a journalist with the New York Times. He has gone around the world into places where people are at disadvantages in the power structure, so a lot of third world countries, and he and his wife wrote a book about a lot of these stories, and a lot of them about women. His research said that if you give a woman in a third world country a $2.00 loan, that she will change her family and ultimately her village. If you give it to the man he will spend it on himself. 2. “Their belief is that if you can empower the women of the world that ultimately it will change the world for better.” 3. “[The Christian world sees secular research] as a direct challenge against the Word of God. Whatever happened to the Holy Spirit living in each of us, an inspiration?” 4. I always feel that every group has its thing that they're bringing to the whole body of truth. It's like the orchestra bringing that different instrument at a different time and you really do need the whole. But sometimes people think it's only that instrument. When you start listening to that one you lose the orchestra. Synergy 1. “I think that God in himself holds male and female. He's both so I think that that's one more way in which he is seen in this world is how he is portrayed by male and female.”

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2. “There are certain things about what is male and what is female and I think we are here to complete the picture of who He is.” 3. I don't think it's a level of intelligence, ability, things He wants us to do and not do. I think He calls us both to create and take care of this earth. I think we bring something unique to the table. 4. There is something about the energy between a male and a female that is creative. So I think it's like taking the south and the north pole. It creates the energy so there is a difference there but I don't think you can quantify it as a role; this role or that role. It's more about what it means to self-sacrifice on behalf of another. 5. Behind it all God is using a woman somewhere in a very leading way. Even if it‟s not recognized it's happening everywhere. Men need it too. It's the way we've been built. That synergy is what energizes the world. 6. The best things that are going to happen in life are the result of men and women being engaged together to do something. You have one of one, or one of the other, and you're not going to bring life. There's something about what happens; that's where the creative force is. That's where the power is. It's like the engine in the turbine. That's what gives it juice to do what needs to be done. 7. This is really generalizing too much but men tend to focus on the practicality. And women tend to focus on the non-tangible elements. You need both [men and women] to really come up with solutions, where things that you're working with make the most sense. Feelings 1. “Really sad about [gender roles].” 2. I'm sad how it destroys the soul of men and women. I look at women and I see women who accept that. And I get mad at them. But when I see men suffer and they don't even know it, I feel really sad. Like the women I want to go, “Come on, I want to straighten you out.” But the men I just want to just go out and go “Come on, get free, you know, get out of this, there's so much more to you than what's being limited by these gender roles.” Women should know better, is what I'm thinking. And the men I'm going, “You poor things.” 3. “Sometimes I get very energized by it because I think, “There is so much that could be done here.” There is so much to call people to, you know, to something really, really good.”

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4. I think if I had to live in an environment where I was really shut down by [gender roles] I don't know that I could do it. I wouldn't do it, not unless I was being asked to do it by God for another reason. Meaning Units and Textural Themes for Participant 10 (P10) Leadership P10 believes there “are no differences between men and women as far as roles in the church.” Women should be able to do anything in the church including being a pastor. The PCA has a “hard core belief” that women should not have leadership roles such as preaching and teaching a man. In some churches women are not even able to lead worship. Her church was somewhat of a “rogue church” because the women lead worship and speak during the service. There was room for everybody. The men always respected women. “I never felt discriminated against at the church.” There had been a pastor who had a “more limiting view of women.” By the time he left that church it seemed like his view had become “less limiting.” Ordination P10 was invited to be a deacon in her church. She and other women were told that they could not be ordained as deacons. The men who were going to become deacons “refused to be ordained without the women.” They did not think it was right to only ordain the men. All the men stepped down from being ordained. Everyone being brought in as deacons and deaconesses were in “the same position.” Heart Issue P10 wondered why a man would not feel compassion for a woman who has gifts and cannot use them in the church. Why would a man not “step in their shoes” and feel what the women were going through? It “blew me away” when the guys refused to step 218

into the shoes of their ordained church roles. They chose instead to step into the shoes of the women and be like them. It was impressive to see how the men were showing “Christ-like” qualities. “Out of solidarity” why would a man not yoke himself to a woman to see what she feels? “What's missing in that person's life that they can't do that and it doesn't tug” at a person‟s heart? Why would a person not choose to do something “on behalf of another human being?” Where is the “I‟m sorry?” If a man believes the Bible teaches something that a woman cannot do, why would that man not say, “I‟m sorry about the fact that this is what the Bible teaches?” P10 wonders what is in a man‟s story that causes him to not feel sad on behalf of a woman who is limited as to what she can do in the church. Equality P10 grew up in the Methodist church. She had no sense of there being any difference between men and women in the church. The first time she experienced differences was when she attended a PCA church in Philadelphia. For some reason women could not be ordained. This PCA church had left the United Presbyterian church because of a disagreement about the ordination of women. P10 was accepting of this view and it did not bother her at the time. If she had wanted to be a pastor, it would have been a different story. P10 is very thankful to her father for never treating her any differently than her brothers. From early childhood, her father always told her she could do and be whatever she wanted. Her father‟s perspective was unusual for that time. Because his perspective was normal to her, she believes that she did not fall into situations in which she could

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have been drawn into gender roles. P10 thinks that her father respected his mother so much that he “never questioned women or never needed to put women down.” P10 ignores gender roles in the church. She is not doing them and she is “going to invite others not to do it too.” As a single woman she has taken care of all roles. She does everything and is certainly not going to pretend she is not capable of doing something in the church. P10 feels it is “silly” and “so bizarre.” When confronted with gender roles her brain is ready to “subtly subvert.” Support P10 has been encouraged to take more of a leadership role in her church. People in the church listened to her during Bible studies and recognized her as a woman who had something to bring “to the table.” She has felt very supported by their encouragement. Her previous PCA church in Philadelphia probably would not have encouraged her to use her leadership abilities. P10 has gained authority in her current church. Older men who came from a more conservative background regarding women changed their views “because of me.” When she attended a college to study spiritual direction, the men in the church were very supportive of her being in that kind of role. They supported her desire to “impact the spirituality of men and women.” Context P10 sees Jesus as a man who constantly worked against his culture‟s image of women. “He named them as people, as human beings.” Jesus was teaching about women in a way that was not a power struggle. In the church, teaching related to Bible passages about women often becomes a power struggle. The question becomes, “Who has the right, who has the power?” P10 looks at issues within their cultural context. The question

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becomes, “How do you fit into your culture in a way that is going to bring life and not inyour-face distractedness?” Each culture feels a certain way about life and the roles of men and women. How can someone both expect and subvert something at the same time? Jesus tried to honor, respect, and love people. Yet he did not allow the culture to push him into a situation where he could not be who he was called to be. P10 believes people today need to have a goal similar to Jesus. We have to learn how to expect and subvert cultural expectations in a way that brings life and allows us to be who we are called to be. Control P10 thinks that gender roles are a way to capture and control life. People like to feel that certain things can be counted on. There is fear when people realize they are not in control and that they need to trust somebody who is. They begin to come to grips with the idea that “God is in control.” People define their worlds and then something difficult happens. Everything that they previously “trusted, foundationally built, and structured life around” no longer makes sense. People begin to wonder what is real. That is a very scary place to be in. P10 believes that if you can define things, it takes away the need for people to relate to one another. Defining roles is “just as binding to a man as it is to a woman.” If you take the Bible “lock, stock, and barrel” and just parrot it without an informed understanding of it, you will be bound by what it says. The Bible is not that easy to comprehend. If it was, there would be no need for dependency on God. There would be no need to really struggle through Scripture allowing God to “teach you and mold you and change you.” If you have an easy, uninformed comprehension of Scripture, the door is left open for you to be “wrong, really wrong, pharisaic wrong.”

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P10 is convinced that you have to question anything that binds another human being “against the creation of who God has made that individual to be.” She wonders why Jesus held up some women by saying, “You are going to be remembered.” Mary anointed Jesus‟ feet. It was a “cultural nightmare!” Jesus was saying to the men, “Guys, this is teaching right here, you know?” Bible P10 responded to the idea that some people believe that Eve is lesser than Adam because she was the one who first ate the fruit. Anyone who holds that position “hasn‟t really looked at their heart, whether they‟re a man or woman.” She would like to see the one person in the world “who hasn‟t eaten the apple.” If you were first in line, “you would have eaten the fruit first.” P10 finds it hard to believe that anyone could even believe otherwise. It‟s the “original blame game.” People need to “take the log out” of their own eye. She has never taken seriously the belief that women are lesser than men. Different generations might have that view. If P10 expressed her opinion to someone with a strong belief about women being less then men, her beliefs “might not go anywhere.” Whether she spoke up or not, she certainly would not agree. Empowerment P10 talked about a New York Times journalist who wrote a book about people living in countries where they are at disadvantages in the power structure (see Kristof & WuDunn, 2009). The book showed that “if you give a woman in a third world country a $2.00 loan, she will change her family and ultimately her village. If you give it to the man he will spend it on himself.” The belief that came out of his book was that “if you can empower the women of the world that ultimately it will change the world for the better.”

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P10 commented on how the Christian world tends to see secular research as “a direct challenge against the Word of God.” What happened to the Holy Spirit living in each of us as an inspiration? “Every group has something that it brings to the whole body of truth.” It reminds her of the orchestra and how different instruments play at different times. You need the whole effect consisting of all the instruments. Sometimes people think they are the only instrument. When you start listening to only one instrument you lose the orchestra. Synergy P10 believes that God “in himself” is both male and female. One of the ways that God is seen in this world is in “how he is portrayed by male and female.” Male and female are both here to complete the picture of who God is. God does not concentrate on our intelligence, abilities, and things that he wants us to do and not do. Rather, God has called both men and women “to create and take care of the earth.” We do this by each bringing something unique “to the table.” There is an energy between a male and a female that creatively links them together. There is a difference in energy but it cannot be quantified as “this role or that role.” It‟s more about what it means “to self-sacrifice on behalf of another” human being. P10 believes that “behind it all God is using a woman somewhere in a very leading way.” Even if people do not recognize what is happening, women everywhere are doing things. “Men need it too. It's the way we've been built. That synergy is what energizes the world.” The best things that will happen in life are the result of men and women “being engaged together to do something.” You are not going to bring life if there is “one of one or one of the other.” The creative force is seen in what happens between

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men and women. That‟s where the power is. It‟s like “the engine in the turbine.” The engine “gets the juice” it needs to do what needs to be done. At the risk of generalizing too much, P10 stated that men tend to focus on the practicality of things while women tend to focus on the nontangible elements. You need both practical and nontangible elements in order to come up with solutions that “make the most sense.” Feelings P10 feels “really sad” about how gender roles “destroy the souls of men and women.” There are feelings of anger toward women who accept gender roles without questioning them. It is especially sad when men suffer because of gender roles and they do not even know what is happening to them. P10 feels like the women need to be “straightened out.” But for the men she wants to say to them, “Come on, get free, you know, get out of this, there's so much more to you than what's being limited by these gender roles.” Women should know better. To the men she thinks, “You poor things.” Sometimes P10 gets very energized when she thinks about how much good can be done. There is excitement about being able to call people to something that is “really, really good.” If P10 had to live in an environment where she was really shut down by gender roles, she does not know if she could do it. Submission to those roles would only occur if she believed that God was asking her to do it for another reason. Structural Themes for Participant 10 (P10) The structural themes are perception of self, perception of church, and perception of ministry. The first theme is perception of self. P10 grew up in the Methodist church where there were no differences between what men and women could do. The first time she experienced church gender roles was in the PCA. At the time, it did not bother her 224

because she had no desire to be a pastor. Growing up, P10 was grateful to her father for treating her just like he treated her brothers. She could do and be whatever she wanted. Her father respected his mother so much he never questioned women or needed to degrade them. Previous generations have viewed women as lesser than men. That belief could never be taken seriously by P10. If she were with someone espousing that belief, she may or may not speak up depending on whether she thinks giving her opinion would be of any use. There are feelings of sadness about how gender roles harm the souls of both men and women. Sometimes it is exciting to have the opportunity to call people to something better. The second theme is perception of church. P10 wondered why men would not feel compassion for women who cannot use their gifts in the church. What is missing in a man‟s life that he does not feel sad about women being limited? As a single woman, P10 ignores gender roles in the church and invites others to do the same. Why in the world would she ever pretend to not be capable of doing something? She felt encouraged and supported in taking leadership roles in her church and in her desire to pursue education that would allow her to impact the spirituality of both men and women. P10 believes that people like gender roles because it is a way to capture and control life. People then do not have to struggle with the reality that God is the one in control. Gender roles are just as harmful to a man as they are to a woman. Anything that binds another human being against what God has created that person to be has to be questioned. P10 would like people to understand that God is seen in this world by the synergy between male and female. There is a creative energy that relates to how men and women self-sacrifice on behalf of others.

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The third theme is perception of ministry. P10 believes that there are no differences between what men and women should be able to do within the church. In her current church, women lead worship and speak during the service. The men respected the women and she never felt discriminated against. Some of the women including P10 were invited to be deacons. Because the women could not be ordained as deacons, the men refused to be ordained. All the men and women became deacons in the same position. P10 was struck by the ministry of Jesus, a man who worked against the culture‟s image of women. He named women as human beings, not allowing the culture to push him into situations of dishonor and respect of others. P10 believes the church today needs to learn how to subvert cultural expectations so that people are allowed to be who God called them to be. Meaning Units and Textural Themes for Participant 11 (P11) Being Heard 1. One interesting thing my friends noticed when we were back at Another PCA Church is that I was included with the men many times. I was treated like one of the guys in certain circumstances. And they felt that was more because of my professional degree; that men automatically kind of assumed a more respectful approach to me because of that. 2. “It bothered the women that people didn't come to them under certain circumstances for advice or for help, when they would do that for me.” 3. “I would plow into situations and the men would listen to me.” 4. “I would like it if they would consult women who they knew had something to say.” Leadership 1. I think it really varies from church to church within the PCA. I think that there's always some really hard line people who think women really need to be in their place to male leaders who probably don't like all the restrictions that there are on women. 226

2. There's never been something I've wanted to do and then unable to do it because of any gender restrictions. I haven't personally ever had something that I wanted to do as a woman that I've been restricted from doing. 3. “People shouldn't necessarily be elders for life. There are some real problematic people [at a previous PCA church]. But here personally I haven't really seen anything that bothers me.” 4. “I haven't had any individual personal experience, but I've talked to people

who, in terms of counseling couples and all, the wife is often considered more wrong than the husband in lots of conflict type situations.” 5. “A lot of the women that I interact with are not your traditional Christian women. I don't think I am either.” 6. I have never been really embedded in my life in the church. I kind of operate more peripherally to the church. A lot of the things I do, I'm a very behind the scenes type worker. That's probably just a fear of committing myself to something. I'll do it on my time, when I'm available. 7. “I've never really wanted to teach in the church. I would think there might be a barrier if I wanted to preach. I don't really know if we're supposed to do that stuff or not.” 8. “The one rule that affects us is women don't preach, and women don't lead churches, and women are not elders.” 9. I think if I had the time and the desire to do more, I don't know that they would let us preach ever, and I'm not sure that we're supposed to or not, I don't know that offhand, but they do have women teaching Sunday School here. And I haven't noticed any men seem to have a big problem with that. 10. “Mrs. Jane Doe teaches in the Sunday School class. Probably the people who that bothers, they don't show up and go to a different class.” Bible 1. “If you look at the way Jesus dealt with women, I think that's a better view than what some of the things that Paul had to say, which seem inconsistent to me, and a bit bothersome.” 2. “Women had a much deeper spiritual relationship with and understanding of Jesus. You know, Lazarus, death scene and all that, with Mary.” 3. The way that Jesus interacted with women was very much of an eyeball to eyeball level. They weren't seen as lower. He stopped, he was sensitive to her 227

needs, he had a lot of compassion on women, he had close friendships with women, which I don't think was necessarily common in that environment. With Mary and Martha, how his relationship was with them. They were the ones who were more keyed in to who he was and what he was doing than any of the men ever were. 4. Remember how the woman that was bleeding touched him in the crowd? And he stopped and he really cared to speak individually. First of all, under the law, he would have been unclean as a result of that, whereas it was the opposite with Jesus. He made everything clean that touched him, not the other way around. 5. I just see [Jesus] as constantly relating to women. I don't think he ever displayed a real preference except again in picking the apostles. And they weren‟t a bunch of educated guys either. I'm not sure they were much more educated than the women were. The fishermen and all that, they obviously knew how to write because some of them wrote the gospels. 6. Where do you see Jesus accusing a woman? I don't. Men were like blockheads in many circumstances. Look at Peter. He was a piece of work. I think if you know Jesus you don't see this big gender thing. 7. “I think the goal is to look at Jesus. How did Jesus interact with women? I never saw him excluding women.” 8. The only people who were ever really admired by Jesus for their faith are women and people who aren't Jews. Like, the Roman centurion, who said, “You don't need to come into my house to heal my kid. I know what it's like to have authority and you just say it. I'm not worthy for you to come into my home anyway,” and he said, “How come I don't see that kind of faith everywhere else?” So I do see that as inconsistent. I've always been a little uncomfortable with that, as to what we're supposed to do with that. We're not allowed to pick and choose and I've always wondered why we don't cover our heads, it's so clear cut. 9. “How many things did men do who interacted with Jesus did he say, „In generations to come you will hear about this?‟” 10. In the Old Testament, I'm personally very bothered by the fact that David was called a man after God's own heart, and yet David had multiple wives. And that even Samson supposedly was under the Lord and had the spirit in him, while he was cavorting with prostitutes and wives and stuff like that. Even Abraham was allowed to have this kind of life. 11. The only two women that seemed to be glorified in any way in the Old Testament would be Deborah, and even she said, “Why don't you be in 228

charge” to a man, who wasn't willing to be. So he said, “I'm not going if you don't go with me,” so she said, “Okay, I'll go.” And then maybe the Proverbs 31 woman, who seems to be again a prosperous intelligent woman with her own business and everything else, ran her household. 12. On his missionary journeys [Paul] ran into some women like Lydia. She used to lead worship services down by the river and that's where he ran into her for the first time. I wonder if he told her she had to stop doing that. 13. “At the end of many of his letters [Paul] mentions women who are doing certain ministries who he wants them prayed for, for strength, so I don't know, I wish he was clearer in his letters.” 14. There are places where Paul is very clear that women are supposed to keep their mouths shut and only be taught in the home environment, and should never be leading a man, and never be teaching a man, and always have their head covered. I always wonder why we don't cover our heads. 15. Look at Jesus. They were out in the fields and they were eating grain on the Sabbath day and Jesus says, “Don't you remember what David did with the consecrated bread?” He was hungry so he ate it, which was a real no-no. So again, there are these statements in the Bible and then Jesus honors those who did not toe the line. 16. Personally I believe [in the Bible] the general gist is of equality. I do think the reason God makes a lot of points is that men would love to back off many times and let us take over. They would just like to “fish out” and just do nothing and just let us handle everything. Marriage 1. “My husband is completely not gender restrictive.” 2. “My sons have a deep respect for women. I have a very close relationship with them and I think it's because I'm not a wilting flower.” 3. “I do everything my husband does in terms of at home. We split the roles, though my husband has things he does. I don't do all the housework.” 4. I think God does call us to submit to our husbands. I think if there's a true disagreement between the two of us, I do pray and I do ask God. We usually do go with my side of the argument. 5. There are times when I have to say, “Okay God, this is between God and me, not between myself and [my husband]. Okay God, we're going to do it that way. You've given him to me as my husband, so I have to submit to that.” 229

6. I can't even think of an example of that. When anything goes wrong, I'm the one in reality who calls the shots. When all hell is breaking loose, it's me. God made me this way. I'm going to deal with it this way. 7. My one piece of advice to young couples getting married, do not read any Christian marriage books. Don't. Stay away from them. Find couples that you like the way they relate. It's so destructive. I used to read those things and think my marriage is nothing like this and there's gotta be something wrong with that. Or parenting books either. They're horrible. In the community, you see couples, you like how they interact with one another. That's how you try to model yourselves after. 8. What was our relationship with our fathers and our husband and our sons and brothers? My dad never said, “You can't do this, you're a girl.” None of that kind of stuff. My dad was cool all the way. Feelings 1. “I feel a little bit of frustration in terms of, „I wish somebody could clarify the difficult stuff.‟ But you know I think God left it that way intentionally.” 2. I personally haven't seen or experienced things that I think were really unjust as a result of gender. Except maybe some of the ways the [elders at a previous PCA church] handled some marriage situations. I mean, they really screwed up a lot of times. That was a very strange group of men. A lot of them did not have any business being an elder. 3. “I am blessed when it comes to gender issues. I think we have to be sensitive to women who are not. It's horrible the way women are treated in so many countries.” Ordination 1. “Cannot they tend to more important things? Whether or not women are given some stupid title. How about nobody's ordained then, FINE!” 2. “For them to waste more than ten minutes on this is stupid. How is the world better because of this? At the end of the day what have you accomplished? Nothing!” 3. “I think there is a certain fear of giving women more leadership roles. I think maybe, or at least on the surface, most of that is geared to what they feel are biblical mandates.”

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Textural Description for Participant 11 (P11) Being Heard P11‟s friends noticed that at a previous PCA church, she was often included with the men and treated like “one of the guys.” Her friends felt that because of her professional degree the men automatically used a more respectful approach toward her. It bothered some of the women that people went to her for advice or help rather than to them. P11 would just “plow into situations” and she found that the men would listen to her. She believes it would be good if the session would consult with women who they felt would have something to say. Leadership P11 thinks that gender restrictions vary from church to church within the PCA. There are some really “hard line people” in the denomination who think women need to be put in their place. There are also probably some male leaders who are not happy with all the restrictions put on the women. P11 has never personally been restricted from doing something she wanted to do. She does not consider herself to be “your traditional Christian woman ” and tends to interact with women who are not the traditional Christian women. P11 operates peripherally to the church and has not been really embedded in the life of the church. Being a “behind the scenes” worker enables her to do things on her own time when she is available. P11 has “never really wanted to teach in the church. I would think there might be a barrier if I wanted to preach.” She recalled the story of a famous female missionary who helped serve communion when there was no one else there to do it. This missionary was very much into following gender roles but she felt that she was honoring God when

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she served communion. P11 believes there is one rule that applies to all the women in the PCA. “They do not preach, do not lead churches, and are not elders.” If she had the time and desire to do more, she does not think she would ever be allowed to preach. In her current church, Mrs. Jane Doe is teaching Sunday School with her husband. The people who are bothered by that will probably go to a different class. Bible P11 is encouraged by how Jesus dealt with women. Jesus‟ treatment of women gives a better view than some of the inconsistent things that Paul said which are “a bit bothersome.” Women in the Bible had a “much deeper spiritual relationship with and understanding of Jesus.” She recalled the story of Lazarus and his sister Mary and the whole death scene. In this and other situations, Jesus interacted with women on an “eyeball to eyeball level.” He did not see women as being lower than men. Jesus stopped to talk to women, was sensitive to their needs, and had compassion on them. He had close friendships with women, which was not necessarily a common occurrence at that time. In his relationships with Mary and Martha, they were “more keyed in” to who Jesus was and what he was doing than any of the men were. P11 recalled the story of the woman who was bleeding who touched him in the crowd. Jesus stopped and talked to her. Under the law, he would have been unclean as a result of her bleeding. It was the opposite for Jesus. “He made everything clean that touched him, not the other way around.” P11 saw Jesus as constantly relating to women. She does not think he showed a preference except when he picked his apostles. Since some of the men were fisherman they probably were not much more educated than the

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women. P11 figures that at a minimum they knew how to write because they wrote the gospels in the New Testament. P11 does not recall any situations in which Jesus was accusing a woman. Men “were like blockheads in many circumstances.” Peter was “a piece of work.” The goal is to look at Jesus and see how he interacted with women. “If you know Jesus you don't see this big gender thing.” She never saw him purposely excluding women. When Jesus admired people for their faith, it was basically women and people who were not Jewish. The Roman centurion told Jesus he did not need to go to his house to heal his child. He talked about what it means to have authority and just command something to be done. The centurion did not feel worthy to have Jesus go to his home. Jesus was impressed by the faith of this man. To how many men did Jesus say, “In generations to come you will hear about this?” P11 feels uncomfortable with the idea that some scriptures in the Bible are not followed while others are. There are verses about women needing to cover their heads while in church. Women in the PCA are not required to do that. She does not understand why we are allowed to “pick and choose” verses to follow. P11 was personally very bothered by David being called “a man after God‟s own heart.” He had multiple wives. Samson supposedly had the spirit of the Lord within him while he was off cavorting with prostitutes and other people‟s wives. P11 is also bothered about the kind of life Abraham lived. In the Bible, there were women who seemed to be glorified in some way. Deborah asked one of the men to be in charge and he was not willing. She agreed to go when he said he would not go without her. The Proverbs 31

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women seemed to be “a prosperous intelligent woman with her own business and everything else” while also running her entire household. P11 talked about Paul‟s missionary journeys in which he met women such as Lydia, who was leading worship services down by the river. P11 wondered “if he told her to stop doing that!” At the end of Paul‟s letters, he often mentioned women who were doing ministries. He wanted people to pray for them and for their strength. P11 wishes Paul had been more clear in his letters when he addressed certain issues related to women. In some places Paul clearly stated that women had to “keep their mouths shut and only be taught in the home environment.” He also said a woman should never be leading or teaching a man and should always have her head covered. Why is there no rule in the PCA about woman covering their heads while in church? P11 recalled a story when Jesus and his disciplines were eating grain on the Sabbath. Jesus reminded people that when David was hungry he ate consecrated bread which was not supposed to be eaten. P11 is struck by statements in the Bible in which Jesus honors those who did not “toe the line.” P11 believes that the overall gist of the Bible is of equality. God makes lots of points about men leading because they would often prefer to back off and let the women take over. Men often prefer to do nothing and let the women handle everything. Marriage P11 has a husband who is “completely not gender restrictive.” They have raised sons who have a “deep respect for women.” P11 has a close relationship with her family and thinks it is because she is not a “wilting flower.” She does everything at home that her husband does at home and they split the household chores.

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P11 thinks that God calls women to submit to their husbands. When she and her husband have a disagreement she prays and asks God what to do. What usually happens is that they go on her side of the argument. There are times when P11 prays to God about how an issue is actually between her and God and not just her and her husband. She believes that God gave her a husband that he wants her to submit to. P11 admitted that she cannot think of an example of submitting to her husband. When something goes wrong, she is “the one in reality who calls the shots. When all hell is breaking loose, it's me.” P11 has come to realize that God made her a certain way and she is going to deal with an issue in the way that God made her. Her advice to young couples getting married is to not read any Christian marriage books. When reading those books, she realized her marriage had something wrong because it was nothing like what was in the book. P11 felt it was destructive to read those kinds of books. She would advise people to not read parenting books either because “they are horrible.” It is better to model yourself after couples whose interactions are worth modeling yourself after. Growing up, P11 had a father who never told her, “You can't do this, you're a girl.” He never said that kind of stuff. He was a great dad “all the way.” Ordination P11 was indignant about the church wasting their time on whether or not women should be ordained as deacons. “How about nobody's ordained then, FINE!” It is a waste of time to spend more than ten minutes discussing titles for women. Would the world be a better place because of this issue? P11 was upset that at the end of the day, nothing would have been accomplished. She believes there is a fear in giving women more roles

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in leadership. “At least on the surface,” most of the roles are taken from what people believe are biblical mandates. Leadership P11 does not believe that people should be elders for life. In a previous PCA church there were a lot of problematic men on the session. In her current church she has not seen anything about the elders that really bothers her. P11 has not had any personal experience with church authority speaking into her life. However, she has talked to people who said that when church leaders counseled couples, the wife was often considered to be “more wrong than the husband in lots of conflict type situations.” Feelings P11 is a little bit frustrated about the difficult passages in the Bible. However she thinks that God left it that way “intentionally.” She personally has not seen or experienced unjust things that she thought were a result of gender roles. When elders counseled people with marriage difficulties at a previous PCA church, they “really screwed up a lot of times.” It was a “very strange group of men.” She thought that many of them should have not been elders. P11 feels blessed about gender issues. We need to be sensitive to women who are not blessed in this way. It is horrible how some women are treated in other countries. Structural Themes for Participant 11 (P11) The structural themes are perception of self, perception of church, and perception of ministry. The first theme is perception of self. P11 does not consider herself to be a traditional Christian woman. Many of her friends are also not traditional Christian women. She operates more peripherally to the church and does things at her convenience 236

when she is available. Growing up P11 was treated no differently than her brothers. In her marriage, she and her husband split the roles depending on which tasks each wants to do. God has gifted her to be able to make decisions during crisis situations. When she and her husband have an argument, they usually end up doing what P11 decides should be done. Overall, she feels blessed when it comes to gender issues. She gets frustrated sometimes about the lack of clarity regarding the interpretation of difficult Bible passages. However, she thinks God intentionally left it that way. The next structural theme is perception of church. In her previous church, P11 was often included with the men and treated like one of the guys probably because of her professional degree. She would like the church leadership to consult more with women. P11 has never felt that gender restrictions stopped her from doing anything in a church that she has wanted to do. The Bible shows the equality of men and women. She does wonder if one of the reasons God said men had to be leaders because if they did not have to, they would let the women do everything. The third structural theme is perception of ministry. P11 believes that if she wanted to preach in church she would not be able to. She is fine with women teaching Sunday School and expects people who disagree to go to another class. It is important to look at how Jesus ministered to women without degrading them. He had close female friends and offered compassion and sensitivity when interacting with them. Jesus often commended women on their understanding of spiritual matters and the ability to be faithful. P11 thinks it is ridiculous that the PCA wastes time arguing about whether or not to ordain women. If they cannot agree, then how about they not ordain anyone? There seems to be a fear about giving women more leadership roles.

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Table 2 Individual Themes by Participant Leadership (11)

P1 x

P2 x

P3 x

Boundaries (2) Control (2)

P4 x

P5 x

x

x

P6 x

P7 x

P8 x

x

Communication (2)

x

x

Being heard (7)

x

x

Teaching (4)

x

Ordination (5)

x

x

x

x

x

Equality (4)

x x

Context (2)

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x x

x

Career (6)

x x

x

x

x

Ministry (6)

x

Marriage (4)

x

x

x

x

x

Personality (3)

x

x

Not fitting in (2)

x

x

x

x

x x

x x

x

x

x x x

x

Praise (1)

x x

x

x

Heart Issue (2)

x

x

Support (3)

x

x x

x

Synergy (1) Feelings (9)

x

x

x

Calling (2)

Stereotypes (4)

x

x

Belief System (1)

Tolerance (1)

P11 x

x x

Bible (7)

P10 x

x

Empowerment (2)

Conservative (4)

P9 x

x x

x

x

x

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x

x

x

x

x

Composite Textural Description Table 2 showed the 26 themes that individually emerged from the 11 women. Individual textural descriptions offered a narrative of the themes for each participant. The composite textural description will take these themes and weave them together. The one theme to occur with all participants was leadership. The Research Study Invitation and Informed Consent documents clearly stated that the study was going to assess gender inequality in the role leadership of the PCA church. All the women were prepared to talk about leadership in the church. As the interviews began, it was clear that each participant had seriously considered her views in relation to the current leadership structure in the PCA. The rest of the themes offered more detailed information about the experience of each participant related to the overarching theme of leadership. The first theme to be discussed is leadership. P1 appreciated the fact that women have something to offer within the church environment. She does not like when men have leadership positions simply because they are men or elders. P2 shared this belief. She would rather have a competent, organized woman lead a committee rather than a man who is leading it only because he is a man. P8 would like a woman to be chairman of the Missions Committee but does not believe the church would ever do that. P1 questions what God could have been thinking when he decided men should be the leaders. She wonders if men would ever become leaders if they did not have to. It would be too easy for women to run everything in the church and the home. P9 had similar thoughts about men who complain that women will take over the church if they let them in to the leadership. The problem is that the men will choose to walk away rather than work out problems. P2 feels that if a leadership structure is not working for a

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particular situation it needs to be reworked. She has been in churches where there is more of a sharing of roles. P2 would be okay with a woman elder if there was an extreme need to have one. However, she does not believe scripture supports that. P3 has experienced a lot of conflict with the male leadership in her church. She was the only participant who had started and directed a church sponsored business. The men were always trying to control how the business was run and how the money was used. There was always some kind of battle going on about the business. P4 talked about how church leadership has historically restricted the roles of women outside of the church in addition to within the church. Women were at a loss as to what to do with their gifts. P4 concluded that if some men really wanted to have total role distinctions regarding leadership, they would have to be prepared to do all the teaching, which would include the two and three year old children. P5 and P8 both submit to the authority of the PCA leadership roles but for different reasons. P5 is not in agreement with the leadership roles in the PCA. She submits to the authority of the church because she believes it is important to do so. When P8 came to the church, she had just left a denomination where no one had any authority over anyone else. She was relieved to accept the authority of the PCA elders. P5 believes that the PCA has incorrectly interpreted the scriptures. Women should be able to do everything the men do. Devaluing women‟s gifts is to the detriment of the entire church. P10 is in agreement with P5 that there should be no differences between what men and women do in the church. P8 would like there to be a way to include women in the leadership of the church. Men should be the leaders and women should have a passive role. However, she would like the leadership to find a way to include female viewpoints

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in the decision-making process of the church. P8 also believes that the men need to recognize the gifts of the women and use those gifts under their direction. P6 and P9 are comfortable with the leadership roles in the PCA church. P6 grew up with those roles and has never found a reason to question them. P9 has no desire to go to any session meetings that often last until late into the evening. P9 and P11 both agree that they have been able to do whatever they have wanted to do in the church without being restricted by gender. P11 does not consider herself or her friends to be traditional Christian women. She operates more peripherally to the church. P11 recognizes that if she wanted to preach she believes she would not be allowed. P7 thought that since the leaders of the early church were men, the leaders should still be men. She questioned how a female pastor would divide her responsibilities to her family and the church. P7 thought maybe men were better able to compartmentalize than women. A theme related to leadership is boundaries. P4 and P5 had differing views on what they do with leadership boundaries. P4 wants boundaries maintained while P5 pushes against boundaries that exist. P4 was emphatic about maintaining strong boundaries between gender roles within the church and outside of the church. She gets upset when church leaders think they can tell women and families what they can and cannot do outside the church. P5 does not approve of gender roles in the church or anywhere else. She uses her gifts and education to gently and intelligently push the boundaries against what is normally seen as acceptable in the church environment. The theme of praise was used by P4 to describe the place in which she agrees that the church and the world can overlap. In her life‟s work, she studies the physical world

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and is in awe of what she has learned. The church is called to praise God. P4 sees this as the only area of overlap between the church and the world. P3 and P10 each talked about control. P3 realized that when you cannot have what you want, you lose your sense of control and are faced with pain related to your loss. P10 remarked that gender roles are a way “to capture and control” life. Assigning roles to people takes away the fear about them. People often choose to define and categorize others instead of struggling with God for deeper understanding. The theme of heart issue connects to the idea of searching the scriptures to understand what God has said. P7 believes that everything in life comes down to a heart issue. She believes we need to be searching the scriptures so that we can know how God wants us to live as men and women. P10 is confused about why a Christian man would not have compassion on a woman who cannot use her gifts within the church. She wonders about what is in a man‟s story that does not allow him to feel sad on behalf of a woman who is defined and controlled by men in the church. P2 and P3 both commented on communication skills. P2 talked about how the Presbyterian structure can lead to a communication gap between leadership and church members. Men are often lacking in verbal communication skills. P3 stated her belief that many women are gifted in the area of communication. She questioned whether God made men leaders because men needed to learn how to improve their communication skills. The themes of being heard, teaching, and ordination can be grouped together. They each capture a concept related to the struggles women face when they attempt to contribute their insights and opinions, education, and ministry gifts to the church. Seven women talked about problems with their voices being heard in the PCA community. P2

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grew up in a home where she was strengthened by her family‟s expectation that she had to offer a strong, intelligent opinion related to any topic being discussed. She believes it is a shame that the leadership does not avail itself of the opportunity to receive input from the women on people related issues. P3 has had the opposite experience of P2. Verbal communication is not one of her stronger gifts. She has not felt heard or respected in her church and wonders if she is even allowed to talk. P3 communicates by what she does rather than by what she says. P4 spoke more to the way someone should speak if they want to be heard. You need to be honest and non-confrontational if you want to have a productive discussion. P7 thought it would be easy for the men to misunderstand what she was saying because they might not see where she was coming from. If she wanted to bring an issue up to the session she would probably want to bring another woman with her. P8 thinks that women can do a better job planning things than men. It is foolish to not use the resources of women with all of their education and vast array of experiences and responsibilities. P9 has participated in many aspects of her church. There are opportunities for women to participate in committees and offer their opinions to the leadership. P11 agreed with P9 and stated that she was often included with the men in offering opinions to the church leadership. Because of her professional degree, the men respected and listened to her. The next theme is teaching. P1, P2, P5, and P8 all felt comfortable with having a woman teach a Sunday School class. P1 would not be at all upset if a woman taught. P2 recently supported Mrs. Jane Doe and her husband teaching a Sunday School class. P5 and her husband were asked to teach a Sunday School class together in their church.

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Despite complaints by some of the men, P5 and her husband taught the class. P8 has no problem with women teaching Sunday School as long as they are qualified to do so. She was aware of some complaints about a woman teaching Sunday School with her husband. P8 remarked, “That just blows my mind.” The next theme is ordination. P1, P7, P8, P10, and P11 gave a variety of views on this theme. P1 was not ready to say that women should be ordained as pastors. If she was a deacon in the church it would not matter to her whether or not she was ordained. She believes ordination is a huge issue about which the PCA will not compromise. P7, P8, and P10 came from denominations where men and women could be ordained. When P7 joined the PCA she was fine with women not being ordained because she views pastoring as a job for a man. When P8 came to the PCA she had just left a denomination in which radical feminists were causing a lot of difficulties. She considered ordination a minor issue and was fine with it. P10 was invited to be a deacon in her church and was told the women could not be ordained. The men who were to become deacons refused to be ordained. P11 was indignant that the church would waste their time discussing ordination of women. It annoyed her that at the end of the day the world would not a better place to live because of ordination. P11 believes there is a fear of giving women more roles in leadership. The themes of empowerment and equality are grouped together. When women believe that they are equal with men they might become empowered to resist men who are trying to oppress them. Empowerment showed what some women might do when they come out of oppressive situations. Equality speaks to the belief that men and women have the same importance in the eyes of God. P8 and P10 both had different experiences

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related to the theme of empowerment. P8 had a negative experience with radical feminists at her previous church. The feminists rejected any reference to a male God and created a female god to help women more fully embrace their spiritual identity. P10 referred to a book of stories mainly about women living in countries where they were at an extreme disadvantage in the power structure. P10 agreed with the author‟s basic contention that if women of the world were empowered the world would ultimately be changed for the better. Four women addressed the theme of equality. P5 and P9 both agreed that the entire Bible showed and taught about how the kingdom of God liberated women and revealed their equality to men. P5 pointed out how our present culture has evolved in its views of women. She now sees the PCA as the stumbling block to the culture. P9 saw Jesus as being very clear about the need for a radical shift in how women were perceived. P8 and P10 talked about growing up in the Methodist church where tasks were not assigned by gender. There was equality in congregational leadership including pastoring. P8 frequently had positions of leadership. P10 believed that her father respected his mother so much that he never felt the need to question women‟s abilities or demean them as people. The themes of Bible, context, and belief system are grouped together. When the Bible is viewed within its cultural context, women can form a belief system that gives them inward strength when facing difficulties. Seven participants mentioned passages in the Bible related to gender roles. The theme of context speaks to the importance of understanding the cultural context in which the Bible was written. The theme of belief

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system relates to the importance of having the biblical knowledge that will give people confidence in what they believe. P3, P4, P7, P8, P9, P10, and P11 talked about the theme of Bible. P3 pointed out that in the Bible Jesus treated women differently than the culture did. P3 and P7 noted that when Jesus rose from the dead he went first to see some of the women. P4 is not absolutely certain that our interpretations of Scripture accurately reflect what God meant to say. P4 felt that the passage where Paul talks about women being quiet in church and having no authority over men was possibly Paul stating his current personal practice. P7 felt certain this verse did not mean that what women have to say is unimportant or that God will not speak through women. P9 found the instruction in this verse to be very clearly stated. She wishes that was not the case. This kind of belief is part of what women accept. P11 found some of Paul‟s verses to be inconsistent and somewhat annoying. She felt that Jesus‟ treatment of women gives a much better perspective on how women should be treated. Jesus seemed to approve of people who were willing to go against the typical cultural expectations. P11 believes the overall gist of the Bible is of equality. She wonders if God tells men to be leaders because if he did not the men would do nothing and the women would take over and handle everything. P7 remarked on how there were women in the Bible who were sent out to evangelize and be news bearers. She wondered if that means that women should have more teaching roles. P7 felt that we probably are not correctly interpreting all the nuances of scripture. She has no problem with women having supportive roles as long as the men are appreciative. P8 stated that the Bible does not firmly state whether or not infants should be baptized. The Presbyterian church interpreted the Bible as being supportive of

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infant baptism. She believes that if the PCA wanted women in leadership roles they would interpret the Bible to support that belief. P8 felt that Jesus gave women a key role and had a special place in his heart for them. P10 would never take seriously any kind of belief stating that women were lesser than men. P11 talked about Paul meeting Lydia while on one of his missionary journeys. Lydia was down by the river leading worship services. P11 does not think Paul told her to stop doing that because she was a woman. The theme of cultural context was highlighted by P4 and P10. P4 stated that when the Bible was written men and women had different roles in society. She believed the Bible had to be written from their point of view or else it would have had no meaning for the readers. P10 sees Jesus as a man who constantly went against the culture‟s image of woman. He saw them as real people, real human beings. When Jesus taught women he did it in a way that did not include a power struggle. P10 believes the challenge for each culture is to present the gospel in a way that brings life to people rather than an in-yourface approach that only distracts and alienates. Jesus did not allow the culture to push him into a situation where he could not be who he was called to be. One participant mentioned the theme belief system. P9 has resonated to the words of a female Christian author whose books have challenged her to become a better theologian. She admitted that she has not taken the time to understand and personally own her beliefs about gender roles. P9 agreed with the author about having a strong belief system so that when difficulties come, she can stand firm in what she believes. The next grouping of themes is calling, career, ministry, and marriage. Women felt called by God to lives that included careers, church ministry, and marriage. They were trying to live out these callings without the context of both secular and religious

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communities. Each theme speaks to the idea that women feel personally called by God to careers, ministry in the church, and marriage. P2 and P5 struggle with how to fulfill these themes within the context of the PCA community. P2 is is having difficulty identifying her calling within the context of her decision to be home with her young children. Women and men need to understand that women have a multitude of roles and callings. She wants women especially to embrace the idea that there is more to do and be in life. P5 knows that she is called to gospel ministry. She has found ways to pursue her calling in the secular world. If she were a man she would already be ordained as a pastor. P5 is not at all comfortable with defined roles for men and women. The theme of career was discussed with P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, and P9. P3 felt inspired in her career as director of a church sponsored business. However, the men in the church did not agree and recently fired her from her position. P4 felt called to a career outside of the church. God has blessed her in this career and there are no gender related problems in her workplace. P5 has an advanced degree that prepared her for ministry work that she cannot do in the PCA church. She has struggled to add extra training, education, and experience so that she could work in the secular world. P7 does not feel restricted in her career options. She restricts herself to having jobs that enable her to meet the needs of her family. P6 and P9 mentioned their relationships to the men who are at their secular workplaces. P6 has a career in a field that is predominantly male. At work she expects to be treated just like everyone else. P9 felt discriminated against at her job. She had to ask for a promotion that many of the men were getting. The theme of ministry was discussed with P2, P3, P4, P7, P8, and P11. P2 and P8 were both disappointed that the Women in the Church (WIC) group was disbanded. P2

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felt that having this group would really help the church. P8 was involved in some planning meetings for WIC. Despite their efforts the group fell apart. P8 had been leading ministries all her life. She did not understand why no one asked her to lead the group. P2 felt there was a lack of clarity regarding the issue of women deacons. She believes qualified women should have a public role in worship and in teaching Sunday School. P3 was upset by her church‟s many rules and regulations restricting people‟s ability to participate in various mercy ministries. She feels that the PCA does not deal with difficult issues and needs to be more open to change. P4 noted that mercy ministry is very important in the Bible. She believes that people fulfill their responsibilities better if they are given titles for their positions. Otherwise it can be difficult to get the job done right. P7 has noticed that the women in her church mainly minister to other women and children. She is fine with that because that is what she wants to do. It would be wrong to only allow women to share spiritual insights with just women and children. P7 believes God could use a woman to speak to a man‟s heart, not just a child or woman. P11 has not experienced gender restrictions about anything she has wanted to do in the church. She does not consider herself to be a traditional Christian woman. P11 operates peripherally to the church and is not fully involved in the life of the church. She supported Mr. and Mrs. John and Jane Doe teaching Sunday School together to both men and women. P2, P4, P6, and P11 offered insights into the theme of marriage. P2 has a marriage that has worked itself out to be an egalitarian one. This is different than many of the women her age. P2 has the freedom to make decisions based on what she would like to do with her life. P4 stated that she and her husband equally respect one another‟s opinions. P4, P6, and P11 all believe the Bible teaches that if a final decision needs to be

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made without consensus, then the husband needs to make it. P6 described herself as an independent person before she got married. Her husband would not make a huge decision without first talking to her. P11 admitted that she could not think of an example of her husband making a decision without her. In fact, she is usually the one who makes the decisions. P11 feels that making decisions is part of the way God has made her. The next group of themes consists of conservative, tolerance, personality, and not fitting in. The majority of these women had conservative beliefs about gender roles and were quite tolerant of the views of others. Some of them struggled with having personalities that did not always fit in with the expected, traditional female role in the PCA. It would be easy to imagine that a woman with conservative beliefs might have a certain kind of personality. Four of the women identified themselves as having conservative beliefs. Three women gave perspectives on their personality types. Two women had extreme experiences of not fitting in. One woman revealed a surprising tolerance for the views of others. P1, P2, P4, and P7 clearly stated that they have very conservative beliefs. All four of the women are quite comfortable with gender roles in the church. P2 pointed out that each church seems to have differences in how they play out the gender roles. P4 believes churches are trying to follow what they believe are biblical principles. P7 sees herself as a woman with conservative and old fashioned views. She would have a problem if a woman was allowed to prepare a Bible study at home with her husband but was not allowed to teach or share at church. P1 was emphatic about her lifelong conservative beliefs. A theme throughout her interview was that of tolerance. P1 fully embraces the idea that Christians can come together as evangelicals regardless of

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denominational affiliation. P1 enjoys and expects to have dialogues with people who have opposing views. P2, P3, and P9 addressed the theme of personality. The theme of not fitting in applies to P2 and P3. P2 is a dominant, boisterous, outspoken female who is more aggressive than most of the women she knows. While at seminary, P2 had some instances in which she did not feel like she fit in. She still feels that way today. P3 has a quiet personality with an entrepreneurial spirit. She does not fit in because she is not the kind of person who is able to fit into a box as defined by the men in the church. P3 feels that she fits in better when she is with women in denominations other than the PCA. P9 described herself as an outspoken woman who is able to be decisive. She has a lot of confidence in herself as a person and in her abilities as a leader. P1, P2, P7, and P9 each spoke to the theme of stereotypes. When P1 wanted to attend seminary people tried to convince her otherwise. It annoyed her that because she was a woman she was supposed to be content with Bible school while the men went to seminary. When P1 was involved in campus ministry it was expected that all the leaders were men. P2 believes that problems occur when people make decisions about who a woman is and who a man is. There can be real problems in the church when people come into situations “loaded and charged” with stereotypes. She would want to have a discussion to understand where a person was coming from and why they have such limited ideas of men and women. P7 believes that God has equipped men and women with different skills that are of equal importance. She agreed that people grow up with stereotypes about men building things and women cooking and doing crafts. P7 believes that the Bible teaches that men and women have different roles. She feels men are

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equipped to be leaders while women notice things and tend to be more supportive. P9 feels that men and women approach problems differently. She imagined that if women attended presbytery meetings no one would ever agree on anything. The theme of support was mentioned by P5, P8, and P10. P5 does not agree with the PCA‟s position on gender roles in leadership. She stays in the PCA because she and her husband treasure the community and the relationships they have built. They are connected to a lot of people in the PCA. P5 feels supported by talking to people who feel the way she does. P8 gets very little support in her church. She has led some committees and would like to be able to meet regularly with other leaders to talk about their groups. Whenever she makes requests to the pastors of the session, no one ever gets back to her. She feels very discouraged. P10 had the opposite experience than P8. She feels very supported by her church and in fact has gained authority over the years. People have encouraged her to take more of a leadership role in her church. Both men and women have supported her in her desire to pursue education that would enable her to impact the spirituality of both men and women. The theme of feelings occurred in nine of the 11 participants. P1 stated that when she was younger she spent a lot of time and emotion on women‟s issues. Her response to situations now is usually a stance of finding something interesting. P1 remarked upon a situation in which people were complaining about a woman reading the Bible during the church service. She basically rolled her eyes and thought it was ridiculous. P2 expressed her overall satisfaction with the current situation in the PCA. She feels blessed that she has not personally experienced being marginalized. P2 feels some frustration about the men in the church. The session should find a way to use women as

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consultants to the session. She wants the men in the church to grow in their understanding of women and their potential. It frustrates her when women do not see their own potential. P8 has felt frustrated about not having her gifts and abilities recognized in the church. She had a lot of leadership ability and no one seemed to care. The church is missing out on a lot of opportunities because of their rigid beliefs about gender roles. P11 feels a bit frustrated about the Bible passages about women that are so difficult to understand. She has experienced some frustration about decisions elders made at her previous church. When the men were handling marriage situations they were not sensitive to the needs of the women. P11 was upset by the way they counseled the couples. P3 was feeling a lot of emotion during the interview. She had just been fired from her job as the director of a business she started at the church. P3 felt betrayed and confused. There was sadness about how women are expected to “fit into a box.” Her experience in the church has been one of negativity, frustration, and discouragement. P7 has a desperate need to explain exactly what she is talking about when discussing gender roles. This is because she knows there are men in the church who have a variety of beliefs about gender roles. She wants to make sure she can explain her position. P9 has a similar feeling when talking to people outside of the PCA. She feels defensive when trying to explain what happens in the church. P9 wishes she did not have to apologize for or defend the gender roles that exist within the church. P5 and P10 both expressed sadness about the way women are treated in the denomination. P5 feels both sad and disappointed that when a man and a woman come to

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church, the woman‟s gifts are not as valued as a man‟s gifts. This devaluation of women is an injustice that is very difficult to explain to outsiders. P5 feels that there is a sense of “heaviness” regarding these issues. P10 feels a lot of sadness about how gender roles destroy people‟s souls. She gets upset that men do not understand that by assigning roles, they are limiting their own potential. Both P5 and P10 expressed deep sadness at the existence of gender roles. They both felt called to gently challenge people regarding their beliefs. Regardless of whether people change their beliefs, they will try to call them to something better in life. Synergy was the final theme. P10 used this theme to explain her position on how men and women together form the reality of who God is. Synergy sums up a perspective that honors the creation of both men and women. P10 believes God is seen in this world in his portrayal of male and female together. God has called all of us together to participate in self-sacrifice on behalf of one another. This synergy energizes the world as men and women are engaged together in the world. A creative force exists when both males and females bring their gifts and use them together. Composite Structural Description The researcher reflected on each woman‟s experience in order to discover the overarching themes that best described the phenomena. The four structural elements that emerged were perception of self, perception of church, perception of ministry, and perception of Bible (see Table 3).

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Table 3 Structural Themes by Participant P1

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

P8

P9

P10

P11

Perception of self

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Perception of church

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Perception of ministry

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

Perception of Bible

Relationship to self was a primary structure for each participant. Women shared their feelings about what it meant to accept or reject gender roles in the church while submitting or not submitting to them. Women talked about how their personality types sometimes clashed with stereotypical Christian female expectations. Upon joining the PCA, women willingly submitted to the theology of gender roles. They have learned to cope with a disconnection between what they believe about themselves and what they have agreed to submit to within the church. Through outward acceptance of a belief system to which they do not internally subscribe, women shared some very creative ideas as to how to circumvent gender roles. The next structure to emerge for all the women was perception of church. Women experienced a communication gap between the leadership and the congregation. They would like to feel more supported by the church and would welcome opportunities to dialogue about opposing views. Women questioned biblical interpretations about women in leadership. They sought compassion from men about their not being able to fully use their gifts, abilities, and callings within the church. Women agreed they need a better theological understanding of issues that impact them as women. 255

The third structure that emerged for all the women was perception of ministry. Women experienced dissatisfaction about how men were often given leadership positions without the desire, qualifications, or passion to lead that ministry. Women expressed their beliefs about how men and women can minister together in all roles. There was frustration about not being able to follow their God given callings to minister within the church body. All of the women agreed there were certain ministries they could do without restriction in their current churches. The final structure emerging for all but P1, P2, P5, and P6 was Bible. Women had strong opinions about how the Bible taught and modeled equality of men and women. Bible passages interpreted to limit women‟s roles confused women due to the lack of clarity within the passages. Women urged the church to look at the life of Jesus to see how he respected and praised women. They felt seeing Jesus in action had more clarity than scripture passages that were used to interpret preconceived and desired results. In summary, women shared feelings about how they were personally affected by gender roles in the PCA church. The majority of women were basically accepting of traditional gender roles within the church environment. However, they experienced a lack of support and communication from their church leadership. Women would like the leadership to find a way to include female viewpoints in the decision making process of the church. They questioned biblical interpretations of confusing passages and wondered why men rarely offered compassion over their plight in the church. Women experienced frustration about knowing what God has called them to do and being blocked in their ability to follow that calling in the PCA. The life of Jesus was held up as a way to see

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what God expects the church to look like. Overall, women had respectful, thoughtful, intelligent thoughts about the issues related to this study. Composite Textural-Structural Description The structure of perception of self emerged from all 11 participants. This was shown as women reflected on what it meant to embrace or reject conservative gender roles. The theme of acceptance was a strong one. The majority of women expressed a sense of peace and comfort with gender roles. Those who accepted roles but strongly disagreed shared experiences of being minimized and feeling rejected, hated, and oppressed. One woman who did not accept or submit to the roles shared feelings of deep sadness about how roles harm the souls of both men and women. Women who operated more on the periphery of the church stated they did not get involved in gender role issues and were unaffected by them. The theme of personality factored in to women‟s perceptions of self while accepting gender roles. Some of the women identified their personality traits as being more aggressive, outgoing, and confident than the stereotypical Christian woman. They have experienced feelings of not fitting in while others found ways to more fully express their personalities within the church community. One very outgoing woman showed exceptional skill in finding humor and irony whenever gender role expectations became too serious. The theme of equality was a strong one. Women believed they were equal to men. Those who discussed their childhoods stated that they grew up believing they could do and be anything they wanted. The next structure emerging from all 11 women was perception of church. This structure reveals women‟s beliefs and feelings about the leadership of their particular churches and the PCA as a whole. A strong theme related to perception of church was 257

that of dialogue. One woman expressed amazement about how the PCA church does not tolerate or dialogue with people who disagree with them. Some of the women believe men and women need to dialogue more in an effort to close the communication gap between leadership and the congregation. A few women expressed sadness and disappointment about how women in the church are treated. Another strong theme connected to the structure of perception of church was fear of women in leadership. Some of the women were indignant about men who do not want to give women leadership roles because they are afraid the women might take over the leadership. Three of the women remarked that if the men choose to abdicate their authority, it is not the women‟s fault. A significant theme emerging from one woman was that of compassion. She wondered about men who cannot feel compassion for a woman who is not allowed to use her gifts in the church. She wants the church to reconsider anything they are doing that would not allow people to be who God created them to be. Another strong theme was gratitude to childhood families who encouraged women to pursue their dreams regardless of gender expectations. Some of the women had no problem with the gender role inconsistency between their secular and religious lives. Others felt a sense of oppression, injustice, and indignation within the church environment. A final theme was theology. The majority of women stated their belief that looking at how Jesus treated women was the best way to understand the equality of men and women. The majority of women did not understand the theology behind the gender roles in the church. There was a vague sense of believing the Bible taught gender roles coupled with wondering if biblical interpretation about gender roles was accurate.

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The third structure for all 11 women was perception of ministry. An important theme was that of ministry leadership. Women were dissatisfied with men sometimes having ministry leadership positions simply because they were men. It was pointed out that some church committees were viewed as needing to be led by men while some were relegated to the women. Some of the women believed there should be no differences between what men and women do in the church. Other women have accepted those differences as being part of the PCA. A strong theme that emerged from some of the women was that of frustration about their gifts and abilities not being used in the church. Some cannot use their gifts because women are prohibited from those leadership roles. Others appeared to minimize their desires in order to stay within the confines of the gender roles. Another strong theme was ordination to ministry. The majority of women did not feel it was important for them to be ordained as deacons. They all knew they could never be ordained as a pastor as long as they stayed in the PCA. Everyone agreed that women can participate in parts of the worship service along with teaching Sunday School classes attended by both men and women. The final structure was perception of Bible for all women except P1, P2, P5, and P6. One strong theme was the equality of women with men. Women agreed that the Bible liberated women, teaching and showing their equality with men. Women would like the PCA to seriously consider how Jesus interacted with women. He talked to them, named them, and healed them. In the presence of other men, Jesus praised women for pursuing spirituality by going outside of the cultural gender norms. Women admitted their confusion about passages that have been interpreted to place women under the authority of men. By looking at Jesus and how he treated men and women, people can see the

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scriptures enacted in real life. Another theme was that of women in ministry. Women pointed out that after Jesus was resurrected, he went first to the women and sent them out to tell others. The apostle Paul worked closely with women and commended them for their faithfulness and hard work in the ministry. Another powerful theme was the cultural context of the Bible. Women agreed that men and women had different roles in society during the time of the early church. The scriptures had to be taught within that context so that people could understand its relevance. Now, the PCA church is viewed as a stumbling block by clinging to gender roles that are no longer relevant to current society. In summary, these amazing women have chosen to reside within a community that does not allow them to fully use their gifts or fully be who God made them to be. They are a testament to the power of women to quietly work beneath the church system in anticipation of better things to come. These women are exceptional communicators with insights that highlight their ability to think deeply about their lives. Chapter 4 Summary Chapter 4 presented the data following the phenomenological model designed by Moustakas (1994). The study was designed to gain an understanding of the experiences of women who were members of the denomination known as the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA). Interviews were done with 11 women who shared details of their feelings and experiences with gendered leadership roles in the PCA church. All of the women were members of three local PCA churches and all were employed in a variety of careers. For each participant, meaning units were divided into textural themes and then put into a narrative that highlighted the experience of each woman. Individual themes 260

included leadership, boundaries, control, communication, being heard, teaching, ordination, empowerment, equality, Bible, context, belief system, calling, career, ministry, marriage, conservative, personality, not fitting in, tolerance, praise, stereotypes, heart issue, support, synergy, and feelings. Next was a structural description for each participant that revealed the structures of perception of self, perception of church, and perception of ministry. A composite textural description wove together all the themes from all the participants. After reflecting on the composite textural description, four structures emerged which were then included in the composite structural description: perception of self, perception of church, perception of ministry, and perception of Bible. Finally, a composite textural-structural description pulled together the textural and structural themes that described the participant‟s experiences of gender inequality in role leadership in the PCA church.

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CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction Chapter 5 will show how the research study addressed the problem of gender inequality in role leadership in the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) church. The results of the study will be viewed within the framework of previous and current literature, concluding with recommendations for future studies. Sections for Chapter 5 consist of a summary of the results, discussion of the results, discussion of the conclusions, limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research. Summary of the Results The Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) is a religious denomination that uses the Bible to support a theology of male leadership and female submission. Women are expected to defer to male leadership, using their leadership gifts and abilities only within the context of women‟s or children‟s ministries. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to understand how women experienced gender inequality in role leadership in PCA churches. Research questions were designed to discover how women thought and felt about being in the PCA along with strategies they used to cope with gender inequities. A transcendental phenomenological approach presupposed that women‟s interpretations of their experiences were shaped by their presumed perceptions and understandings (Gavridis, 2004; Richardson, 2006). The methodology used was that of Moustakas (1994) who stated that individuals create themselves and their worlds through discourse. The findings of this study contributed to the existing body of knowledge by

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offering a clearer and deeper understanding of the essence of gender inequality in the PCA church. Literature by Bandura (2001), Bandura et al., (2003) and Pevey et al. (1996) provided the rationale and significance for this study. Pevey et al. (1996) emphasized the importance of examining women's viewpoints when participating in oppressive cultural practices. Bandura (2001) viewed religion as a socially grounded phenomenon in which people were expected to conform to values, beliefs, lifestyles, and behaviors. Research by Bandura et al. (2003) showed that when people deferred to a divine agency, they often became dependently passive, lessening their ability to exercise personal and collective efficacy. The theoretical framework of this study included the following components: (a) gender structure theory, (b) gender role conflict theory, (c) evangelical feminist theory, (d) social dominance theory, and (e) cognitive dissonance theory. Literature about gender structure theory showed that gender was embedded throughout all levels of society (Risman, 2004; West & Zimmerman, 1987), with people expecting to be judged by their conformity (Deutsch, 2007). Gender conflict theory showed how men and their relationships were affected by gender role expectations (Breiding, 2004; Burn & Ward, 2005; O'Neil et al., 1986; Rochlen & Mahalik, 2004). Evangelical feminist theory questioned a theology that placed women in positions of subordination to men (Ruether, 1999). Social dominance theory measured personal preferences for equal or hierarchal relationships (Snellman & Ekehammar, 2005). Cognitive dissonance theory showed how people experienced tension, or dissonance, when a previously existing belief was challenged by a credible, new belief (Burns, 2006).

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Eleven women shared their experiences with gender inequality in leadership roles within the PCA church. Purposive sampling was used to select participants who would be able to give the most information possible on the phenomenon being studied. All of the participants were White, female, college graduates between the ages of 27-62, seven with master‟s degrees, and two with doctoral degrees. All but two were married. Three of the women had master‟s degrees from seminaries. All of the women were employed in secular careers and had been attending the PCA church for 5-30 years. The length of the interviews was between 16-45 minutes long. This next section will present short summaries of literature related to the theoretical framework of this study comprised of: (a) gender structure theory, (b) gender role conflict theory, (c) evangelical feminism theory, (d) social dominance theory, and (e) cognitive dissonance theory. Following each summary will be a presentation of findings related to each theory. Gender Structure Theory Literature about gender structure theory showed that gender was embedded throughout all levels of society (Risman, 2004; West & Zimmerman, 1987) with people expecting to be judged by their conformity (Deutsch, 2007). Differences between the sexes were used to justify inequality (Ridgeway & Correl, 2004; Risman, 2004). Gender roles influenced marital satisfaction and conflict (Faulkner et al., 2005) with roles being revised following a divorce (Walzer, 2008). Female clergy were expected to step into jobs requiring the work of a male pastor and his wife (Frame & Shehan, 2005). Gendered norms were shown to be challenged when people began to see themselves as equals (Risman, 2004).

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Participants in this study expressed an awareness of how gender continues to be embedded throughout the PCA church while secular American society is changing. Women expressed feelings of deep sadness about how the PCA church continues to oppress and marginalize women by viewing the leadership gifts of men as more highly valued than the gifts of women. Participants have experienced conflict and alienation by being judged for not conforming to their expected gender roles regarding choice of career, personality type, and calling. Some have conformed and continue to feel alienated and oppressed. Others have arranged their lives on the periphery of the church, thus minimizing any judgment regarding their lack of conformity. Some of the women viewed innate male and female differences as reasons to have gender roles. One women felt that the job requirements of a pastor fit in more with the stereotypical male personality and spiritual gifts given to men by God. Women who viewed themselves as equal to men have felt that way since childhood. To some, it was quite a shock to realize that the PCA church did not see them as equals. Some of the women accepted the PCA view of women as something they had to live with to be in the PCA church. They engaged fully in ministries to women and children. Others challenged the view whenever they could by having theological discussions or by just refusing to comply whenever possible. Some of the women have suffered for their lack of compliance while others have felt heard and respected. Gender Role Conflict Theory Gender conflict theory showed how men were affected by gender role expectations (Burn & Ward, 2005; O'Neil et al., 1986). Relationships between men and women were negatively impacted by men who conformed to traditional masculine gender

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roles (Burn & Ward, 2005; Rochlen & Mahalik, 2004) and by men who had anxiety about trying to conform to gender role expectations (Breiding, 2004). By nature of their PCA membership vows, women were negatively impacted by traditional masculine gender roles. By joining the church, women agreed to submit to an authority structure that placed women in submission to male leadership. This submission played out in different ways for each woman within the context of her particular church community. The majority of women felt supported by their husbands and fathers and by leaders in their congregations. Some of the women were aware of situations in which men in leadership treated women unfairly when counseling married couples. One woman struggled for years with church leaders who wanted to control her church sponsored business. Another woman reported that a pastor questioned her confidence about leading a portion of the church service. She realized the pastor was the one with the anxiety about the service. Some of the women expressed sadness and anger about the quality of the relationships between men and women. They cited communication gaps and an overall disconnect between the leadership and the congregation. Women emphatically stated that men need to seek out the counsel and advice of women, who often have a better understanding of relational issues. Evangelical Feminist Theory Evangelical feminism offered a belief that the Bible supported and demanded full equality for women (Scanzoni & Hardesty, 1992), questioning a theology that placed women in positions of subordination to men (Ruether, 1999). Charmé (2006) showed how religious tradition took precedence over equality while Colaner and Warner (2005) showed a significant relationship between gender role attitudes and career aspirations.

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Evangelical women revealed how they coped with their duel callings as mothers and career women (Sellers et al., 2005). Participants in this study stated that the Bible showed and taught about how the kingdom of God liberated women and revealed their equality to men. Citing denominational differences, women wondered whether the PCA could interpret passages about women differently if that is what they wanted to do. The majority of women pointed to the life of Jesus and the life of Paul. Jesus respected women and commended them for choosing spiritual life over cultural norms. Paul‟s writings supposedly put women into positions of submission. However, participants pointed out how Paul worked with women and commended them for their faithfulness and commitment to the gospel. Women felt that the cultural context of the Bible should be taken into consideration when interpreting passages. While the majority of women espoused the equality of men and women, they allowed Presbyterian structure and tradition to take precedence over their views of equality. Women who had callings to positions that were not open to them in the PCA church were following those callings outside of the PCA. All of the women had career aspirations with some limiting their callings so that they could fully attend to the needs of their husbands and children. Social Dominance Theory Social dominance theory measured personal preference for equal or hierarchal relationships (Snellman & Ekehammar, 2005). People formed ethnic hierarchies when judging people from a variety of ethnic backgrounds (Snellman & Ekehammar, 2005). Correlations were shown between people who preferred hierarchy and their perceived ability to control outcomes (De Crèmer et al., 2008). Gender differences about equal or

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hierarchal relationships were seen as a result of people‟s socially learned attitudes and beliefs about social equality (Caricati, 2007). Participants in this study preferred and expected to participate in equal relationships in their marriages and workplaces. Some of them agreed with the traditional belief that if there was an issue in their marriage that could not be resolved, the man was required by God to make the final decision. However, in reality they never came to that point because their husbands considered them as having equal or better decision making skills than they. None of the women felt they were superior to or above men and a couple of them pointed out that neither men nor women should be claiming superiority over the other. Women felt that stereotypical behaviors and roles came from society and the church and that people accepted them as part of life. Some of the women talked about the importance of men and women working together as a way to solve problems rather that one having control over the other. Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive dissonance theory stated that people experienced tension, or dissonance, when a previously existing belief was challenged by a credible, new belief (Burns, 2006). People either trivialized situations or changed their attitudes as a way to decrease their stress (Joule & Martinie, 2008). Powerful people changed their attitudes to resolve dissonance because they felt they had the choice to do so (Galinsky et al., 2008). Dissonance occurred and was reinforced when people were grouped together with people who disagreed with them (Matz & Wood, 2005). Strategies used to achieve agreement were shown to decrease the discomfort caused by dissonance (Matz & Wood, 2005).

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The majority of women grew up believing that men and women were equal with no restrictions about career or life goals. Some of the women were in leadership positions in their careers while others expected to be leaders at some point in their careers. These same women were members of PCA churches where leadership roles were restricted by gender. Many of the women changed their attitudes as a way to cope with the inequity between their secular and religious lives. Some women remained on the periphery of the church while others focused on what they could do and then became fully involved. Women who felt called to lead in the church recognized that they would need to one day go outside of the PCA in order to follow their calling. Those who had no desire to have leadership positions in the church were sympathetic to those who wanted to be ordained to positions such as pastor and deacon. Some of the women expressed a deep hopelessness about any change in the PCA. Women stated their desire to talk more with others about these issues. If there is future dialogue between church members, dissonance would expect to be reinforced and maybe some change would occur at least on a congregational level. In summary, women experienced deep sadness related to gender roles in the PCA church. Some of them felt judged and alienated within the church environment because of expectations about their choice of career, personality type, and calling. Most of the women felt supported by the men in their lives and in their particular church communities. Conflicts with church leadership were minimal. Only one woman experienced being fired from her job because of power struggles related to the church leadership. Women felt they were equal to men and that the Bible supported the equality of men and women. They especially pointed to Jesus as showing the church how women

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should be respected and treated. Some of the women shared the view that men should make final decisions if they could not agree together. However, they pointed out that has never happened. Finally, women have found creative ways to deal with the inequity between their secular and religious lives. Some realized they will need to eventually leave the PCA church in order to fulfill their God given callings. Discussion of the Results This is the first research study that sought to understand the experiences of women within the PCA church. Traditional positions on the role of women were important to those who founded the denomination in 1973. A recent proposed change to the PCA‟s Book of Church Order tightened up parameters clarifying that men and women assisting the deacons “are not subjects for ordination” (Taylor, 2010, para. 2). This was to ensure understanding that elders and deacons are the only ordained offices in the PCA and neither are open to women. This is a curious decision to the researcher because women already know they cannot be ordained as long as they remain in the PCA church. According to the results of this study, the big issue for the women is wondering how they can use their gifts within the restrictions of the PCA church. This study gave a picture of the experiences of 11 participants who were members of PCA churches in the suburban Philadelphia area. These women valued their relational and biblical beliefs regarding the equality of all men and women. They were intelligent, gifted, focused, entrepreneurial, outgoing, outrageous, insightful, and powerful. The women possessed gifts of leadership that were highly valued in the secular world yet diminished in the religious world. Despite the functional gap between their personal and religious lives, women submitted to the roles of the PCA because they valued 270

relationships and tradition. Those who did not submit to the roles found ways to remain true to themselves as God created them. The importance of this study lies in the revelation of the experiences of 11 exceptional women. Each of them loves God and strives to follow the truths of biblical instruction. They worked hard to create a world in which they and their families coexisted with those who would limit their opportunities within the church. Anyone reading this study would see that the women have not watered down any of their experiences or opinions. The women do not want to rage against those who are oppressing and limiting them. They want to work with them to improve the church and ultimately the world. By participating in this study, these women were willing to offer their very personal experiences to the PCA world and beyond. They chose to add their instruments to the symphony of women through the ages who have labored for the equality and understanding of not just women, but all mankind. Women in this current study freely offered their viewpoints as one more way to speak to the world. There was a clear desire for change to occur within the PCA. However their hopes were bigger than that. They wanted their words to be used to further the work of the gospel not only in their communities but throughout the world. Discussion of the Conclusions This study added to the body of knowledge related to gender structure theory. This study supported the basic idea of gender being embedded throughout society, in this case, religious society. There was an understanding of how God created men and women in different ways. The women were aware of those differences being used by the church 271

to justify inequality in leadership roles. All of the women were raised to believe they were equals with men. In the workplace they expected to be treated equally. Gender structure theory stated that people would challenge roles once they believed they were equal. The women in this study did not confirm this belief. They all viewed themselves as equals with men due to their upbringing. However they rarely challenged gender roles in the church. There was a much greater acceptance of the roles as church tradition or something to accept and work with rather than fight against. Perhaps the difference is that the women always considered themselves as equals and were not just discovering this for the first time. Maybe they each had a inner confidence that did not allow them to feel threatened by the inequities. It is somewhat of a mystery because if a woman grew up believing she was equal to a man, why would she acquiesce to a structure that said she was not? This study added to the body of knowledge about gender conflict theory. There is the overall assumption that women who joined the PCA were negatively impacted by men who have conformed to traditional masculine roles. Upon membership, women have very little voice and will not participate in church leadership. Women have reported difficulties in their relationships with church leaders, which may or may not be related to men‟s insistence on conformity to traditional masculine gender roles. Since the leadership of each PCA church consists only of men, it is possible that trying to conform to traditional masculine roles has caused men to experience anxiety. However, this study does not address that concern. Currently, both women and men in the PCA have requested guidance on how to best use the gifts and abilities of women within the PCA structure. There is resistance to this issue for a variety of reasons; one being that “the role

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of women in the Church is not a new or unstudied issue” (Kelley, 2009, para. 11). Since women do not participate in the decision-making body of the church, their voices were heard only through men who were willing to speak for them. The body of knowledge regarding evangelical feminist theory was supported by this study. All of the women believed they were equal to men. They were willing to question a theology that placed women in submission to men‟s authority. Some of the women had no problem with the authority structure of the church but would not tolerate it in the workplace. Others were very upset by the inequality and recognized they will have to one day leave the PCA to pursue their callings. Religious tradition was used as a reason to submit to gender roles. Some of the women had career aspirations that they chose to limit so that they could devote time to their families. They did not necessarily feel compelled to do this but wanted to balance out their lives as best they could. Women who felt called to be mothers and have careers did not have problems sorting out the two. This study showed that women who were feminists within the evangelical community were women of integrity who honored their commitments to God, their families, and themselves as God created them to be. They were willing to question the church structure but for now, were choosing to stay within the church despite their disagreements. Social dominance theory was confirmed by this study. Women understood the need for both equal and hierarchal relationships within the church. They respected the need for authority and were willing to work within the structure even when they did not believe in the theological reasons. Overall, women wanted more equal input within their church communities but were willing to submit to the hierarchy. Many of the women

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expressed acceptance of hierarchal relationships because of good childhood experiences with fathers and brothers. This study confirmed the theory of cognitive dissonance. During their interviews, women were surprised at the beliefs that they were often verbalizing for the very first time. Some of them experienced dissonance with their own internal beliefs and expressed a willingness to look at the issues in new ways. As women verbalized their experiences, some of them trivialized what was occurring while others made commitments to change their attitudes. Others had already changed their attitudes and beliefs to fit their current church situation. In summary, the theoretical framework of this study included the following components: (a) gender structure theory, (b) gender role conflict theory, (c) evangelical feminist theory, (d) social dominance theory, and (e) cognitive dissonance theory. Findings from the study confirmed, expanded, or did not confirm various beliefs related to each theory. All of the women fully participated in their interviews and opened up their hearts to new ideas and thoughts about their lives. Together, they have contributed to the body of knowledge related to the theories underlying this study. Limitations of the Study The first limitation relates to the sample. This study used purposive sampling. A randomly selected sample would yield a different kind of participant and might increase the array of perspectives. All of the women were White, suburban women. Seven of the 11 women were over the age of 50. This study had 11 participants which was considerably large for a phenomenological study. Future studies with more participants would yield an even greater array of experiences. A study that would include men would 274

offer perspectives that would add even more depth to this challenging issue. Women of different cultures and ethnicity along with a focus on particular age groups would yield yet another result. The women in this study all had college degrees, some had master‟s degrees, and some had doctoral degrees. Future studies should include women who were less educated or still in the process of pursuing education past high school. Maybe a study with teenage girls and boys would be beneficial. This study cannot be generalized to all PCA churches. Even within these three churches located within 10 miles of each other, there were differences in leadership styles and attitudes. Churches in different parts of the country have different ways to apply their beliefs. Future studies should pursue experiences of women throughout the nation. A final limitation is that of the researcher being a member of a PCA church. Epoche was practiced regularly throughout the study individually and with licensed mental health professionals. However, there is the assumption that the researcher‟s personal experience contributed somewhat to the interpretation of the data. While it is true that phenomenological studies expect the researcher to use personal insight and imagination to analyze data, it is difficult to know how much the data was affected by the researcher‟s bias. Recommendations for Future Research Future research should help address the limitations addressed in the above section. A similar study should use a range of ages, ethnicities, and locations within the United States. A study focusing on missionaries in the PCA would yield some intriguing results based on where the missionaries were living. A story focused on men as members and leaders would certainly give another side of the story. A study with members of other Presbyterian churches would widen the data even more. For example, the Evangelical 275

Presbyterian Church (EPC) allows each congregation to make their own decisions about women in leadership. The United Presbyterian Church has no restriction on women in leadership roles. The Orthodox Presbyterian Church is more restrictive than the PCA. How are these denominations handling the roles of men and women? This study showed a huge gap between women who believe in the equality of men and women and what they tolerate within the PCA church. Ten of the 11 women allowed themselves to be restricted within their church environment. Their reasons were contained within their stories. Since her interview, one of the women has been attending another church totally unrelated to the PCA. Future research should include women who have left the PCA church in order to follow their God given callings. Another study might address women who remain in the PCA under duress. Maybe there are women who experience severe stress in the PCA and feel unable to leave the church. Perhaps these women are pastor‟s wives or are married to church leaders who will not allow them to go. A future study might include speaking to pastor‟s wives about how they deal with PCA restrictions. Women in this study agreed that their voices were not heard as much as they need to be. If future research included a larger group of women, perhaps the PCA would be willing to consider changes that could benefit both men and women. Until then, women patiently wait, hope, and speak up when needed. It is the researcher‟s hope that this study could be used in future comparative studies of other patriarchal faith traditions that assign leadership roles in the church based on gender. Conclusion This study set out to reveal the experiences of women within a church that assigns leadership roles based on gender. The literature review traced the history of women in the 276

secular and religious worlds. These women strived to teach the world that all people were created equal and deserved the same rights. Like women in the Bible, these historical figures went against the cultural norms to speak out against the injustices perpetrated against all women everywhere. Women were determined to make their voices heard. They insisted on being seen as individual people who were worthy of respect and independence. Their relentless commitment to change forced the secular world to reconsider its position on the roles of women. The fact that participants in the study were raised as equals in society is one small reality that shows the world is changing. On the other hand, women in the PCA tolerate injustice by participating in a church that does not see them as equals. Despite changes in the secular world, religious institutions such as the PCA continue to espouse a theology of gendered leadership roles in the church environment. Women who participated in this study have managed to survive and even thrive in an environment that resists the using of their gifts and the hearing of their voices. Those who were called by God to be pastors know that one day they must leave the PCA in order to pursue ordination. Others will stay to gently fight a battle that may never be won. Whatever each woman feels called to do, this researcher honors her decision. It is a personal one that can only be understood in the depths of each woman‟s heart. Hopefully this study has made a positive contribution toward the process of change in the lives of women in the PCA. Time will tell.

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