Gender and the Social Function of Athenian Tragedy 9781841715032, 9781407325262

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Opening Quotation
Dedication
Introduction
Table of Contents
The Position of Women within Athenian Culture and Society
The Prominence of Women in Athenian Religion
A fragile political balance: Aeschylus' Suppliants
Familial perils: Euripides' Medea
Boundaries confused: Euripides' Bacchae
Right, Wrong and the tragic heroine. Antigone reconsidered
A woman's place in the oikos and society. Euripides' Alcestis.
Conclusions: Tragedy and didaskalia.
Bibliography

Citation preview

Gender and the Social Function of Athenian Tragedy Spyros D. Syropoulos

BAR International Series 1127 2003

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1127

Gender and the Social Function of Athenian Tragedy © Spyros D. Syropoulos and the Publisher 2003 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841715032 paperback ISBN 9781407325262 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841715032 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2003. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

O ne i sn o tb orn , o ne r a ther b ecome s aw oman . S .d eB eauvo i r( 1970 ) ,p .2 49 .

F or E ud ok ia , m yw if e a nd Dan ie l , m ys on .

I n troduc t ion T he i d ea o ft h i s b ook s t a r ted a s ad oc to ra l t h e s i s a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o fB r i s to l ( 1997 ) . F a sc ina ted b y t h e e ngag ing f ema le c ha ra c te r s o ft h e A then ian t r ag ic s t age , Ih ad o f t en w onde red w hy s u ch f a sc ina t ing w omen w e re a b sen t f r om t h e A then ian s oc ie ty t h a t e mb raced T ragedy . Wa s t h e re s om e th ing mo re p o l i t ica l i n t h e w ay t h a t at h em e a s d e l ica te a s s ex a nd g ende r r o le s w a s p re sen ted o n s t age? A c onc lu s ion w a s o f f e red b ack i n 1 996 , w hen Ic omp le ted my P h .D . T he a r gumen t , h ow eve r , i sn o t f un c t iona l u n le ss i ti so f f e r ed t op ub l ic c on s ide ra t ion . T he ref o re , Iw an t t ot h ank P rof D . D av i son , f o r t h e p ub l ica t ion o ft h e p r e sen t b ook , a sw e l l a st h o se w ho s pen t t ime a r gu ing v a r iou s p o in t s o fi tw i th m e . S om e c hap te r s o ft h i sb ook h ave b een r e cen t ly u pda ted a nd p ub l i shed i nv a r iou sj ou rna l s . S o , av e r s ion o f t h e f ou r th c hap te r o f t h i s b ook h a s b een p ub l i shed i n E LLEN IKA 5 0 /2 ( 2000 ) 1 81196 ( "The p rom inence o fw omen i nT ragedy : A l ce s t i s a nd t h e O ikos" ) . F o r t h i s , Iw an t t o t h ank M r . G eo rg io s P a ra sog lou o ft h e e d i to r ia lb oa rd . P rof . G eo rg ia K a ramanou -Xan thak i k ind ly i n c luded t h e s i x th c hap te r o f t h i s b ook i n P la to 5 1 ( 1999 -2000 ) 2 4 1-258 ( "R igh t , w rong a nd t h e t r ag ic h e ro ine : A n t igone r e con s ide red" ) . T he s ame j ou rna l h a s a l so a ccommoda ted t h e f ou r th c hap te r o ft h i s b ook i nP la to 5 2 ( 2001-2002 ) 1 26 -138 ( "The i n ven t ion a nd u se o ft h e I n f an t ic ide mo t if i nE u r ip ide s ' Med ea" ) . T he m a in a r gumen t o ft h e b ook i st h a t o f my d oc to ra l t h e s i s . H ow eve r , t h e m a te r ia l o ft h e b ook h a s b een g ene ra l ly u pda ted w i th e mpha s i s o n t h e mo s t r e cen t b i b l iog raphy , w h ich t h e a cadem ic a nd n on a cadem ic r e ade rm igh tf i nd h e lpf u l .

C on ten t s

I n t roduc t ion

P age V

I n t roduc t ion : T he P o s i t ion o f Women w i th in A then ian Cu l ture a nd S oc ie ty

1

C hap te r One : The P rom inence o f Women i nA then ian R e l ig ion

9

P ub l ic l i f e P r iva te l i f e P r ie s thood F e s t iva l s My s ter ie s Wedd ing s F unera l s I n i t ia t ion s S acr if ice Wi tchcraf t F rom r e l ig ion t od rama

9 9 1 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 2 2 5

C hap te r Two : Af rag i le p o l i t ica lb a lance .A e schy lu s 'Supp l ian t s

2 6

C hap te rT h ree : F am i l ia lp er i l s . E ur ip ide s ' Med ea

3 8

C hap te rF ou r : B oundar ie s c onfu sed . E ur ip ide s 'B acchae

4 5

C hap te rF ive : R igh t , Wrong a nd t he t rag ic h ero ine . An t igone r econs idered

5 6

C hap te rS ix : A woman 's p lace i nt he o ikos a nd s oc ie ty . E ur ip ide s 'A lce s t i s

6 4

C hap te rS even : C onc lu s ion s

7 4

B ib l iog raphy

8 1

T he P os i t ion o f Women w i th in A then ian Cu l ture a nd S oc ie ty

' You s e e , b e ing a m an m ean s y ou h ave a s o l id h i s to ry b eh ind y ou . Y ou h ave f am i ly , f r iend s , a cqua in tance s , a nd e ve ry o ne o f t h em h a s ad ef in i te i d ea o fy ou . B e ing a m an m ean s t h a t y ou 'r e a ccoun tab le . Y ou c anno t d i sappea r t h a t e a s i ly . I n o rde r t o e r a se y ou r se lf ,y ou n eeded al o to fw o rk . My c a se i sd i f f e ren t . I 'm a w oman a nd t h a t g i ve s m e a s p lend id a dvan tage . I 'm n o ta ccoun tab le ."

i n d ica te s an eed f o rm o r e i n teg ra l c on tex tua l iza t ion o ft h e m a t te r .

T h e e nd o f t h e S econd Wo r ld Wa r m a rked t h e r e e m e rgence o f t h e f em in i s t m ovemen t . S imon e d e B eauvo i r 's T he S econd S ex ( 1949 ) s e t t h e s c ene f o r t h e e xp lo s ion o f p o lem ica l l i t e ra tu re t h a t f o l lowed i n t h e s i x t ie s a nd s even t ie s . T he t h em e o ff ema le s ubo rd ina t ion i n ac u l tu re d om ina ted b y m a le i n te r e s t s a nd s exua l s t e r eo type s t a k en u p b y B e t ty F r e idan i n T he F em in ine My s t ique ( 1963 ) w a s a r t icu la ted w i th i n c r ea s ing f e rvou r i n l a te r w o rk s , a nd i t g ene ra ted a b i b l iog raphy t o o c o lo s sa le ven t os umma r ize h e re .

T he i mpo r tance o f g ende r f o r u nde r s tand ing p o l i t ica l i d en t i ty a nd s ymbo l ic s t ruc tu re s i na nc ien t G reece , w ha t V ernan t h a s t e rm ed t h e " m en ta l w o r ld" o f t h e G r eek s , h a s a l ready b een e l uc ida ted b y m any c l a s s ica l s cho la r s . 4 Whe rea s t h e e a r l ie s t s cho la r sh ip o n w om en i na n t iqu i ty f o cu sed o n t h e s t a tu s o f w omen a nd t h e r ea l ia o f t h e i r l i ve s ,5 t h e a wa rene s s t h a t m a le -au tho r ed t e x t s a lway s m ed ia te a nc ien t v i ew s o fg ende r a nd t h a t t h e e xper ience o f a nc ien t w omen c ou ld n o t t h u s b e f u l ly r e cove red c ompe l led m any f em in i s t c l a s s ica l s cho la r s t o c on s ide r t h e c oncep tua l f ounda t ion s t h a t i n f o rm t h e l i t e ra ry a nd my th ica l r e p re sen ta t ion o f w omen a nd h ow t h ey i n te r sec t w i th s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l i n s t i tu t ion s . C en t ra l t o t h i s p ro jec t h a s b een t h e s t udy o f w omen a nd g ende r i nA t t ic d rama , ag en re t h a t o f f e r s a r i ch a r ray o fc omp lex f ema le c ha rac te r s .6

A s im i la r movem en t d eve loped i n t h e c l a s s ic s . T he a pp r ec ia t ion o f w omen 's r o le w i th in a h i s to r ica l p e r spec t ive h a sb een a n a cadem ic t r end a mong c l a s s ic i s t s e ve r s i nce t h e e a r ly 2 0 th c en tu ry .2 T he re h a s b een , h ow eve r , amo r e i n ten se r ev iva l o ft h e s ub jec t i nt h e p a s t t w en ty y ea r s o r s o . S .A rdene r , S .B lunde l l , G . C la rk , H . F o ley , M . L e fkow i tz , S . P om e roy a nd F . Z e i t l in a r e b u t s om e o f t h e m ode rn s cho la r s w ho h ave o f f e r ed n ew i n s igh t s i n to g ende r s t ud ie s , a s t h ey h ave s t r iven t o e xam ine t h e b a se s o fs exua l i n equa l i ty i nt h e h i s to r ica l ly s pec if i c c on tex t o f c l a s s ica l G r eece . N o t a l l o f t h e i r t h eo r ie s a r e e qua l ly p e r sua s ive , b u t t a k en t oge the r t h ey h ave m anaged t o f o cu s a cadem ic i n te re s t o n a n a r ea w h ich h a s b een l a rge ly d om ina t ed b y m a le s cho la r sh ip a nd b y a n u nde r s tand ing f r om a m a le p o in t o f v i ew . A l a ndma rk i nt h e b r ief h i s to ry o ft h i s a r ea o fi n qu i ry w a s m a rk ed i n 1 993 a t O xf o rd . T he f i r s t i n ter na t iona l c onf e r ence o n Women i nt h e A nc ien t Wo r ld t ob e h e ld i n t h e U n i ted K ingdom t o ok p l a ce o n 1 4 S ep tembe r , a tS t . H i lda 's C o l lege . I tc o inc ided w i th t h e c e leb ra t ion o ft h e C o l lege 's c en tena ry a t at im e w hen t h e C o l lege h ad b ecome t h e o n ly w omen 's c o l lege i nt h e U n ive r s i ty .3 T he i mpo r tance o ft h a t c onf e rence i st h a t i td r ew a t ten t ion t o t h e r e levance a nd i mpo r tance o fn ew a pp roache s t ot h e s t udy o fw omen i na n t iqu i ty , a nd t h a t i ts h if t ed a t ten t ion f r om ' women ' s t ud ie st o' g ende r ' s t ud ie s — at e rm w h ich

H oweve r , i ti sa l l t o o e a sy t ou nde re s t ima te t h e d i f f e r ence t h a t t wen ty -f ive c en tu r ie s h ave m a rked b e tw een o u r o wn c u l tu re a nd t h a t o fc l a s s ica l G reece , a nd t ou nde r ra te t h e d ange r o fe l ic i t ing f r om t h e t e x t s t h e t h ing s t h a t w e w an t t o f i nd t h e re . O u r j our n ey o f d i scove r ing t h e p a s t m ay h ave o f t en b een s i de t racked b y an a tu ra li n ab i l i ty t os t ee r c l ea ro fd oc t r ine s o fo u ro wn t ime s , t hu s a ch iev ing o n ly a b lu r red v i s ion o f t h e s upp le a nd s ub t le s ub s tance o f A then ian l i f e a nd t h ough t d u r ing i t s mo s t c r ea t ive p er iod . F u r the rmo r e , t h e n eed t of i nd r o le m ode l s may s om e t ime s h ave d r iven moder n f em in i s t s t o r e in te rp re t t h e p a s t i n s uch aw ay a s t o p roduce a n i d eo log ica l j u s t if ica t ion o f t h e r e cen t p reoccupa t ion w i th w omen 's s oc ia l e manc ipa t ion . T he s t i l l in f luen t ia l c u l tu ra l h e r i tage o f c l a s s ica l A then s o f f e r ed v e ry f e r t i le g round i nw h ich t o

1C . C a r lo s ( 1982 ) T he E ag le ' s G if t , P engu in e d i t ion . F rom : L eon ie C a ldeco t t( 1983 ) ' The D ance o ft h e Wa r r io r Woman ' ; i n J .G a r c ia & S . Ma i t land ( 1983 ) . 2 S ee ,e . g . ,F . Wr igh t( 1932 ) ,A . G omme ( 1925 ) . 3 T he p roceed ing s o f t h i s c onf e rence a r e i n R . H aw ley & B . L ev ick ,e dd . ( 1995 ) .

J . -P . V er nan t( 1988 )p .3 0 . B lock ( 1987 ) p rov ide s av e ry u sef u l h i s to r iog raph ic s u rvey o f t h es t udy o fw omen i na n t iqu i ty . 6 L . McC lu r e( 1999 )p .4 .

4

5

1

t od e te rm ine t h o se m ean ing s a sb e s tw e c an , k now ing f u l l w e l l t h a t w e c an a r r ive a t o n ly a n i mpe rf ec t a pp rox ima t ion . '1 ° F o r t h e s ake o f t h e p r e sen t r e sea r ch , h ow eve r , o u r f o cu s w i l l b e mo re r e s t r ic ted . A t ten t ion w i l l b e c oncen t ra ted o n t h e w ay t h a t t h e p rom inence o f w om en o n s t age m igh t h ave b een i n te rp r e ted b y a n a ud ience t h a t w a s u sed t o v i ew ing t h em a s s e cond -c la s s c i t izen s i n ' a c tua l ' l i f e . I ti st r ue t h a t t h e se t h ea t r ica l c ha ra c te r s a r e n o t a c tua l w om en , b u t r e p r e sen ta t ion s o f w omen . A sJ .G ou ld w ro te ( 1980 ,p p . 3 8 -39 ) :

f i nd s u ch j u s t if i ca t ion .7 I n p a r t icu la r , c l a s s ica l l i t e ra tu r e p rov ided o ne e spec ia l ly p rom i s ing f i e ld f o r i n te l lec tua l r e f lec t ion : t r agedy . W i th t h e u nque s t ionab le p rom inence o f i t s f ema le c ha rac te r s , t r agedy b ecame f o r moder n f em in i sm t h e s t anda rd -bea r e r o f t h e f em in i s t movemen t i na n t iqu i ty . I ti sn o t d i ff icu l tt oa pp rec ia te t h et emp ta t ion t o f o l low s u ch a n a pp roach . A s G omme p u t i ta l r eady ( 1925 , p .4 ) , ' t he re i s , i nf a c t , n o l i t e ra tu re , n o a r t o fa ny c oun t ry , i n w h ich w omen a r e mo re p rom inen t , m o re c a r ef u l ly s t ud ied a nd w i th mo re i n te r e s t t h an i n t h e t r agedy , s cu lp tu re , a nd p a in t ing o ff i f th -cen tu ry A then s ' . U nden iab ly , t r agedy o f f e r ed t h e w o r ld d ynam ic , p ow er f u l a nd mov ing f ema le c ha rac te r s , w h ich w ou ld i nf luence i mm en se ly t h ed rama t ic t r ad i t ion t of o l low .8

E i the r , t h en , w e k now w ha t m en s a id a bou t w omen a nd h ow t h ey r e p re sen ted t h em , o r w e k now v e ry l i t t le a bou t t h em a ta l ; a nd w hen w e l o ok t od e te rm ine t h e p o s i t ion o f w omen i n A then s w e c an c l a im t o b e d e te rm in ing o n ly w ha t A then ian m en t h ough t a bou t w omen , a nd h ow r u le s a nd r egu la t ion s c on s t ruc ted b y m en s ough t t o d ef ine a nd l o ca te w om en w i th in a m a le c oncep t ion o fs oc ie ty .

Y e t , A n t igone , A lce s t i s , Medea , E lec t ra a nd t h e r e s t o f t h e se e m inen t f i gu re s s t and i n s t r ik ing j ux tapo s i t ion t o t h e i rr e a l l if e c on tempo ra r ie s . I ndeed , t h ey g i ve r i se t oa n i n con t rover t ib le p a radox t h a t u nde rp in s t h e p rof i le o f A then ian w om en : r e ga rded i n o rd ina ry l i f e a s s e cond c l a s s c i t izen s a nd s e c luded t o t h e e x t r eme o f p ub l ic i nv i s ib i l i ty , w omen n eve r the le s s a ppea r p rom inen t ly o n t h eA then ian s t age .

T he f a c t t h a t a lmo s t a l l w e k now a bou t w omen o f t h a t p er iod c om e s f r om m a le s ou r ce s p r e sen t s u s w i th a s omewha t c i r cum scr ibed i mage o f t h e ' r ea l ' w omen . S . d e B eauvo i r 's w o rd s s p r ing t om ind : ' R ep re sen ta t ion o f t h e w o r ld , l i k e t h e w o r ld i t se lf , i st h e w o rk o fm en ; t h ey d e scr ibe i tf r om t h e i r o wn p o in t o f v i ew , w h ich t h ey c onf u se w i th t h e a b so lu te t r u th ' ( 1970 ) . T h i s i s an o t ion t h a t c ou ld w e l l a pp ly t oc l a s s ica l A then s . N eve r the le s s , i t i s o u r o n ly u nde r s tand ing o f t h e s i gn if i cance o f f em in in i ty i n am a le -o r ien ta ted s oc ie ty . T hu s i tp rov ide s u s w i th a n i n va luab le i n s igh t i n to t h e c u l tu ra l d ynam ic s o ft h i s s oc ie ty . I ti si mpo r tan t t oh ave t h i s s t a r t ing p o in t , a s ab a s i s f o r t h e r e sea rch t of o l low . I ti sp robab ly t r ue t h a t ' t he b e s t s t a r t ing p o in t f o r a n a na ly s i s o ft h e f a n ta s t ic i st ob e f ound i na n a na ly s i s o ft h e o rd ina ry ' . 1 We n eed t ok now o fw om en 's r e a l i ty i nt h e s oc io -cu l tu ra l c on tex t o fA then s , b ef o re w e e xam ine t h e i r r e p r e sen ta t ion s i nt h e f i c t i t iou s w o r ld o f d rama a nd d e te rm ine h ow a nd w hy t h ey d i f f e r . T he b i b l iog raphy o n t h e s ub jec t i sb road a nd l a rge ly s uff i c ien t .1 2 T he e v idence i st o o e x ten s ive a nd w e l l k nown t ob e r epea ted h e r e a nd i ts hou ld s uff ice t o a cknow ledge t h e m a in l i ne s o fa pp roach a nd t h e n a tu re o f t h i se v idence .

T h i s p a radox b r ing s m e t ot h e o b jec t ive s o ft h e p r e sen t w o rk : my a im i st or e -exam ine t r agedy i nr e la t ion t ot h e ' p rob lem ' o fw omen . Ip ropo se a n a pp roa ch , w h ich w i l l a vo id , a s f a r a s p o s s ib le , m oder n i d eo log ica l p r eoccupa t ion s , a nd w i l l s t r ive t o e xam ine t h e w ay i n w h ich t r agedy m i r ro red , i n f luenced o r d e te rm ined t h e a t t i tude s o fA then ian c i t izen s , a s f a r a s g ende r ro le s a r e c oncer n ed .9 C lea r ly , t h i s s hou ld n o t b e i n te rp r e ted a s a d ogma t ic s ugge s t ion t h a t t r aged ie s w e re c oncer n ed o n ly w i th g ende r i s sue s . A t r ag ic p e rf o rmance c ou ld t ouch u pon m any c u l tu ra l i s sue s a nd c ou ld b e i n te rp r e ted i n m any d i f f e r en tw ay s . T he a im o ft h i s t h e s i s i st oi n te rp re t s ome t r aged ie s w i th in t h e i r o r ig ina l c on tex t . T h i s m igh t s ound d i ff icu l t , b u t i th a s n o t b een r e nde red i mpo s s ib le . ' Eve ry w o rk o f a r t . . r e qu i re s r e in te rp re ta t ion i n t h e c on tempo ra ry i d iom a nd a ga in s t t h e c on tempo ra ry c oncer n s o fe ach g ene ra t ion . B u t e a ch h a s a l so am ean ing — o r r a the r ac omp lex o fm ean ing s — i n i t s o wn t im e a nd p l ace . Ib e l ieve t h a t i ti sb o th p o s s ib le a nd n ece s sa ry K . Wa rk ( 1996 ) . S ee M . Mue l le r( 1980 ) . 9 S uch a n a pp roach m igh t s ound h ope le s s ly u n r ea l i s t ic . Y e ti ti s p o s s ib le , a s w e l l a s e s sen t ia l . I ti s f e a s ib le t o c on tex tua l ize A then ian w omen b y t a k ing i n to a ccoun t t h e m a te r ia l e v idence f r om t h e p e r iod w e a r e s t udy ing a nd d r aw ing o n t h e r e su l t s o f c ompa ra t ive s t ud ie s f r om t h e f i e ld s o f s oc ia l h i s to ry , a n th ropo logy a nd e p ig raphy . T h i s i s e s sen t ia l , i n o rde r t o i d en t if y a nd i n te rp re t t h e w omen o f A then s a nd , h ence u nde r s tand h ow t h e i r r e p r e sen ta t ion i n t h ea t r e r e la ted t o t h e c u l tu ra l d ynam ic s o ft h e s o c ie ty t h ey l i ved i n . C f B . R aw son ( i n R . H aw ley & B . L ev ick , 1 995 ,p .1 6 ) . O fc ou r se , i ti sd i ff i cu l tt o e s cape ' c on tempo ra ry p a s s ion s ' ( Lo raux , 1 993 , p .2 50 ) , b u t t o a cknow ledge t h ed i ff icu l ty a nd t ob ea ri ti nm ind t h roughou tt h e r e sea r ch w i l l h e lp t o m in im ize t h e d ange r o fb e ing c on s tan t ly h i nde r ed b yt h e w e igh t o f moder nd oc t r ine s i no u r s t udy o ft h e p a s t . 7

F i r s t w e m ay m en t ion t h e u se o f c ompa ra t ive r e sea r ch a nd i t s c on t r ibu t ion t owa rd s ar enewa l o f s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l h i s to ry . C ogna te d i sc ip l ine s h av e c ome t ot h e a i d o f t h e s t uden t o f c u l tu re , p e rm i t t ing e xchange o f m e thodo log ie s a nd f i nd ing s . A r chaeo log ica l e v idence i s u sed mo re e x ten s ive ly i n c onnec t ion w i th l i t e ra tu r e . J . Ma rch ( 1989 ) o f f e red a r e con s ide ra t ion o f E u r ip ide s ' B acchae t a k ing i n to a ccoun t v a se -pa in t ing s d ep ic t ing

8

C . S ega l( 1 986 ) ,p .3 66 . R . B ux ton ( 1994 ) ,p .7 8 . 1 2 S ee , J .G ou ld ( 1980 ) ; H . F o ley ( 1981) ; E .F an tham ( 1986 ) ; G . C la rk ( 1989 ) ; R . J u s t ( 1989 ) ; R . B rock ( 1 994 ) ; S . B lunde l l ( 1995 ) ; R . H aw ley & B . L ev ick ( 1995 ) . I °

I

2

d i sa s te ro f4 54 i nE gyp t , l e ad t ot h e l aw o f4 51/50 .2 ° T h i s m ean t t h a t w omen w e re r e cogn ized a s c i t izen s .2 1 H ow eve r , p roof o fc i t izen sh ip w a s n o t t h e s am e f o r m en a nd w omen . T h i s i s o bv iou s i n t h e l i s t s k ep t b y t h e d eme s , i nw h ich t h e s t a tu s o fm a le c i t izen s w a s a t te s ted , b u t n o t o f w om en .2 I t i s s a f e t o d educe t h a t t h e c i t izen sh ip o f aw oman w a s ' o ff i c ia l ly ' c i r cum sc r ibed a nd t h a t i tc on s i s ted i n h e r c apac i ty t o g ive b i r th t o c i t izen s .

b a cch ic t h eme s , t hu s s how ing h ow a r chaeo log ica l f i nd ing s c ou ld a i d t h e s t udy o f a nc ien t l i t e ra tu re . A r ch i tec tu re a nd i c onog raphy a r e a l so r e levan t a r ea s o f s t udy . We c an l e a rn much a bou t w om en i np a s t s oc ie t ie s b y e xam in ing t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip t op hy s ica l s pace a nd t h e r e p re sen ta t ion s o fw om en i np ub l ic a nd p r iva te a r t .I 3 T he m a te r ia l e v idence , e spec ia l ly e p ig raphy , h a s l e d s om e t o b e l ieve t h a t w e m igh t o ne d ay b e a b le t o u nde r s tand w om en 's r o le s a t ad eepe r , m o re s t ruc tu ra l l e ve 1 .1 4 T hen w e c an p rof i t f r om t h e a t ten t ion t h a t t h e ' c i ty ' h a s r e ce ived f r om moder n s cho la r sh ip . T h i s i s at o p ic o f i n c rea s ing p opu la r i ty a nd i tp rov ide s v e ry r i ch m a te r ia l f o r t h e s t udy o ft h e w ay t h a t u r ban l i f e a f f ec ted , a nd w a s a f f ec ted b y , w omen . T he re i s , o fc ou r se , ad ange rt h a tw e m igh t d raw c onc lu s ion s a bou t w om en i n g ene ra l w h ich m igh t n o t b e a ccu ra te a bou t w om en i n r u ra l a r ea s , a nd w ho se s t udy m igh t r equ i re ' mo re p r ec i se a nd t h ough tf u l a r chaeo log ica l t e chn ique s ' , w h ich w ou ld a l low u s t o i d en t if y t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s .I 5 T h i s v i ew h a s m e t w i th c r i t ic i sm , a nd i t s hou ld o n ly m ak e u s a wa r e o f t h e e x t r em e c au t ion w i th w h ich a l l e v idence s hou ld b e h and led . T he s a f e w ay w ou ld b e t os t re s s t h a t w e c anno t g en e ra l ize a bou t t h e e v idence a nd t h a t w e c an a l low c on c lu s ion s o n ly a bou t l i f e i n A t t ica a nd A then s i t se lf , s i nce i ti st h eb e s td ocum en ted c i ty o fc l a s s ica lG reece .

T he mo s t i mpor tan t c on t r ibu t ion o f l e ga l s cho la r sh ip , w h ich i s t oo d i ve r se a nd c omp l ica ted t o b e d i scu s sed f u l ly , i st h a t i tg i ve s u s a n i n d ica t ion o fw om en 's s oc ia l s t a tu s . T he m a in a spec t s o f t h i s s t a tu s a r e t h a t w omen w e re l i f e long l e ga l m ino r s ,2 3 c ou ld n o t b e i n vo lved i n f i nanc ia l t r an sac t ion s ,2 4 a nd w e re a lway s u nde r t h e t u te lage a nd p ro tec t ion o fs ome K üp t o g , al e ga l g ua rd ian , w ho w a s u sua l ly a m a le n ex t -of -k in .2 5 T he K üp to r ep r e sen ted a w oman i n c ou r t , i fn ece s sa ry , e spec ia l ly w hen m a t te r s o f i n he r i tance w e re i n vo lved .2 6 S ea ley ( 1990 , p p . 4 3 -4 ) a r gue s t h a t i ns u ch ac on tex tt h e r e la t ion o f t h e w oman t o h e r K üp t o g w a s t h e s ame a s t h a t o f a moder n l i t igan t t oh i s a t tor n ey . ' I tw ou ld b e m i s taken t o s ay t h a t al i t igan t l a ck s p e r sona l i ty b ecau se h e h a s a n a t tor n ey t or ep re sen th im . ' H ow eve r , t h e c ompa r i son f a i l s t o c onv ince , i fo ne c on s ide r s t h a t w omen i n c l a s s ica l A then s w e re l e ga l ly o b l iged t o b e r e p re sen ted b y t h e i r

L ega l s cho la r sh ip , i n c onnec t ion w i th o t he r d i sc ip l ine s ( s uch a s a r chaeo logy a nd e p ig raphy ) , h a s p rov ided u s w i th a ne x ten s ive p rof i le o fw omen , o u t l ined i n an umbe r o fd i vo rce , i n he r i tance a nd o t he r l e ga l c a se s .I 6 T he s t udy o ft h e se n o t o n ly r evea l s t h e l e ga l s t a tu s o fw omen , b u t a l so a l low s u s t o i n f e r t h e i r s o c ia l s t a tu s . P e rhap s t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t l aw , a s f a r a s t h e s t a tu s o f w om en i s c oncer n ed , i st h e l aw o f c i t izen sh ip o n t h e p ropo sa l o f P e r ic le s i n4 51/50 BC . T h i s l aw c onf e r red c i t izen sh ip o n ac h i ld o n ly i fb o th i t s p a r en t s w e re c i t izen s o fA then s ." B ef o re t h i s l aw , t h e re w e r e n o s e tr u le s o fa cknow ledg ing c i t izen sh ip b yd e scen t , a nd c e r ta in ly s ome A then ian sw i th f o re ign w ive s h ad n o p rob lem d ec la r ing t h e i r s on s a s l e g i t ima te c i t izen s ." B u t c ompe t i t ion w i th m e t ic s , w ho h ad t op ay t a xe s s uch a st h e g e-r ok t o y a nd c ou ld n o t o wn i mmovab le p rope r ty ,I 9 a nd d ec r ea se o f u nma r r ied m a le c i t izen s a f t e r t h e l o s se s t h e A then ian s uf f e r ed i n t h e

K üp t o g , whereas amoder n l i t igan t i sg i ven t h e r i gh t o r o p t ion t ol e ga l r e p re sen ta t ion . T he A then ian s t a te s imp ly d id n o t c on s ide r i ta pp rop r ia te o r b ef i t t ing t ow omen t o h and le t h e i r o wn e conom ic a f f a i r s . F u r the rmo re , w om en w e re l e ga l ly e xc luded f r om h o ld ing p ub l ic o ff i ce s ( w i th t h e e xcep t ion o ft h e p r ie s thood o fA thena P o l ia s , w h ich w i l l b e d i scu s sed s ho r t ly ) , a nd t h ey c ou ld n o te n ro l i nt h e a rmy . I n g ene ra l , t h e d e r iva t ive n a tu re o f w oman 's i d en t i ty s t emm ed f r om h e r f am i l ia l r e la t ion sh ip s w i th m en , a nd s he w a s d en ied ap ub l ic a nd p o l i t ica lp rof i le . I n ar ad ica l d emoc ra t ic c on s t i tu t ion , s u ch a s t h a t o fA then s d u r ing t h e c l a s s ica l p e r iod , w h ich p l a ced s o much v a lue

N

E.

R u schenbu sch ( 1979 ) ,p p . 8 3 -7 .

T he w o rd s a c r r i i ( e .g . A r i s t . T he sm . 5 4 1) a nd n o 7C r r tg ( e .g . D em . 5 7 . 3 0 ; A r i s to t . P o l . 3 . 1 275b33 ) a ppea r t o h ave n o d if e rence a st ot h e i rl e ga lm ean ing . 2 2 A r i s to t . AP . 5 5 . 3 . 2 3 S ee d i scu s s ion i nR . J u s t( 1989 ) ,p p . 2 9 -32 . 2 4 I no ne c ou r t c a se t h ep l eade ra r gue st h a th i s a dve r sa ry c anno t m a in ta in t h a t as uppo sed a c t o fa dop t ion w a s c a r r ied o u t u nde r a ny w i l l o fD emocha r e s , f o rD emocha r e s d i ed b ef o re c om ing o f a ge ( I sa io s 1 0 .4 , 7 ) , a nd h e c on t inue s : To r am ino r i sn o t a l lowed t om ake aw i l l . T he l aw e xp l ic i t ly f o rb id se i the r am ino r t oe ngage i na ny c on t rac t , o r aw oman b eyond t h e v a lue o fo ne m ed imno s o fb a r ley ' . A l though am ed imno s o fb a r ley w a s n o t n eg l ig ib le s um , i ti sr a the r v ague , a nd e nough t o p rove t h a t w omen c ou ld n o t a dm in is te r o r c on t ro l a ny o f t h e p rope r ty w h ich m igh tb e i n he r i ted i nt h e i rn ame , o re ven t h e money w i th w h ich t h ey h ad b een d owe red ( A .H a r r ison , 1 968 ,p .2 36 ) . 2 5 S ee , f o re xamp le , R . J u s t( 1989 ) ,p p . 2 6 -39 ;R . S ea ley ( 1990 ) , p p . 3 6 -40 ,4 4 -49 ;V . H un te r( 1994 ) ,p p . 9 -42 . 2 6 I nhe r i tance d i spu te s c on s t i tu te a l a rge p a r t o ft h e s u rv iv ing l e ga l s cho la r sh ip . I s a io s a nd D emo s thene s p re se rve a l o t o f c a se si nt e s t imon ia . 2 1

S ee V . H un te r( 1994 ) ,e sp .p p . 9 37 . T .P a rk in 's b ook D emog raphy a nd R oman S oc ie ty ( 1992 ) ,h a s p rov ided a m a s te r ly s t a temen t o fp o s s ib i l i t ie s a nd l im i ta t ion s . A l so , s e eH ägg ( 1994 ) . 1 5 S .D y son ( 1992 ,p .3 8 ) . 1 6 E .g . R .J u s t( 1989 ) ,R . S ea ley ( 1990 ) . 1 7 A r is to t . AP , 2 6 .5 ; C f . P a t te r son ( 1981) . T he r e qu i remen t s o f t h is l aw w e r e r e laxed i n t h e f i f th c en tu ry , p robab ly d ue t o a s ho r tag e o f m anpowe r a s t h e P e loponne s ian Wa r p roceeded . S ee D em . 5 7 . 3 0 a nd A then . 1 3 . 5 77a ,w he r e i ti ss t a ted t h a tt h e mo the ro fT imo theo sw a s aT h rac ian . 1 8 Megak le s ( He rod . 6 . 1 30 -31) ; P e is i s t ra to s ( one o f h i s s ucce s s ive w ive s w a s a n A rg ive : H e rod . 5 .9 4 . 1 ;A r i s to t . AP , 1 7 . 3 -4 ) ; M i l t iade s ( He rod . 6 . 3 9 . 2 ; P lu t . K im . 4 . 1 ) . T he mo the ro fT hem is tok le sw a sp robab ly a n a l ien ( J . D av ie s , 1 97 1 , p p . 2 13 14 ) . 1 9 A .H a r r i son ( 1968 ) ,p .2 37 . 1 3

1 4

3

a t t i tude a bou t t h e m a t te r , b u t , i fn o t t a ken t oi t s e x t reme , i ti s an o t ion t h a t c ou ld i lum ina te s ome a spec t s o f w om en 's s t a tu r e a nd s t a tu s i n A then s . O f c ou r se , m y tho logy r ema in s ac on t rove r s ia l f i e ld a nd q ue s t ion s a bou t ' b e l ie f ' , ' a c tua l i ty ' a nd ' f an ta sy ' r ema in s pecu la t ive , a nd w i l l c on t inue t o g ene ra te f u r the r r e sea r ch . A s f o r t h e r e la t ive ly n ew f i e ld o f g ende r s t ud ie s , i tc anno t b u t p rof i t f r om d raw ing f r om e v idence r e su l t ing f r om t h e s t udy o f my tho logy , a s p a r t o f A then ian t h ough ta nd l i f e .

o n a c t ive p a r t ic ipa t ion i n t h ing s c i v ic a nd s oc ia l , t h e c i rcum sc r ibed c ha rac te r o f w om en 's s oc ia l r o le w a s i n d ica t ive o f am en ta l i ty t h a t w a s t a c i t ly a dve r se t o a ny i d ea lo fs exua le qua l i ty , a nd e s sen t ia l ly m a le . My tho logy i sa no the r a r ea o fi n qu i ry w i th a n a s ton i sh ing , r e cen t p ro l if e ra t ion o fr e sea r ch p roduc t ion , a nd i to f ten p rove s h ow r e levan t i t i s t o t h e s t udy o f A then ian c u l tu re .2 7 I t s e em s a pp ropr ia te t o s pecu la te a bou t i t s p o ten t ia l c on t r ibu t ion t ot h e s t udy o fw om en , a l lt h e m o re s i nce i tp rov ide s t h e s ub jec t m a t te r f o r a lmo s t a l l t r ag ic p lo t s . J .B remm e r ( 1994 ) , a s se r ted t h a t my tho logy w a s n o t ' women -f r iend ly ' . H e s a id t h a t , a l though p o s i t ive i mage s o f w omen w e re n o t a b sen t , n ega t ive r e p re sen ta t ion s d om ina ted . My tho logy s p read a nd s u s ta ined n ega t ive i mage s o fw omen i na l l t h e s t age s o f t h e i r l i ve s . O ne h a s o n ly t ot h ink o ft h e my th o fP ando ra , t h e f i r s t w oman , w ho , much l i ke E ve i n C h r i s t ian t r ad i t ion , w a s c r ed i ted w i th b r ing ing e v i l s s uch a so ld a ge a nd i lne s se s t om en , t h rough t h e i r c u r io s i ty .2 8 Wa s , t h en , t h e s t a tu re o fw omen p rede te rm ined b y my tho logy ? D id t h i s c i rcum sc r ibe t h e i r t r ea tmen t a nd s t age r ep re sen ta t ion b y t h e p l ayw r igh t s? D id i tb ea r a ny r e levance t ot h e w ay w omen w e r e p e r ce ived w i th in t h e c i ty? N ico le L o raux ( 1984 ) p rov ided a v e ry s t imu la t ing i n s igh t i n to t h e i n ter tw in ing o f my th a nd p o l i t ic s i nf i f th -cen tu ry A then s a nd s howed h ow t h e s t udy o f my th s c an a s s i s t i n t h e u nde r s tand ing o f t h e s oc ie ty , w h ich n u r tu red t h em . S tudy ing my th s o fo r ig in , L o raux e xp lo red t h e i n t r igu ing r e la t ion sh ip b e tween a m a le -dom ina ted s oc ie ty a nd t h e k now ledge t h a t i tw a s p roduced — b io log ica l ly , a tl e a s t — b y w omen . T he se my th s o f a u toch thony a nd t h e a t temp t s b y am a scu l ine s oc ie ty t o c i r cumven t w omen 's r o le i n ac i ty e nme shed i nq ue s t ion s o ft h e f em in ine b y i t s o wn n ame a nd o r ig in s c an r evea l al o t a bou t c u l tu ra l d ynam ic s , w hen r e ad i n t h e c i v ic c on tex t o fA then s . F . Z e i t l in ( 199 1 ,p .x i i ) f o rwa rd ing t h e E ng l i sh t r an s la t ion o f L o raux ' C h i ld ren o fA thena , m a in ta in s t h a t ' i nqu i ry i n to o r ig in s n ece s sa r i ly c onf ron t s t h e q ue s t ion o f w oman ' ; mo r e a ccu ra te ly , i tc onf ron t s m a le s ' w i th w ha tt h ey k now b u t w ou ld o f ten l i ke t o c i r cumven t o r e ven d eny — n ame ly , t h a tm an i sf r om w oman b or n ' . Ib e l ieve t h i s i sa n o t ion r e f lec ted i n E l ec t ra ( 6 16 -614 ) , w hen O re s te s , i mp re s sed b y t h e n ob le c ha rac te r o f t h e p ea san t w ho m a r r ied h i s s i s te r , w i she s t h a t m ank ind c ou ld b e ' p roduced ' o t herw i se , i n s tead o fb e ing b or n b y w omen . We s hou ld n o t h a s ten t or e ga rd t h i s a s i n d ica t ive o ft h e A then ian s ' — o r , i n deed , t h e t r aged ian s ' — g ene ra l

A l l t h i s e v idence , c on s ide red t oge the r , l e ad s t o t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t w omen 's p o s i t ion i nt h e s o c ia l r e a l i ty o f A then s c omp r i sed t wo m a in a spec t s : i n v i s ib i l i ty i n t h e p ub l ic s phe re , t o t h e l a rge s t p o ss ib le e x ten t , a nd s upe rv i s ion b y , a nd s ubm i s s ion t o , m a le r e la t ive s . Women h ad n o p o l i t ica l r i gh t s a nd t h e i r l e ga l p re roga t ive s w e r e t h e re t oe n su re t h e c on t inua t ion o ft h e o i ko s , v i a a n e conom ic s y s tem r e ly ing o n e xchange a nd p re serva t ion o f p roper ty t h rough t h e m echan i sm o f d ow r ie s .2 9 D ef in i t ion s o f p a s t c u l tu ra l c ode s o f t h ough t a nd b ehav iou ra r e a lway s d i ff i cu l t , a nd t h i s i sa ne xamp le o fa c a se t h a t n eed s e x t reme c au t ion . B y a dm i t t ing t h a t i n c l a s s ica l A then s w omen w e r e ' r e s t r ic ted ' a nd ' c lo se ly s upe rv i sed ' b y m a le r e la t ive s , Ia vo id g o ing t o t h e e x t reme o f s t a t ing t h a t w omen w e re o pp r e s sed . T h i s w ou ld b e a s e r roneou s a s G omme 's a s ser t ion t h a t i n c l a s s ica l A then s t h e re w a s ' e qua l i ty o ft h e s exe s ' ( 1925 , p . 2 2 ) . We c an s a f e ly s t a te t h a t aw oman c ou ld n o t d o e xac t ly w ha t am an c ou ld a nd t h a th e rl i f e , c ompa red t oa m an 's l i f e , w a s h emmed i n w i th m any r e s t r ic t ion s . B u t b ef o re o ne c ou ld s peak o f o pp re s s ion , i t w ou ld b e n ece s sa ry t o d e te rm ine w he the r t h e se r e s t r ic t ion s c on t ravened w omen 's o wn d e s i re s . I tw ou ld b e n ece s sa ry t oh ave t h e i r o wn a s se s sm en t o ft h e s i tua t ion , b u t , a sw e h ave s e en , t h i s i sr eg re t tab ly i mpo s s ib le . I n s t ead , w e h ave t or e ly o n t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o fm a le o p in ion s o fw omen , t h rough t h e w o rk s t h a t h ave s u rv ived . S t r e s s ing a ga in c au t ion a bou t t h e i n te rp re ta t ive p roce s s , w e e mpha s ize t h a t t h i s i s ac a se w hen o ne s hou ld t r y t oa vo id moder n i d ea s a bou t w omen 's p o s i t ion , w hen o ne s t ud ie s t h e k i nd o fw omen t h a tt h et r aged ian sr e f e rt o . A l so i nn eed o fe mpha s i s h e re i st h e f a c t t h a t t h e w omen r e f e r red t o a r e t h e o ne s b e long ing t ot h e u ppe r e che lon s o f A then ian s o c ie ty . T he e v idence r e la t ing t o s l ave s , f o r e igne r s a nd l ow e r -c la s s c i t izen w om en i sp a r t icu la r ly f r agmen ta ry . I fw e a r e t o a vo id t h e d ange r o f s e e ing w omen a s a n u nd if f e ren t ia ted g roup , w e n eed c on s tan t ly t or em ind o u r se lve s t h a t t h e i r l i ve s w e re s ub jec t t os oc ia l a nd e conom ic v a r ia t ion . T ragedy i s m a in ly c oncer n ed w i th t h e r ep re sen ta t ion o f w omen w ho a r e m embe r s o f t h e h i ghe r c l a s se s . Medea , A n t igone , A lce s t i s , t h e D ana id s . .T hey a r e a l l q ueen s o rp r ince s se s , m embe r s o f t h e r oya l f am i ly , t h e r u l ing c l a s s , t h e a r i s toc racy .

2 7 My tho logy i sp a r t icu la r ly l i nked w i th t h is t h e s is , a si ti sf r om t h e my tho log ica l t r ad i t ion t h a t t r agedy d r aw s i t s t h ea t r ica l t h eme s . I t i s at r ad i t ion w ho se i n he r i ted p lo t s e mpha s ize i n te rf am i l ia l c r i se s . ' The se my th ica l s t o r ie s o f a r i s toc ra t ic f am i l ie s a nd i n te rf am i l ia l c on f l ic t s s t i l l d emand f u r the r e xp lana t ion ,p a r t icu la r ly s i nce t h er o le o fw omen i nt h e se s t or ie s i s o f t en e xpanded , r a d ica l ly t r an sf o rmed a nd a ccen tua ted i n c ompa r ison t o t h e p re -c la s s ica l v e r s ion s a va i lab le t o u s ' ( H . F o ley , 1 98 1 , p . 1 33 ) . T he e x ten t o f , a nd t h e r e a son s f o r t h i s t r an sf o rma t ion o fw omen 's r o le s i nt r agedy w i l l b e e xp lo red i n t h ec ou r se o ft h ec hap te r st of o l low . 2 8 H e s iod , W ork sa nd Day s ,4 2 105 , 6 95 -705 .

R . J u s t ( 1989 ) , p p . 2 6 104 ; S . B lunde l l ( 1995 ) , p p . 6 8 -69 , 1 76 180 . C f .D . S chapp s( 1979 ) .

2 9

4

H oweve r , t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e i r c ha ra c te r i n t h e h omonymou s p l ay s c on s t i tu te s a n e x t r eme ly d e ta i led p i c tu re o ft h e f ema le p sy ch e , p r e sen ted i n af o rm mo re a ppea l ing t h an at r ea t i se o nt h e s ame s ub jec t . I ti sh a rd t o i mag ine t h a t P la to 's o r A r i s to t le 's w r i t ing s o n w omen w ou ld h ave o n t h e A then ian s t h e s ame e f f ec t a s t h e i mmed ia te a nd g r aph ic e xamp le s o ff ema le i d io sync ra sy t h a t w e re p r e sen ted o n t h e A then ian s t age . O fc ou r se , t h e p rob lem s t i l l r ema in s t h a t t h e se e xamp le s a r e r e p re sen ta t ive o n ly o f as p ec if i c p a r t o f t h e f ema le p opu la t ion , a nd t h a t t h ey r e p re sen t o n ly t h e w ay t h a t m a le sp e r ce ived w omen . F u r the rmo re , t h ey a r e o f t en n on A then ian w om en . H oweve r , t h ey a r e t h e m o s t p rom inen t a nd d e ta i led e xamp le s w e h av e , i no rde rt os t udy t h e i d ea o ff em in in i ty a tt h e t ime , a nd w e h ave n o r e a son t od oub t t h a t , a r i s toc ra t s o r n o t , f o r e igne r s o rn o t , t h e se t h ea t r ica l c ha ra c te r s p r e sen ted t h e A then ian s w i th t h e o n ly u n r e s t r ic ted a nd i n -dep th p ub l ic o b serva t ion o f t h e f em in ine c ha rac te r .

H oweve r , A e schy lu s ' f i r s t p l ay mu s t h ave b een p roduced i na bou t 5 00 BC a nd E u r ip ide s ' l a s t p l ay , t h e B acchae , w a s s t aged i n 4 05 BC . S o , t h e p er iod w e e xam ine a ccoun t s f o r t h e ' g o lden y ea r s ' o fA then s , w he re s ome o f t h e f i ne s t p o in t s o f i t s c u l tu re w e r e b e ing c ry s ta l l ized . T raged ie s c on t inued b e ing p e rf o rmed l o ng a f t e r t h e t h ree t r aged ian s ' d ea th s , e ven o u t s ide A then s , b u t h ow f a rt h ey c on t inued i nf luenc ing o r m i r ror ing t h e i r c on tempo ra ry s oc ia l e nv i ronm en t i sh a rd t o d e te rm ine . Wha t i sm o re i mpo r tan t i st h a t t h e p e r iod t h a t i so f i n te r e s t t o u s , t h e p e r iod w hen t h e se t r aged ie s w e re o r ig ina l ly p roduced , i s o ne t h a t i sw e l l d ocumen ted i n s ou rce s o u t s ide t h ea t re , w h ich h e lp s u s p u t t h e g en re i n to a n a dequa te ly c ohe r en t s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l c on tex t . T he c on sp icuou sne s s o ff ema le c ha rac te r s i nt r agedy h a s a t t rac ted much a cadem ic r e f lec t ion a bou t t h e s oc ia l f unc t ion o f t h e g en re . G reene ( 1960 , I I , p . 1 58 ) e xp la ined t h e p rom inen ce o ff ema le c ha rac te r s i n G r eek d rama t hu s : ' t he a ud ience a t l e a s t w a s i mmen se ly i n te r e s ted i nw omen a nd t h e i r p l ace i ns oc ie ty ' . P . S l a te r ( 1968 , p .x iv ) , s t re s sed t h e i n t ima te r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een t r agedy a nd t h e a ud ience , b u t f r om a d i f f e ren t p o in t o f v i ew . H e b a sed h i s t h eo ry o nt h e a s sump t ion t h a t ' a my th t e l l s u s s om e th ing a bou t t h e p eop le w ho l i s ten t o i t ' . T hu s , t h e re a r i se s d i r ec t ly t h e q ue s t ion o ft h e f unc t ion o f t r agedy . S ome b e l ieve t h a t t h e t r aged ian s ' p u rpo se w a s f undamen ta l ly t o mo ra l ize . O the r s t h ink t h a t t h ey p r e sen ted ap h i lo sophy o fh uman l i f e . V icke r s ( 1973 , p . 1 0 1) , a s se r ted t h a t t r agedy q ue s t ioned s o c ie ty ; V e l la co t t ( 1975 , c h . 4 ) , m a in ta ined t h a t E u r ip ide s , i n p a r t icu la r , c on s i s ten t ly o f f e red a n i r on ic r ep re sen ta t ion o f t h e ' r e la t ive s i tua t ion o fw omen a nd m en ' . A cco rd ing t oh im , t h e d rama t i s tw a s w e l l a wa r e o ft h e f a c tt h a tt h e w o r ld , a s h e k new i t , w a s u na l te rab ly c omm i t ted t o m a le a s cendancy a nd t h ep o r t raya l o ff ema le s ubo rd ina t ion t h a t m ay b e f ound i nh i s d rama s s hou ld t hu s b e u nde r s tood a s a n i r on ic c omm en t d i rec ted t o t h e mo s t s oph i s t ica ted m embe r s o f t h e a ud ience . L e fkow i tz ( 1981 , c h . 5 ) r e jec ted t h i s v i ew b y e xam in ing a n umbe r o f d a r ing f ema le s . S he c onc luded t h a t w omen g ene ra l ly a c t w i th in t h e c onf ine s o ft h e i r f ema le r o le , a nd i ft a k ing d ec i s ion s , d o s o ' p r ima r i ly o n b eha lf o f am a le r e la t ive ' . T h i s i sa s ugge s t ion t h a t c an b e o ppo sed w i th m any a dve r se e xamp le s . O ne o n ly n eed r e ca l l t h e B acchae , w he r e w om en d o n o t a c t w i th in t h e c onf ine s o ft h e i r r o le s , y e t t h ey d o n o t a c t u pon t h e i r o wn f r ee w i l l , e i the r . A mo r e e x t reme e xamp le i s Medea , w ho n o t o n ly t r an sg re s se s e ve ry a spec t a nd e xpec ta t ion o f f em in in i ty a nd mo the rhood , b u t d oe s s o t o s a t i sf y h e r o wn p a s s ion s . E ven i nt h e c a se s o fA n t igone o rt h e D ana id s i tw ou ld n o t b e e a sy t od e te rm ine w he the rt h ey a c t ' o nb eha lf o ft h e i r m a le r e la t ive s . I ti sc l ea r ly d i f f icu l t t og ene ra l ize a nd s e t r u le s f o r t h e d ef in i t ion o f t h e f ema le i n t r aged ie s . We mu s t b e r e ady t o a pp roach e ach i n d iv idua l c a se i n dependen t ly , b ef o re w e t r y c on s t ruc t ing a c omp rehen s ive f r amewo rk o fc a tego r iza t ion .

S o , t h e r e su l t s o ft h i s s t udy m ay n o tr evea l much d i rec t ly a bou t a l l w om en i n c l a s s ica l G reece a nd e spec ia l ly A then s . B u tt h ey w i l l a tl e a s t , i lum ina te t h ep rof i le o ft h e m a le a u tho r s o f t h e g en r e a nd , c on sequen t ly o f t h e s o c ie ty w h ich f unc t ioned w i th in m a le p a ram e te r s . Mo s t i mpo r tan t ly , t h i s r e sea r ch w i l l a t temp t ar e -def in i t ion o f t r agedy 's s oc ia l f unc t ion a nd i t s p u rpor t w i th in t h e i d eo log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l s e t t ing i n w h ich i ta ppea r ed o r ig ina l ly . I n ar e cen t b ook J .G reen ( 1994 ) e xp lo r e s t h e ' p la ce g i ven t ot h ea t r eb ya nc ien ts oc ie ty , t h ep l a ce i th ad i np eop le 's l i ve s ' ( pp . x i i -x i i i ) . G reen a dm i t s ( p . x i v ) t h a t h e c oncen t ra te s m a in ly o n c om edy . Ii n tend t o t a k e h i s w o rk o ne s t ep f u r the r . N o t o n ly Iw i l l c a r ry o n f r om w he re G r een l e ave s a ' g ap ' , a s f a r a s t r agedy i s c once rned , b u t Ia l so i n tend t o e xp lo r e t h e r e la t ion b e tw een a ud ience a nd d rama f r om t h e s pec if ic p o in t o f v i ew o f r ega rd ing t r agedy a s af o rm o f c ommun ica t ion b e tw een t h ep o l i sa nd t h ec i t izen s .3 ° T he p er iod c ove red b y t h e t h e s i s i st h e t im e span o ft h e t r aged ie s e xam ined h e re . T he t h r ee t r aged ian s w e re n o t c on tempo ra ry a nd b e tw een t h em t h ey c ove r ap e r iod o f a bou t o ne h und red y ea r s . I fw e a ccep t t h a t A e schy lu s ' S upp l ian t s w a s p roduced s om e t ime i nt h e l a te 4 60 's , 31 a nd t h a t E u r ip ide s ' Med ea w a s s t aged a ta bou t 4 31 BC , t h en t h i s t h e s i s c ove r s a bou t t h ir ty y ea r s o f t r agedy .

T he a t temp t t o d e te rm ine t h e a nc ien t a ud ience 's r e ac t ion t o d rama t ic p e rf o rmance m igh t s ound t o s ome a s a n i mpo s s ib le t a sk . N eve r the le s s , i t i s a t a sk t h a t h i gh l igh t s t h e m o s t f undamen ta l a spec t o f t h ea t re : t h e i n te ra c t ion b e tween ' r ea l w o r ld ' a nd ' s tage w o r ld ' . I ti sw ha t d ef ine s d r ama i t se lf . A ny s t udy o fd r ama w ou ld b e i n comp le te i fn o a t t emp tw e r em ade t o d e te rm ine , e ven i fb y a pp rox ima t ion , t h e i mpac t t h a t i th ad o n t h e s o c ia l c on tex t i n w h ich i tw a s p roduced . G reen i sn o t t h e o n ly s c ho la r w ho j udged t h e a bove t a sk a s f e a s ib le ; h e f o l low s t h e w o rk s o f P . E uben ( 1986 ) , C . Me ie r ( 1988 ) , P . A rno t t ( 1989 ) , B . H e iden ( 1990 ) , R . S u t ton J r ( 1992 ) , N . C roa l ly ( 1994 ) , C . D edou s i ( 1995 ) a nd o t he r s w ho o f e r ed a n i n s igh t i n t h em a t te ro fd rama recep t ion b ya nc ien ta ud ience s . 3 1 S ee d i scu s s ion i nc hap te rt of o l low . 3 1 3

T he f a c t o fw omen 's p rom inence o n s t age i si ni t se lf t h e r eve r sa l o f an o rm t h a t w a s w ide ly a ccep ted b y A then ian

5

s t anda rd s , s i nce , a sw i l l b e d i scu s sed p re sen t ly , A then ian c u l tu re m a in ta ined a n i d ea l ly i n con sp icuou s e x i s tence f o r w omen , e spec ia l ly t h o se b e long ing t o t h e u ppe r c l a s se s . B u t t h i s i s n o t t h e o n ly r eve r sa l i n t h e t h ea t r e o f a u n ive r sa l ly a ccep ted c u l tu ra l n o rm . F o r w omen 's p rom inen ce i sm an if e s ted t h rough a v a r iab ly s ub t le o r mo re a ppa ren t r eve r sa l o fg ende r r o le s .3 2 G ende r , w h ich i so rda ined b y s oc ia l c onven t ion , a so ppo sed t o ' n a tu ra l ' s exua l i d en t i ty , b ecom e s a n a r ea w ho se b ounda r ie s , i fn o t t r an sg re s sed , a r e s t re tched b y s t age -women s o f a r t h a t t h ey i n vade t h e s phe r e o f m a scu l in i ty . Women d o n o t b ecome ' men ' b y a c t ing l i k e t h em , b u t b y a c t ing b eyond t h e c onf ine s a nd e xpec ta t ion s o ft h e i r f em in in i ty , e ven a s i ti s d e te rm ined b y c u l tu r e , t h ey h aze t h e q ua l i ta t ive c ha rac te r i s t ic st h a td e te rm ine ' s ex ' a nd ' g ende r ' . T he se f i c t iona l w omen d o n o t c onf o rm t o t h e i d ea l , o r i d ea l ized , i mage o f t h e A then ian w oman . G omme 's ' p ow e rf u l a nd d ynam ic ' d rama t ic h e ro ine s d emon s t ra te q ua l i t ie s mo r e a pp rop r ia te t ot h em a scu l ine c oncep t ion o f t h eA then ian c i t izen . T h i s p henomenon o fr o le r e ve r sa l i s v e ry o bv iou s a nd i th a s b een n o ted b y m any mode rn s cho la r s , w ho i n te rp r e ted i ti nd i f f e r en t w ay s . Y ea r s a go , A pp le ton ( 1927 , p .5 1) t h ough t t h a t E u r ip ide s p re sen ted w omen i nn ew r o le s . I nd ef iance o ft h e n o rm t h a t w omen s hou ld k eep s i len t , E u r ip ide s m ade t h em s peak , a nd t h u s , w h i le w r i t ing ' ad rama o fh uman l i f e ' , h e r e p re sen ted a ' h ighe rc oncep t ion o fw oman 's r e la t ion t om an ' . S t i l l , t h e v i ew t h a t t h e d om inan t w omen i n t r agedy e xp re s s t h e a u tho r 's s oc ia lc r i t ic i sm w a sn o t a bandoned . I np a r t icu la r , E u r ip ide sh a s al o ng t r ad i t ion o fb e ing c l a s s if ied e i the ra s af em in i s to r am i sogyn i s t .

m an ipu la te t h e e mo t ion s o ft h ea ud ience ,n o tt od i scu s s o r c r i t ic ize i d ea s , w he the r a bou t w om en o r a ny th ing e l se . T h i s i sh a rd ly c onv inc ing . D rama i sa n i n s t i tu t ion d eep ly r oo ted i n t h e c i v ic l i f e o f A then s a nd i tw a s i n ev i tab ly p o l i t ica l , a sw e l l a se n te r ta in ing ( s ee P od leck i , 1 966 ) . A n o ppo s ing v i ew t o H ea th 's c om e s f r om F . J ohan sen ( 1984 ) . H e s ugge s t s t h a tt r agedy t r ea t s s e r iou s a nd c en t ra l p rob lem s , s ympa th iz ing w i th t h e w eak , i . e . w omen , a s w e l l a so f f e r ing ac r i t ique o ft h e p o s i t ion o fm an . B u tt h i s t h eo ry t o o s t and s o n f e eb le g round , w hen o ne r e f lec t s u pon o t he r ' w eak ' c ha rac te r s , s u ch a s s l ave s , a nd o n t h e m any w omen p ro tagon i s t s w ho d o n o t s e em t o r e ce ive s ympa the t ic t r ea tm en t f r om t h e p l ayw r igh t s . P ome roy ( 1975 ) , d i scu s s ing t h e f ema le c ha rac te r s o ft r ag ic d r ama i nh e r s u rvey o fw omen i na n t iqu i ty , s ugge s t s t h a t t h e se d om inan t w omen — t o w hom F . Z e i t l in ( 1 990 , 1 992 ) r e f e r s a l so — a r e o n t h e o ne h and a r e f lec t ion o fm a le f e a r a nd f a n ta sy t h a t f ema le s m igh t s om e t ime o ve r th row t h e i r p o s i t ion o fs upe r io r i ty . O n t h e o t he r h and , P om e roy t h ink s t h a t w omen ' i n r ebe l l ion a ga in s t t h e e s tab l i shed n o rm s o f s o c ie ty ' m i r ro r w omen 's ' u ncomf or tab le p l ace i n s oc ie ty ' . S h e a s sume s t h en t h a t m a le p a rano ia a nd f ema le s oc ia l s t re s s a r e e xp r e s sed a tt h e s am e t ime . T he f i r s t s ugge s t ion i s a n i n te re s t ing o ne , a nd , a l though i t s e em s t ob e b a sed o n ac oncep t ion o fd rama a s am i r ro r o f s ome r e a l i ty , i tf o re shadow s t h e v i ew t h a t t h ea t re s e rved f un c t ion s o t he r t h an a m ime t ic o ne . H oweve r , t h e re i sn o c on sen su s o n t h e m a t te r . T he f r equen t u se o f r o le r e ve r sa l i nt r agedy r ema in s am a t te r o fc on t rove r sy . I n1 995 , S .B lunde l lw ro te : O n as upe rf ic ia l l e ve l p l ay s s uch a s Med ea o r t h e B acchae m igh t e a s i ly b e s e en a s c au t iona ry t a le s , d e s igned t o b r ing h ome t h e m e s sage t h a t w omen w ho i n vade m a scu l ine a r ea s o f a c t iv i ty w r eak t e r r ib le h avoc i nt h e i r f am i l ie s a nd c ommun i t ie s ( p . 1 76 ) .

Ad i f f e ren t a nd r a the r s imp l i s t ic v i ew w a s o f f e red b y M . H ea th ( 1987 ) w ho t h ough t t h a t t r agedy w a s t h e re t o

T he d if e r en t ia t ion b e tween ' g ende r ' a nd ' s ex ' , y gvog a nd 9 0Xov i s n o t n ew , b u t i t i s p rob lema t ic i n i t s f unc t iona l c on s i s tency . H e s iod ( T h . 56 ; WD ,9 0 ) s poke o fc p iM ä vepo 3n c ov a nd y gvog y uva t K C OV , b u tt h e r ei sn oe qu iva len ty gvog ä vö rY lv . I t s e em s t h a t t h e t e rm w a s u sed a s ' g ende r ' much l a te r ( A r i s to t . R h . 1 407 b 7 ; D iog . B ab . S to ic . 3 . 2 14 ) . P la to u se s y gvog t o i n d ica te s exua l d if e r ence ( Rep . 4 54 d e ) , a l though t h e c on t ex t i n w h ich t h e w o rd i su sed c ou ld j u s t if y i t s i n te rp re ta t ion a s ' g ende r ' , a s w e l l . E u r ip ide s (M ed . 4 19 ) u se s y gvog t o i n d ica te ' r ace ' , ' s ex ' , a nd t h i s i st h e m ean ing o f t h e w o rd c p taov i n c omedy ( A r i s t . T he sm . 7 86 -845 ) . No tab ly , y gvog i su sed o n ly o nce i n t r agedy t o i nd ica te ' ma le r a ce ' ( Eu r . Med . 4 29 ) . I n g ene ra l , i ts e em s t h a t a r e h appy t o u se w o rd s l i ke y gvog a nd ( p i iKov t o r e f e r t o w omen , w he rea s t h e w o rd s ' c i t izen ' o r ' A then ian ' , w h ich a r e o n ly m a scu l ine i n f o rm ( e xcep t f o r t h e c a se o ft h e p r ie s te s s o fA thena P o l ia s . C f . 1 2 2 4 ) , a dequa te ly d e sc r ibe m en ( Cf . N . L o raux , 1 99 1 , p p . 8 5 -90 ) .The i n con s i s tency m igh t i n d ica te a l a ck o f n eed f o r s uch a d if e ren t ia t ion o ft h e t e rm , w h ich i sa dm i t ted ly ap roduc t o fo u r own t ime s . F o r t h e s ake o f t h e p r e sen t r e sea r ch , t h ough , ' g ende r ' w i l l b e u sed a cco rd ing t o i t s ' mode rn ' a t t r ibu te s , m ean ing t h a t i tw i l l s e rve t o d i s t ingu ish t h e a t t r ibu te s a nd e xpec ta t ion s o f w omen a s o rda ined b y s oc ie ty , i n c on t r a s t t o ' s ex ' , w h ich i n d ica te s t h e a t t r ibu te s o f w omen ( o r m en ) , a s o rda ined b yn a tu re ( Cf . C . McK innon , 1 981 ,p . 15 , e sp . n .3 1 , i n N . K eohane , M . R o sa ldo & B . G e lp i , e dd . 1 98 1) . 3 2

B lunde l l s ugge s t s t h a t s ome m embe r s o f a n A then ian a ud ience m ay w e l l h ave b een s a t i sf i ed w i th t h i s ' s imp le r e ad ing ' o ft h e t r aged ie s . B u tt h e c omp lex h and l ing o ft h e t h eme o f r o le r eve r sa l ' p r ec lude s s i ng le , e xc lu s ive i n te rp re ta t ion ' . S he c on t inue s b y a r gu ing t h a t s t ra igh tf orwa rd c au t iona ry i n te rp r e ta t ion s ' a re r u led o u t , o n ab a s ic l e ve l , b yt r ea tmen t s o ff ema le c ha rac te r sw h ich s e em i ns om e r e spec t s t o b e s ympa the t ic ' ( p . 1 76 ) . F o r B lunde l l , A n t igone i s t h e m o s t o bv iou s e xamp le o f a w oman w ho c an b e v i ew ed a s av i c t im o f o pp re s s ive m a le b ehav iou r , a nd A lce s t i s i st h e e xamp le o ft h e i d ea l w if e . E ven Medea g a in s t h e b adge o f as ympa the t ic c ha rac te r , ' wh i le c onf o rm ing t ot h e i d eo log ica l s t e reo type o ft h e d ang e rou s a nd e xce s s ive f ema le ' ( p . 1 77 ) . B lunde l l i s n o t t h e o n ly s cho la r w ho m anage s t o s e e a' f a i r ' t r ea tmen t o fw omen i nt r agedy , e ven i fs h e d oe s n o tg o t o t h e e x ten t o fc ha rac ter iz ing t h i s t r ea tm en t a s' f em in i s t ' o r ' p ro -f em in ine ' . N one the le s s , i f , i n deed , t h e r e a r e f ema le c ha rac te r s i n t h e s u rv iv ing t r aged ie s t h a t a r e b o th ' e xce s s ive ' a nd u l t ima te ly s ympa the t ic , t h en t h e i d ea o f ö töc iam tMa c oncer n ing g ende r r o le s b ecome s e r roneou s

6

f ema le a t tendance a tt h ea t re . ' One r e a son f o r t h i s h a s te t owa rd s c e r ta in ty i st h a t c on s ide rab le i mp l ica t ion s f o r o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e f e s t iva l a nd i t s p l ace i n t h e c i ty f o l low f r om s u ch c on c lu s ion s . T he f o r ce o f d r ama i s d e te rm ined b y i t s a ud ience ' ( S . G o ldh i l l , 1 994 , p . 3 67 ) . N eve r the le s s , G o ldh i l l 's s en s ib le r e sea r ch a vo id sg o ing t o t h e l e ng th o f a c tua l ly of e r ing a n a ccoun t o ppo s ing H ende r son 's , a nd h e m e re ly s ugge s t s c au t ion o n a pp roa ch ing t h ei s sue o ff ema le a t tendance .

a nd s hou ld b e e xc luded f r om t h e n o t ion o ft r agedy a s a f o rm o f c ommun ica t ion b e tw een t h e p o l i s a nd t h e c i t izen s . I f , o nt h e o t he rh and , t h e r e i s ag ene ra l m e s sage a bou t g ende r r o le s c onveyed b y t h e r ep re sen ta t ion o ft h e p rom inen t f ema le f i gu re s , t h e n a tu r e o ft h i s m e s sage w i l l e nab le u s t o p inpo in t , w i th ' s imp le ' w o rd s , o ne o f t r agedy 's f undam en ta l s oc ia l f un c t ion s . T he c l a r if i ca t ion o ft h i sm a t te ri st h em a in o b jec t ive o ft h i st h e s i s . I n o rde r t o a pp rec ia te i n f u l l t h e d idac t ic n a tu re o f t r agedy , o ne mu s tt a ke i n to a ccoun ti t s a dd re s see , n am e ly t h e a n c ien t a ud ience . I ti s a ppa r en t t h a t i ti s v i ta l t o a pp rox ima te a r e con s tr uc t ion o f t h e a nc ien t p e rf o rmance s ' c on tempo ra ry a ud ien ce , i n o rde r t o c omp le te o u r a ccoun t o f t h e c on tex tua l f r am ewo rk i n w h ich t h e e xam ina t ion o ft h e p e rf o rmance s s hou ld t a ke p l a ce . A f te r a l l , s i nce a d ef in i t ion o ft h e A then ian c i v ic i d eo logy i sf undamen ta l f o rt h i st h e s i s , i tw ou ld b e a b su rd t oi g no r et h er e c ip ien t sa nd i n f o rm e r so ft h i si d eo logy .3

H oweve r , a no the r r e a son w hy I b e l ieve w omen w e r e a l lowed i nt h e t h ea t re i st h a t , s i nce , a sw i l l b e d i scu s sed p r e sen t ly , w omen h ad t h e r i gh tt op a r t ic ipa te i nn um e rou s p r iva te a nd p ub l ic r e l ig iou s f e s t iva l s , i tw ou ld b e a b su rd t o c on temp la te t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h ey w ou ld b e e xc luded f r om t h e c en t ra l p a r t o f t h e D iony s ia c c e leb ra t ion s . No m a t te r w ha t p u rpo se t h ea t re s e rved , i t w a s e s tab l i shed a t t h e h ea r t o f t h e c i ty 's r e l ig iou s c e leb ra t ion s i n h onou r o f D iony su s , w ho se c u l t w a s e spec ia l ly t o le ran t o fw omen , a s w i l l b ecome o bv iou s i n t h e n ex t c hap te r . O ne c an g o o n t or a i se t h e q ue s t ion o f t h e s oc ia l s t a tu s o f t h e w omen w ho w e re a t tend ing t h e p e rf o rmance s . F i r s to fa l l , i ti se a s ie rt oa s sume t h a tl owe r c l a s s w om en h ad a l r eady l i cence t o v en tu re o u tdoo r s mo re o f t en , a s t h ey w e r e o f t en b r ead -w inne r s f o r t h e i r f am i l ie s , s o i tw ou ld h ave b een l e s s s hock ing f o rt h em t o b e s e en i nt h ep ub l ic s pa ce o ft h ea t re . A s f o rw omen f r om t h e u ppe r e che lon s o f s o c ie ty , t h e r e l ig iou s c ha ra c te r o f t h e d rama t ic f e s t iva l s mu s t h ave b een t h e d ec i s ive f a c to r f o r t h e i r a dm i t tance , a l though P l a to 's f a i th i n t h e e duca t ive c ha rac te r o ft r agedy p robab ly h in t s a ta no the r r e a son w hy w omen 's p r e sence w ou ld b e t o le ra ted i nt h e t h ea t re .

T he f i r s t q ue s t ion t h a t s p r ing s t o o ne 's m ind i s , ' We r e t h e re a ny w omen a mong t h e a n c ien t a ud ience? ' T he a n swe r i sb yn o m ean s s imp le t oa s se r t a nd al o ng l i ne o f a cadem ic d eba te s h a s p roduced n o d ef in i t ive r e su l t s . U nf o r tuna te ly w e c an p roduce n o e v idence f r om t h e t im e w e a r e s t udy ing w h ich c ou ld p o s s ib ly c l a r if y t h e m a t te r . I n s tead , w e mu s t t u rn t oh in t s f r om t h e p l ay s t h em se lve s a nd p o s s ib ly f r om P la to , w ho s e em s t or e ga rd t r agedy a s e duca t ive f o r b o th s exe s .3 4 A s f o r e v idence d rawn f r om t h e p l ay s , t h e re a r e c e r ta in c omm en t st h a tm ak e n o s en se , u n le s sw omen a r e i nt h e a ud ience . T h i s a pp l ie s e spec ia l ly t o c omedy .3 5 H ende r son ( 1991) p rov ide s a v e ry c onv inc ing a ccoun t o f t h e e v iden ce t h a t r e inf o r ce s t h e i d ea o f w omen 's a t tendance a t d rama t ic f e s t iva l s , e spec ia l ly a f t e r t h e e s tab l i shm en t o ft h e l aw o fO c c op l Ke l , w h ich e nab led mo r e c i t izen st ow a tch t h ep e rf o rmance s .3 6

Q u i te a pa r t f r om t h e q ue s t ion o ft h ep r e sence o fA then ian w omen , t h e a ud ience o f t h e a nc ien t p e rf o rmance s mu s t h ave b een s oc ia l ly h e te rogeneou s . F o r e igne r s w e re a l lowed a t t h e p e rf o rmance s , t hu s j u s t if y ing P e r ic le s ' p r ide i nt h e ' o penne s s ' o ft h e c i ty t oo u t s ide r s .3 7 B u tt h ey w e r e n o t t h e o n ly f a c to rc on t r ibu t ing t ot h e c omp lex i ty o f t h e a ud ience . Af t e r t h e e s tab l i shmen t o fO ewp u c s d , t h e re mu s t h ave b een am ix tu re o fd i f f e ren t c l a s se s g a the red i n f r on t o f t h e o r che s t ra , A then ian s f r om d i f f e r en t b ackg round s w i th d i f f e ren t e duca t iona l s t anda rd s a nd p o l i t ica l b e l ief s . We m u s t e xpec t t h a t t h e r e spon se o ft h e a ud ience t o t h e e ven t s d rama t i sed o n s t age w a s n o t a lway s h omogeneou s . T raged ie s c ou ld b r ing f o r th a v a r ie ty o fq ue s t ion s a nd r e t ro spec t ion , a nd a sG r iff i th p u t i t ,t r agedy

O ne c anno t c on s ide r s H ende r son 's a ccoun t a s f i na l w i thou t t a k ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion G o ldh i l l 's o p in ion o n t h e q ue s t ion o f f ema le a t tendan ce a t t h ea t r e . G o ldh i l l ( 1994 ) c r i t ic i se s , w i th h ea l thy s c ep t ic i sm , t h e c e r ta in ty w i th w h ich H ende r son a nd o t h e r s cho la r s b e l ieve i n T he ' C iv ic I d eo logy ' o fA then s i sn o t as i ngu la rc oncep t . I ti s ac omp lex n o t ion c on s is t ing o f a t t i tude s , b e l ief s a nd s oc io p o l i t ica l e xp re s s ion s , i n f o rmed a nd i n f luenced b y t r ad i t ion a nd c u s tom . T hey a r e i n he r en t i n e ve ry p ub l ic a nd p r iva te a r t icu la t ion o fA then ian l i f e , a nd t h ey c an b e f a thomed b y t h e s t udy o f s ome o f t h e m a jo r d i sc ip l ine s o f c l a s s ica l s t udy m en t ioned e a r l ie r o n , n ame ly l e ga l s c ho la r sh ip , e p ig raphy , p opu la r l i t e ra tu re a nd r e levan t w o rk sw h ich r e co rd t h e a t t i tude s o f A then ian c i t izen s i n v a r iou s e xpo s i t ion s o f d om inan t a t t i tude sa nd b e l ief so ft h e i rt ime s . 3 4 P la to , G o rg ia s 5 02 b -d ;L aw s 6 58 a d . P l a to w ro te much l a te r t h an t h e t ime o f t h e o r ig ina l p roduc t ion o f t h e t r aged ie s w e s t udy . N eve r the le s s , s i nce h e w a s i n ar e la t ive ly b e t te rp o s i t ion t h an o u r se lve s , r ega rd ing t h e p e rcep t ion o f t r agedy 's o r ig ina l s e t t ing s , w e c an a s sume t h a th er e co rded a t i tude st h a tp reva i led f r om t h et ime so ft h ep l ay s ' o r ig ina lp roduc t ion s . 3 5 A r is toph . , P eace 9 62 -67 . 3 6 F ur the r d i scu s s ion i nt h e f i na l c hap te r o ft h i s t h e s i s . F o r t h e e s tab l i shmen to ft h eor ika s e eP .A rno t t( 1 989 ) . 3 3

p rov ided mu l t ip le p l ea su re s a nd s a t i sf ied a v a r ie ty o f s oc ia l a nd e mo t iona l n eed s , w h ich m ay w e l l n o th ave b een e n t i r e ly s e lf c on s i s ten t o r c ohe r en t , a nd w e s hou ld n o t t r y t ot i e t h em a l l u p t o o t i d i ly i n as i ng le t h eo re t ica l p a ckage . I ndeed t h e r e spon se s o f d if e r en t s egmen t s o f t h e o r ig ina l a ud ience mu s t o f t en h ave d i f f e red f r om o ne

3 7

7

T huc .E p i taph io sL ogo s .

a no the r , s ome t ime s r ad ica l ly , j u s t a s t h o se o fm ode rn c r i t ic sd o .3 8

a ny p o l i t ica l a c t iv i ty , t h ey p a r t ic ipa ted i n m any p ub l ic r e l ig iou s r i tua l s . O bv iou s ly r e l ig ion a l low s w omen a d i f f e ren t s t an ce , i n c on t ra s t t o t h e o ne t h ey a r e u sua l ly a s c r ibed i nd a i ly l i f e . H ow much a r e w e s uppo sed t or e ad i n to t h i s? H ow d oe s t h i s l i cence r e la te t o t h e f a c t t h a t d rama , e s tab l i shed a t t h e h ea r t o f c i v ic r e l ig iou s a c t iv i t ie s , a l so a l low s t h e p ro jec t ion o f ap rom inen t f em in ine i mage? T he e l uc ida t ion o ft h i s q ue s t ion w i l l b e t h e a im o ft h e c hap te r t h a t f o l low s . I t s c onc lu s ion s w i l l p rov ide a f i rm b a s i s f o r t h e u nde r s tand ing o f w omen 's r o le i n t r agedy a nd , s ub sequen t ly , o f t h e p l a ce t r agedy h e ld i nt h e s o c io -cu l tu ra lc on tex to fc l a s s ica lA then s .

H ow eve r— a nd t h i s i si mpo r tan tf o r my a r gumen t— t h e u n if y ing f a c to r w a s t h e A then ian t r ad i t ion i t se lf , t h e i d ea l s o f t h e c i ty s ta te w h ich e mpha s ized t h e c ommon c u l tu ra l b ackg round f o r a l l A then ian s a nd m a in ta ined t h e i n te r soc ia l b ond s b y m ean s o f c ommon r e l ig iou s a c t iv i t ie s a nd a cce s s t o t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e c i ty f o r e veryone . D oub t le s s i tw ou ld b e t o o e x t reme t os uppo se t h a t a l l m embe r s o f t h e a ud ience w ou ld i n te rp re t i n a s im i la r m anne r t h e s ub t le m e s sage s t h a t t h e p l ayw r igh t s m igh t h ave i n co rpo ra ted i nt h e i r p l ay s . A nd , a s G r iff i th p u t i t ,i ti sq u i te c l ea r t h a t t r aged ie s w e re n o t o n ly a bou t o ne t h ing . B u t t h e p u rpo se o ft h e p r e sen t r e sea rch i st o a t tend t o t h e c u l t iva t ion o f a t t i tude s r e ga rd ing g ende r r o le s i nA then ian s oc ie ty . A s f a r a s t h i s p a r t icu la r i s sue g oe s , w e c an a s sume t h a t m o s t o ft h e A then ian m a le s , a t l e a s t , b rough tu pw i th in ac u l tu ra lr e a l i ty w h ich d epended u pon t h e s eg rega t ion o f s exe s a nd d i d n o t q ue s t ion i t s v a l id i ty , w ou ld b e i n te rp r e t ing m a t te r s r e ga rd ing s ex a nd g ende r r o le s t h rough t h e s ame c u l tu ra l p r i sm . A n a pp rox ima t ion o ft h e a nc ien t a ud ience 's r e spon se t ot h e t r aged ie s w i l l b e g i ven d u r ing t h e e xam ina t ion o f t h e p lay st h em se lve s . I t w ou ld h ave b een i mpo s s ib le t o i n c lude w i th in t h e l im i t s o ft h i s t h e s i s a l l t h e s u rv iv ing t r aged ie s . C a r e w a s g iven t o e n su re t h e a dequa te r e p r e sen ta t ion o ft h e t h ree t r aged ian s . T hen , t h e p l ay s t h a t w e r e s e lec ted f u lf i l led s pec if i c c r i te r ia . T he mo s t i mpo r tan t i st h e c l a r i ty w i th w h ich t h e ' p rom inence ' o f t h e f em in ine c ha rac te r s o n s t age i sc omb ined w i th t h e p henomenon o fr o le reve r sa l . A s f o r t h e o rde r i n w h ich t h ey a r e e xam ined , t h i s i s a cco rd ing t ot h e d i ff icu l ty t h ey p r e sen t f o r t h e s t udy a nd c l a r if i ca t ion o fr o le reve r sa l . My a na ly s i s w i l l i n vo lve a mo ra l e va lua t ion o ft h e f em in ine c ha rac te r s w ho d ev ia te f r om t h e s e t f r am ewo rk o f ' a ccep ted ' ( i f o n ly b y A then ian s t anda rd s ) b ehav iou r p a t te rn s : t h e o rde r i n w h ich t h e p l ay s a r e e xam ined f o l low s t h e d eg ree o f d i ff icu l ty o f p inpo in t ing t h e d ynam ic s o f t h i s d ev ia t ion a nd o fa ccoun t ing f o rt h eh e ro ine s 'p rom inence . B ef o re t a ck l ing t h i s i s sue d i r ec t ly , h ow eve r , i tw i l l b e v i ta l t ol o ok a ta no the r— i nf a c t , t h e o n ly o t he r— a r ea o fp ub l ic l i f e w he re w omen a ppea r t oh ave p rom inence : r e l ig ion . I ti s aw e l l -known a nd e x ten s ive ly d ocumen ted f a c t t h a t , d e sp i te t h e i r l a ck o f p o l i t ica l r i gh t s a nd t h e i r c i rcum sc r ibed p ub l ic p rof i le , w om en a ppea r t o p l ay a n i mpo r tan t r o le i nt h e r e l ig iou s l i f e o fA then s . R e l ig ion i s a n i n s t i tu t ion d eep ly e mbedded i n t h e i n s t i tu t iona l m echan i sm o fA then s . E xp re s sed i n ad i ve r se d i sp lay o f d ome s t ic a nd p ub l ic r i tua l s , r e l ig ion h o ld s au n ique p l a ce a s ac u l tu ra l b ond b r idg ing t h e o i ko s w i th t h ep o l i s . I ti s w i th in t h e c i v ic m i l ieu o ft h i sp o l i st h a tr e l ig ion f unc t ion s f o r w omen a s t h e m ean s o ft h e i r i n co rpo ra t ion i n to t h e w ide r c ommun i ty . E ven i fw omen w e re e xc luded f r om

3 8

M . G r iff i th ( 1995 ) ,

P .

1 08 . S ee a l so p .1 08 ,n .1 4 1 .

8

T he P rom inence o f Women i nA then ian R e l ig ion R e l ig ion w a s t h e o ne a r ea o fa c t iv i ty w he re a s e c t ion o ft h e p opu la t ion t h a t h ad b een i d eo log ica l ly c onf ined t o t h e p r iva te s phe re w a s a l lowed t o e me rge i n to p ub l ic p rom inence . '

I n 1 988 Ma s sey s ugge s ted t h a t t h e G reek s a t tended t h e p roduc t ion o f c om ed ie s a nd t r aged ie s b ecau se t h ey r e ga rded t h e f e s t iva l s a sr e l ig iou so cca s ion sr a the rt h an a s e n t e r ta inm en t . T h i s i s ab o ld a s sump t ion , w h ich Ma s sey d i d n o t a r gue i n d ep th . H ow eve r , h i s s t a temen t h in t s a t o ne t h eme w h ich w i l l b e e xp lo red s ho r t ly : n ame ly , n o t t h e c on t ra s t b e tween r e l ig ion a nd e n te r ta inm en t , b u t t h e i mp l ied — a l though u ndef ined — r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een r e l ig ion a nd ( A then ian ) d r ama . T he f a c t t h a t a l l d rama t ic p e rf o rmance s i n A then s t o ok p l ace d u r ing r e l ig iou s f e s t iva l s i s o ne o bv iou s a spec t o f t h i s l i nk a nd i tc an p rov ide u sw i th as t a r t ing p o in tf o rt h er e sea r ch t of o l low . N a r row ing t h e s cope o ft h i s r e sea r ch , Iw i l l c oncen t ra te o nt h e r o le o fw omen i nG reek r e l ig ion a nd Iw i l l a t temp t t o d ef ine t h e w ay t h a t r e l ig ion a nd d r ama c onnec t a nd s e rve t h ep o l i s .

a f f a i r s t h a tr e su l t s o n ly i nd e t r imen tt ot h ep o l i s ( 1269b23 a nd 1 270a 11) .4 T he re i s n o n eed t o b e l ieve t h a t A r i s to t le 's v i ew s w e r e s ha r ed b y a l l o f h i s c on tempo ra r ie s , b u th i s o p in ion a bou tt h ep ub l ic i mage o f w omen s e em st oa g ree w i th t h a to fT hucyd ide s . P la to h ad g one o ne s t ep f u r the r b y a s sum ing t h a t w omen a r e s o u sed t o l e ad ing s oc ia l ly i n v i s ib le l i ve s t h a t a ny a t temp t t o c hange t h i s n o rm w i l l r e su l t i n n ega t ive r e a c t ion s f r om t h e w om en t h em se lve s . I nt h e L aw s , i ti s a rgued w he the r w omen s hou ld b e f o r ced t op a r t ic ipa te i n p ub l ic m ea l s— s ot h a tt h ey c an b eb e t te rs uperv i sed . T he c onc lu s ion i st h i s : S o w hen i tc ome s t o t h e p o in t , h ow o n e a r th a r e y ou g o ing t oa vo id b e ing l a ughed t o s cor n w hen y ou t r y t o f o rce w omen t o t a ke t h e i rf ood a nd d r ink i np ub l ic? T he re 's n o th ing t h e s ex i s l i k e ly t o p u t u p w i th mo re r e luc tan t ly : w om en h ave g o tu sed t oa l i f e o f o b scu r i ty a nd r e t i remen t , a nd a ny a t temp t t o f o rce t h em i n to t h e o pen w i l l p rovok e t r em endou s r e s i s tance f r om t h em , a nd t h ey ' l l b e mo r e t h an a m a tch f o r t h e l e g i s la to r .5

T o p rope r ly e va lua te t h e r o le t h a t r e l ig ion p l ay ed i nt h e m a t t e r o f w omen 's p a r t ic ipa t ion i n s oc ie ty , o ne s hou ld b ea ri nm ind s ome a spec t s o ft h e i r l i f e w i th in t h e d oma in o f t h e p r iva te o iko s a nd w i th in t h e p o l i s , a s t h ey w e re r e co rded b yc on tempo ra ry s ou r ce s . P ub l ic l i f e P a r t ic ipa t ion i nt h e l i f e o ft h e p o l i s w a s as a c red d u ty f o r e ve ry A then ian . T hucyd ide s , t h rough t h e mou th o f P er ic le s , d ec la re s t h a t t h e d emo s h a s n o r e spec t f o r t h e a npäygwv , o ne w ho d oe s n o tp a r t ic ipa te i np o l i t ica lk iv i l l i f e . B u t t h i s d oe s n o t a pp ly t o w om en a l so . I n t h e E nt T e u pL o g A öyog , P e r ic le s m o s t p robab ly e xp re s se s t h e d om inan tv i ew o fh i s t im e s , w hen h e s ay st h a t aw oman 's n ame s hou ld n o tb ed i scu s sed i np ub l ic , e i the rf o rg ood o r f o r b ad .2 T h i s c ou ld b e ar e a son w hy w omen w e re a b sen t f r om t h e c om ic s t age e ven a s c en t ra l c ha rac te r s u n t i l t h e p rodu c t ion o f L y s i s t ra ta .

I n t h e d i a logue t h a t f o l low s b e tween C le in ia s a nd t h e A then ian , t h e A then ian 's p o in t o f v i ew r ema in s u nchanged : w om en a r e b e t te r o f fs t ay ing i n doo r s , t a k ing c ha rge o ft h e h ou seho ld s t o re s a nd t h e s p inn ing a nd t h e w oo l -wo rk ing . O nce a ga in , t h e S pa r tan s y s tem , w i th a l l i t ss pec ia la l lowance sf o rw omen , i sn ega t ive ly c r i t ic i sed . S o w e c an c onc lude t h a t w omen w e r e n o t e xpec ted t o p a r t ic ipa te i np ub l ic l i f e . T he p o s i t ive p ub l ic i mage o ft h e A then ian w oman i s t h a t o f i n v i s ib i l i ty a nd n on i n vo lvemen t .

A ny i d ea o f a l low ing w om en t o g e t i n vo lved i n p ub l ic m a t te r s i sd i s r ega rded . A r i s to t le 's n ega t ive c r i t ic i sm o f S pa r tan w omen h in t s a t w ha t w a s e xpec ted f r om A then ian w omen , a sf a r a sp ub l ic l i f e w a s c once rned .3 I n S pa r ta , t h e m i s take o f t h e l awg ive r w a s t h a t h e w a s n eg l ig en t o ve r t h e w omen , ' f o r a t S pa r ta w omen l i ve i mp re s s ive ly , e n joy ing e ve ry l i cence a nd i n du lg ing i n e ve ry l u xu ry . ' I n 2 . 1 269b 12 A r i s to t le c onvey s t h a t ' t he l a ck o fc on t ro lo ve r S pa r tan w om en i sd e t r imen ta l b o th t o t h e a t ta inm en t o ft h e a im s o ft h e c on s t i tu t ion a nd t ot h e h app ine s s o ft h e s t a te . ' F u r the rmo r e , t h e r i gh t o fw omen t o i n h e r i t a nd h and le t h e i r o wn f i nance s i s c r i t ic i sed n ega t ive ly , a s i sa ny i n vo lvemen t o f w omen i n p ub l ic

P r iva te l i f e P e rhap s t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t f unc t ion o fm a r r iage w a s t h e ' d om e s t ica t ion ' o f w omen . A w oman 's d oma in i s t h e o ikos , t h e h ou seho ld . T he r e s he i se xpec ted t o t e nd t o

A n a ccoun t o fA then ian l aw s a bou t h e i re s se s c an b e f ound i n D emo s thene s ( Aga in s t Macar tu s , 5 1 , 5 4 ) , w he re i ti ss t a ted t h a t e ven i nt h e c a se t h a t aw oman i n he r i t s , s he i so b l iged t om a r ry h e rn ex to fk i no ro ne t h a th ed ec ide s . 5 T he t r an s la t ion i st a ken f r om M . L e fkow i tz & M . F an t( 1977 ) , p .4 8 . 4

S .B lunde l l( 1995 ) ,p .1 63 . T huc . 2 .4 2 . 2 . 3 A r i s to t .A t / i . P o l . 2 .1 269b . 2

9

d a i ly t a sk s f i t t o h e r n a tu re . A n a ccoun t o ft h e w edd ing r i tua l si nT he s sa ly i lum ina te st h es i tua t ion :6

w i th t h e a t ten t ion g i ven t o t h e d e l ica te b a lance b e tw een g ende rr o le s .

A m an a bou t t o m any , w hen o f f e r ing t h e w edd ing s a c r if ice , b r ing s i n aw a r -ho r se b i t ted a nd e ven f u l ly e qu ipped w i th a l l i t s g ea r ; t h en w hen h e h a s c omp le ted t h e s a c r if ice a nd p ou red t h e l i ba t ion , h e l e ad s t h e h o r se b y t h e r e in a nd h and s i tt o h i s b r ide . T he s i gn if i cance o f t h i s t h e T he s sa l ian mu s te xp la in .7

A no the r a spec t o ff ema le q ua l i t ie s i sc ha s t i ty . At r ea t i se a t t r ibu ted t om embe r s o f t h e P y thago r ean c ommun i ty i n I t a ly ( t h i rd second c en tu r ie s BC ) , r e po r t s :

We n eed n o t s ha r e A e l ian 's d e spa i r , s i nce t h e m ean ing o f t h e g e s tu re s e em s c l ea r : a mong t h e h o r se lov ing T he s sa l ian s a m an e xpec ted h i s w if e t o a c t l i ke a c omp le te ly d om e s t ica ted a nd t amed h o r se . T h i s n o t ion d oe s n o t c on t rad ic t p opu la r A then ian b e l ief s a bou t t h e q ua l i t ie s o f ag ood w if e . X enophon 's O econom icu s ( 7 1 0 ) c on ta in s a d i a logue b e tw een S oc ra te s a nd I s choma chu s , w he r e t h e l a t te r r e c i te s t o S oc ra te s h ow h e h ad ' t ra ined ' h i s w if e s o t h a t s h e b ecame c apab le o f t a k ing c a re o f t h e h ou seho ld a nd t h u s a ch iev ing h i gh h onou r i n t h e e ye s o f h e r h u sband a nd t h e r e s t o f t h e c ommun i ty . T o s umma r i se t h e se q ua l i t ie s : f i r s t o f a l l , a g ood e duca t ion , w h ich i s' o ft h e g r ea te s t i mpor tance f o r b o th a m an a nd a w oman ' ; e xcep t t h a t i n t h e c a se o f I s choma chu s ' w if e , t h i s e duca t ion c once rn s ' ma t te r s o f t h e s t omach ' .8 A l so , s h e w a s a l r eady t a ugh t t o ' s ee a nd h ea r a s l i t t le a s p o s s ib le a nd a sk t h e f ewe s t p o s s ib le q ue s t ion s . ' I ng ene ra l ag ood w if e i so ne w ho i s amode l h ou sekeepe r , c apab le o fs uperv i s ing d ome s t ic s l ave s a nd e n su r ing t h e a u tonomy o f t h e o i kos , b r ing s u p h e r c h i ld r en a cco rd ing t o t h e d emand s o f h e r h u sband a nd s oc ie ty , a nd mo s t o fa l l , n eve r l e ave s t h e o ikos : ' t he g od d i rec t ly p r epa red t h e w oman 's n a tu r e f o r i n doo r w o rk s a nd i n doo r c oncer n s ' ; a nd ' i t i s af i ne r t h ing f o r t h e w oman t o s t ay i n doo r s t h an t o s pend t ime i n t h e o pen , w h i le i ti s mo re d i sg ra cef u l f o r t h e m an t o s t ay i n doo r s t h an t o c oncer n h im se lf w i th o u tdoo r t h ing s . ' I s chomachu s ' s peech e nd s b y a s su r ing S oc ra te s t h a t t h e w if e c oncer n ed h e r e c on t inue s t ol i ve h e r l i f e e xac t ly a s h e rh u sband h a st a ugh th e r .9 S oc ra te s ' v i ew s m igh t o r m igh t n o t h ave s ounded e n l igh tened ; a nd t h e re mu s t h ave b een m any w ho s ha r ed t h em . N eve r the le s s , A r i s to t le ( Po l i t ic s ) c on t rad ic t s S oc ra te s a s t o t h i s : S oc ra te s m a in ta ined t h a t t h e t empe rance o f am an a nd a w oman , o r t h e c ou rage o r j u s t ice o f am an a nd aw oman , i st h e s ame . B u t A r is to t le b e l ieve s t h a t ' t he c ou rage o f a m an i s s hown i n c ommand ing , o f aw oman i no bey ing . 'I ° C er ta in ly , t h i s i s a n i d ea t h a t u nde r l ined t h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu re o f A then s ,

I n g ene ra l aw oman mu s t b e g ood a nd o rde r ly - a nd t h i s n o o ne c an b ecom e w i thou t v i r tue . . . A w oman 's g r ea te s t v i r tue i sc ha s t i ty . B ecau se o f t h i s q ua l i ty s he i sa b le t o h onou r a nd t o c her i sh h e r o wn p a r t icu la r h u sband . . .A cco rd ing ly a w oman m u s t l e a rn a bou t c ha s t i ty a nd r e a l i se w ha t s he mu s t d o q uan t i ta t ive ly a nd q ua l i ta t ive ly t o b e a b le t o o b ta in t h i s w oman ly v i r tue . Ib e l ieve t h a tt h e r e a r e f i ve q ua l if ica t ion s ( 1 ) t h e s anc t i ty o f h e r m a r r iage b ed ( 2 ) t h e c l ean l ine s s o ft h e h e r b ody ( 3 ) t h e m anne r i nw h ich s he c hoo se s t o l e ave h e r h ou se ( 4 ) h e r r e f u sa l t o p a r t ic ipa te i n s e c re t c u l t s o f C ybe l ine r i tua l s ( 5 ) h e r r e ad ine s s a nd m ode ra t ion i n s a c r if i c ing t ot h eg od s . 1 T he o b se s s ion o fA then ian m en w i th t h e i rw ive s ' c ha s t i ty h a s a l ready b een e xp la ined . B r ie f ly r en ew ing t h e c h ief a rgumen t s h e r e , w e s hou ld r e ca l l t h e A then ian l aw o f4 51 BC a bou t c i t izen sh ip t h a t r equ i red b o th p a r en t s o f a c i t izen t ob e A then ian s . T hen , t h e r e w a s a l so t h e l aw t h a t f o rbade n on leg i t ima te c h i ld r en t oi n he r i t» a nd a l so t h e r e qu i remen t t h a t a n A then ian c i t izen s hou ld d i vo r ce h i s w if e , i fs he c omm i t ted a du l te ry , o nt h e g round s o f ä-rt p i a ; p a r t o ft h e d i vo r ce p rocedu re w a s t h e r e imbu r sem en t o f t h e b r ida l d ow ry b ack t o t h e f a the r o ft h e b r ide . A l l o f t h e se w e r e v e ry i mpo r tan t r e a son s f o r a ny A then ian t o p ro tec t t h e c ha s t i ty o fh i s w if e . A s B remme rs ay s : ' G reek m a le s a nd t h e i r o f f sp r ing w e re h i gh ly v u lne rab le i nt h e f am i ly s phe r e a nd t h e l o ya l ty o ft h e i r w ive s w a s n eve r t o b et a ken f o rg r an ted . '1 3 P l a to ( t he L aw s ) , a ccoun t s s ome o f t h e t y p ica l f ema le c ha ra c te r i s t ic s . H e b e l ieve s t h a t t h e f ema le s ex , w h ich f o rm s h a lf o ft h e h uman r a ce , ' i s i n c l ined t ob e s e c r e t ive a nd c r af ty b ecau se o fi t sw eakne s se s . ' H e g oe s o nt os ay t h a t ' aw oman 's n a tu ra lp o ten t ia l f o rv i r tue i si n f e r io rt oa m an 's . ' T he p hy s ica l c apac i t ie s o fw om en w e r e a lway s a m a t te r o f i n te re s t . T he i r i n f er io r i ty w a s e xp la ined b y r e a son s o fa na tomy —neve rb e ing ' s c ien t if i ca l ly ' p roven , i n t h e moder n s en se o f t h e t e rm .I 5 T he i d ea o f t h e 1 4

"H . T he s lef f ( 1965 ) ,p p .151154 . T he q uo ta t ion t h a t f o l low s i sf r om J .B r emme r , i nh i s G reece a nd R ome S urvey ,n o . 2 4 , 1 994 . B remme re xp la in st h en o t ion o f w omen 's t am ing a nd y ok ing i nm a r r iage ( p . 7 3 ) . 7 A e l ian ,N a t . A n . 1 2 .34 . 8 W omen 's g lu t tony i s au sua lt h eme i nC omedy . 9 T he se l e s son s f r om h u sband t o w if e i n c lude a dv ice e ven o n

C f . H . Wo lf f( 1944 ) ,p p . 8 5 -9 1 . J .B remme r( 1994 ) ,P . 7 4 . 1 4 A l l t h e q uo ta t ion s a bou t w omen 's q ua l i t ie s c an b e f ound i n M . L e fkow i tz a nd M . F an t( 1977 ) . 1 5 A nc ien t a na tom ica l t h eor ie s w e re b a sed o n o b se rvab le p henomena a nd d educ t ion b y a na logy , n o t h uman d i s sec t ion a nd c l in ica l s t udy . H ence s oc ia l n o rm s , s u ch a s m en 's s upe r ior i ty o ve r w omen , c ou ld p rov ide a ccep tab le d a ta a bou t

6

1 2 1 3

m a t te r so ff ema le c oque t ry ( Oecon . 1 0 ) . 1 ° M . L e fkow i tz & M . F an t( 1977 ) ,P . 4 5 .

1 0

' wande r ing w omb ' , e xp la in s h ow w omen s uf f e r r e sp i ra t ion p rob lem s a nd o t he r ' a l l -va r iou s d i sea se s ' b ecau se , i ft h e i r m a t r ix r ema in s u nf ru i tf u l f o r l o ng , i t w ande r s r ound t h e b ody a nd o b s t ruc t s t h e p a s sage o f b r ea th .1 6 T he s ame i d ea c an b e f ound i n H ippoc ra te s .1 7 B ecau se o ft h e i r a na tomy , w omen a r e p rone t oa l l k ind s o f h y s ter ia .1 8 M adne s s a s ap henom enon w a s a lway s a s soc ia ted w i th w om en r a the r t h an m en i na n t iqu i ty . A s Z e i t l in s ay s :

w om en ' .2 1 I ti si n te re s t ing t os e e t h a ti nt h e f i r s tt wo t e x t s , w ha t i sa dm i r ed i sc ou rage a nd b rave ry o nt h e b a t t lef ie ld . T e le s i l la o f A rgo s a nd A r tem i s ia o f H a l icar na s su s a r e p ra i sed f o r e xemp l if y ing t h e s am e q ua l i t ie s a s m en . H oweve r , i ti s d i f f icu l t t o r e ca l l a ny o cca s ion w he re A then ian w omen a r e p ra i sed f o r s u ch n on -f em in ine d eed s . T ex t ( i v ) m ake s mo re s en se . D a t ing f r om 8 6 BC , f r om D e lph i , i tp ra i se s P o lygno ta o f T hebe s , ah a rp i s t r e s iden t i nD e lph i , ' f o r h e r p i e ty t owa rd t h e g od a nd f o r t h e r ange o fh e rp repa ra t ion a nd h e r a r t . ' A ga in , w e mu s t n o t ice t h a t t h e g i r l n amed h e re w a s a n a t h le te . S he c ompe ted i n t h e 1 5 th P y th ian g am e s , d e sp i te t h e w a r , a f t e rt h e r e que s t o ft h e a r chon s a nd t h e c i t izen s . Af ema le a t h le te i sn o tt h e i d ea l c ompa r i son f o rf ema le mode l s , b u t t h e q ua l i t ie s t h a t s he r e p re sen ted ( p ie ty a nd d ed ica t ion ) w e re s u ch t h a ta l lw omen s hou ld a sp i re t o .

m adne s s , t h e i ra t iona l , a nd t h e e mo t iona l a spec t s o fl i f e a r e a s soc ia ted i nt h e c u l tu r e m o re w i th w omen t h an w i th m en . T he b ounda r ie s o f w om en 's b od ie s a r e p e rce ived a s m o re f l u id , m o r e p e rmeab le , m o re o pen t o a f ec t a nd e n t ry f r om t h e o u t s ide , l e s s e a s i ly c on t ro l led b y i n te l lec tua l a nd r a t iona l m ean s . T h i s p e rce ived p hy s ica l a nd c u l tu ra l i n s tab i l i ty r e nde r sw om en w eake rt h an m en .1 9

A s m en t ioned i nt h e i n t roduc t ion , t o o , t h e a bove e v idence r e inf o r ce s t h e i d ea o f w omen 's s e c luded a nd s t r ic t ly s upe rv i sed l i f e . L e t u s n ow t u rn t or e l ig ion a nd s e e h ow , o r , i n deed , i f ,i tm a rk s a ny d i f f e r en ce f o r t h e l i f e s ty le o f A then ian w om en . V a r iou s s cho la r s h ave c on s ide red r e l ig ion a s a n i n teg ra t ing f a c to r f o r w omen i n t h e c ommun i ty .2 O the r s w en t a sf a r a st oa s se r tt h a tt h e o n ly t wo a r ea s i nw h ich w omen a r e p rom inen t i nG r eece , a r e d r ama a nd r e l ig ion .2 3 T he q ue s t ion t o b e r a i sed h e re i s a bou t t h e n a tu r e o f t h i s ' p rom inence ' . Wha t d o w e u nde r s tand b y i t ? D o w e c on s ide r a s ' p rom inence ' t h e m e re f a c t o fw omen 's p a r t ic ipa t ion i nr e l ig ion? A nd w ha t d oe s t h i s p a r t ic ipa t ion r ev ea l a bou t t h e s t a tu s o fw omen i ns oc ie ty , o r a s B lunde l l p u t s i t , ' t he s oc ia l s i gn if icance o ft h e f ema le p r inc ip le '? 2 4 T he se a r e s ome o ft h e i s sue s t h a t w i l l c oncer n u s d u r ing t h e f o l low ing r e v iew o f w om en 's r o le i nA then ian r e l ig ion .

E ven t h e d iv ine a gen t s w ho c an i nf l ic t m adne s s u pon h uman s a r e f o r t h e m o s t p a r t f ema le — w i th t h e n o tab le e xcep t ion o fD iony su s . I nv a r iou s c a se s , H e ra , A ph rod i te , t h e E r inye s , o r e ven A thena ( i n S ophoc le s ' A ia s ) a r e a s soc ia ted w i th m adne s s . A s f o rt h e h uman f ema le s , t h ey a r e d ef in i te ly a s soc ia ted w i th i ra t iona l i ty a nd m adne s s . I n E u r ip ide s ' H erak l e s , w hen t h e h e ro i sd r iven m ad b y L y s sa ( t he f em in ine r e p re sen ta t ion o fm adne s s ) a nd k i l l s h i s w if e a nd c h i ld ren , t h e c ho ru s c ompa re s h im o n ly w i th w om en : t h e D ana id s ( who s l ew t h e i r h u sband s o n t h e i r w edd ing n igh t ) a nd P rokne ( who s l ew h e r c h i ld i n r evenge f o r h e r h u sband 's r a pe a nd mu t i la t ion o f h e r s i s te r ) .2 ° I n av e ry i n te re s t ing p a ra l le l , H e rac le s i sa l so r e f e r r ed t o a s ' im i ta t ing t h e B a cchae ' ( 1 . 1 086 ) . We a r e n o t i n ap o s i t ion t o t e l l w he the r t h i s w a s as t anda rd e xp r e s s ion a s soc ia t ing m adne s s w i th t h e s pec if i c c o l lec t ive r e p re sen ta t ive o fw om en . H oweve r , t h e c on tex t i nw h ich t h e p h ra se i su sed a l low s f o r t h e i mp l ica t ion o f w om en i n t h e m o s t t r ag ic c onno ta t ion s a bou t i ra t iona l b ehav iou r .

P r ie s thood T he m o s t h i gh s ta tu s c a se o f r e l ig iou s a c t iv i t ie s i s p r ie s thood . P r ie s t s , i ng ene ra l , s t ood b e tween t h e d i v ine a nd t h e h uman w o r ld a nd t h e i r r e l ig iou s a u tho r i ty p l aced t h em t empo ra r i ly o n ad i f f e ren t r ank f r om t h e r e s t o ft h e n oX im L . F ema le p r ie s t s w e re n o t u nknown i n c l a s s ica l A then s . I ndeed , A then ian r e l ig ion a l lowed w omen t h e o n ly o ppo r tun i ty o fh o ld ing ap ub l ic o ff i ce e ponymou s ly . T h i s w a s t h e o ff ice o f t h e p r ie s te s s o f A thena P o l ia s — a h e red i ta ry p o s i t ion r e s t r ic ted t o t h e m embe r s o f a n a n c ien t a r i s toc ra t ic f am i ly , t h e E teobou tada i . N a tu ra l ly , t h e h ead o ft h e A then ian s t a te w a s t h e r t c iwupog ä px c ov , b u t t h e s t r ic t ly r e l ig iou s c h ief o fs t a te w a s t h e p r ie s te s s o f t h e g odde s s . I ti si n te r e s t ing t o n o t ice t h a t , u n l ik e t h e n ame s o fm o s t A then ian m en 's f ema le r e la t ive s , t h en ame o f t h i s p r ie s te s s w ou ld b e g ene ra l ly k nown .2 5 O cca s iona l ly , t h e p r ie s te s s a ppea red t oe xe rc i se p o l i t ica l

A pa r t f r om t h e a bove n ega t ive c ha rac ter i s t ic s , m en c ou ld f i nd g ood q ua l i t ie s i n w omen , a s w e l l . T hu s A r i s to t le ( Po l i t ie s ) c an f i nd t h a t w omen , a sw e l l a sm en , c an h ave mo ra lv i r tue , a nd P la to ( Law s )r e comm end st h a t ' s of a ra s i ti sp o s s ib le , i ne duca t ion a nd e ve ry th ing e l se ,t h e f ema le s ex s hou ld b e o n t h e s am e f oo t ing a s t h e m a le . ' We c anno t r e a l ly s e e w he the r t h i s s ugge s t ion h ad a ny p rac t ica la pp l ica t ion i nA then ian s o c ie ty . M . L e fkow i tz a nd M . F an t h ave c o l lec ted a n umbe r o f p a s sage s u nde r t h e h ead ing o f ' p ra i se o f a ccomp l ished h uman r e p roduc t ion . S ee M . L e fkow i tz & M . F an t ( 1977 ) , f o r t e x t s o n f ema le p hy s io logy a nd f ema le d i sea se s . 1 6 P la to , T imaeus 9 1 . 1 7 H ippoc ra te s , Na ture o fW omen 9 8 . C f .A . H anson ( 1975 ) . 1 8 H ippoc ra te s ,D i sea se so fW omen I , 1 23 , 1 26 . 1 9 F .Z e i t l in ( 1990 ) ; i nJ .W ink le r -F .Z e i t l in . 2 0 E u r ip ide s ' H erak le s , 1 0 16 -27 .

2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5

1

M . L e fkow i tz & M . F an t , ( 1977 ) , p .1 0 E .g . C . Mo s si ( 1983) ,p . 1 53 . S ee P .C a r t ledge ( 1990 ) . S .B lunde l , ( 1995 ) ,p . 1 63 . P .C a r t ledge , ( 1993) ,p .9 3

p ow e r . I n 5 08 BC , w hen t h e S pa r tan k i ng a t temp ted t o m edd le i n A then ian p o l i t ic s b y o ppo s ing t h e p opu la r r e f o rme r K le i s thene s a nd a pp roa ched t h e s h r ine o f A thena , t h e p r ie s te s s r em inded h im t h a t i tw a s n o t l awf u l f o rD or ian s( i . e . f o r e igne r s )t oe n te r .2 6

t h e r e s t r ic t ion a nd s u rve i l lance o fu ppe r -c la s s2 9 f r eebor n f ema le c i t izen s b yt h e i rm a le r e la t ive s , w a s n o tp hy s ica l ly i mpo sed a nd d emanded , b u t r a the r s ugge s ted a nd e ncou raged b y am o ra l c ode t h a t c on s ide r ed a ny c on tac t b e tween w omen a nd s t range m a le s n o t o n ly u n seem ly a nd i mp rope rb u ta l so h i gh ly r e p rehen s ib le .3 °

P e rhap s w e s hou ld n o t r e ad t o o m uch i n to t h i s i n f o rma t ion . T he ' o cca s iona l ' p o l i t ica l a u tho r i ty o f t h e p r ie s te s s w a s a l so v e ry l im i ted , w h ich m ean s t h a t o the r a u tho r i t ie s c ou ld h ave e a s i ly m an ipu la ted h e r . A l though w e c anno t r u le o u t t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t s he m igh t h ave e n joyed c e r ta in p re roga t ive s , t h e m e re f a c t t h a t t h e p o s t w a s a cce s s ib le o n ly t o d e scendan t s o f a c e r ta in a r i s toc ra t ic f am i ly m ay i mp ly s ome a t temp ted c on t ro l o ve r t h e i n s t i tu t ion . H ow eve r , w e s hou ld n o t r u le o u t t h e a l te rna t ive h ypo the s i s — n am e ly , t h a t t h e re w a s n o n ece s sa ry l i nk b e tween ' c on t ro l ' a nd r e s t r ic t ion t o a r i s toc racy — b ecau se n ew ly c r ea ted p r ie s thood s w e r e e qua l ly h appy t o c hoo se ap r ie s te s s a tr a ndom f r om t h e w ho le b ody o fw omen c i t izen s , a sw i th t h e p r ie s thood o f A thena N ike i n5 t h -cen tu ry A then s .2 7 E ven s o o ne c ou ld a rgue t h a t p e rhap s s ome p r ie s thood s w e re m o re i n f luen t ia la nd t hu s mo r e s e lec t ive t h an o t he r s ,a l though i t s ound s l i ke a n i mp robab le a r gumen t . N eve r the le s s , i t w ou ld n o t b e d i ff icu l t t o a ccep t t h a t a ny k i nd o f p r ie s te s se s c ou ld b e c on t ro l led b ym a le s upe r io r s . E ven i n t h e c a se o f t h e r e f u sa l o f a cce s s t o K leom ene s , t h e d ec is ion i s u n l ike ly t o h ave c ome s t ra igh t f r om t h e p r ie s te s s . R e l ig ion h a rd ly e ve r d ec ided p o l i t ica l a c t ion s , b u t v e ry o f t en s anc t ioned p o l i t ica l d ec i s ion s t a ken b y m a le c i v i l a u tho r i t ie s . P e rhap s t h i s i sm o re c l ea r i n t h e s e cond c a se o fp o l i t ica l i n vo lvemen t o ft h e p r ie s te s s t h a t H e rodo tu s ( 8 . 4 1) r e la te s : t h e p r ie s te s s r e po r ted t h a t t h e s a c red s nake o f A thena h ad a l r eady d epa r ted f r om t h e A c ropo l i s , t h u s s uppo r t ing t h e d ec i s ion o f t h e p o l i t ica l a u tho r i t ie s t o e vacua te t h e c i ty b ef o re t h e b a t t le o f S a lam i si n4 08 BC . I ta ppea r s t h a t , a l though w om en d i d e n ro l i n h i e ra t ic r ank s , t h ep owe r st h a tt h ey h e ld w e re s upe rf i c ia la nd n on d i srup t ive o f t h e e s tab l i shed m a le i d eo logy . A s R . O sbor n e ( 1993 ) w r i te s , ' c apac i ty t oh o ld ap r ie s thood i s n o t h omo logou s w i th p o l i t ica l c apac i ty e ven i n c a se s w he re t h ep r ie s thood s t and s f o rt h ep ol s ' .

S o , r e l ig iou s f e s t iva l s , e ven i fn o t t h e s o le c hance f o r w omen t o g o o u t o f t h e o i kos d oma in , w e re s t i l l a n i mpor tan ta spec t o fs oc ia l l i f e . T he T he smophor ia a nd t h e Ha loa , t wo o f A then s ' m o s t i mpor tan t f e s t iva l s , w e r e e xc lu s ive ly f ema le c e leb ra t ion s , a nd s exua l s eg rega t ion w a s o ft h e i r e s sence . A s M . D e t ienne p o in t s o u t , a tt h e e nd o ft h e f i f th c en tu ry BC , aw oman 's p a r t ic ipa t ion i n t h e f e s t iva l o ft h e T he smophor ia w a s al e ga l ly v a l id p roof t h a t s he w a s l e g i t ima te ly m a r r ied t o a n A then ian c i t izen i nf u l l p o s se s s ion o fh i s p o l i t ica l r i gh t s .3 I F ema le s l ave s , t h e w ive s o fm e t ics a nd f o r e igne r s , a nd c oncub ine s a nd c ou r te san s , w e re a l l e xc luded f r om t h e f e s t iva l .3 2 I n t h e m ea su red v ocabu la ry o f t h e o ra to r s , t h e w oman w ho a t tend s t h e T he smophor ia h a s t wo q ua l i t ie s : s he i s a c i t izen ,ä o-r t i , a nd i sl awf u l ly m a r r ied , 6 iyur r r t i , ( I saeu s 8 . 1 9 -20 ; 3 .8 0 ) . A s D e t ienne s ay s : ' Dem e te rT he smophoru s r e c ru i t s h e r f a i thf u l f r om a mong t h e e l em en t s o f t h e f ema le p opu la t ion w ho a r e c onnec ted m o s t i n t ima te ly w i th t h ea f f a i r so ft h e c i ty ,b yb i r th a nd b ym a r r iage . '3 T he T he smophor ia w a s af e s t iva l i nh onou r o fD em e te r T he smopho ru s , c ommon t o a l l G r eek s , r egu la r ly c e leb ra ted i na u tumn . I tt o ok p l ace o n t h e 11 t h 13 th o f P yanop s ion ( Oc t . /Nov . ) . T he w omen e r ec ted b ow e r s w i th

I ts e em s t h a t w omen b e long ing t o c l a s se s o t he r t h an t h e r e spec ted a r i s toc ra cy w e r en o ts or e s t r ic ted . A sE h renbe rg n o ted ( 1974 , p . 1 50 ) , m e t ic s a nd f o r e igne r s w e r e g r ea t ly i n vo lved i n A then s ' t r ade , a nd i ti st hu sd if i cu l tt ok now h ow m any o ft h e se w omen w e r e n on -A then ian s . A l so , A r i s tophane s p re sen t s u s w i th n ume rou s i n d ica t ion s t h a t t h e w ive s a nd d augh te r s o f A then ian c i t izen s w e re i n vo lved i n t r ade ( Ly s i s t r . 4 56 -458 , T he sm . 4 46f f . ) C f S .B lunde l l ( 1 995 ) ,p p . 1 35 -39 . 3 0 S ome t ime s e ven m a le r e la t ive s t hough t i tb e s t t ok eep t h e i r d i s tance f r om t h e i rw omenf o lk . 2 9

H ea r ing t h a tt h eb oy w a s a t my h ou se , h e c ame t h e r e a tn igh ti n ad runken s t a te , b roke d own m yd oo r s a nd e n te r ed t h ew omen 's r oom s . W i th in w e re my s i s te ra nd my n i ece sw ho h ad l i ved s u ch w e l l -o rde r ed l i ve s t h a t t h ey w e re e mba r ra s sed t ob e s e en e ven b y t h e i r r e la t ive s . T h is m an , t h en , c a r r ied i n so lence t o s uch a p i tch t h a t h e r e f u sed t og o a way u n t i l t h e p eop le w ho a ppea red o n t h e s po ta nd t h o se w ho h ad a ccompan ied h im , t h ink ing i ta n a wf u l t h ing t o i n t rude o n y oung v i rg in s , c a r r ied h im o f b y f o r ce . ( Ly s ia s , 3 .6 -7 )

F e s t iva l s Women d i d n o t n eed t o b ecome p r ie s te s se s i n o rde r t o p a r t ic ipa te i n r e l ig ion . R e l ig iou s f e s t iva l s w e re a no the r o ppor tun i ty f o r w omen t o p a r t ic ipa te mo r e o pen ly a nd d i rec t ly i n t h e l i f e o f t h e c ommun i ty a nd t o e s cape t empo ra r i ly f r om t h e i r d ome s t ic c onf inemen t . R . J u s t ( 1989 ) p r e sen t s u s w i th a c onv inc ing a ccoun t o f t h e p o ten t ia l p rob lem r e ga rd ing t h e n a tu r e o f t h e i r ' r e s t r ic t ion ' a nd s e c lu s ion i nt h e o i ko s .2 8 I ta ppea r s t h a t

T h is p a s sage d oe s n o t r e a l ly m ean t h a t w omen w e re p e rmanen t ly l o cked u pi nt h ew omen 's q ua r te r s ;b u tt h ef a c tt h a t t h i s i n c iden t i sr e po r ted i n ac ou r tc a se , i no rde rt oa r ou se m o ra l i nd igna t ion , s ugge s t s t h e a s sump t ion s a bou t e xpec ted , c u s toma ry b ehav io rt h a tu nde r l ie i t . 3 1 M . D e t ienne ( 1977 ) ,p .7 8 . 3 2 A r i s tophane s T he smophor ia zu sae 2 93 -94 ; I s aeu s6 .4 9 -50 , o n e xc lu s ion o fs l ave s ;L y s ia s 1 .1 9o nc ou r te san s . 3 M . D e t ienne ( 1979 ) ,p .1 37 .

H e rodo t . 5 .7 2 J .S che id ( 1992 ) ; i nS chm i t t -Pan te l ( 1992 ) . O n t h e s e lec t ion o ft h e p r ie s te s s f r om a mong a l w omen s e e I G , 1 22 4 , c i ted b y M . D e t ienne i nG . S i s sa a nd M . D e t ienne ( 1989 ) ,p .2 40 . 2 8 O n t h e ' a nonym i ty ' o ff ema le s , s e e T hucyd ide s 2 .4 5 . 2 ;a l so D . S chap s , 1 979 . 2 6

2 7

1 2

p a r t ic ipa t ion o f h e ta ira i , p robab ly a s r e p re sen ta t ive s o f a bundan t s ex . T he a b sence o f m en f r om t h e se t wo f e s t iva l s h i gh l igh t s t h e b e l ief t h a t f e r t i l i ty w a s ac oncep t a s soc ia ted mo r e w i th w omen t h an w i th m en . N ever the le s s , e ven d u r ing t h e se t wo f e s t iva l s w omen a r e n o t l e f tt ot h e i r own d ev ice s . T he p r e sence o ft h e a r chon s — i re spec t ive o f t h e i r s ymbo l ic ( o r n o t ) f unc t ion — r em ind s u s o f t h e m a le d e s i re t o s upe rv i se a ny f ema le a c t iv i t ie s .

c ouche s o fp l an t s ( ac e r ta in t y pe o fw i l low c a l led t i yvög , ' p u re ' ) a nd s a t o n t h em . T h ey a l so t ook o n t h e r i tua l n ame o f O uc rc ra t , ' b ee s ' . W i th in G reek t r ad i t ion t h i s t y pe o f w i l low w a s h e ld t o p o s se s s a n t i -aph rod i s ia c q ua l i t ie s , w h i le b ee s , t h e v e ry mode l o fd ome s t ic v i r tue ( a nd p r ec i se ly t h e o ne t h a t I s chomacho s p ropo se s f o r h i s y oung w if e i nt h e O econom icu s ) , w e re n o tab le n o t o n ly f o rt h e i ri n du s t ry , b u t a l so f o rt h e a s exua l m anne ro ft h e i r r e p roduc t ion .3 4 T he s e cond d ay w a s af e a s t . T he n ame o f t h e t h i rd d ay , K a l l igene ia , h i n t s a t t h e f e cund i ty o f m ank ind a l so , b u tt h e c h ief p u rpo se o ft h e f e s t iva l w a s t o p romo te t h e f e r t i l i ty o ft h e c o rn , w h ich w a s a bou t t ob e s own . A ga in i ts hou ld b en o ted t h a tw omen h ave t h em a in r o le i nt h e w o r sh ip o f af ema le d i v in i ty a nd t h ey p re s ide i n af e s t iva l o ff e r t i l i ty , an o t ion n a tu ra l ly a s soc ia ted w i th w omen . V e rnan t s a id t h a t ' t h rough t h e f i gu r e o fD eme te r , w oman 's m a r i ta l f e r t i l i ty a nd h e r m a r i ta l c ha s t i ty w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e c u l t iva t ion o f t h e p l an t s a nd c r op s , w i th c u l tu re a s o ppo sed t o n a tu re . '3 5 T he w om en w e re p r epa r ing t h em se lve s f o r t h i s c e leb ra t ion b y a b s ta in ing f r om s exua l e ncoun te r s f o r a f ew d ay s b ef o r e t h e f e s t iva l .3 6 A s t h e f e s t iva l 's m a in p a r t ic ipan t s w e r e m a r r ied w omen , w e c an i mag in e t h a t t h i s c u s tom d id n o t t ob e o b se rved b yu nma r r ied g i r l s ,w ho w e re n o te xpec ted t o h ave s exua l c on tac t s a nyway . A p ar thenos i s n o t p e rm i t ted t o w a t ch t h e c e r emon ie s u n t i l — a s C a l l ima chu s p u t s i t— ah u sband h a s c om e t o h e r t o a ch ieve n up t ia l u n ion .3 7 T he o n ly o the r c a tego ry o f w om en w ho c ou ld e n joy s ex o u t s ide m a r r iage c on s i s ted o f t h e h e ta ira i ; b u t h e ta i ra i w e re n o t a l low ed t o p a r t ic ipa te a tt h e f e s t iva l . I ti s , i n deed , t h i s e xc lu s ion o f c e r ta in c a tego r ie s t h a t r e vea l s t h e p o l i t ica l p rof i le o f w om en a tt h e T he smophor ia .

T he g odde s s D em e te r c an b e s e en a s t h e i mage o f t h e d ome s t ica ted s exua l i ty o f w om en a s o ppo sed t o t h e ' e ro t ic e xce s s ' o f A ph rod i te . T he r i tua l o ppo s i t ion b e tween t h e t wo i s s t ud ied b y M . D e t ienne i n t h e ' Gard en s o f Ad on i s ' . T he T he smophor ia i s c on t ra s ted w i th t h e Ad on ia , i nh onou r o fA ph rod i te 's l o ve r , A don i s . D e t ienne c a l l s i t ' a n e xo t ic f e s t iva l t o le ra ted b y t h e A then ian c i ty o n t h e p e r iphe ry o f t h e o ff ic ia l c u l t s a nd p ub l ic c e remon ie s , ap r iva te a f f a i r '4 °.I n c on t ra s t t o t h e T he smophor ia , t h e Ad on ia w e re c e leb ra ted p r inc ipa l ly b y p ro s t i tu te s , c ou r te san s a nd t h e i r l o ve r s . No c u s tom s d emanded s exua l a b s t inence a s p r epa ra t ion f o r t h e f e s t iva l . T he Ad on ia w e re m a rked b y s exua l l i cence a nd r eve l ry . H oweve r , t h e Ad on ia a l so a r e s omehow a s soc ia ted w i th t h e n o t ion o f f e r t i l i ty . O ne o f t h e f e s t iva l 's r i tua l c u s tom s i st h e p l an t ing o fc e rea l s i ns ma l l p o t s , w h ich w e re p l aced o n t h e r oof top s o f h ou se s . E xpo sed t o t h e i n ten se h ea t o f s umme r , t h e se p l an t s i mm ed ia te ly s p rou ted , o n ly t o w i the r w i th in a f ew d ay s a nd d i e . T he p l an t s o fA ph rod i te a nd h e rl o ve rA don i s a r e u l t ima te ly s t e r i le , a nd b e tw een t h e T he smophor ia a nd t h e Ad on ia t h e re i s t h u s n o t o n ly a c on t ra s t b e tween l e g i t ima te w ive s a nd p ro s t i tu te s . I n t e rm s o f w ha t D e t ienne c a l l s t h e ' v ege tab le c ode ' , t h e re i s a l so a c on t ra s t b e tw een t h e f e r t i l i ty a nd g row th o f c r op s p re s ided o ve r b y D eme te r , a nd t h e p recoc iou s s p rou t ing a nd w i ther ing a way o f t h e p l an t s o f A ph rod i te a nd A don i s . I nr i tua l t h e o ve r -eva lua t ion o fs exua l i ty a nd t h e e r o t ic i sc oup led n o tw i th f e cund i ty ,b u tw i th b a r renne s s .

H oweve r , h e ta ira i w e re a l low ed t o p a r t ic ipa te a t t h e Ha loa . T he Ha loa w e re c e leb ra ted d u r ing t h e mon th P ose ida ion ( Decembe r ) .3 8 T h e i r p u rpo se w a s t o p ro tec t t h e c o rn s e ed t h a t h a s a l r eady f l ou r i shed . Men a r e e xc luded , a ga in , f r om t h e se c e leb ra t ion s , a l though t h e m a le r e p roduc t ive o rgan , t h e ( p aÄög , h a s ac en t ra l r o le i n t h e r i tua l s .3 9 T he o n ly m a le p r e sence h e r e i sr e p re sen ted b ys om e ` a r chon s ' ,w ho se t a sk i st os uperv i se t h er i tua l s .

T he g r ea te s t r e l ig iou s c e leb ra t ion o f A then s w a s t h e P ana thena ia , c e leb ra ted a nnua l ly o n t h e b i r thday o f A thena , a nd q uad renn ia l ly w i th g r ea te r m agn if i cence . E ve ry f ou r th y ea r an ew nü tÄoq , w a s w oven b y w omen a nd o f f e red t o t h e s t a tue o f A thena . T he w eav ing w a s

I ti sv e ry i n te re s t ing t oo b se rve t h e s ymbo l i sm d r ama t i sed i nt h e se t wo f e s t iva l s . T he T he smophor ia i n voke f e r t i l i ty f o r s e ed u np lan ted a nd t h ey d emand w o r sh ip b y m a r r ied w omen , w ho a b s ta in f r om s ex . P r e sumab ly , t h e — s uppo sed ly — e s tab l i shed f e r t i l i ty o fm a r r ied w om en i s o f i mpo r tance h e re . R ep re sen ta t ive s exua l l i be ra t ion i s e s sen t ia l , t h ough , f o r t h e f l ou r i sh ing o ft h e s e ed , d u r ing t h e Ha loa — h en ce t h e u se o f t h e p ha los a nd t h e

b egun b yt wo o ft h e a ppnqx 5po t ,w ho w e re g i r l s b e tween t h e a ge s o fs even a nd e l even c ho sen b y t h e k i ng a rchon t o p e rf o rm a v a r ie ty o f r e l ig iou s f unc t ion s f o r ay ea r .4 I F rom t h e r e l ig iou s v i ewpo in t , t h e e s sen t ia l f e a tu re o ft h e f e s t iva l w a s t h e s a cr if i c ia l o f f e r ing o f a n ima l s . Women p a r t ic ipa ted i n ap roce s s ion b r ing ing t h e n ew r tf t rAog t o t h e s t a tue o ft h e p a t ron -de i ty o fA then s . T he re w e re n o t o n ly w omen i nt h e p roce s s ion .4 2 B u t t h ey c er ta in ly s t ood o u t a l so a s k av rpöpo t , ` b a sk e t -bea re r s ' , c a r ry ing s a c red g if t s t o t h e G odde s s . F o r a g i r l t o b e c hosen a s

S .P ome roy ( 1975 ) ,p .4 9 . J . -P . V e rnan t( 1982 ) ,p .1 39 . 3 6 T heodo re to s oK y rou , T herapeu t ik e ,X 1 1 ,7 3 . 3 7 F r . 6 3 P f e if f e r . A l so L uc ian ,D ia logo i Me re t r ic i i2 . 1 . 3 8 T he n ame Ha loa d e r ive s f r om t h e w o rd h a lo s , w h ich m ean s ' u ncu l t iva ted f i e ld ' . 3 9 O n ap e l ike k ep ti nL ondon , aw oman p ou r ss ome k i nd o fd u s t f r om ab ox , o ve r s ome c l ay p ha l lu se s p l an ted i nt h e e a r th l i ke c or n -ap robab le d ep ic t ion o fr i tua l sh e ld d u r ing t h e Ha loa . 3 4 3 5

M . D e t ienne ( 1 977 ) ,p .6 5 . F o rt h ea ge o ft h eg i r ls , s e e S ou rv inou Inwood ( 1988 ) . 4 2 T he P a r thenon f r ieze d ep ic t s w omen i n t h i s p roce s s ion m ing l ing w i th m en . 4 0 4 1

1 3

Kavr icp6pog i nt h ep roce s s ion w a st h eg r ea te s th onou rt h a t c ou ld b e b e s towed o n h e r .4 3 T he K av r iv ipo t w e re s e lec ted f r om n ob le f am i l ie s , a nd t h ey w e re v i rg in s . T he i r v i rg in i ty w a s ap o ten t f a c to r i n s e cu r ing t h e p rop i t iou s u se o f t h e s a c red o f f e r ing s a nd s a c r if ic ia l i n s t rumen t s c a r r ied i n t h e i r b a ske t s . T o p r even t ac and ida te f r om p a r t ic ipa t ing i nt h i s e ven t w a s t o c a s t a spe r s ion s o n h e r r epu ta t ion . H igh o n t h e l i s to fw omen a r ound w hom — a s p a s s ive a nd u nw i t t ing o b jec t s o fi n su l t s t ob e a venged — p lo t s o fv engeance w e re w oven f o r r e a son s o fh onou r , i s t h e s i s te r o f H a rmod iu s . T he s on s o f t h e t y ran t P e i s i s t ra tu s f i r s ti n v i ted h e rt ob e ab a ske t -bea re ra nd t h en r e jec ted h e r , c l a im ing s he w a s u n su i tab le . T h i s i n su l t t o h i s s i s te rp rovoked H a rmod iu sa nd h i s f r iend A r i s toge i ton t o a s sa s s ina te H ippa r chu s i n 5 14 BC , e a rn ing t h e r epu ta t ion o fl i be ra to r s o fA then s ."

F ina l ly , t h e A n the s ter ia w a s c e leb ra ted o f t h e 11 t h o f A n the s ter ion i nh onou ro fD iony su s . O nt h es e cond d ay , a p roce s s ion o f B acchae , Maenad s a nd Nymph s f o l lowed b y S a ty r s m a rched t h rough t h e c i ty . I n t h e c en t re o ft h e p roce s s ion w a s t h e 1 3 ao l f \ ic roa , l e d t o t h e t emp le t o ' ma r ry ' s ymbo l ica l ly t h e g od . Af t e r t h e r i tua l s he s pen t t h e w ho le n i gh t i nt h e t emp le . O n t h e f i na l d ay , f ou r teen w om en , c ho sen f r om t h e b e s t f am i l ie s o f t h e c i ty , t h e s ame o ne s f r om t h e p roce s s ion w ho e s co r ted t h e 1 3 a sa iX t am t o t h e t emp le , o f f e red s a c r if i ce s i n t h e c ou r tya rd o fL ena io s . T h i s b r ief r ev iew o f w omen 's a t tendance a t r e l ig iou s f e s t iva l s r evea l s , f i r s t o fa l l , h ow s t a te -dom ina ted t h e se f e s t iva l s w e re . I ti si mpor tan t t on o t ice h ow a l o ft h e se f e s t iva l s a r e c oncer n ed w i th f ema le d i v in i t ie s a nd , mo s t o f a l l , w i th t h e c oncep t s o f f e r t i l i ty a nd c ha s t i ty . ( The p r eoccupa t ion o f m en w i th f ema le c ha s t i ty w i l l b e d i scu s sed i n t h e p a r t o f t h e e s say t h a t d ea l s w i th m a r r iage ) . T he r ef o re , w omen h ave c en t ra l r o le s i n t h e w o r sh ip o f d ome s t ica ted , f e r t i l i ty g odde s se s , l i ke D em e te r . E ven t h e Ad on ia , s t re s se s t h e f u t i l i ty o f s exua l i ty o u t s ide m a r r iage ; a nd t h e a b sence o f p ub l ic f e s t iva l s i nh onou r o fA r tem i s , w ho s t and s f o r a b s t inence f r om m a r r iage , s how s t h a t m a r r iage w a s a n i n s t i tu t ion p romo ted b yt h er e l ig iou sf e s t iva l s .4 5

k now t h a t m o ra l n o t ion s c ame t ob e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e My s te r ie s , a nd r i gh teou sne s s a nd g en t lene s s w e re a dded t o r i tua l p u r i ty . T h e c h ief p r ie s t , t h e i e po c päv r t ig , mo s t e xa l ted o fa l A then ian p r ie s t s , w a s aE umo lp id a nd h e ld o ff i ce f o r l i f e . T he re w e r e a dd i t iona l m a le o ff ic ia l s , a mong w hom t h e ö aöoüxog , o rt o rchbea r e r , w a s n ex t i n i mpo r tance a f te r t h e i s po c päv-r ng . H e w a s a s s i s ted b y a p r ie s te s s c a l led t h eb abouxoüaa . O the rf ema le c e leb ran t s i n c luded t wo p r ie s te s se s k nown a s i s po ( pav r iös, a l so E umo lp ida i , w ho h e ld o ff i ce f o r l i f e a nd c ou ld b e m a r r ied . O ne i s po ( pav r ig s e rved D eme te r , t h e o t he r K o r e , a nd b o th w e re t h e m a in a s s i s tan t s o f t h e i s po v av-rN .

A

g roup

o f

p r ie s te s se s

r t avaysi

( s ac ro san c t ) , a l so k nown a s i eÄ t a mL ( b ee s ) , l i ved t o ge the r i ns eg r ega ted d we l l ing s a nd h ad n o c on tac tw i th m en . T he i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e p r ie s te s se s i s e x t rem e ly i n te re s t ing . T he p a t ter no ft h e v i rg in -p r ie s te s s , w h ich h a s a l ready b een s e en i n o t he r c u l t s , i s r e pea ted h e re . H oweve r t h e n o tab le e xcep t ion o f t h e h i gh -p r ie s te s se s , w ho a r e a l low ed t om a r ry , i su nu sua l a nd f a sc ina t ing . We s hou ld n o to v e r look t h e f a c t , t h ough , t h a tt h ep o s ti so pen o n ly t om embe r s o ft h e f am i ly o fE umo lp ida i , w h ich , a s h a s a l ready b een a r gued , s ugge s t s a t temp ted c on t ro l o f t h e i n s t i tu t ion . I ti s u nf o r tuna te t h a t w e l a ck d e ta i led e v idence a nd i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e f un c t ion s o f t h e se p r ie s te s se s .4 6 D emo s thene s ' s p eech ' Aga in s tN ea ira ' , p rov ide s u s w i th s ome i n te re s t ing d e ta i l s a bou t w omen 's p a r t ic ipa t ion i n s u ch c u l t s : L y s ia s , t h e p rof e s so r o f r h e to r ic , w a s t h e l o ve r o f Me tane i ra . H e d ec ided t h a t i n a dd i t ion t o t h e o t he r e xpen se s h e h ad i n cu r r ed f o r h e r , h e w ou ld l i ke t o g e t h e r i n i t ia t ed . H e t h ough t t h a t t h e r e s t o f h i s e xpend i tu re w en t t o h e r o wne r , b u t w ha teve r h e s pen t o n h e r o ve r t h e f e s t iva l a nd i n i t ia t ion c e r emony w ou ld b e ap re sen t f o r t h e g i r l h e r se lf . H e , t h e ref o r e , a sked N ika r e te t o c ome t o t h e My s t e r ie s a nd b r ing Me tane i ra s o t h a t s he c ou ld b e i n i t ia t ed a nd p rom ised t o i n s t ruc t h e r h im se lf i nt h e My s te r ie s .4 7

My s ter ie s Wom en a l so b ecame i n i t ia ted i n to t h e my s te ry c u l t s . T he mo s t f amou s w e re t h e E leu s in ian My s te r ie s . T hey b egan a sa n a g ra r ian c u l t , p e rhap s o r ig ina t ing i nt h e Mycenean a ge , a nd c e leb ra ted i n B oed rom ion ( Sep t . /Oc t . ) , o n t h e o cca s ion o ft h e s ow ing . Af t e r t h e u n ion o fE l eu s i s w i th A then s , s ome t ime b ef o re 6 00 BC , t h e A then ian s t a te t o ok c ha rge o ft h e My s ter ie s . I ns p i te o fm any i n gen iou s h ypo the se s , t h e m a in r i t e s a r e u nknown . G ene ra l ly , w e

I n t h i s c a se , t h e w oman c oncer n ed i s as l ave a nd a p ro s t i tu te , w h ich s how s t h a t t h e My s te r ie s w e r e o pen t o a l l , m en a nd w omen , m a s te r s a nd s l ave s .4 8 I n f a c t , a l l w omen , m en , c h i ld r en a nd s l ave s o f G reek s peech , u n ta in ted b yh om ic ide , w e re e l ig ib le f o ri n i t ia t ion i n to t h e My s te r ie s . F rom t h e a bove e x t rac t i ts e em s a s i f am a le i n i t ia to r o f aw oman h a s t op rov ide f o r c e r ta in e xpen se s . T h i s m ean s t h a t w omen w ou ld h ave t or e ly o n t h e i rm a le

A r i s t .L y s i s t ra ta , 6 4 1f f . T huc . 6 .5 6 -6 8 ;A r i s to t . C on s t . A then s 1 8 . 4 5 I n f a c t , A r tem i s s uppo r t s v i rg in i ty a nd c ha s t i ty , b u t o u t s ide t h ep o l i s , i nn a tu r e . S h e i st hu s s t r ic t ly o ppo sed t ot h en o t ion o f d om e s t ic c ha s t i ty o fw ive s , w ho , n eve r the le s s , r e p re sen tf e r t i l i ty a l so ,a nd t h ey a r eb e t te rr e p re sen ted b yD eme te r . 4 3

4 4

S om es ugge s t ion i nS .P ome roy ( 1975 ) ,p .7 7 . D emo s th . 5 9 ,2 1 . 4 8 I .L ew i s ( 1 97 1 ,p . 1 0 1) b e l ieve st h a tt h ec u l to fD iony su sw a s e qua l ly o pen t oa l c l a s se sa nd s oc ia lc a tegor ie s . 4 6 4 7

1 4

A t t ic r e d -f igu r el e kan i sb yt h eE leu s in ian P a in te r . S t . P e te r sbu rg ,H e rm i tage S t . 1 79 1 . Wedd ing p repa ra t ion si n c lud ing w omen m ak ing c ake s( p ic tu re f r om O ak ley & S ino s , 1 993 ,p .7 6 ) .

r e la t ive s , a tl e a s tt oc ove rt h e i n i t ia t ion f e e s . We w ou ld b e r i gh t t o w onde r h e r e h ow f e a s ib le t h e i n i t ia t ion o fp oo r p eop le a nd s l ave s w a s , i ft h e re w a s s ome f e e , u n le s s i t w a s av e ry s ma l l f e e . B u t i ft h e f e e w a s s ma l l , t h i s d oe s n o te xp la in t h e ' g ene ro s i ty ' o fL y s ia s .

t h e h ou se a nd h ead o ft h e h ou seho ld s hou ld b e c ha s te a nd u n touched i na l lr e spec t s .5 ° H oweve r , e a r l ie r i n t ime , a nd t h u s c l o se r t o t h e p e r iod t h a t i s o f i n te r e s t t o u s , t h e f r eedom o f w omen t o p a r t ic ipa te i n s u ch c u l t s w a s n o t c r i t ic i sed , a nd m a le s e ven p a id a t ten t ion t o t h e n eed s o f w om en f o r t h e e xecu t ion o ft h e i rr i te s : D emophon t o P to lemaeu s , g r ee t ing s . S end u s a t y ou r e a r l ie s t o ppo r tun i ty t h e f l u t i s t P e toun w i th t h e P h ryg ian f l u te s . I f i ti s n ece s sa ry t o p ay h im , d o s o , a nd w e w i l l r e imbu r se y ou . A l so s end u s Z enob iu s w i th t h e s of td rum s , c ymba l s , a nd c a s tane t s . T he w omen n eed t h em f o rt h e i rf e s t iva l . B e s u r e h e i sw ea r ing h i s mo s te l egan t c l o th ing . G e t t h e s pec ia l g oa t f r om A r i s t ion a nd s end i tt o u s . . .S end u s a l so a s m any ( d re s se s? ) a s y ou c an , an ew j ug , a nd v ege tab le s o f a l k i nd s , a nd m ea t i fy ou h ave i t .T h row i n s ome P o l icemen a t t h e s ame t ime t o a ccompany t h eb oa t .5 1

Wom en w e re d rawn t o s u ch c u l t s p e rhap s b ecau se t h e s e c luded a nd my s t ic f o rma t a l lowed t h em a c e r ta in a moun to f' f reedom ' f r om m a le s u rve i l lance a nd af e e l ing o f ' own ing ' , o f k eep ing s ome th ing p r iva te — s i nce n o u n in i t ia ted p e r son w a s e ve r a low ed t o k now w ha t w a s t a k ing p l a ce d u r ing t h e r i tua l g a the r ing s o f s u ch c u l t s . N o t e ven am a le r e la t ive c ou ld f o rce h i s f ema le r e la t ive s t o r e vea l a ny th ing t o h im , i f h e w a s u n in i t ia ted . S uch p r iv i lege s mu s t h ave c au sed a nx ie ty t o m a le a u tho r i t ie s , w h ich c ou ld n o tl o se t h e i mmed ia te c on t ro l o ft h e i rw ive s a nd d augh te r s . A , ? e a t i se a t t r ibu ted t o am embe r o f t h e P y thago rean c ommun it y i n I t a ly , i n t h e 3 rd a nd 2 nd c en tu r ie s BC , r e vea l s a n a t temp t t o r e s to re t h e o rde r o f f ema le s u rve i l lan ce t h a t h ad , p r e sumab ly , b een a l a rm ing ly s haken : T hey o f f e r p raye r s a ts a c r if i ce t o t h e g od s a l so ,t ot h eb e s to ft h e i ra b i l i t ie s . T hey k eep a way f r om s e c re t c u l t s a nd C ybe l ine o rg ie s i n t h e i r h om e s . F o r , p ub l ic l aw p reven t s w omen f r om p a r t ic ipa t ing i n t h e se r i t e s , p a r t icu la r ly b ecau se t h e r i t e s e ncou rage d runkenne s s a nd e c s ta sy .4 9 T he m i s t re s s o f

Why s u ch s pec ia l c a re t op rov ide t h e w omen w i th a l l t h e e qu ipmen t t h ey n eed f o r t h e i r D iony s ia c r i t e s? T he re a r e t wo w ay s t oa n swe rt h i s . T he f i r s t i st h a t , s i nce t h e c u l t o f D iony su s h ad b een e s tab l i shed , t h e r i gh t o f w omen t o p rac t i se h i s r i t e s c ou ld n o t b e d en ied ; h ow eve r , s i nce w omen d i d n o t h ave t h e t ime o r f r eedom t o a r range d e ta i l s a st h o se m en t ioned i nt h e a bove p a s sage , t h e t a sk

C f . t h e A then ian l aw a ga ins t e xce s s ive mour n ing a nd t h e p ub l ic r e ac t ion t oD iony s iac r i tua l s , a l though much l a te r( C IL ,I , 5 8 1 ; 1 86 BC ) . 4 9

5 ° 5 1

1 5

H . T he s lef f( 1965 ) ,p p . 1 5 1154 . H ibeh P apy ru s 5 4 ; A nky ron ,E gyp t , c a2 45 BC .

w a s l ef t t om en , w ho h ad t h e t ime , t h e c on tac t s a nd t h e f i nanc ia l m ean s . T he s e cond p o s s ib le a n sw e r i st h a t , b y m ak ing t h e n ece s sa ry a r rangemen t s f o r s u ch r i t e s , m en c ou ld h ave a c e r ta in l e ve l o f c on t ro l . P r e sumab ly , t h ey d id n o tp a r t ic ipa te i nt h e se r i t e s— a sw ec an d educe f r om t h e p a s sage a nd a l so f r om l i t e ra tu re s uch a st h e B acchae o f E u r ip ide s . B u t , b y m ak ing s u re t h a t t h ey k new who a ccompan ied t h e w omen d u r ing t h e se r i t e s , t h ey f e l t t h a t t h ey h ad ( o r t h ey a c tua l ly d i d h ave ) s ome c on t ro l o ve r t h em .

a b le t o p roduce c h i ld ren , t h e i r h u sband s h ad a v a l id r e a son t od i vo r ce t h em .5 4 T he r i tua l o f aw edd ing i sd e sc r ibed b yF l a ce l ie r e ( 1969 ) . I ts e em s t h a t e ven o n t h i s i mpo r tan t o cca s ion f o r t h e w oman , e ve ry th ing a l lude s t o t h e f u tu r e r o le t h a t s he mu s t a dop t . D u r ing t h e w edd ing p roce s s ion , w he re t h e b r ide i sd r iven t ot h eh ou se o ft h e g room o n ac ha r io t , s he h o ld s as i eve a nd a g r id , s i gn s o f ' d ome s t ic i ty ' t h a t r em ind h e r , i n aw ay , a bou t h e r r o le i n t h e h ou seho ld . ( Xenophon 's O econom icu s g i ve s u s o ne i d ea o fw ha t i s e xpec ted f r om ag ood w if e ) . When t h eb r id e c ome si nt h e n ew h ou se , t h e mo the r a nd f a the r o f t h e g r oom p ou r w a lnu t s a nd d r ied f i g s o ve r h e r h ead , s i gn s o ft h e ' swee t n ew l i f e ' a nd h ope t h a t s h e w i l l b r ing p ro spe r i ty t o t h e h ou seho ld . I ti si n te r e s t ing t or em embe r h e re t h a t e xac t ly t h e s ame r i tua l ( Ka-r d lOwc w ) t a ke s p l a ce w hen a n ew s l ave e n te r s t h e h ou se .5 O ne w ou ld n o t b e u n ju s t if ied i n a s sum ing t h a t t h e p o s i t ion s o f aw if e a nd a s l ave i nt h e h ou seho ld w e re s im i la r i n t h i s a spec t : t h ey w e re b o th m ean s o f p re se rv ing a nd e n su r ing t h e p ro spe r i ty a nd c on t inu i ty o ft h e o i kos . T he r e i sa l so ap a ra l le l i sm w i th t h e i n duc t ion c e remon ie s f o r c h i ld r en i n to t h e n ew h ome . T he K a-r äK i tuc r i aa t a ke s p l ace w h i le t h e w if e i sl e d r ound t h e f am i l ia l h ea r th , r a the r a s an ew -bo rn w a s c a r r ied i n t h e Amph id rom ia c e r emony . S o , t h rough t h e se p a ra l le l i sm s w i th c e remon ie s f o r s l ave s a nd c h i ld r en i t w a s a l so t h e w if e 's l e ga l a nd p o l i t ica l i n f er io r i ty t o h e r h u sband t h a tw a sb e ing r i tua l ly e nac ted .

I n g ene ra l , i ta ppea r s t h a t w omen w ho p a r t ic ipa ted i n my s t ic c u l t s d i d e n joy c e r ta in p re roga t ive s a nd ad eg r ee o fi n dependence . H ow eve r , Im a in ta in as t rong d oub t a s t o t h e i n i t ia t ion o f u ppe r -c la s s 5 t h c en tu ry w omen i n to s uch c u l t s . I t mu s t h ave b een d i ff icu l t f o rt h em t oe s cape t h e c l o se o b serva t ion b yt h e i rm a le r e la t ive st h a th a s b een e v iden t , s of a r . Wedd ing s S ome e ven t s i nt h e l i f e o fa nA then ian w oman w e r e— a s t h ey a r e t oday — a s soc ia ted b o th w i th r e l ig ion a nd w i th s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s . T he se e ven t s w e re w edd ing sa nd f une ra l s . Menande r , i nt h e E p i t r epon te s ( l ine 4 90 ) , c a l l s m a r r iage a n ä vayKaiov K aKöv , ' n ece s sa ry i l ' , p robab ly m ean ing t h a t , a l though m a r r iage i sn o t s ome th ing d e s i rab le , i ti s n ece s sa ry f o r t h e e x i s tence o f s o c ie ty a nd t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f s oc ia l o rde r . F u s te l d e C ou lange s ( 1955 ) , s ugge s t s t h a t t h e b a s ic l o g ic o f m a r r iage i s r e l ig iou s . T h i s i sb a sed o n t h e i mpo r tance o ft h e n ä-r p t c t , t h e a nce s t ra l f am i ly c u l t s a nd a l so o n t h e i mpo r tan ce g i ven t o a n a pp ropr ia te f une ra l . A p e r son s hou ld b e b u r ied b y h i s c h i ld ren , w ho w ou ld a l so c on t inue t o p re serve t h e f am i ly c u l t . T h i s w a s a l so b e l ieved t o p romo te t h e w e l l -be ing o f t h e d ead i n t h e a f t e r l if e . A cco rd ing t o ac ha rac te r i nP la to , t h e i d ea l o fe ve ry m an i s' t o b e r i ch a nd h ea l thy a nd h onou red b yt h e G reek s , t o r e a ch o l d a ge a nd , h av ing p rov ided h i s d ead p a ren t s w i th af i ne f une ra l , t ob e f i ne ly a nd n ob ly b u r ied b y h i s o wn c h i ld r en ' .5 2 T h i s s en tence a l so s how s h ow i mpor tan t i t w a s f o r t h e A then ian s t o h ave c h i ld ren , e spec ia l ly s on s , w ho w ou ld i n he r i t a nd p re se rve t h e f am i ly w ea l th a nd c on t inue t h e f am i ly w o r sh ip , a s t h e g i r ls w ou ld b e m a r r ied o ne d ay a nd a dop t t h e a nce s t ra l c u l t s o f t h e i r h u sband s . S o , t h e m a in r e a son f o r m a r r iage w a s t h e p roc r ea t ion o f l e g i t ima te c h i ld ren .5 3 I fw omen w e re n o t

5 2

Wedd ing s , h ow eve r , c ou ld n o t b u t b e w omen 's mo s t c e leb ra ted o cca s ion f o r c om ing c l o se r t oo ne a no the r a nd p a r t ic ipa t ing i n m any r i tua l s . T he p r in c ipa l r i t e o f a w edd ing i n A then s w a s t h e b r ida l b a th , f o r w h ich a p roce s s ion o f w omen w en t t o f e tch w a t e r f r om a p a r t icu la r s p r ing , K a l l i rhoe . T he s c ene i si lu s t ra ted b y v a r iou s v a se p a in t ing s : a c r owd o f w om en h o ld ing t o r che s , a nd a mong t h em af l u te p l aye r , m a r ch a head o f o ne w oman , t h e A ou rpo c p6pog , w ho b ea r s t h e c on ta ine r i nw h ich t h e w a te r i st ob e b rough t b ack . T he b r ide w a s a no in ted w i th u nguen t s b y h e r f ema le a t tendan t s , a nd a t t h e s a cr if ice a nd f e a s t g i ven b y t h e b r ide 's K üpoN , t h e b r ide w a s a t tended b y h e r f ema le f r iend s a nd s e a ted b e s ide t h e v uw pcü-r p ta , aw oman w ho se t a sk w a s t o g u ide a nd h e lp h e r t h roughou t t h e w edd ing c e remony . S he w a s t h en c onveyed t ot h e g room 's h ou se b y w agon o ro x -ca r t , f o l low ed b yh e rr e la t ive sa nd f r i end s ,m a le a nd f ema le , s i ng ing t h e m a r r iage s ong a nd w i th t h e b r ide 's mo the rc a r ry ing t h em a r r iage t o r ch .5 6 F o r w omen , w edd ing s p robab ly c on s t i tu ted o ne o f t h e m a jo r r e cu r r en t s oc ia l e ven t s i n t h e i r l i ve s — a nd c e r ta in ly o ne i nw h ich t h ey w e r e o u t i np ub l ic . Mo r eove r ,

P l .H ipp ia s , Ma jor . 2 9 1 d e .

A l aw q uo ted b y P seudo -Demo s thene s s how s w ho h a s t h e r i gh t t og i ve t h e w oman i nm a r r iage a nd h ow t h e l e g i t ima cy o f c h i ld r en i se s tab l i shed : 5 3

I ti sw o r th n o t ic ing t h a tt h eA then ian w oman d i dn o t ' ma r ry ' , a s w ew ou ld u nde r s tand i tt oday . I n s tead , s he i sg i ven i nm a r r iage , a lmo s ta cqu i r ing t h es t a tu so fh ou seho ld c ommod i ty . 5 4 R . F lace l ie re ,( 1965 ) ,p p . 8 7 -88 . 5 5 K a tak ly sma o fs l ave s : A r i s t .P lou to s ,7 68 , 7 95 -99 . 5 6 R . F lace l ie re ,( 1965 ) , 6 2f f .

Wha teve r w oman i sp l edged o nj u s t t e rm s t ob e aw if e b y h e r f a the r , o r b y h e r b ro the r w ho h a s t h e s ame f a the r , o r b y h e r p a te rna l g r andf a the r , t h e c h i ld ren b o rn o fh e rs ha l l b el e g i t ima te c h i ld ren . ( 46 .18 )

1 6

t h ey s e em o n t h e se o cca s ion s t o h ave e n joyed mo re f r eedom a nd s pace t o p rac t ice r e l ig iou s a nd s oc ia l r i t e s a way f r om t h e s u rve i l lan ce o fm en . Y e t , t h e ' mean ing ' o f m a r r iage , s e en t h rough t h e s eman t ic s o f t h e w edd ing r i tua l s , h a rd ly a n t ic ipa te s a n e nv iab le f u tu re . A l i f e o f s u r ve i l lance a wa i ted t h em , a nd t h e i r ' d om e s t ic c ha s t i ty ' w a s s c ru t in i sed a l t h e t ime . A t t h i s p o in t , i nf a c t , af ew t h ing s mu s t b e s a id a bou t m a le p reoccupa t ion w i th f ema le c ha s t i ty i nt h e 5 t hc en tu ry BC .

a nd l e g i t ima te ly i nt h e c ompany o fp eop le o the r t h an h e r k in w e re r a re .6 ° I nt h e p re sen t c a se , E ra to s thene s g e t s t h rough t ot h e w if e o fE uph i le tu s n o t d i rec t ly b u t v i a h e r m a id , a f t e r h e s aw t h ew oman a t ac e r ta in f une ra l : . .Bu t t h en , my mo the r d i ed ; a nd h e r d ea th h a s p roved t o b e t h e s ou r ce o f a l l o f my t r oub le s , b ecau se i t w a s w hen my w if e w en t t o t h e f une ra l t h a t t h i s E ra to s thene s s aw h e r ; a nd a s t ime w en t o n , h e w a s a b le t o s educe h e r . H e k ep t al o ok o u t f o r o u r m a id w ho g oe s t o t h e m a rk e t ; a nd a pp roach ing h e r , w i th s ugge s t ion s h e s u cceeded i nc o r rup t ing h e rm i s t re s s .6 1

T he r equ i remen t ( af t e r 4 51 BC ) w a s t h a t c i t izen s mu s t h av e b o th p a r en t s a s c i t izen s , a nd f o rma l ly m a r r ied .5 7 I t w a s al aw p ropo sed b y P e r ic le s a nd r e in s t i tu ted i nt h e A r chon sh ip o f E uk l ides i n 4 02 /3 BC . L a te r i n t h e 4 th c en tu ry i tb ecam e i l ega l f o r an on -A then ian t om a r ry a n A th en ian , a nd t h ep ena l t ie s f o rt r an sg re s s ion w e r e s eve r e : s l ave ry a nd t h e c onf i sca t ion o f p rope r ty . T h i s e n su red t h a t a lmo s t a l l c i t izen -g i r l s w ou ld m a r ry . O p in ion r ega rded f a i lu re t om a r ry f o rw omenf o lk a sd i sc red i tab le . H ow eve r , t h i s c r ea ted a p r eoccupa t ion w i th c ha s t i ty , w h ich c au sed y oung w omen t ob e c a ref u l ly g ua rded . B u t t h e w oman 's c ha s t i ty c on t inue s t ob e g ua rded e ven a f t e r m a r r iage . T he r e a son i st h a t i l eg i t ima te c h i ld ren c ou ld n o t i n he r i t p rope r ty ; w h ich , a ga in , m ean s t h e d e s t ru c t ion o f t h e o i kos o f am an w ho d oe s n o t l e ave ( ma le ) h e i r s . T hu s , t h e i mpor tance o f w om en i sf undam en ta l t o t h e o rgan i sa t ion a nd t h e s t ruc tu r e o f s oc ie ty , e ven i ft h e i r r o le i sp a s s ive . R . J u s t p o in t s o u t t h a t r i gh t s o fr e l ig iou s a nd e conom ic i n he r i tan ce w e re t r an sm i t ted t h rough w om en a s much a s t h rough m en .5 8 F u r the rmo re , t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f s o c ia l i d en t i ty f o r a n i n d iv idua l w a s d ependen t u pon h i s c onnec t ion w i th b o th m en a nd w om en .

Af t e r t h e m a t te r i sb rough t t oh i s a t ten t ion b y a n o b l ig ing w oman , t h e d ef endan t w i th t h e h e lp o ft h e m a id m anage s t o c a tch t h e t wo l o ve r s i nf l agran te d e l ic to . A n a nc ien t l aw g i ve s h im t h e r i gh t t oe xecu te t h e a du l te re r o ra ccep t money i n c ompen sa t ion f r om h im , h o ld ing h im p r i sone r u n t i l t h e p aymen t o f a n a g r eed s um .6 2 T he d ef endan t c hoo se s t o k i l l t h e a du l te r e r , a nd i n h i s d ef ence i n t h e c ou r t , h eb r ing su pt h eo l d l aw : H i s ( t he L awg ive r 's ) i d ea w a s t h a t t ho se w ho u se f o rce a r e l o a thed b y t h e p e r son v i o la ted , w he rea s t h o se w ho h ave g o t t h e i r w ay b y p e r sua s ion c o r rup t w om en 's m ind s i ns uch aw ay a st om ake o th e rm en 's w ive s mo re a t tached t o t h em se lve s t h an t o t h e i r h u sband s , s o t h a t t h e w ho le h ou se i s i n t h e i r p ow e r , a nd i ti su nce r ta in w ho i st h e c h i ld r en 's f a the r .6 3

S o , w omen w e re g ua rded c l o se ly w i th in m a r r iage . We s hou ld n o t i mag ine , t h ough , t h a t t h e i r h u sband s c ou ld p hy s ica l ly k eep t h em l o cked i n s ide , a nd ' m i sadven tu re s ' w e re n o tu n l ik e ly t oo ccu r :

T h i s l a s t p h ra se r e vea l s t h e r e a l c once rn o ft h e d ef endan t a nd t h e r e a l r e a son w hy E ra to s thene s w a s k i l led . D u r ing t h e s peech E uph i le tu s p o in t s o u t t h a t h i s w if e 's i n d i sc re t ion s s t a r ted a f t e r t h e i r s on w a s b o rn , a nd t h e r ef o re t h e r e c an b e n o d oub t a bou t t h e l e g i t imacy o f h i s s on . A s on w ho i st h e f u lf i lmen t o f h i s m a r r iage . P rov id ing g ua ran tee s a bou t h i s l e g i t ima cy e n su re s t h a t h e

. she ( t he m a id ) e xp la ined t h e w ay i n w h ich h e h ad c on t r ived t o g e t i n to t h e h ou se , a nd h ow w hen Iw a s i nt h e c oun t ry my w if e h ad g one t o ar e l ig iou s s e rv ice w i th t h i s m an ' s mo the r , a nd e ve ry th ing e l se t h a th ad h appened .5 9

I t i s p e rhap s w o r th n o t ic ing t h a t t h e se a r e t h e momen t s Menande r a ppea r s t o h ave f i xed , i n o rde r t o f u r the r t h e c on t r ivance o f h i s p lo t s ( J . G ou ld , 1 980 , p . 4 7 ) . I n t h e E p i t r epon te s t h e f e s t iva l o f T auropo l ia g i ve s C ha r is io s t h e o ppo r tun i ty t or a pe ag i r l ( who t u rn st oh ave b een h i s own w if e ) a nd i nt h eS am ia , Mo sch ion s educe s ag i r ld u r ing t h e Ad on ia . 6 1 L y s ia s , ' On t h e mu rde ro fE ra to s thene s' ,3 7 -50 . 6 2 T he p ena l ty f o r a n a du l te re s s i n t h e 5 t h a nd 4 th -cen tu ry r e la ted t oh e r e xpu l s ion f r om h e r o i ko s a nd h e r e xc lu s ion f r om a ny p a r t ic ipa t ion i n t h e r e l ig iou s a c t iv i t ie s o f t h e p o l i s ( A . H a r r i son , 1 968 , p . 3 6 ) . I n f a c t , a cco rd ing t o al aw q uo ted i n D emo s thene s 5 9 ( Nea i ra ) 8 7 , ah u sband w a s l e ga l ly b ound t o d ivo r ce h i s w if e o n p a in o f a t im ia , t h a t i t i s t o s ay , t h e s u spen s ion o fh i s o wn c i t izen sh ip r i gh t s , a nd a s f a r a st h i s c an b e s e en , t h is a pp l ied w he the r t h e w if e h ad b een w i l l ing ly s educed o rr a ped ( A .H a r r i son , 1 968 ,p .3 6 ) . 6 3 L y s ia s 1 .3 . 6 0

T he f e s t iva l w a s t h e T he smophor ia . T ha t am an 's w if e h ad t h e f r eedom t og o o f fd u r ing h i s a b sence t oc e leb ra te t h e se i mpor tan t f ema le r i t e s i nt h e c ompany o fa n e l de r ly m a t ron , i s p re sen ted a s n o rma l ; b u t t h a t t h i s f e s t iva l s hou ld f u r the r as educe r 's d e s ign s a l so i mp l ie s t h a t o t he r o cca s ion s o n w h ich s he w ou ld b e a way f r om h e r h ou se

T he f o rma l p rocedu r e o fm a r r iage i n vo lved m a in ly t h e g room a nd t h e f a the r o ft h e b r ide . T he f a the r of e r s t h e b r ide a nd t h e d ow ry a nd t h e g room a ccep t s t h em . T h i s i sc a l led b , ryünc r tg , a nd t h e p r e sence o f t h e b r ide i sn o t r e qu i red ( R . F lace l ire , 1 965 ; R .J u s t , 1 989 ) . 5 8 R . J u s t( 1989 ) ,p .2 4 . 5 9 L y s ia s , ' On t h e mu rde ro fE ra to s thene s ' ,9 33 . 5 7

1 7

A t t ic b l ack -f igu re l e ky tho sb yt h e Ama s i sP a in te r .N ew Y o rk , Me t ropo l i tan Mu seum o fA r t5 6 .11 .1 . Mu le sd raw t h ec a r ti nw h ich t h e b r ide a nd g room r i de t ot h eb r ideg room 's h ou se ( p ic tu re f r om J .O ak ley & R . S ino s , 1 993 ,p .8 7 ) . w i l l n o t h ave a ny p rob lem s i n t h e f u tu r e t o c l a im t h e

t oc onvey a way t h e b ody w i th t h e i n ten t ion o f c onduc t ing t h e f u ne ra l f r om my o wn h ou se . When , h ow eve r , my g r andf a the r 's w idow r e que s ted t h a t t h e f une ra l s hou ld t a ke p l ace f r om t h a t h ou se ( i . e . t h e d ecea sed 's ) a nd d ec la red t h a t s h e h e r se lf w ou ld l i ke t oh e lp u s l a y o u t a nd s a ck t h e c o rp se , a nd e n t rea ted m e a nd w ep t , I a cceded t o h e r r e que s t a nd w en t t o my o pponen t a nd t o ld h im i n t h e p r e sence o f w i tn e s se s t h a t Iw ou ld c onduc t t h e f une ra l f r om t h e h ou se o f t h e d ecea sed s i nce D iok le s ' s i s te rh ad b egged m et od os o .6 4

w ea l th o ft h ef am i ly o ikos . F unera l s F une ra l s w e r e a no the r t y pe o f r e l ig iou s e ven t w i th a s t rong s oc io -cu l tu ra l d imen s ion . I n t h e s peech o f L y s ia s j u s t d i scu s sed , w e r e ad h ow E ra to s thene s h ad s po t ted t h e w if e o ft h e d ef endan t a t af une ra l . T h i s i sa n a r ea w he re t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o fw omen i sa n u nden iab le f a c t , a sw e l l a s t h e i r p rom inence i n c a r ry ing o u t t h e r i tua l s t h a t a r e i n vo lved . T he c a r e o f t h e d ecea sed , t h e w a sh ing a nd a no in t ing o ft h e c o rp se , w a s v e ry much aw oman 's t a sk , i n deed h e rp r e roga t ive . I nI s a io s 8 ,t h e s peak e rs t a te st h a t : Ip re sen ted my se lf , a ccompan ied b y o ne o f my r e la t ive s , am a le c ou s in o f my f a the r 's ,

6 4

1 8

I s a io s 8 ,K i ron ,2 1-22 .

I ts e em s t h a t , a l though w om en h ad a s t rong s ay i n t h e c onduc t o f f une ra l s , t h e f i na l a r rangemen t s w e re u p t o m en . A s p i c to r ia l e v idence s how s u s c l ea r ly , d u r ing t h e f o rma l l amen ta t ion a nd t h e f u ne ra l p roce s s ion t o t h e c eme te ry w om en t ook t h e m a jo r r o le a s m our n e r s o ft h e d ead ( A lex iou , 1 974 ) .A tt h i sp o in tw eh ave t od i s t ingu i sh b e tween p ub l ic a nd p r iva te l am en ta t ion . P ub l ic l am en ta t ion w a s n o t u nu sua l i nA then s . We h ave o n ly t o r em ind o u r se lve s o f t h e f une ra l s peech o f P e r ic le s , i n T hucyd ide s . A lex iou o f f e r s g ood a r gum en t s a bou t t h e n a tu re a nd c on sequence s o f s u ch l amen ta t ion s , w h ich w e re a l so r e s t r ic ted . T he f o l low ing e x t ra c t f r om t h e c i ty o fI ou l i s o fK eo s c ome s f r om t h e l a te 5 t h c en tu ry b u t i ti s ac opy o fa n e a r l ie r l aw , a t t r ibu ted t o S o lon . We r e ad a d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e r i tua l b u t a l so a r e co rded a t temp t t o l im i t , t h ough b y n o m ean s t op ro sc r ibe , t h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o fw om en i nt h e p ub l ic l am en ta t ion o ft h e d ead , f o r f e a r o ft h ev e ry d i s tu rbance t h a ti tc r ea ted 6 5:

I n i t ia t ion s I n i t ia t ion s a r e o f i n te re s t t o s t uden t s o f c u l tu re b ecau se t h ey m a rk b ounda r ie s , a st h ey a lway s i n vo lve t h e n o t ion o f t r an s i t ion . T ran s i t ion s f r om o ne l i f e s ta tu s t o a no the r c an b e m any . F o r e xamp le , w edd ing r i tua l s m a rk t h e t r an s i t ion o f aw oman f r om t h e s t age o fn ap Egvog t ot h a t o fy uv i i . I n i t ia t ion r i t e s v a ry n o t o n ly f r om o cca s ion t o o cca s ion — b i r th , m a r r iage , d ea th — b u t a l so f r om o ne c i ty t oa no the r . A l though m any h ave a r gued t h a t d ome s t ic a nd p ub l ic r i tua l s d o n o t r e a l ly m a rk t o ta l ly i n dependen t t e r r i to r ie s ( F . Z a idman & S .P an te l , 1 989 ) , i nt h i s s e c t ion mo s t w e igh t w i l l b e g i ven t o i n i t ia t ion r i tua l s t h a t t a ke p l ace o u t s ide t h eo i ko s , s i n ce d ome s t ic r i tua l st h a ti n vo lve i n i t ia t ion s h ave a l r eady b een d i scu s sed . S o , o u r f o cu s n ow i s o n r i t e s t h a t l e ad i n to r o le s o f a mo re p ub l ic p rof i le . T he re a r e n o c o l lec t ive r i t e s o fp a s sage p r e scr ibed f o rt h e g i r l s o f a ny c i ty , w i th t h e p o s s ib le e xcep t ion o f S pa r ta . R a the r , w ha t o ne f i nd s , i st h a t at i ny a nd s e lec t h andf u l w e re g i ven t h e t empo ra ry p r iv i lege o fb e ing i nt h e s e rv ice o f ad e i ty . T h i s h appen s a tt h e B rauron ia , ap en te te r ic f e s t iva l c onnec ted w i th A r tem i s . I ts e em s t h a t A then ian g i r l s s e rved A r tem i s a sE t p i c-r ot ,' b ea r s ' , a tt h e t emp le s o f B rau ron a nd Moun ich ia , i nA then s .

.On t h e f o l low ing d ay a f r ee m an s ha l l s p r in lde f i r s t t h e h ou se w i th s e a w a te r , a nd t h en a l lt h er oom s w i th h y s sop . When i th a s b een s p r ink led t h roughou t , t h e h ou se s ha l l b e c l ean sed a nd t h ey s ha l l o f f e r s a c r if i ce s u pon t h e h ea r th . T he w omen w ho g o t ot h e f une ra l s ha l l n o t g o a way f r om t h e t omb b ef o re t h e m en . T hey s ha l l h o ld mon th ly s e rv ice sf o rt h ed ead . T hey s ha l ln o tp l a ce a c up b enea th t h e b ed , n o r p ou r o u t t h e w a te r , n o rc a r ry t h e s weep ing s t ot h e t omb . Wheneve r ap e r son d i e s , a f t e r t h e b ed i s c a r r ied o u tn o w omen s ha l l g o t ot h e h ou se e xcep t t h o se p o l lu ted ( by t h e d ea th ) ; t h o se p o l lu ted a r e mo the r , w if e , s i s te r s a nd d augh te r s ; i n a dd i t ion t o t h e se n o t m o re t h an f i ve w om en , n am e ly c h i ld ren o f w om en a nd c ou s in s , a nd n o o ne e l se . T he p o l lu ted s ha l l b e c l ean sed b yw a sh ing . .i n p ou red w a te r . . . ( t he r e s th a sn o ts u rv ived ) .6

T he g i r l s ' a ge i s am a t te r o fc on t rove r sy .6 8 B u t i ts e em s v e ry p o s s ib le t h a t t h ey w e r e o ü '-r e n peaßüTzpa t U m b r f ov , OÜ 'T ' V e rr roug r t gv-r z ( Scho l . A r i s t . L y s . 6 45 a nd S uda ) . T h i s p r iv i leged e ngagem en t i s d esc r ibed b y A r i s tophane s : A tt h e a ge o fs even Is e rved a so ne o ft h ea r rhephoro i ; a tt e n Ip ounded b a r ley f o rO u rL ady ( A thene ) ; t h en , s hedd ing my d r e s so fs a f f ron , Is e rved a s aB ea r f o rA r tem i si nt h eB rau ron ia f e s t iva l ; f i na l ly , h av ing g rown i n to at a l la nd c om e ly y oung g i r l , Is e rved a sk anephoro sa nd w o re an eck lace o ff i g s .6 9 H oweve r , t h i si sn o t , d e sp i te a ppea rance s , ad e sc r ip t ion o f a g raded c yc le o f f em in ine i n i t ia t ion . I t w a s p r ede te rm ined t h a t A then ian g i r l s w ou ld n o t b ecom e f u l l

A l so i nP seudo -Demo s thene s , i ti ss t a ted t h a t w om en d o n o t h ave t h e r i gh t t o e n te r t h e h ou se o f t h e d ead o r t o f o l low t h e i K c po r od t t o h i s g rave , i ft h e r e la t ion sh ip t h a t t h ey h ave w i th h im i sm o re d i s tan ced t h an c h i ld ren o fh i s c ou s in s .6 7

a du l t c i t izen s . T he r i t e s , c a p i c re ia , w e re m a tu ra t ion r i t e s : p repa ra t ion b ef o r e t h e m ona rchy . T he a ge o f t e n w a s c on s ide red t o m a rk t h e b eg inn ing o ft h i s t r an sf o rma t ion o f t h e c h i ld i n to a m a r r iageab le n ap f tvog . I n f a c t , S ou rv inou Inwood b e l ieve s t h a t t h i s w a s t h e k ey c oncep t o f t h e r i tua l : m a r r iageab i l i ty . S he s ugge s t s t h a t t h e ä p f c reia a r t icu la ted t h e g i r l s ' p r epa ra t ion o fm a r r iage i n t e rm s c ompa rab le t ot h o se o ft h e b oy s ' f o rw a r . I n aw ay , t h e i mpor tance o ft h e ' s oc ia l ' a spec t o ft h a t p repa ra t ion b ecame a s i mpo r tan t a s t h e c u l t ic : t h e p o l i s w a s c oncer n ed ' f o r t h e w oman 's p rope r a ccu l tu ra t ion . i mpo r tan tb o th f o rt h e p rope rf unc t ion ing o ft h eo iko sa nd t h ep o l i s '

We s e e c l ea r ly t h a t , a l though w om en h ave t h e m a in r o le i nt h e a t tendance o ft h e c o rp se , a n a t temp t t or e s t r ic t t h e o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r g a the r ing a nd s e lf -exp re s s ion c an b e n o ted . A s w e l l a st h e p o l i t ica l r e a son s t h a tA lex iou o f f e r s f o r t h i s , w e c ou ld a l so t h ink t h a t t h e s ame r e a son s w h ich m ade m a le s f e a ra ny c hance f o rw om en t og a the ro ra l low t h em se lve st ob ev i ewed i np ub l ic ,a pp l ied h e r e , t o o .

O n p o l i t ica l r e a sons f o r s upp re s s ing mourn ing , s e e M . A lex iou ( 1974 ) ,p p . 2 1-23 ; G . H o ls t - Wa rhaf t( 1992 ) ,p .9 9 . 6 6 I ou l is o fK eos 1 8 -19 . C f . R . P a rke r( 1983 ) . 6 7 D emos th . ,A ga ins t Macar thus ,4 3 . 6 5

6 8 6 9 7 °

1 9

G ood d i scuss ion i nC . S ou rv inou Inwood ( 1988 ) . A r is t . L y s i s tra ta , 6 42 -7 . S ou rv inou Inwood ( 1988 ) ,p . 12 .

P i c tor ia l e v idence a l so s how s t h a t d u r ing s ome o f t h e r i te s t h e g i r l s w e r e e i the rn ak ed o rp rovoca t ive ly d r e s sed . P e rhap s , s i nce m a r r iage w a s t h e f o cu s o ft h e se r i te s , t h e n akedne s s o ft h e g i r l s , a l ready m a r r iageab le , w a s t h e re t o m ake m en d e s i re t ow ed t h em .7 1 I ft h i s w a s t h e c a se , t h en t h e p o s i t ion o ft h e g i r l s o fA then s w a s n o t much d i f f e ren t f r om t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e g i r l s i n S pa r ta : t h e re t h e g i r l s e xe rc i sed n ak ed t o ge the r w i th m en i no rde r t o ' p rovoke ' f u tu re h u sband s ; a nd t h e se K aÄM T-t u yo t ,w ho g o a r ound s how ing t h e i rt h igh s , c au se t h e i n d igna t ion o ft h e o ld m an P e leu s i nE u r ip ide s ' A nd romache ( 591f f ) . H ow eve r , n o t a l l A then ian s w e re a ga in s t s u ch ' e xh ib i t ion ' o fw omen , i f t h is w a s g o ing t o p romo te c üyov i c t . P la to , i n h i s L aw s ( v i i , 8 04 ) s ugge s t s t h a tb o th m en a nd w om en s hou ld c a r ry o n e xe r c i se s w i thou t d i sc r im ina t ion a sb e tween t h e s exe s , a nd , i n deed , w i th n ak ed b od ie s . S uch o p in ion s l e ave l i t t le d oub t a bou t A then ian p reoccupa t ion w i th e üyov i c t , t o o , a nd m ake t h er e a lp u rpo se o ft h ed t pw rc ia mo re c l ea r . I n i t ia t ion s o f t h i s k i nd p repa r e w omen f o r t h e i r s oc ia l i nv i s ib i l i ty a sa du l t s a nd t h e a ccep tance o ft h e i r d ome s t ic r o le s . I ti sn o ta pp rop r ia te h e re t oq ue s t ion t h e mo ra l i ty o f s uch i n s t i tu t ion s . I ti s mo re i mpo r tan t t ot r yt ou nde r s tand — a s much a s i sp o s s ib le — t h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu re s t h a t d emand s u ch g r ea t d i v i s ion o fr o le s . As oc ie ty t h a t r e l ie s f o r i t s e x i s tence a nd c on t inua t ion u pon t h e s ha rp d ef in i t ion o fb ounda r ie s i sb ound t oa t temp t t h e m a rk ing o f t h e se b ounda r ie s a t a n e a r ly s t age i n t h e l i f e -cyc le . I n i t ia t ion s a nd t r an s i t ion r i t e s o f f e r ap e rf ec t w ay o f a ch iev ing t h e a bove -men t ioned g oa l s b ecau se t h ey i nvo lve y oung p eop le ( i . e . t h e f u tu re s oc ie ty ) a nd r i t e s s anc t ioned b y r e l ig ion ; a nd f o r A then s r e l ig ion s e em s t o h ave b een o ne o ft h em o s te f f ec t ive m ean so f s e cu r ing i t s s oc ia la nd c u l tu ra ld emand s .

O nt h e o t he rh and , i ft h e p u rpo se o ft h e p l ay i st op a s s o n am e s sage f o r p eace i n i t ia ted b y aw oman , t h en t h i s w oman c ou ld n o tb e long t o al ow c l a s s . T he p l ay d oe sn o t r e a l ly of e rc l ea re v idence a bou tt h e s t a tu s o fw omen w ho s e rved t h e ä p i c-r c ia , b u t , p e rhap s t h i s i s , a f te r a l l , n o t s o i mpo r tan t , s i nce t h e ä p i c rei c t d i d n o th ing r e a l ly f o r t h e p o l i t ica l s t a tu s o f t h e w omen t h a t i t i n vo lv ed o r r e p r e sen ted . S acr if i ce A t t h e c en t re o f t h e m a jo r i ty o f G reek r e l ig iou s r i tua l s l i e s s a c r if i ce . S i nce i tc ou ld t a ke d i f f e r en t f o rm s , w e s hou ld s pec if yt h a t i nt h i s c hap te rt h e f o cu sw i l l b e o nt h e p a r t ic ipa t ion o f w omen i n b lood s a c r if ice s , w h ich p r edom ina te w i th in t h e c o l lec t ive c i v ic p rac t ice o f t h e a n c ien t c i ty . B lood s a c r if i ce g ave e xp re s s ion t ot h eb ond s t h a t t i ed t h e m embe r s o f o ne s oc ie ty , a nd w a s a l so t h e c ommun ica t ive m ed ium b e tw een t h e s oc ie ty a nd t h e d i v ine w o r ld . T h i s k i nd o f s a cr if ice i n vo lved t h e r i tua l s l augh te ro fo ne o r mo re a n ima l s ; t h e se w e re l a te rc ook ed a nd c on sum ed b yt h e p a r t ic ipan t s o ft h e s a c r if i ce w i th in a s t r ic tf r am ewo rk o fr egu la t ion s . A n ima l s a c r if i ce c ou ld b e p romp ted b y m any d i f f e r en t c i r cum s tance s . I tc ou ld b e o f f e red b y a n i n d iv idua l a nd g i ve r i se t o ad om e s t ic f e a s t , f o re xamp le a t am a r r iage . I t c ou ld t a ke p l ace i n as anc tua ry , o n t h e i n i t ia t ive o f a n i n d iv idua l , ar e l ig iou s a s soc ia t ion , o r ac i ty . E ve ry d ay n um e rou s d i f f e r en t s a c r if ice s w e re t a k ing p l ace i n d i f f e ren t c on tex t s w i th in t h e s epa ra te p o l i t ica l c ommun i t ie s o f G r eece . T he mo s t s o lemn f o rm o f s a c r if ice w a s t h a t o fp ub l ic s a cr if ice s o f f e red u p b y ac i ty o n t h e o cca s ion o f ar e l ig iou s f e s t iva l a nd c u lm ina t ing i n ac i v ic b anque t . T he i mpo r tance o fs u ch a n o cca s ion l i e s n o t o n ly i n t h e f a c t t h a t m ea t c ou ld b e e a ten — u ndoub ted ly , f o r s ome t h i s m igh t b e t h e o n ly t im e t h ey h ad t h e o ppo r tun i ty t o e a t m ea t — b u t a l so i n t h e s t r eng then ing o ft h e i n t ra co rnmuna l t i e s , a s t h e m embe r s o ft h ec ommun i ty s ha red t h e s a c red m ea t .

A no the r p o in t n eed s t o b e r a i sed h e r e : w he the r a l l A then ian g i r l s s e rved a s b ea r s i s n o t c l ea r . C e r ta in s cho la r s ( e .g . Z a idman & P an te l , 1 989 ) b e l ieve t h a t t h e d t p ic rc ia w a s ap r iv i lege f o r s ome g i r l s o n ly , s pec ia l ly c ho sen . T hey a l so b e l ieve t h a t t h i s w a s t h e c a se w i th t h e K av t i c pöpo t a nd t h e ä pp r i c p6po t . I ft h i s i st r ue , i tm ean s t h a tn o te ven i nt h e c a se o fB rau ron ia w e re w omen a l l t h e s ame . I tw ou ld b e l o g ica l t o a s sume , b a sed o n t h e f a c t s f o r o t he rf e s t iva lr i tua l s , t h a tt h e s e lec t ion o ft h e f ew g i r l s w ho s e rved a s a p ic ro t t o ok p l ace a mong t h o se o f h i gh f am i ly r a nk a nd e xcep t iona l b a ckg round . B u t , s i nce t h e ä p f c re ia w a s s uppo sed t op romo te m a r r iage , d i d i tm ean t h a t s pec ia l c a re w a s g i ven o n ly t ot h e m a r ry ing o fu ppe r c l a s s g i r l s? T h i s c ou ld w e l l b e t h e c a se , a l though Ia m i n c l ined t ob e l ieve t h a t t h e f ew c ho sen g i r l s w ou ld a c t a s ' r ep re sen ta t ive s ' o f t h e i r k i nd . N a tu ra l ly , o ne m igh t w onde r a bou t t h e s t a tu s o f L y s i s t ra ta i n A r i s tophane s ' p l ay . A re w e t ot h ink t h a t s h e b e long s t ot h e h i gh ranked A then ian w omen? T h i s i sd i ff icu l tt oa n swe r , e spec ia l ly i f w e p onde r t h e m e s sage o ft h e p l ay : i ft h e p u rpo se o ft h e p roduc t ion w a s d i dac t ic , i t i s d i ff icu l t t o i mag ine L y s i s t ra ta s e rv ing a s ar o le -mode l f o rr e spec tab le w omen .

D e ta i led a ccoun t s o ft h e s a c r if i c ia l r i tua l c an b e f o und i n B u rke r t ( 1985 ) a nd D e t ienne ( 1989 ) . F rom t h e se d e scr ip t ion s i tl o ok s a s i ft h e i d en t i ty o f t h e a gen t s o f d i f f e ren tp a r t s o fs a cr if ice w a s o fn o i mpo r tance . I st h e re , h oweve r , ac a se o fg ende r d i f f e r en t ia t ion i ns a c r if ice s i n A nc ien t G r eece? I n mo s t w o rk s w r i t ten b ef o r e 1 979 s cho la r s s e emed t os how n o a wa r ene s s o fs u ch ap rob lem . T hey b e l ieved t h a t , d e sp i te t h e d i f f e r en t r o le s , w h ich t h ey m igh t a s sume d u r ing t h e s a c r if i c ia l r i tua l , m en a nd w omen p a r t ic ipa ted e qua l ly i n s a cr if i ce . T he mo s t e ga l i ta r ian v i ew w a s p robab ly e xp re s sed b y I . Ma r tha ( 1 882 ) . T h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e re i s n o p rob lem t o e xp la in i sa l so f ound i nt wen t ie th -cen tu ry s cho la r s , s u ch a s Ma r t in N i l s son a nd Wa l te r B u rke r t . N i l s son b e l ieve s t h a t a l though w omen w e r e c onf ined a th ome , l i v ing i na m a le s oc ie ty , t h ey w e re n o t e xc luded b yr e l ig ion a nd t h ey t o ok p a r t i n s a c r if ice s r egu la r ly .7 2 B u rke r t , i n h i s d e sc r ip t ion o f s a c r if ice i n G reek R e l ig ion , d e sc r ibe s t h e

I ti st r u e , t h ough , t h a tw e c a nno tb e a b so lu t e ly s u r e w he th e r m en w e r ep r e sen td u r ing s u ch r i t e s . 7 1

7 2

2 0

M .N i l s son ( 1 940 ) ,p .9 6 .

p a r t ic ipan t s w i thou t c once rn a bou t t h e i r g ende r ; h e o n ly b ecome s s pec if i c a bou t i t , w hen h e t a lk s a bou t t h e K av r iqx 5po L . B u rk er t a l so t a k e s f o r g ran ted t h a t a l l p a r t ic ipan t s a l ik e s ha re i ns ome o ft h e r i tua l a c t ion s a nd i n t h e m ea t o f t h e s a c r if i c ia l f e a s t . H e n o te s t h a t t h e e xc lu s ion o fw om en f r om s a c r if i ce i se xcep t iona l a nd t h a t a l lp a r t ic ipan t s a r e i n vo lved i nt h e s a cr if ice i no ne w ay o r a no the r .7 3

s epa ra te c o lumn s h eaded b y t h e f i r s t f i ve l e t te r s i n t h e a l phabe t . T he f i r s t c o lumn s pec if i e s t h a t t h e g oa t s a c r if i ced t o S eme le o n t h e 1 6 th o fE laphebo l ion s hou ld b e h anded o ve r t ot h e w omen a nd n o t t a ken a way , w i th t h e p r ie s te s s t a k ing t h e s k in . S im i la r ly , t h e f ou r th c o lumn s pec if ie s t h a t t h e g oa t s a c r if iced t oD iony su s o n t h e 1 6 th o fE laphebo l ion s hou ld b e h anded o ve rt ow om en a nd n o t t a ken a way , w i th t h e p r ie s te s s t a k ing t h e s k in . T he o n ly p a ra l le l s pec if ica t ion t h a t a n a n ima l b e h anded o ve r t oa p a r t icu la r g roup i nt h i s d ocumen t i st h e h and ing o ve r t o P y tha i s ta i o f t h e g oa t s a cr if iced t o A po l lo P y th io s i n T ha rge l ion i nt h e s e cond c o lumn , o ft h e g oa t s a c r if i ced t o A po l lo A po t ropa io s i nG ame l ion i nt h e t h i rd c o lumn , a nd o f t h e s heep s a cr if i ced t o A po l lo L yke io s a l so i n G ame l ion ( bu t o n ad i f f e r en t d ay ) i nt h e f i f th c o lumn , b u t n o tab ly t h e p roh ib i t ion o n t a k ing t h e m ea t a way d oe s n o t a pp ly t ot h e P y tha i s ta i .7 5 T hu s w ho a c tua l ly e a t s t h e m ea t i sn o t d e te rm ined i n t h e c a se o f t h e P y tha i s ta i , b u t t h e s a c r if ice s t oD iony su s a nd S eme le m u s t b e c on sumed b y w om en . I ti sa s i ft h e w omen a r e l i ke a p a r t icu la r c u l t g roup b u t h ave e ven mo r e e xc lu s ive c l a im t ot h e c u l t o f D iony su s a nd S eme le t h a t t h e P y tha i s ta i h ave t oc u l t s o f A po l lo o t he rt h an A po l lo P y th io s .

T h e o ppo s i te v i ew w a s h e ld b y D e t ienne ( 1989 ) . H e c hamp ioned t h e v i ew t h a t w om en w e r e n o rma l ly e xc luded , n o t j u s t f r om t h e c en t ra l s a c r if ic ia l a c t o f s l augh ter ing t h e a n ima l , b u t a l so f r om s ha r ing i n t h e m ea t . H e c on s ide r s t h a t w ha t n eed e xp lana t ion a r e t h e c a se sw he r ew omen a r ee xp l ic i t ly i n c luded . H ew r i te s : J u s t a s w omen a r e w i thou t t h e p o l i t ica l r i gh t s r e se rved f o r m a le c i t izen s , t h ey a r e k ep t a pa r t f r om t h e a l ta r s , m ea t , a nd b l ood . When w omen h ave a cce s s t o m ea t , t h e r u le s o ft h e c u l t a r e c a r ef u l t o s pec if y t h e p rec i se t e rm s a nd c ond i t ion s . F o r t h e se t h ing sa r en o ts e lf e v iden t( p . 1 31) . D e t ienne 's v i ew s a r e s ha red b y L ou i se B ru i t Z ak iman ( 1992 ) . I n t h e f i r s t v o lume o fAH i s tory o fW omen , s h e w r i t e s :

E ven i nt h e a bove c a se s i ti sh a rd t od e tec ta ny ' p o l i t ica l ' r e a son s f o r t h e e xc lu s ion o f w om en . F a r f r om b e ing p o l i t ica l , t h e c u l t s f r om w h ich w omen a r e e xp re ss ly e xc luded s e em mo re o f ten t ob e m a rg ina l t ot h e c i ty ( t he c u l t s o f A thena A po t ropa ia a nd Z eu s A po t ropa io s a nd Z eu s Ama lo s o n L indo s , t h e c u l t o fP o se idon P huk io s o n Mykono s , o fZ eu sH ypa to so nP a ro s , e t c . ) .

Women w e re e xc luded f r om b l ood s a c r if i ce a nd t h e s ub sequen t d i v i s ion o ft h e m ea t o f t h e s a cr if i c ia l a n ima l . B u t b l ood s a c r if i ce w a s c en t ra l t o G reek r e l ig ion ; b ecau se i t m ade v i s ib le t h e a cco rd b e tween g od s a nd m en a nd r enew ed t h e b ond s o f h uman c ommun i ty , i tw a s t h e f ounda t ion o nw h ich p o l i t ica l l i f e w a s b a sed . T he f a c t t h a t w om en p a r t ic ipa ted i n t h i s r i tua l o n ly t h rough t h e i r h u sband s w a s p e rf ec t ly c ompa t ib le w i th t h e i re xc lu s ion f r om a c t ive c i v ic a nd p o l i t ica l l i f e .

O sbor n e ( 1993 ) s ugge s t s t h a t i n s om e s a c r if i ce s w he re t h e o cca s ion w a s mo re o r l e s s e xp l ic i t ly p o l i t ica l t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f m ea t w ou ld t a k e p l ace a cco rd ing t o p r ea r ranged o rde r . T h i s o rde r d id n o t e xc lude t h e w om en w ho p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h e s a c r if ic ia lr i tua l . S o , i nt h e c a se o f t h e P ana thena ia , w he r e t h ep ry tane i s g e t f i ve s ha r e s , t h e n i ne a rkhon s a nd t h e s t ra tego i a nd t a x iarkh s t h r ee , t h e t r ea su r e r o ft h e g odde s s a nd t h e h i eropo io i o ne , t h o se o f t h e A then ian s w ho t o ok p a r t i n t h e p roce s s ion a nd t h e k anephoro ig e t t h e i r ` u sua l ' .7 6 A t t h e H epha i s t ia t h e m ea t r e ached b eyond t h e c i t izen g roup i nt h a t t h e m e t ic s w e r e e xp l ic i t ly i n c luded a mong r e c ip ien t s , a nd a tt h e K o re s s ia i n t h e t h i rd c en tu ry n o t o n ly m e t ic s b u t a l so f r eedmen w ho p a id t a xe s a t K o re s s ia w e r e i n c luded i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion . 7 Women i ng ene ra l e n joyed n o m ea t a tt h e P ana thena ia o r t h e H epha i s t ia . B u t t h i s i sn o t b ecau se s a c r if ice a s s u ch i sc on s t ra ined t o o b se rve t h e l im i t s o f t h e c i t izen g roup , b u t b ecau se t h e se a r e c i v ic f e s t iva l s i n t h e s t rong s en se o ft h e t e rm . C iv ic f e s t iva l s a nd f e s t iva l s o fo t he r p o l i t ica l g roup s w ho se m embe r sh ip w a s e n t i r e ly m a le a r e w ha t w e k now a bou t mo s t , o fc ou r se , b u t t h e re w a s a no the r s i de t ol i f e , a nd w hen A thena io s a f f o rd s u s a g l imp se o fi t ,i nh i s a ccoun t o ft h e T i then id ia a tS pa r ta , w e f i nd ( unf ree? ) n u r se s e n joy ing s u ck ing p i g a nd

Z a idman a nd D e t ienne t h u s b e l ieve t h a t t h e r e i s a n h omo logy b e tw een w omen 's p l a ce i n r e l ig ion a nd t h e i r p l ace i nt h ep o l i t ica lo rde r . An umbe ro fi n sc r ip t ion s f r om v a r iou s p l ace s i n G reece i n d ica te t h a t s om e c u l t s e xc luded w omen f r om p a r t ic ipa t ing i nt h e s ha r ing o ft h e s a c r if i c ia l v i c t im a nd s om e o t he r s d i d n o t d i f f e ren t ia te b e tw een m en a nd w omen .7 4 C lo se r t oA then s , t h e c a se o f ac a lenda rf r om t h e d emos o fE rkh ia ( moder nS pa ta i nt h e Me soge ia ) i s mo re i n te re s t ing . F i r s t p ub l i shed i n 1 963 , t h i s c a lenda r i s , a c tua l ly , f i ve p a r a l le l c a lenda r s l i s ted i n W . B u rke r t( 1985 ) , p .5 4 . F o re xc lus ions o fw omen f r om s a cr if ice , s e eI G 1 2 S upp . 4 14 , L SS 6 3 ( Tha sos — s a c r if ice s t o H e rak le s ) ; L SS 8 8 , L SS 8 9 ( s ac r if ices t o Z eu s A po t ropa io s , A thena A po t ropa ia a nd Z eu s Ama lo s ) ; S IG 1 024 . 8 10 [LSCG 9 6 ] , ( Mykono s — s a c r if ice t o P ose idon P hyk ios ) ; S IG 9 79 ( Pa ro s — s a c r if ice s t o Z eus 7 3

7 4

H ypa to s ) ; L SS 5 6 , I D 2 180 ( De los — E gyp t ian c u l t s ) . F o r i n c lus ion o fw omen , s e e C . R o l ley ( 1964 ) , n .6 .A lso , S IG 1 0 15 [ LSA 7 3 ] ( Ha l ika rna s sos ,A r tem is P e rga ia ) .

7 5 7 6

2 1

S EG 2 1 , 5 41 ,144 , 5 1 . I Gi ,3 34 . 8 16 . I Gi ,8 2 .

p robab ly g oa t t oo .7 8 A s O sbo rne s ay s , ' d if f e r en t r e l ig iou s c u l t s i nd i f f e ren t c i t ie s p rac t i sed d i f f e r en t e xc lu s ion s , a nd t h e e xc lu s ion o f w omen , i mp l ic i t i n t h e c ompo s i t ion o f t h e c u l t g roup o r o cca s iona l ly e xp l ic i t , mu s t b e s e en i n t h ec on tex to ft h eo the re xc lu s ion s ' ( p .4 04 ) . T he m echan i sm o ft h e s a cr if ic ia l r i tua l i t se lf h a s mo r e t o s ay . D e t ienne d raw s a t ten t ion t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a c tua l s l augh te r e r o f t h e s a c r if i c ia l a n ima l i sa lway s am an .7 9 T rue , w omen c an b e ü bpo c p c ipo t , l i ke t h e w oman w ho o pen s t h e s a c r if ic ia lp roce s s ion i nt h er i tua l o fB ouphon ia ( s ee D u rand , 1 977 ) , o rt h ey c an b e K av rp6po t .B u t t h e se ' f em in ine t a sk s ' i nd ica te t h e d i s tance b e tween t h e w omen w ho p a r t ic ipa te i n as a cr if ice a nd t h e s a c r if ice r . I ti s i n te r e s t ing t o o b serve t h a t t h e w o rd i _ t äye (pog , b u t che r s a c r if ice r -cook , h a s n o f em in ine f o rm ; i tw ou ld h ave t o b e i n ven ted , a s P he r ec ra te s , ac om ic p oe t o f t h e f ou r th c en tu ry BC , p u t i t .8 ° I no t he rw o rd s t h e G reek s y s tem d id n o t a l low a ny t h ough t f o r w om en a s b u tche r s a nd s a c r if ice r s . D ef in i t ive e v idence f o r t h i s r u le i sf ound i na r i tua l s t a tu te o f t h e T he smophor ia . I n t h e l i s t o f t h e e xpen se s f o r t h e T he smophor ia i nt h e a r ch ive s a tD e lo s , p rov i s ion i sm ade f o r t h e p o s t o f aµ dye t po, h i red f o r t h e d u ra t ion o ft h e f e s t iva l f o r af e e o ff ou r o bo l s , a ta c o s t l e s s t h an t h e w ood n eeded f o r t h e s a c r if i ce .8 1 T he c ha ra c te r o f t h e T he smophor ia mu s t h ave b een v e ry s e r iou s t od raw t h e a t ten t ion o fm a le s t ot h e n eed s o ft h e w omen . R ea son s o f t h e c i ty mu s t h ave m ade m a le s p rov ide t h e i äye wog , w ho p ene t ra te s af e s t iva l s t r ic t ly r e se rved f o r w om en — a nd a tt h a t , n o t f o r a l l w omen . A s t a tu te f r om t h e t h i rd c en tu ry BC , c om ing f r om at emp le d ed ica ted t o D eme te r a t My la sa i n C a r ia ,8 2 s pec if ie s — a f t e r r e ca l l ing t h a t t h e t r ad i t iona l c e r emon ie s s hou ld t a ke p l ace ' a s t h e w omen h ave d ec ided ' — t h a t t h e re mu s t b e n o m a le i n t h e c e remon ie s , a nd i n t h e s ub sequen t l i ne e n jo in s t h e m an w ho s l augh te r s t h e v i c t im t o l e ave t h e s i te a ss oon a sh i s t a sk i sa ccomp l i shed .8 3 O fc ou r se , o ne c ou ld a r gue t h a t t h e a c tua l t a sk o f s l augh te r ing a nd b u tche r ing as a c r if i c ia l a n ima l , o f t en a sb ig a sa n o x , w a s n o t e a sy . P e rhap s t h e e xc lu s ion o fw omen f r om t h i s t a sk w a s am a t te r o f m e r e p hy s io logy . C e r ta in ly s u ch a n a r gumen tw ou ld a g ree w i th O sbor n e 's i d ea s t h a t m en a nd w omen p a r t ic ipa ted e qua l ly i ns a c r if i ce , n o m a t te r w h ich p a r t o f t h e s a cr if ic ia l r i tua l t h ey a ccomp l i shed . N ever the le s s , i tr ema in s af a c t t h a t t h e µ dye i pog o fa ny s a cr if ice w a s a lway s am an a nd , a s s u ch , h e p ene t ra ted e ven o ne o ft h e f ew r e l ig iou s e ven t s t h a tw a s s uppo sed t o g i ve t ot h ew omen t h eo ppo r tun i ty t oe xc lude m en .8 4 I ti sd i ff icu l t t oc on c lude w he the r s a c r if ice , t h e h e igh t o f r e l ig iou s c ommun ica t ion a nd a n e xp r e s s ive c i v ic b ond , w a s m ean t t ob e u sed a s am echan i sm f o rt h e d i v i s ion o f

7 8 7 9 8 0 8 1 8 2 8 3 8 4

g ende r r o le s i n A then s . A dm i t ted ly , w om en a r e n o t t r ea ted i nt h e s ame w ay a s m en w hen v a r iou s s a c r if i ce s t a ke p l a ce . T hey a r e c e r ta in ly n o te xc luded , e xcep tf o rt h e r e co rded c a se s t h a t h ave a l r eady b een d i scu s sed . B u t i t s e em s t o m e t h a t t h e c a se s w hen w omen a r e e xp l ic i t ly i n c luded i n s a c r if ice s d o n o t h i n t a t a ny g ene ra l r u le s b eh ind t h em . F u r the rmo r e , e ven t h e i r p a r t ic ipa t ion d oe s n o t a dd a ny th ing t o t h e i r s o c ia l s t a tu s . I ti sr a the r t h e i r s t a tu s t h a t d e te rm ine s t h e i r p a r t ic ipa t ion i n t h i s e xp r e s s ion o f r e l ig iou s l i f e . T h i s i s o bv iou s i n t h e f o l low ing n on -A then ian c a se : a t T ha so s , i n t h e c e remon ie s c e leb ra ted e ve ry o t he r y ea r i n h onou r o f A thena , w ho i s c onnec ted w i th t h e f am i l ie s o f t h e f ounde r s o fP a ro s , ' ma r r ied w omen a l so t a ke p a r t i nt h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e p or t ion s ' .8 5 T h i s c l au se s e em s t or e f e r o n ly t ow ive s ( y uvaiKeg ) a nd , u ndoub ted ly , f i r s t o fa l lt h e w ive s o f t h e c i t izen s w ho a r e m embe r s o f t h o se ' c oun t r ie s ' t h a t t a ke t h e p l ace o ft r ibe s a nd p ha t r ie s . T he r e s t r ic t ion i s m o r e e xp l ic i t i n t h e o l de s t A t t ic s t a tu te c oncer n ing t h e o rgeone s ,8 6 m embe r s o fc e r ta in r e l ig iou s c onf ra ter n i t ie s , i n w h ich t h e t e rm s o f d i s t r ibu t ing t h e s a c r if i c ia l m ea t s a r e s e t o u t : t ot h e o rgeon e s p r e sen t g oe s o ne p o r t ion ; t ot h e i r s on s , h a lf ap o r t ion ; a nd t ot h ew ive s o f t h e o rgeone s , t h e f r ee o ne s (Aeüeepa 0 , a n e qua l ( i a c tia ) s ha re ; t ot h e i rd augh te r s , ap or t ion t h a t i sn o t l e s s t h an h a lf T he r e i so ne f i na l d e ta i l : t h e p o r t ion m ean t f o r t h e w ive s i s e n t ru s ted t o t h e m an ( C t vjp ) a nd n o th ing i n d ica te s t h a t t h e c l au se r e f e r s t o t h o se w om en w ho a r e a b sen t . T hu s aw oman 's e qua l i ty w i th r e spec t t om ea t i s s ub jec t t ot wo c ond i t ion s t h a t d e te rm ine t h e l im i t s o ft h e h i dden c i t izen sh ip o f f r ee w om en w ho a r e l awf u l ly w edded w ive s . T he w om en g a in t h e i r s t a tu s t h rough t h e i r h u sband s . I ti st h e m en w ho a c t a s m ed ia to r s n o t o n ly b e tw een t h e i r w ive s a nd t h e d i v ine w o r ld , b u t a l so , b ecau se o ft h e c i v ic s i de o ft h e s a c r if i ce , b e tween w omen a nd t h e i rp a r t ic ipa t ion i nt h ep o l i s -concep t . Wi tchcraf t A s t udy o f w omen 's i n vo lvemen t i n t h e w o r ld o f t h e d i v ine a nd m e taphy s ica l s hou ld n o t o ve r look w i t chc raf t . L i te ra ry e v id ence i n d ica te s t h a t , a l though p ra c t ice s o ft h i s k i nd w e re w ide sp r ead d u r ing t h e H e l len i s t ic p e r iod , t h ey w e re n o t a ta l u nknown t ot h e G reek s o ft h e 5 t h c en tu ry . I n f a c t , i fP l iny i st o b e t r u s ted o r h a s b een p rope r ly i n te rp r e ted ( N .H . 3 0 .8 ) , t h e G r eek s e mb ra ced t h e n ew ' mon s t rou s a r t ' o f m ag ic w i th n o l i t t le e n thu s ia sm , a s e a r ly a st h e f i r s t d ecade s o ft h e f i f th c en tu ry . O u r e a r l ie s t e x tan t m a te r ia l e v idence f o r m ag ic i n G r eece d a te s t o c i r ca 4 00 BC : f ou r b ound l e ad ' v oodoo ' d o l l s — e a ch e nc lo sed w i th in al e ad b ox i n scr ibed w i th ab i nd ing c u r se — w e r e r e cen t ly d i scove red i n t wo d i f f e r en t g r ave s i n K e rame iko s . A sH . P a r ry s ay s( 1992 ) , i ti sp uzz l ing e nough w hy b e l ief i nm ag ic r ema in s s ot e nac iou s i n at r ad i t iona l c u l tu r e w he r e i t s c l a im s t ow o rk m i rac le s a r e d a i ly u nde rm ined b y r e su l t s . I t i s e ven m o r e

A thena io s ,D e ipno soph i s ta i , 1 38f 139b . M . D e t ienne ( 1979 ) ,p .1 42 . P he rec ra te s , f r .6 4K ock = A thenaeu s6 12 a b . C f M . D e t ienne ( 1979 ) ,n .9 5 ,o np .2 48 . L SA ,n o . 6 1 , 5 10 . L SA ,n o . 6 1 , 9 . C f J .B renune r( 1994 ) ,p .7 8 .

2 2

8 5

C .R o l ley ,( 1 964 ) ,p p . 4 4 1

8 6

L SG ,S upp l . ,n o . 2 0 , 1 7 -23 .

p uzz l ing i n G reece w he re r a t iona l t hough t w a s as t er n c r i t ic o fm ag ic 's c l a im s a nd a p e r sua s ive a l ter na t ive t om ag ica l m e thod s . O ne m u s t a s sume t h a t m ag ic a lway s o f f e r s p sy cho log ica l s a t i sf ac t ion s , a nd t h a t m age ia p rov ided m any G reek s , e ven p e rhap s i nA then s i nt h e e a r l ie r , c onf iden t d ecade s o f t h e f i f th c en tu ry , w i th s a t i sf a c t ion s d en ied t o t h em b y r a t iona l t h ough t a nd i ndeed b y r e l ig ion i ni t s mo s t a n t imag ica lg u i se . P e rhap s t h i s p rov ide s ag u ide t oi n ve s t iga t ing t h e r o le o f w omen i nG r eek m ag ic ; t h i s w i l l b e d ea l t w i th l a te r o n i n t h ep re sen tc hap te r . W i tchc raf t , a s w e s ha l l s e e , i sn o t v e ry r emo te f r om r e l ig ion ; i to f f e r s i mm ed ia te a s s i s tan ce t o h uman s , i n o rde rt of u lf i lt h e i rd e s i re sa nd a tt h e s ame t ime i th e lp st o p e r suade t h e g od s t o p u t t h e i r p owe r s a tt h e s e rv ice o f h uman s ; a nd m ag ic d oe s n o t d i f f e r f r om r e l ig ion i n i t s r e la t ion t oi t s g od s . I n ev i tab ly , d i f f e rence s b e tw een m ag ic a nd r e l ig ion a r e l e s s t h an c r y s ta l c l ea r i nm any as oc ie ty , i n c lud ing a r cha ic G reece . T h e e s sence o f b o th i s t h e s upe rna tu ra l , w h ich c an b e e voked a nd a pp roached v i a s pec if i c r i tua ls . T he u nde r ly ing d i f f e rence i s— i tc ou ld b e a r gued — t h a t a n a t temp t t o a pp roa ch t h e g od s t h rough r e l ig ion d oe s n o t g ua ran tee r e su l t s ; t h e g od s d o n o t a lway s r e spond t o p ray e r s o r s a c r if ice s . I n m ag ic , h ow eve r , t h e k now ledge a bou t t h e p rac t ice o f c e r ta in s e c re t r i tua ls c an b i nd t h e g od s o r d emon s s o t h a t t h ey m igh te xe rc i se t h e i rp owe r s i no ne 's f a vou r . T he mo ra l i ty o f s u ch p rac t ice s i sp e r ce ived a s d oub tf u l . T he ref o re m ag ic i so f t en t h ough t o f a s a n t i the t ica l t o r e l ig ion a nd d ange rou s t o mo ra l i ty , a nd s or e lega ted b y i t s e nem ie s t o s ome u noff i c ia l o r e ven i l ega l s t a tu s i ns oc ie ty . I n f a c t , t h e mo s t ' e n l igh tened ' a ge o f a n c ien t G reece , t h e f i f th a nd f ou r th c en tu r ie s , s aw t h e e n t r enchmen t o f mag ic a sa f o r ce t o b e r e ckoned w i th , i n sp i r ing P la to t o s om e e x t r eme ly h o s t i le o b serva t ion s a nd e ven p ropo sa l s f o r s ubm i t t ing i tt ot h eh a r sh i n te rv en t ion o ft h el aw . Ap rob lem c oncer n ing m ag ic i nG r eece i st h a t n obody i s c e r ta in w he the r i tw a s n a t ive o r n o t — a nd t h i s m igh t h ave s ome th ing t o d o w i th i t s a mb iva len t s t a tu s a nd mo ra l i ty . T he G r eek s t h em se lve s o f t en t h ough t t h a t w i tchc raf t w a s ' impo r ted ' f r om t h e E a s t : t h e g r ea te s t my th ica l w i tch , Medea , w a s n o t G reek ; s he w a s b or n i n K o lch i s . I fA e schy lu s p r e sen t s t oh i s a ud ience as c ene o f n ec roman cy , w i th t h e r e su r r ec t ion o f t h e d ead , t h i s h appen s i n h i s P er sa i , w he r e t h e c ho ru s c a l l s t h e d ead k ing D a re iu s ; i td oe s n o t h appen i n G reece . T he re a r e h oweve rt r ace s o fw i tchc raf ti nt h e O d y s sey a nd t h eI l iad , a l though H ome r k now s n o l a nguage f o r ' mag ic ' a nd ' r e l ig ion ' ; h e k now s o n ly m en a nd g od s w ho c an ' e nchan t ' o r c a s t ' s pe l l s ' , w he the r t o h e lp o r t o h a rm o t he r s . B u t t h e re w a s K i rke s t and ing s omewhe r e b e tween ag odde s s a nd aw i tch ; a nd w i tche s t r ave l led t h rough t h e c en tu r ie s a nd t h rough my th s a nd r e a ched t h e w i tche s o f

T he s sa ly , f amou s d u r ing t h e c l a s s ica l p e r iod .8 7 T he se a r e f i r s t m en t ioned b y A r i s tophane s ( N ub . 7 49 -52 ) . When t h ey a ppea r o n t h e s c ene o fG reek h i s to ry w e c anno t s ay , n o r c an w e k now f o r c e r ta in w he the r m oon m ag ic w a s p rac t i sed o r e ven k nown i n G reece , n o r w he the r i t b rough t t h e T he s sa l ian s i s te rhood i n to b e ing o r m e r e ly a dded i t se lf t op r e -ex i s ten t s k i l l s . We c anno t k now i ft h e w i tche s o f A r i s tophane s p r ef igu re o r m i r ro r a n a nc ien t p rof e s s ion o f w om en s k i l led i n p rov id ing u nu sua l s e rv ice s , b u t i nh i s d ay s a tl e a s tt h e T he s sa l ian s c ha rged a f e e ( A r i s t . C loud s , 7 49 -52 ) . Menande ri nt h et h i rd c en tu ry BC w ro te ap l ay c a l led T he t ta le , w h ich i sp robab ly t h e n ame o f aT he s sa l ian c ou r te san . T he p i ece w a s a bou t w omen w ho d r ew d own t h e moon , P l iny t e l l s u s ( NH . 3 0 . 7 ) , b u t t h e p i t if u l r ema in s o f t h e p l ay i t se lf a dd n o th ing t o t h a t m eag r e i n f o rma t ion . P la to , a l so , r e f e r r ed c l ea r ly t op e r ipa te t ic m ag ic ian s w ho p e rf o rm k a tad e smo i , b ind ing s pe l l s , f o r ap r ice ( Rep . 3 64c ) . H ow eve r , t h o se m ag ic ian sw e re m en , n o tw omen . P inda r i n f o rm s u s a bou t l o ve s pe l l s a nd ' e ro t ic ' w i tchc raf t i nt h e 5 t h c en tu ry .8 J a son h a s t ow in t h e l o ve o f Medea , i no rde rt ot a ke t h eG o lden F l eece ; a nd t h e C ypru s -bo rn G odde s s , w ho g ov er n s t h e p o in ted a r row s , f r om O lympu s s end s f o r t h e f i r s t t ime l ynx" t o t h e h uman s , t h e d app le - f e a the r ed b i rd t h a t d r ive s t h em m ad , t i ed o n a n u nb roken f ou r rayed w hee 1 .9 ° T he w hee l h a s t h e p ow e r o f am ag ic c i r c le : a s t h e w i tch t u rn s i tt h e s ou l o f t h e m an /u nf a i thf u l l o ve r i sc augh t a nd d r awn a l ong w i th i ta nd c ha rmed t oo bed ience . O na n a gge ion f r om l a te 5 t h c en tu ry w e c an s e e t h e mo the r o fa y oung A then ian g i r l , o n t h e d ay o f h e r d augh te r 's w edd ing , s i t t ing a nd s p inn ing a r ound a s t ick t h e ' mag ic c i rc le ' t h a t w i l l b r ing t o t h e n ew c oup le t h e g if t s o f A ph rod i te .9 1 I n t h e t h i rd c en tu ry T heoc r i tu s c r ea ted t h e P harmak eu t r ia i , ' w i t che s ' . Ay oung w oman w ho se l o ve r h a s a bandoned h e r i sd e te rm ined t o l i e ' h im w i th h e r w i th s pe l l s . S he a sk s f r om h e r s l ave b ay b r anche s a nd p h i l t re s a nd t h en s h e i n voke s v a r iou s d iv in i t ie s , a mong w hom a r e S e lene , H eca te a nd Medea , a nd t h en s i ng s t h is m ag ic r e f ra in t h a t k eep s t h e r hy thm a tt h e s p in s o f h e r 1 5 6 0og , t h e w hee l w i th t h e b i rd s : l ynx , b r ing t o my

T hey w e r e t hough t c apab le o f d raw ing t h e moon d own o n e a r th , w h ich o f f e red a n e xp lana t ion f o r l u na r e c l ip se s ( P la to , G org ia s ,5 13a ) . 8 8 H eb e l ieve st ha tw i tchc raf tw a sa ni n ven t ion o fA ph rod i te a nd n o to fH eca te . C f P inda rP y th ian I V . 8 9 l ynx , i st h e b i rd ` w ryneck ' , k nown f o r i t s a b i l i ty t o t u rn i t s h ead a l l a r ound , t hu sc onnec ted w i th t h ew hee l . We s e et h a ti ti s ' t i ed o n t h e Whee l ' , a nd p e rhaps t h e n ame l ynx c om e s t om ean t h ew ho le b i rd -whee l . C f M . D e t ienne ( 1977 ) . 9 0 P inda r ,P y th ian I V , 2 13 2 15 . 9 1 J .d el aC en ire ( 1956 ) ,p p . 2 7 -35 . 8 7

2 3

h ou se t h e b e loved m an ' . A s f o r h e r s ong , i tg oe s l i ke t h i s : ' A s Im e l t t h i s c and le w i th t h e h e lp o ft h e g odde s s , l e t M inyo s D e lph i s m e l t f r om l o ve . A nd a s t h i s c oppe r d i sc s p in s s w if t ly w i th t h e e ne rgy o fA ph rod i te , l e t h im t ur no u t s ide my d oo r . '

f r om t r aged ie s ; p l ay s l i ke t h e Med ea m igh t s how t h e u se o fm ag ic b y aw oman , b u t t h i s w oman i sn o t G r eek ( t h i s i s t h e s a f e ty v a lve o f t h e p l ay ) . C e r ta in ly o u t s ide o f C om edy m ag ica l r e f e rence s a nd a s sump t ion s d o n o t l o om l a rge i n t e x t s o f t h e e n l igh tened a ge . B u t t h e t e x t s t h em se lve s l i k e ly r e p re sen t t h e m ino r i ty o p in ion o f t h e i n te l lec tua l e l i te . I tw ou ld b e v e ry i n te re s t ing t os t udy t h e d i f f e r en tc ha ra c te ro fC om edy a nd T ragedy ; t h i s i s ap o in t t h a t w i l l b e d i scu s sed a ga in . F o r t h e t ime b e ing w e c ou ld o n ly s pecu la te o n w he the r t h e r ef ined c ha ra c te r o f t h e l a t te r d i d n o t a low i t t o i n c lude t h em e s t h a t w e r e c on s ide r ed i mmo ra l a nd d ange rou s e xcep t a s n ega t ive e xamp le s : a s w i l l b e a rgued l a te r , Medea , i n t h e h omonymou sp l ay , s e rve se xa c t ly a s ab ad ' e xamp le ' .

I n h i s He ta ir iko i D ia logo i ( 1 a nd 4 ) L uc ian h in t s a tt h e d ev ice so fe r o t ic w i tchc raf t : B u t , T ha i s , d o y ou t h ink t h a t h e c ho se G o rgo b ecau se o f h e r b eau ty? D on ' t y ou k now t h a t C h ry sa r ion , h e r mo the r , i s a w i tch a nd s he k now s T he s sa l ian s pe l l s a nd s he c an e ven b r ing t h e m oon d own t o e a r th? I ndeed , t h ey s ay t h a t a tn i gh t s s he f l ie s i nt h e a i r . S he d rove t h e m an m ad b y g i v ing h im t od r ink f r om m ag ic h e rb s .9 2

We h ave s e en i n t h e p r e sen t c hap te r t h a t w omen m ay s e em ' v i s ib le ' i n r e l ig ion , b u t t h i s v i s ib i l i ty i s i n f a c t c on t ro l led a nd ' n a r row ' . I n m ag ic t h e r o le o fw omen i s n o t d rama t ica l ly d i f f e ren t . T h i s v i ew i ss t r eng thened b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c a se s o f m ag ic , r e po r ted e i the r i n l i t e ra tu r e o r d r ama , a r e t h o se o f w om en o n ly . T h rough w i t chc raf t w om en a t temp t t o g a in p ow e r i n a r ea s t h a t o f f e r n o o t he r p owe r s . R e l ig ion d id n o t s e em t o c omp rom i se t h e b a t t le o ft h e s exe s f o r c on t ro l ; m ag ic , a s a s o r t o f r e l ig iou s E n 6Xo, s ugge s ted a n a r ea w he re w omen c ou ld a ch ieve u n supe rv i sed p rom inence . Y e t , t h e m e re a t temp t o fw omen t os e ek a r ea s o t he r t h an r e l ig ion i no rde rt oc hange t h e i r s ubo rd ina te s t a tu s c onf i rm s t h a ti t w a s m e re ly e s cap i sm . A sc r ib ing m ag ic t y p ica l ly t o w omen i sa lmo s t a n a dm i s s ion o ft h e i rp owe r le s sne s s ; t h e a mb iva len t m o ra l i ty o fm ag ic d id n o t m ake t h ing s e a s ie r . T he d ocum en ta t ion o f m ag ic i n G reece p r esen t s i ta s s ome th ing l ow , f i t t ing o n ly t oc ou r te san s a nd f o re igne r s ; e ven t h en i t s p r ac t ice i si mmo ra l a nd i t s e f f ec t ivene s s d oub tf u l . F u r the rmo re , i t s u se d oe s n o t a l te r t h e s oc ia l s t a tu s o rt h e r i gh t s o ft h o se w omen w ho m igh t e mp loy i t . H . P a r ry s ay s :

I n 4 , L uc ian t a lk s a bou t a no the r h e ta i ra , Me l i ssa , w ho a sk s h e r f r iend B acch i s , w he the r s he k now s o f ag ood w i tch a b le t o m ake h e r l o ve r d e s i re h e r a ga in . B a cch i s o b l ig ing ly i n f o rm s h e r a bou t a n ' o ld w i tch f r om S y r ia , w ho i su sef u l , s t i l l s t rong a nd w e l l -compo sed . ' B acch i s g oe s o nt oe xp la in t h e m ag ic t h a t t h e S y r ian u sed i no rde r t om ake B acch i s ' l o ve r , F an ia s ,r e tu rn t oh e r . X enophon d e scr ibe s t h e i n c iden t o fS oc ra te s ' v i s i t t ot h e b eau t if u l T heodo te , w ho w a s ' s o e a sy , t h a t s he g ave h e r se lf t o a ny o ne w ho d e s i r ed h e r . '9 3 S o c ra te s o f f e r s t o t e a ch h e r h ow t o h un t d own ' f r iend s ' t o s uppor t h e r f i nanc ia l ly . B u t , h e c omp la in s j ok ing ly a bou t h i s m any m i s t re s se s w ho d o n o t a l low h im t o l e ave t h em d ay o r n i gh t , a s t h ey l e ar n ed f r om h im a bou t l o ve p h i l t r e s a nd o t he r m ag ic t h ing s . T heodo te , t h en , a sk s S oc ra te s t ol e nd h e ra nl ynx , s ot h a ts he c an m ake h im d e s i re h e r . ' Id on o t w an t y ou t o a t t ra c t m e , b u t Iw an t y ou t o c ome t o m e y ou r se lf . ' Iw i l l c om e , S oc ra te s ' , s h e s ay s , ' Ip rom i se y ou , a s l o ng t h e re i sn o o ne e l se n ea r m e w hom Iw ou ld l o ve mo re t h an y ou . '

T he b a lance o f m a le a nd f ema le r o le s i n A rcha ic G reece w i l l h ave m ade p ro tomag ic an a tu ra l a nd a ppea l ing o u t le t f o r m any w om en , n o t l e a s t t h o se o ff r u s t ra ted e ne rgy a nd i n te l l igence . N o r i si tu n th inkab le t h a t c er ta in d i s tu rbed o r e ven m ad w omen m igh t t h em se lve s h ave h i gh ly e xagge ra ted c l a im s . . .A t t h e s ame t ime , o u r e v idence s e em s l a rge ly t o my tho log ize t h e f ema le w ond erwo rke r . I n a ny c a se , w he the r t y ped p e jo ra t ive ly a s p o lypharmako s b y m a le p r e jud ice o r s o s e lf iden t if ied , t h e f ema le w onderwo rke r o fA r cha ic G reece a nd a f te r w a s a n i mpor tan tr e a l i ty , r ende r ed m a rg ina l i no ne w ay o r a no the r a ga in s t t h e s t anda rd o f m a le o r thodoxy , a nd s o t h ough t o f a s m o r e d ange rou s ly p owe rf u l t h an s he c an e ve rh ave b een i ne ve ryday l i f e .9 5

O f c ou r se t h i s a necdo te c anno t b e v e r if ied . Wha t i s i n te re s t ing , t h ough , f r om a l l t h e se s t o r ie s , i s t h a t w i tchc raf t a nd e spec ia l ly e r o t ic m ag ic s e em s t o b e p opu la ro n ly a mong h e ta i ra i .9 4 T he r e i st h e c a se o fJ a son ; b u t i n t h i s c a se t h e G odde s s h e r se lf o f f e red h im t h e m ag ic p o t ion w i thou t b e ing i n vok ed b y aw i tch . A s f o r t h e e mp loymen t o fw i tchc raf t b y w omen , w e c anno t r u le o u t t h a t r e spec tab le w omen d i d n o t u se i t , i n o rde r t o s e cu re t h e a t ten t ion s o f t h e i r h u sband s o r l o ve r s . H oweve r , l i t e ra tu re d oe s n o t p re sen t t h em u s ing s uch m ean s , a n e mpha s i s t h a t p robab ly s e rve s d i dac t ic p u rpo se s , a sl i t e ra tu r e o f t en d oe s . Mag ic i sa lmo s t a b sen t L uc .H e t . D ia . 1 . X en . Memor ,I I I , 2 . 9 4 I n t h e c a se o ft h e P harmak eu t r ia i , w e d o n o t r e ad a ny s uch i n f o rma t ion . B u t w e k now t h a t S ima i tha l i ve s a l one w i th h e r s l ave , w h ich i sv e ry u ncommon f o r ad ecen t , u nma r r ied g i r l . A nd i n L uc ian 's f i r s t d i a logue , t h e n ame o f t h e mo the r i s C h ry sa r ion ; f ema le n ame s i nt h e n eu te r g ende r w e re c ommon f o rh e ta ira i . 9 2 9 3

9 5

2 4

H . P a r ry ( 1 992 ) ,p p . 3 0 -31 .

I ng ene ra l , w e s hou ld n o t ice t h a tw i tchc raf ti n5 t h c en tu ry A then s r ema ined a ts om ewha t ' c h i ld i sh ' l e ve l s , c ompa red t oi t s f l ou r i sh ing d u r ing H e l len i s t ic a nd R oman t im e s . I n 5 t h c en tu ry A then s t h e p r edom inan tw ay f o ra sk ing — o r d emand ing — t h e g od s ' a s s i s tance , w a s s t i l l v i a t h e e s tab l i shed r e l ig iou s m ed ia , i . e . s a c r if ice s a nd p raye r s i n r e tu rn o fd iv ine h e lp . F rom w ha t w e h ave s e en s of a r , w omen 's i n vo lvemen t i n r e l ig ion i s s u rp r i s ing ly c i r cum sc r ibed . A pa r t f r om w omen 's r i gh t — a nd a tt h a t , n o t e ven a r i gh t f o r a l l w omen — t op a r t ic ipa te i nt h e c u l t s o ft h e o i kos a nd t h e p o l i s , t h e re i sn o th ing t h a t i n d ica te s p rom inence . Wom en a r e s t i l l c on t ro l led , a s much a sp o s s ib le , b y m en , e ven i f t h ey o ccupy h i e ra t ic p o s i t ion s ; a nd mo s t o ft h e a c t iv i t ie s i n w h ich t h ey p a r t ic ipa te e mpha s i se e i th e r t h e i r n a tu ra l a s soc ia t ion w i th f e r t i l i ty ( wh ich i sa l so c onnec ted w i th m a r r iage ) o r t h e i r p l ace w i th in t h e h ou seho ld a nd t h e i r i n f e r io r p o l i t ica l s t a tu s . T h ey d o n o t e ar nr i gh t s , a nd t h e e xe r c i se o fc e r ta in — a lway s ' h a rm le s s ' — p r e roga t ive s c an h a rd ly q ua l if y a sp rom in en ce . I nf a c t , t h e i r s t a tu s n o t o n ly r ema in s f u ndamen ta l ly u na l te red i n t h e s phe re o f r e l ig ion , b u t i ti st h e i r p re -de te rm ined a nd c i r cum scr ibed s oc ia l s t a tu s i t se lf t h a t a l low s t h em c e r ta in r e l ig iou s p r e roga t ive s . F rom r e l ig ion t od rama T he s o c io re l ig iou sw o r ld o fA then s i sw ha tg i ve s b i r th t o d r ama . T he i n t r ica te b ond b e tw een r e l ig ion a nd d rama i s h i gh l igh ted b yt h ef a c tt h a td r ama i st h eo n ly o t he ra r ea o f p ub l ic l i f e w he re w omen a ppea rp rom inen t . T he d rama t ic s t age o fA then s i sf u l l o fw om en w ho d ev ia te f r om t h e i d ea l i mage w h ich w a s s e t f o rt h em i nr e a l l i f e a nd w h ich , a s w e h ave s e en , w a s r e f lec ted i nt h e i r p a r t ic ipa t ion i n r e l ig iou sp rac t ice s . C ou ld d rama p r e sen t ad i f f e r en t i mage o fw om en f r om t h a tf ound i nr e l ig ion? G reek r e l ig ion h ad l i t t le o rn o th ing t od o w i th t h e b u i ld ing o fe t h ic s . I tw a s a n i n teg ra l p a r t o f s oc ia l l i f e , b u t i f i th ad a s oc ia l f unc t ion , t h i s w a s t h e r e inf o r cem en t a nd s anc t ion ing o f t h e c u l tu ra l i d eo logy t h a tt h e A then ian p o l i s i n co rpo ra ted . T ak ing i n to a ccoun t t h e n o rma t ive a t t i tude t h a t r e l ig ion u phe ld r e ga rd ing g ende r i s sue s , w ou ld i tb e p o s s ib le t h a t d rama — d eep ly i n co rpo ra ted i n t h e p o l i s ' r e l ig iou s s phe re — w a s l ef tu n check ed t op r e sen t ad i f f e r en t v i ew o fw omen 's p o s i t ion w i th in t h ep o l i s? C ou ld r e l ig ion , a n i n s t i tu t ion t h a t s e rved t op re sen t t h e c u l tu ra l i d eo logy o f t h e p o l i s , s uppo r t a no the r i n s t i tu t ion ( t rag ic d r ama ) t h a t u nde rm ined t h e f ounda t ion so ft h es o c io -po l i t ica l s t ab i l i ty o f t h e c ommun i ty ? T he se a r e t h e q ue s t ion s t h a t w i l l b e a dd r e s sed i nt h e f o l low ing c hap te r s , b ym ean s o fa na ly s i s o f an umbe r o f t r aged ie s . We s h a l l b eg in — a s w a s o u t l ined a bove — w i th c a se s w h e r e i s sue s r e la t ing t o r o le reve r sa l a r e r e la t ive ly c l ea r -cu t , a nd s ha l l t h en move t owa rd s m o re p rob lema t ic c a se s . O n t h i s b a s i s , w e t ur n f i r s t t o ap l ay p e rf o rmed a t t h e v e ry e nd o f t h e 5 t h c en tu ry : E u r ip ide s 'B acchae .

2 5

Af rag i le p o l i t ica lb a lance : A e schy lus 'S upp l ian t s . K a i ' TÖV x op6v ö gg va ö e rü noKaßery ev ü 7 1 0Kpr r i bv , K a ii c ip lOV e i va t TOO ÖÄ0U, KO to uva y c ovggaea t t ii b o r tgp E üp tn iö r jd ü v \ '6 1 )c r r tsp Z o c p oKAg r , -w ig ö gn oXXoiç T aa öö l ieva o üögv l a i f u \ AC VT OOg üeou ic ' i t ÄÄng -r pay c pö ia tOTIV. 1

A r i s to t le 's v i ew o ft h e w ay o ne s hou ld r e ga rd t h e c ho ru s i n ad rama t ic p e rf o rmance i so fp a r t icu la r s i gn if icance i n t h e a na ly s i s o f A e schy lu s ' S upp l ian t s . I t e p i tom ize s A r i s to t le 's i n te rp re ta t ion o fc ho ra l p e rf o rmance s d u r ing a p e r iod w hen p l ayw r igh t s w e r e b eg inn ing t od ownp lay t h e c horu s .2 F rom t h e p o in t o fv i ew o ft h e p r e sen t t r ea tm en t , i t r a i ses m a t te r s o f m e thodo logy w h ich r e qu i re c l a r if i ca t ion . Mo re s pec if i ca l ly , s i nce t h e a im o f t h is c hap te r i st o d e te rm ine t h e p a rad igma t ic q ua l i ty o f t h e D ana id s , i ti sn ece s sa ry t or e la te b r ie f ly w hy t h ey d emand a nd a ch ieve t h e k ind o f a t ten t ion u sua l ly a t t r ibu ted t o s i ng le p ro tagon i s t s .

f un c t ion a s a c to r s ; T he S tagecraf t o f A e schy lu s ( 1 977 ) t r ea t s t h e c ho ru s a s a r t icu la to r s , p a s s im , a s a c to r s , 6 9 -70 , 2 515 2 . T homa s R osenm eye r , T he A r t o f A e schy lu s ( 1 982 ) , s e e s e ven A e schy lu s ' c ho ru se s a s i n te rm i t ten t ly s hedd ing t h e i r r o le a s a c to r s t o a s sume a g ene ra l ized c ho ra l i d en t i ty i ndependen t o f t h e i r a ge , s ex , a nd s o c ia l s t a tu s a nd o f o n s tage e ven t s , a nd s ha red w i th a l l t h e o t he r c horu se s , 1 45 -87 , p a s s im a nd p a r t icu la r ly 1 63 , 1 73 , 1 79 -80 ( n . 3 ,p .2 3 ) .

I n o u r a t temp t t oe va lua te t h e D ana id s i ti sn ece s sa ry t o e xam ine t h e d r ama t ic s t a tu s o f t h e s upp l ian t s . T he r e i s g r ea t d iv e r s i ty a mong m ode rn s cho la r s ' o p in ion s a bou t t h e d rama t ic s t a tu s o ft r ag ic c ho ru se s . Ag ood s umma ry c an b e f ound i n ar e cen ta r t ic le b yH . B acon ( 1994 ) , f r om w h ich Iq uo te t h e mo s ti n f luen t ia lv i ew s :

F o r t h e p u rpo se s o f t h e p r e sen t r e sea rch t h e c horu s o f s upp l ian t s w i l l b e c on s ide red n o t a s am e r e t h ea t r ica l c onven t ion b u t a s ac o l lec t ive p ro tagon i s t . I td oe s n o t t a k e l o ng t oe xp la in w hy . I nt h ep l ay t h a tw e e xam ine , t h e r o le o ft h e c ho ru s i sf a r f r om s e conda ry t ot h a t o fa ny o f t h e o t he r p rom inen t c ha ra c te r s . T he D ana id m a iden s n o t o n ly i n i t ia te t h e d r ama t ic a c t ion , b u t u p t ot h e e nd o ft h e p l ay d e te rm in et h ep lo t a nd d om ina te t h e s t age . T he ref o r e t h ey a ch ieve t h e s t a tu s o f a mu l t i -f a ced , s i ng le -vo iced m a in a c t re s s , a nd t h ey w i l l b e t r ea ted a s s uch . T h i s a pp roa ch i si na c co rdance w i th G reek v i ew s o n d rama t ic c horu se s , a sH . B acon p o in t s o u ti nh e ra r t ic le . S he a r gue s t h a t f o r a nc ien t G r eek a ud ience s t h e c en t ra l i ty o ft h e n ow v an i shed mu s ic a nd o ft h e c ho ru s i sn o ti nd oub t , w he r ea s f r om a mod er n p e r spec t ive i ta ppea r s s e conda ry t o t h e f a te o f i n d iv idua l a c to r s . ' Th i s p ape r a r gue s t h a t G reek a ud ience s w ou ld h ave e xpe r ienced t h e c ho ru se s o fG r eek d r ama a s a n a tu ra l a nd n ece s sa ry f o rm o f h uman i n te ra c t ion w h ich t h ey h ad w i tne s sed a nd p a r t ic ipa ted i n s i nce c h i ldhood , as oc ia l r e a l i ty , r a the r t h an t h e a r t if i c ia l a r t i s t ic c onven t ion t h ey s e em t ou s . '4

Mo s t r e cen t s cho la r s s t a r t ing w i th Wa l te r K ranz i nh i s monumen ta ry s u rvey o f l y r ic p rac t ice i n t r agedy ( S ta s imon : U n ter suchungen z u F orm u nd G eha l t d er G r iech i schen T ragöd ie , B e r l in 1 933 , p . 1 7 1 , 1 82 , 2 20 -22 ) , h ave t e nded t ot r ea t t h e c horu s ' r o le a s m ixed , p a r t a c to r , p a r t p e rf o rme r , o r s ome c omb ina t ion o f p e r iphe ra l f unc t ion s , s u ch a s p oe t 's m ou thp iece , a r t icu la to r o f a c t ion t h rough l y r ica l i n te r lude s , m ed ia to r b e tween a ud ience a nd a c to r s , a nd s o o n .3 O l ive r T ap l in , i ns p i te o fh i s s a lu ta ry e mpha s i s o n p e rf o rmance , t r ea t s t h e c ho ru s p r ima r i ly a s a r t icu la to r o f a c t ion r a the r t h an a s p a r t ic ipan t s ( G r eek T raged y i n A c t ion 1 978 , p . 1 3 ) : " i t i s. .t h e p l ace o f c ho ra l s ong t o move i n to a d i f f e ren t w o r ld , a d i f f e r en t r eg i s te r , d i s t inc t f r om t h e s pec if i c e ven t s o ft h e p lo t ." O n ly i nA e schy lu s d oe s h e a cknow ledge t h a t t h ey c an , o cca s iona l ly

H av ing t h i sp o in t c l ea red d oe s n o tm ean t h a t a l l o b s tac le s a r e r emoved f r om t h e p a th l e ad ing t ot h e e va lua t ion o f t h e p l ay . A lmo s t e ve ryone w ho i sf am i l ia r w i th G reek t r agedy i s a wa re o f t h e p rob lema t ic n a tu re o f t h is p a r t icu la r p l ay . O ne o fi t s m o re m a rked c on t rove r s ie s i s i t s a c tua l d a te . O p in ion s h ave b een d i ve r se f o r m any y ea r s . T he d i scove ry o f ap apy ru s h a s n o t f ur n i shed u s w i th a n u nd i spu ted d a te .5 A . G a rv ie o f f e r s a n i n d i spen sab le a ccoun t o f t h e p apy ru s a nd i t s n o t i n con s ide rab le p rob lem s ( c h . 1 ) . Ad a te i nt h e l a te 4 60 's i s a ccep ted b y G a rv ie a s p robab le a nd t h e p apy ru s ' r ema in s t h e o n ly e x ter n a l a nd o b jec t ive e v idence f o r t h e d a t ing o f t h e t r i logy , a nd i t s i n f o rma t ion m u s t b e

A r is t .P oe t . XV I I I 7 ,1 456a . H . B a con ( 1 994 )p .7 . 3 U sef u l s umma r ie s o f t h e s cho la r sh ip i n M . K ann io , T he C horu s o fG reek D rama w i th in t h e L igh t o ft h e P e r son a nd N umber U sed ( Commen ta t ione s H umanarum L i t te rarum 4 6 [ 1 970 ] S oc ie ta s S c ien t icarum F enn ica ) 9 17 , a nd C yn th ia P . G a rd ine r , T he S ophoc l ean C horu s : AS tud y o fC harac ter a nd F unc t ion ( I owa C i ty , 1 987 ) 1 7 ( t he f oo tno te i sq uo ted f r om H . B acon 's a r t ic le ) . 1

2

4 5

2 6

S ee n .2 . O xy . P .2 0 , 1 952 ,2 256 f r .3 .l b .

O p in ion s h ave n o t c hanged d rama t ica l ly i n t h e l a s t s even ty o r s o y ea r s . S om e o f t h e mo s t n o tewo r thy i n te rp re ta t ion s s i nce 1 958 h ave b een P od leck i 's ( 1966 ) w ho s aw i nt h e p l ay ap i ece o fp o l i t ica l p ropaganda f o r t h e s ake o f A rgo s ( pp . 4 2 -62 ) , W inn ing ton Ing ram 's ( 1983 ) , w ho i n te rp re ted i ta sa ne xp lo ra t ion o fh uman a nd d i v ine i n te r r e la t ion sh ip s , a nd , m o s t r e cen t a nd r e levan t t o t h e p re sen t r e sea r ch , Z e i t l in 's ( 1992 ) w ho f ound a q ue s t ion ing o f t h e d i sm i s sa l o f w om en 's r i gh t s b y m a r r iage a nd a n e xp lo ra t ion o ft h e g ene ra l a mb igu i t ie s o f w omen 's s oc ia l s t a tu s i nt h e c ommun i ty ( p . 2 05 ) — a n

a ccep ted ' .6 T h i s o p in ion i ss ha r ed b y A . P od leck i ( 1966 , p .4 2 ) , H . K i t to ( 1985 , 3 rd e d . , p .2 )a nd R . W inn ing ton I ng ram ( 1983 , p . 5) .7 H ow eve r , c h rono logy i sn o t t h e o n ly o b scu r i ty c once rn ing t h e p l ay . S ince t h e s e cond a nd t h i rd p a r t s o ft h e t r i logy a r e l o s t ( e xcep t f o r ac oup le o f f r agm en t s ) , i ts e em s t h a t a ny i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e D ana id t r i logy mu s t r ema in c on jec tu ra 1 .8 T he d e ta i l s o ft h e s t o ry c an b e f ound i nv a r iou s p e r t inen tt e s t imon ia , c o l lec ted b y G a rv ie ( 1969 , p . 1 63 ) . 9 Moder n s cho la r s h ave c ome u p w i th s eve ra l d i f f e r en t i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e p l ay . A s R . Mu r ray J r . ( 1958 , p . 3 ) l i s ted t h em u n t i l 1 958 , ( 1 ) t h e s t rugg le o ft h e D ana id s a ga in s t m a r r iage ; ( 2 ) t h e f o rma l e s tab l i shmen t o f t h e i n s t i tu t ion o f m a t r imony a nd t h e c oncom i tan t c hange i n t h e s t a tu s o f w omen ; ( 3 ) t h e e man c ipa t ion o fw omen ; ( 4 ) t h e q ue s t ion o ft h e r i gh t o f w om en t o r e f u se f o r ced m a r r iage ; ( 5 ) t h e s anc t i ty o f m a r r iage ; ( 6 ) t h e q ue s t ion o fe xogamy v e r su s e ndogamy ; ( 7 ) t h e r i gh t s o ft h e s upp l ian t ; ( 8 ) t h e c on f l ic t b e tw een d i v in e c u s tom a nd h uman l aw ( 9 ) t h e c on f l ic t b e tween h uman r i gh t s a nd d i v ine o rd inan ce w h ich i sn o t y e t f u l ly e xp r e s sed i n h uman l aw s , c u s tom s a nd n eed s ; ( 10 ) t h e w i l l o f Z eu s , w h ich b r ing s h a rmony o u t o f c hao s .1 °

a r ea w he re t h e n o t ion o f p ow e r , K pärog , i s ac en t ra l i s sue .1

A . G a rv ie ( 1969 ) ,p .1 62 . R . B eck ( 1975 ) a rgued f o r a n e xac t d a te , 4 63 B . C . ( p . 1 370 ; h i sr e a son ing s ound sp l au s ib le , a l though h ei st o o e age rt ol a be l A e schy lu s ' p o l i t ica lb e l ief sd u r ing t h el a te 4 60 's ( pp . 1 37 -38 ) . 8 T he t e x t o ft h e s u rv iv ing p l ay i sb ad ly c o r rup t . W i thou tb e ing s u re t h a t t h e n ame ` Dana id s ' a pp l ie s t o t h e p l ay o r t h e w ho le t r i logy , i ts e em s c er ta in t h a t t h e f i r s tp l ay w a s o u r S upp l ian t s ( ' k i r tbeg ) ; i ti sl e s s c e r ta in , t hough h igh ly p robab le , t h a t t h e

6

7

s e cond p lay w a s A A , fü r r rt o (W inn ing ton Ing ram , 1 983 , p . 5 5 ) a nd t h e t h i rd w a s A ava iösg ( Ga rv ie , 1 969 , p . 1 63 ) . F rom t h e s e cond p l ay o n ly o ne w o rd s u rv ive s ( f r . 5 ,s imp ly t h e n ame o f Z aypeüg ) a nd f o r t h e l a t te r w e h av e o n ly t e n l i ne s s poken b y A ph rod i te h e r se lf , o nt h eu n ive r sa lp ow e ro fl o ve ( f r . 1 25 M ) . 9 T he d e ta i l s o ft h e s t o ry a r e g i ven i np s . -Apo l lodo ru s i .I .4 f . ; H yg inu s ,F ab . 1 68 a nd 1 70 ; P au san ia s i .1 5 . 5 ;1 6 . 1 ;1 9 . 3f . ; 2 0 . 7 ;2 1 . 1 ;2 4 . 2 ;2 5 . 4 ;3 7 . 1a nd 2 ;3 8 . 2a nd 4 ;i i . 1 2 . 2 ;v i i . 2 1 . 1 3 ; x . 1 0 . 5 :b yt h e s cho l ia s t a tH ome r , I l iad A 4 2 ( quo t ing g enu ine A po l lodoru s ) a nd Ä 1 7 1 : b yE u r ip ide s , O r e s te s 8 71-3 , a nd f r s . 2 28 a nd 8 46N ; a nd t h e s c ho l ia s t a tA e schy lu s , P . V . 8 53 , E u r ip ide s , H ecuba 8 86 , O re s te s , 8 57 , 8 7 1 , a nd 9 32 : b y P inda r a nd t h e s cho l ia a tN emean s x . 6( 10 ) a nd P y th ian s i x . 12 ( 1 95 ) f . : b yO v id ,H ero id e sx i va nd H o ra ce , Od e si i . I :b y t h e s c ho l ia s ta tS t a t iu s , T heb . i .2 22 a nd v i . 2 69 : a nd b yS e rv iu s o n A ene id x .4 97 . I n a dd i t ion t h e r e a r e s c a t te r ed r e f e rence s i n o t he r a u tho r s . T he s t o ry o f Amymone , w h ich A e schy lu s t r ea ted i nh i s s a ty r -p lay , i sa l so k nown f r om m any s ou r ce s , a nd t h e se a r e c onven ien t ly l i s ted b y F raze r i nh i s e d i t ion o fA po l lodo ru s ( Loeb e d . , 1 92 1 , i .1 38 n .2 ) . 1 0 T he se a r e , i n o rde r , t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion s o f ( 1 ) U l r ich V on W i lamow i tz - Moe l lendo rf f , A i schy lo s I n terpr e ta t ionen ; ( 2 ) G eo rge T hom son , A e schy lu s a nd A then s , ( 3 ) A . S ue s skand , T inf uhrung i n d i e H ike t iden d e s A e schy lu s ' , B er l iner P h i lo log i sche W ochen schr i f i4 0( 1 920 ) , c o ls . 7 38 -44 a nd 7 6 1-8 ; ( 4 ) D . S . R obe r t son , ' The E nd o f t h e S upp l ice s T r i logy o f A e schy lu s ' , C la s s ica l R ev iew 3 8 ( 1924 ) p p . 5 1 -3 ; ( 5 ) P au l Ma zon ,E schy l e ,p p . 3 11 ; ( 6 )W i l l iam R idgeway , T he O r ig in o f T raged y ,p . 1 93 ; ( 7 )J . Vu r the im ,A i schy lo s 'S chu t zf lehend e ; ( 8 ) H an s B ogne r , D er T rag i sche G eg ensa t z , p p . 1 04 -39 ; ( 9 ) K u r t V on F r i tz , ' D ie D ana iden T r i log ie d e s A ischy lu s ' , P h i lo logu s 9 1 ( 1 936 ) , p p . 1 2 1-36 a nd 2 49 -69 ; ( 10 ) J .T . S heppa rd , ' The

T he D ana id T r i logy , e ven i nt h e o ne p lay t h a t r ema in s a nd i n t h e t a n ta l iz ing f r agmen t s t h a t h ave c om e d own t o u s , . . s e em s t oc ha l lenge t h e t e rm s o ft h a t d eba te a s i t c onf ron t s t h e mo s t e l em en ta ry q ue s t ion s a bou t g ende r r e la t ion s a nd t h e r o le s a s s igned t o e ach i n t h e s oc ia l i mag ina t ion . B y s o d o ing , i t u se s t h e a r che typa l c onf ron ta t ion b e tw een f e a rf u l m a iden s a nd l u s tf u l s u i to r s t oh e igh ten a nd c l a r if y b o th t h e g ene ra l p o s i t ion o f m a r r iage a nd t h a to fm a r r iage i ns oc ie ty .1 2

Z e i t l in 's e x ten s ive a nd i n s t ruc t ive a r t ic le c on ta in s i n te l lec tua l m a te r ia l t h a t w i l l b e o f t en a dd re s sed i nt h i s c hap te r . My a im i st or e inve s t iga te t h e i d ea o ft h ep l ay a s ac r i t ique o ft h e d ome s t ic a nd s oc ie ta l a spec t s o fm a r r iage a nd t oe xam ine i t s c ha rac te r iza t ion w i th in t h e f r am ewo rk o ft h e ' g ende r -no rma t ive p l ay s ' t h a t h ave b een e xam ined i nt h ep r ev iou s c hap te r s . A s h a s a l ready b een s a id , t h e l o s s o ft h e s e cond a nd t h i rd p a r t o f t h e t r i logy i s ac on s ide rab le d rawback t o o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e p l ay . T h i s d oe s n o t m ean t h a t t h e m ean ing o f ap l ay w a s n ece s sa r i ly i n f o rmed b y w ha t f o l low ed n ex t , o r t h a t i ti n f o rm ed w ha t w a s t o f o l low . W inn ing ton Ing ram ) s ugge s t s t h a t , a s i n t h e O re s te ia , A e schy lu s mu s t h ave c a r r ied o ve r i n to t h e f o l low ing p l ay s t h eme s t h a t w e r e i n t roduced i nt h e f i r s t p l ay o ft h e Dana id s ' t r i logy .1 3 T he s am e o p in ion s e em s t ob e s ha red b y Z e i t l in , t o o , a s s he u se s t h e O re s te ia a s ap a ra l le l t o t h e Dana id s t r i logy . S im i la r v i ew s a r e e xp re s sed b y R . B eck ( 1975 ) . H e s ugge s t s t h a t A e schy lu s ' p l ay s f i ti nt h e s ame mou ld . ' A g r ea t m o ra l t r an sg re s s ion i n v i te s n eme s i s , t h e h a t red o f g od s . N eme s i s a lmo s t a lway s s ucceed s a t e . I n ev i tab ly t h e s e cond p l ay i s a bou t t h e p un i shm en t o f t h e t r an sg re s so r . When t h e t r i logy e nded f i r s t S cene o ft h e S upp l ian t s o fA e schy lu s ' C la s s ica l Q uar ter ly 5( 19 11) ,p p . 2 20 -29 . 1 R ega rd ing t h i s i d ea , Z e i t l in i s i n f luenced b y V e rnan t ( ` Ten s ion s a nd Amb igu i t ie s i nG reek T ragedy ' ; i nJ . -P . V e rnan t a nd P .V ida l -Naque t , ( 1972 )— t r an s . J .L loyd ,N . J e r sey , 1 98 1 , p p . 6 -27 ,3 2 . 1 2 F .Z e i t l in ( 1992 ) ,p .2 04 . 1 3 R . W inn ing ton Ing ram ( 1983 ) ,p .5 6

2 7

t h e g l oom h a s l i f ted , b u t b ef o r e i ti so ve r come b y t h e s un l igh t t h e re i s aj udgmen t , t h en a p e r sua s ion t o r e conc i le , r e conc i l ia t ion , a nd f i na l ly , h omono ia a nd h armon ia ' ( p . 1 32 ) . H oweve r , t h e p rob lem i st h a t , a sw e k now f r om t h e o t he r e x tan t p l ay s , A e schy lu s f e l t f r ee i n h i s a dap ta t ion o fs t o r ie s a nd my th . B eck p o in t s o u t t h a t i n t h e D ana id s ' s t o ry s ome w e l l -known p a r t s w e re om i t ted ( f o re xamp le , t h e r e i sn o m en t ion o fD anau s a nd P e la sgu s q ua r re l ing ) .1 4 T . R o senmeye r i s mo re c a tego r ica l .1 5 H e d i sag ree s w i th t h o se s cho la r s w ho a r e o f t en t oo w i l l ing t o b e l ieve t h a t ac onnec ted t r i logy m ean s ac on secu t ive t a le a nd am ean ingf u lc onc lu s ion i nt h et e rm so ft h et a le . B u t i f w e l o ok a t L iba t ion -Bearer s a nd E umen id e s w i thou t p reconcep t ion , i t i s o n ly t oo a ppa ren t t h a t t h e p l ay s d o n o t r e a l ly f o rm as i ng le t a le s o much a ss c ene s f r om a l a rge r c y c le , c ho sen p e rhap s f o r t h e i r a dequacy t o t h e c en t ra l i d ea o f t h e t r i logy , b u t n o t n ece s sa r i ly b ecau se t h ey f i t t oge the r i n a n u nb rok en c ha in . I t i s c once ivab le t h a t t h e t r ea tmen t i n t h e D ana id t r i logy w a s e ven m o re e p i sod ic . T o s ugge s t t h a t " f rom m any p a s sage s i t i s c e r ta in t h a tt h ef a te o ft h ec i ty o fA rgo sw i l l b e o fs ome c oncer ni nt h e f o l low ing p l ay s " i s l i ke g ue s s ing t h a t b ecau se A rgo s i s i mpo r tan t i n t h e f i r s t t wo p l ay s o f t h e O re s te ia i tmu s tb e i mpo r tan t i nE umen id e s a l so ,w h ich i so n ly v e ry p a r t ly t r ue .

a way , b u t h e f a i l s o w ing t ot h e i n te rf e r ence o fP e la sgu s . T he p l ay e nd s w i th f o rebod ing s o f e v i l s t o c om e . T he g i r l s , l e d b y D anau s t ot h e s he l te r p repa r ed f o r t h em b y t h e A rg iv e s , s i ng t h e p ra i se s o ft h e r e scu ing l a nd . T he i r h andma iden s b ecome a s epa ra te c ho ru s a nd c oun se l r e spec t f o r A ph rod i te , w ar n ing t h a t Z eu s m ay n o t g r an t a l lt h e i rd e s i r e s . T he q ue s t ion s t h a t c oncer n u s s e em e a sy t o r e cogn ize . A re t h e D ana id s w rong o r r i gh t t o f l ee f r om ( t he s p ec if ic? ) m a r r iage? Wha t a r e t h e i mp l ica t ion s o f t h e i r d ec i s ion ? H ow w ou ld a n A then ian a ud ien ce h ave r e a c ted t o t h e s t age a c t ion? I n w ha t w ay i s A then ian c i v ic i d eo logy t h rea tened b yt h e i mage t h e D ana id sp ro jec t? T he f i r s t q ue s t ion i s am an if o ld o ne a nd d emand s aw ide a pp roach . N a tu ra l ly , m any s cho la r s b r ing i n to t h i s q ue s t ion t h e c r i t ique o ft h eb roade rc oncep to fm a r r iage .1 6 T he t h em e o f m a r r iage i s o bv iou s ly p rom inen t i n t h e S upp l ian t s . A spec t s o f s exua l i ty w i th in m a t r imony a r e c ha l lenged a nd i n ap a ra l le l w ay p ro jec ted t h rough a c r i t ique o fg ende r a nd s oc ia l i s sue s (W inn ing ton Ing ram , 1 983 ; Z e i t l in , 1 992 ) . H oweve r , i ti sn o t r e a l ly e a sy t o d r aw d ef in i t iv e c onc lu s ion s a bou tt h e c oncep to fm a r r iage a s i ti sp r esen ted w i th in t h e p l ay . W inn ing ton Ing ram s ugge s ted t h a t t h e S upp l ian t s a l one i sn o t s uff ic ien t t o r e so lve t h e m a t te r ." A nyhow , i tm igh t b e s upe rf luou s t o t r y t o s e e i n t h e p l ay / t r i logy A e schy lu s ' c r i t ique o f m a r r iage p er s e . We s hou ld s t ay f o cu sed o n t h e s u rv iv ing p l ay , w h ich g i ve s u s e nough i n f o rma t ion t oe xam ine t h e p o ten t ia lm a r r iage a th and .

T he ref o re w e mu s t b e c au t iou s a bou t a ny a t temp t s t o r e con s t ruc t t h e m i s s ing p a r t s o ft h e t r i logy . I ti s ap i ty , a nd y e t ac ha l lenge , t h a t t h i s p l ay d emand s s o o bv iou s ly t h a t i t s m i s s ing s eque l s b e p rope r ly e va lua ted . S u rp r i s ing ly o r n o t , s cho la r s a r e n o t d e te r red f r om s pecu la t ing a bou t t h e t r i logy — e ven i f s om e (W inn ing ton Ing ram , 1 983 , p . 5) d oub t t h e p rudence o f s uch a n u nde r tak ing . W i thou t u nde re s t ima t ing t h e i mpo r tan ce o f ap o s s ib le — o r a t l e a s t p l au s ib le — r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e t r i logy l e tu sc oncen t ra te o nt h ep l ay i n h and a nd e xam ine t h e r o le o f t h e w omen w i th in i t , f o cu s ing o nt h e i rr e p re sen ta t ion a sf em in ine p a rad igm s o n b o th ad om e s t ic a nd as oc ie ta ll e ve l .

F i r s t o f a l l , t h e a r gumen t s o f t h e g i r l s t h em se lve s n eed s pec ia l c on s id e ra t ion . A t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e p l ay t h e g i r l s s i ng o f . . . y dw tov Ai y ü r r rou r t a iöwv &m i l t ) ' ovo-r a6 i _ iev c tL . b va r cg dw ieva l , T ucke r

1 0

S u re ly t h e g i r l s ' d e scr ip t ion o ft h e u n ion a s ' imp iou s ' i s b a sed o n g round s o f t h e i n ce s tuou s n a tu re o f s u ch a m a r r iage . T hey c a l l o nZ eu s : i 5eC reW ö ' ciç ü ßp L Vf i p6-r c tov , o r ( a yv e dKe tn uep t iv ö t' d t päv y e tpov , -r e eaK i og b uorapaßoüÄo t a t c p pec r iv , K a i öi d l y° t a vd l Äc d tv K gv rpoy X WV d t c puK-r ov ä r te r ravi . tc-r aAyoü.

T he p lo t o f t h e s u rv iv ing p l ay m ay b e s umma r ized a s f o l low s : D anau s a nd h i s f i f ty d augh te r s a r r ive a tA rgo s f l ee ing f r om t h e f i f ty s on s o f A egyp tu s , t h e b ro the r o f D anau s , w ho w an t t o m a r ry t h e i r c ou s in s b y f o rce . O n t h e i r a r r iva l a t A rgo s t h ey r e que s t a sy lum o f k i ng P e la sgu s . T he k i ng , i n a n e xh ib i t ion o f s up reme ly d emoc ra t ic s p i r i t , c on su l t s h i s p eop le , w ho a g ree t o a ccep t t h e s upp l ian t s . T he s on s o f A egyp tu s a r r ive a t A rgo s a nd t h ey d i spa t ch a h e ra ld w ho a t temp t s — a nd h e re o u r t e x t i sb ad ly m u t i la ted — t o t a ke t h e w omen

1 05

A s B eck p u t s i t( p . 1 44 ) ' Ae schy lu s w a s b u sy w i th a s su r ing t h e a ud ience t h a t w ha t m igh t b e t h ough t a n o rma l d e s i re w a s a' p erve r se d e s i re ' ( 1 . 1 06 ) h e ld b y y oung m en w ho se r e so lve w a s ' c razed ' ( 1 . 1 07 ) . T h i s i sa v e ry i mpo r tan t s t a temen t . T he v a l id i ty o f s u ch a c l a im

1 4 T he r e w e r e an umbe r o f r e f e rence s t o t h is q ua r r e l i n t h e l i t e ra tu re . C f .G a rv ie ( 1969 ) ,p .1 64f f ; E . Wo lf f( 1958 ) ,p p . 19 3 9 . 1 5 T .R o senmey e r( 1982 ) ,p .3 4 1 .

1 6

E .g . M . D e t ienne ( 1988 ) ,p p . 1 59 175 . C f . W inn ing ton Ing ram ( 1983 ) , p . 7 1 , ' How p r ec i se ly h e d ea l tw i th m a r r iage a sa ni n s t i tu t ion w ec anno ts ay ' . 1 7

2 8

o fd e l ica te p sycho log ica l c ha rac te r d raw ing , b u t Id o n o t t h ink t h a t t h e p o in t , a l though p o ten t ia l ly i n s t ruc t ive , c an b e v e r if ied . A nyhow , t h e r e a son s t h a t l e d t h e g i r l s t o r e f u se m a r r iage t o t h e i r c ou s in s mu s t h ave b een m o re c omp lex t h an an a tu ra l a ve r s ion t o i n ce s t . T he i r f a the r 's a t t i tude t o a l l t h i s s e em s t o h ave b een a f a c to r t o b e c on s ide red . L ine s 1 0 17 m ak e c l ea r t h a t i tw a s D anau s ' i d ea t o f l ee t o A rgo s . N eve r the le s s , i th a s a l ready b een s t re s sed t h a t t h e r e f u sa l o fm a r r iage w a s ' t he i r o wn a c t ' ( 1 .8 ,& XX 'c t ü-r oycv5 c p ugavopk i t ) .

c ou ld s hape t h e m ean ing o ft h e w ho le p l ay . Why s hou ld t h e a ud ience n eed t ob e p e r suaded t h a t t h e d e s i re o ft h e A egyp t iad st om a r ry t h e i r c ou s in s w a sp e rve r se? We c an r i sk t h e d educ t ion t h a t E gyp t ian c u s tom s w e r e d i f f e ren t f r om G reek o ne s , e spec ia l ly m a t r imon ia l c u s tom s .1 8 H ow eve r , w he the r i n ce s t w a s c ondemned b y E gyp t ian c u s tom i sd i ff icu l t t o v e r if y , u n le s s w e t u rn t o G a rv ie 's a ccoun t ( p . 2 16 ) : ` . . i tw a s e a r ly r ema rked b y S t an ley t h a t t h e G reek s h ad n o s c rup le s a bou t m a r r iage b e tween f i r s t c ou s in s , w h i le i n E gyp t ian r u l ing c i r c le s i tw a s n o rma l f o rb ro the r t om a r ry s i s te r .1 9 M o r eove r , h ad t h e re b een a ny s uch q ue s t ion o f i n ce s t i tw ou ld h ave b een i mpo s s ib le f o r L ynceu s a nd H ype rme s t ra t o h ave t h e i r m a r r iage c onf i rm ed a tt h e e nd o ft h e t r i logy ' .2 ° T h i s l ef t a s ide , o ne w onde r s a tt h e l o g ic o ft h e g i r l s ' e voca t ion : h ow w ou ld o ne p ray f o r d e l ive r ance f r om i n ce s t t o t h e g od w ho m a r r ied h i s o wn s i s te r ? S u re ly , i th a s b ecom e o bv iou s o f t en i nt r aged ie s t h a t h uman l aw s a nd mo ra l i ty n eed n o t c o r re spond t o t h e c e le s t ia l e x i s tence o f d i v in i t ie s . B u t t h e a ppea l s e em s t o m e p u re ly c onven t iona l t o t h e p o in t o f r h e to r i sm . Z e i t l in ( 1992 ) r a i se s a n i n te r e s t ing p o in t c oncer n ing Z eu s . S he b e l ieve s t h a t t h e D ana id s ' s upe r impo se t h e p r imo rd ia l f a the r f i gu r e u pon t h e i r a nce s to r ( Zeu s ) a nd v i ew t h a t f a the r i n t e rm st h a tm ay a l so s ugge s t t h e r o le o f as exua l l o ve r ' ( p . 2 26 ) .2 1 . .' The o ne w i sh , h ow eve r , t h a t t h e D ana id s m ay n o t e xp r e s sd i r ec t ly i sa ne r o t ic d e s i r ef o rZ eu st h a ts e em s t ou nde r l ie t h e l a nguage o ft h e i ra ppea l sa nd i si n he ren ti n t h e c l u s te r o fa s soc ia t ion s s u r round ing t h e i r s upp l ica t ion ' ( p . 2 27 ) . Z e i t l in s ay s ( p . 2 48 ,n .8 5 ) t h a t ' o the r s , t o o h ave r ema rked o n t h i s e r o t ic a t ta chm en t t oZ eu s , a l though i na s om ewha t d i f f e ren t c on tex t a nd w i thou t c l o se t e x tua l s uppor t : Mu r ray ( 1965 , p . 1 9 ) , C a ldwe l l ( 1989 , p p . 5 7 6 1) .2 T h i s d e s i re , i ts hou ld b e a dded , i s mo re s i tua t iona l t h an p sy cho log ica l . ' I fZ e i t l in i sr i gh t , t h en a n i mpo r tan t p o in t c ou ld b e i n f e r r ed : i f t h e D ana id s ' i n ce s tuou s f e e l ing s t owa rd s Z eu s w e re m ean t t ob e p e rce ived b y t h e a ud ience , t h e l o g ic b y w h ich t h ey r e jec ted t h e i r c ou s in s w ou ld f a l te r . T he n o t ion i sb a sed o n as k i l lf u l h and l ing o f t h e D ana id s ' p sycho log ica l p o r t ra i t , a l though Z e i t l in s e em s t o d i sag ree . P e rhap s t h i s i sn o t s o i mpo r tan t . B y s ay ing t h i s Id on o t i mp ly t h a tA e schy lu s w a sn o tc apab le

T he s on s o fA egyp tu s d o n o t t a ke w e l l t ob e ing r e jec ted b y t h e i r c ou s in s . E go a nd a mo rou s d e s i re h u r t b y t h e D ana id s ' r e f u sa l t o t h e i r a dvance s , t h e s u i to r s r e ac t i na v e ry u n -gen t leman l ik e m anne r . P r ide a nd v i o lence a r e p rom inen t i n t h e S upp l ian t s ' e voca t ion . B eck t r an s la te s l i ne 3 0 a s ' t he ma le p r ide o f t h e v i o len t s on s o f A egyp tu s ' , i nt h e f a ce o fw h ich t h e g i r l s a sk f o rs anc tua ry ( d tpe revo r rÄ rge l ö '/ f t r i löv ü ßp t o-r iv Ai y ur r royev i i ) .2 3 G i lbe r t Mu r ray ( Comp le te P lay s 2 5 ) w ro te t h a tt h e t h eme o f t h e p l ay i s ' t he n eed t o c omb ine t h e s a c r edne s s o f v i rg in i ty w i th t h e a ccep tance o f m a r r iage ' : i ti sb y t h e f a c t o fl o ve , h e s ay s , t h a ty äµog i sj u s t if i ed , a nd v i o la t ion t r an sf o rmed i n to s a c ramen t . T he t h eme r e ce ive s s pec ia l a t ten t ion f r om Z e i t l in ,t oo . S he w r i te s : A l though t h ey o b jec t t ot h i s m a r r iage b o th b ecau se t h ey d e te s t t h e v i o lence o f t h e i r s u i to r s a nd b ecau se t h ey c on s ide r u n ion w i th c ou s in s af o rm o f i n ce s t , t h e r e i s e nough a mb igu i ty t o s ugge s t t h a t t h e i r a t t i tude mo re g ene ra l ly r ef lec t s av i rg ina l a ve r s ion t ot h e i d ea o f ma r r iage i t se lf a s a f o rm o f v i o lence a nd s ub juga t ion t h a t , s t a r t ing w i th d e f lo ra t ion , d e l ive r s t h em a ga in s t t h e i rw i l l t ot h e p owe r o fm en ( e .g . , 3 92 _ 9 3 ) . 2 4

B u t w hy , a f t e r a l l , d o t h e D ana id s s o f e rven t ly r e jec t t h i s m a r r iage , a nd h ow w ou ld t h e i r r e s i s tance h ave b een v i ew ed b ya na nc ien ta ud ience? An umbe r o f moder nc r i t ic s ( F i she r , 1 992 ; Z e i t l in , 1 992 ) p o in t o u t t h a t w hen t h e g i r l s a r e a sked f o r t h e r e a son s w hy t h ey a r e s o h o s t i le t o t h i s m a r r iage , t h ey a r e g ene ra l ly e va s ive a nd t r y t o j u s t if y t h em se lve s w i th p a s s iona te a rgumen t s a bou t i n ce s t . F i she r ( p . 2 66 ) d i scu s se s t h e s c ene a t l i ne s 2 22 -28 , i n r e la t ion t o t h e c oncep t o f i n ce s t . T he s c ene d e sc r ibe s D anao s a s h e s e t t le st h e g i r l s a tt h e a l ta ra nd c ompa re s t h em t o as wa rm o fd ove si nf l igh tf r om h awk s ,

We c an d a re t oa s sume t h a tD anau s m u s th ave h ad m o r et h an o ne w if e . S ince a l o fh i s f i f ty d augh te r sw e re o fa n a ge s u i tab le f o r m a r r iage ( 1 3 15 y ea r s o ld , a c co rd ing t o G reek c u s tom ) , i t w ou ld h ave b een b io log ica l ly i mpo ss ib le f o r t h em t o h ave t h e s ame mo the r . T hu s , D anau s mu s t h av e c omp l ied w i th e xo t ic c us tom s o fp o lygamy — c omp le te ly f o re ign t o A then ian l aw . T h i s c ome s i n to o bv iou s c on t rad ic t ion w i th t h e c l a im s o n ` G r eekne s s ' , m ade b y t h e g i r l s ( 1 .2 74 -76 ) . O bv iou s ly , t h e g i r ls l a ck k now ledge o f e ven f undam en ta l a spec t s o f f em in ine b ehav iou r i nG r eece . T hey n eed t ob e t o ld b yt h e i r f a the r h ow t o t a lk t o t h e p eop le o fA rgo s ( 1 . 1 96 -97 ) , e ven h ow t o l o ok a r ound ( 1 . 1 98 -99 ) . H er em ind st h em t h a tt h ey a r ei ndeed gvo i , a l ien st ot h is l a nd ( 1 .2 02 ) . 1 9 F o rS t an ley 's a ccoun tc f . R . G a rv ie ( 1 969 ) ,p .2 16 ,n .4 . 2 0 G a rv ie h e re r e f e r st oA .N a than sky ( 19 10 )p .3 6 . 2 1 F . Z e i t l in ( 1992 )p .2 48 ,n .8 3 . 2 2 S ee t h e D ana id s ' n ume rou s r e f e rence s , i mp l ic i t a nd e xp l ic i t , t oZ eu s a st h e l o ve r o f1 o , e sp . 1 5 17 , 4 0 -46 , 2 91-315 , 5 24 -37 , 5 75 -89 ,a nd 1 062 -67 . 1 8

M.

2 3 2 4

2 9

t v oßm a iav c r eßeae 't vä yv c i ). 5 'e agög L b gn eXe L ä 5 .wv g eaee K (pKWV T C OV ä pa rr repwv 9 6 1 3 ( 9 , e xepa iv ö pa ipwv K a i µ La t y öv rwv y evog T Id IVTWV ö 'äVäKTWV T E ÖVÖC KO

R . B eck ( 1975 ) ,p .1 44 . F .Z e i t l in ( 1992 ) ,p .2 05 .

2 25

ä pv t e og ä pv t gn c lg e t ve t yveüc tc p ayo 3v ; n t l ig $ 5' ä vy ag iv e t kouc rav ä kov rog n äpa e t yvög y eVO l T' äV ; F i she r b e l ieve s t h a t t h e a rgumen t t h a t t h e p h ra se u sed o f t h e b i rd s , ' p o l lu t ing y evog ' , p rove s t h a t t h e i n tended m a r r iage w a s ' i nce s tuou s ' b ecau se i tt o o ' p o l lu ted t h e c l o se k i n ' , o r' t he y evog ' , i su nconv inc ing .2 5 T he c ho ice o ft h e s im i le a nd t h e l a nguage u sed c e r ta in ly r a i se s t h e i s sue o f o f f en se s b e tween h uman k i nd red ; b u t t h e e f f ec t i s n o t t o s ugge s t w ha t w ou ld b e b af f l ing f o r t h e a ud ience , t h a t c ou s in -ma r r iage w a s a p o l lu t ion , b u t r a the r t h a t f o r ced m a r r iage , i mpo sed b yv i o lence , w a st h e mo r e h e inou s a nd ' p o l lu t ing ' w hen c omm i t ted b y k in , w ho s hou ld t r ea t o ne a s ' f r iend s ' n o t a s ' e nem ie s '.

E l TO lk pa-r oüa ln aigeg Ai yÜT TTOU GEOEV v ö ie n öKewg , c p äc rKov reg g yyüTaTa y gvoug s i va t ,-r i ge wT oi c r s 5' d t v r me t-I va te gAo t; ö si T o (C IE c p güye t vK C ITä v ö l ioug T oüg O rKOOEV , c b g OÜK g 'XOUC T1 K üpog o üögv d ig : 4a oü .

2 6

I ndeed , i n ce s t w a s n o r e a son t o a ve r t am a r r iage i n A then s . O ne h a s o n ly t ot h ink o fP e r ic le s ' w if e , w ho w a s ar e la t ive o fh i s .2 7 R . J u s t ( 1989 , c h . 5 )c omm en t s o n t h e f r equen cy o fc l o se -k in m a r r iage s , a s t h ey w e re r e co rded i n f i f th a nd f ou r th -cen tu ry s ou rce s . ' Never the le s s , n o s oc ie ty t h a t h a s p roduced s o t e r r ib le ad rama a s O ed ipu s T y rannu s c ou ld b e c on s ide red a s h av ing h ad a n e n t i re ly c omp la cen t a t t i tude t owa rd s t h e q ue s t ion o fi n ce s t ' ( J u s t , p . 7 6 ) . I ndeed , t h e r e w e re c e r ta in p roh ib i t ion s t h a t w e re c on s ide r ed u nw r i t ten l aw s . S exua l i n te r cou r se b e tw een p a r en t sa nd c h i ld ren a nd t h e i ra s cendan t sa nd d e scendan t s w a s f r owned u pon .2 8 H oweve r , t h e l aw o f e r t ikÄnpog o f t en c ompe l led t h e u n ion o f c l o se r e la t ive s . R . J u s t ( 1989 , p . 9 40 o f f e r s av e ry e x ten s ive a ccoun t o f t h e r e levan t r u le s . A s aq u ick r em inde r Iw i l l o n ly r e pea t t h e f o l low ing : t h e r u le s g onvern ing t h e K up L e ta a nd t h e m a r r iage o fa ne t-TM-wog a r eb road ly s peak ing p a ra l le l t o t h o se g ove rn ing t h e i n her i tance o f a n e s ta te , f o r t h e e n i iv \ r ipog w a s r e a l ly a n a t tachmen t t o t h e e s ta te r a the r t h an a n h e i re s s . Am an c ou ld b equea th h i s p rope r ty a nd o i kos t ow hom soeve rh ew i shed ,p rov ided t h a th e m a r r ied h i s d augh te rt ot h a t m an , w ho , o fc ou r se , a l so b ecame h i s a dop ted s on a nd d i r ec t h e i r . I f , h ow eve r , h e f a i led t ot o b equea th h i s p rope r ty b y a dop t ing t h e m an t ow hom h e m a r r ied h i s d augh te r , o r i fh e d i ed b ef o r e a r rang ing t h e m a r r iage o f h i s d augh te r , t h en t h e f a te o f t h e e p ik leros w a sp ra c t ica l ly t h e s ame a st h e f a te o ft h e p rope r ty i nt h e c a se o f i n te s ta te s u cce s ion : i . e . t h e d augh te r c ou ld b e c l a im ed i nm a r r iage a l ong w i th t h e p rope r ty t ow h ich s he w a s a t ta ched b y h e r f a the r 's c l o se s t m a le r e la t ive w i th in t h e a nch i s te ia ( Ha r r i son , 1 968 , p p . 1 32 -33 , 1 5 1) . W . T homp son ( 1967 , p p . 2 75 -76 ) r e co rd s c a se s w he re t h e l aw a l low s o rd emand s w edd ing b e tw een f i r s t c ou s in s . I n

2 5

h i s a r t ic le h e a na ly se s 1 c e r ta in c a se s o f m a r r iage b e tw een f i r s t c ou s in s i nA then s . Two f a c to r s h ave t ob e t a k en i n to c on s ide ra t ion . F i r s t , t h e n a tu r e o ft h e e v idence : a l l t h e e xamp les T homp son r e co rd s a r e t a ken f r om l i t e ra ry s ou r ce s , a nd n one f r om e p ig raph ica lm a te r ia l , a nd t h ey r e f e r t om a r r iage s o fp eop le f r om t h e u ppe r c l a s se s . S econd , w e a r e i n n o p o s i t ion t o a s se r t w he the r t h e se e l even e xamp le s r e p r e sen t a ny s i gn if i can t p ropo r t ion o f a l l m a r r iage s a mong t h e u ppe r c l a s se s . Y e t , e ven i fw e a r e n o t a b le t o l a y o u t o u r c onc lu s ion s o n as t a t i s t ica l b a s i s , i ti sj u s t if ied t o a ve r t h a t f i r s t c ou s in m a r r iage s w e re a n a ccep tab le p a r t o f A then ian c u l tu re , e ven s anc t if ied b y e s tab l i shed i n he r i tance l aw s .2 9 W i th r e f e rence t o t h e l aw o f e n ikÄnpog , i ti s , Ib e l ieve , o bv iou s i nt h e p l ay i t se lf t h a t t h e i d ea w a s p r e sen ted t o t h ea ud ience a so pen ly a sp o s s ib le :

3 90

T he w o rd s v öw p n öÄe c og a r e u sua l ly t r an s la ted a s ' y ou r c i ty 's l aw s ' ( F . J ohan sen , 1 970 ) , o r ' y ou rc oun t ry 's l aw s ' ( R . B ux ton , 1 982 ) . Is ugge s t t h a t ad if e ren t r e ad ing m igh t b e mo r e e f f ec t ive . v ä t . ty r u iAswg a s i ti s , i n d ica te s n o c l ea r r e f e r ence t oA rgo s o rE gyp t . Ib e l ieve t h a t w ha t P e la sgu s h a s i n m ind a r e t h e l aw s o f G reece ( A rgo s /A then s ) c oncer n ing m a r r iage t o t h e n ex t o f k i n . S o , t h e f o l low ing l i ne s ( 390 1) c onc lude t h e l o g ic o f3 86 8 9 . v 6p c p n 6Aewg h a s mo re f o r ce , i fc on t ra s ted t ov c ipoug T oög o rkoeev . T he m a iden s h ave a l ready h i n ted a tt h e i r l aw f u l r i gh t s ( 5 (Kag . .g yvögou , 3 84 ) . T he k i ng t r i e s t o d e te rm ine w h e the r t h ey a r e l e ga l ly c ove r ed . S o , w ha t h e s ay s i nl i n e s 3 86 -89 i s : ' i ft h e E gyp t ian s h ave p ow e r o ve r y ou , s ay ing t h a tt h ey a r e y ou rn ex to fk i na cco rd ing t ot h e l aw o fo u r c oun t ry , y ou s hou ld r e a l ly t u rn t ot h e l aw s o f y ou r o wn c oun t ry , t os e e t h a t t h ey h ave n o a u tho r i ty o ve r y ou ' . T h i s i si mpo r tan t b ecau se i tr e vea l s t h a t a cco rd ing t o A then ian l aw t h e m a iden s h ave n o c han ce o f l e ga l ly w a rd ing o f f am a r r iage t ot h e i rn ex t o fk i n . P e la sgu s d oe s n o t k now a ny G r eek l aw t h a t w ou ld p ro tec t a i d t h em . A s B ux ton p u t s i t' t he n a tu ra lne s s w i th w h ich t h i s i ss a id i s i ni t se lf ah ef ty b l ow t ot h e ' i nce s t ' t h eo ry o ft h eD ana id s ' m o t iva t ion ' 3 0 I ti sa lmo s t s u rp r i s ing t on o t ice t h a t t h e D ana id m a iden s a r e s o p e r s i s ten t w i th t h i s i n ce s t t h eo ry , i fi n deed n obody — f r om Z eu s w ho s anc t ioned i tb ym a r ry ing h i s s i s te r , t o t h e A then ian a ud ience w ho h ad i tl e ga l ly c ove red — w ou ld s e e s u ch a q ue s t ion r a i sed h e r e . I te ven s e em s u n l ike ly t h a t t h e r e w e re a ny E gyp t ian l aw s t h a t t h e

C f . L .G e rne t( 1981) .

2 9 T he l aw o f n i lo \ r ipog w a s n o t t h e o n ly r e a son f o r m a r r iage b e tween f i r s t c ou s in s . W . T hompson ( 1967 , p p . 2 80 -8 1) s ugge s t s t h a t o t he r r e a son s c ou ld b e af a the r 's c once rn f o r a w o r thy s on in law , o rt h ed e s i re t or e v ive ab ranch o ft h ef am i ly t h a tw a si nd ang e ro fe x t inc t ion . 3 0 R . B ux ton ( 1982 ) ,p .2 10 ,n .1 9 .

C f .J . McK innon ( 1978 ) ,P . 8 0 . 2 7 D .K agan , ( 1990 ) ,p . 1 87 ; P lu ta r ch ,P er ic le s2 4 . 8 )Fo r amo re c au t iou sa pp roach c f W . T homp son ( 1967 ) ,p .2 78 . 2 8 A r is to t le , P o l i t ic s 1 262a ; X enophon , Memorab i l ia 4 . 4 . 2 0 ; P la to ,R epub l ic 4 6 1b ;L aw s 8 38b . 2 6

3 0

D ana id s c ou ld e vok e ( F i she r , 1 992 , p p . 2 66 -7 ) . Ib e l ieve t h a t i ti so bv iou s t h a t s u ch as t ubbor na t ta chmen t t on on e x i s ten tm o ra l o rc i v ic l aw s a dd s t ot h en ega t ive i mage o f t h e D ana id s i n t h i s p l ay . A no the r f a c t t h a t w e igh s n ega t ive ly a ga in s t t h em i st h a t af u l l a ccoun t o f w hy D anau s a nd h i s d augh te r s a r e s od e te rm ined t or e f u se t h e p ropo sa l o ft h e E gyp t ian s i sw i thh e ld i nt h i s p l ay ( F i she r , 1 992 , p . 2 67 ; Z e i t l in , 1 992 , p . 2 27 ) . T he s upp l ian t s ' a r gumen t s a r e c on s tan t ly f u l l o f p a s s ion , b u t t h ey a r e d evo id o f ac onf i rma t ion t h a t E gyp t ian l aw c ondemn s i n ce s t o r f o r ced m a r r iage , o r o f ac l ea r r e a son w hy t h ey d e te s tt h ep ro spec t o ft h i s m a r r iage — a ne va s ive a t t i tude t h a t mu s th ave b een s ugge s t ive t ot h eA then ian a ud ien ce : 1 )1 1 OZ, y svo igav ö noxdp t o g K pä Tsa L Vd tpagv c ov • Ü T O C T tp0V öé T OL t i f iKog 6 pKoga ty ä t . tou ü ngp c ppovog c p uy : t • g ül i f i a x o vö ' Ä ä t . tevog A ikav K pivg a gßag TÖn päg

g i r l s r e jec t m a r r iage s t a temen t .

i n g ene ra l w ou ld b e

a h a s ty

B u t , i fi n ce s t i sn o t t h e r e a l r e a son b eh ind t h e D ana id s ' a t t i tude a nd , i f t h e g i r l s a r e n o t a ga in s t m a r r iage i n g ene ra l , t h en w ha t c ou ld b e t h e l o g ic b eh ind t h e i r a c t ion s? Z e i t l in s ugge s t s t h a t ' t he D ana id s r e f u se m a r r iage w i th t h e i r s u i to r s , a bove a l l , b ecau se t h e E gyp t ian s r e p re sen t a s avage f o rm o f h uman m a le s exua l i ty ' .3 5 T h i s i d ea c ou ld b ecome m o r e c l ea r t ou s , i f w e r e ad i ti n ad i f f e ren t c on tex t . T he p e r s i s ten tp u r su i t o f t h e g i r l s b y t h e i r c ou s in s f i nd s ap a ra l le l i nt h e s t o ry o f T ony Mo r r i son 's H aga r .3 6 A s r e gu la r ly a s t h e n ew moon s e a rched f o rt h e t i de , H aga rl o oked f o r aw eapon a nd t h en s l ipped o u t o ft h e h ou se a nd w en t t o f i nd t h e m an f o r w hom s he b e l ieved s he h ad b een b or n i n to t h e w o r ld . B e ing f i ve y ea r s o l de r t h an h e w a s a nd h i s c ou s in a s w e l l d i d n o th ing t od im h e rp a s s ion . I nf a c t h e r m a tu r i ty a nd b lood k in sh ip c onve r ted h e r p a s s ion t o f e ve r , s o i t w a s mo re a f f l ic t ion t h an a f f ec t ion . . H aga rw a s e ne rg ized b yt h e d e ta i l s o fh e r m i s s ion . S he s t a lked h im . . w hen a ny c on tac t w i th h im a t a l l w a s b e t te r t h an n one , s he s t a lked h im . S he c ou ld n o tg e th i s l o ve ( a nd t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t h e d id n o t t h ink o fh e r a ta l l w a s i n to le rab le ) , s o s he s e t t led f o rh i sf e a r . O nt h o se d ay s , h e r h a i r s t and ing o u t f r om h e r h ead l i ke a t h unde rc loud , s h e h aun ted S ou th s ide . .a nd t h e p eop le w ho s aw h e r p a s sed a l ong t h e w o rd t h a t H aga r " done t o ok o f f a f t e r M i lkman a ga in ." Women w a tched h e r o u t o f t h e i r w indow s . Men l o ok ed u p f r om t h e i r c hecke r g am e s a nd w onde red i fs he ' dm ake i tt h i s t im e . T hey h ad s e en w omen p u l l t h e i r d r e s se s u p o ve r t h e i rh ead s a nd h ow l l i ke d og s f o rl o s t l o ve . A nd m en w ho s a t i nd oorway sw i th p enn ie s i nt h e i r mou th s f o r l o s t l o ve . " Thank G od " , t h ey w h i spe red t ot h em se lve s , " t hank G od I a i n ' t n eve r h ad a ny o f t h em g r ave -ya rd l o ve s ." S o H aga r 's f o ray s w e re p a s ta nd p a rce l o f t h e my s te ry o fh av ing " l if ed " b yl o ve .

3 95

Ib e l ieve t h a tw ha t t h e D ana id s a sk f r om P e la sgu s i s , n o t t oj udge w he the rt h ey a r er i gh to rw rong t of l ee f r om t h e i r s u i to r s , b u tt oj udge w he the rh e h a s t h e r i gh tt ot ur na way s om eone w ho a sk s f o r h e lp i nt h e g od s ' n ame . T hu s t h e D ana id s s h if ta t ten t ion f r om t h e l e ga lj u s t if ica t ion o ft h e i r f l igh t t o t h e r eve ren ce o fd i v ine l aw b y t h e p eop le w ho r e ce ived t h em .3 1 T hey c oun t o n P e la sgu s ' c onf o rm i ty t o r e l ig iou s r u l ing s . A s t h ey h ad p robab ly h oped f o r , h e s ay s , i n as omewha t d ef ea ted t o ne : ' And y e t t h e w ra th o f Z eu s w ho g ua rd s t h e s upp l ian t s c ompe l s my r eve rence ' ( 1 . 4 78 -79 ) . B u t i s t h e p i ou s a t t i tude o f P e la sgu s v i nd ica ted? I n t h e f o r th com ing b a t t le w i th t h e E gyp t ian s t h e k i ng w i l l b e d ef ea ted . T h i s b a t t le ' i s t h e o n ly o ne w e h ea r o f w he r e t h e p ro tec to r o f s upp l ian t s l o se s A eschy lu s c ou ld n o t h ave c ho sen a b e t te r w ay t o h igh l igh t t h e a noma ly o ft h e s i tua t ion : w omen w ho r e jec t am a r r iage a ga in s ta l l aw s ,w r i t ten a nd u nw r i t ten . A s h a s a l ready b een m en t ioned ' t he D ana id s t e l l u s w ha t t h ey d o n o tw an t . Wha t i sn o t c l ea r i sw ha t t h ey d o w an t a s ide f r om t h e i r l im i ted g oa l o f a ccep tance i n to A rgo s a nd p ro tec t ion f r om t h e i r p u r sue r s i nt h e p re sen t c on te s t b e tw een m a le a nd f ema le ' .3 P e rhap s Z e i t l in m i s se s t h e p o in t a tl i ne s 7 3f f , a s G a rv ie i n te rp re ted i t : ' A t 7 8f f . t h e D ana id s a r e s t i l l a b le t o c once ive a m a r r iage t h a t i si n h a rmony w i th j u s t ice ' ( p . 2 23 ) .3 4 S o , t o s ugge s t t h a t t h e 3 1 R . Mur ray J r . ( 1958 ) a r gued t h a t t h e f l igh t o ft h e m a iden s i s b o th mo ra l ly a nd l e ga l ly j u s t if ied ( p . 9 ) . Mu r ray d i spu te s T hom son 's t h eo ry a bou t t h e l aw o fb i l iv \ r ipog b y p o in t ing o u t t h a t ' t he D ana id s a r e n o ty e th e i r e s se s , a nd D anau s h a s b yA t t ic l aw t h er i gh tt ob e s tow h i sd augh te r si nm a r r iage t oh u sband s o f h i s c ho ice , n o t n ece s sa r i ly t ot h e n ex t o fk i n ' ( pp . 8 -9 ) . T h is i s t r ue , b u t , a s h a s a l ready b een s a id , t h e mo s t p l au s ib le e xp lana t ion i st h a t t h e s on s o f A egyp tu s w ou ld h ave h ad n o r i gh tt ot h eD ana id s ' w ea l th ,e ven a f te r a( doub tf u l )d i vo rce . 3 2 N . F i she r( 1992 ) ,p .2 63 . 3 3 F .Z e i t l in ( 1992 ) ,p .2 27 . 3 4 T he i d ea t h a t t h e D ana id s a r e n o t o pposed t o m a r r iage i n g ene ra l i ss ha red b yR o senmey e r( 1 982 , p .1 48 ) : ' Wha tt h ey a r e t r y ing t oe s cape i st h e o ne u n ion w h ich s oc ie ty h a sp repa red f o r t h em ' .

I tw ou ld n o t b e f a r -f e tched t op l ace t h e A egyp t iad s i n to t h i s f r ame o f ' g rave -ya rd l o ve ' . F ru s t ra ted b y t h e i r r e jec t ion a nd t h e p roh ib i t ing k in sh ip w i th t h e D ana id s t h ey c hoo se t o f e a rf u l ly p u r sue t h e i r c ou s in s a c ro s s t h e Med i te r ranean . T he r e i sn o q ue s t ion a bou t t h e c ha ra c te r

F . ZD t l in ( 1992 ) ,p .2 26 . T ony Mo r r i son , S ong o fS o lomon , p p . 1 27 -29 . T he p a s sage i s q uo ted b yH e len B acon ( 1995 , p . 1 0 ) , w ho u se s i tt oh i n t a tt h e c o l lec t ive i d en t i ty o ft h e t own speop le — r e f e r r ed t ob y ' t hey ' , b u te xp re s s ing t h em se lve sb y' I ' . 3 5 3 6

3 1

o f t h e p o ten t ia l s u i to r s . A pa r t f r om t h e c on s tan t r em ind ing o f t h e n a s t ine s s o f t h e i r c ha rac te r b y t h e D ana id s— t h a t o ne c ou ld e ven d e scr ibe a ss ub jec t ive — t h e re a r e ac oup le o f o the r g ene ra l p o in t s t h a t e nhance t h e i rv i o len ti mage . F i r s t o f a l l t h e i r d i s rega rd o f t h e i r c ou s in s ' r e f u sa l t o m a r ry t h em c ou ld n o t h ave b een v i ewed f a vo rab ly , e ven i ft h ey w e re l e ga l ly e n t i t led t ot h i s m a r r iage . T hen , t h e r e i s t h e v e ry i mpor tan t i s sue o f t h e i r d i s r ega rd o f t h e s upp l ian t s — am a t te r w i th w ide r i mp l ica t ion s . J .G ou ld e xp la in s t h a t t h e s upp l ian t s , ' s o l o ng a s t h ey r ema in i n c on tac tw i th t h e i s pöv , a r e ' i nb au lk ' : t or emove t h em b y f o r ce , . .i sc on s t rued b y t h e a c to r s a s ac ha l lenge t ot h e p ow e ro ft h e g od w ho se p ro tec t ion t h ey h ave s ough t ( a nd i nt h i s c a se w ou ld b e p reven ted b y h uman a l l ie s ) ' .3 7 T he s on s o f A egyp tu s d o e xac t ly w ha t i sc on s ide r ed a n a c t a ga in s t h uman a nd d i v ine ai E s o l )g : t h ey d ef y t h e s upp l ian t s , t h e i r p ro tec to r s a nd t h e g od w ho i s s upp l ica ted , Z eu s . A s m en t ioned a bove , t h e p ro tec to r o f t h e s upp l ian t s l o se s t h e b a t t le w i th t h e E gyp t ian s . P un i shmen t , h oweve r , i sn o t f o rgo t ten . T h e m u rde r o f f o r ty -n ine o u t o ft h e f i f ty s u i to r s o n t h e i r w edd ing n igh t c an b e c on s ide red a s ar eve la t ion o f v tmea tg . I t i s , t hough , ak ind o fv egung t h a t w i l l p e rpe tua te i t se lf : t h e mu rde r o ft h e s u i to r s w i l l r equ i re t h e p un i shm en t o ft h e D ana id s i nt h e u nderwo r ld . I nf a c t , d i v ine i n terven t ion i s v e ry d ub iou s i nt h i s p l ay . T he g od s d o n o t s i nk t h e s h ip s o f t h e E gyp t ian s w h i le a t s e a a nd t h ey d o n o t s ave P e la sgu s w hen h e f i gh t s t h e v i o la to r s o f t h e s upp l ian t l aw s . A tl e a s ti nt h ep l ay t h a th a s s u rv ived , t h eg od s s e rve o n ly a s ap o in t o f r e f e rence a nd a s t h e p rov ide r s o f a n e t h ica l t a b lo id f o r h uman i n te ra c t ion . T he i n te rp re ta t ion s o ft h e i rw i l l a r e t o ta l ly h uman , a sa r et h e c ho ice s m ade i n t h i sp l ay . A t t h i s p o in t af ew m o re t h ing s s hou ld b e a dded t ow ha t h a s a l r eady b een s a id i nr e f e r ence t ot h e l aw o fe p ik lero s . T he l aw e nab led t h e n ex t o fk i n t of o rce a n e p ik leros t o d i vo r ce h e r h u sband a th e r f a the r 's d ea th .3 8 I n t h i s c a se , h oweve r , t h e p rope r ty w ou ld h ave r ema ined w i th t h e c h i ld ren o ft h e f i r s th u sband .3 9 P e rhap st h i s o f f e r s a no the r i n s igh t i nt h e E gyp t ian s ' l o g ic : w e h ave a l r eady s e en t h a t t h e D ana id s a r e n o t a ve r se t o m a r r iage i n g ene ra l . P e rhap s t h ey w ou ld b e a b le t o f i nd i n A rgo s h u sband s w ho w ou ld b e mo re a ppea l ing t ot h em . B u t i ft h eD ana id s b ea r c h i ld r en t oo t he r h u sband s , t h e c ou s in s w i l l h ave n o c l a im t o D anau s 's e s ta te . I ti sn o t e ven c e r ta in t h a t t h e n ex t o fk i n c ou ld i na l l c a se s c ompe lt h e d i vo r ce .4 ° I na ny c a se , w he the r i tw a s g r eed , i n f a tua t ion o r m e r e l a ck o f mo ra l p r inc ip le s t h a t d rove t h e E gyp t ian s , t h e re i s n o d oub t t h a t i mage t h a t t h ey r e p re sen t i su nappea l ing . E ven i ft h e a ud ience w ou ld h ave i n i t ia l ly s ympa th ized w i th t h e i r l e ga l c l a im s t o t h i s m a r r iage , t h e c on temp t w i th

w h ich t h e s on s o f A egyp tu s t r ea t d e te rm ine st h e i rf i na lc ha ra c te r iza t ion .

3 8 3 9

4 0

s upp l ian t s

H oweve r , t h e E gyp t ian s a r e n o t t h e o n ly v i o len t c ha rac te r s i nt h e p l ay . I nt h e f o l low ing p age s Iw i l l s how t h a t t h e m a iden s t h em se lve s e xemp l if y ap o ten t ia l f o r v i o lence t h a t o f ten s u rpa s se s t h a t o f t h e s u i to r s . I ti sa n o t ion u sua l ly i g no r ed b y mode rn c r i t ic s b u t t o ta l ly c on s i s ten t w i th t h e p l ay 's c on tex t . P re sum ing t h a t A e schy lu s ' a ud ience w a s f am i l ia r w i th t h e m y tho log ica l b ackg round o ft h e p l ay , t h e g i r l s ' s ub sequen t mu rde r o f f o r ty -n ine o f t h e f i f ty b r ideg room s ( f o re shadow ed f r equen t ly i nt h ep l ay )4 1, m u s th ave d one much t oa l iena te s ympa th ie s f r om t h em .4 2 When h e f i r s t e ncoun te r s t h e m a iden s , t h e k i ng i s s u rp r i sed t oh ea r t h a t t h ey a r e o fA rg ive o r ig in : h ad t h ey b een a rm ed w i th b ow sh ew ou ld h ave t a k en t h em f o rö 'äö ä vävöpoug K peo rk iroug T ' 'A lIC I OVC 1 ( 287 ) , ' t he m an le s s , f l e sh -ea t ing Amazon s ' . A s B ux ton s ay s , t h e c ommen ta to r s ' o p in ion s h ave d i f f e red o ve r t h e e x ten t t o w h ich t h i s s hou ld b e s e en a s a n a pp rop r ia te a na logy .° ' Bu t n o a na logy i se xa c t ; a nd t h e c en t ra l p o in t i st h a t t h e Amazon s , l i k e t h e D ana id s , a r e f undamen ta l ly h o s t i le t o m en ' . I ti s , Ib e l ieve , a ccep tab le t or i sk a s sum ing t h a t t h e s ame l o g ic w a s s ha red b yA e schy lu s ' a ud ience , t o o . L e t u s n ow e xam ine t h e a spec t s o fd i so rd e r c au sed b yt h e D ana id s . O n a n a r row ly d ome s t ic l e ve l t h ey h ave t r an sg re s sed t h e s t anda rd s t h a t A then ian s oc ie ty w ou ld h ave i d ea l ly s e t f o r w om en : a sw e h ave s e en , t h ey r e jec t m a t r imony w i th l e g i t ima te ( i f o n ly b y E gyp t ian s t anda rd s ) s u i to r s , a nd t h ey f l ee n o t o n ly f r om t h e i r h ome s b u t a l so f r om t h e i r c oun t ry . T h e l o g ic o f t h e i r a c t ion s w ou ld n o t h ave b een s ha red b y t h e m a jo r i ty — a t l e a s t— o fA e schy lu s ' a ud ience , a sw e h ave a l ready s e en . T hu s , t h e i mage t h a t t h ey p r e sen t c anno t b e c ha rac te r ized a s p o s i t ive , i fc on s ide red a s d idac t ic f o r g ende r r o le s w i th in t h e f am i ly a nd t h eo i ko s . T he f am i ly a nd t h e o i kos , h ow eve r , a r e , a sc an b e s e en i n o t he r p l ay s ( s ee t h e c hap te r o n t h eA l ce s t i s ) , i n ex t r icab ly c onnec ted w i th t h e e x i s tence a nd c on t inua t ion o f t h e b roade r s o c ia l e nv i ronmen t . T he s ame c an b e s a id f o rt h e S upp l ian t s . ' And w hen i nt h e e a r ly p a r t o ft h e f i r s t p l ay t h e s upp l ian t s c onf ron t t h e A rg ive k i ng w i th t h e i r c l a im s , t h e p rob lema t ic s o f e ros t u rn o u t f r om t h e s t a r t t o b e f i rm ly a t tached t o a nd i n ex t r icab le f r om a p o l i t ica l c on tex t i n w h ich f am i ly b u s ine s s i mmed ia te ly b ecome s a na f f a i ro fs t a te ' .4 B ea r ing t h i s i nm ind , i ti so n ly n a tu ra l t o c on s ide r t h e s oc ia l a nd c i v ic i mp l ica t ion s o f t h e D ana id s ' a c t ion . R emo te E gyp t i st h e p l ace t h a t m u s t h ave f e l t t h e f i r s t i mpac t o f t h e g i r l s ' r e f u sa l o f m a r r iage . C ou ld i th ave

C f e sp . T .G an tz ( 1978 ) ,p .2 79f f . C f K . v on F r i tz ( 1960 ) , p . 1 60f 1 ; R . W inn ing ton Ing ram ( 1983 ) ,p .5 6f f . 4 3 R . B ux ton ( 1982 ) ,p .7 1 , e sp . n . 9a nd 1 0 . 4 4 F .Z e i t l in ( 1992 ) ,p .2 03 . 4 1

3 7

t h e

J .G ou ld ( 1973 ) ,p .8 2 . G . Macu rdy ( 1944 ) ,p .9 5f f . I s aeu sv i i i , 3 1 ; D em . x l v i ,2 0 . W . Wy se ( 1904 ) , o ni i ; c f . a l so 4 2a nd 6 8 .

4 2

3 2

b een d i ff i cu l t f o r a n A then ian a ud ience t o p i c tu re t h e s i tua t ion ? F if ty w omen o fa na ge a pp ropr ia te f o rm a r r iage ( t h i s i sn eve r d i spu ted i nt h e p l ay ) r e jec t f i f ty l e g i t ima te s u i to r s a nd f l ee t h e c oun t ry . E v en i fw e a ccep t t h a t A e schy lu s t r ie s t o c onv in ce h i s a ud ience a bou t t h e ' u nna tu ra l ' n a tu r e o ft h i s m a r r iage ,4 5 t h e f a c tr ema in s t h a t t h e D ana id s ' f l igh t c r ea te s a d i lemma b e tween c onven t iona l mo ra l i ty a nd c i v ic i d eo logy — a tl e a s t b y A then ian s t anda rd s . I r r e spec t iv e o fi d ea s a bou te ndogamy o r e xogamy , t h e D ana id g i r l s ' b ehav io r e n su re s d i so rde r . I mag ine a s o c ie ty w h ich w omen a bandon , i f t h ey a r e p re s sed i n to m a r r iage ; as o c ie ty t h a t f a i l s t o s e cu re i t s a ppo in ted m ean s o f m a in tenan ce a nd c on t inua t ion ; as oc ie ty t h a t h a s t o t u rn t o w a r , i n a n a t temp t t or e s to re w ha t t h e g i r l s h ave u ndone . T h i s i st h e p i c tu r e o fE gyp tt h a tt h eD ana id s ' h in t a t ' w i th t h e i rm e re p r e sence i nf r on to ft h eA then ian a ud ience .

d i spo s i t ion o f P e la sgu s s u rp r i se s t h e s upp l ian t s , w ho h a s ten t or em ind h im t h a t s aÜ TOE TÖÄtg , aÜ 5E TÖ ö sä ll L OV . l ipÜTaV t gZ i Kp

3 70

n og ( I v ,

K pa-r ü ve l 1 3W IJÖV , & 1 111aV x eovög , g ovo t in i c po L ao tv eümaa tv ae 3ev , p ovoaK t i rupo t o t5' b O pövo t gx peög n i f ty tT l i cpc t ivetg . . .

3 75

4 6

T o m e t h is s peech r evea l s n o t o n ly as u rp r i se a sr ega rd s t h e d emoc ra t ic d i spo s i t ion o ft h e k i ng — o ne c ou ld a l so g o a s f a r a s t o s e e h e re a n e f f o r t t o u nde rm ine t h e d emoc ra t ic c on s t i tu t ion — b u t a l so af e a r l e s t t h e p eop le d ec ide a ga in s t t h e s upp l ian t s . A s h a s b een a l ready s a id , t h e s upp l ian t s d o n o t c onv ince t h a t t h ey h ave t h e h uman l aw o n t h e i r s i de , s o t h ey g amb le o n t h e k i ng 's r e l ig iou s r eve ren ce . T h i s h appen s f i r s t ly w i th t h e t r ac ing o f a n ce s t ry t oI o .

H ow eve r , i fE gyp t i sa sk ed t od ea lw i th i t s f a l te r ing c i v ic f ounda t ion s , A rgo s i sf a ced w i th mo r e i mm inen t d ange r s b ecau se o f t h e D ana id s . T he s upp l ica t ion a c t o f t h e D ana id sp o se s am a jo rd i lemma f o rk i ng P e la sgu s . d t i a t ixav t le i bK a i9 68ogg 'e ' xe tc p pevag ö pt iaa i TE g i l ö pä 'aa i TS Ka lTÜX T 1V èXclv .

T he s t o ry o fI oi sp rom inen t i nt h i s p l ay a nd h a s r e ce ived al o t o f a t ten t ion . K i t to ( 1939 ) s a id t h a t t h e s t o ry o f I o p romo te s t h e i d ea t h a t a b so lu te v i o lence a nd u n ive r sa l c hao s a r e g radua l ly r e p la ced b y c a lmne s s a nd o rde r . P lac ing t h i s i d ea n ex t t o t h e t e n l i ne s t h a t w e h ave l ef t f r om t h e f i na lp l ay ( f r . 1 25 M ) , w e c an s e e t h a tt h en o t ion i sv e ry p l au s ib le i n deed .5 ° I tc ou ld r e a l ly b e t h e c en t ra l m ean ing o f t h e t r i logy : j u s t l i ke I o , w ho s uccumbed t o Z eu s ' b e s t ia l p u r su i t b u t t h en f ound h app ine s s , j u s t l i ke t h e e a r th , w ho a ccep t s t h e s ky 's d e s i re a nd t h en b r ing s f o r th f r u i t s ( f r . 1 25 M ) , t h e D ana id s w i l l a ccep t t h e ( s exua l ) v i o len ce o f m a r r iage t h a t s hou ld p rom i se e ven tua l f u lf i lmen t t h rough c h i ldbea r ing a nd t h e p ro spe r i ty o f t h e f am i l ia l h ou seho ld . Mu r ray J r . ( 1958 ) s a id t h a t t h e s t o ry o f I o ' i s i n tended a s a n " a l lego ry" e xp la in ing w i th r ema rkab le c l a r i ty a nd c omp le tene s s t h e c ha rac te r a nd mo t ive s o ft h e D ana id s , a nd i st h e reby t h e u l t ima te v eh ic le o ft h eb a s ic i d ea s e xp re s sed i nt h et r i logy ( pp . 1 5 16 ) . R o senmeye r c ondemn s a ny i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e g i r l s w i th J o , a l though h e a g ree s t h a t ' t he i d en t if ica t ion h e lp s t o d ef ine t h e i r c ha rac te r s .5 I T he p r e sen tt e n se w h ich t h e w om en u se i nt h e f i r s t o de ( 5400 t o t r a ce t h e w ande r ing s o f I o r evea l s t o o c onf iden t a n a s sump t ion t o i d en t if y ' ( p . 1 58 ) . I n te r e s t ing a s i ti s , t h e i d ea o fI o 's s t o ry a st h e e s sen t ia l m ean ing o ft h e t r i logy i s d if i cu l t t o v e r if y d ue t o t h e l a ck o f t h e c omp le te t h i rd

3 80

H e h a s t oc hoo se e i the r t o of e ra sy lum t ot h e s upp l ian t s , t hu s r i sk ing aw a rw i th t h e E gyp t ian s ( 1 .3 43 ) , o rt od eny a sy lum , t h u s e vok ing t h e w ra th o fZ eu s ' kg°.t c : , ( 1 . 3 49 , 4 27 ) . A sw e h ave s e en e a r l ie r , l i ne s 3 92 -96 s how t h a tt h e D ana id sd on o tc onv ince t h e k i ng o rt h e a ud ience t h a tt h e E gyp t ian l aw i so nt h e i rs i de . P e la sgu s c an s e et h i sa nd h e r e a l ize s t h a t t h e d ec i s ion h e i sa sk ed t om ake i sf a r t o o d i ff i cu l t . T hu sh et ur n st oh i sp eop le ( 1 .3 97 -40 1) .V a r iou s s cho la r s h ave i n te rp r e ted t h e se l i n e s a s a n a t temp t t o p ra i se ' r ea l ' A rgo s ' d emoc ra t ic c on s t i tu t ion .4 7 T h i s c ou ld b e b e s ide t h e p o in t . P o l i t ica l p ropaganda o rn o t , t h e f a c t s t i l l r ema in s t h a t l i ne s 3 97 -40 1 a r e c r uc ia l f o r t h e d rama t ic m ean ing . A s f a r a st h e k ing g oe s , t h ey r evea l a r e a l iza t ion o f t h e d e l ica te s i tua t ion i n to w h ich t h e D ana id s ' r eque s t p u t s h im . Ic an r e ca l l n o o t he r i n s tance i n t r agedy — e ven i n H om e r , w he re t h e t h eme o f s upp l ica t ion i sf r equen t e nough" — w he re t h e k i ng c a l l s f o r ap l eb i sc i te t o d ec ide w he the r a sy lum s hou ld b e g r an ted t os upp l ian t s .4 9 T he a ppa r en t ly d eep ly d emoc ra t ic

"T h el i n e sa r eq uo t ed b yA thenaeu s( x i i i . 6 00 b ) : K a i öa e l . tvö-r a-r og A ic rxüÄog b nag A ava ic r ty a ü-r i l v n apaye t -t i-i v' A c ppoö i-t n v Ayouaa :

R .B eck ( 1975 ) ,p .1 44 . C f . R . G a rv ie ( 1969 ) ,p p . 2 16 17 . 4 7 E .g . R .P od leck i ( 1966 ) ,p .4 6f . 4 8 H o rn . Od . 7 .1 46 -52 . 4 9 I ti st r ue t h a t i nt h e Od y s sey ( 7 . 1 45 f . )O dy s seu s r e ce ive s n o a n sw e r f r om t h e k i ng o r t h e q ueen i mmed ia te ly a f t e r h i s s upp l ica t ion ( 7 . 1 58 -59 ) . I ti sE cheneu s , ' t he e l de s t o fa l t h e P ha ia c ian s ' ( 7 . 1 6 1) , w ho u rge s t h e k i ng t or e ce ive t h e s t range r ( 7 . 1 63 -7 1) . H oweve r , i ti se a sy t o f a thom t h a t t h e s i lence o f A lc inou s a nd A re te i sd ue t oO dy s seu s ' s udden a ppea rance ( 7 . 1 58 -59 ) i nf r on t o ft h em . L a te r o n ( 7 . 1 90 -2 11) A lc inou s of e r s O dy s seu sh o sp i ta l i ty a nd h e lp w i thou th av ing c on su l ted a nyone ; A lc inou s w i l l e ven o rde r t h e o t he r k i ng s t o b r ing e xpen s ive p r e sen t st oh i ss upp l ian t( 8 .4 05 10 ) . 4 5

4 6

p ev ä yvög o üpavög -r p c laa tx e löva , e ' pwg b ey arav A c t i aßäve ty äpou T UX E IV , ö p f 3pog ö' on 'e üväev-r og o üpavoü r t ea c iw E ' KUGE y aiav ,i l5S T (KTETa lf 3 pa roi I T IAL OV TEI 3oaKag K a i N ov A r l i i i ip tov , b evöp öh tg ( I pa ö ' tK v o-gov rog y äpou T eXe lög C T T E . VIA/ 5' WI )T l apa f ft o g . 6ö evöpwv -r t g c o r r . H e rmann . 5 1

3 3

T .R o senmey e r( 1982 ) ,p .1 48f .

5

p l ay . N eve r the le s s , i t c an s t i l l h e lp u s w i th t h e c ha rac te r iza t ion o f t h e D ana id s i n t h e p l ay t h a t w e e xam ine .

u nappea l ing , m ay e ven tua l ly b r ing h a rmony , o rt h ey c an p e rpe tua te v i o lence b y a c t ing v i o len t ly t h em se lve s . A s my tho logy h a s i t ,t h ey c hoo se t h es e cond o p t ion .

When t h ey a r e f i r s t a dd re s sed b yP e la sgu s t h em a iden sg o t oc on s ide rab le l e ng th s t oe s tab l i sh t h e i r l i neage t i e s w i th t h e l a nd o fA rgo s ( 1 .2 74 -324 ) . B y t r ac ing t h e i r a nce s t ry d own t o I o , t h e m a iden s m ake t h e i r c l a im f o r p ro tec t ion m o re c ompe l l ing , s i nce t h ey a r e A rg ive s b y o r ig in . B y t r ac ing t h e i r a nce s t ry b a ck t o I o a nd Z eu s , t h e m a iden s m ake t h e i r c l a im f o r p ro tec t ion p owe rf u l , s i nce t h ey a r e r e la ted t ot h e s up r eme d e i ty . E ven i fP e la sgu sh ad am ind t o d eny a sy lum , h e w ou ld n o t h ave d a r ed t o s t i r Z eu s ' w ra th b yn eg lec t ing h i sd e scendan t s .

T he p o ten t ia l f o r v i o lence i n t h e D ana id s i s f u r the r r e vea led t h rough t h e i r p a s s iona te , f i e ry t empe ram en t . T he i r a c t ion s c an r e ach t o e x t rem e s : m u rde r o r s u ic ide . T he D ana id s p l ay h a rd . I ft h e k i ng i sn o t c onv inced b y t h e i r e voca t ion o fs upp l ian t s ' r i gh t s , t h ey t h rea ten t ok i l l t h em se lve s . T h i s i s a no the r a c t t h a t r e vea l s t h e i r e mo t iona l i ty a nd p o ten t ia l f o r v i o lence , e ven i f s e lf i n f l ic ted . T he f e ve r i shne s s o f t h e i r e mo t ion s a nd t h e a ngu i sh o f t h e k i ng a r e r e vea led i n as t i chomy th ia o f i n te rcep ted s p eech ( 1 . 4 55 -67 ) . T he g i r l s t h rea ten t ou se t h e i rb r ea s t -band s a nd g i rd le s ( 1 .4 57 ) t oh ang t h em se lve s f r om t h e s t a tue s o ft h e g od s ( 1 . 4 65 ) . U sua l ly , ap e r son w ho c omm i t s s u ic ide h a rm s o n ly t h e o ne s c l o se t o h im /he r , a nd t h e h a rm i sp sycho log ica l . I n t h i s i n s tan ce , t h ough , t h e m a iden s ' s u ic ide t h rea ten s w i th m ia sma t h e k i ng , h i s f am i ly ( 4 34 -37 ) a nd t h e w ho le c i ty ( 4700 , a nd a sw e k now f r om o t he rt r aged ie s ( e .g . O ed ipu s T yrannu s ) t h e d i v ine p un i shm en t f o r a ny f o rm o f m ia sma i sn o t p sy cho log ica l , b u t p hy s ica l ly t a ng ib le a nd r u th le s s . T he f e e l ing o f r e spon s ib i l i ty h a s a l ready b een l a id u pon t h e k i ng . T he D ana id s t o ld t h e k i ng t h a tw ha t eve rd ec i s ion h e m ake s , i tw i l l b ea r u pon h i s c h i ld ren a nd h i s h ou se t o m ake f u l l p aym en t b y s t r ic t r e compen se . N ow t h e k i ng h a s t o c on s ide r t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o f p o l lu t ion f o r t h e w ho le c i ty , c au sed b yh im .

O ne a spec t o f t h e J o s t o ry t h a t a lmo s t a l l mode rn i n te rp re te r s i g no red i st h a t , a l though c a lmne s s a nd o rde r g r adua l ly r e p lace v i o lence a nd c hao s ( K i t to , 1 939 ; B ux ton 1 982 ) , t h e re n eve r c ea se s t o e x i s t a n u nde r ly ing v i o lence t h roughou t t h e s t o ry . B ux ton w r i te s t h a t t h e v i o lence w h ich c ha rac te r ize s t h e s u i to r s s e em s mo r e d e sp icab le ' s e t a ga in s t ab a ckg round o f d i v ine a gen t s w ho d o n o t r e ly o n v i o lence ' .5 2 H e e xp la in s t h i s b y r e f e r r ing t ot h e n on -v io lence o fZ eu s , t owa rd s I oa nd t h e s u i to r s5 3 ( av i ew a l so s ha red b y G an tz , 1 978 ) . H oweve r , Z eu s i sn o t t h e o n ly d e i ty i n vo lved i nt h e s t o ry o fI oa nd o ne c anno t u nde r e s t ima te t h e v i o len t a bu se t h a t I o s uf f e red b y H e ra b ecau se o fZ eu s . S een f r om t h i s a ng le t h e re c an b e m o r e p a ra l le l s i nt h e s t o ry o fI oa nd t h a t o f t h e D ana id s . B ux ton i sr i gh t t oi d en t if yI oa sa n i n nocen t v i c t im o fm a le v i o lence ; ' s he , l i ke t h e D ana id s , h a s t h e a ud ience 's s ympa thy d aeX i ca t , ' p oo r ' , 5 72 ) . B u t a s t h e my th s c an b e i n te rp r e ted i nd i f f e r en t w ay s , h e i sc a ref u l t os ay t h a tt h i s m igh tn o tb et h e o n ly r e a son w hy t h e s t o ry o fJ o i sr e pea ted s o o f t en ( p . 7 7 ) . Ib e l ieve t h a t w e c an d raw a no the rp a ra l le l : b e tween t h e D ana id s a nd Z eu s . A s Z eu s i st h e c au se o f I o 's s uf f e r ing s , s o t h e D ana id s a r e t h e c au se f o r t h e s uf f e r ing s o fA rgo s . T rue e nough , t h e s t o ry o fI oe nd s i nr e conc i l ia t ion a nd h a rmony , b u tt h i s i s at h ough tf a rf r om t h e D ana id s ' m ind s . T he i rr e s i s tance t o m a r r iage p e rpe tua te s v i o lence a nd e xpand s i tf r om t h e s phe r e o ft h e i r o wn f am i ly t o t h e w ide r c i v ic s phe re o f A rgo s .5 4 I n a dd i t ion t ot h i s , w e , t h e a ud ience , k now t h a t u n l ike Z eu s , w ho w a s a n u nw i l l ing c au se o f I o 's s uf f e r ing s , t h e D ana id s w i l l b e f a r mo re a c t ive : m en w i l l d i e a tt h e i r h and ; n o t s imp ly f o r t h e i r s ake . T h i s v i ew i s e xp r e s sed b y P e la sgu s i nl i ne s 4 76 -77 . T he f a c t t h a t t h e D ana id s c an b e i d en t if ied t o ac e r ta in e x ten tb o th w i th I o a nd w i th Z eu s s how s t h a t t h e o u tcome o f t h e D ana id s ' s t o ry w i l l b e d e te rm ined o n ly b y t h e i r o wn a c t ion s . T hey c an a c t i nt wo d i f f e ren t w ay s : t h ey c an e i the r r e conc i le t h em se lve s t o t h e m a r r iage t h a t , a l though i n i t ia l ly

5 2

5 3

ä-r n 5' ä r 3uoc roy nUayog o ü OA 's ö r topoy eßl i ca , K oü k tpo i iA t l inv KaKii )V . C I ! . l bV y äp ügy µ f i TÖÖ 'bRI1Xig0) Xpg0g, µ bap ' Ocgag o üx ü nsp-r o geüa t imy . c i 5' a t 38 ' äg dpo tg n at a s ty Ai y ü r r rou c r gecy a raez ig n pä TS l ) (e C OV Ö lÖ I ld t ) ( 1 1 f i g w -rÄoug , n i ig o üx iT äyäÄw i la y i yys-r a tn u cpäy , ä yöpa y uya t e V OÜVEX ' ai . t äga tn göoy;

4 70

TÖÖ 't s z

4 75

Y e t , t h e k i ng s e e s n o w ay o u t b u t t o o f f e r a sy lum . I ti s w i th a n a i ro fr e so lu t ion t h a th e a nnoun ce sh i s d ec i s ion t o b r ing t h e p eop le o f A rgo s i n to t h i s ( 1 . 3 97 -40 1) . H e i n s t ruc t s t h e g i r l s h ow t oc a r ry o n w i th t h e i r s upp l ica t ion ( 1 . 4 80 -89 ) . H e s e em s a nx iou s a bou t w ha t t h e p eop le 's r e ac t ion m igh tb e : ' Le tn o r a ndom w o rd b e l e tf a l l a ga in s t m e ; f o r t h e p eop le i sf a in t oc omp la in a ga in s t a u thor i ty ' ( 1 .4 84 -85 ) . H e a dv i se s t h e g i r l s t op l ace t h e i r b ough s o n t h e a l ta r s o ft h e g od s , s ot h a t a l l t h e p eop le m igh t s e e t h e t o ken s o ft h e s upp l ian t s ( 1 .4 81-84 ) . ' I tm ay w e l l c han ce , t h a t s ome , s t i r r ed t oc ompa s s ion a tt h e s i gh t , w i l l h a te t h e ü ßp tg o ft h e t r oop o fm a le s , a nd t h a t t h e p eop le w i l l b e m o r e f r iend ly o f i n ten t t owa rd s y ou ; f o r t o t h e w eake r c au se a l m en a r e w e l l d i spo sed ' ( 1 . 4 86 -89 ) . I n aw ay , P e la sgu s w i she s t o m an ipu la te t h e p eop le 's e mo t ion i n t h es upp l ian t s ' f a vo r . T h i sb ecom e sc l ea rl a te ro n .

R .B ux ton ( 1 982 ) , p .6 9 . R .B ux ton 9 1982 ) , p .7 7 .

T he s ame t hough t i se xp re s sed b y Z e i t l in ( 1992 , p . 2 03 ) : ' And w hen i nt h e e a r ly p a r t o ft h e p l ay , t h e s upp l ian t s c onf ron t t h e A rg ive k i ng w i th t h e i r c l a im s , t h e p rob lema t ic s o fe r o s t u rn o u t f r om t h e s t a r t t ob e f i rm ly a t ta ched t oa nd i n ex t r icab le f r om a p o l i t ica l c on tex t i n w h ich f am i ly b u s ine s s i mmed ia te ly b ecome sa na f a i ro ft h es t a te ' . 5 4

t y ö )s UA aoüg a uyK cOu lv t yxwp iouq OTC (X L0 , TÖ KO t v öv c b qe t yc üicvCç T l ea ) , Kai C rÖV $ 5 1 $5ÖgW T I C IT p $2 , n ota ) ( p i K eycw .

3 4

5 17

T IE l e i t )

E ' T IOLTO

K a iT üxn n pa i cr ip t o g .

5 23 T he k now ledge o f A egyp tu s ' c ha rac te r i s ak ey i s sue h e r e . D anau s a nd h i s d augh te r s k new i na dvance o ft h e k ind o f p l igh t t h a t t h ey w e re b r ing ing t o P e la sgu s ' c oun t ry . T he A egyp t iad s a r e n o t o n ly b l ood th i r s ty . T hey a r e a l so o ü i1 / 4 6 c ppovtg S c K a i $ 50AlOp T iTEÖE E maäy vo tg ( p pe c r i v , K öpang ) o-r s , ß c og i v eMyov reg o üö& ( 1 . 7 50 5 2 ) ; ' e v i l o fm ind a nd g u i lef u l o fp u rpo se , w i th i mpu r e h ea r t s , r e ek ing n augh t o fa l ta r s mo re t h an c a r r ion b i rd s ' . N e i the r t r iden t s n o r f e a r o f t h e t h ing s h e ld s a c r ed i n h eaven w i l l k eep t h em a t b ay ( 1 . 7 55 -56 ) . D anau s ' a r gumen t s ound s f e eb le : ' t h i s w ou ld p rof i t u s n i ce ly , my c h i ld ren , i ft h ey a r e h a ted b y t h e g od s a sw e l l a sb yy ou ' ( 1 . 7 53 -54 ) . Wa s t h i s D anau s ' p l an a l l a l ong , t h a t h e w ou ld u rge h i s d augh te r s t of l ee a ss upp l ian t s , s ot h a t t h e s u i to r s w ou ld p rove t h em se lve s i mp iou s b y t h e i r p u r su i t a nd d i s re spec t o ft h e s upp l ian t s? I ft h i s i st r ue , i tw a s a n i n gen iou s p l an . I tw ou ld p rov ide t h e m a iden s w i th t h e m o ra l j u s t if i ca t ion t h a t t h ey n eeded a ga in s t t h e i r s u i to r s . B u t i ti so fs e conda ry i mpor tan ce n ow . Wha t i si mpo r tan t n ow i s t h a t t h e o tA e x ppoveq S t K a i öf luo il l-r t öeg A egyp t ian s a r e o n t h e i rw ay t oA rgo s . T h i s i st h e k i nd o f p l igh t t h a tt h e d augh te r s o fD anau s h ave f o r ced P e la sgu s t ob r ing u pon h i sp eop le .

I ti st h e l a s tl i ne t h a tr evea l s t h ek i ng 's a nx ie ty . I fh ew e r e h im se lf c onv inced t h a t t h e s upp l ian t s ' c l a im s t or i gh t a r e i n d i spu tab le , h e w ou ld h ave h ad n o f e a r t h a t t h e p eop le m igh t n o t s e e i t .H oweve r , h e f e e l s t h a t h e w i l l n eed t h e a i d o fp e r sua s ion a nd g ood f o r tune t oc onv ince t h em . H e i s s u cce s sf u l , a s a n e xh i la ra ted D anau s r e la te s t o h i s d augh te r s a tl i ne s 6 00 f .T he d ec i s ion o ft h e A rg ive s i s u nan imou s( navö r läg , 1 .6 07 ) . y f ig X eueepoug K äppUa LáaToUç g ü v T dICTU M(il ßpariov• K a p i t r r t vo (Kwv bI T IAÜÖ C OV T LVÖ e lyEtV • thy S eT ipOOT10 173TO K ap-r z pöv , TÖV 1 11)f i onejaav ra -t f o vöc y aµöpwv s E IT1 110V S iva g ü vc p uy t : i T t g le ig pETOIKEiV T i 1GÖE

6 10

Wha t s u rp r i se s mo r e i sn o t t h e a s ton i sh ing ly g ene rou s d ec i s ion o ft h e A rg ive p eop le , b u t t h e l a nguage u sed t o d e sc r ibe t h e p roce s s t h a t l e d t o t h e i r p e r sua s ion b y t h e k i ng . A tl i ne 6 15 D anau s c ommen t s o nt h ek i nd o f I 5 f lGL ç b y w h ich P e la sgu s b it L e ev h i s s ub jec t s . T he p eop le o f A rgo s a r e d e sc r ibed a s c ü rnehg M ing ( 1 . 6 23 -34 ) — e a s i ly p e r suaded .5 I ndeed , t h e P e r sua s ion t h a t P e la sgu s h ad e vok ed a tl i ne 5 23 h a s c ome t oh i s a i d . I ta l l s ound s l i ke t h e e xh ib i t ion o fr h e to r ic a nd m an ipu la t ive p ow e r s , r a th e r t h an ap i c tu re o f ak i ng w ho h a s t h e f r ee ly -of f e red s uppo r t o fh i s p eop le . B ux ton w r i te s t h a t a tt h i s s t age ' a c on cer ted a t temp t o fp o l i t ica lp e i tho i sn eeded , i nw h ich b o th t h e D ana id s ' d emeanou r a nd t h e k i ng 's o ra to r ica l s avo i rf a i re p l ay ap a r t ' .5 6 I tw ou ld b eg o ing f a rt or e duce P e la sgu s t o a p e r sua s ive d emagogue a nd t h e t e rm c e r ta in ly w ou ld h ave n o m ean ing f o r A e schy lu s ' a ud ience , b u t t h e t h ough t c r o s se s o ne 's m ind . H ow eve r , t h e s upp l ian t s a r e , f o r t h e t ime b e ing , r e l ieved . T hey s i ng p ra i se s a nd b l e s s ing s f o r t h e s av iou r c i ty a nd t h e p eop le o fA rgo s ( 1 . 6 25 -709 ) . B u t t h e d ange r i sn o t d one a way w i th . D anau s s e e s t h e E gyp t ian s a pp roach ing b y s a i l ( 1 . 7 10f . ) , a nd t h e g i r l s s t a r t w onde r ing w he the r t h e i r l o ng f l igh t h a s a va i led t h em a ta l l ( 1 . 7 37 -38 ) .5 7 T he i r f a the r r e a s su re s t h em . S ince t h e v o te o ft h e A rg ive s w a s f i na l , t h ey s hou ld n o t b e w o r r ied . ' They w i l l f i gh t i n y ou r d ef ence , Ik now f u l l w e l l ' ( 1 . 7 40 ) . T h i s i sa n i mpor tan t s t a temen t . A s i mpor tan t a st h e f o l low ing l i ne s u t te r ed b y t h eg i r l s : t g i bAgg t u t tp äpyoy Ai y ür r rou y gvoq , p d tx r ig T ä rO v ia Tov • Ka 1)1/ 4e y th n päg Ei öÖTÖ .

I ti sn ow t ime t o r e cap i tu la te t h e m a in p o in t s o f t h i s c hap te r , i nt h e l i gh t o ft h e o ve ra l l a r gumen to ft h i s t h e s i s : r i gh t f r om t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e p l ay t h e D ana id s a c t c on t ra ry t o e very a spec t o f f em in ine a pp rop r ia te b ehav iou r , a cco rd ing t o A then ian s t anda rd s . T hey f l ee f r om a l e g i t ima te m a r r iage a nd t h ey f a i l t o c onv ince a bou t t h e i r mo ra l a nd l e ga l j u s t if i ca t ion f o r d o ing s o . I n t h i s r e spec tt h ey u p se te ve ry n o t ion o fd ome s t ic o rde ra nd g ende r ro le d ef in i t ion . T he i r a c t ion s a l so h ave w ide r s oc ia l i mp l ica t ion s . T he m a iden s u p se t t h e s oc io -mo ra l o rde r o f t h e s oc ie ty f r om w h ich t h ey f l ee , b y s e t t ing a w rong e xamp le a nd f o rc ing t h e i r c oun t ry i n to w a r . A rgo s s uf f e r s mo re . P e la sgu s i sf o rced t or e ce ive t h e m a iden s ' s upp l ica t ion , a l though h e d oe s n o t a ppea r t oo h appy w i th i t .D ue t of e a r o fm ia sma f o rh i s c i ty a nd h i s o wn f am i ly , ak ing h a st om an ipu la te h i sp eop le 's o p in ion , s ot h a tt h ey w i l l a g ree t o t h e a ccep tance o f t h e m a iden s i nt h e c i ty . F u r the rmo r e , t h e c i ty o fA rgo s i sp r epa r ing f o r i n ev i tab le w a r — t h e u l t ima te d ange r f o r t h e c on t inua t ion o f a s oc ie ty . O n t h i s s oc ie ta l l e ve l , t h e d i so rde r c au sed b y t h e D ana id s i s e ven mo r e d i sce rn ib le . P e la sgu s h a s c onf o rmed w i th t h e u nw r i t ten d iv ine l aw s , b u t , s i nce t h e D ana id s a r e n o t l e ga l ly j u s t if ied i nt h e i r f l igh t , P e la sgu s d i s r ega rd s t h e w r i t ten o rd inance s o ft h eh uman s oc ie ty . I n t h i s r e spec t h e i sr a the r l i k e A n t igone , i nS ophoc le s ' p l ay — a nd w e s ha l l s e e i n t h e t r ea tmen t o f A n t igone t h e i mpor tance p l aced o nt h er e ve rence o fh uman l aw s f o rt h e e x i s tence o f s oc ie ty . B u t i n A n t igone i t w a s o ne i n d iv idua l w ho d ef ied h uman o rde r . N ow t h e re i s a f em in ine c o l lec t ive t h a t s hake s t h e v e ry f ounda t ion s o f s oc ie ty ( a nd t h i s i se ven m o re w o r ry ing ) b y c l a im s t o p owe r a nd a sp i ra t ion s t oc ha l lenge s oc ia l t r ad i t ion s u pon w h ich t h e w e l l -be ing o f t h e o i ko s a nd t h e s oc ie ty i s b a sed .

7 42

I ft h e t e x t i sö r ip r iyöpoug 5" i jKou c rev e ün te r ig u rpo c päg ö f jpog I l eXac ry i lv ( Loeb ) , t h en t h e m ean ing i s ' t he e a s i ly p e r suaded P e la sg ian p eop le ' . I ft h e t e x t s ay s e üne tee ig a l te red f r om c üne tee ig ( M : B o the ) , t h en t h e m ean ing i s ' I t w a s t h e P e la sg ian p eop le w ho h ea rd t h e p e r sua s ive s ub t le w ind ing s o f h i s s peech ' . T he m ean ing r ema in s e s sen t ia l ly u na l te r ed , a l though b y e ün ( W ig ö f lioç t h e w o rd s o f D anau s t a ke o n a m o re c on temp t ib le l i ne , a sf a ra st h eA rg ive sa r ec once rned . 5 5

5 6

R .B ux ton ( 1 982 ) , p .7 5 .

F o rr e a son 's o ft h eD ana id s ' f l igh t , s e eJ .K . Mack innon ( 1 978 ) ,p p . 7 4 -82 . 6 7

3 5

A s h a s a l ready b een d i scu s sed a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h i s c hap te r , a l though t h e c oncep t o fm a r r iage i sp rom inen ta s t h e c au se o ft h e a c t ion i nt h e p l ay , i ti su nf or tuna t e t h a t w e a r e m i s s ing t h e s e cond a nd t h i rd p a r t s o ft h e t r i logy , w h ich w ou ld h ave e nab led u s t o g a in a m o r e c on tex tua l ized p e r cep t ion o f E u r ip ide s ' t r ea tmen t o ft h e s ub jec t . W inn ing ton Ing ram s ugge s ted t h a t w e a r e i nn o p o s i t ion t od e te rm ine h ow p rec i se ly E u r ip ide s d ea l t w i th t h e i n s t i tu t ion o fm a r r iage .5 8 H oweve r , b a sed o n t h e w e l l d ocum en ted w edd ing r i tua l s , m igh t w e b e a b le t of i nd a d i f f e ren t a ng le f r om w h ich t o l o ok a tt h e w ay E u r ip ide s r e p re sen ted t h e i n s t i tu t ion o f m a r r iage i n t h i s p a r t icu la r p l ay ? B u t i ti so bv iou s f r om w ha t l i t t le f r agmen t s s u rv ive f r om t h e S upp l ian t s , t h a t i ti sn o t t h e a c tua l w edd ing r i tua l s t h a t c ou ld h e lp u s u nde r s tand t h e p l ay b e t te r . T he S upp l ian t s a st h e f i r s t p a r t o ft h e t r i logy d ea l s w i th m o re e l emen ta l a spec t s o fm a r r iage , a nd i ti so n ly o cca s iona l ly t h a t m a t r imon ia l r i t e s m igh t s e rve a s au sef u l p a ra l le l d u r ing t h e i n ve s t iga t ion o fw edd ing , a si ti st r ea ted i nt h i s p l ay .

w a s a ga in s t t h i s m a r r iage i s av a l id r e a son f o r t h e a ud ience t oa ccep t t h e s i tua t ion . N eve r the le s s , A e schy lu s n eve r b r ing s f o r th t h i s a r gumen t . P e rhap s my tho log ica l t r ad i t ion p r eva i led a nd d emanded t h e b a s ic p l o to fa c t ion t o r ema in i n ta c t ( i . e . t h e f l igh t o f t h e D ana id s , t h e i r p e r secu t ion , a nd f i na l ly , t h e k i l l ing o f t h e s u i to r s w ho m a r ry t h e g i r l s a ga in s t t h e i r w i l l ) w i thou t g o ing t o o d eep ly i n to p rope r j u s t if ica t ion o f e ven t s t h a t c ou ld j ugg le t h e a ud ience 's s ympa thy i nt h e o ppo s i te d i r ec t ion t ot h a t d e s i r ed b y t h e p l ayw r igh t . O r , i tc ou ld b e t h a t t h e a ud ience 's e mo t iona lr e spon se t ot h e s t age -ac t ion f o cu se s m o re c l ea r ly o no t he ri s sue s : t h e v i o lence o ft h e s u i to r s i s m o re i mpo r tan t t h an t h e f a the r 's d i sapp rova l o f t h e w edd ing . V io lence b ecome s ac en t ra l i s sue i n t h e p l ay a nd , a s w e h ave a l ready s e en , i ti s an o t ion e mbod ied b o th i nt h e s u i to r s a nd t h e m a iden s . H oweve r , s e en a tt h e l e ve l o f m a t r imon ia l r i te s , v i o lence i sp a r t o f m a r r iage i t se lf . F .Z e i t l in , i nh e rd i scu s s ion o ft h e s ub jec t , s ugge s t s t h a t A l though t h ey o b jec t t ot h i s m a r r iage b o th b ecau se t h ey d e te s t t h e v i o lence o f t h e i r s u i to r s a nd b ecau se t h ey c on s ide r u n ion w i th t h e i r c ou s in s af o rm o fi n ce s t , t h e r e i s e nough a mb igu i ty t o s ugge s t t h a t t h e i r a t t i tude mo r e g ene ra l ly r e f lec t s av i rg ina l a ve r s ion t ot h e i d ea o fm a r r iage i t s e lf a s a f o rm o f v i o lence a nd s ub juga t ion t h a t , s t a r t ing w i th d e f lo ra t ion , d e l ive r s t h em a ga in s t t h e i r w i l l t ot h e p owe r o fm en ( e .g . 3 92 _ 9 3 ) . 6 o

A s w e h ave s e en a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e t h e s i s , i n t h e c hap te r d ea l ing w i th m a r r iage , t h e b a s ic p r in c ip le o fi ti s t h e [ 6 14,9 6d6 , w h ich i s t h e a r rangemen t o f m a r r iage b e tween t h e f a the r o ft h e b r ide a nd t h e g room . Wha t i s e n ta i led h e re i st h e f i nanc ia l t r an sf e r o fw ea l th f r om t h e f a the r 's s i de t ot h e g room . T he w oman d oe s n o t n eed t o b e p r e sen t . I t b ecome s a ppa ren t , h ow eve r , t h a t t h e f a the r 's c on sen t , o r t h a t o f h e r c l o se s t r e la t ive , i s e s sen t ia l . Ir epea t h e r e t h e l aw q uo ted b y p seudo D emo s thene s , t h a t p o in t s o u t t h e i mpor tance o f c on sen t b yt h eb r ide 's f am i ly :

T he i d ea o fs ub juga t ion i se v iden t , i fo ne r e ca l l s s ome o f t h e b a s ic r i te s o f t h e w edd ing c e remony , t h e m o s t p rom inen t o f w h ich , t h e K a-r d u c lwapa , a lude s t o t h e s ub juga t ion o fw if e ,j udg ing h e r s t a tu s b y a na logy t ot h e s t a tu so fh ou seho ld s l ave s .6 1

Wha teve r w oman i sp l edged o nj u s t t e rm s t ob e aw if e b yh e rf a the r , o rb yh e rb ro the r w ho h a s t h e s ame f a the r , o rb yh e rp a ren ta l g r andf a the r , t h e c h i ld ren b o rn o f h e r s ha l l b el e g i t ima te c h i ld ren .5 9

S exua l s ub juga t ion i s mo re p rom inen t . F rom w ha t w e k now a bou t w edd ing r i tua l s , o ne o ft h e m a in e l emen t s o f y äpog w a s t h e o f f e r ing o f s a c r if i ce s . T he r e w e re s a c r if i ce s t o Z eu s T e le io s a nd H e ra T e le ia , t h e d i v ine mode l s a nd p ro tec to r s o ft h e n ew m a r r ied s t a te .6 2 T he re w e r e a l so s a c r if ice s t oA r tem i s a nd t oP e i tho , w ho se r o le w ou ld p r e sumab ly h ave b een t oe mpha s ize t h e r e la t ion o f p e r sua s ion ( r a the r t h an f o rce , a s C . P a t te r son b e l ieve s6 3) t h a t o b ta ined b e tween h u sband a nd w if e . T he p e r son if i ca t ion a nd a cknow ledgemen t o fP e i tho i nt h e se r i tua l s i s v e ry i mpo r tan t . A r tem i s s t and s f o r v i rg in i ty g ua rded w i th w i ld f e rvou r . I ti si mpo r tan t a sp a r t o ft h e u nma r r ied g i r l 's l i f e t o m a in ta in t h i s v i rg in i ty , f o r r e a son s a l r eady e xp la ined i nt h e i n t roduc t ion . H ow eve r , t h e g i r l n eed s t ob e p e r suaded t og i ve a way t h i s v i rg in i ty , t h u s e n su r ing f e r t i l i ty a nd p roc rea t ion o fl e g i t ima te h e i r s . S o , P e i tho p robab ly r e f e r s t o t h e p ow e r o f p e r sua s ive

A ga in , t h i s i sa n A then ian l aw t h a t m igh t n o t h ave b een v a l id i nE gyp t . H ow eve r , a si nm any o the r i n s tance s , w e d o a ccep tt h a tt h e a ud ience d ea l tw i th i s sue sp r e sen ted o n s t age a cco rd ing t ot h e i r o wn e xpe r ience a nd t h rough t h e p r i sm o ft h e i ro wn c u l tu ra lb a ckg round . D u r ing t h e a na ly s i s o f t h e p l ay , w e h ave s e en t h a t D anau s s e em s n o t o n ly t os ha re h i s d augh te r s ' d i smay a t t h e p ro spec t o fm a r r iage t ot h e i r c ou s in s , b u t h e a c t ive ly s uppo r t st h e i rd ec i s ion a nd d oe sw ha teve rh e c an t oa s s i s t t h em . T he r e a son s h ave a l r eady b een e xp la ined . A n i mpo r tan t q ue s t ion i s , t h ough , w he the r t h e A then ian a ud ience w ou ld h ave a ccep ted t h a t af a the r 's d en ia l s hou ld b e s uff ic ien t r e a son f o r s ympa thy w i th t h e D ana id s ' c u r ren t p r ed icamen t . I t s ound s c onv inc ing . S ince i n ce s t w a s n o r e a son t o a ver t t h e a ud ience 's s ympa thy , a nd s i nce t h e E gyp t ian s w e re l e ga l ly c ove r ed i nt h e i r p u r su i t o ft h e m a iden s , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i r f a the r

6 0

5 8 5 9

R . W inn ing ton Ing ram ( 1 983 ) ,p .7 1 . P seudoDem . 4 6 , 1 8 .

3 6

F .Z e i t l in ( 1 992 ) ,p .2 05 .

6 2

S ee t h es e c t ion o n ' wedd ing ' a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h et h e s i s . W . B u rke r t( 1985 ) .

6 3

C . P a t te r son ( 199 1) ,p .5 4 .

6 1

T h i s i st h e f a te o f H ype rme s t ra w ho c omp rom i se s h e r f e a r s o fy e g iog . T he r e s t o fh e r s i s te r s r e p re sen t t h e o t he r s i de : t h e f ema le t h a ti su nab le t os uccumb t ot h e d emand s o fi t s s exua l i ty . T he mu rde r o ft h e i r h u sband s , p robab ly n a r ra ted i n t h e f i na l p l ay , s ymbo l ize s t h e d ange r s a nd p o ten t ia l d i so rde r s t emm ing f r om t h i s r e f u sa l o f s exua l i ty . T he i mp l ica t ion s a r e b road , a nd t h ey e x tend t o t h e w ho le o f t h e p o l i t ica l ly o rgan ized c ommun i ty , a s Z e i t l in a r gued i nh e r a r t ic le ' The p o l i t ic s o fE ro s i nt h e D ana id T r i logy o f A e shcy lu s ' ( 1992 ) . R e jec t ion o f m a r r iage t h rea ten s t h e c i v ic f ounda t ion s o fs oc ie ty i t se lf . T h i s i s w hy t h e d ange r r e p re sen ted b y t h e D ana id s ' b ehav iou r mu s t h ave b een c l ea r t o t h e A then ian a ud ience . H ype rme s t ra s e rve s a st h e p a rad igm o ff ema le a t t i tude t o s exua l i ty , m anag ing t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tw een v i o lence a nd c ou r t sh ip . T h i s i s mode l mu s t h ave b een r e inf o rced b yt h e s a ty rp l ay t h a t f o l low ed t h et r i logy . T he n ame o ft h e s a ty rp l ay w a s Amymone .6 5

s e xua l i ty — t h e k i nd o f s exua l i ty t h a t mu s t r e p la ce t h e v i o len t , n a tu ra l ly f e a rf u l f o rm o fs e xua l i ty r e p r e sen ted b y t h e s u i to r s . T h i s ' p e r sua s ive s e xua l i ty ' , w h ich c an b e i n te rp r e ted a s ' s exua l d e s i r e ' , i s t h e t h eme o f t h e s u rv iv ing s even l i ne s f r om t h e t h i rd p a r t o ft h e t r i logy , s pok en b y A ph rod i te . F rom t h e se l i ne s , w h ich h ave a l r eady b een q uo ted , Ir e pea tt h ef i r s tt wo : 4D Z i l µtv äyvög oüpavög TpC oaat xeäva , p c og

. 5 eyaiav Aa

dävet yäµou TUXETV

T h i s c an b e i n te rp r e ted a s ' p u r e h eaven i si n l o ve t o p ene t ra te t h e e a r th , a nd l o ve o f m a r r iage s e ize s o n t h e l a nd ' . T he w o rd y e t i log d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly m ean ' ma r r iage ' . O u t o f c on tex t t h e m ean ing o f t h e v e rb ya liciv i s' s exua l u n ion ' . I ti st h e v e ry i d ea o f d e s i re , n öeo, t h a t t h e D ana id s ' h andma iden s s ang i nt h e p l ay t h a t s u rv ive s : n ä e o i r i t `T ' OÜ UV änapvov T atect e0oc ro t p il icieoi , ' d e s i re , a nd t h a t m ag ica l P e r sua s ion t o w h ich n o th ing i s d en ied ' . D anau s h im se lf a cknow ledge s t h e p e r sua s ive p ow e r o f s exua l a t t rac t ion w hen , i n t r y ing t o s e cu re t h e f o re ign l a nd 's s ympa thy t owa rd s h i s d augh te r s , h e s p eak s o f t h e p a s se r -by o ve rcome b y d e s i r e ( i µgpou v o c o l wvog ) , ' d a r t ing a s educ t ive a r row o f t h e e y e (6 41a-rog AcKK-nipiov r ögeuga) a tt h e t e nde r l o ve l ine s s o ft h e v i rg in s ' ( 1 . 1 003 5 ) . A s W inn ing ton Ing ram p o in t s o u t , t h e p u rpo se o f t h e se l i ne s i sn o tt oc ha rac te r ize D anau s ( o rt h eD ana id s ) , b u t t o i n t roduce a t h em e w h ich w i l l i mm ed ia te ly b e c a r r ied f u r the r b y t h e h andma iden s a nd w i l l r e ce ive i t s c u lm ina t ion i nt h es p eech o fA ph rod i te .6 4

We d o n o t k now v e ry much a bou t t h e p l ay , b u t t h e g ene ra l o u t l ine o f t h e s t ory i s s uff i c ien t t o c l a r if y a c omp rehen s ive mode 1 .6 T he p l ay i s a bou t Amymone , a no the r o f D anau s ' d augh te r s , s aved b y P o se idon f r om t h e l u s tf u l d e s i r e o f as a ty r . S he l a te rb ecome s P o se idon 's l o ve r . ' I tc an h a rd ly b e d oub ted t h a t A e schy lu s h ad t a ken u p a nd t r an s la ted i n to s u i tab le s a t ry r ic t e rm s t h e t h em e o f t h e c on t ra s t b e tween r a pe a nd c ou r t sh ip w h ich h ad a l ready d eve loped i nt h et r i logy ' .6 7 T he s i s te r s o f H ype rme s t ra a r e p un i shed , a s my tho logy h a s i t ,f o rt h e i rc r ime .6 8 T hey a r ep un i shed f o rt h e mu rde r o ft h e i rh u sband s , b u t i n am e tapho r ica l r e ad ing , t h ey a r e p un i shed b ecau se t h ey r e jec ted a f undamen ta l r equ i remen t f o r t h e c on t inua t ion o f a ny s oc ie ty . T he i r i n ab i l i ty t o a ccep t t h e o b l iga t ion s o ft h e i r s exua l i ty a nd s e e b eyond i t s v i o len t a spec t s , a s t h ey a r e c l ea r ly r ep re sen ted b y t h e s u i to r s , c omp rom i se s t h e o rde r o ft h e c ommun i ty . T he v i o len t d ynam ics o f s exua l i ty , e ven w i th in m a t r imony , a r e n o t d ownp layed b y t h e p l ayw r igh t . Y e t t h e p e r sua s ive p ow e r o f A ph rod i te p r eva i l s a t t h e e nd , e mpha s iz ing t h e n eed f o r s exua l u n ion , p roc rea t ion , c on t inua t ion o f l i f e . Hype rm e s t ra , c on t ra s ted t o t h e m a jo r i ty o f h e r s i s te r s , p o in t s o u t t h e r i gh t e xamp le a nd a ccen tua te s t h e t h rea t t h a t h e r s i s te r s p o se f o r s oc ie ty — n o t o n ly t h e s oc ie ty o ft h e s t age , b u t a l so a ny o t he r s oc ie ty , s uch a st h e o ne t h e c on tempo ra ry a ud ience o ft h ep l ay c ame f r om .

T he a cknow ledgemen t a nd c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e a bove l e ad s t o a mo re c omp r ehen s ive i d ea a bou t t h e w ay t h a t t h e r e s t o f t h e t r i logy c ou ld p robab ly h ave u nf o lded . H ype rme s t ra mu s t h ave b een m oved b y t h i s p e r sua s ive p ow e r o fs exua l a t t ra c t ion w h en s h e d ec ided t os pa re h e r h u sband . S he w a s s e pa ra ted f r om h e r s i s te r s b ecau se s he c ea sed r ega rd ing h e r d e f lo ra t ion a sb ru ta lr a pe w i th in t h e s anc t ion o fm a t r imony , b u ta sl o v ing c ou r t sh ip . T h i s i sa n i mpo r tan t r i tua l r equ i rem en t , e s sen t ia l f o r t h e p romo t ion o f f e r t i l i ty a nd p roc r ea t ion . I n i t ia l v i rg ina l f e a r o f r a pe n eed st ob er e p la ced b e t r u s t , a f t e rp e r sua s ion , i no rde rt o e n su re t h e f e cund i ty a nd p ro spe r i ty o ft h e o i kos . T h i s i s t h e m ean ing o f t h e r e s t o f t h e s u rv iv ing l i ne s f r om A ph rod i te 's s peech , w h ich , w hen r e ad i nc on junc t ion t o t h e a bove a rgum en t , r e f e rt ot h e f e r t i l i ty p roduced b y t h e c on sen t a nd r e spon se o f w om en ( r ep re sen ted h e re b y E a r th ) t o m a le s e xua l i ty ( r ep re sen ted b y t h e S ky ) . T he l a nguage o f t h e r e s t o f t h e s p eech i s c ha rged w i th i n nuendo a l lud ing t ot h e i mpo r tance o ff e r t i l i ty : t h e r a in t h a tp ene t ra te st h er e spon s ive E a r th w i l le n su r ef e r t i l i ty : 6 µ 1 3pog

e s ' än ' cüväev rog oüpavoü neadw

P . O xy . 2 0 ( 1952 ) 2 256 f r . 3( f r . 1 22 M ) . I ti sq uo ted a nd d i scu s sed b yG a rv ie ( 1952 ) . 6 6 T he s t o ry o f Amymone i sk nown f r om m any s ou r ce s , l i s ted b y F raze r i n h i s e d i t ion o f A po l lodo ru s . C f . n o te 7 a t t h e b eg inn ing o ft h i sc hap te r . 6 7 W inn ing ton Ing ram ( 1983 ) ,p .6 6 . 6 8 F o rc o l lec t ion o fd e ta i ls o ft h e i rs t o ry s e en . 7a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h i sc hap te r . 6 5

g KUC re yaiav , f i1 6 0 T (KTETa 1ßpo -r oig l a r lA c ov TS ßooKäg Kai Nov A r-l ep t oy ,

5

ösvöp c i r rt g i bpa 6 ' & VOT KOVTOg yäµou T AC l o t 5

6 4

OT[ . T r iN 6 ' ty i u napae rt og .

R .W inn ing ton Ing ram ( 1983 ) ,p .6 6 .

3 7

F am i l ia lp er i l s : E ur ip ide s ' Med ea . 'Iw i l lg r ea t ly mu l t ip ly y ou rp a in i nc h i ldbea r ing ; i np a in y ou s ha l l b r ing f o r th c h i ld r en ,y e ty ou rd e s i re s ha l lb ef o r y ou rh u sband , a nd h e s ha l lr u le o ve ry ou . '1

L uc ian s a id t h a tt h e Med ea w a s ' t he a ccu sa t ion o fw omen a ga in s t m en ' .2 C e r ta in ly , i n t h e p a s t d ecade , w i th t h e f l ou r i sh ing o ff em in i s t a t t i tude s t owa rd s G reek T ragedy , s cho la r s h ave f a vou red t h e o p in ion o f L uc ian .3 S ome h ave g one a sf a ra st os ugge s tt h a tt h e c ha rac te ro f Medea w a s i n sp i red b y A spa s ia , m i s t re s s o f P e r ic le s , a nd h e r p rog re s s ive b e l ief s .4 E ven i f t h i s d oe s n o t s ound p l au s ib le , i ti s af a c t t h a t m any h ave s e en Medea a s e mp loyed b y E u r ip ide s t o s how t h a t t h e d ome s t ic r e p re s s ion o f w omen i s u nf a i r a nd u n ju s t a nd t h a t i t s hou ld e nd , o r i tm igh t l e ad t o u np r ed ic tab le r e su l t s . I s t h i s r e a l ly h ow t h e a nc ien t a ud ience p e r ce ived i t ? I st h i s s ome th ing t h a tw ec an d e te rm ine? T he re h ad b een v a r iou s e a r l ie r v e r s ion s o f t h e Medea my th s i n ce h e r f i r s t r e co rded a ppea rance a tJ a son 's s i de .5 C o r in th ian t r ad i t ion h ad h e r a s b enevo len t w i tch a nd T he s sa l ian s h ad a v e ry s im i la r o p in ion o f h e r . I n t h e a nc ien t B oeo t ian a nd T he s sa l ian t r ad i t ion Medea r e juvena te s t h e o l d f a the r o fJ a son .6 L a te r , c onnec ted t o t h e my th o f t h e A rgonau t s , s he h e lp s J a son a nd h i s w ounded c ompan ion s . S o , s he a ppea r s a s ap ro tec to r o f a nc ien t m ed ic ine , i no ne o fi t s o lde s t c r ad le s , T he s sa ly w he re t h e c en tau r C h i ron t a ugh t A sc lep iu s . C or in th ian my th s f a in t ly d ep ic t t h e m ag ic p owe r s o f Medea , b y h e r v i r tue a s moon -godde s s a nd h e r a s soc ia t ion w i th H eca te . ' A cco rd ing t o t h e se my th s , A ee te s i n he r i ted E f y ra8 f r om h i s f a the r , t h e S un . Medea i n v i ted b y t h e C o r in th ian s t o r e ce ive t h e i n he r i tance c ome s f r om I o lko s f o l lowed b y J a son , w ho s ha re s w i th h e r t h e C o r in th ian t h rone . T he s ame t r ad i t ion i sf o l lowed b y S imon ide s ( f r . 3 5 ) . E ven l i ne s 1 12 o ft h ep l ay i nd ica te t h a t s he s t rove t ob e l i ked b yt h eC o r in th ian s . I n O icha l ias A los i s , a n e p ic b y C reoph i lu s , Medea k i l l s C reon a nd f l ee s t oA then s , h av ing p u t h e r c h i ld ren t os i t o n t h e a l ta r o f H e ra Ak ra ia , h op ing t h a t t h ey m igh t b e s aved b y t h e i r f a the r . C reon 's r e la t ive s , h ow eve r , k i l l t h e c h i ld ren a nd b l ame t h e mu rde r o n Medea . I n P au san ia s ' t im e , o ne c ou ld s t i l lb e s hown a tC o r in th t h e s p r ing w he re

G lauke , t h e d augh te r o fC r eon , t h rew h e r se lf , i no rde r t o b e r i d o ft h e t o r tu re s c au sed b y Medea 's p o i son s . N o t f a r f r om t h i s s p r ing , o ne c ou ld b e s hown t h e g rave o f Me rmeru s a nd P he r e s , Medea 's c h i ld ren , w ho w e r e s t oned b y t h e C o r in th ian s . T he d ea th o f t h e i n nocen t c h i ld r en c au sed t h e a nge r o ft h e g od s a nd p l ague f e l l o n t h e c h i ld ren o fC o r in th . A cco rd ing t oa n o r ac le 's a dv ice , t h e C o r in th ian s e s tab l i shed a nnua l p u r if i ca to ry s a cr if i ce s a nd e r ec ted a s t a tue t o P hobo s , s t i l l p r e se rved i n P au san ia s ' t im e . T ho se s a cr if ice s w e r e e nded w hen C o r in th w a s o ccup ied b yt h e R oman s ; t h ey a l so e nded t h e t r ad i t ion t h a t h ad C or in th 's c h i ld ren w i th s haved h ead s a nd d r e s sed i nb l ack .9 A no the r t r ad i t ion h a s i tt h a t t h e f ou r teen c h i ld ren o f Medea ( s even b oy s a nd s even g i r l s ) , r un t o t h e t emp le o f H e ra A k ra ia , b u t e ven t h e re t h e C o r in th ian s k i l led t h em . T o p u r if y t h e m ia sma t h e C o r in th ian s d ed ica ted e a ch y ea r s even b oy s a nd s even g i r l s f r om t h e n ob le s t f am i l ie s , w ho s pen t t h e w ho le y ea r i nt h e g odde s s ' t emp le o f f er ing s a c r if ice s . A cco rd ing t o t h e s ame t r ad i t ion Medea f l ed t o A th en s w he re s h e m a r r ied A egeu s ; b u tb ecau se l a te rs he p l anned t h e mu rde r o f h e r s t ep son T he seu s , A egeu s e x i led h e r a nd h e r s on Medu s ,w ho b ecame l a te rk i ng o fA then s .1 ° B y t h e 5 t h c en tu ry Medea 's s t o ry h a s ac ommon ly a ccep ted s hape .1 T he q ue s t ion s t i l l r ema in s , t h ough : w a s t h e i n f an t ic ide p a r t o f t h e t r ad i t ion o r w a s i tE u r ip ide s ' i n ven t ion? A cco rd ing t o t h e t r ad i t ion t h a t C reoph i lu s u sed , t h e C o r in th ian s b l am ed t h e i r o wn u n law f u l c r im e o n Medea . I n aw ay , t h i s t r ad i t ion i n t roduce st h ee l emen t s f o r Medea 's i n f an t ic ide . N ever the le s s , t h e p u r if i ca to ry r i tua l s o ft h e C o r in th ian s i nt h e h ono r o fH e ra a r e af a c t t h a t h in t s a t a n u n law f u l c r ime t h a t w e ighed u pon t h e c i ty . O n t h i s , o ne c an r e ca l l a n u nver if ied b u t i n te re s t ing a n ecdo te t h a t E u r ip ide s r e ce ived f i ve t a len t s f r om t h e C o r in th ian s , i no rde r t oa s c r ibe t h e i n f an t ic ide t o Medea , a nd s o ' f ree ' t h em , o n t h e A then ian s t age , f r om a t r ad i t ion t h a t w e ighed u pon t h e i r s hou lde r s .1 2 O ne c an e ven s e e i nl i ne s 1 381-3 , a n a t temp t o ft h e p oe t t ob l end P au s . 2 . 3 .6 . P au san ia s , o r E u r ip ide s d oe s n o t m en t ion Medu s a s s on o f Medea i nt h ep r e sen tv e r s ion , b ecau se Medu s i s as on o f Medea a nd A egeu s . T he s t o ry o f Medea 's b an ishmen t f r om A then s , w he r e Medu sa ppea r s , i sr e po r ted b yH yg inu s . A cco rd ing t ot h is s t o ry Medu s h e lped Medea t o k i l l P e r se s , b ro the r o f A ee te s . Medu si sa l so m en t ioned i nH e s iod T heogony 9 97 . 1 T he i n f an t ic ide w a s p opu la r a mong v a se -pa in te r s i nt h e 5 t h c en tu ry , o f ten f o und o n I t a l io te v a se s ( s ee L ex icon I conog raph icum My tho log iae G raecae ) . I ti n sp i r ed a f amou s p a in t ing b y T iman the s , w h ich w a s p robab ly t h e p ro to type o fa H e l len is t ic p i c tu r e . S ee S .B romme r( 1960 ) ,p .1 63 , 3 48 . 1 2 S cho l ia o nE u r . Med . 1 0 . 9

1 °

1G ene s i s

3 ,1 6 . L uc .N ek r iko iD ia logo i ,2 8 ,2 . 3 M . P ucc i ( 1980 ) ; E . McDe rmo t t( 1989 ) ;P .L eka t sa s( 1989 ) ; C . S ega l ( 1993 ) . 4P .L eka t sa s , ( 1989 ) ,p .8 5 . 5 H e s . T heog . 9 56 -7 . 6 M o s t v iv id a ccoun t i nO v id Me t . 7 , 1 62f f ; e a r l ie s t a ccoun t i n N o s to i , f r .6 . 7 C f . E ume lu s ' K or in th iaka ,a ne p ic w h ich h a sn o ts u rv ived . 8 E f y ra : a nc ien t n ame f o r C o r in th , o r T he sp ro t ian c i ty ( Scho l . Od y s . 1 ,2 59 ) . 2

3 8

E a r ly L ucan ian h yd r ia ,b yt h eP o l ico ro P a in te r ; c .4 00 BC ; P o l ico ro , Mu seo N az iona l le d e l la S i r i t ide ( p ic tu re f r om A . T renda l l &T . Web s te r , 1 971 ,p .9 7 ) .

p ro to type . E ven i fi tw a s , i tw a s n o t u nu sua l f o r ap oe tt o t a ke f r om a n o t he r t h e s ucce s sf u l e l emen t s o f a my th 's t e x tu re . S t i l l , E u r ip ide s ' i n f an t ic ide r ema in s o r ig ina l i n t h e f u l l e x ten t o fh e r c ha rac te r 's a na ly s is . Why d id h e d o i t , t h ough ? D id h e m e re ly w i sh t o a dd a n ew d rama t ic d imen s ion t o t h e s t age -ac t ion? D id h e w i sh t o p re sen t Medea a s e v i l? S u r e ly , i fh i s i n ten t ion w a s t h e l a t te r , h e n eed n o th ave i nven ted a no the rr e a son f o rt h e a ud ience t o d i s l ik e Medea ; t h e my th a l r eady c on ta ined t h e e l emen t s o fG lauk e 's a nd C r eon 's mu rde r s — n o t t om en t ion t h e o ld s t o ry a bou t A p sy r tu s . S o , w hy t h e u se o f t h e i n f an t ic ide? T h is w i l l b ecom e c l ea r a t t h e e nd o f t h e a r t ic le .

t h e n ew e l em en t i n t h e o ld t r ad i t ion o f t h e C o r in th ian r i tua l s . T he i mpor tan t i s sue i s t h a t E u r ip ide s w a s t h e f i r s t t o i n t roduce t h e i n f an t ic ide i n to t h e my th . O fc ou r se t h e re i s a lway s t h e p rob lem o ft h e Med ea o fN eoph ron . A s w a s r e po r ted i nt h e f i r s t H ypo the s i s o ft h e Med ea , E u r ip ide s u sed t h e w o rk o f t h e S ikyon ian t r ag ic p oe t N eoph ron . T he s c ho la r w ho w ro te t h e H ypo the s i s ( i t i sa nonymou s ) c a l l s u pon t h e a u tho r i t ie s o fD ica ea rchu s a nd A r i s to t le i n H ypomnema ta . D iogene s L ae r t iu s t a lk s a bou t E u r ip ide s ' Med ea , ' t ha t i s s a id t o h ave b een i n sp i red b y t h e S i kyon ian N eoph ron ' .1 3 T he S cho l ia o n Medea , a l so , r e f e r t ot wo e x t rac t s f r om N eoph ron 's p l ay , a nd al o nge r o ne i sf ound i n S tobaeu s .1 4 H ow eve r , i ti ss t i l l av e ry c on t rove r s ia l m a t te r w he the r s u ch a w o rk e x i s ted . T he p rob lem i s t h a t o u r i n f o rma t ion a bou t N eoph ron ( o r N eophon ) c om e s f r om S u ida s , a f te r t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry , a nd i sn o t v e ry i lum ina t ing . I ti si n d ica t ive t h a t N eoph ron w a s s a id t o h ave b een k i l led b y A lexande r t h e G r ea t ( a long w i th C a l l i s thene s ) , b u t h e s e em s t ob e a l ive i nt h e 4 t h c en tu ry , a nd e ven t o a ppea r a s ap r edece s so r o f S ophoc le s a nd E u r ip ide s . T hen , h e w a s s uppo sed t oh ave w r i t t en 1 20 w o rk s , o fw h ich n on e s u rv ive s . A r i s to t le d oe s n o t m en t ion h im i nt h e P oe t ic s , w hen h e t a lk s a bou t t h e Med ea o f E u r ip ide s . A s f o r D icaea rchu s , h e i sn o t a r e l iab le a u thor i ty , a nd t h eH ypomnema ta i sn o tw r i t ten b y e i th e r D icaea r chu s o r A r i s to t le . T hen , i nt h e H ypo the s i s b y A r i s tophane s B yzan t iu s , am o re r e l iab le s ou r ce , i ti s s a id t h a t n e i the r S ophoc le s n o r A e schy lu s d ea l t w i th t h e my th — N eoph ron i sn o t e ven m en t ioned .1 5 E ven t h e s u rv iv ing e x t rac t s o f N eoph ron c an b e c on s ide red a s i m i ta t ion so fE u r ip ide s ' p l ay .

O ne t h ing t h a t w ou ld b r ing t h e a ud ience t o Medea 's s i de i st h e b e t raya l o f t h e o a th s o f f a i thf u lne s s b y J a son . A s E a s te r l ing p o in t s o u t , E u r ip ide s d oe s n o t ' a l low a ny c ha rac te r t o r a i se t h e q ue s t ion o f t h e l e ga l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween J a son a nd Medea ' .1 6 T he v a l id i ty o f t h is r e la t ion sh ip i sf undamen ta l t ot h ep l ay 's a c t ion . H oweve r , i fw e c on t ra s t t h e r e la t ion sh ip t o t h e s oc ia l a nd mo ra l p rac t ice s o f 5 t h c en tu ry A then s w e m igh t c ome t o q ue s t ion s ome o f i t s a spec t s . J a son i si n ar e la t ion sh ip w i th a f o r e ign w oman , w ho , d e sp i te h e r h i gh s t a tu s a s p r ince s s a nd d e scendan t o f t h e S un , h a s a bandoned h e r f am i ly i nn o f i t t ing m anne r . J a son i sn o t a nA then ian , b u t a s m o s t p l ay s a r e t o b e s e en t h rough t h e s oc io -mo ra l p r i sm o fA then ian b e l ief s , i tw ou ld n o t b e i n app rop r ia te t oc on s ide r h im j udged a cco rd ing t oA then ian s t anda rd s . A t t h e t ime w hen t h e Med ea w a s p roduced , t h e l aw o f P e r ic le s c once rn ing c i t izen sh ip w a s i n f o r ce a nd i tw a s a c tua l ly t a ken v e ry s e r iou s ly ." I n o rde r t o g a in c i t izen s t a tu s , o ne h ad t o b e d e scended f r om t wo A then ian p a ren t s . Whe the r s u ch l aw s a r e t ob e r ega rded a sh av ing b een v a l id i n I o lko s — e spec ia l ly t h a t o ft h e h e ro ic a ge

T he t r u th i st h a t t h e r e c an b e n o c onc lu s ive d ec i s ion o n w he the r N eoph ron 's — a l leged — p l ay w a s E u r ip ide s '

P .E a s te r l ing ( 1977 ) ,p .1 80 . C f . C . Me ie r ( 1988 ) , t r ans la ted i n G r eek b y F . Manak idou A then s 1 997 ) , p .5 1 . A cco rd ing t o Me ie r ,t h is l aw e xp re s sed t h e i n i t ia l d e s i re o fA then ian s f o r c i v ic h omogeny a nd p re se rva t ion o fs upe r io r i ty o n o t he r s . 1 6 1 7

1 3 1 4 1 5

D iog . L ae r t . ,2 . 10 ,p a r . 1 34 . S t obaeu s ,A n tho log ia G raeca , 2 0 .34 . A r i s t . B yz . ,H ypo th . i ,3 5 -40 .

3 9

— c anno tb ev e r if ied , b u ti ti sp robab ly n o ti mpor tan t .1 8 I t i s m o re t h an l i ke ly t h a t t h e l aw w a s i n t h e A then ian a ud ience 's m ind , w hen t h ey w i tne s sed J a son 's e x i le . T h i s i sn o t t o s ay t h a t a ny c ha rac te r i nt h e p l ay s ugge s t s t h a t J a son w a s j u s t if ied i n a bandon ing Medea b ecau se s he w a s af o r e ign e r .1 9 B u t e ven i fs uch ac i t izen sh ip law d id n o te x i s ti nr e a lI o lko s( no tt h a to ft h e s t age ) , i ti so bv iou s t h a t b y t h e i r f l igh t J a son 's c h i ld ren l o s t a l l t h e i r r i gh t s t o t h e i r f a the r 's w ea l th i n I o lko s — a nd t h i s i ss ome th ing t h a t t h e A then ian a ud ien ce c ou ld d ef in i te ly s ympa th ize w i th . I f Medea i sc on s ide r ed t h e ma in c au se o ft h i s f l igh t , s h e o bv iou s ly t a ke s t h e b l ame f o r t h e l o s s o f t h e c h i ld ren 's s t a tu s t h rough i n he r i tance , a nd s ub sequen t ly , t h ed e s truc t ion o fJ a son 's a nce s t ra l o i ko s . T he i mpor tance g i v en b y A th en ian s t o t h e c on t inua t ion o ft h e a nce s t ra l o i kos i se v iden t i nm any as ou rce , a nd i tm ake s Medea 's r e spon s ib i l i ty i nt h i s a f f a i r e ven mo re c on sequen t ia l f o r t h e o ikos .2 ° Wh en J a son s ay s i n5 62 -7 t h a t h e p l anned t o m a r ry G lauk e , C reon 's d augh te r , s o t h a t h i s c h i ld r en m igh t g a in C o r in th ian s t a tu s a nd p ro spe r i n C o r in th , m any am embe ro ft h eA then ian a ud ience w ou ld g i ve h im c r ed i t f o r t h i s — w he the r o r n o t E u r ip ide s i n tended i tt o b es o . B u t w ha t a bou t J a son 's o a th s? T he t h eme o ft h e se o a th s i sg i ven r e pea ted s t re s s i nt h e p l ay .2 1 E a s te r l ing s ugge s t s t h a t ' t he e s sen t ia l s i tua t ion i sc l ea r -cu t : J a son a nd Medea a r e t ob e r ega rded a sp e rmanen t ly p l edged , s o t h a t w hen J a son a bandon s Medea h e i sb reak ing f a i th ( a nd e ven h e d oe s n o t d eny i t ) ' .2 I n f a c t , J a son 's a dm i t t ing o f h i s ' u n ju s tw edd ing s ' a ppea r st os uppor ts uch ac onc lu s ion . A iv 6 . ) ,y üva t ,T äö ' , °M . ' tn iva t a g i .u po l ia t • ci k ög y äp ä pyäq 0 1-91 4un / oL ek :ea ty evog y äpoug n apep r ro Mm rog ä ÄÄo ioug , n äas t .

9 08 9 10

H oweve r , h e d oe s n o t s how s i gn s o fr emo r se o rg u i l t , a nd h e e ven p ra i se s Medea f o r c om ing n ow i n to h e r r i gh t m ind , b y a ccep t ing t h e se w edd ing s ( 9 13 ) . F u r the r o n , h e d e c la res h i s c a re f o r h i s c h i ld ren : b y h i s m a r r iage t ot h e p r ince ss o fC o r in th , w hen h e e xp re s se s h i s h ope t h a t h i s c h i ld ren w i l l o ne d ay ' b e t h e f i r s t ' a l ong w i th t h e i r o t he r s i b l ing s ( 9 14 -21) , p re sumab ly m ean ing t h e o ne s t h a t w ou ld f o l low f r om h i s m a r r iage w i th t h e C o r in th ian p r ince ss . Wha t w e s e e h e re i s t h e p i c tu r e o f af a the r c once rned a bou t t h e f u tu r e a nd t h e s t a tu s o fh i s o f f sp r ing

1 8 E . McDe rmo t t ( 1989 ) , p . 4 4 , s ugge s ted t h a t t h e b lu r r ing b e tween E u r ip ide s ' t ime s a nd Medea 's t ime s m e r e ly e nhance s t h es en se o fa noma ly , s oe s sen t ia lt ot h ep l ay . 1 9 I ti si n te re s t ing t o c on s ide r t h e d i lemma f r om t h e p o in t o f v i ew o fa n A then ian c i t izen : J a son a bandon s t h e mo the r o fh i s c h i ld ren . H oweve r , t h is mo the r i s amu rde re ra nd c anno t s e cu re c i t izen s t a tu s f o rh e rc h i ld ren ; t h eo t he rw oman i s al e ga l c i t izen o fC o r in th , a nd s he w ou ld o bv iou s ly h ave mo re t o of e r a s a p a r en t . 2 9 O n t h e i n te r re la t ion b e tw een o i kos a nd p o l i s s e e L . McLu re ( 1999 ) ,p .1 64 a nd n o te s 1 6 17 . 2 1 E u r . , Med . 2 1-2 , 1 60 -3 , 1 68 -72 , 2 08 ,4 39 -40 , 4 92 -5 , 1 392 . 2 2 E a s te r l ing ( 1 977 ) ,p .1 80 .

4 0

— as t a tu s s hak en b yt h e f l igh t f r om t h e i rc i ty , f o rw h ich t h e i r mo the ra ppea r sr e spon s ib le . J a son i sn o tj u s t if ied i na bandon ing h i s w if e , b u t Ib e l ieve t h a t a n A then ian a ud ience w ou ld n o t c ondemn h im u n r e served ly . I n 5 34 -46 h e r e coun t s t h e b enef i t s t h a t Medea w on t h rough t h e i r u n ion , a nd i n4 46 -64 h e t e l l s h e rt h a t h e w a s w i l l ing t os e cu re h e r f u tu r e— a nd t h a to f h e r c h i ld ren — i nC o r in th , e ven a f t e r h i s n ew m a r r iage . T h i s s peech o f J a son e nd s w i th t h e a s su rance t h a t h e w ou ld n eve r b e a b le t ot h ink b ad ly o f Medea , e ven i fs h e h a ted h im ( 463 -4 ) . I nr e spon se t ot h i s s peech , E a s te r l ing c ha ra c t e r ize sh im a s ' as t a tu s seek e r , e mba r ra s sed b y h i s b a rba r ian w if e w ho r e f u se s t og o q u ie t ly , a nx iou s t oh ave h e r o u t o ft h e w ay b u t i n sen s i t ive e nough t o t a lk a bou t e x i le b e ing a h a rd sh ip , c r a s s ly p a t ron iz ing i n h i s o f f e r o f m a te r ia l h e lp ' .2 3 E a s te r l ing 's r e spon se i s c ha ra c te r i s t ic o f t h e a pp roach b a sed o n m oder n mo ra l a nd e t h ica l p e r spec t ive s . H oweve r , I b e l ieve t h a t t h e a n c ien t A then ian s w ou ld h ave c on s ide r ed J a son a st h ough tf u l a nd c a r ing a sc an b e , c on s ide r ing t h e c i r cum s tance s . I nf ide l i ty w a s n o t a n u nu sua l o ccu r r ence a m id t h e m a te r ia l o f G r eek my th s , o r i n deed i nA then ian l i f e .2 4 I n T rach in iae H e ra c le s b r ing s h ome I o le a nd d e sp i te h e rr e luc tance a nd j e a lou sy D e iane i ra , H e ra c le s ' w if e , a ccep t s h e r .2 5 E ven A nd romache , i nE u r ip ide s ' h omonymou sp l ay , d esc r ib ing h e r h appy m a r r iage w i th H ec to r , e xp la in s t h a t s he , f a r f r om r e be l l ing a th i s i nf ide l i t ie s , t o ok u pon h e r se lf t h e t a sk o fn u r s ing a nd b r ing ing u p h i s i l eg i t ima te c h i ld ren .2 6 A s B a r low p o in t s o u t , ' Medea i s d if e r en t a nd h e r s i tua t ion i sw o r se t h an t h a t o ft h e se ' e s tab l i shed w ive s ' , f o rw he rea s D e ine i ra a nd A nd romache w e re n eve r o u s ted f r om t h e i r p l ace s i n t h e h om e , Medea h a s t os uf f e r j u s t t h a t ' .2 7 T h i s i s t r ue , y e t i ti s h i gh ly u n l ike ly t h a t a n a n c ien t a ud ience w ou ld h ave f ound i ta so f f en s ive a sw e w ou ld t oday . A ga in , t h ey m igh t n o t h ave a pp roved h i s a bandon ing o f h i s w if e , b u t a tl e a s t h e d i d t h e b e s t h e c ou ld t o p rov ide f o r h e r a f te r t h e i r s epa ra t ion , a nd t h e w e igh t t h a t h e g i ve s t ot h e w e lf a r e o fh i s c h i ld r en a nd t h e c on t inua t ion a nd e s tab l i shmen t o f h i s o i kos w ou ld c oun te r -ba lan ce t h e n o t ion o f a bandonmen t n o t o f h i s l e ga lw if e , b u to fh i sp a r tne r . 2 3 P .E a s te r l ing ( 1 977 ) , p p . 1 83 -4 . C f . a l so L . McLu r e ( 1999b ) , p p . 3 73 -394 . 2 4 I nl i ne s 2 36 -7 Medea c omp la in t st h a th u sband sh ave t h er i gh t t o o p t o u t o f am a r r iage i ft h ing s g o w rong . T h i s s t a temen t c ou ld b er ega rded a sc r i t ic i sm o fa n e s tab l i shed n o rm ,y e t i ta l so p o in t s o u t an o rm t h a tw ou ld h ave b een a ccep t ed b y al a rge p a r t o ft h ea ud ience . 2 5 I nT rach in iae H e rac le s i sd e s t royed b yh i sw if e ,n o td ue t oa n i n t en t iona l a c to fr e venge o nh e rp a r tb u td ue t ot h em a levo lence o fN e s su s . 2 6 E u r ip ide sA nd romache 2 24 -5 . A nd roma che i so f ten v i ewed a s

t h e e p i tome o f ap e rf ec t w if e . S ee RE 1 . 2 .2 . 2 151-2 u nde r A nd romache a nd p a r t icu la r ly E u r ip ide s T road e s 6 43 -5 a nd S eneca T road e s 6 42 -5 . C f . P au san ia s 1 0 .25 .9 a nd P lu ta r ch B ru tu s 2 3 . O n t h e a n t i the s i s b e tween c oncub ine a nd w if e s e e a l so L . McLu r e( 1999 ) ,p p . 1 68 -9 a nd 1 73 . 2 7 S .B a r low ( 1 989 ) ,p p . 1 58 .

C ampan ian n eck -amphora b yt h e I x ion P a in te r ; c .3 30 -320 BC ; P a r is , L ouv re K 3 00 , f r om C umae ( p ic tu re f r om A . T renda l l &T . Webs te r , 1 971 ,p .9 8 ) .

Medea 's i mage s uf f e r s mo re b l ow s a s s h e t r an sg r e s se s f r om t h e mo s t c e leb ra ted f em in ine t r a i t : m o the r ly l o ve . H e r f i r s t w o rd s u t te red a f t e r h e r l amen t s , a r e c u r se s f o r h e rc h i ld ren ( 1 10 -4 ) . S o c r ue l a r eh e rw o rd s ,t h a te ven h e r f a i thf u l n u r se p ro te s t s . I f Medea i ss uppo sed t os e rve a sa m ode l , i ti sd ef in i te ly n o t ap o s i t ive o ne , a tl e a s t i nt h i s s c ene . H e r a ppea rance i no u t rage i sa n t ic ipa ted a f t e r t h e n u r se 's c omm en t s i n l i ne s 3 6 -45 , w he r e Medea i s d ep ic ted a s aw oman w i th 1 3 ape i c t ( p p i lv a nd b et v t i a nd o n e w ho h a te s h e r o wn c h i ld ren . T he se l i ne s ( i n c on junc t ion w i th 9 0 -5 , w he re t h e n u r se t r i e s t ok eep t h e c h i ld r en a way f r om t h e i r ö t ioeu i _ tou 4v r i m o the r ) o bv iou s ly p repa re t h e g round f o r t h e m u rde r o f h e r c h i ld r en , b u t t h ey a l so p r e sen t at e r r ib le s i de o f t h e w oman — a s i de t h a t n o a ud ien ce c ou ld h ave s ympa th ized w i th . H e r n ega t ive c o lou r ing c on t inue s i n l i ne s 9 7 110 . H e re s he i s d r awn a s aw oman w i th " ä yp tov 7 1 : 1 B og , o Tuyepd tv " C c p üa tv c p peväg a tAk tboüq " ( 103 -4 ) . C on t ra s ted t ot h e i mage o ft h e c h i ld ren p l ay ing i n nocen t ly w i th t h e i rh oop s ( 46 -7 ) , Medea a ppea r s a l l t h e m o re u nmo the r ly a nd d ange rou s . E a s te r l ing c ommen t s o n Medea 's f amou s c l a im ( 250 1 . ) t h a t s h e w ou ld r a the r

s t and t h r ee t ime s i nt h e b a t t le l i ne t h an b ea r o ne c h i ld , b y s ay ing t h a t Medea ' w in s o u r r e spec t '• 2 8 E a s te r l ing s ay s t h a t Medea i s t a lk ing a bou t t h e e mo t iona l h aza rd s o f b e ing amo the r , b u t e ven s o , n o t m any w om en w ou ld s ay w ha t Medea s ay s? C ou ld w e i mag ine Medea e a rn ing t h e r e spec t o f a 5 t h c en tu ry a ud ience b y u t te r ing t h is s t a temen t? E ven i ft h e re w e re w omen i n t h e a nc ien t a ud ience , i ti s h i gh ly i mp robab le t h a t Medea 's c l a im w ou ld h ave s ounded r a t iona l . R e jec t ion o fm a ter n i ty a nd a s sump t ion o ft h e a l l -ma le r o le o fw a r r io rm u s th ave b een a b su rd n o t ion s f o r aw oman — o rm an — r e a red w i th t h e v a lue s o f e üyov ia , c on t inua t ion o f t h e o i kos a nd t h e s t r ic t ly d ef ined g ende r r o le s . O f c ou r se , w e mu s t n o t o ve r look t h e p sycho log ica l a im o f Medea 's s t a temen t . B y p r ef e r r ing w a r t oc h i ldbea r ing s h e a l lude s t ot h e p hy s ica l a nd e mo t iona l h aza rd s o f n o t o n ly b i r th , b u t a l so m a ter n i ty . B ecau se i tw ou ld b e u nf a i r t od ep r ive Medea o f a l l m a te rna l e mo t ion s . H e r s peech i n 1 0 19 -80 i sa mov ing d i sp lay o f t h e s t rugg le b e tween h e r m a ter na l f e e l ing s a nd h e r d e s i re f o r r e venge — o f w h ich s h e

2 8

4 1

P .E a s te r l ing , ( 1977 ) , p .1 82 .

c on s ide r s t h e m u rde r o f t h e c h i ld ren a n e s sen t ia l p a r t .2 9 T h i s i st h e k ey t o t h e s peech , a nd t h e m ono logue e nd s w i th t h e r e so lu t ion t op roceed w i th t h e mu rde r . L a te r o n s he w i l l a dm i t t oJ a son t h a t t h e l o ss o fh e r c h i ld ren p a in s h e r , t oo ( 1 362 ) , b u t s he c on s ide r s h i s m i se ry m o re s a t i sf y ing t o h e r . H e r m a te rna l f e e l ing s a ppea r t o b e s t rong o n ly f o r t h e s hor t t im e i n 1 0 19 -80 , a nd t h ey a r e c ondemned t o b e e x t ingu i shed . I n f a c t , t h e p rof ound m i se ry o fJ a son , a f te rh e s e e s h i s d ead c h i ld ren , c ome s i n c omp le te c on t ra s t t ot h e c r ue l ty o f Medea . A s am o the r , s he f e e l s a nd t h ink s o fh e r c h i ld ren l e s s t h an t h e i r f a the r d oe s . T he re a r e d i f f e ren t o p in ion s o n t h e e x i s tence o f r o le r eve r sa li nt h ei mage o ft h e Medea -wa r r io r . P ucc i , s ay s : T he i mage i ni t se lf , i n deed , d oe sn o tv i o la te t h e c ohe r ence o f t h e i d eo logy o f t h e f em in ine w o r ld , . . ac ommon my th ica l p a t te rn p re sen t s w omen a s f i gh te r s w hen t h ey a r e a bandoned a nd b e t rayed b y t h e i r h u sband s .3 ° I na cco rdance w i th t h i s p a t te rn Medea 's p ref e rence f o r t h e b a t t le l i ne r e ce ive s a f u r the r j u s t if ica t ion . N eve r the le s s , t h e r h e to r ica l e mpha s i s ( " three t i me s ...t h an b ea r ac h i ld o nce" ) b e tok en s a m a r t ia l s p i r i t t h a t w e h ave a l ready e ncoun te r ed i n t h e i mage u sed b y t h eN u r se ( 4445 ) .3 1 A n e xamp le o f a bandoned w om en w ho t ur n f i gh te r s i s t h a t o f t h e L emn ian w omen . T he s t o ry i s q uo ted i n A po l lon iu s R hod iu s : t h e w omen o f L emno s n eg lec ted A ph rod i te i nt h e i r s a c r if ice s . A s ap un i shmen t , A ph rod i te m ade t h em r e ek af ou l s me l l , s ot h a tt h e i rh u sband s c ou ld n o t a pp roach t h em s exua l ly . I n s tead , t h e m en o fL emno s t ook T h rac ian c oncub ine s . I n o rde r t o t a ke r evenge , t h e w omen a g reed a nd k i l led a l l t h e m en i no ne n i gh t3 2 — w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f H yp s ipy le , w ho s pa red h e r a ged f a the r , as on o ft h e g od D iony su s . Af t e r t h i s t h e w omen n eg lec ted t h e i r f em in ine t a sk s a nd l i ved a s f i gh te r s i n c on s tan t f e a r o f S cy th ian p i ra te s .3 O n t h e i r r e tur n j our n ey t h e A rgonau t s s t opped a t L emno s a nd f a the red t h e M inyae , t h e n ex t g ene ra t ion s o f t h e i s land 's i n hab i tan t s .3 4 T he s t o ry mu s t h ave b een f am i l ia r t o t h e a ud ien ce o f Med ea . P ucc i d raw s a t ten t ion t ot h i s s t o ry , i n o rde r t op o in t o u t t h a t t h e re i sn o th ing ` u n -f em in ine ' i na w oman w ho k i l l s at r ea che rou s h u sband ; n o m a t te r h ow e x t reme , r e venge s t ay s w i th in t h e r ange o f f em in in i ty .3 5 T hu s Medea 's r evenge i s n o t a n i n d ica t ion o f r o le r eve r sa lb u to fw ounded f em in in i ty .

H ow eve r , w he the rt h e c a se o ft h e L emn ian w omen c an b e s e en a s t h e n o rm o f h ow w omen b ehaved w hen a bandoned b yt h e i rh u sband s , r ema in s s ub jec tt op e r sona l p e r cep t ion . I ts e em s e xagge ra ted , t h ough , t o p r e sen t i n l i t e ra tu r e a ny s u ch i mage , w h ich p re sen ted w om en w i th s u ch ' d ange rou s ' c ha rac te r s , w i thou t m ak ing s u re t h a t t h ey w e re o bv iou s ly n ega t ive . E ven i nt h e A rgonau t ica w e c anno t s ay t h a t H yp s ipy le b a lance s t h e n ega t ive t o ne w i th w h ich t h e L emn ian w omen a r e d e sc r ibed ; s h e , r a th e r , e mpha s ize s b y c on t ra s t t h e h o r ro r o f t h e o t h e r w omen 's a c t ion . O n t op o f t h i s , w e d o n o t h ave o t he r c e leb ra ted my tho log ica l e xamp le s o f w om en w ho b ecom e ' wa r r io r s ' a f t e rt h e i rh u sband s d e se r t t h em , s ow e s hou ld t r ea t t h e p a ra l le l w i th t h e L emn ian w omen w i th e x t r em ec au t ion . Medea 's e s tab l i shed s t a tu s a s aw i tch i sc en t ra l i n t h i s p l ay . Mag ic w a s k nown i n 5 t h c en tu ry A then s b u t i t s s t a tu s w a s c on t rove r s ia l . Two b a s ic f a c t s s hou ld b e r e ca l led b r ie f ly : t h a t m ag ic w a s s uppo sed t o b e ' impo r ted ' t o G r eece , a nd t h a t t h e u se o f m ag ic b y w omen w a s m a in ly l im i ted t ol owe r -c la s s w omen — a nd e ven t h en , i tw a s c on s ide red i mmo ra l a nd d oub tf u l . Medea e mbod ie s mo s t o f t h o se c ha ra c te r i s t ic s t h a t ' e nab le ' h e r t ou se w i tchc raf t . S he i s af o r e ign w oman — t h ough o fh i gh s o c ia l s t a tu s — a nd s he e ven h a s d i v ine f am i l ia l t i e s , w i th t h e S un ( s he i s h i s g r anddaugh te r , 1 32 1) . H e r m ag ic h a s a l ready h e lped J a son t oa t ta in t h e G o lden F l eece . T h i s i s s ome th ing t h a t i s v i ewed p o s i t ive ly . H ow eve r , s i nce h e r a r r iva l i n G r eece , h e r m ag ic h a s b een u sed o n ly t oh a rm : t h e m u rde r o fP e l ia s , a f t e r ac onv inc ing d emon s t ra t ion o f r e juvena t ion t o h i s d augh te r s , a nd t h e mu rde r o ft h e p r ince s s o fC o r in th a nd h e rf a the r . I ti si n te re s t ing t os t r e s s t h e f a c t t h a t Medea d oe s n o t u s e h e r p owe r s t o r e ga in h e r h u sband 's a f f ec t ion , j u s t a s D e iene i ra o p t s t od o i nS ophoc le s ' T rach in iae .3 6 I n s tead , s h e p r ef e r s t ou se h e r m ag ic , i no rde r t ok i l l t h e p r ince s s u s ing t h e mo t if o f t h e p o i sonou s a nd d ead ly c h i ton , b y w h ich H e ra c le s c ame t oh i s d ea th i nt h e a f o remen t ioned p l ay .3 7 T he f i na l s c ene w i th Medea o n t h e d i v ine c ha r io t ( 1 318 2 1) s u re ly h a s s om e t ouch o ft h e s uper na tu ra l a nd , m ag ic o rn o t , s t reng then s t h e i d ea o fh e r s upe rhuman p owe r s . I n g ene ra l , Ia m i n c l ined t o b e l ieve t h a t t h e se p ow e r s o f Medea i nt h i s t r ea tmen t o ft h e my th b y E u r ip ide s a dd t o t h en ega t ive i mage o fh e ri nt h ep l ay .3 8

S oph . T rach . 5 84 -5 ; s e ea l so A r i s t . Mag . m or . 188b30 -38 . E ro t ic m ag ica l o pe ra t ion i sn o tu nknown i na n t iqu i ty . S ee C . . F a raone ( 1992 ) , p p . 9 2 113 a nd C .F a raone ( 1 994 )p p . 15 135 . I n al a te r w o rk P lu ta rch a dv i se s b r ide s a ga in s t t h e u se o f p harmaka t or e ga in l o ve r s ' a f ec t ion ; c f . P lu t . Mor . 1 39A . S ee a l so , A n t iphon 1 . 14 , 1 . 19 , w ho r e f e r st o am i s t re s s c on to r t ing t o p harmaka , i no rde rt or ega in h e rl o ve r 's d evo t ion . 3 8 T he n ega t ive c ha rac ter iza t ion o f ap e r son w ho u se s m ag ic i s s t re s sed i n T ragedy b y t h e a s soc ia t ion o f t h o se p e r son s w i th l owe r s t a tu s . c f . E u r . A nd r . 1 56 -8 ; I on 6 16 -7 , 8 43 -6 , 185 , 3 6

O fc ou r se ,t h es peech a bound sa l so w i th p o l i t ica l c onno ta t ion s . F o rt h i s , s e eE . Ma te l l i ( 2000 ) ,p p . 2 1-46 . 3 ° S ee M . S haw ( 1970 ) ,p .2 27 . 3 1 M . P ucc i( 1980 )p p . 6 6 -7 . r om 3 2 T h i s i s w he re t h e p h ra se A l i k tv t o e pya d e r ive s f ( He rodo tu s6 . 138 ) . 3 3 A po l l . R hod . ,A rgonau t . , 6 02f f . 3 4 P ind . ,P y th . 4 ;H e rodo tu s4 . 145 . 3 5 P ucc i( 1980 )p . , 6 7 . 2 9

3 7

4 2

I f Medea w a s b rough t t oj u s t ice i n a mode rn c ou r t , t h e m o s t l i ke ly l i ne o f d ef ence h e r l awye r w ou ld f o l low w ou ld b e i n san i ty . I ndeed , ac en t ra l i s sue i nt h e p l ay i s Medea 's a c K p ia . W i th t h i s ,w e s hou ld u nde r s tand n o t o n ly h e r m en ta l c apac i t ie s b u t a l so h e r r e a son ing p roce s se s , h e r j udgmen t a nd t h e w ay s he u se s h e r a b i l i t ie s t h roughou tt h ep l ay .

h e r c ha ra c te r iza t ion . Whe the r i ti s ap o s i t ive o r n ega t ive t r a i t i s d i ff i cu l t t o d e te rm ine , a nd i td epend s o n t h e c on tex t . C e r ta in ly , w hen w e t h ink o f O dy s seu s a nd h i s a b i l i t ie s , t h e w o rd b ecome s ap o s i t ive a s se t o ft h e h e ro ic v a lue s . H oweve r , t h e r e s t o ft h e H ome r ic h e roe s , i nt h e I l iad a tl e a s t , d o n o t s e em t o e mp loy s u ch m ean s ; i ti s o n ly O dy s seu s w ho u se s 5 6Aog . Whe the rh e c on s t i tu te s a p o s i t ive i mage , e xemp l if y ing a v a lue t h a t e ven w om en c ou ld a sp i re t o , i sn o t o bv iou s . O f c ou r se , t h e re i st h e f i gu r e o fP ene lope , w ho e mp loy s 1 5 6Aog i no rde r t ok eep t h e s u i to r s a way f r om h e r . I nt h i s c a se c ou ld w e p e rhap s d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h e c i rcum s tance s i nw h ich o ne u se s MA W C an w e s ay t h a t P ene lope a nd O dy s seu s u se 6 6Xog f o r g ood , w h i le Medea u se s i tf o r b ad? C e r ta in ly , e mp loymen t o f d ecep t ion a nd m an ipu la t ion o f o the r s s ound sb ad , n o m a t te rw ha tt h e c i r cum s tan ce s . E ven i fw e s ay t h a t t h e H omer ic f i gu re s u se $ 5 6Aoq i no rde r t oh a rm e nem ie s , t h e s ame c ou ld b e s a id f o r Medea , t oo : f o r h e r , C r eon i sa ne nemy .

Medea h e r se lf d e sc r ibe s t h e s t a te o f h e r m en ta l c apab i l i t ie s i nt wo i n d ica t ive i n s tance s . F i r s t , r e f e r r ing t o h e r p r ev iou s s t a te o f m ind , w hen s he h ad o r ig ina l ly f o l low ed J a son f r om C o lch i s , s h e s ay s t h a ts he w a s ' mo re e ag e r t h an w i se ' t of o l low h im ( 4 85 ) . S econd , w hen s he r e f e r s t o t h e p r e sen t t ime , s h e c a l l s h e r se lf ' n o t t h a t w ise ' ( o C . JK ä yav c r ov i , 3 05 ) . H ow eve r , s he a l so a dm i t s t w ice t h a t s he i s s ophe ( ao ch y ap ok ra , 3 03 ) a nd µ d u \t a-r a c r o w ( ( 3 84 -5 ) , a nd t h e e ven t s p rove h e r t o b e r i gh t . T h i s i si nr e spon se t ow ha t C reon t e l l s h e r i n2 85 : " ao # re puKag K a i K aK E bv n o ia i i jv l öp i g " . I nt h i s s c ene w i th C reon Medea 's c r o c p ia i s f u l ly e xpo sed . C reon w i sh e s t o e x i le Medea a nd h e r c h i ld ren b ecau se h e i s a f ra id o fh e rc l ever n e s s a nd h e i sw o r r ied a bou tt h e s a f e ty o f h i s d augh te r ( 282 -3 ) .3 9 Medea r e spond s b y a n e xh ib i t ion o f s up r eme p sycho log ica l m an ipu la t ion . S he e xe r t s e mo t iona l p re s su re o n h im b y a ppea l ing t o h i s f a th e r ly f e e l ing s ( 3 40 -7 ) a nd C r eon s uccumb s . H e a l low s h e r t o s t ay f o r ad ay , t o m ak e a r rangemen t s f o r h e r c h i ld ren . Af t e rt h i s ,h e e x i t s t h e s t age a nd Medea c hange s h e rt o ne : ' Do y ou t h ink Iw ou ld h ave f awned o nt h a tm an i f Ih ad n o th ad s om ep rof i to rp l an i nm ind? ' ( 368 -9 ) . A s E a s t e r l ing p u t i t ,h e re w e s e e ' t h e c on temp t o ft h e c l eve r p e r son f o rt h ef oo l ' .

P e rhap s t h e u nde r ly ing d i f f e r ence i st h e f a c t t h a t Medea c r o s se s t h e l i ne , w h ich s epa ra te s ' t he e nem ie s ' . S he c on s ide r s a s e nem ie s h e r o wn f am i ly ( 374 -5 ) . I n ev i tab ly h e r $ 5 6Xag h a rm s t h em . E ven i fa t f i r s t s he p l an s t o mu rde r o n ly C reon , G lauk e a nd J a son ( 375 ) , h e r c h i ld r en a r ed rawn i n to t h e f r enzy o fh e rr evenge . Medea n o t o n ly d ece ive s C reon w i th h e r 6 6Aog b u t a l so J a son . I n l i ne s 8 70 -905 , s he p re sen t s t o J a son a Medea w ho h a s t o ta l ly r eg re t ted h e r p rev iou s a ccu sa t ion s , a nd s he e ven m anage s t os hed at e a r( 905 ) . E ven t h e c ho ru s i s m oved t ot e a r s b y h e r s peech ( 906 ) . B u t Medea 's s peech i s ad ecep t ion ; j u s t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e mu rde rou s s cheme st h a t s he h a s t hough tu p f o rC reon , h i s f am i ly a nd m o s to fa l l , h e ro wn f am i ly .

E a r l ie r o n , Medea h ad e xp re s sed as en se o ff e a r , a lmo s t , o ft h o se w ho a r e a Ka L a i , f oo l i sh p eop le , w ho c on s ide r a s o op 5g , a nyone w ho k now s s om e th ing mo re t h an t h em , e ven i ft h i s i ss om e th ing t r iv ia l ( 292 -305 ) . A t t h a t t ime s he s e emed w o r r ied a nd d ef en s iv e o fh e rc l ever n e s s , a si f i tw e re s ome th ing d ange rou s , a t t r ibu ted t o h e r w i thou t g ood r e a son .4 ° B u tn ow s he e xu l t si nt h er e a l iza t ion o fh e r p ow e r s . T he a cknow ledgm en to fh e rm an ipu la t ive p owe r s g i ve s ad i s t inc t ive m ean ing t o h e r c r o c p ia : i ti s mo re a pp rop r ia te t oc a l l i tE KAog . A s s u ch , i tg i ve s ad i f f e ren t i n s igh t i n to Medea 's a c t ion s a nd h o ld s al o t o fg rav i ty i n

T he p l ay e nd s w i th a d i sconce r t ing s en se o f d i so rde r . Medea e s cape s i n am ag ic c ha r io t g i ven t o h e r b y t h e S un .4 1 N o t o n ly d oe s t h e i n f an t ic ide e s cape u nha rmed b u t s he t a ke s w i th h e r t h e b od ie s o f t h e c h i ld ren , d eny ing t h e i rf a the rt h e r i gh tt ob u ry t h em ( 14 10 -4 ) . H ow eve r , t h e mo s t t e r r ib le a spec t o ft h e p l an 's c onc lu s ion i st h a t t h e re i sn o h ope f o rt h e r eve r sa l o fd i so rde r , a sn o d i v ine f i gu re i n te rvene s a tt h e e nd . I n o t he r p l ay s ( e .g . t h e B acchae ) s ome d i v ine a u tho r i ty o f f e r s as en se o f K äaapa tg , b y j u s t if y ing t h e e ven t s t h a t t ook p l ace , o rb yr e -e s tab l i sh ing m o ra l a nd s oc ia l o rde r . I n t h e Med ea , n o s u ch a u thor i ty a ppea r s a tt h e e nd . O f c ou r se , t h e re i st h e a s s i s tance o f t h e S un , b u t t h i s c an h a rd ly c oun t a s d i rec t i n terven t ion . T hen t h e re i s Medea h e r se lf . S he i s ad e scendan t o ft h e

1 220 1 , 1 286 ; H ec . 8 76 -8 . Medea 's s t a tu s i nn o t l ow , b u t h e r d ep loymen t o fm ag ic a dd s t oh e rn ega tve c o lou r ing . O n f ema le c ha ra c te r s a nd m ag ic i nc l a s s ica l l i t e ra tu re , s e e J .G age r ( 1992 ) p .7 9 ,2 44 . 3 9 I ti ss t range t h a t C reon s ay s t h a t h e e x i le s Medea a nd h e r c h i ld r en , t oo ( 27 1-6 ) ; b ecau se J a son s e em s t o c on s ide r h i s c h i ld r en 's f u tu re a s i ft h ey w e r e g o ing t o s t ay w i th h im i n C o r in th ( 9 14 -21) . Medea s e em st ob eo ft h es ame o p in ion ( 877 9 ) , e ven a f t e rs he h a sr e ce ived C r eon 's u l t ima tum . H oweve r ,w e c ou ld c on s ide r t h a t J a son i s u nawa r e o f C reon 's p lan s , a nd i n deed , Medea r evea l st h em t oJ a son , s ot h a t s he w i l l b e a b le t o u se t h e a cknow ledgemen t o fh i s f a the r ly i n te re s t a sp a r t o fh e r 6 6Xog . 4 ° P e rhap s Medea r e f e r s t o t h e C o r in th ian s a t t r ibu t ing w i sdom t o h e r , b ecau se o f t h e — p robab ly m ag ica l — h e lp t h a t s he of e red t h em s i nce s h e moved t oC or in th ( c f . l i ne 1 3 ) .

T he re h ave b een m any r e f e rence s t oS un t h roughou t t h e p l ay ( 3 52 , 7 52 -3 ) . H e i se voked a s s ymbo l o fj u s t ice a nd w i tne s s t o o a ths . H i s a s s i s tance t o Medea a tt h e e nd m ake s h i s r o le mo r e d ub iou s a nd d rama t ic . O ne s hou ld n o t f o rge t t h a t t h e S un w a s Medea 's r e la t ive . H oweve r , h e p u t s h i s r e la t ive s a bove j u s t ice , t hu s b ecom ing p a r t ia l a nd u n ju s t h im se lf . My tho log ica l t r ad i t ion h a s mo r e e xamp le s o f S un 's p a r t ia l i ty : n o t r i s ing f o r t wo d ay s w hen Z eu st r icked A lcmene a nd a l low ing P hae thon t o d r ive h i sc ha r io t ,t hu sd i s rup t ing u n ive r sa lo rde r .

41

4 3

l i ne o fC i rce a nd t h e S un . C ou ld w e c on s ide r h e r a st h e s ub s t i tu te f o rt h e d iv ine a u tho r i ty t h a t i sl a ck ing f r om t h e e nd o ft h e p l ay ? N e i the rt h e S un n o r Medea i sp a r t o ft h e i nf luen t ia l p an theon . Medea i sn o t a n i mmor ta l a nd s he s hou ld n o t b e a t t r ibu ted w i th a ny d i v ine a u tho r i ty . A s f o r t h e S un , i ti st r ue t h a t h i s a s s i s tance p rov ide s t h e g round s f o r s om e k i nd o f d i v ine j u s t if i ca t ion ; b u t t h i s i ss u ch a d i s tan t r e sonance , a s h e d oe s n o t e ven a ppea r n ex t t o Medea , t h a t h i s i n te rven t ion — i fi tc an b e c on s ide red a s s uch — i s r a the r n eg l ig ib le , s i nce i td oe s n o t d i s rup t r e a l ly t h e c ou r se o f e ven t s .4 2 E ven w i thou t t h e d iv ine c ha r io t , t h e s e t p a rame te r s o f t h e my th ica l v e r s ion d emanded t h a t Medea e s cape t oA then s u nha rmed . S o , i n c onc lu s ion , w e r e a l ize t h e a b sence o fd i v ine j u s t if ica t ion o f t h e c ou r se o f e ven t s . N o g od a ppea r s t oj u s t if y t h e e ven t s o r o f f e r s o lu t ion a nd n ew h ope . T h i s e xp la in s t h e i n ven t ion o fi n f an t ic ide b y E u r ip ide s . I fa ny th ing e l se h ad h appened , p e rhap s t h e re c ou ld b e s pa ce f o r f o rg ivene s s a nd t h e r e s to ra t ion o fo rde r , e ven i fi na ppea rance o n ly . B u ti n f an t ic ide i st o ot e r r ib le t ob ej u s t if ied o rf o rg iven . O ne m igh tr e ca l l t h a t i no t he rp l ay s o fE u r ip ide sw e c ome a c ro s s p a ren t s w ho k i l l t h e i r c h i ld ren — n ame ly t h e B acchae a nd H erac le s . I nt h e B acchae , t h ough , ad i v ine f i gu re a tt h e e nd o ft h e p l ay j u s t if ie st h e e ven t s , n om a t te r h ow u n ju s t o rc r ue l t h ey a ppea r ; a nd i nH erac le s af r iend ( who i s ad em igod ) o f f e r s p eace a nd f o rg ivene s s a nd h ope f o r r e s to ra t ion . T he s t r ik ing d i f f e ren ce b e tw een t h e se t wo p l ay s a nd t h e Med ea i st h a t i nB acchae a nd H erac l e s p a r en t s k i l led t h e i r o wn c h i ld ren w h i le t h ey w e r e d r iven m ad , o u t o f t h e i r m ind s , b y s ome d i v ine a gen t .4 3 A gaue t h ink s t h a t s he h a s k i l led a l i on , n o t h e r s on ; H e rac le s t h ink s t h a t h e h a s k i l led h i s e nem ie s , n o t h i s c h i ld ren . Medea , o n t h e o the r h and , c omm i t ted h e r c r ime w i th as ound a wa rene s s o fw hom s h e w a s g o ing t o mu rde r , h av ing p l anned t h e c r ime i n am o s t c o ld -b looded w ay . I n t o ta l c on t ro l o f h e r o o ( p ia , s he h ad s pace f o r o p t ion s a nd s he m ade t h e c ho ice s . T h i s i sw ha t s e t s t h e p a ram e te r s o f t h e p l ay . T h i s i sw hy Medea c anno t b e j u s t if ied o rf o rg iven . A nd t h i s i st h e s ynop s i s o ft h e p l ay . Ib e l ieve t h a t E u r ip ide s w i shed t op r e sen t aMedea t h a t t h e a ud ience c ou ld u nde r s tand ; t h ey c ou ld s ympa th ize , e ven , w i th h e r a t t h e b eg inn ing ; b u t t h ey c ou ld n o t f o rg ive h e r , b ecau se w ha t s he d i d w a s a n i repa rab le w rong , c omm i t ted f r ee ly a nd c on sc iou s ly . P e rhap s s he c ou ld h ave g a ined t h e a ud ience 's s ympa thy , h ad s he r ema ined a v i c t im . B y c r o s s ing t h e l i ne a nd b ecom ing v i c t im ize r , s he l o se s e ve ry h ope f o r s ympa thy . T h is d oe s n o t m ean t h a t aw oman s hou ld b e av i c t im i n o rde r t o

e a rn s ympa thy a nd r e spec t ; b u t , a cco rd ing t o t h e c i r cum s tances , aw oman c an h ave a l l t h e a bove b y b e ing c r o : x ppov e nough t ow e igh t h e s i tua t ion a nd m ake t h e r i gh t c ho ice s ." T h i si st h em e s sage i nl i ne s 1 367 -9 : I A . A gxoug c r c pg y 'f igk oc rag o üve i ca l c r ave i v ; M I 1 . Z i at i c pby y uva L i d rem T OOT 'E T Va 1ö o i ccig ; I A . ' HTt gy ea c ix . ppwv • a o i E i tr i äv r '& r r iv KaKä. Medea h ad t h e s pace f o r c ho ice s i nt h e p l ay . F rom w ha t J a son s a id , s h e c ou ld h ave c ho sen t o b e c on ten t i nh e r o wn h ome i n C o r in th ( 446 -9 ) . H oweve r , a s s he h e r se lf a dm i t ted , s he k new w e l l w ha t s h e w a s g o ing t o d o , b u t h e rp a s s ion o v e r cam e h e rl o g ic ( 1077 -80 ) , t h u sr em ind ing u so fE u r ip ide s ' P haed ra , w hen s he a dm i t so fw omen : T ä) ( ‚ p r i m-t r il ard imeaea Kai y lyV6 )aKO F ICV , OÜK i c r iovor i iicv 5 ' , o1! . tv ä py iag i j no , oi5' f i g iov i iv n poegv rcg ä v r 1T OOKaA0Ü äÄ ÄT 1 V TM ? 4 5

E ven a f te r s h e l e ar n ed t h a t t h e e ven t s h ad t a ken a n i reve r s ib le t ur n ( when G lauke r e ce ived t h e p o i soned c l o the s ) , s he a dm i t ted t h a t i tw a s t h e g od s ' w i sh a nd h e r o wn s cheme s , d ev i sed a ta ni lt ime , t h a tw e r er e spon s ib le ( 10 13 -4 ) . H ow eve r , n o d i v ine i n te rven t ion j u s t if ie s Medea 's f i r s tc l a im . T rad i t ion m igh th ave d e te rm ined t h a t s he e s caped u nha rmed , b u t , t h rough t h e i n f an t ic ide mo t if , E u r ip ide s m ake s s u re t h a t s he r ema in s f o reve r s t igma t ized .

H e r r e la t ion sh ip t ot h e S un h a s l e d s ome s c ho la r s t os ugge s t t h a t s he s ub s t i tu te s t h e d eu s e x m ach ina h e r se lf . H oweve r , a g od 's r e la t ive h a s n o s i ne q ua n on c l a im s t od iv in i ty ( one h a s o n ly t ot h ink o fa l l t h e i l eg i t ima te d iv ine of sp r ing i nt h eG reek my tho logy ) a nd Id o n o t t h ink t h a t E u r ip ide s ' a ud ience w ou ld c on s ide r h e r e x i t o f t h e p l ay a s d iv ine l ike , d e sp i te t h e i mp re s s ive s t age -ef f ec t s . 4 3 T he s ame i st r ue o f I no , w hom E u r ip ide s a lude s t o , i nl i ne s 1 282 -5 ; s he ,t oo , k i l led h e rc h i ld ren w h i le s he w a sd r iven o u to f h e r m ind . E u r ip ide s m ake s s u r e t h a t h e e mpha s ize s t h i s p o in t

4 4 E c epo aüvr i

( 1 v i o , g ave i c ra b ce er ov , 1 284 ) .

4 5

4 2

4 4

i sa l so p ra ised b yt h ec horu si n6 35 -43 . E u r . ,H ippo ! . 3 80 -383 .

B oundar ie sc onfu sed : E ur ip ide s 'B acchae ' Aw oman c an b e ab eau t if u lt h ing , b u ts he c an a l so b ee v i l . Wha ti sh oney t o o ne m an m ay b ep o i son t oa no the r . May A l lah p ro tec tu sf r om t h em a nd s end u so n ly t h eg ood o ne s ."

T he w o r ld o ft h eA then ian s t age i sn o ta n o rd ina ry w o r ld . I ti sw i thou t d oub t s ub jec tt ot h e c u r r en ts oc ia l a nd mo ra l a genda , b u t t h e re i sl i cence t o ' s u spend d i sbe l ief ' a nd c r ea te ar e a l i ty , w h ich i sb o th , i n ex t r icab ly p ragma t ic a nd y e t a tt h e s ame t im e n on -au then t ic . T hebe s o ft h e s t age o f t en w a s f o r t h e A then ian d rama t i s t t h e l o ca t ion o f a p l ay w i th s uch q ua l i t ie s . I n t h e c a se o f t h e B acchae , T hebe s f o rm s t h e s e t t ing f o r t h e e xh ib i t ion o f c omp lex c l a sh e s b e tw een m or ta l s a nd h uman s , m en a nd w omen , t h e n a tu ra l a nd t h e c i v ic , t h e o b scu re d i v ine a nd t h e c l ea r c u t , h uman l aw so ft h ep o l i s .

m ean t f o r A then ian e a r s .2 I n a ny c a se , t h i s w ou ld b e a m a te r ia l i s sue o n ly i fo ne h e ld t h a t E u r ip ide s ' o p in ion s a nd v i ew s o n w om en w e re l i k e ly t oh ave b een i n f luenced b ecau se o f ac hange o fh i s e nv i ronmen t . S uch ab e l ief — t a n ta l i s ing t h ough i t s i mp l ica t ion s a r e i s q u i te u nver if iab le .3 T he p l ay b eg in s w i th t h e e p iphany o ft h e p a t ron -de i ty o f t h ea t re , D iony su s . H i s o pen ing s peech ( l ine s 1 63 ) , n o t o n ly p rov ide s t h e a ud ience w i th a b r ief h i s to ry o f t h e d i v ine g enea logy o f D iony su s , b u t i ta l so o f f e r s ab r ief s umma ry o ft h e s i tua t ion i nT hebe s . O ne i mpor tan t p i ece o f i n f o rma t ion i n t h i s i n t roduc t ion i st h e o ne a bou t t h e w om en o fT hebe s : i nl i ne s 2 3f f , w e l e ar n t h a t D iony su s , d i sgu i sed a s ah uman ( 1 . 5 3 -4 ) , h a s c ome t o T hebe s , i n o rde r t op un i sh t h e s i s te r s o fh i s mo the r S em e le ( Agaue , t h e mo the ro fP en theu s , i so ne o ft h em ) , w ho d oub ted t h a t h ew a s s on o fZ eu s . T he i rp un i shm en ti sm adne s s :

Aq ue s t ion t h a th a s o f t en b een d i scu s sed i st h e a ppa ren t ly s t ra igh tf o rwa rd o ne o fw ha t t h e p l ay i sa bou t . I th a s b een s e en a s e ve ry th ing f r om m e re e n te r ta inm en t t o s k i l lf u l ly mo ra l iz ing a nd d i dac t ic d rama . C . S ega l ( 1982 ) s aw i ta s ap l ay a bou t b ounda r ie s : a s t h e e xp lo ra t ion o ft h e l im i t s b e tw een s e lf a nd t h e w o r ld , b e tw een r a t iona l a nd t h e i r ra t iona l , b e tw een i mag ina t ion a nd r e a l i ty . O the r s ( H . R ank in , 1 975 ) p e rce ived t h e B acchae a s ap l ay w i th p o l i t ica l a l lu s ion s , c once rned w i th s o c ia l a nd p o l i t ica l p rob lem s o f i t s t ime s . O the r s ( R . W inn ing ton Ing ram , 1 969 ) c oncen t ra ted o n t h e r e l ig iou s a nd p sycho log ica l a spec t s o f t h e s t age a c t ion . T h i s k i nd o f q ue s t ion i s a lway s d i ff icu l t t o d ea l w i th , a s t h e o n ly p e r son w ho c ou ld p rov ide a t l e a s t a n a u tho r ia l a n sw e r i sn o l o nge r a va i lab le . N ever the le s s , i ti s , Ib e l ieve , c l ea r t h a t ap l ay c an b e a bou t m any t h ing s a tt h e s ame t ime , n o m a t te r w he the r t h e a u tho r i n tended t h em t o b e i mmed ia te ly o bv iou st ot h e e ye s o f as pec ta to r . F o rt h ep u rpo se o ft h i s s t udy e mpha s i s w i l l b e g i ven t ot h e e l em en t s o ft h e p l ay t h a tc oncer nt h er o le s a nd r e p re sen ta t ion s o ft h ef em in ine . I tm igh t b e s e lf -ev iden t t o m any t h a t t h e B acchae i sa p l ay t h a t f o cu se s o n g ende r r o le s . B u tt h e e xam ina t ion o f t h ese r o le sr ema in ss ub jec tt oi n t e rp r e ta t ion s .

T Ot y d tp vt v( 2 1ÜTO K 5 6µ c ov i @ a-t p na ' y t h 3 2 t g , ö pog 5' o iKoüo tn apäKono t( p pe ev . o Ksujv T gXE L V f i väyK c ia 'öpy iwv 4 t i bv , K a in ay TÖ O f jÄu c i f teppa K a5mebv , b oa t y uva -i k eg f l aav , é 4 iqva 54 1ä-r wv . 3 6 I ti so bv iou s t h a t i ti sn o t o n ly t h e d augh te r s o fC admu s t h a t a r e ' d r iven ' t ot h e m oun ta in b y t h e g od , b u t a l so t h e w ho le w omenf o lk o f T hebe s .4 T hu s , t h e a ud ience i s i mmed ia te ly p re sen ted w i th at o ta l ly a bno rma l s i tua t ion . T he f a c t t h a t a l l t h e w omen h ave a bandoned t h e i r h ome s a nd t r an sg re s sed t h e b ounda r ie s o f t h e p o l i s i s a p henomenon c on t ra ry t oa l l n o t ion s o fo rde ra nd s t ab i l i ty . I t i s n o t as i tua t ion t h a t t h e A then ian a ud ience w a s u nf am i l ia r w i th . A r i s tophane s ' L y s i s t ra ta u sed t h e s ame t h eme ; i ts e em s h ow eve r , d i ff i cu l t t o d e te rm ine n ow t h e

A n i mpo r tan t m a t te r t h a t n eed s t o b e d i scu s sed a t t h e o u t se t i st h e o r ig ina l t im e a nd p l a ce o f t h e p roduc t ion . Many b e l ieve t h a t t h e B acchae w a s w r i t ten w h i le E u r ip ide s w a s i n Macedon ia , a tt h e c ou r t o f A rche lau s ( G . Mu r ray , 1 965 ) . T h i s b e l ief i ss t r eng thened b yv a r iou s r e f e r ence s t o Macedon ian s c ene ry i nt h e p l ay ( 1 .5 68 -75 ) . T he i mpor tance o ft h em a t te ri st h i s : i fE u r ip ide s i n tended t o m ake a s t a tem en t a bou t g end e r r o le s i nt h e B acchae , d i d h e h ave A then ian o r Ma cedon ian w omen i n m ind? L ike D odd s ( 1960 ) , Ia m i n c l ined t ob e l ieve t h a tt h e p l ay w a s n o t p r ima r i ly d e s igned f o r a Macedon ian a ud ience : t h e a lu s ion s t o c on tempo ra ry t h eo r ie s a nd c on t rove r s ie s a t2 0 1-3 , 2 70 1 , 2 74 f . , 8 90 f . , a nd e l sewhe re a r e s u r e ly

R . D o r son ( 1972 ) , 2

3

P .

4 67 .

C f . a l so R .N iha rd ( 19 12 ) ,p p . 3 3f f , a nd p .6 2 ,n .2 . I tw ou ld b e i n te re s t ing t on o te t h a t t h e Macedon ian c ou r t , i n

w h ich E u r ip ide s c ompo sed t h e B acchae , w a s l e n ien t a nd a ccu s tomed t o w omen h av ing p o l i t ica l r i gh t s ( c f E . C a rney , 1 995 ) . I ti s t emp t ing t o c on s ide r t h i s af a c to r t h a t c hanged E ur ip ide s ' i d ea s a bou t A then ian w omen , t oo . H oweve r , i t r ema in sa nu nve r if ied , a l though p o ten t ia l ly i n s t ruc t ive p o in t . I nl i ne s 5 5 -63 , i tb ecome so bv iou s t h a tt h eT heban w omen a r e n o t t h e o n ly w omen o n t h e moun ta in . D iony su s a l r eady h a s h i s f o l lowe r s f r om L yd ia . T he p l ay d oe s n o t m ake c l ea r w he the r t h ey f o l low ed t h e g od o u t o f t h e i r o wn f r ee w i l l . T he v e rb i < 6 1 . 1 tc ra t h a t D iony su s u se s , c an h a rd ly j u s t if y s uch a s sump t ion s . O n t h e o t he r h and t h e r e i sn o e v idence t h a t t h e se w omen a r e ' u nw i l l ing ' b acchae , e i the r .

4 5

D raw ing o n ac y l ix b y Ma c ron , a r ound 4 80 BC ; B e r l in , C ha r lo t tenbu rg ( p ic tu re f r om M . N i l s son , 1 940 ) .

i mpac t o n t h e a ud ien ce o f t h e k ind o f g roup b ehav iou r d e sc r ibed i nl i ne s 3 2 -37 . D id t h e se l i ne s m e r e ly c au se a s m i le o r d i d t h e — p re sumab ly , m a le -dom ina ted — a ud ience f e e l ad i scomf or t , b ecau se o ft h e w ay t h a t t h e g od c ho se t o i mpo se h i s w i l l? O ne t h ing w e c an d e te rm ine i s t h e a tmo sphe re i n t h e s t age -Thebe s . A s b ecome s o bv iou s i nP en theu s ' s peech i nl i ne s 2 15 24 1 , b y t h e i r d epa r tu re t h e T heban w om en h ave , b y i mp l ica t ion , i mpo sed a ' s t r ike ' o n s exua l r e la t ion s w i th t h e i r m en ; as t r ike t h a t i sa gg rava ted b y t h e f a c t t h a t , u p t h e re o nt h e moun ta in , as educ t ive look ing L yd ian i sw i th t h ew omen d ay a nd n i gh t ( 1 .2 33 -38 ) . B ea r ing i nm ind t h e o b se s s ion o f t h e A then ian s w i th t h e c ha s t i ty o f t h e i r f ema le r e la t ive s , f o r r e a son s t h a t h ave a l ready b een e xp la ined , i ti sn o t d i ff i cu l t t o i mag ine h ow t h ey w ou ld s ympa th ize w i th t h e m a le T heban s . H ow eve r , i ti sn o t a m a t te r o fb l a ck o r w h i te . F o r t h e a ud ience k now s r i gh t f r om t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e p l ay t h a t t h e w omen o fT hebe s h ave n o t a bandoned t h e i r h om e s v o lun ta r i ly . D iony su s , a g od , h a s i n f l ic ted m adne s s o n t h em . I t i s a d e ta i l u nknown t oP en theu s a nd t h e o t he rc ha ra c te r s i nt h ep l ay , a nd i to bv iou s ly h a s g r ea ti mpo r tance f o ro u ra pp rec ia t ion o f t h e a ud ience 's a t t i tude t owa rd s t h e T heban w omen . P e rhap s w e c ou ld a l ready d e te rm ine t h a t t h e w omen a r e b l ame le s s f o r t h e i r d eed s , a s t h ey d o n o t c omm i t t h em c on sc iou s ly .5 N ever the le s s , t h e r eve r sa l o f r o le s i st h e

O fc ou r se , ap e r son , m an o rw oman , c anno t a lway s m ake t h e r i gh t c ho ice s , e ven i ft h i s p e r son a c t s u pon h i s /he r o wn w i l l . P lay s l i ke t h e Med ea a nd H ippo ly tu s s how c l ea r ly t h a t E u r ip ide s d en ie s t h e s up rema cy o fr e a son i nh uman e x i s tence ; h e d e s tab i l ize s t h e ' mean ing ' o f a w c ppoc rüv r i : s oundne s s o f m ind ( a c epoc rüv r) d oe s n o t g ua ran tee t h a t ap e r son w i l l m ake t h e r i gh t c ho ice s , b u t i ra t iona l , r u th le s s f o r ce s d i rec t h i s w ay t h rough l i f e a nd a r e s t ronge r t h an h im se lf . My th i f ied , t h ey a r e 5

c en t ra l t h eme o ft h e p l ay a nd i t s e f f ec t o n t h e a ud ien ce s hou ld n o t b e u nde r e s t ima ted . A l l t h e m a in c ha ra c te r s o f t h e p l ay u nde rgo a c hange o f p e r sona l i ty : t h e g od b ecom e s h uman , w i th b o th m a le a nd f ema le c ha rac te r i s t ic s ; t h e w omen b ecome a lmo s t m a scu l ine , b y a dop t ing t h e h ab i t s o f h un te r s a nd w a r r io r s ; P en theu s b ecom e s g raph ica l ly f em in ized , b o th i n i mage a nd m en ta l i ty . T he se c a tego r ie s w i l l a l n eed c a r ef u l e xam ina t ion , a st h ey a l l b ea r s ome i mp r e s s ion o ra no the r o ft h e f ema le s e x . Ab u rn ing i s sue i sw he the r t h e w om en o fT hebe s — a nd mo s t i mpo r tan t , t h e B acchae — r ep re sen t t h e n o rm , w i th w h ich t h e A then ian a ud ience c ou ld i d en t if y t h e i r o wn f ema le r e la t ive s . T h i s i s a n u nque s t ionab ly d i ff i cu l t m a t te r , b u t n o t i mpo ss ib le t od e te rm ine . O ne c ou ld a r gue t h a t t h e B a cchae a r e b y d ef in i t ion a m a rg ina l g roup . T hu s , i tw ou ld b e i log ica l t ov i ew t h em a s r o le mode l s f o r a ny e x i s t ing s o c ie ty . Wou ld a n A then ian a ud ience s e e t h em a sr o le m ode l s f o rw omen? I no u ra t temp t t oa n swe r t h i s q ue s t ion , w e i n ev i tab ly e n te r i n to t h e a r ea o fw ide r t h ea t r ica l a s pec t s . Whe the r a nc ien t G r eek t h ea t r e p re sen ted — o re ven e nf o r ced as en se o f— t h e ' n o rm ' , o r n o t , h a s b een a m a t te r o f i n te re s t f o r m any s cho la r s . My v i ew i st h a t n o o ne t r agedy e ve rp r e sen t s ' impo s s ib le ' s i tua t ion s . T ha t i s w hy t h e ' s af e ty -zone ' o f ar emo te T hebe s i s u s ed s o o f t en . H oweve r , w omen l i ke t h e B a cchae a r e c e r ta in ly n o t p a r t o ft h e n o rm . T he re i sn o r e a son t o d oub t , t h ough , t h a t t h e r e s t o f t h e T heban w omen a r e , i nt h e p e rcep t ion o ft h e a ud ience , s ub jec t t o t h e c u l tu ra l d emand s t h a t m a rk t h e r o le s o ft h e A then ian

c a l led ' Aph rod i te ' , ' A r tem is ' o r ' D iony su s ' , a l though t h e se d i v in i t ie s a r e m o r e p a r t icu la r t h an t h a t i n te rp r e ta t ion w ou ld i mp ly .

4 6

w om en , t oo . E ven a f t e r t h ey b ecome b acchan t s , t h e T h eban w omen r e p re sen t t h e i r g ende r s t i l l ; f u r the rmo re , t h e a ud ience m igh t h ave e a s i ly a ccep ted t h a t t h e i r o wn w omenf o lk c ou ld a l so t u rn i n to s om e th ing l i ke t h e w omen o n s t age , i na na logou s c i r cum s tan ce s . T hu s , i ti s n o te xagge ra ted t oa ccep tt h a tt h ew om en o fs t age -Thebe s c ou ld s e rve a s r o le mode ls f o r a ny g i ven s oc ie ty , i nt h i s c a se t h e A then ian . I r re spec t ive o ft h e f a c t t h a t t h ey w e re d r iven o u t o ft h e i r m ind s b y ad i v ine a gen t , t h e T heban w omen w e re n o mo r e t h an ' wom en ' , i nt h e e ye s o ft h e a ud ience . F o rt h e s pec ta to r , a f t e r aw h i le t h e s t o ry c ea se s t o u nf o ld i n ad i s tan t v enue . T he c ha ra c te r s b ecome f am i l ia r a nd c l o se t o a n a ud ien ce 's p e r sona l e xpe r ience . I d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e s pec ta to r w i th t h e a c to r s i s as ub jec t t o o b road t o a na ly se h e re , b u t i tw ou ld b e a ccep tab le t o a ve r t h a t , f o r t h e m a le a ud ience , P en theu s i sj u s t am an w ho s uf f e r s b ecau se o f w omen . A ny a nc ien t A then ian m a le c ou ld i d en t if yw i th t h i s .

v ind ic t ive , d i ff i cu l t a nd c r ue l , b u t h e i s ag od w i thou t d oub t . B u t i n t h e p l ay , t h e d i v in i ty o f D iony su s i s d oub ted . D iony su s s ay s t h a t h e c ame t o p un i sh t h e s i s te r s o f h i s mo the r . B u t t h e w om en a r e n o t t h e o n ly o ne s t o b e b l amed f o r c au s ing t h e g od 's w ra th . R ef e r r ing t o P en theu s , D iony su sb l ame sh im , f o rh e e S0 1 1aXE I T KW '4 1S K a i a novöi ov e I T IO e St e üxaig T 'o üö c t i aoü p vc i c iv g xe t . W VO ÜVEK c i ü-4 e eoc y ey i og bee igoga n äc r iv T Se n ik t io t ot v .

4 5

4 8

I ti sP en theu s , a s w e l l a s t h e w omen , w ho a nge red t h e g od . O ne c ou ld e ven s ay t h a t P en theu s ' a t t i tude i s mo re b l amewo r thy t h an t h e w om en 's , f o r h e a c t ive ly d ep r ive s t h e g od o fh i s r i tua l i s t ic t r ibu te s . T he s t a tu s o fP en theu s a s h ead o f t h e s t a te m ake s D iony su s ' r e jec t ion mo re o ff i c ia l a nd t hu st h eg od b ecom e sa ng ry .

T he i n i t ia t ion o fT hebe s i n to D iony s iac r i t e s i sp a r t o ft h e p l ay 's p lo t , a l so . T o a pp rec ia te t h e i mpac t o f t h e p r e sen ta t ion o ft h eb a cch ic t h em e , w e s hou ld r e co l lec tt h e s t a tu s o ft h e g od o nt h e s t age a nd i nA then ian s oc ie ty . A t t h e t ime t h a t t h e p e rf o rmance f i r s t t o ok p l a ce , D iony su s w a s a l ready e s tab l i shed a mong t h e G reek p an theon ; a f t e r a l , t h e t r ag ic p e rf o rmance s t o ok p l ace i n h i s t h ea t re , d u r ing t h e f e s t iva l h e ld i n h i s h onou r .6 P r e sumab ly , h i s a c t ion so ns t age w ou ld b ej u s t if i ed — o ra tl e a s t ,a ccep ted — l i k et h o se o fa ny o t he rg od . I ft h e g od c ho se t oc ompe l t h e w om en o f T hebe s t o a bandon t h e i r h om e s a nd t h e c i ty , h eh ad e ve ry r i gh t a nd p ow e rt oe xecu te h i sw i sh . I n f a c t , b e ing f a i r t o D iony su s , w e s hou ld r e ca l l t h a t i nt h e B acchae , m en a r e n o t e xc luded f r om j o in ing h im o n t h e m oun ta in . T e i re s ia s a nd C admu s w i l l b e a l lowed a mong t h e w omen ( c f . 1 2240 . B e s ides , t h e c horu s c a l l s o n t h e c i ty t oj o in t h ew om en o nt h em oun ta in ( 1 .1 05 119 ) .

T he f a c t t h a t P en theu s d oe s n o t r e cogn ize t h e n ew g od i lum ina te s a no the r p o in t . S ince P en theu s d oe s n o t b e l ieve i nt h e d i v in i ty o ft h e s t range r \D iony su s , h e h o ld s t h e w omen r e spon s ib le f o rt h e i rb r each o ft h e s oc ia l c ode t h a t c onf ined t h em t ot h e i r h om e s . A s ap o l i t ica l r u le r h e i sr i gh t— o r , h e h a s t h e r i gh t — t od oub t t h e w o rd s o fa s t range r w ho c ome s f r om a b road a nd d ec la re s h im se lf a g od . 8 Wha t P en theu s s e e s , i st h a t as t range r h a s l e d t h e w omen t o t h e m oun ta in , t hu s u p se t t ing t h e s oc ia l a nd mo ra l p a ram e te r s . I nf a c t , t h e m oun ta in , C i tha i ron , h a s a v ery i mpo r tan t m ean ing . I ts t and s f o r t h e o ppo s i te o ft h e c i ty ; t h e o ppo s i te o fo rgan ized p o l i t ica l s oc ie ty , w i th t h e e s tab l i shed l aw s t h a tp r e se rve a nd d ef ine i t .T he w omen 's f l igh t f r om t h e i r h om e s t o t h e moun ta in i nd ica te s t h e e x ten t o ft h e a bno rma l i ty .9 I ti s , f u r the rmo re , o ne o ft h e mo s t c e leb ra ted c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f D iony su s , n o t t o c onf u se b ounda r ie s , b u t t oa l low p eop le t oc r o ss t h em i n c er ta in c i r cum s tance s .

T he r e i s , h oweve r , a no the r w ay t o a pp roach t h e m a t te r , c on s ide r ing t h e a nc ien t a ud ience 's p o in t o f v i ew . T he d i v in e s t a tu s o f D iony su s w a s , a s w e s a id , e s tab l i shed . D oe s t h i s m ean , t h ough , t h a t i tw a s a l so r e ve red? T he q ues t ion b ecom e s i mpo r tan t , i fw e w i sh t o s pecu la te o n h ow t h e a nc ien t a ud ience r e ac t t oh i s a c t ion s o n s t age : n am e ly , w he the r h e w a s r i gh t t o d r ive t h e w omen m ad , t h u s r emov ing t h e i r s ha r e o ft h e b l ame . I ti sb yn o m ean s a n e a sy q ue s t ion t o a n swe r . T he i mage o f D iony su s i n G r eek c u l tu re i s c on t rove r s ia l . I ts e em s a t f i r s t s i gh t s t range t h a t i n t h e s am e a r ea w he r e p e rf o rmance s t a k e p l ace t oh onou rh im , h e i s mocked i np l ay s l i ke t h eF rog s o f A r i s tophane s .7 H oweve r , i ft h e p l ay w a s i n tended t o m ake ar e l ig iou s s t a tem en t , i tw a sn o t ' a ga in s t ' D iony su s ' e x i s ten ce a s ag od . A t t h e e nd o f t h e p l ay , h e i s

T he a bno rma l s i tua t ion i s f u r the r e mpha s ized b y t h e m e s senge r 's s peech ( 1 . 6 77 -777 ) , o ne o f t h e l o nge s t m e s senge r s peeche s i nT ragedy . T he m e s senge r , w ho i sa h e rd sman ( 1 . 6 77 ) , e l abo ra te s h i s n a r ra t ive : h e a dd s f a n ta sy i n t h e f a c t s . H e d oe s n o t f e a r i mp lau s ib i l i ty ( 1 . 7 37 , 7 40 , 7 43 ) . P opu la r my th s mu s t h ave l e n t m a te r ia l t o

I n as en se , P en theu s r e semb le s C reon i nS ophoc le s 'A n t igone . J u s t l i ke C reon , P en theu s f e e ls ad eepe r o b l iga t ion t owa rd s t h e r u le s o f t h e c i ty t h an t owa rd s t h e o b scu r e d iv ine c ommand s . T h is d oe s n o t m ean t h a t P en theu s d i d n o t r e cogn ize t h e g od s . L ine s 4 5 -57 s how t h a t h e r e spec ted t h em a nd h e ld a l a pp rop r ia te r e l ig iou s t r ibu te s . B u t h e d i d n o t i n c lude D iony su s i n t h e p an theon t h a t h e r e spec ted , j u s t b ecau se h e d id n o t b e l ieve i nh i se x i s tence . 9 I ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te h ow t h ep l ay p re sen t st h em a rg ina l s i de

T he r e i sf u r the r e v idence o ft h e u n ive r sa l a c cep tance o fh i s c u l t . C f .H ibeh P apy ru s 5 4 ; A nky ron ,E gyp t , c a . 2 45 BC ,w he r e m a le a u tho r i t ie s a t tend w i th g r ea t c a r e t ot h e n eed s o fw omen w ho a r et op e rf o rm t h e i rD iony s iac r i t e s . 7 T he F rog s i s , o f c ou r se , ac om edy . N eve r the le s s , i tw a s 6

o f D iony su s ' c u l t ( Ag r ion ia a s o ppo sed t o , s ay , D iony s ia o r A n the s ter ia ) , o n a n o cca s ion w hen t h ei n co rpo ra t ion o ft h i s c u l t i nt h e c i ty i sc e leb ra ted . I tp robab ly g oe s t os how t h a t t h e s e lf c on t rad ic to ry c ha ra c te r o ft h e g od w a s n o t f o rgo t ten ; e ven l e s s d ur ing t h ec e leb ra t ion si nh i sh onou r .

p r e sen ted t ot h e s ame p eop le , i nt h e s am e a r ea . Whe the r i tw a s v i ewed d if e r en t ly , a s ac omedy , i ti s aq ue s t ion t h a tr ema in s t o b ea nswe r ed .

4 7

t h e a nc ien t p l ayw r igh t . T he s peech d e scr ibe s o rg ia s t ic r i tua l s o ft h e b acch ic c u l t , w he re f a n ta sy a nd r e a l i ty g e t c onf u sed . I nt h e r e a l i ty o ft h e s t age , t h e w omen p e rf o rm w ond rou s d eed s , d eed s t h a t n o mor ta l m an o r w oman c ou ld h ave a ccomp l i shed w i thou t d i v ine a s s i s tan ce . I ndeed , t h e w ho le o fn a tu re s e em s t op a r t ic ipa te i nt h e i r r i te s ( 1 .7 26 2 7 ) . T he d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e B acchae 's a t tack o n c a t t le i n l i ne s 7 34 -48 m igh t h ave s hock ed m any i nt h e a ud ience , b y i t s r aw , v i v id c r ue l ty . Y e t , v i ew ed a s t h e r i tua l i s t ic e xp re s s ion o f t h e g od 's c ommun ion w i th h i s f o l low e r s , t h e a napaypóç d oe sn o ts hock a s much a st h e d e sc r ip t ion o f a no the r s c ene : t h e a t tack o ft h e B acchae a ga in s t t h e v i l lage c l o se t oH y s ia i a nd E ry th ra i ,b u i l tu nde rt h e s l ope s o fC i tha i ron ( 1 .7 48 f 1 ) . H e re , t h e w om en a r e l i kened t oa n a rmy o f e nem ie s , w ho a t ta ck a nd d e s t roy e ve ry th ing : 6 ) 0TE T I OAg i l l0 l ,b lEO T IEGOO C M Ll äV T 'ä VW T E K a 1K äTW ö lg q )EpOV ( 1 . 7 52 -54 ) . T he i n ten t ion o ft h e r e i te ra t ion i s c l ea r . T he w omen h ave a l r eady t r an sg re s sed t h e c onf ine s o ft h e i r n a tu re b y r unn ing t ot h e moun ta in , a nd n ow t h ey a dop t c ha rac ter i s t ic s u sua l ly a t t r ibu ted t o t h e o ppo s i te s ex : t h ey b ecome w a r r io r s . T he e mpha s i s g i ven t o t h i s p henom enon i n l i ne 7 64 , c a r r ie s d ef in i te ly n ega t ive u nde r tone s . O n t op o f t h e a bno rma l s i tua t ion i s t h e s upe rna tu ra l e l emen t , e v iden t i n t h e m e s senge r 's n a r ra t ive . T he w omen m i racu lou s ly c anno t b e w ounded b y t h e m en 's a r row s , b u tt h e i rt hy r su se s m anage t of i nd t h e i rt a rge ta nd t u rn t h e m en i n f l igh t ( 1 . 7 6 1-64 ) . T hey c an c a r ry o f f t h ing s w h ich s t ay o n t h e i r b a ck s w i thou t r ope s ( 1 . 7 55 ) a nd f i re b u rn s o n t h e i r h a i r , w i thou t h a rm ing t h em ( 7 57 5 8 ) . T he m e s senge r i sr e ady t os e e t h e i n vo lvemen t o fa d i v in i ty i n a l l t h i s ( 764 ) , b u t P en theu s d oe s n o t p ay a t ten t ion t ot h i sh i n t .1 ° T he a nge r ed r u le r f o cu se s o n t h e f a c t t h a t a l l t h e a bove d i sa s te r s w e r e a ccomp l i shed b y w om en ; a nd t h i s h e c on s ide r sa ni n to le rab le s hame . T l Ö l lT ÖÖ ' ty yüg ( b a rs n üp ü c pä rr rs-r al ü ßp tama r 3 a 19 ( C ov , t . p 6yog t g E ÄÄ r ivag p eyag .

7 78

o üy äp ä ÄÄ 'ü r tep f 3a .Ke tT äöE , Eir i pög y uva L K UN T I E1 . 0 6 1 . 1Eae ' än äaxogev .

7 85

T he q ue s t ion i s w he the r t h e a ud ience , a t t h i s p o in t , s ympa th ize s w i th t h e w ounded m a le p r ide o fP en theu s o r d i sapp rove s o f h i s f a i lu re t o s e e t h e g od i n t h e w ho le s i tua t ion . I fP en th eu s ' r e a son ing i ss t i l l v a l id i nt h e p l ay a nd h e i sr i gh t t or e jec t t h e d i v in i ty o ft h e s t range r , t h en t h i s w i l l a l so d e te rm ine t h ew ay t h a th e v i ew s t h ew om en ; a nd t h i s m igh t h e lp i lum ina te t h e a ud ience 's a t t i tude , t o o . F i r s t o f a l l , l e t u s b e c l ea r t h a t ' wounded m a le p r ide ' c ou ld n o t h ave b een t h e s o le r e a son f o r P en theu s ' a nge r . T he r e i s am o r e s e r iou s i s sue a t s t ak e , w h ich i s t h e d i srup t ing o ft h e s oc ia l a nd mo ra l o rde r i nt h e c i ty . T he f l igh t o f t h e w omen f r om t h e c i ty i st h e f i r s t o bv iou s i n d ica t ion o ft h e b r each . T he i rb ehav iou ro nt h e m oun ta in m ak e s t h e s i tua t ion w o r se : a pa r t f o r t h e m o ra l c oncer n s ( 1 . 2 21-25 ) , t h e c oncer n f o r t h e s a f e ty o ft h e l a nd , t o o , ( af t e r l i ne s 7 46 -68 ) mu s t h ave g a ined p r io r i ty i nt h e m ind o fP en theu s ,t h ep o l i t ica lr u le r . A s f a ra sr e cogn iz ing t h e d i v in i ty o fD iony su s i nt h e p l ay g oe s , w e s hou ld g i ve s ome c r ed i t t o P en theu s f o r n o t b e ing a b le t o a dm i t t h e d i v in i ty o f t h e g od r i gh t a tt h e b eg inn ing . A s w a s s a id b ef o re , i tw ou ld h ave b een t o ta l ly i ra t iona l f o r t h e r u le r o ft h e c i ty t oa ccep t t h a t ap a s s ing s t range r w i th c l a im s t od i v in i ty i sn ece s sa r i ly r i gh t . A nd e v en a f t e r t h e g od 's e p iphany , i nt h e e a r thquake , i ti sn o t c l ea r w he the r t h e s t range r i np r i son w a s i nf a c t t h e g od h im se lf . When a sked b y t h e b af f led r u le r , D iony su s , w ho h a sj u s t f r eed h im se lf f r om j a i l , t e l l s h im t h a tt h e o ne w ho f r eed h im w a s t h e g od ' who p l an t s t h e m any -g rape v i ne f o r mo r ta l s ' ( 1 . 6 51) . A dm i t ted ly , P en th eu s c ou ld h ave s e en , a t t h i s p o in t , t h a t t h e r e w e r e s ome s uper n a tu ra l s i gn s r ega rd ing t h e e s cape o fh i s p r i sone r ; b u t t h e r e i sn o i n d ica t ion t h a t t h i s p r i sone r w a s ag od . T he a ud ience m igh t h ave a g reed t ot h i s , a l though i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e f a i lu r e o fP en theu s t or e cogn ize t h e e x i s ten ce o ft h e g od n ow c oun ted s t rong ly a ga in s t h im . H ow eve r i ti st o o l a te f o r P en theu s t ol o ok w i th r e t ro spec t o n a ny m a t te r a ta l l . I ti st ime t h a t t h e g od t a ke s a way h i s r e a son a nd d r e s se s h im u p i n aw oman 's r obe — t hu s o f f e r ing t h e a ud ience a g r aph ic e xh ib i t ion o f af undamen ta l f e a tu r e o f t h e 5 t h c en tu ry t h ea t re : am an d r e s s ing u p i nw omen 's c l o the s , i n o rde rt oa c t . B ef o re w e p roceed t o e xam ine t h e s i gn if i cance o f t h i s s c ene , w e s hou ld b ea r i n m ind a f ew p o in t s o f g r ea t i mpor tance . T he i n t r igu ing p ecu l ia r i ty o ft h e B acchae i s t h a t i ti n c lude s av a r ie ty o f f em in ine r e p r e sen ta t ion s . I n t h e p l ay , t h e f em in ine i sr e p r e sen ted b y t h ree d i f f e r en t c a tego r ie s : a ) t h e f em in in i ty o f t h e w omen , b ) t h e e f f em inacy o f D iony su s , a nd c ) t h e f em in iza t ion o f P en theu s . A c a r ef u l e xam ina t ion o f t h e se c a tego r ie s s hou ld h e lp u s t oa s se s s t h e d ef in i t ion o fg ende r r o le s — e s pec ia l ly f em in ine r o le s .

1 ° T he se w ond rou s d eed s o ft h e w omen a r e r e la ted t oP en theu s b y am e s senge rw ho i sb u t as imp le h e rd sman . Ib e l ieve t h a t , i n t h e a ud ience 's e ye s , P en theu s i sj u s t if ied i nr e f u s ing t ob e l ieve t h e a ccoun t o ft h e m e s senge r . T hu s , e ven a tt h i s s t age , h e s t i l l c anno t b e b l amed f o r n o t b e l iev ing i n t h e d iv in i ty o f t h e s t range r , o r t h e e x is tence o f D iony su s . P en theu s ' r e f u sa l t o b e l ieve t h e a ccoun t o f t h e m e s senge r d oe s n o t d i s rup t i n a ny s en se t h e ' g en re ' o ft h e m e s senge r speeche s . T he a ud ience s t i l l b e l ieve s t h e n a r ra t ive o f t h e s peech , a nd b y a ccep t ing t h a t P en theu s m igh t h ave g ood r e a son t o d oub t w ha t t h ey k now i s t r ue , t h e a ud ience 's ' i nvo lvemen t ' c r ea te s t h e c ond i t ion f o r ' t rag ic i r ony ' .

T he f i r s t c a tego ry i sr e la t ive ly t h e e a s ie s t t o s t udy . T he w omen o f T hebe s h ave a l ready b een v i ewed b y t h e a ud ien ce a s g o ing c on t ra ry t o a l l e s tab l ished n o rm s b y

4 8

w ou ld h ave n eve r w or n f ema le c l o the s w h i le h e h ad h i s m ind . B u t n ow h e i st g i c r rä i ievog c p pev i ov ( 1 .8 5Of f ) . I ti s n o to bv iou s t h a t i tw a s n ece s sa ry f o rP en theu st od r e s s u p a s aw oman , i no rde rt og o t ot h e moun ta in . B u tb yd o ing s o h e a s sume s t h e p e r sona o f t h e w omen w hom h e w an ted t og o a ga in s t . P e rhap s P en theu s w ou ld h ave b een t o o s t rong a nd m a scu l ine t o b e d e s t royed w h i le am an . P e rhap s t h e r e a son ing g oe s d eepe r t h an t h i s . Ap l au s ib le e xp lana t ion w ou ld b e t h e a s soc ia t ion o f m adne s s a nd i ra t iona l i ty — P en theu s ' p re sen t s t a te o fm ind — w i th w om en ." D e sp i te t h e f a c tt h a tP en theu si sn o l o nge rs ane , h i s i ra t iona l r e a son ing b ecome s g raph ica l ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e p i c tu re o ft h e f em in ine . F rom t h i s w e s hou ld n o t s imp ly a s sum e t h a t t h e p l ayw r igh t 's i n ten t ion w a s t o p re sen t t h e f em in ine a s i r ra t iona l ; h oweve r , w i th in t h e p l ay , u t te r m adne s s a nd e c s ta sy a r e a l l ied w i th f em in ine b ehav iou r . T h i s i st h e c a se e ven w i th P en theu s . H e , t o o , a c t s i na n u t te r ly d e ranged m anne r , b u tt h a t h appen s o n ly a f t e r h e i s ' t r an sf o rmed ' i n to a w oman . T he t r an sf o rma t ion m a rk s t h e l o s ing o fh i s c r uppoc rüv r i , a nd v i ce v e r sa .

t h e i r — i n vo lun ta ry — f l igh t t o C i tha i ron . A s f o r t h e o t h e rt wo c a tego r ie s , t h ing sa r e mo r e c omp l ica ted . L e t u s f i r s t t a k e al o ok a tP en theu s . A t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e p l ay h e i s ad e spo t f u l l o fc onf idence i nh i s s t a tu s a nd h i s r e a son . I nf a c t , r e a son i s ac en t ra l i s sue h e re . T he f i r s t p e r son s i nt h ep l ay w ho a c tw i thou tr e a son a r et h ew omen d r iven o u t o ft h e i r m ind b y t h e g od ( 1 . 3 3 , n apä i cono t c p pe ey ) . L a te rT e i r e s ia s w i l l s a yt h a t h e a nd C admu s a r e t h e o n ly o ne s w ho t h ink r e a sonab ly ( 1 . 1 96 , Oyo t y äp 0/ c p poyo t l igsy , o i 5 ' a kXo t K aK a ) T e i re s ia s a l so a ccu se s P en theu s o f d t woc rüvn , a l though h e a ppea r s t o s ound r e a sonab le ( 1 . 2 68 -69 ; 3 1112 ) ; t h i s i ss ome th ing w i th w h ich C admu s a g ree s , t o o ( 1 . 3 32 -34 ) . P en theu s r e to r t s b y a ccu s ing t h em o f! mph ( 1 . 3 43 ) a nd T e i re s ia s r em ind s h im t h a t h e ( i . e . P en theu s ) h a s b een o u t o f h i s m ind b ef o re ( 1 .3 59 ) . T he n o t ion o fc r c o c ppoaüv r i i t se lf i sv e ry i n te r e s t ing i nt h e p l ay . I ti st h e k ey c oncer n o f t h e r u le r , a nd h i s m a in a ccu sa t ion a ga in s t t h e w omen a nd t h o se o the r s ( i . e . T e i r e s ia s a nd C admu s ) w ho c ho se t of o l low t h e n ew g od . A t P en theu s ' a ccu sa t ion s T e i r e s ia s a n swe r s t h u s : ' t he s ophrone in e x i s t s i n e ve ry th ing b y n a tu re ' . I t i s n o t D iony su s w ho w i l l c ompe l t h e w om en t oc r uppove iv ci T f iv K ünp iy , b ecau se i ft h ey a r e s ophron , t h e w omen w i l l n o t b e c o r rup ted , e ven i nb acch ic r i t e s . Ap h i lo soph ica l p o in t i sr a i sed h e re — w h ich d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly i mp ly t h e p e r sona l v i ew o f t h e p l ayw r igh t — a s t o w ho p o s se s se s c r ox ppoaüvn . A s f a r a st h i s s t udy i sc oncer n ed , t h e q ue s t ion c an b e o fu se h e r e i nt h i sw ay : b yb e ing a b le t o s ay w h ich o f t h e p l ay 's c ha rac te r s a ppea r t o a c t i n s oundne s s o ft h ough t , w e c ou ld d e te rm ine t h e d eg r ee o f p o s i t ive o r n ega t ive l i gh t i n w h ich t h e p l ayw r igh t i n tended t h em t o a ppea r . I f , a f t e r t h e r e ve r sa l o f t h e i r p e r sona l i ty , t h ew om en c on t inue — o rc ea se — t oe xh ib i t c r ox ppoaüvn , t h en t h i s w i l l i n d ica te t h e e x ten t t o w h ich t h ey w e re m ean t t o b e b l am e le s s f o r t h e i r a c t ion s . T he s ame ,o fc ou r se ,g oe sf o rP en th eu s .

Mo re t h an o nce t h e re a r e a l lu s ion s t o D iony su s ' e mbody ing b o th f em in ine a nd m a le c ha rac te r i s t ic s ( 1 . 2 35 -36 ; 4 38 ; 4 53 -59 ; 4 93 ) . U n l ike P en theu s , t h ough , w ho se a t ta in ing o ff em in ine a spec t s e qua l s w eakne s s a nd d e s t ruc t ion , D iony su s e xh ib i t s e f f em inacy w i thou t s uf f e r ing a ny u np lea san t c on sequence s . I n f a c t , t o s om e D iony su s ' e f f em inacy s ugge s ted u nd i spu ted p owe r o ve r P en theu s , w ho b ecome s o b se s sed w i th t h e g od 's e f f em ina te l o ok s ( 4 53 -59 ) .1 2 T he re i s , t h ough , am o s t i mpo r tan t d i f f e r ence o f s t a tu s b e tween P en theu s a nd D iony su s : t h e f i r s t i s h uman ; t h e o t he r ag od . A ny a t temp ted c ompa r i son b e tween t h e t wo i sb ound t o b e c on t rove r s ia l . D iony su s c an r ema in m a le w h i le ' a l so ' b ecom ing f em in ine ; f o r P en theu s , b ecom ing f em in ine m ean s , t o t h a t e x ten t , l o s ing h i s m a scu l in i ty . O ne t h ing t h a t w e c ou ld s ay i st h a t b y s how ing f em in ine a spec t s o f p owe r , e ven i nt h e f a ce o f ag od , t h e p l ayw r igh t d i d n o t e xc lude t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e r ew a s p o s i t ive p o ten t ia l i n w omen ,t oo .

P en th eu s p r ide s h im se lf o n h i s c r o x ppo c rüvn . A s am an a nd p o l i t ica l r u le r h e s e e s as ha rp c on t ra s t b e tw een h im se lf a nd t h o se w ho a c ta ga in s ta l l o g ic b yr e cogn iz ing t h e n ew come r a s ag od . I t i s t h i s a ux ppoc rüvn t h a t D iony su s f i r s t ' a t tack s ' a f t e r l i ne 8 10 . T h i s l i ne , i n t roduced b y p robab ly t h e m o s t p ow e rf u l v ow e l e ve r w r i t ten i n G r eek T ragedy , m a rk s ar eve r se i nP en theu s ' c ha ra c te r . A l l r e a son v an i she s f r om w i th in h im a nd t h e f o l low ing s t ichomy th ia p i c tu r e s t h e t o ta l c on t ro l o f t h e g od o ve rt h e k ing 's m ind . A s i nt h ec a se o ft h e w omen o f T hebe s , t h e g od i nf l ic ted m adne s s , i n o rde r t o p un i sh . T h i s r e ve r sa l o fP en theu s ' m a scu l ine , r a t iona l p e r sona l i ty l e ad st oh i su l t ima te d e s t ruc t ion .

B ea r ing i nm ind a l l t h e a bove , w e s e e t h a t t h e p l ay i sn o t a s c l ea r -cu t a s o ne w ou ld h ave t h ough t a tt h e b eg inn ing . T he m a t te r o fp owe r a nd r e a son i sp rob lema t ized , a s f a r a sh uman s a r e c once rned . We c anno t s ay t h a t t h e w omen a ppea r i r ra t iona l a nd p owe r f u l ( phy s ica l ly , a tl e a s t ) w h i le P en theu s a ppea r s r a t iona l a nd s ub sequen t ly p ow e r le s s . T ho se a t t r ibu te s a r e s o c onf u sed b y t h e g od t h a t w e c anno t c a tego r ize t h em c l ea r ly . D oe s , t h en , t h e p l ay s ugge s tt h a t r e a son ing a nd p ow e rh ave n o th ing t od o w i th

1 F o rt h ea s soc ia t ion o fi r ra t iona l i ty a nd d i so rde rw i th w omen , s e eF .Z e i t l in ( 1990 ) . 1 2 C . S ega l ( 1982 ) s e e s P en theu s a s b e ing s exua l ly f a sc ina ted w i th b o th t h e B acchae ( pp . 1 62 , 1 66 ) a nd D iony su s ( p . 1 73 ) . I b e l ieve t h a t S ega l r e ad s t oo much i n to P en theu s ' b ehav iou r t owa rd s t h e B a cchae a nd D iony su s ; Ia g r ee mo re w i th H . R ank in ( 1975 ) w ho b e l ieve st h a tP en theu s ' wa sn o tp ru r ien tn o r s exua l ly o b se s sed i nt e rm so ft h ea nc ien te t ho s '( p . 2 0 ) .

T he g od i sn o t s a t i sf i ed o n ly w i th d r iv ing P en theu s o u to f h i s m ind . T he p l an t h a th ep ropo se st oh im — t og ot ot h e moun ta in d r e s sed u p a s aw oman ( 1 8 2Of f ) , i no rde r t o s py o n t h e B a cchae — i s a ccep t ed b y P en theu s , t hu s r evea l ing t h a t h e n o l o nge r p o s se s se s t h e c l ea r r e a son ing o fw h ich h ew a sp roud . L ine s 8 51-53 a dm i tt h a t P en theu s

4 9

g ende r? 1 3 T h i s i s am a t te rt ow h ich w ec ou ld b eh e lped b y t r y ing t o a s se s s t h e a ud ience 's r e ac t ion t o t h e s t age a c t ion . A s w e s a id b ef o re , t h e r ob ing s c ene o fP en theu s e xpo se s t o t h e a ud ience o ne o f t h e m o s t m a rked f e a tu re s i n G reek t h ea t r ica l m ime s i s ; i no rde rt or ep re sen tw omen o n s t age , m en mu s t a lway s p u t o n af em in ine c o s tume a nd a m a sk . Wha t t h i s m ean s i st h a t i ti sn o t aw oman w ho s peak s o ra c t s f o rh e r se lf o ns t age ; i ti sa lway s am an w ho i mpe r sona te s h e r . T he r ob ing s c ene i nt h e B acchae mu s t b e t h e f i r s t s uch r ep re sen ta t ion k nown t o u s f r om t h e t r ag ic s t age . I4 Mov ing o n t o t h e w o r ld o f t h e s t age , w e e ncoun te r a mo s t d rama t ic c hange i n P en theu s ' p e r sona . A p sy choana ly s i s o f P en theu s w a s a t temp ted b y K i t to ( 1939 ) a nd r e jec ted b y T . R o senm eye r ( 1982 ) . T he a rgumen t i s q u i te i n te r e s t ing , b u t t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t a spec t o f i t i s t h a t i tr e f e r s t o t h e r ob ing s c ene a s r e f lec t ing i n i t ia to ry r i tua l s . Many v i ew s h ave b een e xp r e s sed o n t h a t a nd i ti sS ega l w ho s ugge s t s t h a t i nt h e c a se o f P en theu s t h i s c u l t ic s i gn if icance f u se s w i th r e l ig iou s m ean ing ( t he a ccep tance o f t h e f ema le e mo t iona l i ty o f t h e D iony s iac c u l t ) a nd p sy cho log ica l m ean ing ( t he y ou th c om ing t o t e rm s w i th h i s o wn f em in ine s i de a nd w i th t h e p rob lem o fb ehav iou rt owa rd s w omen ) . T he r i tua l u nde rgoe s am a s s ive i n ve r s ion i nt h e p l ay . T he i n i t ia te t a ke s o nt h e v e ry a t t r ibu te s o fh i s a l te re go t h a th e mo s t s co rn s : h un ted b ea s t ( 1 . 1 204 ) i n s tead o f h un te r , b a rba r ian ( 1 . 8 35 ) i n s tead o fG reek , f ema le ( 1 . 8 22 ; 8 55 ) i n s tead o f ma le . H e l o se s r a the r t h an h e g a in s ap l ace i n t h e c i ty a nd i t s p o l i t ica l l i f e . H e a c t s o u t t h e o ppo s i te o f t h e v a lue s o fh i s m a le p ee r g roup : e f f em inacy ( 1 .9 34 -37 ) i n s tead o fm a scu l in i ty ; e mo t iona l i ty ( 1 .9 66 -70 ) i n s tead o f r a t iona l i ty ; i lu s ion , m ag ic ( 1 . 9 18 -22 ) a nd t r i ck e ry ( 1 . 8 38 ; 9 55 56 ) ) i n s tead o fr e a l i s t ic c l a r i ty , f o r th r igh tne s s a nd m a r t ia l d i sc ip l ine . T he se a r e t h e m a in f ema le a nd m a le c ha rac ter i s t ic s , p r e sen ted a s o ppo sed t oe ach o t he r i nt h e p l ay . T he q ue s t ion t h a t r ema in s a tt h e f o cu s o ft h i s w o rk i s ,h ow t h e a ud ience v i ewed t h e se c ha rac te r i s t ics — e spec ia l ly t h ef ema le —. W i th r e f e r ence t ot h e s c ene o fP en theu s ' t r an sf o rma t ion , I w ou ld l i ke t or e f e r t oZ e i t l in , w ho p o in t s o u t a' n o t ion o f ab a lanced , s ymme t r ica l i n ve r s ion ' i nt h i s s c ene . I ts e em s t h a t t h i s w a s n o t s ome th ing e x t r eme ly s hock ing o rn ew t o t h e a ud ience . A n umbe r o f f e s t iva l s o u t s ide A then s i n c luded c hange o f c o s tume s b e tween m en a nd w omen ,

1 3

H e re w e s hou ld s ay t h a t b y ' p owe r ' , w e s hou ld n o t

f o r ad ay , e a ch i m i ta t ing t h e a ppea rance a nd b ehav iou ro f t h e o t he r .1 5 T h e se f e s t iva l s a r e o cca s ion s f o r r i o tou s c ar n iva l ( e .g . , t h e C re tan E kd y s ia ,t h eA rg iv eH ybr i s t ika ) . D iony s iac m e r r imen t a l so l e nd s i t se lf t o s u ch b ehav iou r , a tl e a s t a sP h i lo s t ra to s , al a te s ou r ce , d e sc r ibe s ap a in t ing o f aD iony s ia c r e ve l : ' D iony su s i s a ccompan ied b y a n ume rou s t r a in i nw h ich g i r l s m ing le w i th m en , f o r t h e r eve l ( kw i aög ) a low s w omen t oa c t t h e p a r t o fm en , a nd m en t o p u t o n w omen 's c l o th ing a nd p l ay t h e w oman ' ( Imag ine s 1 .2 ) . F rom t h e a bov e i tb ecome s o bv iou s t h a t P en theu s ' r ob ing s c ene w a s n o t w ho l ly o u t s ide t h e e xpe r ience o f t h e A then ian a ud ience . T he q ue s t ion i s , w h e the r t h ey p e rce ived h i s a c t ion s a s t h o se o f aw oman , b ecau se b y a dop t ing t h e c l o th ing , h e a dop ted a l so t h e f em in ine m en ta l i ty . P en theu s ' i ra t iona l b ehav iou r i s c oncea led b enea th f em in ine c l o the s , a nd t h e a ud ience , a l though v i sua l ly a wa r e o f P en theu s , s e e s , r a the r , aw oman w ho b ehave s a si fm ad . I nt h e s c ene o fP en theu s ' a r tapa wög ( 1 . 114f f ) a no the r s i gn if i can t a spec t o f t h e r e p r e sen ta t ion o f t h e f em in ine c an b e s e en : f ema le v i o lence . F ema le v i o lence m ay b e v i ew ed t h rough t h e l e n s o fr o le r e ve r sa l i nt h ep l ay ,b u ti n t h e G reek i mag ina t ion t h e m aenad ic w oman i sr egu la r ly e ndow ed w i th t h i s p owe r , e spec ia l ly o ve r t h e m a scu l ine b ody , a nd i st h e m ode l h e r se lf f o rt h em a le , w ho , w hen h e t o o i ss e ized i nt h e g r ip o ft h i s m adne s s l i ke E u r ip ide s ' H e rak le s i nt h e h omonymou s p l ay , c an o n ly b e d e sc r ibed a s ' p lay ing t h e B a cchan t ' ( H erak L 1 .9 66 ; 1 086 ) a nd i m i ta t ing t h ep a r to ft h ew oman . D e sp i te t h e u nque s t ionab le d i sp lay o fv i o len t t r end s , t h e b acchae d o n o t o ve r come c e r ta in l im i t s . I ti st r ue t h a t t h e w omen o f T hebe s d o n o t k i l l t h e i r k i n ; b u t w i th t h e d i smembe rm en t o f P en theu s , t h ey c omm i t a mu rde r , w h ich i se nough t ou p se t t h e o rde ro ft h ep o l i s , a si tl o se s i t s r u le r . U nawa r e o ft h e d e ta i l s o f ac o r r e spond ing r i tua l , w h ich s hou ld d r ama t i se t h e r e tur no fw om en t on o rma l i ty a f te r i t s a ccomp l i shmen t ( Bux ton , 1 994 , p . 1 54 ) , w e c an s e e c l ea r ly t h a t t h e w omen o fT hebe s , a f te r t h e k i l l ing o f P en theu s , r e tur n t o r e a l i ty , w h ich h a s , u nf or tuna te ly , n o th ing t o d o w i th n o rma l i ty . Whe the r t h ey r e a s sum e t h e i r p r ev iou s , n o rma l f em in ine c ha rac te r , i si mma te r ia l . T hey a r er e spon s ib le f o rt h ep r e sen t s i tua t ion i nw h ich t h e c i ty l i e s . I t i s a l so w o r th a sk ing w he the r t h e d i smembe rm en t o f P en theu s c an b e c on s ide red a s mu rde r . We c an e a s i ly r e ca l l t h a t w h i le o n t h e moun ta in t h e w omen d o n o t p o s se s s t h e i r p rev iou s r e a son ing .1 6 T owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h e p l ay , A gaue , h o ld ing i nh e rh and s 1 5

F .Z e i t l in p o in t so u tt h a ti ti su sua l ly i n i t ia t ion r i te so fp ube r ty

t h a t i n c lude e xchange s o fc l o the s — a nd t h u s , i d en t i ty . T h i s i s e xp la ined a cco rd ing t o ar i tua l l o g ic t h a ti n s i s t st h a te ach g ende r mu s t , f o rt h el a s tt im e , a si tw e r e , a c tt h ep a r to ft h eo t he rb ef o re a s sum ing t h e u nequ ivoca l m a scu l ine a nd f em in ine i d en t i t ie s t h a tc u l t u ra li d eo logy r equ i r e s . C f . Z e i t l in ( 1 990 ) ,p .6 7 ,n .1 0 . 1 6 T he s en s e o f a c o c ppo c rüv r i t h a t S ega l a t t r ibu te s t o t h em i n

u nde r s tand o n ly t h ep hy s ica lp owe rt h a tt h ew omen e xh ib i t . I ti s e v iden t , a nyhow , t h a t t h e e x t reme p hy s ica l p rowe s s o f t h e w omen i sd ue t o t h e g od 's i n terven t ion ( 1 . 128 ) . I n g ene ra l , w i th ' p owe r ' w e s hou ld p e rce iv e o ne 's a b i l i ty t od om ina te a nd e c l ip se t h eo t he r s i nt h ep l ay . 1 4 T he re w e r e o t he r o cca s ion s i n A then ian c u l t u r e , w hen m en w ou ld d re s su pi nw omen 's c l o the s . F o r ' i n i t ia to ry t r an sve s t ism ' c f . D . L e i tao ( 1995 ) .

p rev iou s s c ene s ( C . S ega l , 1 982 , p . 1 9 1) o bv iou s ly i sa b sen t h e r e .

5 0

t h e h ead o fh e r s on , b oa s t s t h a t s he h a s k i l led a l i on ( 1 . 1 278 ; c f a l so 185 1191 ; 1 2 15 ) . H ow eve r , f r om t h e d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e a t ta ck o n P en theu s , i td oe s n o t a ppea r a s i ft h e w omen t h ough t t h a t t h ey w e re a t tack ing al i on . D iony su s s how s t h em P en theu so nt h et r ee a nd t e l l st h em : ' Women , Ih ave b rough ty ou h im w ho m ock sy ou a nd my r i tua l s ' ( 1 . 1 079 1081) . I ts e em s a s i fi tw e re p e rf ec t ly c l ea r t o t h e w omen , w ho t h a t s omeone w a s . S o , w hen t h ey l a yt h e i ra t tack u pon h im , h i s o wn mo the rs ay s t ot h e o t he r s : ' Come , s t and a r ound , e mb ra ce t h e t r ee , m aenad s , s o t h a t w e g e t t ot h e c l imbe r a si fh e w e re a n a n ima l . . ' ( 1 . 106 1108 ) . O n o ne r e ad ing o ft h e t e x t , i ti sn o t a n a n ima l w hom t h ey s e e u p t h e r e , b u t am an . I t i s i n te r e s t ing t o n o t ice t h a t , d e sp i te h i s m a sque rade , P en theu s i sv i ewed b y t h e w omen a s am an , a nd mo s t p robab ly a s am a le , t o o ( a st h eg ende ro ft h ew o rd f o r ' t he c l imbe r ' , T ÖV d t iAd r rnv , i n d ica te s ) . A t l e a s t h e d i e s a s a m an . Mo reove r , h er e ga in sh i s i d en t i ty i n am o s td rama t ic p l ea f o rh i s l i f e : ' I ti sI ,mo the r , y ou rs on P en theu s , w hom y ou b o r e t o t h e p a lace o f E ch ion ' ( 1 . 118 19 ) . H i s c on sc iou sne s s a nd h i s r e a son r e tu rn j u s t b ef o re h i s d ea th , s ot h a th em igh tk now ,b yw hom a nd w hy h ed i e s . A gaue , h ow eve r , ' d id n o tk now w ha ts h ew a s d o ing ' ( 1 . 123 ) , a s s he w a s ' p o s se s sed b yB acch ic s p ir i t' ( 1 . 124 ) .

d ownf a l l . B y t h e e nd o ft h e B acchae , t h e a ud ience i sl ef t w i th a s t rong i mp re s s ion o f A gaue , t h e w oman a nd mo the r w ho w i th h e r o wn h and s d i sm embe red h e r s on . A gaue i si n deed mo s t s eve re ly p un i shed a s ac on sequence o ft h e r e ve r sa l o fh e r r o le . S he l ef tt h e d ome s t ic a nd c i ty d oma in , w he re s h e s hou ld h ave r ema ined a s aw oman ; a s aw a r r io r s he f ough t a ga in s t h e r o wn p eop le , a s ah un te r s he h un ted a nd k i l led h e r o wn s on . T he 1 . o ra c r rpo ch t h a t s he u nde rgoe s— a sa l luded t oo n l i ne 1 329 — p roved f o r h e r f a ta l . O n l i ne 1 350 , A gaue f a ce s h e r i n ev i tab le — a l though n o t e xp la ined — e x i le .1 8 F u r the r o n , s he w i l l d enounce C i tha i ron a nd t h eb acch ic r i t e s : c Aeo t i n 6 'ö nou 1 383 1 . t i-r e Kt e at p i ov < t i . . t 'l ee t > µt apög p j-r e Kt e at p r ov ' ö c rao t at vè yt h , i m j0 ' i 5 0 t8 üp c :mu µe a' d I Ve lKE IT C 1 l . B äKxa t g 5' ä Äk tt a LL I EÄ0 L E V . 1 387

S he o bv iou s ly d oe s n o t c on s ide r h e r w o rd s i n su l t ing t o t h e g od , s o t h a t t h ey w ou ld i n voke h i s w ra th a ga in ; o r e l se s he s imp ly f e e l s t h a t n o th ing w o r se c an c om e u pon h e r a ny mo re . I r re spec t ive o ft h i s , s he i sd e s t royed . W i th h e rt h e r e s t o ft h e c i ty h a s s uf f e red . P en theu s , t h e h ead o f t h e c i ty , h a s b een k i l led , t h e o l d k i ng C admu s w i l l d epa r t i n to s e lf in f l ic ted e x i le ( 1 . 1 354 -55 ) a nd t h e s oc ia l a nd mo ra l o rde r o f t h e c i ty h a s b een s ha t te r ed . T he g od 's a nge rw a s t e r r ib le a nd u nf o rg iv ing , d e sp i te C admu s ' f i na l p l ea t oD iony su s , t h a t ' God s s hou ld n o t l i k en t h em se lve s t oh uman s i nt h e i r w ra th ' ( 1 . 1 348 ) . P e rhap s i ti st ime t o r em ind o u r se lve s w ho i tw a s w ho c au sed a l l t h i s . T he a ud ience mu s t h ave f e l t p i ty f o r A gaue a tt h e e nd , b u t t h ey mu s t h ave a l so r emembe red t h a t i tw a s h e ro wn ( and h e r s i s te r s ' ) Op L gt h a t m ade t h e g od t a ke r evenge u pon t h em . D iony su s s t a ted t h i s v e ry c l ea r ly a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e p l ay ( 1 . 2 5 -33 ) . P en theu s t o o h ad h i s s ha re o ft h e b l ame ( 1 .4 4 -48 ) , b u t i ts e em s t h a th e c ome s s e cond i nt h e g od 's ' b lack l i s t ' . D iony su s m en t ion s h im s e cond , a nd h e d oe s n o t r e f e r t oh im w i th t h e s ame a n imo s i ty , w h ich h e e xp re s se s t owa rd s t h e w om en . H e a l so p un i she s t h e w omen b y d r iv ing t h em m ad r i gh t a way , b u t h e g ive s t o P en theu s ac hance t o r e pen t d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e a c t ion o n t h e s t age . T ha t s how s t h e w omen i n an ega t ive p e r spec t ive r i gh tf r om t h e s t a r t .

I n c onc lu s ion , w e c anno t a ccu se t h e w om en o f t h e c on sc iou s mu rde r o f t h e r u le r o f t h e i r c i ty , b u t i ft h ey w e re n o t t h e k i l le r s o f ah un t ed a n ima l i tm ean s t h a t t h ey h ave mu rde red ah uman b e ing . I ti sc l ea rt h a tt h e g od w a s t h e o ne w ho c ompe l led t h em t o d o s u ch a t h ing , b u t , a l though i t mu s t h ave l e s sened t h e c ondemna t ion o ft h e a ud ience , i tc ou ld n o t h ave e l im ina ted i t . T hey w e r e p r e sen ted w i th w omen k i l l ing am an , a nd ar u le r a tt h a t ; w i th a mo the r k i l l ing h e r o wn c h i ld i n a n a bom inab le w ay . N o m a t te r w ho i tw a s w ho d i c ta ted s u ch a n a c t ion , t h ep e rpe t ra to r sc ou ld h ave n eve rb een j u s t if ied ." A gaue — a s r e p re sen ta t ive o f t h e w omen o n t h e moun ta in — u nde rgoe s ar a the r m o re c omp le te r eve r sa l o fh e r f em in ine c ha rac te r . I ndeed , t h e a napay Og o fh e r s on c an b e c on s ide red a s a n e xp r e s s ion o fb acch ic r i t e s . B u t s h e e xemp l if ie s c ha ra c te r i s t ic s , w h ich h i n t a t c oncep t s mo re d eep t h an m e re e mp loymen t o fv i o lence , u sua l ly r e served f o r b acchan t s o r m a le w a r r io r s . I n f a c t , s he b ecome s aw a r r io r ( 1 . 7 33 ) a nd ah un te r ( 1 . 7 31-33 ; 1 252 -55 ) h e r se lf , w h i le o n t h e m oun ta in . F u r the rmo re , s he b ecome s l e ade ro ft h e o t he rw omen ( 1 .6 82 -3 ; 6 89 -90 ; 7 31-33 ) , t hu s a cqu i r ing a r o le a na logou s t o t h a t o f h e r s on , a s ap o l i t ica l r u le r . Wha t c ou ld t h e i n ten t ion s o ft h e p l ayw r igh tp o s s ib ly b e?

A s f a r a s Op i g i s c once rned , b o th P en theu s a nd t h e w omen h ad t h e i r s ha re i ni t ,m an if e s ted i nd i f f e ren tw ay s . 'Y ßp t g n eve r g oe s u npun i shed i n G reek T ragedy . N egung i s s u re t o s t r ike t h e g u i l ty . I n t h i s c a se , o ne c ou ld s ay t h a t t h e m aenad s w e re t h e g od 's t oo l s o f v e i ls° t ga ga in s t P en theu s ; a nd t h e d ea th o fP en theu s w a s t h e g od 's v 4 . tec r tg a ga in s t A gaue a nd h e r s i s te r s .1 9 I st h i s e nough , t h ough , t oj u s t if y t h e r e ve r sa l o f h e r f em in ine c ha rac te ri nt h ep l ay?

O ne o ft h em a jo rs c ene s i n vo lv ing A gaue h a s b een l o s ti n t h e m anu sc r ip t t r an sm i s s ion , s o s h e c an h a rd ly q ua l if y a s o ne o ft h e c en t ra l c ha rac te r s o ft h e s u rv iv ing s c r ip t ; b u t u ndoub ted ly s he d om ina te s t h e e nd o ft h ep l ay ( a s w e l l a s al a rge p a r to ft h ep r ev iou s a c t ion ) . T he t r ag ic r e cove ry o f h e r r e a son ing s i gn if ie s h e r e mo t iona l a nd p hy s ica l

1 8

P e rhap st h is e xp la in sw hy A gaue f e l tt h a ts he h ad t ob es e lf e x i led a tt h ee nd .

C f . p rev iou sn o te .

T he l a s tw eh ea ro ft h em i st h a tt h ey r oam t h e moun ta in si na s t a te o ff r enzy ( 1 . 1 228 -29 ) .

1 7

1 9

5 1

T he i n i t ia to ry c ha ra c te r o f t h e e phebe 's p a s sage b e tween a do le scence a nd m a tu r i ty i sm a rk ed b y at wo -yea r t r an s i t iona l p e r iod i n w h ich t h e y oung w a r r io r a c t s o u t t h e r e ve r se o f h op l i te v a lue s . I n s t ead o f f i gh t ing i n t h e p l a in i n f u l l a rmo r , t h e e phebe d oe s h i s m i l i ta ry s e rv ice , i n t h e m oun ta in s o r f o r e s t s a tt h e f r on t ie r s o ft h e c i ty . H e u se s t r i cke ry , c unn ing a nd d ecep t ion ( apa te ) r a the r t h an o pen c onf ron ta t ion . H i s a c t iv i t ie s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th n i gh t , w i th t h e h un t , w i th t h e d agge r r a the r t h an w i th s pea r a nd s h ie ld . T he se f e a tu re s o ft h e e pheba te p l ace i to nt h e s i de o f t h e " r aw " a nd t h e " s avage " r a the r t h an t h e f u l ly c i v i l ized r e a lm o ft h e c i ty . .G iven t h e m a rg ina l i ty o f t h e e phebe , a s soc ia t ion w i th D iony su s i s n o t s u rp r i s ing ( Sega l , 1 992b ,p .1 65 ) .

I nc on s ide r ing h ow f a r w e c ou ld e x tend t h e r o le reve r sa l t h eme , w e s hou ld r e ca l l s ome o ft h e f a c t s c once rn ing t h e t ime w hen t h i sp l ay w a sp roduced . S t aged i n4 05 BC , o ne y ea r a f te r E u r ip ide s ' d ea th i n Macedon ia , t h e B acchae w a s p re sen ted t o a n a ud ience t h a t h ad s uf f e r ed v e ry r e cen t ly f r om t h e h o r ro r s o ft h e w a r . 4 13 BC w a s m a rked b y t h e d e s truc t ion o ft h e A then ian e xped i t ion t o S i c i ly ; t h e r e w a s ar evo lu t ion i nA then s i n4 11 BC . 4 06 BC s aw t h e n ava l -ba t t le o fA rg inu sa i a nd t h e c ondemna t ion o ft h e g ene ra l s . F ina l ly , i n 4 05 BC , w hen t h e B acchae w a s p roduced , A then s ' f i na l d ef ea t a t t h e b a t t le o f A igo spo tamo i s e a led t h e l o ng w a r a nd p repa red t h e g round f o r t h e r evo lu t ion o f4 04 . U nde r s tandab ly , t h o se w e re u n se t t led t ime s , w hen m o ra l s a nd s oc ia l i n s t i tu t ion s c ame u nde r s t ra in i n ev i tab ly . H . R ank in ( 1975 ) w ro te a bou t s oc ia l d i s in teg ra t ion a nd movemen t s o f i d ea s w i th in A then s i nt h e 5 t h c en tu ry , w h ich ' s eem t oi n d ica te ar e jec t ion o fi t s c i ty s ta te i d ea l s a nd w ay o fl i f e ' ( p . 9 ) . T he l o o sen ing o f t h e t r ad i t iona l mo ra l a nd s oc ia l c ode s mu s t h ave g i ven r i se t o i s sue s s uch a s t h e p o s i t ion o f w omen . I t w ou ld n o t b e i log ica l t o a s sume t h a t E u r ip ide s , o ne o f t h e o l d r ank s o f A then ian c i t izen s , h oweve r b i t te r i n h i s f l igh t t o Macedon ia , w a s s t i l l c oncer n ed a bou t h i s n a t ive t own w hen h e w ro te h i s l a s t p l ay . T he q ue s t ion s t i l l r ema in s , w he the r w e c an s e e t h e B acchae a s ac r y f o r t h e s o c ia l r e cogn i t ion o fw om en o r a s a n a t temp t t o w ar n a ga in s t c hange s i n t h e o rde r i n w h ich t h e w omen h ad t h e i r — l im i ted — s pace f i rm ly e s tab l i shed .

L ik e t h e g y eo t ,t h e T heban w omen r an a way f r om t h e r e a lm o fc i v i l iza t ion i no rde rt os pend ac e r ta in a moun to f t ime o n t h e s l ope s o fC i tha i ron . T hey a l so e xemp l if y t h e r eve r se o f t h e v a lue s , w h ich c ha rac te r ize r e spec tab le w omen . I n f a c t , t h ey a c t i n am anne r c on t ra ry t ow ha t i s f em in ine : t h ey b ecome h un te r s a nd w a r r io r s . L ik e t h e { ä öcä i d , t h ey d o n o t f i gh t w i th s pea r a nd s h ie ld , w eapon s t h a t r e la te t o t h e c i v i l ized p o l i s , b u t i n s tead t h ey u se t h y r su se s , w h ich h in t a t t h e ' s avage ' a spec t o f t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s . T h e i r a s soc ia t ion w i th D iony su s p o in t s o u t a no the r s im i la r i ty w i th t h e tc p nßo t : b o th g roup s a r e m a rg ina l t ot h ep o l i s . I ti st emp t ing t oi n te rp re t a l l t h i s a s ak i nd o f r i te d e p a s sage f o r t h i s p a r t icu la r g roup o f w om en . T h e f a c t t h a t t h ey b ehave i n w ay s m o re a pp rop r ia te t o m a le s s uppo r t s t h e p a ra l le l i sm o f t h e i r s i tua t ion w i th t h e 4r i3c i c t — a r i tua l i n tended t o i n t roduce n ew m a le c i t izen st ot h ep o l i s . L ik et h e ' c pn r 3o t , w ho b ecom e ' p rope r ' c i t izen s a f te r t h e i r t empo ra ry r e p la cem en t f r om t h e e s tab l i shed s oc ia l a nd mo ra l o rde r , t h e w omen o f T hebe s c ou ld b e v i ew ed a s a ch iev ing a s t a te o fs oc ia l i d en t if i ca t ion a f t e rt h e i rf l i gh tt oC i tha i ron . I st h i s r e a l ly , t h ough , w ha t E u r ip ide s w an ted t o i mp ly ? C an t h e b acch ic r i t e s s e rve f o r t h e w om en o fT hebe s a sa r i tua l i s t ic p a s sage i n to c i v ic m a tu ra t ion ?

T he n o t ion o fr o le reve r sa l h e lp s u s s h ed s ome l i gh t o n t h i s q ue s t ion . A sh a sb een i n d ica ted b ef o r e , t h ew omen o f T hebe s u nde rgo a d r ama t ic r e ve r sa l o f t h e i r u sua l f em in ine r o le s . T he i r ' h ou seho ld v i r tue s ' o f d ome s t ic s e c lu s ion , o bed ience t om a le k i na nd c l o se s uperv i s ion b y t h em , g i ve w ay t o as ubve r s ive l i f e s ty le o n C i tha i ron , a way f r om w ha tS ega l( 1992b ) c a l l s ` women 's r e a lm ' : O n ly w hen t h e m a le s epa ra te s h im se lf f r om t h e w oman 's r e a lm o ft h e o i ko s , a s soc ia ted w i th b i r th a nd n u r tu re , d oe s h e e n te r u pon f u l ly c i v i l ized s t a tu s , a ch ieved a nd c e leb ra ted w i th t h e s on 's f u l l r e cogn i t ion b y m a le c i t izen s c on sequen t u pon a dop t ion i n to h i sf a the r 's t r ibe ( p . 1 64 ) .

T o t h i s q ue s t ion t h e a n swe r i s c a tegor ica l ly n ega t ive . D e sp i te t h e s upe rf i c ia l p a ra l le l b e tween t h e B accha e a nd t h e e phebe s , t h e re a r e f undamen ta l d if e rence s b e tw een t h e t wo g roup s . F i r s t o f a l l , t h e t c p rpo ta r e s en t a way f r om t h e p o l i s b y t h e p o l i s i t se lf , t h e i r u n soc ia l a nd i mmo ra l b ehav iou r t o le ra ted a nd i n deed e ncou raged b y t h e c i ty . T he B acchae a bandon t h e i r c i ty o f t h e i r o wn a cco rd — e ven i fd r iven b yt h e g od — a nd a r e f ough t o f f a s p o ten t ia l ly h a rmf u l t ot h e i n s t i tu t ion o ft h ep o l i s . T he t g eo ta r e a c cep ted a s f u l l s ta tu s c i t izen s a f t e r t h e t wo y ea r s o f t h e e phebe ia h ave e l ap sed . T he B acchae a r e e i the r t a ken a way f r om t h e i r h ome s f o l low ing t h e g od ( 1 . 5 7 ) , o r s en t i n to e x i le ( 1 . 1 381f f ) ; a f t e r t h e i r o wn r i te d e p a s sage , t h ey h ave n op l ace i nt h e c i ty . T hey d oa ch ieve a k i nd o f i d en t i ty , b u t t h i s i ss t r ic t ly r e l ig iou s — i fn o t

S ega l c on t inue s w i th t h e s pec ia l a t ten t ion t h a t t h e G r eek c u l tp ay s t ot h e i n -be tw een s t a te o fa do le scence . D raw ing f r om t h e w o rk o fP i e r re V ida l -Naque t , w ho d e sc r ibe s t h e c p n i 3e i c t ,2 ° h e f i nd s p a ra l le l s b e tw een P en theu s a nd A c taeon o r e ven O re s te s , p a ra l le l s w he r e t h e c ommon f a c to r c omp r i se s t h e m a tu ra t ion r i t e s . H oweve r , t h e re a r e mo re p a ra l le l s t h a t S ega l h a s n o t a cknow ledged , a nd t h e se a r e t h e p a ra l le l s b e tween t h e c f r i 1 3c ia a nd t h e r o le r e ve r sa l t h a t i se xh ib i ted b y t h e w omen o fT hebe s i nt h e p l ay .

2 °

P .V ida l -Naque t( 1972 ) ,p p . 1 3 -68 .

5 2

S eaf o rd ( 1981) r e la te s h ow t h e l a nguage a nd t h e t e rm ino logy u sed i n t h e p lay h i n t a t t h e c onnec t ion b e tween t h e t wo r i tua l s a nd a r gue s t h a t t h e B acchae c on s t i tu te ar e -enac tm en t o ft h e r i tua l i s t ic a spec t s o ft h e D iony s iac my s te r ie s . N ever the le s s , o ne h a s t o e xe rc i se g r ea t c au t ion i n s uch a s t a tem en t . D iony s iac r i tua l s a r e p robab ly o l de rt h an D iony s iac my th s , s i nce my th s t e nd t o t r an sf o rm t h em se lve s w i th in A then ian c u l tu re , w h i le my s t ica l r i tua l s a r e a rguab ly mo re l i ke ly t om a in ta in t h e i r o r ig ina l c ha rac te r t h ank s t o t h e i r v e ry n a tu r e . S o , t h e my th o fP en theu s m igh t n o t r ep re sen t f u l ly t h e f i ne rp a r t s o f i n i t ia t ion i n to t h e my s t ic c u l t o f D iony su s — w h ich m igh t h ave n o t b een p e r cep t ib le t o a l l m embe r s i n t h e a ud ience , p a r t icu la r ly t h o se w ho w e r e u n in i t ia ted — b u t i ti so bv iou s ly d ea l ing w i th t h e e s tab l i shm en t o ft h e c u l t i t se lf .

p u r e ly c u l t ic — a nd n o t c i v ic . B y c r o s s ing t h eb ounda r ie s o ff em in in i ty t h ey d i dn o tg a in ap l ace i nt h ep ol s ' o rde r ; o nt h e c on t ra ry ,t h ey d i srup ted t h e e s tab l i shed o rde r . L ike t h e Med ea — a s w e s ha l l s e e — t h i s p l ay e nd s w i th a s en se o f d i so rde r . B u t i nB acchae t h e d i so rde r i sm o re s oc ia l t h an mo ra l : w e a r e l ef t w i th t h e p i c tu re o f ac i ty w he r e t h e r u le r i sd ead , d i smembe red b y h i s o wn k i n ; t h o se l ef t f r om t h e r oya l f am i ly a r e g o ing i n to e x i le , a nd t h e l a s t t h a tw e h ea r o ft h e w om en o ft h e c i ty i st h a t t h ey r oam t h e moun ta in s i n as t a te o ff r enzy . T he g od j u s t if i e s t h e s eve rene s s o fh i s p un i shmen t ( 1 . 1 376 -77 ) b u th e d oe s n o t r e s to re p o l i t ica l o rde r . T he w omen o f T hebe s w e re t h e b a s ic c au se f o r t h i s d i so rgan i sa t ion , f i r s t w i th t h e i r r e jec t ion o f D iony su s ' d iv in i ty ( 1 . 2 6 -7 ) , a nd t h en w i th t h e i r r e ve r sa l o f t h e i r f em in ine r o le s . Whe the r t h i s h appened v o lun ta r i ly o r n o t , o f f e r s l i t t le c on so la t ion t o t h e d i sa r ranged c i ty . Wha t i si mpor tan t i st h e g r aph ic e xh ib i t ion o f t h e c on sequence s o f t h e d i srup t ion o f t h e d e l ica te b a lance o f g ende r r o le s . T h i s a g ree s w i th t h e w ho le a tmo sphe r e o f t h e t ime w hen t h e p l ay w a s p roduced . E u r ip ide s c ommun ica ted t o t h e a ud ience h i s d eepe s t i n s igh t s , i n f luenced b y t h e s en se o fs oc ia l , mo ra l a nd p o l i t ica l d i so rde ro ft h e l a te f i f th c en tu ry , i n v i t ing t h e a ud ience t or e f lec tu pon t h e se i n s igh t s . T he i mpac t o ft h e p l ay u pon t h e a ud ience i s n o t k nown , b u t w e c an s p ecu la te o n i t .R ank in ( 1975 ) s a id t h a t t h e s t o ry o ft h e b r eakdown i nt h e p l ay p a ra l le l s t h a t o fA then s . ' Bo th t h e T hebe s o f t h e B acchae a nd A then s o f t h e l a te f i f th c en tu ry BC e xpe r ienced s c ene s o f g roup h y s ter ia , s i tua t ion s o f e mo t iona l w i l lf u lne s s t h a t n o ) / 4 1 1 : 5 yoq c ou ld c on t ro l , n o f a c t s p e r suade . B o th s oc ie t ie s a r e t o rn a nd b rok en b y t h e se e xpe r ience s ' ( p . 2 2 ) . W i th t h i s i nm ind w e c ou ld w e l l a s sume t h a tt h e a n c ien t a ud ience h ad g ood r e a son t oa pp r ec ia te t h e p o l i t ica l d i so rde r e voked b y t h e p l ay .

T he r e levance o ft h i s r e a l iza t ion t ot h e m a in a r gumen t o f t h i s c hap te r i so bv iou s : s i nce t h e f i na l m e s sage o f t h e p l ay i sa bou t t h e e s tab l i shm en t o f t h e g od , t h i s g i ve s a s en se o f o rde r , wh ich c on t rad ic t s t h e s en se o f d i so rde r c au sed b yt h ew omen o fT hebe s i nb o th p r iva te a nd s oc ia l l e ve l s . I ft h e s en se o fo rde r p reva i l s , t h en t h e p l ay l o se s much o fi t sd i dac t ic e f f ec t ivene s s , i f ,i n deed , t h e re w a s a n i n ten t ion o fp ub l ic a dmon i t ion c oncer n ing g ende rr o le s . T he m i s s ing p a r t o f D iony su s ' s peech i s ag r ea t l o s s , s i nce , mo s t p robab ly , i t w a s t h e r e w he re t h e g od p r e sc r ibed t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f h i s c u l t i n T hebe s . No m a t te r w ha t t h e a c tua l p a t ter n o f e s tab l i shmen t w a s , t h e n o t ion o f ' o rde r ' d emand s c a r ef u l e xam ina t ion , e spec ia l ly a si ti st h e o rde ro fD iony su s . A tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e p l ay w e l e ar nt h a tt h e g od a nd h i s b and h ave c ome f r om a b road ( l ine s 1 3 18 , 6 4 -65 , 8 6 , 1 27 ) w he re t h e c u l t o f t h e g od h a s a l ready b een e s tab l i shed — a f t e r as u cce s sf u l t wo -yea r o r t h ree -yea r w a r , a sv a r iou s my th s h ave i t .D iony su s ' c ha rac te r iza t ion a sa n ' o u t s ide r ' m igh t h i n t n o t o n ly a t ac u l t , w h ich w a s i mpo r ted t o G reece , b u t a l so a tt h e c ha rac te r o ft h e c u l t i t se lf I ti sn o t s o much a no the r c u l t a s ac u l t o f t h e ' o the r ' , d i f f e ren t f r om a ny o ft h e e s tab l i shed c u l t s o ft h e G reek p an theon . V io lence i sc ha ra c te r i s t ic o f D iony su s ' w o r sh ip .

O ne a spec t o ft h e p l ay t h a t c anno t b e u nde re s t ima ted i s t h e r e l ig iou s o ne . Af t e r a l l , o ne o ft h e p rom in en t f i gu re s i n t h e p l ay i st h e p a t ron -de i ty o f t h e d rama t ic f e s t iva l i t se lf . Y e t , t h e re i s al o t o fs pecu la t ion a bou t t h e p o s s ib le s i gn if i cance o f t h e l o s t p a r t o f D iony su s ' f i na l s peech . T h em a in p rob lem s , a ss umma r ized b yS eaf o rd ( 1981) a r e t h a t , f i r s t , i ti sw i th ag r ea t d eg ree o fs c ep t ic i sm t h a t o ne s hou ld r e ga rd r i tua lp a t ter n s i nd r ama , a nd , s e cond ly , t h a t w e d o n o t k now a l o t a bou t t h e D iony s iac my s te r ie s . Mo s to fw ha tw e d o k now c om e s f r om t h e H e l len i s t ic a nd R oman p er iod . D raw ing o n S eaf o rd 's a r t ic le , w e s hou ld g i ve s p ec ia lm en t ion t ot wo a s sump t ion sw h ich o ne h a st o m ake e va lua t ing t h e l a cuna i nt h i sp l ay : f i r s t , t h a t t h e r e i s ad eg r ee o f c on t inu i ty b e tween t h e D iony s ian my s te r ie s o ft h e c l a s s ica l a nd l a te r p e r iod s , a nd , s e cond , t h a t t h e re a r e i n d ica t ion s o f s im i la r i t ie s b e tw een t h e D iony s ia c my s te r ie s a nd t h e E leu s in ian , a bou t w h ich w e a r e b e t te r i n f o rmed e ven f o rt h ec l a s s ica lp e r iod .2 1

f l öü b ö pea tv , ö-r av b c 6l e 1 C 7 C OV 5 poga ic o yn gc r ri in e56c rs , v s( 3 p (5og ) ( c i .w i e pöv V e i l JTÖV , ä ypeü oN a ipa -r payor rövov , i o po c päyov x äp L V , i 4 te v oqèq ö pea ( D püy t a , AM t' ,ö5 '' gapxog B p6 i it o g , z üoi .

1 36

1 40

T he d ec i s ive f a c to r i sn o t t h e a c tua l b l ood shed , w h ich i s a n e s sen t ia l p a r t o fa ny s a cr if ice , b u tt h e c on tex t i nw h ich t h e r i tua l i s t ic b lood shed t a ke s p l ace . T he re i sn o th ing h e re t or e la te t ot h e p a t ter n s o fc i v ic o rp r iva te o f f e r ing s t oo t he r d e i t ie s . T he s a c r if ic ia l a n ima l s a r e n o t d om e s t ic , n o ' c iv i l ized ' f i re s end st h e o f f e ro fK v iaaa t ot h eh eaven s a bove , n o c ook ed m ea t i sd i v ided a mong t h e p a r t ic ipan t s . T he se a r e a l l c on t ra ry t ot h eb a s ic r u le s o fs a c r if i ce , a sw e

F o r s im i la r i t ie s , s e e W . B u rke r t ( 1 997 ) , p p . 4 13f f . F o r a n a c tua l c onnec t ion b e tween t h e D iony s ian a nd t h e E leu s in ian my s te r ie s , s e e M . N i l s son ( 1967 ) , I .p .5 99 . R . S eaf o rd ( 1981) s ugge s t st h a tt h eB acchae s e em s t oh av eb een i n f luenced b yt h e E leu s in ian my s te r ie st h em se lve s . 2 1

5 3

b ecau se t h ea t r e i ss anc t ion ed b y h im , i td oe s n o t m ean t h a t t h e s ubve r s ive a spec t s o f h i s w o r sh ip h ave b een a l te red . Mo s t o f a l l , t h e c onf u s ion o f a l l s o r t s o f b ounda r ie s i sw ha t m ake s h im t h e p e rf ec t d e i ty t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h ea t r e , s i nce i ti si nt h e s a f e ty -zone o f t h e t h ea t r ica l s t age t h a t b ounda r ie s a r e s t r e tched a nd i n ter tw ined f o r r e a son s k nown t o t h e p l ayw r igh t s t h em se lve s . T oy ing w i th n ew i d ea s a nd r e p r e sen t ing o n s t age t h e i r o wn r e t ro spec t ive w o r r ie s a bou tt h e s oc ia l a nd c i v ic o rde r , t h e d rama t i s t s d r aw l i cen ce f r om t h e g od w ho i sa s soc ia ted w i th d i so rde rm o r e t h an a ny o t he rg od .

h ave s e en a tt h e f i r s t p a r t o ft h e p r e sen t t h e s i s . T he m o s t n o tab le a noma ly i st h ev enue o ft h er i tua l s . 7

C O 1 . 1 d 1Kap , ÖO Ti gE ÜE K 2 14 . 1WV T EAM-1 X OF , C O V Ei Kg ß1 0 TaV d t yt a TEÜE l K ai 6t aaeüe-r a tt p uxäv b ö pec ra tf 3 aKxeü oN ä a io t cK aeappoio tv ,

7 5

T he m oun ta in s s t and i n o ppo s i t ion t o t h e c i v ic a nd c i v i l ized e nc lo su r e o f t h e e s tab l i shed r e l ig iou s e xp re s s ion s , s anc t ioned b y l aw s a nd t r ad i t ion . A l l t h e se r i tua l e l emen t s , w h ich a r e r e coun ted i nt h ep l ay , a lude t o t h e m a rg ina l i ty o f D iony su s ' w o r sh ip . T he m o s t n o tab le c ha rac te r i s t ic o f h i s c u l t i s t h e t o le rance a nd , i n deed , a ccep tan ce o fw omen , p a r t ic ipa t ing i no rg ia s t ic w o r sh ip . We h ave a l r eady s e en t h a t w omen w e re a l lowed t o b e i n vo lved i n many o t he r c u l t s a nd b e i n i t ia ted i n t h e E leu s in ian my s te r ie s , b u t n eve r w a s t h e re a ny c u l t a s m a rg ina l a s D iony su s ' , w h ich t o le ra ted e r iA t iyevei ö xXou ( 1 . 17 ) , p rac t ic ing t h e g od 's r i tua l s ' s tung w i th t h e m adden ing t r ance o f D iony su s ' ( 1 . 19 , 0i c r rp ec iq At o vüay ) . D iony su s ' c u l t i s a s soc ia ted w i th e xube ran t a bandon a nd c onf u s ion o fa l l t r ad i t iona l b ounda r ie s t h a t s epa ra te c i v i l iza t ion a nd p r im i t ive n a tu r e , m en a nd w omen , o rde r a nd d i so rde r . A l l t h e se e l emen t s m ade t h e n ew c u l t m ee tw i th s c ep t ic i sm a nd o ppo s i t ion a tf i r s t , a nd t h i s i sw ha t P en theu s r e p re sen t s i nt h i s p l ay . H ow eve rt h e e nd o f t h e p l ay s how s h ow t h e g od o ve r come s a ny o ppo s i t ion b y p rov ing h i s d i v in i ty b eyond d i spu te a nd e s tab l i sh ing h i s r i te s . O ne c an e ven s e e a n a l lu s ion t ot h e f o r cef u l m anne r o f t h i s e s tab l i shmen t i n t h e s c ene o f P en theu s ' s paragmo s ( 1 . 1 045f f ) . When D iony su s b r ing s t h e d oub t ing , d i sgu i sed P en theu s t o t h e w omen i n t h e moun ta in ,h et u rn st ot h ew omen a nd c ommand st h em . 0v eäv t ö cg , ä y t o TÖV1 4 . . 1 iX K d l l it T d l ik l T' ö py l a yU c ov T leggevov •ä l v \ t tT 1 1 . 1 1 0pE tC reg VI V . K a 1T C 1Ü0 'ä i i' f l yöpeue K a ir t p cX o üp c tväv K a iy aiav c r r t jp t ec p r . og c r egvoü n up6g .

S o , t h e o rd e r t h a t D iony su s e s tab l i she s a tt h e e nd o ft h e p l ay , i st h e o rde r t h a t c ome s t o q ue s t ion a nd c ha l lenge r i g id a nd l o ng -e s tab l i shed r e l ig iou s p a t ter n s ; t h i s q ue s t ion ing a nd c ha l leng ing i n ev i tab ly r e f lec t s as oc ia l u nea s ine s s , e spec ia l ly w he re g ende r r o le s a r e c once rned . We h ave n o r e a son t o a s sume t h a t t h e p l ay a lude s t o s pec if ic r i tua l s s t i l l v a l id i nE u r ip ide s ' t im e . A cco rd ing t o D odd s ( 1959 , p . x x i i ) i n t h e c ou r se o f t h e c en tu r ie s , w h ich s epa ra te t h e f i r s t a ppea rance o fD iony s iac c u l t i n G reece f r om t h e a ge o fE u r ip ide s , i tw a s b rough t u nde r S t a te c on t ro l a nd l o s t much o f i t s o r ig ina l c ha rac te r , a t a ny r a te i nA t t ica . T he A then ian s o fE u r ip ide s ' t ime h ad n o b i enn ia l w in te r r i t e , n o m oun ta in d anc ing , n o 6 4 . to cpay ia ; t h ey w e re c on ten t t o s end a d e lega t ion o f w om en t o r e p re sen t t h em a t t h e D e lph ic -r p te-r qp ig . D odd s g oe s f u r the r , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e A then ian D iony s iac f e s t iva l s h ad n o t k ep t m uch o f t h e o r ig ina l o rg ia s t ic c ha rac te r o f t h e c u l t , w i th t h e p robab le e xcep t ion o ft h eL ena ia .2 T he p l ay , h ow eve r , a l lude s t o t h e d ange rou s s i de o f D iony su s ' c u l t , w h ich i sn o tf o rgo t ten . I ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t d u r ing t h e P e loponne s ian Wa r t h e re w a s ar e v iva l o f o rg ia s t ic r e l ig ion s . A mu l t i tude o f f o r e ign g od s l i ke C ybe le , B end i s , A t t i s , A don i s a nd S abaz iu s , i n vade s A then ian l i t e ra tu re a tt h e t ime .2 3 T h i s c ou ld b e e i the r t h e o cca s ion t h a t i n sp i red E u r ip ide s t o w r i te t h e p a r t icu la r p l ay , o r , i n deed , t h e p l ay m igh t h ave b een a n a t temp t t o d raw a t ten t ion t owa rd s t h e d ange rou s e l emen t s o f t h i s s o r t o fr e l ig ion t h a t c ou ld b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e r e l ig ion o f D iony su s . T he e s tab l i shmen t o f D iony su s a t T h ebe s r em ind s t h e A then ian a ud ience t h a t t h e i r o wn ' t ame ' D iony su s o f t h e G rea t D iony s ia s anc t ion s ac u l t , w h ich e ngu lf s p o ten t ia l ly d ange rou s e l em en t s , o ne o f w h ich i s t h e a s s ignmen t o fp r iv i lege s t o w om en a nd t o le rance o f b ehav iou r t h a t c ou ld p rov ide d e s t ruc t ive , i f l e f t u ncheck ed . I ti se xac t ly t h i s p o ten t ia l d ange rt h a t S eaf o rd d raw sa t ten t ion t o .

T

1 080

T h i s , i n c on junc t ion w i th w ha t i s t o f o l low , c an b e i n te rp r e ted a s a n a l lego ry o f t h e f i r s t c ommand f o r 6 4 . to c pay ia — D iony s iac c u l t 's e qu iva len t t os a c r if ice . S o f a r i nt h e p l ay D iony su s h ad c omp le ted t h e f i r s t s t ep s f o r h i s c u l t 's e s tab l i shmen t b y s e cu r ing h i s p i lg r im s . N ow h e p roceed s w i th t h e a c tua l my s t ic r i tua l s , w i th t h e s a c r if i ce o fP en theu s , o n ly t oc on t inue w i th h i s f i na l e p iphany a nd o ve ra l le s tab l ishmen ta tt h e e nd o ft h ep l ay .

N o rma l ly , i n r i tua l , D iony su s a s g od o f c ommuna l i ty d r aw s w omen o u t o f t h e

H oweve r , t h e g od 's e s tab l i shmen t i st h e r e a l iza t ion o fa n o rde r t h a t e ngu lf s a nd p e rpe tua te s d i so rde r . Wha t t h e a ud ience i sw a tch ing i st h e e s tab l i shmen t o ft h e g od , w ho i s a l ready e s tab l i shed , w ho i s t h e p a t ron d e i ty o f t h e f e s t iva l t h a t t h e a ud ience i sa t tend ing , r oo ted i nt h e h ea r t o fp ub l ic , c i v ic a c t iv i t ie s . H a sD iony su s ' c u l t c ea sed t ob e m a rg ina l b ecau se o f t h i s? T he a n sw e r i sn o t e a sy . J u s t

T he w o rd d e r ive sf r om K e iva t , ' w i ld w omen ' . C ybe le , C r a t inu s , f r . 8 2 , A r i s t . A v . 8 76f , S oph . P h i l . 3 9 1f f ; B end i s , C ra t in . f r . 8 0 , c f . 1 .G . 1 2 . 3 10 . 2 08 ( 429 /8 BC ) ; A t t i s , T heopompu s c o rn . f r . 1 5 , A r . P ax . 4 20 ; S abaz iu s , A r i s t . V e sp . 9 f ,A v . 8 75 ,L y s . 3 87 -97 . T he r e f e r ence sa r eg i ven b yE .D odd s ( 1959 ,p .x x i i i ) . 2 2

2 3

5 4

h ou seho ld , i n sp i r ing t h em w i th a t empo ra ry , c on t ro l led r e s i s tan ce t o p ub l ic g ende r d i v i s ion . I nt h i s w ay h e c oun te r t h e t wo a n t i the t ica l t h rea t s t o t h e p o l i s — o f f se t t ing e xce s s ive a dhe rence t o t h e h ou seho ld b yb r ing ing t h e w omen o u t f r om t h e i r h om e s , a nd g ende r c onf u s ion b y b r ing ing t h em o u t f o r o n ly a t empo ra ry , c on t ro l led p e r iod . B ecau se h e i sh onou red b y t h e w ho le p o l i s , D iony su s b o th p re sen t s al a ten t t h rea t t o t h e h ou seho ld a nd , i f d epr ived o f t h a t h onou r , w i l l d e s t roy t h e g ende r d i v i s ion o n w h ich t h e p o l i s i s b a sed .2 4 T h i s n o t ion r e inf o r ce s R ank in 's s ugge s t ion s a bou t t h e e xpe r ience o ft h e T hebe s o ft h e p l ay a nd t h e A then s o f t h e l a te f i f th c en tu ry BC , a nd s uppor t s t h em a in a rgumen t o ft h e p re sen t t h e s i s b y e mpha s iz ing t h e p o ten t ia l d ange r t h a t a ny p o l i t ica l c ommun i ty s uf f e r s , i ft h e s oc ia l a nd c i v ic f ounda t ion s a r e r o ck ed b y d ev ia t ion f r om t h e e s tab l i shed o rde r .

Wha t w e c an c onc lude f r om t h e a na ly s i s o ft h i s p l ay i s t h a t t h e r eve r sa l o ft h e f ema le r o le s i ss hown i n av e ry d i sapp rov ing t one i n t h e B acchae . Whe the r t h e p l ayw r igh t 's i n ten t ion s w e r e t o e n te r ta in o r mo ra l ize o r b o th c anno t b e a ff i rm ed . H i s v i ew s , h ow eve r , a bou t t h e n ece s s i ty o fs oc ia l s t ab i l i ty a r e c l ea r : t h i s c an b e a ch ieved o n ly b y o bed ien ce t ol aw s a nd m o ra l s , w h ich p re suppo se ag ende rb a lance w i th in e xp l ic i t c on s t ra in t s . A ny t r e spa s s o f t h o se b ounda r ie s d e s igna te s c onf u s ion a nd b l igh t f o r t h e c i ty a nd t h e p eop le w ho — w i l l ing ly o r n o t — c on t rad ic tt h eo rde ro ft h ep o l i s .

2 4

R . S eaf o rd ( 1993 ) , p .1 37 .

5 5

R igh t , Wrong a nd t he t rag ic h ero ine . An t igone r econ s idered ' I ft h ey w in i nt h i s ,w ha tw i l l t h ey n o ta t temp t? R ev iew a l lt h e l aw s w i th w h ich y ou r f o r ef a the r s r e s t ra ined t h e i r l i cence a nd m ade t h em s ub jec t t ot h e i r h u sband s ; e ven w i th a l t h e se b ond s y ou c an s c a rce ly c on t ro l t h em . Wha t o ft h i s? I fy ou s uf f e rt h em t os e ize t h e se b ond s o ne b yo ne a nd w rench t h em se lve s f r ee a nd f i na l ly t ob ep l aced o n ap a r i ty w i th t h e i r h u sband s , d o y ou t h ink t h a t y ou w i l l b e a b le t oe ndu r e t h em? T he momen tt h ey b eg in t ob ey ou re qua l s , t h ey w i l lb ey ou rs upe r io r s . '1

i sn o t d i rec t ly a t te s ted a nywhe r e b ef o re S ophoc le s ' p l ay .3 P inda r , w r i t ing e a r l ie r i n t h e 5 t h c en tu ry , a lude s t o a v e r s ion o ft h e T heban l e gend ( a ppa ren t ly t h a t o ft h e e p ic T heba i s ) , i nw h ich t h e b u r ia l o fP o lyn ice s w a s e v iden t ly n o t a n i s sue .4 T h i s h a s s ugge s ted t os ome t h a t S ophoc le s ' v e r s ion w a sp u re ly h i s o wn i n ven t ion .5

I n 4 40 BC S ophoc le s w a s a n e l ec ted g ene ra l a nd h e a s s i s ted P e r ic le s t os upp re s s t h e S am ian r evo l t .2 T h i s h a s l e d s ome ( i . e . S t e ine r , 1 980 ) t os ugge s t t h a t h e o wed h i s a ppo in tmen t i n4 40 t ot h e s u cce s s o fA n t igone . A l though s u ch as ugge s t ion c anno tb ev e r if ied , i ti si n d ica t ive o ft h e e f f ec t t h a t t h e p l ay h ad u pon i t s c on tempo ra ry a ud ience a nd t h ei n te re s tt h a ti ts t i l lp re sen t st oday . A n t igone w a s p robab ly p roduced i n 4 42 -44 1 BC . A n a nc ien t a ud ience mu s t h ave b een f am i l ia r w i th t h e p reced ing d e ta i l s o f t h e my th , f r om w h ich t h e s pec if ic p l ay d r ew i t s p lo t . T he p l ay i t se lf d emand s k now ledge o f t h e c omp lex my tho log ica l b ackg round o f A n t igone 's f am i ly . T he f a te o f L abdacu s ' l i ne i sw e l l k nown a nd n eed n o t b e r e pea ted h e re . T he s t ory o f O ed ipu s ' f a te a f te r t h e r e vea l ing o ft h e p a r r ic ide a nd i n ce s t w a s o ne o f t h e my th s t h a t w e r e t r an sm i t ted t o g ene ra t ion s o f A then ian s . N ow a p o in t n eed s t o b e m ade a bou t t h e se w e l l -known p r eced ing s t o r ie s , w h ich t h e p l ayw r igh t a s sumed h i s a ud ience t o k now . I fw e c ou ld k now w ha t t h e e a r l ie r v e r s ion s o fA n t igone 's s t o ry w e re , t h en w e c ou ld s e e h ow ( o r e ven , i f ) S ophoc le s ' t r ea tmen t d i f f e r s . T h i s i s i mpor tan t f o r o u r u nde r s tand ing a nd e va lua t ion o f t h e p l ay . I f t h e s t o ry o f A n t igone h ad a lway s b een w ha t S ophoc le s p re sen ted o n s t age , t h en w e c ou ld a ccep t t h a t t h e p l ay w a s n o th ing mo r e t h an a m e re r e te l l ing o f a w e l l -known my th . H ow eve r , i ft h e w ay t h a t S ophoc le s h and led t h e s t o ry i s c on s ide rab ly d i f f e r en t f r om t h e p reced ing t r ad i t ion , w e h ave g round s t os pecu la te o n t h e r e a son s f o r h i s w ay o f p re sen t ing t h e my th a nd t h e d i s t inc t ive s t a temen t s— i fa ny — t h a tt h ep l ay m ak e s . A t t h e e nd o f A e schy lu s ' S even A ga in s t T hebe s , a cco rd ing t o t h e m anu scr ip t s , A n t igone a nd I smene , s i s te r s o f E teoc le s a nd P o lyn ice s , l amen t f o r t h e i r b ro the r s , a nd A n t igone i n s i s t s o n b u ry ing P o lyn ice s ' b ody i n d ef iance o f a n e d ic t b y aT heban h e ra ld . Mo s t s cho la r s n ow a g ree , h ow eve r , t h a t t h i s s e c t ion o ft h e p l ay w a s n o t w r i t ten b y A e schy lu s , b u t w a s i n se r ted a f te r t h e p roduc t ion o fA n t igone ( a nd p robab ly t h a t o fE u r ip ide s ' P hoen ic ian W omen , a sw e l l ) . I fs o , t h e s t o ry o fA n t igone

T he re c an t h u s b e n o c e r ta in ty i n t h e m a t te r ; b u t t h e t r aged ian s u sua l ly d id n o t i n ven t p lo t s f r om s c ra tch , a nd i ti s mo s t l i k e ly t h a t S ophoc le s h ad s ome p r eceden t f o r h i sA n t igone . H oweve r , w e a r e i nn o p o s i t ion t op o in t o u t t h e o r ig ina l v e r s ion o f t h i s ( o r a ny o t he r ) my th , a nd m aybe i ti sn o t s o i mpo r tan t . I ti sm o re i mpor tan t t o r e a l i se t h a t t h e r e w a s l i cence t o a l te r my th s . T he p l ayw r igh t , b e ing a wa re o ri g no ran t o fp r ev iou s v e r s ion s , c ou ld t r an sf o rm a n e x i s t ing m y th , i no rde r t oa ch ieve t h e r e su l t s t h a t h e w an ted .6T h i s w ho le i d ea o ft r an sf o rma t ion o ft h e my th f i t s p e rf ec t ly i nt h e s e t t ing s o fG reek t r agedy . T he c ha rac te r o f t h e p a t ron d e i ty o f t h ea t re , D iony su s , 3 I ti sa lmo s t c e r ta in t h a t E u r ip ide s ' h omonymou s p l ay i sl a te r t h an S ophoc le s ' ( T . Web s te r , 1 967 ) . 4 O lymp ian 6 .1 5 ;N emean 9 .2 4 . 5 H . B a ld ry ( 1968 ) ,p p . 3-34 . 6 E u r ip ide s m od if ied S ophoc le s ' v e r s ion e v en m o re . H i s p l ay b e ing l o s t ,w eh ave t or e con s t ruc tt h ep lo t c h ie f ly f r om H yg inu s ( Fab . 7 2 ) ,w h ich i sn o ta na cu ra te te s ynop s i s .

IL ivy , 2

C r eon , h oweve r , h a s as hadowy e x i s tence i n s ou rce s b ef o re S ophoc le s( Oed ipod e ia f r .3 ;A e sch .S even A ga in s t T hebe s , 4 74 ) ; a nd I sm ene h a s a s t o ry o f h e r o wn ( M imne rmu s , f r . 2 1 , We s t ) , w h ich w a s p opu la r w i th v a se p a in te r s , b u t w h ich S ophoc le s c ou ld n o t u se , s i nce i t e nded w i th h e r d ea th a tt h e h and s o fT ydeu s ( one o ft h e s even g ene ra l s w ho m a r ched a ga in s t T hebes ) ; S ophoc le s , o nt h e o t he rh and , n eeded h e ra s af o i lt oA n t igone . T he r e i s s ome e v idence , mo reove r , t h a t t h e e p ic O ed ipod e ia m en t ioned f ou r c h i ld r en o f O ed ipu s , t h ough n o t b y I o ca s te i nt h i s v e r s ion ( Pau s . 9 .5 . 1 ) . T he n ame s c ou ld w e l l b e E teoc le s , P o lyn ice s , I smene a nd A n t igone . P au san ia s ( 9 . 2 5 . 2 ) i nt h e 2 nd c en tu ry AD , r e por t s t h a t h e s aw a p l a ce a t T hebe s t h a t w a s c a l led ` An t igone s ' d ragg ing ' , b ecau se i tw a s w he re A n t igone h ad d ragged P o lyn ice s ' b ody t ot h e p y r e o fE teoc le s . T h i s d e ta i l d oe s n o t d e r ive f r om S ophoc le s ' p l ay , i n w h ich s he d oe s n o s uch t h ing , a nd i ti sa r gued t h a t i td e r ive s f r om a p r e S ophoc lean l o ca l t r ad i t ion . H ow eve r , ap o s t -Sophoc lean s ou r ce c anno tb er u led o u t .

9 ,4 13 -4 19 . P lu t .L if eP er . 8 .

5 6

g od o fe c s ta sy a nd t r an sf o rma t ion , e mbod ie s a nd s i gn if i e s t h e l e ve l o f l i cence t h a t t h e p l ayw r igh t h ad , i n o rde r t o a l te r ,t ot r an sf o rm .

i tw i l l b ecome o bv iou s w hy s u ch q ue s t ion s d emand o u r s e r iou s a t ten t ion . T he p e rf o rmance s t a r t s a nd t wo w omen e n te r . T he o pen ing s c ene o ft h eA n t igone p r e sen t s t h e s pec ta to rw i th ap i c tu re o f a n o u t -of the -o rd ina ry w oman . An t igone m ake s h e r e n t rance b y c r o s s ing t h e b ounda r ie s o f h e r o iko s , i no rde r t oq ue s t ion t h e d ec i s ion s o fh e r g ua rd ian , w ho i sa l so t h e h ead o ft h e s t a te . H e r c onve r sa t ion w i th I sm ene r evea l s t h e w ay i n w h ich t h e l a t te r i su sed a s a f o i l f o r A n t igone . I smene 's a t temp t s t o r e a son w i th h e r s i s te r f a i l , h oweve r ( l ines 3 -47 ) . A ga in s t a l l t h a t C reon r ep r e sen t s , An t igone d ec ide s t o a t temp t t h e f o rb idden b u r ia l . A ny A then ian m a le mu s t h ave f e l t as l igh t s hock h ea r ing t h ef o l low ing w o rd s( l ine s4 5 -48 ) :

T he m y th w a s n o t t h e o n ly t h ing t h a t w a s t r an sf o rm ed i n t h e p roduc t ion o f A n t igone . G ende r r o le s l o se t h e i r s t ab i l i ty a nd c hange t h roughou t t h e p l ay . A n t igone 's a c t ion s p rove i t .L i t t le b y l i t t le , s he l o se s m any o ft h o se c ha rac te r i s t ic s t h a t c on s t i tu ted t h e i d ea o fh e r g ende r i n A th en s . S ophoc le s ' A n t igone l i e s a t t h e c en t re o f v e ry c on t rove r s ia l a r gumen t s . I th a s b een o f t en v i ewed a st h e c l a sh b e tw een t h e t r ad i t iona l f am i l ia l a nd r e l ig iou s c u s tom s , r e p r e sen ted b y A n t igone , a nd t h e c i v ic a u tho r i ty , r e p re sen ted b y C reon ( C . S ega l , 1 990 ) , o r a s t h e c onf l ic tb e tw een n a tu re , r e p r e sen ted b yA n t igone , a nd m an -made c i v i l iza t ion , r ep re sen ted b y C reon ;7 o r a s t h e g r aph ic e xh ib i t ion o f t h e c on f l ic t b e tw een m en a nd w om en . J udg ing mo s t ly f r om m odern s oc ia l a nd m o ra l p e r spec t ive s , p eop le h ave s e en i nt h i s p l ay t h e f i gu re o f C r eon a s at y ran t a nd A n t igon e a s ah e ro in ew ho d a re s t o o ppo se h im ( Sou rv inou Inwood , JHS c i x , 1 989 , 1 34 -48 ) . S im i la r v i ew s w e re h e ld b y W inn ing ton Ing ram ( 1 980 ) . O the r s h ave s e en i nt h eA n t igone t h e d rama t iza t ion o ft h e i d ea o ft h e mu tab i l i ty o fh uman a f f a i r s a sw e l l a st h a t o f h uman i lu s ion -ap l ay , t h a t i s , i n wh ich C reon e xh ib i t s t h ese i d ea s a nd f a l l s b ecau se o fh i s w rong j udgem en t ( C . G . C h ronopou lo s , 1 991) . Mo s t o ft h e se o p in ion s a g r ee t o t h i s e x ten t : C r eon t o ok t h e w rong c ho ice s a nd A n t igone w a sj u s t if ied i nd ef y ing h im .

I E . ' H y äp v oE i g 0 6 7 CTE I LV a ( r )' , ä r cöppr itov n öÄc t ; AN . T öv y o ih 4 .öv K a i T ÖV a öv , f i v a i ) i n j Oang , a s 5E 2u pöv • o i ) y äp n poSoüa ä l c bao l ta t . I E . ' S I a xEt 2da , K *vtog ä vu tp r p cötog ; AN . ' AÄÄ7 o i ) &v c in c i ) t i th 4 . 16 jv j f c i pye tv 1 . &Ta .

H e re w e a r e p re sen ted w i th t h e p i c tu re o f aw oman w ho o pen ly a dm i t s t h a t s he i sa wa re o ft h e o rde r s o fh e r l e ga l g ua rd ian a nd p o l i t ica l r u le r , y e t i sd e term in ed t oh ave h e r own w ay . T he n a tu re o f A n t igone 's r e a son ing l i e s d eep w i th in A then ian c u l tu re . Two v e ry i mpo r tan t A then ian n o t ion s mu s t b e r e ca l led h e re . T he f i r s t i st h e n o t ion o fa d ecen t b u r ia l . B rown ( An t igone , 1 987 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e G reek s o ft h a tp e r iod h ad amuch s t ronge r s en se t han mo s t o fu st oday , o ft h e i mpor tance o fg i v ing h onou rab le b u r ia l t ot h e d ead .8B u r ia l i st h e c en t ra l i s sue i nt h e l a t te rp a r t o f A ia s a nd t h roughou t E u r ip ide s ' S upp l ian t s . A cco rd ing t oa c ha rac te ri nP la to , t h e i d ea l o fe ve ry m an i s' t ob e r i ch a nd h ea l thy a nd h onou red b yt h e G reek s , t or e a ch o l d a ge a nd , h av ing p rov ided h i s d ead p a ren t s w i th af i ne f une ra l , t ob e f i ne ly a nd n ob ly b u r ied b y h i s o wn c h i ld r en . ' ( H ipp ia s , Ma jo r , 2 91 e -d ) . We e ven k now o f i mpo r tan t p o l i t ica l c on sequence s i nc a se o ff a i lu r e -a f t e rt h eb a t t le o fD e l ion , i n4 24 B .C . a nd o fA rg inu sa i , i n4 06 B .C . A nd S ophoc le s r em ind s u s o ft h e p hy s ica l n a s t ine s s o ft h e e xposed b ody o f P o lyn ice s ( l ine s 4 10 12 , 6 97 -98 , 1 016 -22 , 1 039 -44 , 1 080 -83 ) , b y r e f e rence s t o o t he r e xpo sed b od ie s ( 1 198 ) .9 A n o rd ina ry G r eek w ou ld f e e l o b l iged t o b u ry d ead r e la t ive s , a nd t h i s o b l iga t ion w a s s anc t ioned b y t h e g od s . R ega rd ing t h e a bove , A n t igone h a s s ome v a l id r e a son s f o r h e r a c t ion s , a nd s o f a r t h e re s hou ld b e n o r e serva t ion a bou th e rj u s t if ica t ion .

H ow eve r , n o t a l l c r i t ic s h av e i n te rp r e ted t h e p l ay t h i s w ay . I n h i s i n t roduc t ion t o A n t igone , A . B rown ( 1987 ) w r i te s : We s e e ag i r l d ef y ing t empo ra l a u tho r i ty , a nd g o ing t oh e r d ea th , f o r s ome th ing t h a t l o ok s l i k e ar e l ig iou s c onv ic t ion ; s o w e a s sum e , w i thou t f u r th e r t h ough t , t h a t w e mu s t b e m ean t t o a pp rov e , a nd af a i lu re t o d o s o w ou ld b e af a i lu re t oa pp rec ia te t h e p l ay . T hu s t h e q ue s t ion o f h ow f a r w e a c tua l ly d o a pp rove i ss ho r t -c i rcu i ted , a nd o u r p a t ron iz ing f a i lu r e t o t a k e t h e p l ay s e r iou s ly i nt e rm s o fo u r o wn mo ra l v a lue s s e rves o n ly t od i s tance u s f u r the r f r om t h e e xper ience o fS ophoc le s ' a ud ience . ( p .9 ) T h i s i sa ni n te re s t ing a nd p o ten t ia l ly s ubve r s ive p o in t ,b u t B rown d id n o t e xp lo re i tt oi t s f u l l e x ten t . H e c onc luded t h a t t h e s t ronge s t p o in t a bou t A n t igone i s t h a t s he c ompe l s u st or e spond t oh e ra nd t oc onf ron ts ome o fo u r f undamen ta l e t h ica l a s sump t ion s . B rown d i dn o t q ue s t ion a ny f u r the r t h e u se o fs uch at h em e b y S ophoc le s a nd i t s i mpac t o n t h e a nc ien t a ud ience . I nt h e c ou r se o ft h i s t a lk

7

B rown s peak s f r om t h e p o in t o fv i ew o f an on -G reek . B ur ia l c on t inue s t ob e a n i mpo r tan t a spec t o fs oc ia l a nd r e l ig iou s l i f e i n moder n G reece . C u s tom s a nd r i tua ls a r e s t i l l k ep t w i th d evo t ion . C f . L o r ing M . D anf or th , T he D ea th R i tua l s o fR ura l G reece , 1 982 ,P r ince ton . 9 F o r t h e e mpha s i s p l a ced o n t h e p hy s ica l h o r ro r , s ee K i t to ( 1956 ) ,p .1 47 . 8

P .E uben ,q uo t ing C . S ega l ( 1990 ) ,p p . 1 64 -65 .

5 7

A n t igone b rough tb ef o r e C reon .Luc ian n e s tor i sb yt h e D o lon P a in te r ; c .3 80 -370 BC ; L ondon , B r i t i sh Mu seum F 1 75 ( p ic tu r e f r om T r enda l l & Web s te r , 1 97 1 ,p .6 5 ) .

C . S ega l w ro te t h a t A n t igone d ef end s ' a v a l id a nd n ece s sa ry a spec t o f c i v i l iza t ion , t h e r i gh t s o ft h e f am i ly a nd t h e p rope r b u r ia l o ft h e d ead . '1 ° H e a dd s ( 1990 , p . 1 69 )t h a t

G r eek s h ad a s t rong s en se o f b u r ia l , t h ey a l so h ad a s t rong s en se o ft h e n eed t ou pho ld p o l i t ica l a u tho r i ty a nd o ft h e s ubo rd ina te p o s i t ion o fw omen . I ts imp ly w a s n o t t h e b u s ines s o f ag i r l t o d ef y t h e d ec ree o f al e g i t ima te r u le r , o r o f am a le r e la t ive , o n t h e b a s i s o f h e r o wn c on sc ience . C r eon e xp r e s se s t h e n a tu ra l w ou ld -be r e a c t ion o ft h e m a le s i na n a nc ien t a ud ience w hen , b e ing i n f o rmed o f t h e b u r ia l o f P o lyn ice s ' b ody , h e e xc la im s ' who w a s t h e m an w ho d a r ed s u ch at h ing? ' ( An t . 2 48 ) . O n ly am an c ou ld d a re t og o a ga in s t ar u le r , a nd A n t igone g i ve s h e re a no the r i n d ica t ion o ft h e r eve r sa l o fh e rf ema le i mage .

C r eon 's a t t i tude s t owa rd b u r ia l a nd p rophecy r ep re sen t a na logou s e xce s se s o f c onf idence i n m an 's p owe r t o c on t ro l h i s w o r ld . .C reon v i o la te s t h e t wo r i tua l a c t s , w h ich e s tab l i sh t h e b ounda r ie s b e tween m an , b ea s t a nd g od : s a cr if ice , e f f ec t ing a n u pwa rd m ed ia t ion b e tween m an a nd g od ; b u r ia l , d i s t ingu i sh ing b e tween m an a nd b ea s t .

A n t igone 's r o le reve r sa l i s e mpha s ized b y h e r b e ing c on t ra s ted w i th h e r s i s te r , I smene . F rom t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e p l ay I sm ene i st h e a n t i the s i s t o A n t igone 's a t t i tude . L ine s 6 1-62 e ncap su la te t h e e s sence o f I smene 's t h ough t s : ' w e a r e w om en , n o t m ean t t o f i gh t a ga in s t m en ' . I ti sa n i d ea t h a t w e m igh t n o t e cho , b u t t h e re i s l i t t le d oub t t h a t S ophoc le s ' a ud ience w ou ld n o t q ue s t ion i t sv a l id i ty .

N ever the le s s , i td oe s n o t f o l low t h a t aG r eek w ou ld a t temp t b u r ia l w ha teve r t h e c i rcum s tance s a nd w ha teve r t h e c o s t . T h i s i s t h e s e cond n o t ion t h a t w e n eed t o r emembe r . A n A then ian l aw d ec reed t h a t at r a i to r c ou ld n o t b e b u r ied o n A t t ic s o i l ( Xenophon , H e l len ica , I .7 . 2 2 ) . P o lyn ice s i s at r a i to r a nd , a s am a t te r o f f a c t , A n t igone n eve r d ef end s h im a ga in s t t h i s c ha rge . H oweve r , t h e s ame l aw a l lowed t h e r e la t ive s o f ap e r son w ho w a s e xecu ted f o r t r ea son t o c a r ry t h e b ody b eyond t h e b o rde r a nd g i ve i tf une ra l r i te s . O ne c ou ld s ay , t h en , t h a t C reon 's e d ic t t r an sg re s se s o rd ina ry p rac t ice . Y e t t h e f i na l o u tcome a l so v i o la te s n o rma l r u le s i n t h a t P o lyn ice s ' b ody i sb u r ied w i th in t h e b o rde r s o fT hebe s . T he c onf l ic t i s o bv iou s a nd h a s p roduced m any a r gumen t s . I ti ss t i l l a n u nden iab le f a c t t h a t , e ven i ft h e

C ou ld w e t h en s ay t h a t t h e a ud ien ce w ou ld h ave d i sapp roved o f A n t igone 's a c t ion s t o ta l ly ? L e t u s t h ink a bou tA n t igone 's m a in l i ne o fa r gumen t( 4 50 -55 ) : I tw a s n o t Z eu s w ho p roc la imed t h is , n o r d oe s J u s t ice w ho l i ve s w i th t h e g od s b e low e s tab l i sh s uch l aw s a mong m en . Id i d n o t t h ink y ou r e d ic t s w e r e s o s t rong t h a t a s a mo r ta l y ou c ou ld o ve r r ide t h e s e cu re , u nw r i t ten u sage s o ft h eg od s .

' °C .S ega l ( 1990 )p . 1 6 .

5 8

H ow w ou ld a n a n c ien t a ud ien ce r e ac t t os uch ad ef ence? O ne w ou ld b e j u s t if ied i n t h ink ing t h a t r e ve r ence f o r t r ad i t ion a nd t h e l aw s o f t h e g od s s hou ld b e e a s i ly u nde r s tood b y t h e p eop le w ho a t tended t h e a nc ien t p e rf o rmance s , s e ti nt h er e l ig iou sa tmo sphe re o ft h eG rea t D iony s ia . H oweve r , ' u nw r i t ten l aw s ' s e em t oh ave b een a t o p ic o f c on t rove r sy i n t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e 5 t h c en tu ry .1 T hucyd ide s h a s P e r ic le s i n t h e E p i taph io s L ogos s peak o fA then ian o bed ience t ot h o se l aw s ' wh ich , t h ough u nw r i t t en , c onf e r a nd a cknow ledge s hame ' ( 2 . 3 7 . 3 ) , w h i le a no ra to rq uo te s P e r ic le s a su s ing t h e t e rm f o ra r i tua l l aw ( Ly s ia s , 6 .9 ) . X enophon s how s S oc ra te s a nd t h e s oph i s t H ipp ia s d i scu s s ing u nw r i t ten , u n ive r sa l l aw s s u ch a s t h o se w h ich e n jo in g r a t i tude t o b enef ac to r s o r f o rb id i n ce s t a nd d emand r e ve r ence f o r t h e g od s (M emorab i l ia , 4 .4 . 1 9 . 2 5 ) . T h e se l aw s a r e a t t r ibu ted t o t h e g od s a nd s e rve a s ab r idg e b e tween p hy s i s , n a tu r e , a nd n omos , c u s tom , w h ich a n th ropo log ica l s t udy a nd s p ecu la t ion h a s s ha rp ly d i v ided . T he d u ty t ob u ry ad ead r e la t ive i s p robab ly n o t ar e cogn ized i n c lu s ion i n t h e u nw r i t ten l aw s , b u t t h e r e i sn o q ue s t ion t h a t i tc an b e v i ew ed a ss u ch ; ab a s ic a c t o fp i e ty , w i th g r ea t e mo t iona l p ow e r . B u t ab i g p rob lem s t i l l r ema in s . A n t igone 's s peech c ome s a f t e r t h e s e cond c ho ra l o de ( 369f f ) , w h ich p ra i se s t h e a ccomp l i shmen t s o fm an , n o t l e a s t o fa l l t h e l aw s t h a t e nab le h im t o l i v e i n o rde r w i th o t he r s . A n t igone r e f e r s t ou nw r i t ten l aw s , t h e o r ig in o fw h ich i s u nknown ( 456 ) . S he r em ind su st h a t t h e c i ty i sf o rmed o f f am i l ie s , a nd d evo t ion t of am i ly i se l em en ta ry . H oweve r , t h e c ho ru s s ay s t h a t i n d iv idua l l i f e d epend s o n t h e c ommon g ood . I fA n t igone i sr i gh t , t h en i ti sn o tw rong t o p l ace o ne 's p e r sona l v a lue s h i gh e r t h an t h o se o ft h e c i ty . I ti s av e ry c omp lex c l a sh t h a tw ea r ep r e sen ted w i th h e re : t h e c i ty , w h ich d emand s o bed ience t o t h e e s tab l i shed l aw s , s o t h a t i tm ay f unc t ion i nd ue o rde r , t h e f am i l ie s , w h ich c on s t i tu te t h e c i ty a nd y e t o f ten o ppo se i t ,a nd t h e g od s , w ho se o rd inance s a r e e t er n a l a nd r e cogn ized , y e t u nw r i t ten , a nd t h e r ef o r e u nc lea r a nd u n cod if i ed . A t t h i s s t age w e c an o n ly a cknow ledge t h e p rob lem . L a te r o n , t h e re w i l l b e a n a t temp t t o s o r t o u t ah i e ra r chy f o r t h e p ub l ic , p e r sona l a nd d iv ine v a lue s , w h ich c l a sh i n t h i s p l ay . H opef u l ly , t h i s w i l l h e lp u st oa n swe r mo r e d i ff i cu l t q ue s t ion s , s uch a sw ho i sr i gh t a nd w ho i sw rong i nt h e A n t igone . O ne t h ing s hou ld b e k ep t i n m ind : t h e A n t igone , l i ke a ny o t he r d rama , i sn o t as t a t ic w o rk . I t s hou ld b e v i ewed a s ac on s tan t d eve lopm en t b o th a s f a r a s t h e p l o t , a s w e l l a st h e c ha rac te r s , i sc oncer n ed . T hu s a cknow ledg ing c e r ta in q ua l i t ie s i no ne c ha rac te r s hou ld n o t h i nde r u s f r om r e a l iz ing t h a t t h i s c ha rac te r c ou ld b e v i ew ed i n at o ta l ly d i f f e r en tl i gh t af ew s c ene s l a te r .

e p i sode , t h e g ua rd r e por t s t h a t t h e b ody h a s b een l i gh t ly c ove red w i th d u s t . T h i s w a s c on s ide red a s ac omp le te b u r ia l . A t l i ne 2 47 , t h e g ua rd a dm i t s t h a t t h e d oe r ' p e rf o rmed t h e p rope rr i t e s . ' T he re i sn o s i gh t o ft h e d oe r a nd t h e w ho le e p i sode c an b e v i ewed a s m i racu lou s : n o f oo tp r in t s h ave b een f ound a nd n o a n ima l s h ave d ef i led t h e c o rp se . H e re i s p robab ly a s l igh t h in t a t d i v ine i n te rven t ion -o r a tl e a s t , t h e g ua rd i si n c l ined t ob e l ieve s o . A n t igone s hou ld h ave b een s a t i sf i ed w i th t h e s ucce s s o fh e r a t temp t . T o s p r in lde s om e d u s t o ve r ad ead b ody w a s a n a c t ion t h a t c ou ld h ave b een a ccomp l i shed b y a ny p iou s p a s se r -by w ho w an ted t o a vo id a c u r se ( c e r ta in ly t h e g ua rd s s e em s t ob e l ieve s o , i nl i ne 2 65 ) . S he c ou ld n o t h ave b een a ccu sed a nd t h e b ody w ou ld b e c on s ide r ed a s b u r ied . N eve r the le s s s he g oe s b ack t o a t temp t a mo re c omp le te b u r ia l a nd s o s he i sa r re s ted b y t h e g ua rd , a f t e r t h e s e cond s t a s imon . Why d oe s s h e g o b ack? T he f i r s t b u r ia l w a s s a t i sf ac to r i ly a ccomp l i shed . F u r the rmo re , s he c ou ld n o t h ave h oped t o k eep t h e b ody c ove red a l l t h e t ime , i fC r eon h ad d ec ided t o u nbu ry i t . I n f a c t , C reon g i ve s n o s uch o rde r s . I tw a s t h e g ua rd w ho r emoved t h e d u s t f r om t h e b ody , o n h i s o wn i n i t ia t ive . T he p l ay d oe s n o t m ake c l ea r h ow A n t igone f ound o u t a bou t t h e u n cove r ing o f t h e b ody . H oweve r , s h e g oe s b ack . A nd t h i s t ime am i ra cu lou s s t o rm h ides h e r f r om t h e e ye s o f t h e g ua rd s . I s t h i s ad i v ine s i gn t h a t C reon f a i l s t o r e cogn ize? A nd , i ft h e re w a s d i v ine a s s i s tance , w hy d id t h e g od s r e vea lA n t igone a tt h e e nd , a f t e rs he h ad f i n i shed t h e f une ra ry r i te s , a s t h e g ua rd 's s peech i nd ica te s ( 408 4 40 )?

A n t igone c ou ld h ave b een j u s t if ied i nt h e a ud ience 's e ye s a t a no the r s t age . L e t u s t h ink o f t h e t wo b u r ia l s o f P o lyn ice s ' b ody . A t t h e e nd o f t h e p ro logue , A n t igone g oe s o u t t o b u ry h e r b ro the r . I n t h e m idd le o ft h e f i r s t

I n t h e c l a s s ica l G r eek w o r ld i tw a s t h e p o l i s , w h ich a r t icu la ted , l e g i t ima ted a nd m ed ia ted a l l r e l ig iou s a c t iv i ty a nd h ad t h e u l t ima te a u tho r i ty i n , a nd c on t ro l o f , a l l c u l t s . I t e ncompa s sed a nd s anc t ioned a l l r e l ig iou s d i scou r se w i th in i t ,i n c lud ing t h a t o fi t s c on s t i tuen tu n i t s s uch a st h eo i kos a nd t h ep h ra t ry .

P e rhap s w e s hou ld n o t l i nge r t oo l o ng o ve r t h e g od s ' a t t i tude ; t h i s i se s sen t ia l ly ap l ay a bou t h uman r e a son ing , w h ich c an b e e a s ie r t oi n te rp re t t h an t h e g od s ' r e a son ing . A nd a tt h i s p o in t i tw i l l b e a pp rop r ia te t o d e lve d eepe r i n to t h e q ue s t ion o fw ha t i sh uman ly a ts t ake i nt h i s p l ay : w hom d id t h e a ud ience p e r ce ive t ob e ' r igh t ' , C r eon o r A n t igone? Ak ey -que s t ion i s ,w he the r C reon , a s ap o l i t ica l r u le r , h ad t h e r i gh t t oi n te rf e re i np r iva te r e l ig iou s r i t e s ( a s f une ra ry r i te s a r e ) a nd w he the r A n t igone m ade t h ing s r i gh t b y d ef y ing h i sd ec ree . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween r e l ig ion a nd t h e p o l i s c on s t i tu te s av e ry i mpo r tan t f a c to r h e re . I fC reon h ad n o r i gh t t o d eny b u r ia l t ot h e d ead a nd t h u s h e i n su l ted t h e g od s o ft h e u nderwo r ld , t h en A n t igone i su nque s t ionab ly o n t h e r i gh t s i de . T h i s i s am a t te r t h a t S ou rv inou Inwood d i scu s se s ( JHS , 1 989 ,p . 13 ' 7 ) . S he c onc lude st h a t :

1 T he r e i s ag ood i n t roduc t ion t o t h e ' u nw r i t ten l aw s ' i n W . G u th r ie ( 1971) ,p p . 17 -30 ; s e ea l so E h r enbe rg ( 1954 ) ,p p . 1 75 7 8 .

5 9

B ea r ing t h i s i n m ind , C reon 's d ec i s ion w a s , a t l e a s t , a l e g i t ima te r i gh to ft h eh ead o ft h e s t a te . F une ra l s w e re n o t a lway s ap r iva te m a t te r , a nd w e o n ly h ave t o r em ind o u r se lve s o f T hucyd ide s ' E p i taph ios L ogo s , t o r e a l ize t h i s . T he p o l i te ia c ou ld t a ke o ve r f une ra ry r i tua l s , i ft h i s w a s f o r t h e i n te r e s t o f t h e s t a te .1 2 F une ra ry l e g i s la t ion i s sued b yv a r iou sp o l e i sr evea l s t h a t i tw a sn o t a nu nu sua l p rac t ice .1 3 S o , b y d eny ing b u r ia l , C reon w a s m e re ly e xe r c i s ing a t a ken -f o r -g ran ted r i gh t o f t h e p o l i s . T he c horu s r e inf o r ce s t h i s n o t ion i n2 10f fb y e xp r e s s ing t h e v i ew t h a t i tw a s i n deed C reon 's r i gh tt o' s e tw ha teve rl aw h ew an ted ,b o th f o rt h ed ead a nd t h e l i v ing ' . P . E uben , i n al e c tu re d e l ive red a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o f B r i s to l i n N ovembe r 1 995 , s ugge s ted t h a t C reon i s p re sen ted i n av e ry n ega t ive l i gh t r i gh t f r om t h e s t a r t . F i r s t o fa l l , E uben a r gued t h a t t h e d ec r ee d emanded t h a t t h eb ody s hou ld n o tb eb u r ied a nywhe re o ne a r th , a nd t h i s m ake s C r eon a n i ra t iona l a u toc ra t . T h i s i s , h oweve r , n o t r i gh t . T he d ec ree i se xp la ined t w ice i nt h e p l ay : o nce b y I sm ene , a t t h e b eg inn ing , a nd o nce b y C reon . I smene n eve r s ay s t h a t n obody s hou ld b u ry t h e b ody a nywhe re o n e a r th , b u t s he s ay s t h a t a cco rd ing t o t h e d ec r ee ' n obody s hou ld b u ry t h e b ody ' ( l ine s 2 7 -30 ) . C reon h im se lf s ay s c l ea r ly l a te r o n t h a t t h e b u r ia l o fP o lyn ice s h a sb een p roh ib i ted ' f o r e ve ryone i nt h i s l a nd ' ( l ine s 2 03 4 ) . S o w e s e e t h a t C reon 's d ec ree r ema in s w i th in t h e p a ram e te r s o fh i s l o ca l c i v ic p ow e r s . A no the r p rob lem i s t h a t C reon s e em s t o h ave d ec ided t h i s d ec ree w i thou t h av ing c on su l ted a nyone . I t s e em s i r on ic , c on s ide r ing w ha t C reon s ay s i n l i ne s 2 07f f : ak i ng , w ho se l i p s a r e s e a led b y f e a r , u nw i l l ing t o s e ek a dv ice , i s d amned . H oweve r , o nce w e h ave a ccep ted t h a t t h e d ec ree w a s w i th in h i s p ow e r s , i ts e em s t h a t t h e re w a s n o r e a son w hy h e s hou ld h ave c on su l ted a nyone e l se . H ed oe s c a l l f o ra n a s semb ly o ft h e e l de r s ( l ine s 1 59 -61) , b u t n o t t oc on su l t t h em . H e m e r e ly a nnounce s t o t h em h i s d ec i s ion . S ign if i can t ly , a f t e r h ea r ing t h e p roc lama t ion t h e c ho ru s a dm i t s t h a t C reon h a s t h e r i gh t t o l a y a ny k i nd o f l aw b o th f o r t h e l i v ing a nd t h e d ead ( l ine s 2 1115 ) . H i s l e g i t ima te a u tho r i ty i sn eve r q ue s t ioned i nt h e p l ay a nd e ven i f w e i mag ine t h a t t h e a ud ience o f d emoc ra t ic A then s w ou ld p ref e r h im t oc on su l t s ome k i nd o fc ounc i l b ef o re t h e d ec r ee , i ti s u n l ike ly t h a t t h ey w ou ld h ave q ue s t ioned h i s r i gh t t o d ec ide t h e d ec r ee , e ven o n h i s o wn .

C reon i sn o t , h oweve r , f r ee o f p a s s ion s . H e e xh ib i t s a c e r ta in d eg ree o fe gocen t r i sm . H e t r u s t s h i s o wn r e a son s om uch t h a th er e jec t su n re served ly a ny o ppo s i t ion t oh i s

j udgemen t . I n t h e s t i chomy th ia w i th H aemon ( 7 35f f ) h e a ppea r s a s at y ran t , i nt h en ega t ive s en se : ' mu s t Ir u le t h i s l a nd t op l ea se a nyone b u t m y se lf ? ' , h e a sk s , a nd h e g oe s o n t o p roc la im a no the r d ec r ee , t h i s t im e t h a t h e w i l l e n tomb t h e l i v ing (7 73 - 8 0 ) : KP . " Aywv g p r i k tog i v (r C c v

f i ß pot i i )v a t ißog , x p in vw I CET A .5£1 V ix rav vi cu r c bpux t , ( p opß f ig TOGOOTOV óç a yog k t övov n po0E ig , ö nwg g iaaga / ea ' i n cEm p im i i r 62 . 1g K Ö GKE i TÖV " A tör iv , ö v 1 . 1 6vov o iße t 0 E6w , a iTomüv r 1 n o t ) T e i )ETO t l , TO 1 .3 1 eaVEiV , f ty v c bav ra t y oiw & XX& T r Iv t i ca0 1 3 ' ö t t n övog r c ep t c ra6; ' r ay " A t5ov c4E tv .

T he re w a s n o l aw , w r i t ten o r u nw r i t ten , t oj u s t if y t h i s a nd C reon i sn ow i nt h ew rong . H e i sb ound t oc hange h i s a t t i tude t owa rd s t h e e nd , t h ough , e ven i fi ti sa f t e r t h e g od s ' w i l l i sr e vea led ; e ven i fi ti st o o l a te . A n t igone h e r se lf s e em s t o b e c o lou r ed n ega t ive ly r i gh t f r om t h e b eg inn ing . F i r s t o fa l l , h e r s e c r e t m ee t ing w i th I smene h a s t h e c ha rac te ro f ac on sp i racy . T h i s i mp r e s s ion b ecome s s t ronge r s i nce t h e r e a son f o r t h i s m ee t ing i st h e d i scu s s ion o f ap l an a ga in s t t h e e s tab l i shed c i v ic l aw s . F u r the rmo r e , s h e a c t s o u t o f p l ace -t h a t i s , o u t o f t h e p rope rp l ace f o rw omen . S he t r an sg re s se s b o th t h e o i ko s ' a nd t h ep ol s ' g eog raph ica l b ounda r ie s , i no rde r t ob u ry t h e v e ry m an w ho , a s at r a i to r , t h rea tened t h e s e cu r i ty a nd t h e o rde r o f t h e s t a te .1 4 A nd t h en s he t r an sg re s se s t h e b ounda r ies o fh e r g ende r b y g o ing a ga in s t t h e w i l l o fh e r l e ga l g ua rd ian . O ne c ou ld t h ink t h a t a s a w oman , A n t igone h ad a no b l iga t ion , a sw e l l a s ar i gh t , t oi n s i s t o n t h e b u r ia l . I th a s b een s ugge s ted b y v a r iou s s cho la r s t h a t w omen w e re a s soc ia ted w i th d ea th mo r e t h an m en , a nd t h a t t h ey h ad c en t ra l r o le s i nt h e f une ra ry r i t e s . T h i s i s t r ue t o ac e r ta in e x ten t . Wom en w e re d eep ly i n vo lved i n p r iva te r i te s , p e rf o rmed w i th in t h e h ou seho ld -p robab ly b ecau se o ft h e i ra s soc ia t ion w i th d i so rde r ( dy ing i sa l so a s i tua t ion o f d i so rde r ) . B u t w hen t h e w a sh ing a nd p repa r ing o ft h e c o rp se i sc omp le ted i ti st h e m en w ho c a r ry i tt o t h e g r aveya rd a nd l e ad t h e p roce s s ion . I ti s , mo reove r , t h e h ead o f t h e o i kos ' j ob t o a r range t h e f une ra l d e ta i l s .1 5 S o , A n t igone 's a c t ion i sl i k e ly t oh ave b een p e rce ived a s as e lf -w i l led a c t ion o fr e be l l ion a ga in s t t h e p o l i s a t ac r i t ica l m omen t , w hen t h e p o l i s h ad j u s t b een s aved f r om t e r r ib le d ange r . I n l i n e s 6 6 1-62 C r eon s a id t h a t ' a ny m an w ho a c t s r i gh t ly w i th in h i s h ou seho ld w i l l a l so b e s e en t o d o h i s d u ty i nt h e c i ty ' . E ven t h o se w ho s e e A n t igone 's a c t s a s a c t s o f f am i l ia l d u t ie s , w i l l

1 4 I ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te t h a tt h er e a son w hy P o lyn ice sm a r ched a ga in s t h i s n a t iv e T hebe s . T he a ud ience w ou ld k now o f t h e s t o ry a bou t t h e d i v i s ion o ft h e r u le b y E teoc le s a nd P o lyn ice s a f t e rO ed ipu s ' d ea th . T he t wo b ro the r sh ad a g r eed t or u le h a lf a y ea r e ach . E t eoc le s r u led f i r s t b u t w hen h i s t ime r a n o u t , h e r e f u sed t oh and t h e s c ep t r eo ve rt oh i sb ro the r . -S ophoc le sd oe s n o t m en t ion t h e e p isode , w h ich c ou ld h ave p re sen ted P o lyn ice s u nde r ad if e r en tl i gh t . 1 5 I s a io s 8 ,K i ron , 2 1-22 .

A r i s to t le ( Po l . 1 3 19b24 ) c l a im s t h a t i ne x t reme d emoc ra c ie s ' t he p r iva te r i te s o ff am i l ie s s hou ld b e r e s t r ic ted a nd c onve r ted i t n to p ub l ic o ne s ' . F o r i n te rven t ion o fs t a te i np r iva te f une ra ry r i te s s e e a l so M . A lex iou ( 1974 ) , R . G a r land ( 1989 ) , H . F o ley ( 1990 ) . 1 3 S ee C . S ourv inou Inwood i n R . H agg ( e d . ) , T he G reek r ena i s sance o f t h e e i gh th c en tu ry B .C . : t r ad i t ion a nd i n nova t ion , S t o ck ho lm , 1 9 83 ,p .4 7 -48 . 1 2

6 0

a cknow ledge t h a t t h e se a c t s e ndang e r t h e n o t ion o fc i v ic o rde ra nd s t ab i l i ty . S o , S ega lw r i te s( p . 1 72 )t h a t

t h e t h eon n om ima a r e t ime -bound , r e la t ive a nd m an m ade .

a bandon ing h e r l o ya l t ie s a nd l o ve f o r t h e l i v ing i n f a vou r o f t h o s e b e low , A n t igone u p se t s t h e b a lance b e tween u ppe r a nd l owe r w o r ld s . H ence h e r r e la t ion t o t h a t v ery c en t re o f c i v i l ized v a lue s , w h ich s he c hamp ion s ,t h eh ou se ,b ecom e sa mb iguou s .

T h i s s e em s r e a sonab le . B u t t h e a nc ien t a ud ience o f t h e A n t igone , b ea r ing i n m ind t h e p e r cep t ion t h a t i tw a s p e rf ec t ly n o rma l f o r t h e s t a te t o a r t icu la te a l l r e l ig iou s d i scou r se a nd d eny b u r ia l t oc e r ta in c a tego r ie s o fp eop le , w ou ld n o t r e ac t i nt h e s am e w ay a s amod e rn a ud ience . I t h a s a l ready b ecome c l ea r t h a t C reon b rok e n o h uman o r d i v ine r u le b y d eny ing b u r ia l , a nd A n t igone h ad n o a u tho r i ty t o c l a im t h a t h i s d ec ree c on t ravened a ny c u s tom s . T he o ne w ho c on t ravene s t h e l aw i sA n t igone , a nd t h i s o n ly h e lp s t o f r ame h e r b ehav iou r a s b ad w hen s e t a ga in s t w ha t w a s c on s ide red p rope r f o r w omen . I ti s d i ff icu l t t o i mag ine a n a ud ien ce o fd emoc ra t ic A then ian c i t izen s s ympa th iz ing w i th a w oman w ho a c t s w i thou t o bed ience a nd r ega rd f o rt h ec i ty 's e x i s tence .

T he f i r s t c ho ra l o de ( l ine s 1 00 162 ) i sv e ry i lum ina t ing a st ot h e a tmo sphe r e i n T hebe s . T he c horu s e xp re s s t h e i r j oy f o r t h e e nd o f t h e w a rf a r e a nd s ugge s t t h a t Z eu s h im se lf s uppo r ted t h e d ef ende r s o f T hebe s ( l ine s 1 29 1 32 ) .

1 6

F o r Z eu s d e te s t s t h e b oa s t s o f ap roud t ongue , a nd s e e ing t h em c ome o ni n ag r ea t s t ream , i n t h e a r rogance o f c l a sh ing g o ld , h e s t ruck w i th b rand i sh ing f i re o n e w ho w a s a l r eady r u sh ing t o u t te r as hou t o f v i c to ry a th i sg oa lu pon o u rr ampa r t s .

T he ' c o r rec t ' i mage o f aw oman s e em s t ob e e xemp l if ied b y I smene , w ho i sr e luc tan t t og o a ga in s t C reon . A t t h e e nd o f t h e P ro logue , w hen A n t igone g oe s o f f t o b u ry P o lyn ice s , I smene c ha ra c te r ize s h e r a s a nou s ( f oo l i sh , m ind le s s ) . T h i s e xp re s s ion o f A n t igone 's f o l ly i s i mpo r tan t , b ecau se i ti su t te r ed b y ac ha rac te r t h a t i s s ympa the t ic t owa rd s h e r . I ti sa l so ar e cu r ren t mo t if ( l ine 5 62 ; 3 83 a phrosyne ) . T hu s , l i ne 9 9 , t h e l a s t l i ne o f t h e P ro logue , c onf i rm s t h e n ega t ive i mage o fA n t igone , e ven s e en b yh e rs i s te r , I smene .

T he i rp r e sen ta t ion o fC reon e mpha s ize sh i sl e ga l s t a tu s , w h ich i sa l so s anc t ioned b yt h eg od s ( 1 5 -57 ) . T he s e cond c ho ra l o de ( l in e s 32 -383 ) , t h e o ne t h a t p ra i se s m an a nd h i s a ch ievemen t s , r e inf o r ce s t h e n ega t ive c o lou r ing o fA n t igone . T he c horu s r em ind s t h e a ud ience t h a t l aw s a r e mo s t e s sen t ia l f o rt h e p eop le w ho l i ve t o ge the ri nt h ep o l i s a nd t h a t ,a sl o ng a sm an u pho ld s l aw , h i s c i ty i sh i gh , b u t w rong a nd r e ck le s sne s s m ak e h im c i ty le s s ( l ine s 3 65 -375 ) . T hu s i tb ecome sg r aph ica l ly c l ea r w ha t t h e c on sequence s o f A n t igone 's f oo l i shne s s a r e .

S o f a rw e h ave s e en h ow t h e r u le r , t h e c ho ru s a nd I sm ene -a nd w i thou t d oub t t h e a ud ience -p e rce ived A n t igone 's a c t ion s . Wha t a bou tA n t igone h e r se lf ? O fc ou r se , h e rs i de h a sb een h ea rd , t o o . H e rj u s t if ica t ion o fh e rd eed h a sb een m ade c l ea r , i n h e r c onve r sa t ion s b o th w i th I smene a nd C reon . D oe s s he , h oweve r , c l ing o nt oh e rb e l ief s r i gh tt o t h ee nd ?

N o o n e c ou ld d eny t h a t w ha t A n t igone d i d w a s t ov a lue h e r p e r sona l i n te r e s t s h ighe r t h an t ho se o f t h e p o l i s . I n f a c t , A n t igone h a s a lmo s t e xp l ic i t ly a dm i t ted t o I smene t h a t s h e k now s t h a t s he a c t s a ga in s t t h e w i l l o f t h e c i t izen s ( l ine s 7 8 -81) . S he s e t sh e rd u ty t ot h ed ead h i ghe r t h an h e r d u ty t o t h e l i v ing : ' Is h a l l h ave t o s p end mo r e t im e p l ea s ing t ho se b e low t h an t h o se h e r e ; f o r t h e re I s ha l l l i e f o reve r ' ( l ine s 7 4 -75 ) . H e r d evo t ion t o ' t he t h ing st h a tt h eg od sh onou r ' ( l ine 7 , t at o nt h eon e n t ima ) i sa dm i rab le , b u t t h e f a c t t h a t s h e d ef i e s t h e l aw s o ft h e c i ty r ema in su na l te r ed . I tw ou ld , h ow eve r , b e l o g ica lt ow onde rw hom t h e s e cond c ho ra l o de r e f e r s t o . T he c ho ru s s i ng t h e i mpo r tance o f o bey ing t h e l aw s a f te rt h e b u r ia l o ft h e b ody . C ou ld i tn o t b e t h a t C r eon b rok e t h e l aw , a s w e l l a s A n t igone? T he q ue s t ion b ecome s m o r e v a l id i fw e c on s ide r t h e v a lue o f ' u nw r i t ten ' l aw s t h a t A n t igone r e f e r s t oi nl i ne s 4 50 -60 . I nt h is e xce l len tp i ece o fr he to r ic , A n t igone p l ace s o no ne h and t h e ' u nw r i t ten a nd i mmovab le c u s tom s o ft h e g od s ' a nd o n t h e o t he r h and , n o t o n ly C r eon 's k e rygma ta , b u t i mp l ic i t ly a l l l aw s o ft h e p o l i s , w h ich , i nc ompa r i son t o

L ine s 8 07f fi n c lude A n t igone 's l amen ta t ion , w h i le s he i s l e d a way t ot h e t h a lamos , w he re , b y C reon 's o rde r s , s he i st ob e l o cked w i th l i t t le f ood u n t i l s h e d i e s ` n a tu ra l ly ' .1 7 T he t one o f h e r l amen ta t ion ( l ine s 8 9 1-928 ) c er ta in ly c on t ra s t s w i th t h e i mage o f A n t igone , a s s he h a s b een p re sen ted s o f a r .1 8 S he u nde rgoe s ad rama t ic c hange o f c ha rac te r . S he i sn o l o nge r s t rong a nd c onf iden t . A t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e p l ay s h e s a id t o I sm ene t h a t s h e w a s p repa red t og o t h rough w i th t h e b u r ia l , e ven i ft h i s m ean t t h e l o s s o fh e r l i f e . E ven a f t e rs he w a s a r re s ted a nd l e d i n f r on t o f C r eon s he r ema in s u n f lu s te r ed b y t h e d i rec t t h rea t o f d ea th ( l ine s 4 59 -466 ) ; s he w e lcom e s t h e g l o ry t h a t s he w i l l w in i nh e r d ea th a nd d ec la re s t h a t t h e o n ly r e a son t h a t c heck s t h e c horu s o fp ra i s ing h e r , i sf e a r o f

1 6 S ee S ourv inou Inwood ( 1989 ) ,p . 143 ,n .3 ,o nt h ec oncep to f r e l ig iou s i nd iv idua l i sm a nd t h e c onve rgence o f s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l mo ra l i ty w i th r e l ig ion . 1 7 C reon i st hu st r y ing t oa vo id m ia sma b yn o th av ing A n t igone e xecu ted . 1 8 A sH . F o l ley ( 1990 ,p . 11 ,n .2 5 )n o te s , ' t he s e lf lamen ta t ion i so fc ou r se a na noma ly i ni t se lf ' .

6 1

C reon ( l ine s 5 04 -505 ) . N ow s he l amen t s f o r h e r p rema tu r e d ea th a nd t h e f a c tt h a t s he d i e s w i thou t h av ing e xpe r ienced t h ej oy s o fm a r r iage ( l ine s 9 16 18 ) . I ft h e re w e re , i n deed , a ny w omen a mong S ophoc le s ' a ud ience , s uch a l amen ta t ion w ou ld b e mo s t mov ing . P e rhap s S ophoc le s i n tended t o r em ind h i s a ud ience t h a t t h e h i ghe s t p o in t i n aw oman 's l i f e i s m a r r iage a nd t h a t p roc rea t ion i st h e mo s t h onou rab le g oa l . I ti s an o t ion e v iden t i nt h e s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l b e l ief s o ft h ep e r iod t h a t w e e xam ine , d eep ly r oo ted i n t h e c i v ic i d eo logy o f A then s .1 9 I n l i ne s 9 04 12 , w he re A n t igone j u s t if ie s t h e b u r ia l o fh e r b ro the r , s he s ay s t h a t s he w ou ld n o t h ave d one i tf o r ah u sband o r as on . I ts e em s t h a t t h e l i ne s d o n o tm ak e s en se : t oc i te t h e i r r ep laceab i l i ty o f ab ro the ra s ar e a son f o rs av ing h i s l i f e i sa tl e a s t l og ica l , b u tt oc i te i t a s ar e a son f o r b u ry ing h im , i s n o t . E ven mo re , b y a dm i t t ing t h a t s he w ou ld n o t h ave a c ted i nt h e s ame w ay f o r ah u sband , s h e r e jec t s t h e i d eo logy o fh e rt ime , w h ich m ade h e r f am i l ia l d u ty mo re c ompe l l ing i nt h e se c a se s .2 ° T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e a ud ience mu s t h ave f e l t a t l e a s t a wkwa rd , h ea r ing s uch a s t a temen t . Now A n t igone h e r se lf a ppea r s t o s e e mo re s en se , a nd i n aw ay s he a ccu se sh e rd ead b ro the ro fd e s t roy ing h e r( l ine s 8 70 -71) : I t hS U C T I CÖTI 1 C OV y aµ c ov , x a c r iyvnte , K up f laa; , OC V CI ) V

g t'

Ac rav i c on f ivapEg µ E .

T he r e a c t ion o f t h e c horu s t o A n t igone 's l am en t i sn o t c l ea r . A re t h ey mock ing h e r i nl i ne 8 19 b y r em ind ing h e r t h a t s he d i es o u t o fh e r o wn p e r sona l c ho ice? O r d o t h ey p i ty h e r f o r h e r p r ema tu re d ea th? A n t igone h e r se lf s e e s t h e i ra t t i tude a sm ocke ry , i n8 90 . I n my v i ew , i ti sw rong t o s e e a pp rova l b y t h e c ho ru s h e re . B ecau se a s t h ey s ay l a te ro n( l ine s 8 55 -56 ) , XO . I l poßaa' f g6XO CTOV A pa c rou; b v i lköv ç A ixag Va i spov 7 Cp06 aEC TE; , ( T ) th(V0V , 7 C OÄ' Ü" n aT rx i iov t e ' r ive tg UV &O X, O V . A n t igone h a s r e ached t h e l im i t s o fh ybr i s . A nd a n a c t o f h ybr i s , n o m a t te rw he the ri tw a s a ccomp l i shed k now ing ly o rn o t , w i l l i n cu rp un i shm en t . I ti s an o t ion t h a t T ragedy h a s e xh ib i ted mo r e t h an o nce ( one h a s o n ly t or e ca l l t h e c a se so fP en theu s , H e rak le s , O ed ipu s , e t c . ) I n 8 50 , s h e l amen t s b ecau se s he d we l l s ' n o t a mong t h e l i v ing , n o t a mong t h e d ead . ' T he c onnec t ion o fA n t igone w i th h e r f a the r i sr e levan t h e re . O ed ipu s w a s s u spended s omewhe re b e tw een l i f e a nd d ea th , b y h i s s e lf in f l ic ted

1 9

S e eM . Ma s sey ( 1988 ) ; C .P a t te r son ( 199 1) ; R . J u s t( 1989 ) .

b l ind ing . A n t igone 's f a te i sa l so s e lf inf l ic ted . T he c ho ru s r em ind u s i n 8 2 1 : a u tonomos , Ha id en k a tabe i s i . A c tua l ly , t h e f a te o ft h e f am i ly o fL abdaco s f a l l s h eav i ly o n A n t igones ' s hou lde r s . S he r em ind s u s h e r se lf o f t h e ' f a ta l m a r r iage ' o f h e r b ro the r , P o lyn ice s , a s w e l l i n 8 70 .2 1 T he a n c ien t a ud ience mu s t h ave b een a wa re , f r om t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e p l ay , t h a t A n t igone c ome s f r om a ' c u r sed ' l i ne o f p eop le , w ho b r ing d e s t ru c t ion u pon t h em se lve s n o t o n ly b ecau se o fd i v ine f a te , b u t b y t h e i r o wn w rong d o ing s .2 A n t igone 's c hange o fh ea r t i so bv iou s i nl i ne s 9 25 -28 , a s w e l l . ' I f my e nem ie s a r e w rong ' , s he s a y s , ' l e t t h em s uf f e r . ' S he d oe sn o tc ondemn t h em o pen ly . Maybe s h e i s n o t s o s u r e a ny m o re , w ho w a s r i gh t a nd w ho w a s w rong . B u t , d oe s s he e x i tt h e s t age w i th ac onf e s s ion o fg u i l ta nd d oub t? C e r ta in ly n o t . Af t e r 8 91 h e r a t t i tude c hange s a ga in . N ow s h e f a ce s d ea th w i th ab rave f a ce . E ven h e r p a ren t s w i l l w e lcom e h e r , a ss h e h a s p e r f o rm ed f o r t h em t h e s ame r i t e st h a t s he d id f o rh e rb ro the r( 9 00 -2 ) , a nd f o r w h ich s he d i e s . S he e x i t s a s su r ed t h a t s h e d i d t h e r i gh t t h ing . P e rhap sh e rp rev iou s c owa rd ice i nt h e f a ce o fd ea th i sm e re ly ap roof o fh e r h uman n a tu re , a nd t h u s , o fh e r f a l l ib i l i ty a nd i g no rance o f d e s t iny . O the r s h ave s e en a m o re s i n i s te rp a r t o fh e r c ha ra c te r m an if e s ted h e re . H . P . F o ley ( 1990 , p . 13 ) b e l ieve s t h a t A n t igone i sh a rd ly u nde rgo ing am o ra l c o l lap se o r ac hange o fh ea r t i nt h e f a ce o f i mpend ing d ea th . S he h a s a l ready , a s H a emon r e po r t s , a r ou sed a p o ten t ia l ly d i v i s ive p ub l ic s ympa thy f o r h e r b u r ia l o f h e r b ro the r a nd ' h e r e s he u se s l amen ta t ion t o c a r ry h e r p o in t a s ser t iv e ly i n ap ub l ic c on tex t t h a t m igh t o t herw i se h ave s i len ced h e r s p eech . S he m ay e ven b e g o ing s o f a r a st os ugg e s t t h a t C r eon i s i l eg i t ima te ly a t temp t ing t o d ep r ive h e r f u tu re o f f sp r ing o f t h e i r r i gh tf u l l e ade r sh ip o f T hebes ' ( p . 13 ) . I n te r e s t ing a s i tm ay s ound , Ib e l ieve t h a t t h i s t h eo ry i s i n con s i s ten t w i th A n t igone 's c ha ra c te r , a s i th a s b een p r e sen ted s o f a r . I tw ou ld m ake s en se o n ly i fo ne w ou ld b e r e ady t o c ha rge h e r w i th i n ten t ion o f u p se t t ing t h e c i v ic o rde r . B u t A n t igone h a s c l a im ed t h roughou t t h e w ho le p l ay t h a t a l l s he c hoo se s i st of u lf i l t h e o b l iga t ion s s h e f e e l s t h a t s h e h a s t owa rd s t h e d ecea sed m embe r s o f h e r f am i ly . A nd t h i s i sw ha t s he a ch ieve s a tt h e e nd . S he p rove st h a th e ra c t ion s w e re n o t i mpu l s ive a nd h e rb e l ief s w e re n o t s u pe rf i c ia l . S he e xemp l if i ed h e ro ic v a lue s : d evo t ion t o f am i ly t r ad i t ion s a nd d ef ian ce o fd ea th . S he w a s n o t d evo id o f g ood q ua l i t ie s b ecau se s h e w a s a w oman . N eve r the le s s , w ha t s h e d id w a s w rong . Whe the r s h e w a s d r iven b y l o ve , p i e ty o r s e lf -adve r t i semen t , a nd w he the r p r inc ip le o r p a s s ion w a s i n c on t ro l , h e r a c t ion w ou ld n o t t h e r eby h ave b een s e en a sj u s t if i ed i nt h e e ye s

P o lyn ice sw a sm a r r ied t ot h ed augh te ro fA d r a s tu s -o ne o f t h e S even A ga in s tT hebe s . 2 2 I smene i st h e f i r s t o ne w ho r em ind s A n t igone ( a nd t h e a ud ience ) o f t h e l i neage t h a t s he c ome s f r om ( l ine s 4 9 -57 ) . L a te r o n , A n t igone r e a l ize s h e r se lf t h a t h e r f a te c anno t b e s epa ra ted f r om t h e f a te o f L abdacu s ' d e scendan t s ( l ine s 8 60 8 66 ) . 2 1

E ven i fw e a t temp t t oj u s t if yA n t igone 's a c t ion s a sl o ya l ty t o h e rf am i ly , t h e re i st h e i s sue o fh e rc u r r en tf am i ly ,w h ich i sn ow c on s is t ing o fI smene , C reon a nd H aemon . B yc hoo s ing t of u lf i l l h e r o b l iga t ion s t o t h e d ead , i n s tead o f t h e l i v ing , A n t igone p l ace sh e r se lf o u t s ide t h er e a lm o f` e a r th ly 'soc ie ty a nd o fl i f e a s w e l l . 2 9

6 2

o f t h e a nc ien t a ud ience . P e rhap s amoder n r e ade r c ou ld s imp ly a ccep t h e r a c t ion s , b y r e ca l l ing t h e w o rd s o f W in s ton , i nO rw e l l 's 1 984 :

l ef t . B u t a s l o ng a s t h e p rophe t w a s t h e re n o th ing w a s s a id a bou t A n t igone . T he g od s d ec la r ed t h a t P o lyn ice s ' b ody s hou ld h ave b een b u r ied a nd t h a t A n t igone s hou ld n o t h ave b een e n tombed a l ive . T hey d i d n o t e xp re s s t h rough T e i re s ia s , a t l e a s t -a ny v i ew o n w he the r A n t igone s hou ld h ave a t temp ted t h e b u r ia l i nd ef iance o f C reon 's a u tho r i ty . A t t h e e nd t h e g od s p un i shed C reon ; t h ey d id n o tr ewa rd A n t igone .

T ragedy , h e p e rce ived , b e longed t o t h e a nc ien t t im e , t o at im e w hen t h e r e w a s s t i l l p r ivacy , l o ve , a nd f r iend sh ip , a nd w hen t h e m embe r s o f af am i ly s t ood b y o ne a no the r w i thou t n eed ing t o k now t h e r e a son . H i s m o the r 's m emo ry t o r e a th i s h ea r t b ecau se s he h ad d i ed l ov ing h im , w hen h e w a s t o o y oung a nd s e lf i sh t ol o v e h e r i nr e tur n , a nd b ecau se s omehow , h e d i d n o t r emembe r h ow , s he h ad s a c r if i ced h e r se lf t o a c oncep t ion o f l o ya l ty t h a t w a s p r iva te a nd u na l te rab le .

C r eon made m i s take s , a sw e l l . H e d i srup ted t h e u n ive r sa l o rde r b y d eny ing b u r ia l t o t h e d ead a nd e n tomb ing t h e l i v ing . B y d o ing t h i s a nd b y r e f u s ing t o l i s ten t o A n t igone 's c l a im s a s h i s s i s te r 's c h i ld ( 1 .4 86 -89 ) , C reon r e jec t s h i s f am i ly , o ra tl e a s t , p a r t o fi t ,j u s t l i ke A n t igone d i d ( s ee n . 1 3 ) . B u t , a sh a s b een s hown , h e w a sj u s t if ied i nh i s a c t ion s , a tl e a s t a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e p lay ( s ince t h e g od s d id n o t r evea l t h e i rw i she s u n t i l t h e f i na l p a r t o f t h e p l ay ) , w h i le A n t igone 's r e a son ing w a s s haky r i gh t f r om t h e s t a r t , a l though t h e re a r e t im e s w hen s he c ou ld h ave w on t h e a ud ience 's s ympa thy . N e i the r C r eon n o r A n t igone c an b e v i ew ed a s ' t he c en t ra l c ha rac te r ' . Mo reove r , n e i the re xh ib i t s as t a t ic p e r sona . A nd Ib e l ieve i tb ecame o bv iou s , a s f a r a s t h e a nc ien t a ud ience i s c oncer n ed , t h a t t h e re i s a s h if t i n s ympa thy f r om A n t igone t o C reon i nt h e c ou r se o ft h e p l ay . C reon w a s n o t u l t ima te ly w rong a nd A n t igone w a s n o t u l t ima te ly r i gh t . S he m igh t h ave g i ven t h e p l ay h e r n ame ; a nd s he m igh t a ppea r t o u s a s a n e xemp la ry i n d iv idua l . B u t f o r t h e A then ian s oc ie ty o f t h e l a te 4 40 s , s he w a s e xac t ly w ha t aw oman s hou ld n o tb e . T he f a c tt h a t S ophoc le s h a s d eco ra ted h e rw i th momen t s o fi n ne r v a lue s how s t h a t h e d i d n o t w i sh t op r e sen t af ema le c ha rac te r a s n ega t ive a p r ior i . I ti s mo r e p o s s ib le t h a t w ha t h e w i shed t od o w a s t o s how g raph ica l ly w ha t w ou ld f o l low ar eve r sa l o ft h e f ema le r o le . T he r emo te a nd y e t i mmed ia te w o r ld o f a t h ea t r ica l p roduc t ion p rov ided t h e i d ea l , s a f e s t l o ca t ion f o rs uch a ne xh ib i t ion .

E ven i ft h e a nc ien t A then ian a ud ience c ou ld c once ive s u ch an o t ion o fp r iva te l o ya l ty , i tw ou ld p a le i nc on t ra s t t ot h e w ide r l o ya l ty t ot h e c i t izen g roup a nd t h e s en se o f o rde r t h a t t h e c i v ic m echan i sm p re suppo se s , s o a s t o f unc t ion p rope r ly . I f An t igon e h ad a c ted w i th in t h e p a rame te r s o fh e r g ende r , s h e w ou ld n o t h ave d e s t roy ed h e r se lf , a nd a no the r t h ree p e r son s , t o o -H aemon , E u ryd ice a nd C reon .2 3 B u t s h e t r an sg re s sed t h e l im i t s o f h e r f em in ine s e lf a nd t hu s s h e d i srup ted t h e b a lance o f r o le si nt h es oc ie ty ,w i th d i sa s t rou sr e su l t s . P o lyn ice s , t h e s pa rk t h a t s t a r ted t h e c onf l ic t , r e ce ive s p rope r b u r ia l a t t h e e nd , b y C reon 's d ec i s ion . C reon s e em s t o t r y t o c o r rec t o ne m i s take w i th a no the r . P o lyn ice s s t i l l r ema in s at r a i to r ; a nd i fr e l ig ion d i c ta ted t h a t h e s hou ld b e b u r ied , i td i d n o t r equ i r e t h a th e s hou ld h ave b een b u r ied w i th in t h e c i ty . Mo s t i mpor tan t , i ti s w rong t oc l a im t h a tA n t igone 's a c t ion i sv ind ica ted i nt h e T e i re s ia s s c ene ( 988 -1114 ) . I ti sv e ry t emp t ing t o r e ad t h i s s c ene a sA n t igone 's j u s t if ica t ion . H oweve r , Ib e l ieve t h a t t h i s s c ene c once r n s h e r o n ly c i r cum s tan t ia l ly . T e i re s ia s r evea l s t h e g od s ' w i sh a bou tt h e d ead b ody a nd h et e l l sC r eon : ' a l lm en f a l l i n to s i n . B u ts i nn ing ,h ei sn o t f o r eve r l o s t h ap le s s a nd h e lp le s s , w ho c an m ak e a mend s a nd h a s n o t s e th i s f a ce a ga in s t r e pen tance . ' H e i sc l ea r ly t e l l ing C reon t h a t h e h a s m ade am i s take , b u t t h a t h e h a s t im e t o r e pen t . H e d oe s n o t r e f e r d i r ec t ly t o A n t igone , u n le s s w e t a ke t h e l i ne ' on ly af o o l i sg over n ed b y s e lf w i l l ' a sr e f e r r ing t oh e r . C reon m a in ta in s h i s s a c r i leg iou s a t t i tude : le t t h e e ag le s c a r ry h i s c a rca s s u p t ot h e t h rone o f Z eu s ; e ven t h a t w ou ld n o t b e s a c r i lege e nough . ' H e c on t inue s b y a ccu s ing T e i re s ia s a s a g a in seeke r . E ven tua l ly h e w i l l c hange h i s m ind , a f t e r T e i re s ia s h a s

O ed ipu s a l so , i nO ed ipu s t h eK ing , b ecome s t h e c au se o ft h e d e s t ruc t ion o f o t he r s , b ecau se o f h i s w rong d ec i s ion s ( h is w if e /mo the r , h i s c h i ld ren , t h e c i ty t h a t i sp o l lu ted b ecau se o f h im ) . P e rhap s t h e a ud ience w ou ld m ake s uch a c onnec t ion . N ev e r the le s s , i nt h e c a se o fA n t igone , i ti sv e ry s i gn if ican t t h a t t h e h e ro ine u nde rgoe s ar eve r sa l o fh e r f em in ine i mage , w h ich d e s t roy s h e r a nd o t he r s . n . b . C . O udeman s . & A . L a rd ino is ( 1987 ) . 2 3

6 3

Aw oman 's p lace i nt he o iko sa nd s oc ie ty .E ur ip ide s 'A l ce s t i s . µ üpou , ä vep , µ e . K a ia u -r ög e , Kei y ap 6 . 5sücaq e üpf ice ig iv a f iv a üvyaµov E üTux inv . D o n o t mou rn f o rm e , d ea rh usband ; f o ry ou a l so w i l lj ou rney t o t h a tp l ace a nd f i nd y ou rw if eE u tych ia .1

T h is p l ay o fE u r ip ides h a s a t t rac ted s pec ia l a t ten t ion f r om s cho la r s f o r m any y ea r s .2 I t s p o s i t ion a s af ou r th p l ay r a ises c on t rove r s ia l p o in t s a bou t i t s c ha rac te r , w h ich makes t h e p l ay d i ff icu l t t ob e c a tego r ized . C on t rad ic to ry v i ew s f o cu s o n t h e m ix tu re o ft r ag ic a nd c om ic e l emen t s i n t h e A lces t i s . D a le ( 1954 ) s aw i n t h e p l ay t r aces o f a ' p ro -sa ty r ic ' e l emen t , w h ich ' g ives t h e A lces t i s aw ide r r ange o f mood t h an a ny o the r e x tan t G reek t r agedy , b u t t h is i s ac a refu l ly c a lcu la ted r ange , w h ich d oe s n o t d e s t roy t h e u n i t a s aw ho le ' ( p . x x i ) .3 C onache r ( 1984 ) , u nde r l in ing a no the r p opu la r v i ew , w ro te t h a t ' we c anno t e xpec t t o f i nd t r ag ic m ean ing i n t h e h appy , " f o lk ta le" d enouemen t o f o u r p l ay ' ( p . 7 4 ) . H oweve r , If i nd mo re c onv inc ing t h e a r gumen t t h a t i nt h e A lces t i s ' t he s e r iou s p a r t o ft h e p l ay f a r e xceeds t h e l i gh t -hea r ted '; 4 a s f o r t h e ' h appy e nd ing ' , i t h a s n o th ing i n c ommon w i th t h e r eve l ry e nd ing s o fc omedy . F u r the rmo re , i td oes n o ts e em i n app rop r ia te f o r at r agedy t o e nd w i th a p o s i t ive t one : E umen ides , P h i loc te tes , H e len , I on a nd I ph igene ia i n T aur i s h ave ' h appy ' e nd ing s a nd y e t w e c ons ide r t h em a s t r ag ic p l ay s .5 E ven i n t h e A lces t i s ' t he s omb re mood o f t h e e nd ing . .k eep s u s i nt o uch w i th t h e a we some p owe r s o f d ea th , a nd t h e refo re s t i l l i n t h e r ea lm o f t r agedy ' ( Sega l , 1 992a , p .2 6 ) . O n t h e se g rounds , t h e e xam ina t ion o ft h i s p l ay w i th in t h e f r ame o ft h e p resen t w o rk i ss u re ly j u s t if ied . D u r ing t h e e xam ina t ion o f A lces t i s , w e s hou ld c oncen t ra te o u r a t ten t ion o n t h ree s pec ia l t o p ics : a ) t h e c ha rac te r o f A dme tu s a s c oun te rpa r t t o h i s w if e , b ) t h e s a cr if ice o fA lces t i s a nd i t s i mpac t w i th in a nd o u t s ide t h e 1E p i taph ,

EG 2 66 , 3 -4 ; Me lo s , l a te 4 th c . F o ra n i n te re s t ing v i ew o nt h er e con s truc t ion o ft h et e x t , s e eA . L aP enna ( 1997 ) , p p . 4 15 -420 . 3 F o rA lces t i sa nd t h ep rosa ty r ic d rama , s ee C . W . Ma r sha l l ( 2000 ) , p p . 2 29 -238 . R . B ux ton ( 1985 ) p p . 8 8 -89 . 5 I t i s t r ue , a s C . S ega l s ugge s t s i n r e la t ion t o t h e p l ay s m en t ioned , t h a t ' e ven t h e c ance l la t ion o fi mpend ing d i sa s te rb y ad eu s e x m ach ina d oe s n o t e l sewhe re g o s o f a r a st oe r a se t h e b ounda ry b e tween l i f e a nd d ea th ' ( 1994 ; p .2 5 , n .4 7 ) . T h is i s i ndeed au n ique f e a tu re i nt h eA lce s t i s , b u t i td oes n o t d im in ish t h e t r ag ic t one s o f t h e p l ay . O n t h e o the r h and , i ft h e A lces t i s w a s as ub s t i tu te f o r as a ty r -p lay ( s ee H ypo the s is I , a df i n . , A . D a le ( 1954 , x v i i i f . ) , C . S ega l ( 1992 , p . 1 5 , e sp . n .2 2 ) , t h en a h appy e nd ing w a s mo s t p robab ly f u lf i l l ing t h e e xh i la ra t ing f unc t ion o f as a ty r -p lay a f te r t h e g loomy mood t h a t t h ree p reced ing t r aged ie s c r ea ted . F o r a no the r v i ew , s e e K . K irchwey 2

s t age a c t ion , a nd c ) t h e c oncep t o f t h e o i kos a nd i t s emp loymen t i nt h i s p lay . A s w i l l b ecome o bv iou s , t h e se t op ics a r e a l l i n te rwoven w i th e ach o t he r a nd c on s t i tu te a t r ipa r t i te w ho le , w h ich w i l l o f ten l e ave u s u nab le t o e xam ine o ne w i thou t r e f er r ing t o t h e o t he r s . T he r e su l t s o f t h is s t udy s hou ld i lum ina te n o t o n ly t h e c ha rac te r o f A lces t is , b u t t h ey s hou ld a l so o f f e r s ome s ugge s t ions f o r t h e f unc t ion o f t h e p lay w i th in t h e f r amewo rk o f t h ea t re a nd o f t h e A then ian s oc ie ty . I n t h e c ou r se o f t h is e xam ina t ion i tw i l l b e u navo idab le o cca s iona l ly t o s t a te t h e o bv iou s , a sf a r a s t h e p l ay i t se lf i sc once rned , a nd t o i n co rpo ra te i n te rp re ta t ion s b y o t he r s . H oweve r , t h e a im o f t h is w o rk i st oo f f e ra n e xp lana t ion f o rt h ee mp loymen to f t h e r o le reve r sa l t h eme i n t r agedy ; t h u s , p rev iou s i n te rp re ta t ion s w i l l i n fo rm t h e p resen t a r gumen t o n ly t o t h e e x ten t t h a t t h ey w i l l h e lp e l uc ida te t h i s c en t ra l q ues t ion . R o le reve r sa l i sn o t ap henomenon o bse rved o n ly a mong t h e f ema le c ha rac te r s o ft r agedy . I n t h e B acchae a nd t h e A n t igone , f o r e xamp le , t h e e mp loymen t o ff em in ine t r a i t s a nd t h e a dop t ion o f m en ta l c ha rac te r i s t ic s u sua l ly a t t r ibu ted t o w omen p rove t h a t m a le c ha rac te r s s imu l taneou s ly w i th f ema le c ha rac te r s - c ro s s t h e b ounda r ie s o fw ha t c on s t i tu te s t h e d i s t inc t ivene ss o ft h e i r g ende r . L ikew ise , a tp resen t , w e a r e f a ced w i th ap l ay t h e d ynam ics o f w h ich a r e t o ta l ly b a sed o n t h e c ros s ing o f b ounda r ie s b y t h e r ep re sen ta t ives o f b o th g ende r s : t h e t r ag ic m ean ing i s d ef ined b y t h e mo ra l e va lua t ion o f A dme tu s a nd A lces t is , i nr e la t ion t oe ach o the r . I fw e a r e t o r e ach a ny c onc lus ion s c once rn ing t h e p a rad igma t ic s cope o ft h ec ha rac te r s a nd , s ubsequen t ly , t h e a im s o ft h is p l ay , w e a r e c ompe l led t o a na ly se t h e r o le o f A dme tu s mo re m e t icu lou s ly t h an t h a to fa ny o t he rm a le p ro tagon is t m en t ioned s of a r . I ts e em s t h a t t h e c ha rac te r s o f t h e p l ay h ave n o t a lway s b een v i ewed i n c on t rove r s ia l w ay s . B o th A lce s t is a nd A dme tu s w e re s e en a s a dm i rab le f o r p eop le b efo re o u r o wn t ime -a nd a f te r t h e t ime o ft h e p l ay 's p roduc t ion . A t omb i n sc r ip t ion ( Peek , 1 955 , G r iech i sche V er s I n schr if te , p .6 91 , 2 088a ) r e f e r s t oA lce s t is a s ap a rad igm o f vi m a nd g r iC tL VOg :

( 1997 ) , p p . 2 4 -42 .

6 4

A pu l ian l o u t rophoros ,b y af o re runne ro ft h eG anymede P a in te r ; 3 rd q ua r te ro ft h e4 th c . BC ( p ic tu re f r om A . T renda l l &T . Web s te r , 1 971 ,p .7 5 ) .

4' -x a . 9-e d tvetv g ' i lweev e ig i e ' p t iv f 1 5 ' i gp6ec raav ' 05r iäaöv .n o lJä 5 g 8Xt oc roggvn 5 4 1 1 . 10V KM L OTOV 1 0 3VWV C l ür j [ 1 0 L1 . 0 i 1V g ÄeueEp i q vb wpf lou-r o . v üv 5 'ä v -

1 2T 'g 1 . 10ü e v r jaKe t K a ig x e i c p t ig t iv K a i b ia tvov 6 . ) g ' AÄK r ia-r t g . e iKOOT6V a c taa T O [ 3L 6 TO L 0 1 6 b x spo ic p i i \a t g Y aK i v e ou n poX tnoüaa c p äog T O C iTOV Ä . 6 . ) (E T üV 1 30V . ( 1 )napobei-r a , L A 1 . gK i n rii g .6

T h is i n scr ip t ion , d a t ing a round t h e s e cond c en tu ry AD , i sd ed ica ted b y I a c in thos i nh onou r o fay oung w oman w ho , a s w e r e ad , g ave h e r l i f e f o rh im , ' l i ke A lce s t is ( 14 ) a nd t h e refo re a ch ieves ' f ame a nd p ra ise ' ( 1 3 ) a na logou s t oA lces t is . I t i sc l ea r t h a t i n t h is c a se a t l e a s t , A lce s t is ' s a c r if ice w a s v i ewed a s t h e h e igh t o f f em in ine d evo t ion a nd s e lf -den ia l . A no the r i n scr ip t ion f r om T he ra /S an to r in i ( 1 s t c . A .D . ) r e f e r s t o A dme tu s , s on o f T heoc le ida s , w ho c l a im s t h a t Adme tu s , t h e k i ng o fT hessa l ian P he rae , w a sh i s a nces to ra nd p ra ises h im f o rh i sä pu r i K a ic r w c ppoaüvn :

' 05 äpog d t c p r ipd )t g eK a i g-r i paae T öV i e pga ' A n6 7Ju ovog K apvg iou 5t äy gvoug ' A b i anr ov O zoKÄ .e i5a , n äaag d i pe-r i f gg VeKa K a i am ppoaüvag . O ü 1 . 1 6vov a üxoü l . . tev A aKe5a igovog g Kf 3 aa th iwv ,

g u v äue v r r am t ig Kn poyövwv y evö mv ,

agw 5 ' A bg r ITOU KW 'i c rov K Ägog c b qö vop 'aüx i i ) . Cib eö üw X e inov ra T p t i lKO C YTOO g TE6g I . 1 E O cu iv \e i5a n a-r pög v öo y )t o e Moip '6 2 % .0 1 ) , T ETÄ d ITW L i . ) g r I T 1ÄEüg c b gn ponärwp T EO gpr ig . O üög y äp a ipea tv g axev . g nz in äv r c og e t v ü ngo-r n b ig e avie tv g TO i ' ü \ i T 'g < i . t> X e tnögzvoq .

C o lumn . Odes sos , T h race . 2 nd c en tu ry A . D . Z ah l re iche L ia tu ren . -G . M iha i lov , B u l l . S oc . H i s tor . aS of ia 1 9 , 1 943 , 1 7 Abb . 3 , ( M iha i lov I4 1 , 4 9 ) .

6

6 5

H e ( i .e .t h e d ead p e r son ) s ay st h a th i s f a the r ' wou ld h ave d i ed t w ice , i ft h a t c ou ld h ave s aved t h e l i f e o f h i s s on ' , b u t , u n l ike P he re s , ' h e h ad n o c ho ice ' . A l though P he re s ' n ame i sp u t n ex t t ot h e n ame o f al i keab le c ha rac te r l i ke P e leu s , t h e re i s ah i n t o f s l igh t a ccusa t ion , a s w e a r e s ub t ly r em inded t h a t h e h ad t h e c ho ice t o s ave h i s s on . Mo s t i mpo r tan t i st h e r e f e rence t oA dme tu s ' f ame a nd t h e p r ide w i th w h ich t h is p r ies t c a r r ied t h e n ame . I t i s a s t rong i n d ica t ion t h a t A dme tus w a s n o t a lways c on s ide red ac on temp t ib le c ha rac te r . B u t , i fb o th Adme tu s a nd A lces t is w e re s e en a s p os i t ive p a rad igm s a t d i f f e ren t t ime s , d oes t h a t m ean t h a t t h ey w e re v i ewed a s s u ch b y a f i f th c en tu ry a ud ience? C e r ta in ly , i nd i f f e ren t p e r iod s ap l ay c an b e i n te rp re ted i n d i f f e ren t w ays , a cco rd ing t o p opu la r p o l i t ica l , mo ra l o r r e l ig ious f a c to r s . T he f a c t t h a t A dme tus i sp ra ised i nt h e i s t c en tu ry A .D . a nd t h a t A lces t is i su sed a s ar o le mode l f o r w omen i n t h e 2 nd c en tu ry A .D . d oes n o t n ecessa r i ly i mp ly t h a t t h ey w e re m ean t t o b e r o le mode ls f o r a n a ud ience o f 5 t h c en tu ry B .C . A then ians . A c a refu l a na ly s is o f t h e i r c ha rac te r s s hou ld e nab le u s t o e va lua te t h em a s p os i t ive o r n ega t ive e xamp les f o r t h a t p a r t icu la r s oc ie ty . A t t h is p o in t Is hou ld p o in t o u t t h a t Is t rong ly

A s D a le p o in ted o u t , t h e re w a s a l ready a l o ng l i ne o f s cho la r s w ho s aw A dme tus a s ac owa rd .8 S he r e f e r s t oa p opu la r s cho l ion p a r t ly q uo ted b y A r is tophane s (Wasps , 1 238 ) a nd c omp le ted b y S a d l o c . , w ho s ay s i tw a s a t t r ibu ted t oP rax i l la : ' AÖp TT OU Ä öyov C i r . )T arps , p c te e . ov T oüg ä yaeoug cAe l , T UN 5ELÄU JV ö är réXou ,

y voüg ÖT I 6E IMV

6 MY C I

XäP ig. 9

T h i s i s o f ten t a ken t o m ean t h a t A dme tus w a s ' t rad i t iona l ly ac owa rd ' , r ega rd le ss o ft h e f a c t t h a t n o o ne c ou ld c once ivab ly d raw s uch a c onc lu s ion f r om t h e o u tcome o f t h e s t o ry . I t m igh t b e ac ommen t o n t h e g oodnes s o f A lce s t is a nd H e rac les a nd t h e c owa rd ice o f t h e p a ren t s , b u tt h e re i ss ome u nce r ta in ty w he the r , i nf a c t , i tr e f e r s t o o u r p a r t o f t h e l e gend a t a l l . Many o t he r s cho la r s a f te r D a le s aw A dme tus a s ac owa rd a nd c r i t ic ized h i s c on sequen t a c t ions h eav i ly .1 ° P e rhaps t h e b igge s t p rob lem r e ga rd ing A dme tu s ' d t vöpe ia i s h i s a ccep tance o fA po l lo 's f avou r , i nt h e f i r s t p l ace . T h is i s , h oweve r , ap o in t t h a t i sp romp t ly e xp la ined i nt h e c ou r se o ft h e p l ay 's e ven t s . I n l i ne 1 071 i ti ss t a ted c l ea r ly t h a t ' o ne mu s t a ccep t t h e g i f t o f f e red b y ag od ' e ven i fo ne mu s t K ap-r eperv , e ndu re i t .A s B u rne t t ( 1983 ,

r e jec tc ons ide r ing A dme tu s i mpo r tan t o n ly f o rh i s nä8oq a nd n o t f o r h i s i r i eog ( Da le , 1 954 , E ur ip ides 'A lces t i s p . x xv i i ) , a nd s ugge s t ion s s u ch a s ' n e i the r Adme tu s n o r A lce s t is a r e v e ry a t t rac t ive p eop le ' ( Beye , 1 959 , " A lce s t is a nd h e r c r i t ics" , i n GRBS,n o .2 p p111-127 ) . Adme tu s ' i r i eog b ecome s a s c en t ra l a n i s sue a s h i s nä8og . B y t h e e nd o f t h is a na ly s is i tw i l l b e o bv iou s w hy b o th h e a nd A lce s t is n eed t ob e c a refu l ly c ons ide red a sp a rad igm s . A s f o r B eye 's s ugge s t ion , t h e p l ay i t se lf i se nough t op rove i t s upe rf luous . B eye s aw i n t h e c ha rac te r s t wo p eop le w ho a c ted i n as e lf ish w ay , e a ch f o r h i s /he r o wn p u rpo se . I b e l ieve t h a t ap l ay w h ich e xp lo res s uch d rama t ic t h emes a sd ea th a nd s epa ra t ion c once rn ing ac oup le , w ou ld f a i l t o r e ach i t s f u l l p o ten t ia l , i fi t s m a in c ha rac te r s c ou ld n o t g a in t h e s ympa thy o ft h e a ud ience . A dme tu s h a s b een t h e f o cu s o f c r i t ica l a t ten t ion t h rough t h e y ea r s , p e rhap s e ven m o re t h an A lce s t is . T h is s e em s f a i r , s i nce i t w a s h i s a ccep tance o f A po l lo 's f a vou r ( c har i s ) , w h ich g ave r i se t ot h e a c t ion t h a t , t h e A then ian a ud ience w a s p r esen ted w i th . F u r the rmo re , h i s b ehav iou r b efo re a nd a f te r A lce s t is ' d ea th i n i t ia tes t h e e ven t s l e ad ing t ot h e e xh i la ra t ing e nd ing . I nA dme tu s ' c ha rac te r , r o le rever sa l i sc ons t i tu ted i nt h e w ay s t h a t h i s b ehav iou r s e em s ` u n -man ly ' , i n app rop r ia te t o am an a nd ar u le r o f t h e l a nd . ' I n t h e s t udy o fh i s c ha rac te r w e c an t r ace t h ree b a s ic f l aw s : h i s i n i t ia l a s sen t t o A po l lo 's o f f e r , h i s b ehav iou r t owa rds P he re s , a nd h i s r o le i n t h e x en ia o f H e rac les w i th t h e i mp l ica t ions t o h i s d u ty t owa rds t h e d ead q ueen . T hese i n s tances d emand o u r a t ten t ion , b ecause i ti sh e re t h a tA dme tu s ' p e r sona l i ty i so u t l ined .

p . 2 56 )

i mp l ies , i ti sm o s tp robab le t h a tA dme tu s h ad n oc ho ice a t t h e t ime ." H e s imp ly h ad t o a ccep t t h e c har i s . A lce s t is w a s t h e o ne ' w i l l ing t o a l low h e r h u sband A dme tu s t o a ccep t t h e g od 's g i f t o f ap o s tponemen t o f d ea th , b y h e r se lf d y ing i n h i s p l ace ' .1 2 I n t h is s e nse , A lces t is ' s a c r if ice i sp ro jec ted i n ar e l ig iou s d imen s ion a sa n a c t o f p i e ty . Ip ropo se t o s how t h a t h e r d ec is ion a moun t s t o mo re t h an a n e xh ib i t ion o fr e l ig iou s r eve rence , o re ven a n a c t o fr oman t ic l o ve , b u t t h is w i l l b e d i scu s sed l a te r . F o r t h e t ime b e ing , o u r f ocu s i so n Adme tu s ' c ha rac te r a nd w he the r h e c an b e l a be l led a c owa rd , b ecause h i s w if e d i e s i nh i s p l a ce . O ne t h ing t h a t i sn o t c l ea r i nt h e p l ay i s w he the r A lce s t is w a s a sked b y Adme tus t o d i e i n h i s p l ace . T he re i se v idence t h a t a f te r A dme tu s r e ce ived t h e g od 's g i f t , h e a sked a n umbe r o f p eop le -i n c lud ing h i s p a ren t s -i ft h ey w ou ld b e w i l l ing t od i e i n s tead o fh im : n äv raq 4 5 ' i ‘ . gygaq K ai . 5t e eX0 i . ov c p i i \oug ,

1 5

n atipa y epa täv e' i a c p' kT iK-r e g r i -r gpa , o üx 'n üpe n Ähv y uva lKÖg ö cr rt qf i 8eKe e aV i OV npä K e ivou p r iKi r 'c iaopäv q x f log •

1 8

A s w e r e ad t h e t e x t , i ti sl e f t o pen w he the r Adme tu s h a s a c tua l ly a pp roached A lce s t is w i th h i s o u t rageou s r e que s t .

F o r as u rvey o fo lde rv i ew s , s e e A lb in L e sky ( 1925 ) , p .7 7f . Q uo ted b yA r is tophane s ( W a sp s , 1 238 , s a id b yP hanodemus t o r e f e rt oA dme tu s ' k i nd r e cep t ion b yT he seu s ) . 1 ° C . B eye ( 1 959 ) ; D . C onache r( 1984 ) ; E .B rad ley ( 1980 ) ; C . S ega l ,C . ( 1 992a ) . 1 A . B ur ne t t ( 1 965 ) , p p . 2 40 -255 . R epr in ted i nE . S ega l ( 1983 ) , p p . 2 54 -71 , O xf ord R ead ings i nG r eek T ragedy , O xfo rd . 1 2 R .B ux ton ( 1 994 ) , p . 1 20 . C f . C . S ega l ( 1992a ) , p .2 2 ; S ega l r e f e r s t oA lce s t is ' s i len t r e -appea rance o n t h e s t age a nd h e s ay s t h a t ' we c anno te ven b e s u re t h a tA lce s t is w an t s t oc ome b ack ' . 8

9

F o r Adme tus ' u n -ma scu l ine b ehav iou r , s e eC . S ega l ( 1993 ) , p p . 5 1-72 . . 7

6 6

' w inne r s ' i n t h e a gon d o e l sewhe re , h e s peak s l a se 1 4. M iche l in i a l so r e f e r s t o t h e ' b a s ic g i ven o f d rama t ic p e rfo rmance , n ame ly t h e c ogency a nd p owe r o fw ha teve r i s p re sen ted t h rough m ime s is . U np lea san t t r u th s a r e u sua l ly s poken b y u np lea san t p eop le , a nd P he re 's n a s ty c ha rac te r i s t ics make h im mo re r a the r t h an l e s s l i ke ly t o s t ick i n t h e a rgumen t ' 1 5 T h is s ounds p l au s ib le , b u t w e s t i l l s hou ld n o t r e ad t oo much i n to P he re s ' w o rds . T hese l i nes a r e u t te red b y a n o u t raged P he res a nd i lum ina te o n ly t h e s t a te o fm ind t h a t h e -a nd o n ly h e -w a s i n , a t

B eye ( 1959 , GRBS , p . 13 ) f i nds i to bv iou s i nl i ne s 9 35 6 1 ,t h a tA lces t is o f f e r st od i ea th e rh u sband 's r eque s t . Ic an s e e n o c l ea r a l lus ion i nt h e se l i nes . P e rhap s B eye i n te rp re ted a s c onc lu s ive t h e s o r row o f t h e h u sband a nd t h e u nde r s tandab le s ense o f g r ief t h a t h e e xp re sses . N eve r the le s s , s i nce A dme tu s d oes n o t s ay t h a t h e a sked A lces t i s t o d i e i n h i s p l ace , w e s hou ld o n ly r e ad i n h i s g u i l t t h e n a tu ra l r e ac t ion o f ah usband w ho se w if e d i ed w hen s he c ou ld b e a l ive , w h i le h e l i ves w hen h e s hou ld b e d ead . I n l i ne s 6 99 -70 1 , P he re s s ay s t oA dme tu s : ' You h ave f ound ac l eve r w ay s o t h a t y ou m igh t n eve r d i e , i f y ou w i l l a lway s p e r suade y ou r p r esen t w if e t od i e i ny ou r

t h a t p a r t icu la r momen t . I ti st r ue t h a t Adme tu s d oe s n o t r e fu te P he re s ' p rophec ies i n 7 30 -31 , n ame ly t h a t A lce s t i s ' k i n smen w i l l m ake h im p ay t h e p ena l ty f o r h e r d ea th , s i nce h e ' mu rde red ' h e r . T he o n ly a nswe r f r om A dme tus i s : ' A t l e a s t y ou w i l l d i e d i shonou red w hen a t

p l a ce ' . T he se l i ne s c ou ld i n deed i mp ly t h a t A dme tu s h ad t a lked A lce s t is i n to s a c r if ic ing h er se lf f o r h im . Howeve r , a s s u ch a n o t ion w a s n o t i n d ica ted i n l i ne s 1 5 -18 , w e s hou ld a t t r ibu te P he re 's c r i t ic ism t o i g no rance o f A lce s t is ' f r ee ly -made c ho ice a nd t ob i t te rne s s b ecau se o f h i s s on 's d emand s . Whe the r A dme tu s a sked A lces t i s t o d i e f o rh im , i s ap o in tt h a tr ema in s o b scu re t h roughou tt h e p l ay . I ti sp os s ib le t h a t E u r ip ide s r e l ie s o n t h e a ud ience 's m y tho log ica l l i t e racy , h e re , t of i l l i nt h is p a r t o ft h e s t o ry . H oweve r , Ib e l ieve t h a t b y m a in ta in ing t h is a mb igu i ty i n t h e p l o t , E u r ip ide s d raw s t h e a ud ience 's a t ten t ion t o t h e a c t ion t h a t f o l low s t h e c har i s o ft h e g od , r a the r t h an t h e d e ta i ls c once rn ing t h is c har i s . L inge r ing o n t h ese d e ta i l s c ou ld p rove d i s t rac t ing : a m ode rn s pec ta to r w ou ld d ef in i te ly h ave q ue s t ioned t h e e a s ine ss a nd e age rnes s w i th w h ich A dme tu s a ccep t s s uch ac har i s a nd t h e a lmo s t n a ive a pp roach t o h i s f r iend s a nd f am i ly . Wou ld a n a nc ien t a ud ience r e ac t i n t h e s ame w ay? Wou ld t h ey w onde r ' h ow d a re s h e a ccep t s u ch af a vou r? ' T he c ho ru s ' a n swe r i n 1 071 c ou ld b e e i the r a n e cho o f a n a c tua l p opu la r r e l ig iou s b e l ief o r a n a t temp t t o j u s t ify - i f p o ss ib le -A dme tu s ' d ec is ion . I n l i ne s 7 03 -5 P he res s ay s t oh i ss on :

l a s t y ou d i e ' ( 725 ) . C onache r ( p . 7 9 ) w onde r s w he the r A dme tu s r e a l izes t h a t t h is c ou ld a l so b e h i s f a te .1 6 P e rhaps t h e a ud ience , t oo , t h ough t o ft h e s ame t h ing ; b u t t h e p lo t r e so lves s uch v ague t h rea t s : A lces t i s i sb rough t b ack t ol i f e a nd n ok i n o fh e r sh a st oa venge h e rd ea th . A s D y son p u t s i t( JHS 1 988 , p . 13 ) , t h e re i sn o i mp l ica t ion o f c owa rd ice h e re , s i nce t h e p oe t i so bv iou s ly ' c once rned w i th h ow A dme tu s s u f f e r s a nd n o t w i th h i s s t a te o fm ind w hen h i s w if e p rom i sed t o d i e f o r h im ' .1 7 Wh e the r A dme tu s r ema ins ö uaK I ‘EYN mu s t b e d educ ted f r om t h e r e s to ft h ea c t ion . We c anno t c onc lude w he the r A dme tu s w ou ld h ave b een mo re h e ro ic o r mo re p ious i fh e h ad r e jec ted A po l lo 's o f f e r . We h ave n o o t he r c a se i n t r agedy w he re a mo r ta l w a s f a ced b y s uch d i lemma s , c once rn ing a g od 's g i f t . P e rhap s B u rne t t w a s r i gh t i ns ay ing t h a t A dme tu s h ad n o c ho ice . P e rhap s h i s o n ly c ho ice w a s n o t t oa sk h i s w if e t o s ub s t i tu te h e r o wn d ea th f o r h i s . A s f o r t h e f a c t t h a t h e a sked h i s f r iend s a nd p a ren t s , w e h ave t o a dm i t t h a t h e w ou ld n o t a pp roach h i s e nem ie s , b u t t h e p eop le w ho -a s h e t hough t -c a red f o r h im . Adme tu s s ays i nl i ne s 9 54 -61 t h a t h i s e nem ies w i l l a ccu se h im o f c owa rd ice . H e h ea r s t h e s ame a ccusa t ion b y h i s f a the r ( 702 ) , b u t a t t h is i n s tance h i s f a the r c anno t b e c oun ted among t h o se w ho a r e o n A dme tu s ' s i de . N o f i na l v e rd ic ti sg i ven i nt h ep l ay a sf a r a sA dme tu s ' a ndr e ia i sc once rned . A f te r a l l , t h is i s o f s e conda ry v a lue t o t h e p l ay 's d eve lopmen t . F o r t h e p lo t 's s ake - a nd p robab ly , a s t h e my th h ad a l ready d e te rm ined -A dme tu s h ad t o a ccep t t h e g od 's g i f t a nd A lce s t is h ad t od i e i nh i s p l ace . I ti s , t h e refo re , n eces sa ry n o t t o v i ew A dme tu s n ega t ive ly ap r ior i . T he p l ay i t se lf

7 03

a i ya •y ög ts e ss ia üT hy a aü -r oü p tAcTç t p uxhy , q ) LÄsiy ä nav rag • C ö.f l i . te iq K a eg

7 05

d tK0Ü0 1 : 1 T IOÄÄe l KOÜ L E JEUE4 1 KOKä .

D oes P he res i mp ly t h a t t h e r e s t o f t h e p eop le w hom A dme tu s h ad a pp roached s ha re h i s -b ad -o p in ion o fh i s s on , a s i s r e ad i n l i nes 6 95 -702 ( whe re h e a ccu ses A dme tu s o f c owa rd ice ) , a nd 7 30 -33 ( whe re h e a ccu ses h im o f r e spon s ib i l i ty o f A lce s t is ' d ea th )? I ft h is i st h e c a se , t h en i ts t reng then s t h e p o in t t h a t A dme tu s ' p i e ty i n a ccep t ing A po l lo 's g i f t w a s n o t c l ea r t o a l l . H oweve r , d u r ing t h e s t ichomy th ia i nl i nes 7 06 -40 P he re s s peak s f o r h im se lf . T hus i tw ou ld n o t b e r i gh tt oc on s ide r l i ne s 7 03 5a s a n i n d ica t ion o f t h e p l ayw r igh t 's i n ten t ion t o c a s t a s hadow o n A dme tu s . T h is d oe s n o t m ean w e s hou ld i g no re w ha t P he re s s ay s b ecau se P he res i s u n l ikab le .1 3 B u t , If i nd e qua l ly u nconv inc ing S ch les inge r 's s ugges t ion t h a t P he res h a s t h e b e s t o f t h e a rgumen t b ecau se a s

d oe s n o t a l low s uch a n o t ion . T he k i ng 's mo ra l v a lue i s d e te rm ined mos t ly i n t h e s c ene s w i th P he res a nd H e rac les . I ti st h e P he res e p isode t h a t p rov ide s t h e b es t m a te r ia l t o t h ose w ho c hoo se t o s e e A dme tu s a s a n ' u np lea san t " cha rac te r s t udy" ( Da le , x x iv ) . O ne o f t h e a r gumen t s

A .S ch le s ing e r( 1 937 ) , p . 6 9 -70 . C f . D .J a kob ( 1 999 ) ,p . 2 74 -285 . A . M iche l in i ( 1 987 ) ,p .3 28 . D .C ona che r( 1 984 ) ,p . 7 3 -8 1 . M . D y son , ( 1 988 ) ,p . 1 5 -26 . 1 4

1 5

S e eA .L e sky 1 9 25 ,p .8 2 ; 1 964 ,P . 2 1 3 . A .D a le 1 9 54 , A .B u r ne t t 1 965 ,p .2 49 .W . S t e id le 1 9 68 ,p .1 4 3 -44 . 1 3

P .

xv ;

1 6 1 7

6 7

p robab ly mos tc on temp t ib le t o mode rn e a r s , i st h a tP he re s s hou ld h ave o f f e red t od i e i nh i s s on 's s t ead , b ecau se h e w a s a n o l d m an , p a s t t h e a ge h e c ou ld s t i l l e xpec t a ny th ing f r om l i f e ( 643 -44 ) . O ld a ge a nd h onou r i s a r e cu r r ing t h eme i n t h is s t ichomy th ia ( 6 58 -59 , 6 65 -71 , 7 25 -27 ) . A lce s t is , t oo , h ad s a id t oA dme tus e a r l ie ro n : K a t ro ta ' äc p üaag x f iT eKo l laa n poüboaay , K ak 7 ög F . tv a ü-r o ig KOTOOVETV 1 7 1 KOV NO U , K a )l og Ö Ca i oc ra tn aTba K EÜKÄF i bg e ayeiy . µ 6yog y äp a thorg t j a0a , KOÜT L gC Xn iç r j v 00 KCITOCIVöVTOg e l i t ilt a c pr üac 1 3 /TgKVO.

2 90

2 94

Whe the r t h is i s a n o pen a ccusa t ion m ade b y A lces t is a ga ins t A dme tus ' p a ren t s , i sn o t i mpo r tan t n ow .1 8 F o r t h e t ime b e ing w ha t i s i mpo r tan t i s w he the r A lces t is e xp res ses a n o p in ion t h a t mos t o f t h e A then ian s w ou ld h ave s ha red . P e r ic les ' s peech i n t h e

r iL Táq t oç A c iyog

( Thuc . 4 4 . 4 )c omes i n to m ind : Oa& E e tn ap r i3 t 1Ka-r s TÖV TC T LÄgOVO K gp5Og öV r i oy i l ylaes K a i TöV ö tß paxüv g asc rea t . .T äy äp c p LX6T t i . tov ä ye ip o iy µ 6vov KO IOüK Cv T Zi . ) d IXpE ( Lp T r ig f l Äu c iag TÖ KepbaiveLV , t öonsp T Ly g ( p aa i , p äÄ .Ka -r epr re täÄÄä TO Twäc rea t . r iüTÜXELTE

T h rough

t h e

mou th

o f P e r ic les ,

T hucyd ides

c l ea r ly

i mp l ies t h a t o l d a ge i su se le ss ( ä ) (psia ) . H e s ay s t h a t t h o se p eop le w ho a r e o ld a nd p a s tt h e a ge t h ey c ou ld h ave c h i ld ren , s hou ld w ish f o r t h e i r r ema in ing l i f e t ob e s ho r t , a nd t h e o n ly p l ea s ing t h ing d u r ing o l d a ge i s t o b e h onou red . O f c ou r se , w e h ave t o b ea r i n m ind t h a t t h is s peech i sn apa tve-r u c c ig , made i n o rde r t o c onso le t h e p a ren t s o f t h e d ead A then ians c ommemo ra ted t h e re .I 9 I t s ounds s t range t oc onso le p eop le b y t e l l ing t h em t ow ish f o r as ho r t l i f e , i ft h ey c anno t h ave c h i ld ren . C ou ld t h is r e a l ly b e p a r t o fA then ian mo ra l i ty? A nd w ha t a bou t t h e n o t ion o f h av ing a n h onou rab le r epu ta t ion b efo re a nd a f te r d ea th? P he res s e em s t o d i s rega rd s uch n o t ions . T o A dme tu s ' a r gumen t s h e a nswe r s t h a t h e e n joy s s e e ing t h e l i gh t a s m uch a sh i s s on d oes ( 691) a nd t h a t l i f e i ss wee t , e ven i fs ho r t ( 693 ) . B u t w ha t a s ton ishe s mo re i sw ha t i s s a id i nl i ne s7 25 -26 : M. e av i i ,y ep gy-r o t b uaKÄs i ig , & ray A d iv r , ig . C .K aKr og ä Koüe L V 0ü 1 . 10 tEl O C IVÖVTL p o t .

P he res ' a n swe rs hock s Adme tus w ho c r ie s o u t : c p e i j ( p ea T o y f ipag c b g ä va t ö e (aç n Äiwv -How s hame les s o l d a ge i s ! (727 ) . A nA then ian a ud ience w ou ld h ave d ef in i te ly s ha red A dme tu s ' d i smay a t P he re s ' n oncha lan t a t t i tude . H onou rab le d ea th w a s a s i mpo r tan t a sh onou rab le l i f e f o r A then ians . O ne h a s o n ly t o r emembe r p l ay s l i ke t h e A n t igone a nd A jax . O n t op o f t h is , P la to e p i tom ized t h e n o t ion o f h onou rab le d ea th i nH ipp ias ( Ma jor , 2 91 d e ) : t h e i d ea l o f e ve ry m an i s ' t o b e r i ch a nd h ea l thy a nd h onou red b y t h e G reek s , t o r e ach o l d a ge a nd , h av ing p rov ided h i s d ead p a ren t s w i th af i ne f une ra l , t ob e f i ne ly a nd n ob ly b u r ied b y h i s o wn c h i ld ren ' . B ea r ing t h is i n m ind , i tw ou ld b e r i gh t t o a s sume t h a t , i ft h e a ud ience w a s a s ton ished w i th P he res , i tw a s s t unned b y A dme tu s ' m anne r i nl i ne s 7 34 -740 . T he re , A dme tu s r epud ia te s h i s p a ren t s a nd t h row s t h em o u t o fh i s h ome .2 ° T h is i sr e a l ly s hock ing . E spec ia l ly s i nce P he res h a s j u s t d emon s t ra ted t h a th e h a s f u lf i l led h i s p a ren ta l d u t ie s t ot h e u tmo s t ( 6816 90 ) a nd t h a t i fh e d oe s n o t w an t t od i e f o rh i s s on , t h e re i sn o l aw i nG reece t h a t d emand s p a ren t s t od i e f o r t h e i r s ons ( 683 -84 ) . A s D y son ( 1988 , p .2 0 ) s a id , P he re s i sn o t r e a l ly a c owa rd . H e i ss imp ly ' n o w o r se t h an l e s s t h an h e ro ic ' . A nd w ha t A dme tu s a sk s f r om h i s f a the r i sa n a c t o fh e ro ism -av a lue t h a t P he re s s imp ly d oes n o t p o s ses s . I ti sd i ff icu l t t oi mag ine s omeone c ondemn ing ac ha rac te r f o r s uch ar e a son , e ven i ft h is s omeone i s af i f th -cen tu ry A then ian , w ho w a tches a p l ay s e t i n t h e m y tho log ica l p a s t o ft h e h e ro ic e r a . Wha t a bou t A dme tu s , t h ough? H e h a s g one t oo f a r i nt h is s c ene . H is b ehav iou r t owa rd s h i s a ged f a the r i sc on t ra ry t o e ve ry s en se o f f i l ia l d u ty .2 1 C e r ta in ly t h i s w ou ld h ave s t ruck t h e a nc ien t a ud ience . B u t o ne t h ing mu s t b e s t re s sed h e re : i tw ou ld b e w rong t o j udge a ny o ft h e c ha rac te r s i nt h e p l ay a s i ft h ey r ema in u na l te red . A dme tu s -a s w e l l a s A lce s t is , P he re s a nd H e rac le s -g oes t h rough v a r iou s p sycho log ica l c hanges d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e a c t ion . T he A dme tu s w e e ncoun te r i n t h e P he res e p isode i sn o t t h e s ame p e r son t h a t h e w a s a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e p l ay , a nd h e i sn o t t h e A dme tu s o f t h e e nd o f t h e p l ay . T he a ud ience i sf a ced w i th a n emo t iona l o u tbu r s t o f t h e p e r son w ho h a s j u s t b u r ied h i s w if e a nd w ho c on s ide r s h i s f a the r r e spons ib le . T h is d oe s n o t m ean t h a t A dme tu s i sr i gh t . H e i sa c t ing a s n o s on s hou ld .2 Y e t , w e s hou ld n o t a l low t h is e p isode a l one t o d e te rm ine h i s c ha rac te r iza t ion . T he a nc ien t a ud ience , l a ck ing t h e ( d is )advan tage o f aw r i t ten t e x t , h ad

' We h ave n o r e a son t oa s sume t h a t t h e p a lace o fP he rae i ss t i l l t h e h ome o ft h e o ld k ing , P he re s . I nt h e O dy s sey , L aer te s l i ve s r e t ired i n as ma l l h ouse o u t s ide t h e c i ty . I no t he r t r aged ie s , o l d k i ng s a ppea r n ex t t o t h e i r s ucce sso r s ( e .g . C admus i n t h e B acchae ) , b u t w e c anno t r e a l ly t e l l w he the r t h e p a lace i ss t i l l c ons ide red t h e ir o wn h ome . H oweve r , w ha t A dme tu s s ay s i s c onfus ing . I n l i ne s 7 36 -37 h e t e l ls h i s f a the r t h a t t h ey c ou ld n eve r s t ay u nde rt h e s ame r oof w i th h im , a nd i nl i ne s 7 37 -38 h e s ay s t h a t , i fh e h ad t o r e pud ia te f r om h i s f a the r 's a nce s t ra l h ome , h e w ou ld d o i t . T h is p robab ly m ean s t h a t P he re s k ep t d i f f e ren tl odg ing s , o u t s ide t h ep a lace . 2 1 M . D y son ( 1988 , p . 1 2 -23 ) a s se sse s A dme tus m uch m o re p o s i t ive ly i nt h is s c ene . S ee e sp . p .1 9f f . 2 2 A s C . S ega l ( 1993 , p .5 4 ) n o te s , t h is i s ac on f l ic tt h a t i sn eve r r e so lved w i th in t h el im i t s o ft h ep l ay .

1 8 M . D y son ( 1988 , P . 2 1) a rgue s c onv inc ing ly t h a t ' t he re i sn o w o rd h e re f o r h a t red , o n ly t h e f r ank " be t rayed" ( npoüboc rav 2 90 ) , t oc on t ra s t w i th h e r o wn s a cr if ice ' . When A dme tus p i ck s u p t h e c ompa r ison a t l i ne s 3 36 -4 1 , t h e e mo t iona l c ha rge i s d i f f e ren t ; b u t t h is i sb ecause o f A dme tus ' f i e ry t empe ramen t , w h ich c ome s i nc on t ra s tt ot h et empe ramen t o fh i s w if e . 1 9 A no the r p a r t o ft h e p l ay b ea r s c ompar ison w i th T hucyd ide s ' s peech : i n l i ne s 9 03 -10 t h e c horus t r ie s t o c on so le A dme tus , w ho d oe s n o tk now h ow t ob ea rh i s l o s s , b yt e l l ing h im t h es t o ry o fa n o l d n ob leman w ho , h av ing l o s t h i s c h i ld , b o re h i s s o r row ' p a t ien t ly t h rough t h e g r ay d ownwa rd y ea r s ' . T h is i se xac t ly w ha t T hucyd ide s a dv ise s t o t h e p a ren t s o f t h e d ead h e c ommemo ra te s : e ndu rance a nd p a t ience .

6 8

t o r e ly o n as ucce ss ion o f c on t inuou s a c t ion i n o rde r t o c ha rac te r ize Adme tu s , o r a nyone e l se . D if f e ren t s c ene s e voke d i f f e ren t e mo t iona l r e ac t ions , b u t a f te r t h e e nd o f t h e p e rfo rmance t h e a ud ience i sl e f t w i th a n o ve ra l l i mage o fe ach c ha rac te r . S o , a l though A dme tu s ' a t t i tude c anno t g a in h im t h e f u l l s uppo r to ft h e a ud ience , i td oes n o tl a be l h im p e rmanen t ly a sb ad .

t h e r epu ta t ion t h a t s he l e aves f o r h e r f am i ly a nd , c on sequen t ly , f o r h e r o i kos . T he d i f f e rence i s t h a t A lce s t is , a s aw oman , w a s e xpec ted t og ive p r io r i ty t oh e r c once rn a bou t t h e h ou seho ld a nd Adme tu s ,a s am an , w a s e xpec ted t ob e mo re c once rned w i th t h e o i kos ' p ub l ic p rof i le . Adme tu s , a s ar u le r o ft h e l a nd ( 507 , 5 10 ) , c anno t t u rn a g ue s t a way ' f rom h ou se a nd c i ty ' ( 553 ) . A tt h is p o in t , o ne s hou ld r emembe r t h a t H e rac le s h ad s a id e a r l ie r o n ( 538 4 4 ) t h a t , s i nce A dme tu s i si no bv iou s mou rn ing , h e w ou ld g o t o a no the r p e r son 's h ou se ( i t i s n o t n ecessa ry t o i mag ine t h a t t h is h ouse w ou ld b e i na no the r c i ty ) a nd t h a t h e w ou ld s t i l l o we a f a vou r t o A dme tus . H oweve r , Adme tu s c hoo se s t o a ccommoda te H e rac les w i thou t r e vea l ing t o h im t h a t A lce s t is i sd ead . A s h e s ay s t o t h e c ho ru s , h i s c i rcum s tances w ou ld n o t h ave b een made l e ss p a infu l i fh e h ad t u rned H e rac les a way . I n f a c t , h e w ou ld h ave b een b l amed f o r d i scou r tesy a nd h i s h ou se w ou ld h ave b een c a l led i n ho sp i tab le ( 563 -67 ) . T h is e xp lana t ion i s e nough t o s h if t t h e c ho ru s t owa rd A dme tu s a ga in . B rad ley i so bv iou s ly w rong t or e jec t t h is o p in ion ( 1980 , p . 19 ) . F o r w ha t r ea son , t h en , d oes t h e c ho rus d evo te a w ho le c ho ra l o de t o A dme tu s ' h o sp i ta l i ty , i n l i nes 5 69 6 05? T hey a r e c onv inced b y A dme tu s ' r ea son ing . T hey r em ind t h e a ud ience t h a t Apo l lo b l e ssed ( e ven i fw i th s uch a n a r duou s g i f t ) A dme tu s ' h ou se f o r h i s h o sp i ta l i ty ( 570 -87 ) . E ven t h e s l ave 's c omp la in t s a bou t H e rac les ( 747 -49 ) r e vea l t h a t al o t o f p eop le h ave e n joyed t h e h osp i ta l i ty o f A dme tu s ' h ou se . I fs o m any p eop le w e re a ccep ted i nt h is h ou se , h ow c ou ld a n o l d f r iend ( 776 ) l i ke H e rac les b e t u rned a way? E spec ia l ly a f r iend w ho h a s o f ten i nt h e p a s t o f f e red h o sp i ta l i ty t oA dme tu s ( 559 -60 ) . I n f a c t , t h e a ud ience k now s f r om l i ne s 6 4 -71 t h a t H e rac les w i l l s ave t h e q ueen , a nd t h ey s hou ld a l ready g ue s s t h a t t h is w i l l b e H e rac les ' r e tu rn f o r Adme tu s ' h osp i ta l i ty . Y e t , t h e re a r e s ome a rgumen t s t h a t s e em t o c oun t a ga in s t A dme tu s ' g ood i n ten t ion s . O ne o f t h em i s t h e f a c t t h a t h e a ccep ted a g ues t i n ah ou se p o l lu ted b y d ea th .2 3 H e re , w e mu s t s t re s s t ha t Adme tu s d oe s n o t a ccep t H e rac le s i nt h e a c tua l h ou se w he re A lce s t is d i ed .

H e ra c les ' a r r iva l m a rk s t h e s t a r t ing p o in t o f al o ng l i ne o f mora l c onf l ic t s f o r Adme tu s . T he p r ima ry o ne i s t h e c onf l ic t b e tween h i s o b l iga t ion a s a h os t a nd h i s o b l iga t ion a s a mou rn ing h u sband . J u s t b efo re A lce s t is ' d ea th A dme tu sp rom ised h e rt h a t ,

n aüaw s UK o 3µoug G U I . I T TOT UN 6 'e n .u .K ia 3 43 o Ts c pävoug T g oüaäv 6 'h K C ITETX ' 1 .oüg 5 6µoug . o üy äp T IOT ' OÜT ' ä vf 3 ap f i ü rou E N : yog i 'g i-L OÜT ' äv ( p piv ' g c t i po il i tnpäq Aeuv K aKetv a üÄöv . a üy äp p oü T gpq Ji v ic Lkour 3 iou . T h is i s a mov ing p rom ise , n o t e x t ra c ted f r om A dme tu s b u t o f f e red b y h im o u t o fh i s o wn f r ee w i l l , b ecause h e i s ' t h is k i nd o fp e r son ' . H is r eac t ion i sd ue t oh i s c ha rac te r , w h ich h a s ' s ome th ing o f t h e e x t rao rd ina ry , j u s t l i ke A lce s t is a nd H e rac le s ' ( Dy son 1 988 , p p . 2 1-22 ) . I ti st h e s ame s ense o fe xce ss ive g r ief t h a t d rove h im t or epud ia te h i s f a the r , w h ich i s a t w o rk h e re , t oo . I t i s t h e v e ry e mo t iona l e xp re ss ion o f u t te r d evo t ion a nd a pp rec ia t ion f o r w ha t A lces t i s o f f e red h im . T h is i s w hy s o m any mode rn c r i t ics s ha re t h ec ho ru s ' d i smay i nl i ne s5 51-52 :

T ie sp Z i lq ; " Abpr ITE ,

t aüT t ig a u l a c popäg T o V tg EVOÖOKETV;

TO

T I FDOKE 1 1 .eV 1 1, T f . 1 _ ( 7 0p0

E t ;

T o mode rn e a r s t h e d ec is ion o f A dme tu s t o o f f e r h o sp i ta l i ty ma rk s t h e b rea ch o f a mos t s o lemn a nd h onou rab le p rom ise , a nd f o r t h i s r e a son h e l o ses a ny c hance t h a t h e h ad l e f t , t o m ake u p f o r h i s p rev iou s c onduc t . B rad ley ( 1980 , p . 19 ) w a s n o tc onv inced a bou t A dme tu s ' v i r tue i na ccep t ing t h e g ue s t . C onache r ( 1984 , p . 7 8 ) a vo ided a v e rd ic t a s t o h ow w e a r e s upposed t o j udge A dme tu s f o r t h is d ec is ion . B u rne t t ( 1983 , p . 2 66 ) s aw h i sd ec is ion a sn a tu ra l b ecau se H e rac le s w a s af r iend . L e t u s a t temp t o nce mo re t o d e te rm ine A dme tu s ' c ha rac te r i nt h is p a r t icu la r p a r t o ft h e p l ay -o r r a the r , t o d e te rm ine h ow a n a nc ien t a ud ience w ou ld h ave j udged A dme tus f o rh i sc onduc t .

H e o rde r s t h e s e rvan t t op repa re t h e ' o u te r g ues t room s ' (gw rdoug e vo lwag , 5 46 -47 ) a nd h e m akes s u re t h a tt h e c ou r tya rd d oo r s a r e s hu t ( 548 -49 ) . P e rhaps t h ese a r e a t temp t s t o s hu t t h e g ue s t o u t o f t h e p o l lu ted o i kos . H oweve r , H e rac les i s n o o rd ina ry g ues t . H e a ppea r s i mmune t op o l lu t ion b y d ea th : h e g oe s t ot h e u nde rwo r ld t o b r ing A lce s t is b ack , a nd w h i le A lces t is h a s t o b e p u r if ied f r om h e r c on tac t w i th d ea th ( 1 144 -1146 ) i ti s n owhe re m en t ioned t h a t H e rac les i sa f f ec ted b y p o l lu t ion . T he p l ay m ake s c l ea r t h a t e ven a g od i sn o t i mmune t o s uch p o l lu t ion ( 22 ) . H e rac les , h oweve r l i es b e tween t h e w o r ld o f g ods a nd t h e w o r ld o f mo r ta ls , b ecau se h e i sa d em i -god . P e rhap s t h e r u le s t h a t a pp ly t o g ods a nd mo r ta ls d o n o t a pp ly t o h im . A t l e a s t s o much c an b e d educ ted f r om t h is p l ay .

A dme tus ' a n swe r t o t h e c ho ru s ' a s ton ishmen t i n l i ne s 5 51-52 f o cuses o n t h e r epu ta t ion o f t h e o i kos a nd t h e i mpo r tance o ft h e i n s t i tu t ion o fx en ia . S ega l ( 1992 , p . 1 6 1 7 ) p o in t s o u t , t h a t A dme tu s , u n l ike A lces t is , i s c once rned b o th w i th t h e p ub l ic p ro jec t ion o f t h e h ouse a nd w i th t h e f unc t ion o f t h e i n ne r o i kos . S ega l s ay s t h a t A lce s t is s a c r if ice s h e r l i f e f o r t h e s e cu r i ty o f t h e h ouseho ld 's i n te r io r : h ea r th , a l ta r s , b edchambe r , s t o rage r oom s , a nd t h e c hes t s a nd f a b r ics t h ey c on ta in ( l ines 1 60 8 8 ) . Ib e l ieve t h a t t h is i s w rong . A lce s t is i s a s much c once rned f o r t h e p ub l ic p ro jec t ion o f t h e o i kos a s h e r h u sband . L ines 3 24 -25 i n d ica te t h a t A lces t is i sa wa re o f

C . S ega l ( 1992 , p . 1 6 ) . O n t h e p o l lu t ion o f ah ouse b y d ea th w i th in s e e R . P a rke r ( 1983 ) , p . 3 9 , n . 2 7 ; a l so , D . K ur tz & J . B oa rdman ( 1971) , p .1 43f . 2 3

6 9

A no the r p o in t w e igh ing a ga ins t A dme tu s i st h e f a c t t h a t h e b reak s t h e p rom ise h e m ade t oA lces t is i nl i ne s 3 43 -47 ( Cf . B rad ley , 1 980 , p . 19 ) . A dme tus h ad , i n deed , p rom ised t o h i s d y ing w if e , n o t t o c e leb ra te a ga in . B rad ley f i nds i nl i ne s 5 46 -50 , w he re A dme tu s m akes t h e a r rangemen t s f o r H e rac les ' e n te r ta inmen t , ab reach o fh i s p rev ious p rom ise . Wha t B rad ley -o r a ny o the r c r i t ic f a i ls t o a cknow ledge , i st h a t A dme tus n eve r c e leb ra te s w i th H e rac les . H e m akes s u re t h a t t h e g ue s t r e ce ives e ve ry p os s ib le a t ten t ion ( f ood , l odg ing s a nd e n te r ta inmen t ) , b u t h e d oes n o t p a r t ic ipa te i n t h e f e s t iv i t ies i n w h ich H e rac les i n du lge s . O ne c ou ld a rgue t h a t A dme tus n eg lec t s h i s d u t ie s a s ah o s t , s i nce h e d oe s n o t s pend t ime w i th h i s g ues t . Y e t , Ib e l ieve t h a t f o r t h e b igges t p a r t o f t h e A then ian a ud ience A dme tu s d id t h e r i gh t t h ing . T he re m igh t h ave b een s ome w ho d id n o t a pp rove , a s l i nes 5 65 -66 s how . B u t t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e p eop le w ou ld h ave a cknow ledged t h a t , b y a dm i t t ing t h e g ue s t w i thou t t e l l ing h im t h e t r u th a nd b y r e f ra in ing f r om c e leb ra t ing h im se lf , A dme tu s managed t o f u lf i l h i s f une ra l o b l iga t ion s a nd t o m a in ta in t h e r epu ta t ion o f h i s h ouse a s mos t h o sp i tab le ( 566 -67 ) . I n f a c t , t h is i s a cknow ledged b o th b y H e rac les ( 830 , 8 55 -60 , 1 0 13f , 147 -48 ) a nd t h e c ho ru s ( 569f f ) . Y e t , i ft h e a ud ience w a s p e r suaded a l ong w i th t h e c ho ru s t h a t A dme tus w a s r i gh t t o a ccommoda te a g ues t , h ow w ou ld t h ey r e ac t t o t h e f i na l s c ene o f t h e p l ay? Many a rgumen t s h ave b een e xp ressed a bou t A dme tu s ' a ccep tance o f H e rac les ' g i f t , t h e g i r l . Wi thou t k now ing t h a t s he i s r e a l ly h i s w if e , A dme tus s uccumbs t o H e rac les ' p e r s is tence a nd r e ce ive s t h e u nknown g i r l i n to h i s h ou se ( 1026f f ) . A n umbe r o f mode rn c r i t ics h ave c ondemned h im f o r t h is .2 4 S ome o t he r s , t hough , s aw t h is s c ene i n ad i f f e ren t l i gh t . B u rne t t ( 1983 , p . 2 67 ) w r i tes t h a t , h e re A lce s t is w i tne s ses ' a t e s t o f h e r h u sband 's p rom ised f a i thf u lnes s . O n ly h e r c o rpse w a s p resen t w hen A dme tu s q ua r re l led , f o rh e rs ake , w i th h i s f a the r ; n ow s he h ea r s h im make p ub l ic h i s p l an t o l o ve a nd h onou r h e r , t hough s he i sd ead , u n t i l h e d i es h im se lf ' ( 1085 -96 ) . O f c ou r se , t h e q ue s t ion s t i l l r ema ins , w he the r t h e a ccep tance o ft h eg i r l b yA dme tus ' i sh e ro ic ' ( Brad ley , 1 980 , p . 1 25 ) . Wou ld A lces t is o r t h e a ud ience v i ew i ti n t h is w ay? I n o rde r t o a nswe r t h is w e mu s t a sk o u r se lves w he the r Adme tu s d oes b reak h i s p rom ise n eve r t or ema r ry ( 330 3 1) a nd n eve r t o e n joy o t he r w omen ( 1090 ) . A s f o r t h e m a t te r o f ma r r iage , i ti so bv iou s t h a t H e rac le s d oes n o t b r ing t h e n ew g i r l a s ab r ide . When h e s peak s a bou t a p rospec t o f an ew m a r r iage ( 1080 ) h e s peak s i ng ene ra l t e rm s . H e d oes n o tr e f e r t ot h e g i r l . B u t t h e re i sd ef in i te ly as exua l c onno ta t ion w hen h e u rges A dme tus i n l i nes 1 035 -36 . A nd A dme tu s ' c once rn i so bv iou s ly h i s s exua l f i de l i ty ( 1049 -1069 ; c f . D y son [ 1 988 ] p . 2 2 ) . H e i sn o t t emp ted b y H e rac les ' i r on ica l o f f e r o f aj oyfu l r ewa rd ( 1 10 1) . H is r e s is tance b reak s o n ly w hen h i s f r iend b eg s t h e f a vou r( 1 107 )A s B u rne t ts a y s ( p . 2 68 ) ,

D . C onache r ( 1984 ) , P . 8 1 ; A . M iche l in i ( 1987 ) , p .3 27 ; C . S ega l ( 1992a ) , p .2 1 ; C . S ega l( 1 993 ) ,p .5 6

2 4

7 0

" h is p l a in s t a temen t s t h a t h e c an h ave n o th ing t od o w i th t h eg i r l ( 1056 , 1 090 ) h ave s e rved t os epa ra te t h e t h rea tt o A lces t is f r om t h e t h rea t t oh im se lf , a nd t h us h e a g ree s t o r e ce ive t h e p rope r ty o f H e rac les ( a t t h e c os t o f p a in t o h im se l f ) , w h i le h e r e fuses t o a ccep t as ubs t i tu te f o r h i s w if e . I n s o a c t ing h e c omp le tes t h e s a lva t ion o fA lce s t i s ( 1020 , 119 ) a nd b ea r s o u tt h ec ho ru s ' p red ic t ion t h a th i s a r is toc ra t ic p i e ty , i n comp rehen s ib le t o t h em se lves , w i l l f i nd ar ewa rd a tl a s t ( 600 -605 , t h e c l o se o ft h e H ou se o f A dme tu s Ode ) . A nd i n f a c t A dme tu s c ro s se s h i s t h resho ld n o t w i th h i s f r iend 's p rope r ty b u t w i th h i s o wn w if er e s to red . . ." We s hou ld s u re ly a s sume t h a t t h e a ud ience w a s c onv inced o f A dme tus ' d evo t ion t o h i s w if e 's m emo ry , a nd i ta pp rec ia ted t h e d i f f icu l ty w i th w h ich h e a ccep ted h i s f r iend 's g i f t . I n f a c t , s i nce t h e a ud ience a l ready k new t h a t t h e v e i led g i r l w a s n o o t he r t h an A lce s t is , t h ey w ou ld h ave b een a nx iou s t os e e t h e r e un ion o ft h e c oup le . T hey p robab ly f e l t r a the r r e l ieved w hen A dme tu s f i na l ly a ccep ted t h eg i r l . S o w e h ave e s tab l ished t h a t A dme tu s i s n o t r e a l ly p i c tu red n ega t ive ly . A cco rd ing t oC . S ega l ( 1993 , p .7 1) , ' t he d ub ie t ie s o f A dme tu s ' c ha rac te r , w i th i t s a t tendan t i r on ie s a nd a mb igu i t ie s , c e r ta in ly a l low f o r ar e ad ing s ubve r s ive o f a r is toc ra t ic p a t r ia rchy . B u t t h e mode rn r e ade r 's r e spon se o n t h ese i s sues i s l i ke ly t o b e v e ry d i f f e ren t f r om t h e a nc ien t s pec ta to r 's ' . F rom w ha t w e h ave s e en s o f a r , A dme tu s ' r o le w a s f a r f r om s ubve r s ive . I t p ro jec ted h im a s am an w ho managed t o s o lve a s e em ing ly i mpo s s ib le c onf l ic t i n t h e b e s t p o s s ib le w ay . H e i s ap e rson w ho , d esp i te f l uc tua t ions i nh i s a b i l i ty t o j udge r i gh t ( i . e . t h e P he re s e p isode ) , r ema ins a dm i rab le i n t h e e ye s o ft h e a ud ience . T h is i sa n i mpo r tan t c onc lu s ion t h a tw e mus tk eep i nm ind f o rt h e t ime b e ing . A lce s t is ' c ha rac te r s e em s mo re e a sy t o a s se ss . S he , t o o , h a s h ad h e r s ha re o f n ega t ive c r i t ic ism f r om mode rn i n te rp re te r s . B eye ( 1959 ) r e ga rded A lce s t is a s aw oman w ho w a s ' i n n o w ay c once rned w i th t h e e f f ec t t h a t h e r d ea th w i l l h ave u pon h e r h u sband , o t he r t h an i tw i l l b e a s t rong d e ter ren tt oh i s r ema r r iage . H is f u tu re w e lf a re d oe s n o t i n te re s t h e r . A l l i na l l t h e re i s as t rong s ugges t ion o fa c o ld r e la t ion sh ip t h roughou t t h e e a r ly p o r t ion o ft h e p l ay ; t h is much a ny a ud ience c ou ld s en se ' ( p . 1 26 ) . T h is v i ew h a s b een r e jec ted b y B u rne t t ( 1965 ) a nd D y son ( 1988 ) , w ho s ugges t t h a t i fA lce s t is d i d n o t l o ve h e r h u sband h e r s a cr if ice d oe s n o t m ake s ense . Av e ry c en t ra l q ues t ion o f t h e p l ay i sr a ised h e re : w ha t w a s A lces t is ' l o g ic b eh ind h e rd ec is ion t os a cr if ice h e rl i f e? Wa s i tl o ve f o rA dme tu s ( 177 -80 , 2 87 ) , r e l ig ious r e ve rence ( 297 -99 ) , t h e d u ty o fa w if e t owa rd h e r h u sband ( 282 -284 ) o r t h e e xp res s ion o f mo the r ly c once rn ( 163 -169 , 2 88 , 3 04 -05 , 3 71-73 )? V e l laco t t ( 1974 , p . 1 7 ) f o cu se s o n l i nes 1 77 -82 , w he re A lces t is a dd res ses h e r m a r r iage -bed , s ay ing ' Ia m d y ing b ecau se Ic anno t b ea r t o f a i l i n my d u ty t o y ou a nd m y

h usband '• 2 5 H e s ugge s t s t h a t t h e c ho ru s r e cogn ized t h is a w if e 's d u ty t o h e r h u sband a s b e ing a n i d ea l w h ich i s g ene ra l ly a ccep ted a nd t h ough t h onou rab le ( 199 -200 , 2 26 -243 ) . I n p r inc ip le e ve ry h u sband w ou ld r ega rd i ta s h i s d ue , w i thou te ve r e xpec t ing t os e e i tf u lf i l led ( a lso s e e C . S ega l [ 1992 , p .2 4 ] ) . A cco rd ing t oV e l laco t t , t h e i d ea l o f m a r r iage c a r r ies t o i t s c onc lu s ion t h e u n ive r sa l a s sump t ion t h a t aw oman 's l i f e i s ar a t iona l p r ice f o r a m an 's l i f e , b e ing o f l e ss v a lue . T he w omen o f af am i ly a r e e xpendab le , t h e i r l i ves a tt h e d i spo sa l o fm en 's l i ve s ( s ee e . g . 1 ph igene ia i n T aur i s , 1 005 -6 ) . ' Adme tus h a s n eve r q ues t ioned t h is p r inc ip le a nd i s t h e refo re h a rd ly a wa re o fi t .A lce s t is d id n o t s e t t h is i d ea l f o r h e r se lf , b u t f i nd ing i t a l ready p a r t o f t h e f a b r ic o f s oc ie ty s he e mb raced i tw i th at h o roughne s s w h ich w a s h e r o wn r a re a nd h e ro ic a ch ievemen t ' ( p . 1 7 ) . V e l laco t t i sn o t r i gh t i n s a y ing t h a t A dme tu s d id n o t q ues t ion s u ch a p r inc ip le .

O econom icus ) : t os upe rv ise s l ave s , b r ing u p a nd t ake c a re o f c h i ld ren ( Dy son 1 988 , p . 1 3 -23 ) a nd b e a b ed c ompan ion f o r h e r h usband ( Beye 1 959 , p . 1 25) . T he b ond b e tween h usband a nd w if e w a s l e ga l ly d ef ined a nd h ad c l ea r ly d ema rca ted o b l iga t ions : p r inc ipa l ly t h e p roc rea t ion a nd c a re o f l e g i t ima te c h i ld ren a nd t h e s a f egua rd ing a nd i n c rea se o f h ou seho ld p rope r ty .2 7 E ven i fA lces t is ' l o ve w a s r e tu rned , s he h ad t o c omp ly w i th t h ese d emand s o ft h e i d eo logy o ft h e t ime s . S o , i fw omen w e re p resen t i nt h e a ud ience , t h ey w ou ld h ave u nde r s tood t h e m ean ing o f A lce s t is ' a c t ion s . S ince s he c ou ld n o t c hoo se h ow t o l i ve , s he c ho se h ow t o d i e . H er d ea th c e r ta in ly b rough tr e l ief t os ome ( i . e . P he re s , 6 21-22 , 6 25 2 6 ) , g r ief t o o the r s ( Adme tu s a nd t h e c h i ld ren , a nd e ven t h e s l ave s , [ 192 -95 , 7 62 -63 ] ) , b u t mo s t o f a l l s he w a s n eeded l i ke n o o t he r w oman w a s . A s P he res s a id , h e r b rave d eed b rough t f ame u pon t h e w ho le r a ce o fw omen ( 623 -24 ) . U n l ike P he res , A lce s t is o f f e red h e r se lf v o lun ta r i ly , t h us m ak ing i tt h e p e rf ec t s a c r if ice . H ow c ou ld s he h ave f e l t , o nce s he w a s b rough t b ack b y H e rac le s? A ga in , l e t u s c ons ide r t h e t h ough t s o f Ma i t land ' sA ndromeda :

T he P he res e p isode , i n c onnec t ion w i th l i nes 1 5 -16 , s how s t h a t Adme tu s s aw n o th ing ' n o rma l ' i nh av ing h i s w if e , i n s tead o f s omeone e l se , d y ing f o r h im . H oweve r , t h e a s sump t ion t h a t A lce s t is ' o f f e r w a s h e r o wn a ch ievemen t i sv e ry i mpo r tan t . I ft h e re w e re a ny w omen i nt h e a nc ien t a ud ience ( a s Ib e l ieve t h e re w e re ) , i tw ou ld h ave b een c l ea r e spec ia l ly t o t h em t h a t A lce s t is ' c ho ice w a s mo s t p robab ly t h e o n ly ' r ea l ' c ho ice i nh e r l i f e a s a w oman . C . S ega l ( 1992 ) p onde r s u pon t h e f a c t t h a t ' we c anno t e ven b e s u re t h a t A lce s t is w an t s t o b e b rough t b a ck ' ( p . 2 2 ) w hen H e rac le s r e scue s h e r f r om t h e u nde rwo r ld . T h is i d ea o f aw oman ' s p e rcep t ion o f s e lf s a c r if ice i n t h o se t imes c an b e i lum ina ted b y S . Ma i t land 's A nd romeda w ho , l i ke A lce s t is , i sf a ced w i th a c hance t o s ave h e r f am i ly a nd h e r c i ty b y o f f e r ing h e r o wn l i f e : " And o n ly I c ou ld s ave t h em . Io f f e red my se lf a s a s a c r if ice f o r my c i ty . T he p e rf ec t s a c r if ice h a s t o b e o f f e red v o lun ta r i ly . Io f f e red . Wha t w he re my mo t ive s? L ove , Is ay ; my o ne t r ue i mpu lse o f l o ve . P e rhap s t h e re w e re o t he r t h ing s i n i tt oo ; t h ings t h a t w e re l e s s p u re , d a rk , p o isoned t h ing s . B u t i tw a s m yd ec is ion f o rm y l i f e ; my o wn momen t o fc ho ice a nd Ic ho se i t .T he m ix tu re o f

" . . h e s t o le my momen t a nd m ade i th i s . Id idn ' t k now a t o nce w ha t h ad h appened , b u t I d id k now , h ea r t b reak ing ly , t h a t s ome th ing h ad g one a b so lu te ly a nd f o reve r w rong . H e c ou ld n o t a l low a nyone e l se s o much a s as i ng le i n s tan t o f c ou rage o r g ene ros i ty . H e s t o le i t . H e s t o le my momen t , r obbed m e o f my o wn c ho ice , v i o la ted m y s a c r if ice . H e s t o le t h e o ne t h ing Ih ad ; s t o le i t ,p o s se ssed i ta nd m ade i th i s o wn" ( p . 1 00 ) . T he re i s n o d eny ing t h e o bv ious : b y b r ing ing A lces t i s b ack t o l i f e , H e rac les u n -does w ha t s h e d id . H e d im in ishes t h e v a lue o fh e r s a c r if ice . Wi th t h e e xh ib i t ion o f m a le omn i -po tency h e m anages t o o u twe igh h e r u l t ima te h e ro ism . I n t h is w ay h e r e s to res t h e d om inan t p a t r ia rcha l o rde r a ga in a nd t h e m a le p r ide o f A dme tu s . ' The h u sband , b y a s soc ia t ion w i th h i s f r iend , h a s r ega ined a n a u ra o f d ign i ty , s t reng th a nd h e ro i sm ' ( C . S ega l , 1 992 ,p .2 5 ) .

j oy a nd g r ief t h a t g ree ted my o f f e r c onf i rmed m e . T hey a l l n eeded m e i n aw ay t h a t i sv e ry r a re ly o f f e red t o w omen . ,26 I ndeed , w e mu s t t r y t o s e e l i f e t h rough t h e e yes o f A lces t is , i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand h e r s a c r if ice . A s a w oman , h e r l i f e w a s l i ved a cco rd ing t o r e s t r ic t ion s i mposed b y ma le r e la t ive s a nd s anc t if ied b y r e l ig ion a nd p o l i t ic s . A cco rd ing t o A then ian c u s tom s , s he h ad n o c ho ice i nh e r c ho ice o f ah u sband . A f te r h e r m a r r iage s he h ad b een s upe rv ised b y h e r h u sband . A nd a l though s he w a s aq ueen , i ti si mp l ied b y A dme tu s ' l amen ta t ion i n l i ne s 9 41-950 t h a t h e r f unc t ion i nt h e h ou seho ld w a s n o d i f f e ren t f r om t h a t o fI s chomachu s ' w if e ( i n X enophon 's

P . V e l la co t t ( 1 953 ) , A lce s t i s , H ippo ly tu s , 1 p h igene ia i n T aur i s ; r e i s sued w i th ar e v i sed t e x t a nd n ew i n t roduc t ion i n 1 9 74 , S uf f o lk . 2 6 S .M a i t land ( 1 983 ) ,p .9 8 .

S ega l i nh i s a r t ic le ' Adme tu s ' D iv ided Hou se ' ( 1992 , M . d . ) , t a lk s a bou t d e s tab i l iza t ion o f t h e h ou se o f A dme tu s . L ike V e l laco t t ( 1974 , p . 1 7 ) , h e s e e s t h e p l ay a s ac r i t ique o f A then ian s oc ie ty ' s s ha rp d i v is ion o f r o le s a nd v a lue s b e tween w omen a nd m en ( p . 9 ) . H e b e l ieve s t h a t , r a the r t h an p rov id ing a m i r ro r image o f ' n o rma l ' s oc ia l c ond i t ions , t r agedy t e nds t o e xp lo re s i tua t ions w here t h e d i v is ion s h ave b ecome p rob lema t ica l . ' A lce s t is ' d ea th , f o r e xamp le , w h ich i st h e c en t re o f t h e a c t ion , i s b o th n o rma l a nd a bno rma l , b o th f em in ine a nd , i ns ome s ense , ' ma scu l ine ' i n i t s c ou rage . S he i s ap recu r so r , i n t h e d ome s t ic r ea lm , o f t h e n ob ly s e lf sac r if ic ing v i rg in s o f E u r ip ides ' l a te r p l ay s ' ( p . 1 4 ) . L a te r ( p . 1 5 ) S ega l d raw s a t ten t ion t o t h e h e ro ic p ra ise - u sua l ly ' t r ad i t iona l f o r

2 5

R . J u s t ( 1 989 ) o f f e r s a n e x ce l len t s umma ry o f w om en 's r i gh t sa nd o b l iga t ion si nm a r r iage ( W omen i nA then ian L aw a nd L i f e ,p .4 3 -50 ,6 2 -68 ,7 20 . 2 7

7 1

m a le v a lou r ' -t h a t A lce s t is r e ce ives , e spec ia l ly i n l i ne s 4 45 -54 .2 8 T he q ues t ion i s , w ha t c ons t i tu tes t h e d e s tab i l iza t ion o f Adme tu s ' h ou se? I r re spec t ive o f A lces t is ' mo t ives , h e r s a c r if ice r a ises i s sue s p o ten t ia l ly d ange rou s t o A dme tu s a nd t o s oc ie ty . A dme tus ' o i kos i sp u t i n to a d e l ica te p os i t ion , w hen t h e c onf l ic t b e tween mou rn ing o b l iga t ions a nd x en ia i s r a ised . T he p rob lem b ecome s a l l t h e mo re a cu te o nce w e r e a l ize t h a t A dme tu s ' o i kos i sn o o rd ina ry o i kos . I ti st h e f i r s t o i kos o ft h e c ommun i ty , r ep resen ta t ive o ft h e w ho le s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l s t ruc tu re o f P he rae . We h ave s e en h ow A dme tu s m anaged t or e so lve t h is c onf l ic t i nt h e b e s t p o s s ib le w ay ; w e h ave a l so w i tnes sed h ow H e rac les r e s to res ' o rde r ' , a s f a r a s m a le s upe r io r i ty i sc once rned . H oweve r , t h e c ro s s ing o f m a le -f ema le b ounda r ie s b y A lce s t is a nd A dme tus s t i l l i mp ly a s en se o f d i so rde r w h ich r ema in s u n res to red .2 9

F u r the rmo re , f o r s ome o f p eop le o f P he rae A dme tu s ' a ccep tance o f h i s w if e 's s a c r if ice s t i l l r ema ins a n i n comp rehens ib le a c t o f c owa rd ice ( 953 -6 1) . I n l i nes 9 60 -61 A dme tu s c r ies o u t : ' Wha t h ave Ig a ined w i th m y l i f e , b e ing s o w re tched i nf a c t , a nd h av ing s o w re tched a r epu ta t ion? ' D y son ( 1988 , p . 1 8 ) p rov ide s t h e a n swe r : ' I t i sA dme tu s a l one a nd n o t t h e c h i ld ren w hose r epu ta t ion w i l l b e d i rec t ly a f f ec ted . B o th w i l l b e a b le t ob oa s t o ft h e v i r tue s o fw if ea nd mo the rr e spec t ive ly ( 323 -25 ) , b u to n ly i n t h e c h i ld r en 's c a se t h e re w i l l b e n o u nfo r tuna te b ack la sh ' . H oweve r , a s w e h ave s e en f r om t h e e xam ina t ion o f A dme tus ' c ha rac te r , t h e o ve ra l l i mp res s ion t h e a ud ience i sl e f t w i th , i st h e i mp res s ion o f am an w ho d i d t h e b e s ti n t h e w o r s t c i rcum s tances a nd r e so lved c onf l ic t s t h a t s e emed i mpo s s ib le t o c omp rom ise . A t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e p l ay i ti ss a id t h a t Adme tu s w ou ld b e r ewa rded f o rh i s 6 c 7 t6T r ig ( 1 9 -10 ) . T h is i ss t re s sed a ga in a tt h e e nd o ft h e

F o r A lce s t is t h e c ro ss ing o f h e r g ende r 's b ounda r ie s i s t wofo ld . T he m ean ing o fh e r ' ma scu l ine ' c ou rage a pp l ied i n t h e s phe re o f t h e h ou seho ld i sp o s i t ive . S he d i es i n o rde r t o a l low t h e h ead o f t h e f am i ly t o c on t inue p rov id ing f o r t h e o i kos , a nd i n o rde r t o e nab le h e r c h i ld ren t o r ema in l e g i t ima te h e i r s o f t h e i r a nces t ra l w ea l th a nd s oc ia l s t a tu s ( 1 . 3 04 ) . B u t h e r a b sence c r ea tes al o t o f p rob lem s f o r h e r h usband . H i s r o le a s am an i s r e ve r sed . C . S ega l ( 1993 , p . 6 2 -72 ) c ommen t s o n A dme tu s ' u n -man ly p resen ta t ion i n h i s e xh ib i t ion o f i n tense g r ief ( 897 -99 ) a nd w eep ing ( 826f . , 1 045 -48 ) . T he l o s s o f emo t iona l c on t ro l a nd A dme tu s ' p reoccupa t ion w i th h i s ma r r iage b ed ( 347 -53 , 8 86 , 9 25 , 9 45 , 1 090 ) , m o re c ommon f o r w omen t h an m en ( c f . A lce s t is i n 1 75f f . ) , s t reng then h i s c ro ss ing o f m a scu l ine b ounda r ies .3 ° T h is i s ap rob lem c r ea ted b y A lces t is . I n t h i s s ense h e rs a cr if ice p ref igu res d i so rde r .

p l ay ( 1 147 -48 ) . A s f o r A lces t is , i ti sc l ea r t h a t , d esp i te o f t h e ( un ) in ten t iona l d i so rde r t h a t s he c au se s o n al e ve l b roade r t h an t h e a c tua l h ou seho ld , h e r s a c r if ice i si nt h e b e s t i n te re s t o f t h e o i kos a nd f o r t h is s a c r if ice s he g a in s f ame e sora L ä po i c og ( 996 ) . C ou ld i tb e , t h en , t h a t b o th A dme tu s a nd A lces t is w e re r ega rded a s g ene ra l ly a dm i rab le c ha ra c te r s? J udged f r om mode rn s oc ia l a nd mo ra l p e r spec t ives s uch a s t a temen t c ou ld b e h a rd t o m ake . B u t , a s h a s b ecome c l ea r , s uch a n o p in ion s hou ld b e e xpec ted f r om a n a nc ien t a ud ience . T he t wo i n sc r ip t ions d i scu ssed o n p age s 3 -4 , a r e i n d ica t ive o ft h e w ay t h e c ha rac te r s i n t h e A lces t is w e re r e ga rded i n a p e r iod o ft ime r e la t ive ly c l o se r -i nr e la t ion t oo u r t ime s t o t h e o r ig ina l p roduc t ion o f t h e p l ay . S o , w ha t w a s t h e p u rpo se o f a p l ay t h a t p resen ted t wo a dm i rab le p ro tagon i s t s? B efo re w e a n swe r t h is q ue s t ion w e s hou ld c ons ide r t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e o i kos i n t h is p l ay . I tr e ce ives s pec ia l a t ten t ion r i gh t f r om t h e b eg inn ing . Apo l lo , i nh i s o pen ing s peech , e xp re s ses h im se lf w i th a l o t o f a f f ec t ion f o r t h e h ou se i n w h ich h e h a s l i ved s o l o ng ( 1 -2 , 9 ) a nd h e s t res se s t h a t i ti s o n ly f e a r o f p o l lu t ion b y d ea th t h a t f o rces h im t ol e ave t h e r oof s o ft h e h ou se t h a t i s' d ea r ' t o h im ( 22 -23 ) . L a te r o n , w e a r e g i ven a n o ppo r tun i ty o fa d e ta i led e ncoun te r w i th t h e i n te r io r o fA dme tus ' h ou se . I t i si nt h e s l ave 's s peech ( 151-198 ) t h a t w e s e e t h e i mage o f t h e s e cu re h ou seho ld t h a t A lces t is , b y t h e s a cr if ice o f h e r l i f e , w i l l k eep u nchanged a f te r h e r d ea th , f r ee o f p o s s ib le d i s rup t ion s b y as e cond w if e a nd s t epmo the r ( c f . 3 02f f . ) . Adme tu s i s c ons tan t ly c once rned a bou t t h e r epu ta t ion o fh i s o i kos ( 566 -67 , 1 057f . ) . A f te rt h e o f f e ro f h osp i ta l i ty t oH e rac les , t h e c ho rus c e leb ra te s t h e o u twa rd r e ach o f t h e h ouse i n h o sp i ta l i ty b o th t o m an a nd g od ( 569 -605 ) . C . S ega l ( 1992 , p . 1 8 ) d raw s a t ten t ion t ol i nes 5 75f f . a nd 5 90 -96 o f t h e c ho ra l o de , w he re t h e g eog raph ica l l im i t s o f A dme tus ' p owe r i s d ef ined . A t ten t ion i sr e focu sed f r om t h e i nwa rd t o t h e o u twa rd o r ien ta t ion o f t h e h ou se . B eg inn ing a nd e nd ing w i th p ra ise o f Adme tu s ' h o sp i ta l i ty ( 569 -71 , 5 97 -605 ) , t h e o de c o r re la ted t h i s e x te rna l e x tens ion o f t h e p owe r a nd

A s S ega l p u t s i t , d ome s t ic h e ro ism i sb o th d e s tab i l iz ing a nd r e a ssu r ing . I ti sd e s tab i l iz ing , a s m any h ave n o ted , i n t h e e nfo rced p a s s iv i ty a nd d ehe ro iza t ion o f i t s m a le p ro tagon is t . I ti s r e a s su r ing t o am a le a ud ience a nd t ot h e d om inan t ly m a le v a lues o f t h e s oc ie ty i n t h a t i tb eg in s a nd e nd s w i th d i f f e ren t f o rm s o f ma le f a n ta s ies : a t t h e b eg inn ing t h e w if e g i ves h e r l i f e f o r h e r h usband ; a tt h e e nd , t h e r e scue o f A lce s t is v a l ida ted t h e p rowess o f ag r ea t h e ro i n a n e xc lus ive ly m a scu l ine d i a logue a bou t t h e e xchange o f w omen ( 1992 ,p .1 6 ) .

C . S ega l ( 1 992a , p .1 5 ) q uo te s R .G ar n e r , w ho h a s r e cen t ly s h own h ow e c hoe s o fH ome r ic a nd e p in ic ian p oe t ry i nt h e p l ay c o n s i s ten t ly a s soc ia te h e ro ic v a lue s w i th A lce s t i s ( R . G ar n e r , ' D ea th a nd V ic to ry i n E u r ip ide s ' A l c e s t i s ' ; i n C l a s s ica l A n t iqu i t y7 ,1 9 88 ,p . 5 8 -7 1 ) . E ven t h e w ay A lce s t is i sp r a ised i n t h e p l ay , m a rk s t h e a n oma ly c a u sed b y t h e c r o s s ing o fg ende r b ounda r ie s . C f . N . S l a te r( 2 000 ) ,p . 1 0 5f f . C f . M . S t iebe r( 1 999 ) ,p . 1 50 158 . 2 8

2 9

3 °

7 2

p rope r ty o ft h e h ou se w i th i t s o penne ss t os t range r s f r om t h e o u t s ide . S o , e ve ry s i ng le p e r son i nt h e p l ay ( Apo l lo , A lce s t i s , A dme tu s , t h e c ho ru s a nd e ven t h e s l aves [ 747 4 7 , 7 64 ]) i sc once rned a bou t t h e o i kos ' w e lf a re b o th o n a p r iva te a nd a p ub l ic l e ve l . I ta ppea r s t h a t e ve ry h uman d ec i s ion r ef lec t s u pon t h e h ou seho ld a nd e ven s t em s f r om c on s ide ra t ion o fi t .

I f h e d id , t h en o ne c ou ld s ay h i s g i f t w a s h a rmf u l t o A dme tu s , b ecau se w i th h i s w if e o f f e r ing t o d i e f o r h im , A dme tu s l o ses f a ce i n s oc ie ty ( Conache r , 1 984 , p . 8 1 ; D y son , 1 988 , p . 1 8 ) .3 T h is i s n o t t r ue e i the r b ecau se A po l lo o f f e r s h i s g i f t i n e a rnes t c a re f o r t h e o i kos o f A dme tu s ( 9 -10 ) , a nd b ecau se A dme tus g a ins g l o ry f o r m anag ing t o f u lf i l h i s o b l iga t ions b o th t o h i s d ead w if e a nd t o h i s g ue s t ( 569 -605 ) , a nd A lces t is g a in s g l o ry f o r s a c r if ic ing h e r l i f e f o r h e r h u sband ( 995 -1005 ) . C e r ta in ly , t h e o i kos g a ins i nr epu ta t ion f r om t h e g l o ry o fi t s o wne r s , a nd a tt h e e nd o ft h e d ay , t h is i sr e a l ly w ha t A po l lo 's g i f t w a sa l l a bou t .

T he eme rgence o ft h e o i kos a sa n e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l a s w e l l a s ab i o log ica l a nd s oc ia l u n i t i sd i scu s sed b y H . P .F o ley ( 1981 , p . 150 0 3 1. L aw s p ro tec ted t h e h ou seho ld a s a n e conom ic u n i t : t h e m a r r iage l aw s c once rn ing t h e ä-r i v \ r ipog g ua ran teed a m a le h e i r t o e ach o i kos . P er ic le s ' c i t izen sh ip l aw o f 4 50 -51 r e s t r ic ted c i t izen sh ip t o p eop le w ho se p a ren t s w e re b o th A then ian s , e s tab l ish ing t h e A then ian c ommun i ty a s as oc ia l u n i t c on t ro l led b y l a rge sca le e ndogamy . T he p rese rva t ion o f t h e i n d iv idua l o i kos p rov ides a f i rm b a s is f o r t h e l a rge r

C onc lud ing t h e e xam ina t ion o f t h e p l ay , af ew w o rd s o n A lce s t is "p rom inence ' . A s f a r a s w omen a r e c once rned , t h is p l ay i sd idac t ic i n ap a radox ica l w ay . O n an a r row ly d ome s t ic l e ve l , A lces t is c an b e c ha rac te r ized a s ar o le mode l f o r A then ian w omen . Howeve r , h e r h e ro ism i s p o ten t ia l ly d es t ruc t ive f o r t h e o i kos ' , s i nce i tu pse t s t h e d e l ica te b a lance o fg ende r r o les -ab a lance w h ich i sv i ta l n o t o n ly f o r t h e w e l l -be ing o f t h e o i kos , b u t a l so f o r t h e s o c ie ty i t se lf .

c ommun i ty b y e n su r ing e conom ica l a nd s oc ia l s t ab i l i ty ; e ven i n te r -soc ia l b ond s w i th o t he r c ommun i t ies c an b e a ch ieved a nd m a in ta ined t h rough i n d iv idua l o i ko i ( c f . 7 47 -49 , 5 59 -60 ) . T he p l ay d raw s a t ten t ion t o t h e i mpo r tance o f s u ch i s sue s . I tw a rns a ga in s t t h e s oc ia l d ange r s i mp l ied w hen p r iva te o rde r i s d i s rup ted . T he c en t ra l i ty o f t h e o i kos i n t h is p l ay i s i n d ica t ive o f a n a t temp t t ov a l ida te i t s p rope r f u nc t ion , w h ich i sb a sed o n g ende r d i v is ion . T he u nse t t l ing o f g ende r -o rde r i n t h e A lce s t i s t h rea ten s t h e o rde r ly e x i s tence o f t h e h ou se a nd t h is r e f lec t s o n t h e r e s t o f s oc ie ty . H oweve r , i nt h e mo s t p a radox ica l w ay A lce s t is ' u n se t t l ing o f g ende r r o le s p rof i t s t h e o i kos , e ven i fo n ly i n an a r row d ome s t ic l e ve l . A dme tu s t r an sg re s se s t h e b ounda r ie s o f h i s g ende r , t oo , b u t h e m anage s t os o lve p rob lem st h a tA lces t is c r ea ted b y h e r d ea th ; b y s o lv ing t h ese p rob lem s h e s e cu res t h e s t ab i l i ty o f t h e o i kos w h ich w a s A lce s t is ' p r ima ry c once rn . A c omp lex p a t te rn i s r e vea led i n t h is p l ay , a s f a r a s Adme tu s , A lces t is a nd A po l lo a r e c once rned : f o r h i s s ense o fh o sp i ta l i ty , A dme tu s e a rn s h i s l i f e b y l o s ing h i s w if e , a nd t h en h e w in s h e rb ack f o rt h es ame r e a son . S een t h i s w ay , t h e g od 's g i f tp rove s w o r th le s s . A f te rt h e e nd o f t h e p l ay , t h e n a tu ra l o rde r i s o n ly p a r t ly r e s to red : A dme tu s ' d ay t od i e h ad c ome ; s omeone e l se d i ed i nh i s p l ace ; t h is s omeone w a s r e s to red b ack t o l i f e ; A dme tu s c on t inue s l i v ing a l though h i s d ay t o d i e h a s p a s sed ( 4 5 ) . Un ive r sa l o rde r i su p se tb yA po l lo .3 2 I nt h i s s ense , A po l lo a ccomp l ishe s w ha t h i s s on , A sc lep iu s , w a s k i l led f o r b y Z eus ( 3 -4 , 1 23 -129 ) : t ob r ing p eop le b ack f r om t h e d ead . O n ly t h is t ime , A po l lo i s n o t p un ished , a s h appened b efo re ( 5 -8 ) . Ib e l ieve t h a t , w ha t Apo l lo a ccomp l ished w i th h i s ' emp ty g i f t ' w a s t h e r e vea l ing o ft h e p e r sona l i ty o f t h e c ha rac te r s i n vo lved . Whe the r h e , a s ag od o f p rophecy , k new r i gh t f r om t h e b eg inn ing t h a t A lces t is w ou ld b e t h e o ne w ho w ou ld o f f e rt od i e i sa no the rp o in t .

H . F o ley ( 1975 ) , p p . 3 1-36 . A po l lo h a s a l ready u p se tt h eu n ive r sa l o rde rb yu s ing 6 6Xog , i no rde r t ot r ick t h e F a te s , w ho c on t ro l d ea th a nd c onsequen t ly , d e s t iny ( 1 1-14 ) . 3 1

3 2

3 3

7 3

A lso c f . M . P ad i l la ( 2000 ) , p .1 79f f .

C onc lu s ion s : T ragedy a nd d idaska l ia . ' F rom c h i ldhood m en h ave a n i n s t inc t f o r r e p r esen ta t ion , a nd i nt h i s r e spec t m an d i f f e r s f r om t h e o t he r a n ima l s i nt h a t h e i sf a r m o r e i m i ta t ive a nd l e ar n s h i s f i r s t l e s son s b y r e p re sen t ing t h ing s . A nd t h en t h e re i st h e e n joym en t p eop le a lway s g e t f r om r ep r e sen ta t ion s . '

I n t h e p reced ing c hap te r s o f t h i s b ook , t h e w ide sp read n a tu re o ft h e t h eme o fr o le reve r sa l i nt r agedy h a s b een s e lec t ive ly d emon s t ra ted . S eve ra l d e ta i led e xamp le s o f t h i s t h em e 's e xp lo i ta t ion i n t h e d rama s h ave b een e xam ined . I t w ou ld h ave b een i mpo s s ib le t o i n c lude s im i la r ly d e ta i led a na ly se s o f e ve ry s u rv iv ing t r agedy w i th in t h i s w o rk , b u t Ib e l ieve t h a t t h e p l ay s e xam ined h e r e a dequa te ly r e p r e sen t t h e e xh ib i t ion o f t h e r o le r eve r sa l t h eme i nt h e g en re . T he m a in q ue s t ion n ow i s , h ow i st h er o le r e ve r sa lt h eme t ob ei n te rp r e ted i nr e la t ion t o t h e g ene ra l f unc t ion ing o ft r agedy ? I mp l ica ted i nt h i s a r e c e r ta in o t he rq ue s t ion s , w h ich mu s ta l so b e a dd re s sed : Why w a s t h e r o le r eve r sa l o rr o le t r an sg r e s s ion t h eme s o p opu la r i nt r aged ie s? Wha t d oe s t h e f r equen t u se o fi ti n d rama i mp ly a bou t t h e s oc ie ty o fa nc ien t A then s? We re t h e re a nc ien ti n te rp r e ta t ion s o ft h i st h eme , a nd , i fs o , h ow d o t h ey s t and i n r e la t ion t o moder n i n te rp re ta t ive s cho la r sh ip? I n t h e c ou r se o f a n sw e r ing t h e se q ue s t ion s , s pec ia l m en t ion w i l l b e m ade o f v a r iou s i n f luen t ia l w o rk s b y moder n s cho la r s . T h i s b r ief r e v iew w i l l n o t b e d one i n o rde r t o d i scu s s o r t ot e s t t h e m e r i t s o ft h e se w o rk s , s o t h a tt h ey m igh tb e d i sca rded f r om t h es c ope o ft h ep re sen t a na ly s i s . O n t h e c on t ra ry , i ti si mpo r tan t t oa cknow ledge t h a t p r ev iou s r e sea rch h a s a s s i s ted a nd o f ten g u ided v a r iou s a r gumen t s t h a t a r e p r e sen ted h e r e . A t t h e s ame t im e , t o o u t l ine p rev iou s ' f unc t iona l ' a pp roache s t o t r agedy w i l l a l low u s t o d i s t ingu i sh t h e e x ten t t o w h ich t h i sw o rk c l a im ss ome n ove l ty .

A no the rw ay t od ea l w i th t h ep a radox ica l a spec t s o fr o le r e ve r sa l i n G reek D rama i s t h e ' D iony su s a pp roa ch ' . V a r iou s moder n s cho la r s h ave c ho sen t o f o cu s o n t h e f i gu r e o f D iony su s a s a n e xp lana to ry f a c to r n o t o n ly i lu s t ra t ing , b u t a l so c l a r if y ing t h e d r ama t ic d ep ic t ion o f c r o s s ing o f b ounda r ie s — e spec ia l ly t h o se b ounda r ie s t h a t d ef ine g ende r . R ep r e sen ta t ive s o f t h i s k i nd o f a pp roach a r eF .Z e i t l in & J .W ink le r( 1 990 ) , R . S ch le s ie r , R . S eaf o rd a nd F . Z e i t l in ( 1 993 , e dd . T . C a rpen te r , C . F a raone ) a nd C . S ega l ( 1992b ) . T he i rw o rk , i n d ica t ive o f a n i n c rea s ing i n te r e s t i nD iony s iac s t ud ie s , b r ing s t o i t s h i ghe s t p o in t a n e mpha s i s o n t h e e xp lana to ry i mpo r tance o ft h e r e l ig iou s , s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l a spec t s o ft h ep a t ron d e i ty o f d r ama . E ven s o , s u ch w o rk s hou ld n o t b e c on s ide red e xhau s t ive o r c onc lu s ive . F o r e xamp le , w hen Z e i t l in c on c lude s t h a t t h e d rama t i s t 's i n ten t ion i n t h e B acchae w a s t o d emon s t ra te D iony su s ' t r an sf o rm ing p ow e r (M a sk s o fD iony su s ) , o ne c anno t h e lp b u t w onde r w he the r s uch a v i ew i sn o t f i na l ly l im i t ing , d e sp i te t h e e xce l len t a na ly s i s t h a t Z e i t l in of e r s . ' T he d ange r o f

Moder n c r i t ic s h ave o f t en e mp loy ed p sychoana ly s i s , i n o rde r t oe xam ine t h e c ha ra c te r s o fb o th m en a nd w omen i n t r aged ie s . Among t h em , t h e s o c io log i s t P h i l ip S l a te r ( 1968 ) h a s o f f e red a ni nf luen t ia lr e f lec t ion o nt h er e la t ion o ft h e s exe s i nd rama a nd t h ep rom inence o fw omen i ni t . H e t r ied t o e xp la in t h e p ow e rf u l f ema le s o f G reek l i t e ra tu re a nd my th a s p sycho log ica l p ro jec t ion s , w h ich f i nd t h e i r o r ig in s i n t h e p sy cho sexua l e xpe r ience o f t h e m a le c h i ld . A cco rd ing t o h i s t h eo ry , n a r c i s s i sm , p aedoph i l ia , o b se s s ive c ompe t i t ivene s s a nd g ynophob ia a r e ar e su l t o ft h e m a le s ' u nce r ta in ty a bou t t h e i r i d en t i ty a nd t h e i r a bno rma l ly a mb iva len t d i spo s i t ion t owa rd s m a tu r e w omen , a l l o f w h ich s t em s f r om i mba lanced r e la t ion sh ip s w i th t h e i r p a r en t s d u r ing e a r ly c h i ldhood . I t i s a n a t t rac t ive t h eo ry , w h ich h a s i n f luenced a l l s ub sequen t p sychoana ly t ica l ly o r ien ted p ape r s o n m a le f ema le c on f l ic t s i nd rama . ' H ow eve r , h i s t h eo ry d i d n o t

1A r is to t le ,

t a ke i n to a ccoun tc on t ra ry e v idence , a si tr e l ied m a in ly o n p oe t ic m a te r ia l a nd a lmo s t i g no red p ro se s ou r ce s . H i s t h eo ry n a r row ed t h e r e ad ing o f t h e t e x t s , b ecom ing a n a t temp t t oj u s t if y t h em o n ly a sa dvoca te s o fi n te rf am i l ia l c on f l ic t s b y p ay ing s u rp r i s ing ly l i t t le a t ten t ion t o t h e l a rge r h i s to r ica l , p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l c on tex t i n w h ich G r eek f am i ly l i f e t o ok p l a ce . N ever the le s s , h e p rov ided a b a s i s f o r o the r s w ho a vo ided t h e f l aw s o fh i s t h eo ry a nd e xe rc i sed t h e s am e a na ly t ica l a pp roa ch w i th mo r e c au t ion . ' H ow eve r , t h i s m ode l o fa na ly s i s i ss t i l l s ub jec t t o s c ep t ic i sm a nd i tc e r ta in ly c anno t s t and o n i t s o wn . P e rhap s ap r ef e rab le c omb ina t ion f o r s omeone a dop t ing t h i s k i nd o ft h eo r e t ica l p e r spec t ive w ou ld b e as yn the s i s b e tween t h e w o rk o f C laude Uv i -S t rau s s a nd J a cque s L acan , w h ich w ou ld p rov ide t h e t h eo re t ica l b ackg round f o r m ak ing t h e c onnec t ion s b e tw een F r eud ian t h eo ry a nd a n th ropo logy n ece s sa ry f o r af u l le r a na ly s i s o ft h e r o le o f w om en i n A then ian t h ough t a nd l i t e ra tu r e . ' P lac ing t h e d rama t i s t , t h e i n d iv idua l , i n h i s c u l tu ra l a nd p o l i t ica l c on tempo ra ry c on tex t w ou ld b e t h e f i r s t s t ep , f o r w h ich p sychoana ly s i s w ou ld h av e t o r e ly o n o t he r d i sc ip l ine s , s u ch a ss oc ia la n th ropo logy a nd s oc io logy .

F o r aF reud ian i n te rp r e ta t ion o fw omen i nt r agedy w h ich u se s P .S l a te rs e e ,f o re xamp le ,R .C a ldwe l l( 1973 ) ,p p . 1 97 -231 . 3 S .P ome roy ( 1 975 ) ;H . F o ley ( 1975 ) . 4 T h i s i s as ugge s t ion m ade b y G . R ub in ( 1 975 ) i n ag ene ra l e s say o n women a nd s oc ie ty , a nd i tw a s m e t w i th a pp rova l b y mo r er e cen tc r i t ic s( e .g . H . F o ley , 1 981) . 5 C ft h ec r i t ic i sm b yK . S idwe l l i nT he C la s s ica lR ev iew , ( 1995 ) ,p .7 6 . 2

P oe t ic sI V ,2 -6 .

7 4

r e ad ing t oo much i n to as pec if ic a spec t ( s uch a sr e l ig iou s r e t ro spec t ion s o f t h e p l ayw r igh t ) o f a t r agedy i s p r agma t ic . O ne c ou ld b e t emp ted t o a s se r t t h a t t h e d r ama t i s t 's i n ten t ion s w e re s c ru t in ized t h rough a v e ry s p ec if ic p r i sm t h a t d id n o t a l low f o r mo re t h em e s t ob e e xp lo red b yh im i nt h e p l ay . D iony s ia c e xp lana t ion s , l i ke a ny o t he r m e thod o f a pp roach , m ay n o t o n ly i n f luence b u t a l so f o rce t h e w ay w e e xam ine p l ay s . A s l o ng a ny a pp roach i st a ken o n i t s o wn , w i thou t c on s ide ra t ion f o r o t he r mode so ft h ough t , i tb ecom e sr e s t r ic t ive .

' my th ic ize ' a nc ien t c r i t ic i sm ( C . S ega l , 1 994 , p .9 2 ) , i ti s i mpo r tan t t o a cknow ledge t h a t t h e a nc ien t c r i t ic , c ompa red t ou s , h ad amo re ' imm ed ia te ' u nde r s tand ing o f t h e a nc ien tt e x t s ; h e w a sw ha t C . S ega l c a l l s ' t he i n c luded r e ade r ' ( 1994 , p . 8 9 ) . I ti st r ue , a nc ien t G reek D rama p rov ide s f e r t i le g round f o r h i gh ly s oph i s t ica ted i n ve s t iga t ion s . We a r e a b le t o a pp ly moder n w ay s o f t h ink ing a nd i n te rp r e t ing t o t r agedy , a nd t h i s i si n deed w ha t c on s t i tu te s t r agedy a s a n a g e le s s g en re . ' N ever the le s s , t h i s d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly m ean t h a t t h e o b jec t o f o u r o wn i n te l lec tua l p reoccupa t ion s w a s p e r ce ived a s b e ing p r e sen t i n a n t iqu i ty . T h i s b ecame o bv iou s d u r ing o u ra na ly s i s o fA n t igone . We h ave a l ready s e en t h a t i na n a nc ien t s o c io -mo ra l c on tex t A n t igone w a s n o t m ean t t ob e t h e h e ro ine m oder nl i t e ra tu re o f ten m ade h e r . '

U nque s t ionab ly , s uch a n a pp roach i s mo re t h an a f a sh ionab le l i t e ra ry t r end . I tc e r ta in ly f i t s i n w i th t h e w ide r p r eoccupa t ion w i th a mb igu i ty a nd p a radox a nd r e ve r sa l a s c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o ft r ag edy a nd i n deed o fo t he r l i t e ra tu re , mode rn a s w e l l a s a n c ien t . S uch a c l u s te r o f r e la ted a pp roache s h a s e nr iched o u rr e ad ing o ft r agedy . I t c an b eu sef u lt ou se t h e D iony s ia c a pp roa ch , n o ta s as o le n av iga t iona l a i d , b u t a s ac omp lemen ta ry c ompa s s i nt h e s t ee r ing t owa rd s a n a na ly s i s o ft r agedy . C roa l ly ( 1994 ) d emon s t ra te s t h e p rof i t s o f s u ch a m e thod . E ven t h e p r esen t r e sea r ch c an o f t en b e i lum ina ted b y D iony s ia c i n te rp re ta t ion s . D iony su s i st h e g od o fe c s ta sy , a nd m a le f ema le r o le reve r sa l c an b e c once ived a s ak ind o f e c s ta sy , s i nce b o th b ina ry p o la r i t ies ' g o o u t o ft h e i ru sua l

I n m a rk ed c on t ra s t t o t h e D iony s iac a pp roach i st h a t o f M . H ea th ( 1987 ) , w ho s ugge s t s t h a t t h e m a in f unc t ion o f t r agedy w a s t h e a r ou s ing a nd m an ipu la t ion o f t h e a ud ience 's e mo t ion s . S uch av i ew i s , h oweve r , e x t r em e ly l im i t ing . H ow a r e w e t o a ccep t t h a t t h e p o l i s g ave s o much w e igh t t o a n i n s t i tu t ion , w h ich s e rved o n ly a s a n e mo t iona l s t imu lan t f o rc i t izen s? ' 0 . T ap l in ( 1983 , p p . 1 1 2 ) i sa l so c oncer n ed w i th t h e e mo t iona l a nd d idac t ic a spec t s o ft r agedy . T o ac e r ta in e x ten t h e s ha re s H ea th 's i d ea s . T ap l in , t o o , b e l ieve s t h a t A r i s to t le a nd P la to a pp ly i n d i sappo in t ing w ay s t h e n o t ion t h a t t r agedy t e a che s .' B o th A r i s to t le a nd P la to o f t en t a lk a si ft h ep oe t s a c tua l ly t a ugh t v a r iou s p rac t ica l s k i l l s — s t ra tegy , s a i l ing , e conom ic s , c obb l ing , o r w ha teve r i tm ay b e . ` P la to 's S oc ra te s h a s ag ood t im e a tt h e e xpan se o ft h i s a b su rd i ty : o bv iou s ly f o r s uch e xpe r t i se y ou g o , n o t t op oe t ry , b u t t o at e chn ica l m anua l o r t o al i v ing a u tho r i ty ' ." A no the r v i ew T ap l in r e jec t s i st h a t t h e ' me s sage ' o f ap l ay i s h idden i n c e r ta in l i ne s a nd c an b e e x t rac ted ' l i ke a t o o th ' .' A r i s tophane s ( F rog s ) s e emed t ob e l ieve t h a t t h i s w a s t r ue . H ow eve r , T ap l in c onv inc ing ly a r gue s t h a t ' a s s oon a s t h e m e s sage o f aw o rk o f a r t i sr educed t o a s en tence i tb ecome sb ana l ' ( Tap l in , 1 983 ,p .9 ) . T ap l in , a s w e l l a sH ea th , f a i led t os e e w ha t C roa l ly p o in t s o u t ; t h a t ' Eu r ip ide s ' a nd ' Ae schy lu s ' a g ree o nt h i s o ne b a s ic t h ing : t r agedy i ss uppo sed t o m ake c i t izen s b e t te r .' Wha t i s i mpo r tan t i n T ap l in 's e s say i st h e f i na l c onc lu s ion : t h e i d ea t h a t t r agedy i su sed i n ad i da c t ic w ay s hou ld n o t b e a bandoned b ecau se i th a sb een a pp l ied s oph i s t ica l ly . I ns o f a r a s t r agedy t e ache s , i td oe s s o t h rough t h e w o rk a s a w ho le , t h rough t h e w ay h uman l i f e i sp o r t rayed , a nd n o t

s e lv e s ' ( t K -c r ra c r tg ) a nd a dop t a spec t s o f ad i f f e ren t i d en t i ty . D iony su s ' c onnec t ion b o th w i th t h e t h ea t re a nd w i th r e l ig ion i so bv iou s . I nt h e f i r s t p a r t o ft h i s w o rk w e s aw h ow w om en w e re a l lowed c e r ta in p r e roga t ive s i nt h e s e rv ice o f t h e g od . T h i s d oe s n o t m ean t h a t D iony su s f a vou red w omen , b u t t h a t h e d i d n o t d i sc r im ina te b e tw een t h e s exe s . T hu s , h e c ou ld ' t o le ra te ' r o le reve r sa l — ap henom enon t h a t t o ok p l ace o n ly i n t h ea t re , o f w h ich D iony su s w a s t h ep a t ron d e i ty . B u ti ti si n te re s t ing , a nd p e rhap s s i gn if ican t , t h a t t h o se w ho t a lked a bou t t r agedy i n t h e 5 t h /4 th c en tu ry s e em t o h ave p a id v e ry l i t t le a t ten t ion t o t h i s d im en s ion o f t r agedy . A nd e ven w hen A r i s to t le t a lk s a bou t ' r eve r sa l ' , t h i s i ss e en a s a n a spec t o f p lo t / s t ruc tu r e , a nd h a rd ly t ouche s o n t h e a mb igu i ty /pa radox t e r r i to ry o u t l ined a bove . Moder n i n te rp re te r s o ft h e g en r e h ave c r i t ic i sed A r i s to t le f o r h i s n eg lec t o f t h e i n te l lec tua l d im en s ion o f t r agedy . ' M . H ea th ( 1987 ,p .3 9 ) a n swe r s : I ti sa tl e a s t p o s s ib le t h a t A r i s to t le p a s sed b y t h e se p rob lem s i n s i lence b ecau se t h e i n te l lec tua l p reoccupa t ion s , w h ich t h ey i mp ly , w e re i n f a c t f o re ign t o t r agedy a s p rac t i sed b y a nd u nde r s tood b y h i s c on tempo ra r ie s .

C fS .Go ldh i l l( 1986 ) ,p .2 86 ; C . S ega l( 1994 ) ,p .1 07 . M . Mue l le r( 1980 ) w ro te as e r ie s o fe s say s i nw h ich h e t r a ce s p a t te rn s o f G reek t r agedy i n t h e w o rk s o f h uman is t a nd n eoc la s s ica l p l ayw r igh t s a nd h e t r ied t o ' i den t if y t h e s t ra teg ie s o f t r an sf o rma t ion u sed b y t h em i n a dap t ing t h e d rama t ic p roduc t s o f av e ry d if e ren t a ge t ot h e i r o wn c hang ing ( a nd n o t a lway sc on sc iou s ly a r t icu la ted )p u rpo se s ' ( p . v i i ) . 9 P la to ,L aw s6 53d ; c f . Me ie r( 1988 ) ,p .4 6f . 1 ° 0 . T ap l in ( 1983 ) ,p .8 ;c f M . H ea th ,( 1987 ) ,p .4 7 I 0 . T ap l in ,( 1983 ) ,p .8 1 2 0 . T ap l in , ( 1983 ) ,p .9 . 1 3 N . C roa l ly , ( 1994 ) ,p .2 1 . 7

T h is p a rag raph c ou ld c omp r i se t h e e s sence o ft h e a n swe r w e a r e l o ok ing f o r . T he f a c t t h a t n o a nc ien t c r i t ic i n vo lved h im se lf w i th t h e c on s t ru c t ion o fp sychoana ly t ic , s t ruc tu ra l o r a ny o t he r a pp roache s t o t r agedy s hou ld b e s ugg e s t ive e nough . A l though ' i tw ou ld b e h a rd t of i nd a G r eek w o rd f o r " l i te ra ry c r i t ic" a s w e u nde r s tand t h e t e rm ' ( C . S ega l 1 994 , p . 8 9 ) a nd w e s hou ld n o t

6

8

S ee M . H ea th ( 1987 ) ,p p . 3 8 -39 ,e sp . n .4

7 5

m e r e ly b yi n d iv idua l s poken l i ne s ( Tap l in , 1 983 , p . 1 0 ) . I p ropo se t o t a k e t h i s n o t ion o ne s t ep f u r the r a nd o f f e r a n ew e xp lana t ion c once rn ing t h e d i dac t ic d imen s ion o f t r agedy . A s w e h ave s e en i nt h e f i r s t p a r t o ft h i s w o rk , r e l ig ion w a s ac a ref u l ly c on s t ruc ted m ean s o f r e inf o r c ing c i v ic i d eo logy a nd m a in ta in ing g ende rb a lance . P e rhap s i ti sn o c o inc idence t h a t t r agedy w a s p a r t o f f o rma l c i v ic r e l ig iou s a c t iv i t ie s . T he e s tab l i shmen t o f t h e l aw o f O ewp m d i i s v e ry i mpo r tan t i n t h e p e r iod w e a r e c on cer n ed w i th . T h i s l aw n o t o n ly e nab led e ve ry c i t izen t ow a tch t h e p e rf o rmance s , b u t a l so m ade c e r ta in t h a t a s m any c i t izen s a s p o s s ib le w ere w a tch ing t h e p e rf o rmance s . I n t h i s w ay , l i ke t h e A s semb ly o f t h e d eme , t h ea t re a cqu i r ed a g ene r ic c ha rac te r w i th in t h e p o l i s s t ruc tu re . A s V e r sne l ( 1987 , p . 7 8 ) p u t i t , ' my th , r i tua l a nd l a nguage h e lp t om an if e s t a nd m a in ta in s oc ia l p a t te rn s ' . T hea t re w a s t h e p e rf ec t c omb ina t ion o f t h e se e l emen t s a nd t r agedy u sed t h em t o t h e g r ea te s t e x ten t p o s s ib le . Many s cho la r s s e e t r agedy a sa n e l abo ra te f o rm o fr h e tor ic ( S . G o ldh i l l , 1 986 , p p . 2 22 -43 ) . B u t t h i s i st o g ene ra l ize t h e n o t ion o fr h e to r ic t oa n e xce s s ive d eg ree . H oweve r , i fn o t c a r r ied t oi t s e x t reme , t h e i d ea o fp ub l ic a dmon i t ion i s c ompa t ib le w i th my c en t ra l t h e s i s : p rov ided w e d o n o t d im in i sh t h e p l ay s ' v a lue a s a r t i s t ic c r ea t ion s , w e c an d e tec t i n t h em a p ro jec t ion o f t h e a nc ien t p l ayw r igh t s ' p r eoccupa t ion w i th v a r iou s p rob lem s o f t h e i r t ime s — ap roce s s w h ich , a s i n G ar n ie r 's c a se , c an b e ' u ncon sc iou s ly a r t icu la ted ' ( s ee n . 7 ) . A no the rm e thod o fa s se s s ing t h e m ean ing a nd a im s o ft h e p l ay s — c ompa t ib le w i th t h e n o t ion o f ' p ub l ic a dmon i t ion ' — w ou ld b e b y r e la t ing t h em t o t h e p e rf o rmance s ' h i s to r ica l b a ckg round . V a r iou s c r i t ic s a rgue p e r sua s ive ly t h a t t h e a nc ien t p l ayw r igh t s w e r e d eep ly i n f luenced b y s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l c ond i t ion s o f t h e i r t ime s w hen t h ey c ompo sed t h e t r aged ie s k nown t o u s .' A n a u tho r i su nden iab ly ap roduc t o fh i s t ime s a nd , a s w a s s a id b ef o re , h i s p r eoccupa t ion w i th p rob lem s o f h i s t ime s c an b e u ncon sc iou s ly — o r c on sc iou s ly — p ro jec ted t h rough h i s p l ay s . We mu s t n o t f o rge t t h a t t h e p oe t s w e r e t h em se lve s c i t izen s o f ac ommun i ty w he re p o l i t ica l a c t iv i ty w a s ad u ty . S ophoc le s , e spec ia l ly , w a s o ff i c ia l ly p a r t ic ipa t ing i n t h e p o l i t ica l l i f e o f A then s , s i nce h e h ad b een e l ec ted g ene ra l . B u t a l l a l ike , ' a s m embe r s o f o ne o f t h e mo s t p o l i t ica l ly -m inded c ommun i t ie s t h a t h ave e ve r e x i s ted , a s p e r son s o f h i gh e duca t ion a nd b road l i t e ra ry c u l tu r e ( as i ne q ua n on f o r b e ing a t r ag ic d r ama t i s t a ta l l ) , mu s t h ave h ad i d ea s o f s ome s o r t a bou t h ow ac ommun i ty s hou ld r un i t s a f f a i r s . A nd t h e g en re o f t r agedy i t se lf w a s p ecu l ia r ly w e l l a dap ted t o b e m ade , i ft h ey w i shed , t h e e mbod imen t o f s u ch i d ea s ." 5 R ank in ( 1975 , p . 3 ) s ugge s ted t h a t t h e P e loponne s ian Wa r b rough t d own t h e s oc ia l , p o l i t ica l ,

i n te l lec tua l a nd r e l ig iou s s y s tem , w h ich k ep t t h e c i v ic s t ab i l i ty o f A then s i n tac t . I tw a s i n ev i tab le t h a t d u r ing t h i s p er iod , w hen m en w e re r equ i red t oc oncen t ra te mo re a t ten t ive ly o n m i l i ta ry m a t te r s ( Rank in , 1 975 , p . 8 ) , t h e s upe rv i s ion a nd s eg rega t ion o fw omen w a s n o l o nge r a n e a sy t a sk . P e r ic le s ' s peech i nT hucyd ide s ' ' En t -r d t c p tog M yog ( Thuc . 2 .4 2 . 2 ) c an b e i n te rp re ted a sa n a t temp t t or e inf o r ce t h e n o t ion o fp ub l ic i n v i s ib i l i ty o fw omen — a n i n s t i tu t ion w h ich c ou ld h ave b een f a l te r ing a tt h e t ime . Ib e l ieve t h a tA r i s tophane s ' E cc le s ia zu sae ,p roduced w e l l a f te r t h e o u tb reak o ft h e Wa r , i si n d ica t ive e i the r o ft h e t o le rance o fa n i mag ina ry f ema le r u le o ro ft h e c o r rup t ion o fg ende rs t ru c tu re s a nd o l dp opu la r mo ra l i ty a sf a ra st h e s exe s a r e c on cer n ed .' I fw e a ccep t t h e a pp l icab i l i ty o f t h i s a r gumen t t ot h i s p a r t icu la r p l ay ( i . e . E cc le s iazu sae ) , c an w e t a ke i tf u r the r? W i th t h i s mode o f t h ough t , w e m igh t b e a b le t o v i ew t h e p l ay s i n aw ay , w h ich c ou ld s hed ad i f f e r en t l i gh t o n t h e i r m ean ing . F o r e xamp le , t h e A l ce s t i s , s t ag ed i n 4 38 BC , b ef o re t h e o u tb reak o f t h e Wa r a nd t h e i n c rea s ing i mba lance o f g end e r r o le s , w a s l e s s c oncer n ed w i th p r e sen t ing ac l ea r ly n ega t ive p i c tu re o fr o le t r an sg re s s ion t h an t h e Med ea , s t aged i n4 31 BC ( r igh t a f t e r t h e e ven t s t h a t m a rk ed t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e Wa r ) . T he B acchae ( 405 BC ) p roduced i n t h e much t r oub led p e r iod a f t e r t h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft h e e xped i t ion t o S i c i ly ( 4 13 BC ) a nd t h e r evo lu t ion i nA then s ( 4 11 BC ) d ep ic t s n o t o n ly w ha t h appen s w hen w om en t r an sg re s s t r ad i t iona l g ende r r o le s , b u t a l so s how s t h e c on sequence s o f m en 's n eg l igence o r f a i lu r e t o m a in ta in d om e s t ic o rde r . Y e t , h ow ev e r i n te re s t ing , t h i s l i ne o f a r gum en t l o se s i t s g r ip w hen o ne t h ink s o f t h e p roduc t ion o f t h e A n t igone , s t aged i n4 42 /4 1 BC , a lmo s t t e n y ea r s b ef o re t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e Wa r . T he A n t igone e nd s w i th a s t rong s en se o f i t s h e ro ine a s an ega t ive p a rad igm . I t s e em s , t h en , d i ff icu l t t o c onc lude t h a t t r aged ie s a f t e r 4 32 / 1 BC a t temp ted t o r e co l lec t t h e o l d o rde r , w h i le t r aged ie s b ef o re t h i s d a te w e r e s ub t le r i nt h e i r a t temp t t o p re se rve g ende r o rde r . I n f a c t , i ti se x t reme ly h a rd t o d raw h i s to r ica l i n f e rences f r om t h e p roduc t ion s ' d a te s i n r e la t ion t o g ende r ro le a dmon i t ion , a l though , d e sp i t e i t s d rawba ck s , t h i s r ema in s a n i n te re s t ing a nd p o ten t ia l ly i n s t ruc t ive a spec to fa na ly t ica l a pp roach . O ne o t he rm a t te r d emand ing o u r a t ten t ion i st h e f a c t t h a t , a s f a r a s A then s i sc oncer n ed , g ende r r o le reve r sa l i sa t h eme f ound o n ly i n t h ea t re , n o t i n r e l ig ion .' T h e

1 6 T he d a te f o rt h eE cc le s iazu sae d epend s o n ap a r t ia l ly c o r rup t s cho l ium ( on E cc l . 1 93 ) a nd o nh i s to r ica l r e f e rence s , a nd ac a se c an b e m ade f o r 3 9 1 BC . T he r e levance o f t h e p o l i t ica l b ackg round o f c omed ie s c an a l so b e d educ ted f r om t h e p roduc t ion o ft h eL y s i s t ra ta i n4 11 ,t h ey ea r ,w h ich s aw a no the r s t a s is i nA then s ,t h is t ime p o l i t ica l ,n o ts exua l . 1 7 M . K a tz ( 1994 , p p . 8 1104 ) s e em s t og ive m o r e c r ed i t t ot h e t r aged ian s . I n h e r a r t ic le s he s ugge s t s t h a t b y b r ing ing w omen i n to t h e f o reg round ( p . 8 1) t r agedy g i ve s t h em i n d iv idua l i ty a nd t h u s , p rom inence ( p . 8 3 ) . T h i s s ound s l o g ica l . K a tz 's f i na l c onc lu s ion s ound s l e s s c onv inc ing . S he b e l iev e s t h a t t r agedy ' g ave t h e l i e ' t o a n ' i dea l v i s ion o f ah uman e x i s tence l i ved w i thou t d if e r ence , w i thou t s pec if ic i ty , w i thou t w omen ' ( p . 1 00 ) . A sw i l l b e e v iden tl a te r , Ir e jec tt h is i d ea ,i no rde rt oa r gue

1 4 H . R ank in ( 1975 ) ,p p . 1 2 , 8 ,1 7 18 , 2 2 ; C . Me ie r( 1988 ) ,p p . 6 2 , 8 4 ,9 7 10 1 , 1 84 -87 , 2 04 19 ;N . C roa l ly ( 1994 ) ,p p . 5 6 -60 . 1 5 A . S omme r s te in ( 1990 ) ,p .1 3 .

7 6

r e a son s f o r t h e e mp loymen t o f t h e t h eme w i l l b e a dd r e s sed p romp t ly . B u t , i no rde rt ou nde r s tand w hy r o le r e ve r sa l i sn o t p r e sen ted o u t s ide t h ea t r ica l p e rf o rman ce s w e s hou ld r e ca l l h ow t h e t h ea t r ica l s t age p rov ided t h e d rama t i s t s w i th a' s af e ty n e t ' , m ean ing t h a t t h e a c t ion o n s t age i sc once ived i n ad ua l p e r spec t ive : i ti si mmed ia te , f o r i ti sp er f o rmed r i gh t i nf r on t o ft h e a ud ience 's e ye s , b u ti ti sa l so r emo te , f o rt h e a ud ience i sa wa re o f as pa t io t empo ra l g ap b e tw een t h e a c t ion o n s t age a nd t h e i r o wn t ime s . R o le r eve r sa l w a s ap o ten t ia l ly s ubve r s ive s ub jec t a nd i ts e em s t h a t o n ly t h e t h ea t r ica l s t age p rov ided a m echan i sm f o r u s ing t h e t h em e i n ad i da c t ic m anne r , w i thou t r i sk ing s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l s i de e f f ec t s . O f c ou r se , w e s hou ld n o t a s sum e t h a t a l l m embe r s o f t h e a nc ien t a ud ience w ou ld h ave e xpe r ienced t h e s am e i n te l lec tua l a nd e mo t iona l r e spon se s t ot h e t r aged ie s . F o r s ome , w i thou t d oub t , t h e d ep ic t ion o fr o le reve r sa l m igh t h ave s t i r r ed i d ea s q ue s t ion ing t h e— ' i dea l ly ' m in ima l— r o le o f w om en i n s oc ie ty . B u t d u r ing t h e p e r iod w e e xam ined , t h e f e edba ck w e g e t f r om s ou r ce s o u t s ide t h ea t re i st h a tw om en 's s oc ia l i n v i s ib i l i ty w a s t h e n o rm . I t s e em s h a rd t o i mag ine t h a t o n ly A e schy lu s , S ophoc le s a nd E u r ip ide s w e re s o e n l igh t ened a s t o q ue s t ion a n i n s t i tu t ion a s ' u nque s t ionab le ' a s s l ave ry . E ven i ft h ey d i d , t h ey w ou ld n o t h ave o pen ly a rgued a ga in s t w ide ly a ccep ted c u l tu ra l n o rm s . A f te r a l l , t r aged ie s w e re p a r t o f ac ompe t i t ion . P oe t s w e re s t r iv ing f o r t h e v o te s o fj udge s w ho , d e sp i te t h e h i gh i n te re s t t h ey m igh t h ave h ad i n d rama t ic a r t , w e r e p i cked a tr andom f r om al a rge p ane l . F u r th e rmo re , t h e d r ama t i s t s ( a nd P la to ) s e em t ot h ink t h a t t h e j udge s w e r e l i k e ly t o h ave b een i n f luenced b y t h e s t rong ly e xp re s sed p ref e ren ce s o f t h e m a s s a ud ience . W i th t h i s i nm ind , a na sp i r ing d r ama t i s tw ou ld , w i th in t h e c onven t ion s o fa r t , b e e xpec ted t o mou ld i t s p l ay i ns u ch aw ay a st om ake i ta ppea l ing t ot h e a ud ience — ' a nd i n p a r t icu la rt ot h ep a r to ft h e a ud ience t h a tm a t te red mo s tt o t h ej udge s ,t h ea du l tm a le A then ian c i t izen ' .1 8

m a te r ia l o n t e ach ing /pa rad igm s t h a t t h i s w a s i n deed s e en a s a m a jo r f unc t ion o f t r agedy . B u t w ha t s o r t o f ' t ea ch ing ' a nd w ha ts o r to fp a rad igm s? N . C roa l ly ( who , l i ke H ea th , o f f e r s ag ood a na ly s i s o f t r agedy 's d idac t ic i n ten t ion s , p p . 1 6 -40 ) h a s r e cen t ly a r gued f o r av e ry s oph i s t ica ted s en se i n w h ich t r agedy t e ache s : b y ' e xam in ing i d eo logy o the rw i se ' .2 ° T h i s i s i n deed av e ry s ub t le i n te rp re ta t ion o ft r agedy . B u t i si tt o o s ub t le? I ti sn o t i mpo s s ib le t h a t t r agedy c ou ld h ave b een p e r ce ived i n a much mo re c omp lex w ay t h a t w e g i ve i t c r ed i t f o r . H oweve r , t h i s p roce s s w ou ld h ave d emanded a n a ud ience w i th h i gh ly i n te l lec tua l e duca t ion , c apab le o f d eep ly a na ly s ing t h e t h ea t r ica l a c t ion i mp romp tu a nd m anag ing t or e ad b eh ind t h e l i ne s a ny ' h idden ' m e s sage s , s ub t ly i mp l ied b y t h e p l ayw r igh t . A c e r ta in n umbe r o f s pec ta to r s may h ave b een a b le t o t r ack i n t h e p e rf o rmance s m any o f t h e moder n i n te l lec tua l p reoccupa t ion s t h a t w e a pp ly i n t r agedy . H oweve r , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , t h e a ud ience w e r e p eop le w i th as t anda rd e duca t ion — i fa ny a ta l l . F o r t h em , Is ugge s t i tw ou ld h ave b een e a s ie r t o i n te rp re t t h e a c t ion ' a s t h ey s aw i t ' . S o , i nw ha t w ay w ou ld t h e c on s tan t u se o fr o le reve r sa l i n f luence t h em a jo r i ty o ft h ea nc ien ta ud ien ce? T o a n swe r t h i s q ue s t ion , i tw ou ld b e u sef u l t o c on s ide r t wo m ode l s o fp e r sua s ion t h a t R . S u t ton r e f e r s t o i nh i s a r t ic le ' Po rnog raphy a nd p e r sua s ion o n A t t ic p o t tery ' ( 1992 ) . T he f i r s t o ne i s t h e Te i tho m ode l ' . V a r iou s p sy cho log i s t s a r gue t h a t r e p r e sen ta t ion c an b e s a id t o p e r suade v i ewe r s t oi m i ta t ion .' T hey b e l ieve t h a t t h i s i s v a l id f o r o u r s oc ie ty , a nd a n c ien t A then ian s t h ough t t h a t i tw a s o pe ra t ive i n t h e i r s , t o o .' I tw ou ld b e h a rd t o s ugge s t t h a t a ny A then ian w om en w ho w e re i n t h e a ud ience w ou ld i m i ta te t h e a c t ion s o f t h e t h ea t r ica l r e p r e sen ta t ive s o f t h e i r s ex . We h ave a l r eady s e en h ow t h e c ha rac te r s o fA n t igone a nd A lces t i s w ou ld b e v i ewed a ss ubve r s ive a nd a sp o ten t ia l ly d ange rou s a st h e Medea . I tw ou ld a l so b e h a rd t oi mag ine t h a t m a le v i ew e r s c ou ld s e e t h em se lve s a dop t ing t h e s t ance o ft h e m a le c ha ra c te r s o n s t age . A d i f f e r en t mode l s e em s mo r e c onv inc ing . N am ed t h e ' c a thar t ic mode l ' , t h e n am e b e t ray s A r i s to te l ian i n sp i ra t ion .' A cco rd ing t o t h i s mode l ( wha teve r A r i s to t le m ay h ave m ean t b y K ä Ek tpa tg i mage s o fu nde s i rab le a c t s c an h ave ap o s i t ive e f f ec t b y r e lea s ing d ange rou s p a s s ion s t h a t c anno t b e a nd a r e n o t a c tua l ly r e a l ized . T hough t h e v a l id i ty o ft h i s m ode l i no u r o wn s oc ie ty i sd eba ted , i ts e em s t o o pe ra te i n moder n J apan , w h ich h a s av e ry l ow i n c idence o f r a pe d e sp i te p reva len ce o f r a pe , b ondage a nd v i o lence i n i t s p or nog raph ic a nd r oman t ic f i c t ion .' A b ram son & H aya sh i ( 1984 ) c onnec t t h i s e f f ec t s t rong ly t o t h e J apane se r e l iance o n s hame r a the r t h an g u i l t a s am ean s

A s h a sb een s a id ,t h e ' D iony su s a pp roach ' i sb yn om ean s e xhau s t ive o rc onc lu s ive , a nd i ti sb a sed m o r e o n moder n p r eoccupa t ion s w i th d r ama t ic a spec t s o f a nc ien t t r agedy .' I ts e em s t o m e t h a t t h e re m ay b e r oom f o r a d i f f e r en t a ng le o f a pp roach t o r o le r eve r sa l — n o t i n o ppo s i t ion t o t h e ' D iony su s a pp roa ch ' , b u t c omp lemen ta ry t oi t .T he a pp roa ch Ia ms ugge s t ing s t em s f r om a v i ew o f t h e f unc t ion o f t r agedy , w h ich i s m en t ioned i n a n t iqu i ty : t r agedy a s a mode o f t e ach ing , a ppa r en t ly t h rough p a rad igm s . Ma lco lm H ea th ( 1987 ) c o l lec t s t h e e v idence ( pp . 3 8 -44 ) , b u t g oe s o n t or e jec t i t i nf a vou r o fa n e xc lu s ive a t ten t ion t o ' emo t iona l e f f ec t ' . H ea th i s r i gh t i s s ugge s t ing t h a t an ew a pp roach t o t r agedy s hou ld b e p u r sued . I n t h i s r e spec t my w o rk i s p a ra l le l t oh i s . H oweve r , If i nd h i s c onc lu s ion s a bou t t h e ' emo t iona l e f f ec t ' d ef in i te ly u nconv inc ing , a sh ave m any o t he r m oder n c r i t ic s . A ga in s t H ea th , Ic onc lude f r om t h e

C roa l ly ( 1994 ) ,p .4 3f , 6 9 , 2 54 E . D onne r s te in ( 1984 ) ; D . Z i l lman & J .B ryan t ( 1984 ) ; b u t , s e eA . B rann ingan a nd S .G o ldenbe rg ( 1987 ) . 2 2 A r is t . F rog s 1 009 1097 ; P la to ,R ep . 4 01 2 3 A r is t . P oe t . 6 ,1 449b . 2 4 P . A b ram son & H . H aya sh i , 1 984 ; R . T hu r s ton ( 1987 ) , p . 2 19 , n .2 . 2 1 3 2 1

t h a t t r agedy d id a im a t t h e r e inf o rcemen t o f t h e A then ian i d eo logy t h a t ' i dea l ly ' d en ied ap ub l ic p rof i le t ow omen . 1 8 A . S omme r s te in ( 1990 ) , p . 1 3 . 1 9 C f M . H ea th ( 1987 ) ,p .4 7

7 7

N.

o fc on t ro l l ing a n t i soc ia l i mpu l se s , ' f ac to r s t h a tm ay m ake i ta pp l icab le a sw e l lt oc l a s s ica lG reece ' . T h i s b r ing s m e t o t h e e p i tom iza t ion o f my o wn t h e s i s , w h ich i sc ompa t ib le b o th w i th t h e p l ay s a nd w i th t h e e v idence o fw ha t G reek s s a id w a s t h e p u rpo se o ft r agedy . Ib e l ieve t h a t , i n g ene ra l , t r agedy d i d o f f e r as e t o f e xp lo ra t ion s o f t r an sg re ss ion — a t l e a s t i n r e la t ion t o m a le -f ema le r o le reve r sa l — w h ich e nd u p b yp re sen t ing t h e d epa r tu r e f r om e s tab l i shed g ende rr o le s a sh aza rdou s . A l l t h e p lay s t h a t Ih ave a na ly sed c ome t o t h e s ame c onc lu s ion . E ven t h e A lce s t i s p re sen t s ah e ro ine w ho se t r an sg re s s ion o f g ende r b ounda r ie s p r ef igu re s s o c ia l d i so rde r , d e sp i te t h e f a c tt h a t t h i st r an sg re s s ion p rof i t s h e r o i kos . A cco rd ing t ot h e s t anda rd s o ft h eA then ian s o c ie ty , t h e w omen i nt h e p l ay s t h a tw e e xam ined a r e d ep ic ted a s n ega t ive p a rad igm s , a nd t h i s i s s ome th ing t h a t w a s d i r ec t ly d i sce rn ib le b yt h ea ud ience . A t t h i s s t age w e m ay t ur n t o a no the r o f t h e q ue s t ion s r a i sed a tt h e b eg inn ing . Why w a s t h e r o le reve r sa l t h eme s o p opu la r ? Why d id t r agedy s o o f ten d ep ic t t h e c on sequence s o fg ende r t r an sg re s s ion? T he a n sw e r i sb y n o m ean s e a sy t o a s se s s . Y e t i ts e em s p l au s ib le t h a t d u r ing t h e p er iod w e a r e c oncer n ed w i th g ende r r o le s w e re n o t a sr i g id a st h ey m igh t h ave b een ` i dea l ly ' .2 5 W e h ave s e en t h a t r e l ig ion p rov ided a n a r ea o f a ppa r en t g ende r e qua l i ty b y a l low ing w omen c e r ta in p r e roga t ive s . O n t h e o t he r h and , w om en d id n o t r e a l ly a t ta in a ny s i gn if ican t r i gh t s w i th in t h e s phe re o fr e l ig iou s a c t iv i t ie s , a pa r t f r om t h e i r r i gh t t o p a r t ic ipa te i n t h em — a p a r t ic ipa t ion w h ich h a s b een o ve r ra ted b y m oder n s cho la r s .' H ow eve r , a s r e l ig ion a l lowed t h em a p ub l ic i mage , i tw a s i mpor tan t t o e s tab l i sh a no the r m echan i sm f o r c on t ro l l ing t h e b a lance o fg ende r r o le s . A s w e h ave o f t en s e en , t h i s b a lance w a s b a sed o n t h e s eg rega t ion o f s exe s a nd t h e d i v i s ion o f m a le /f ema le a c t iv i t ie s , a nd a imed a tc i v ic s t ab i l i ty a nd s oc ia l e s tab l i shm en t f o r m en t h rough a spec t s o f l e g i t imacy o f c i t izen sh ip a nd b i r th r igh t s . F u r the rmo re , w e s hou ld s t r e s s t h e f a c tt h a tt h e e xp lo ra t ion o f t h e r o le reve r sa l t h eme i s mo r e t h an a n e xp lo ra t ion o f g ende r p a rame te r s , a s o rde red b y t h e n ece s s i ta t ion s o f c i v ic l i f e . T he d ev ia t ion f r om e i the r g ende r 's p a ram e te r s —s o much mo re t h e r e ve r sa l o fr o le s —i s aq ue s t ion a bou t p ow e r a nd c on t ro l . " The c oncep t o f g ende r a s as oc ia l c a tego ry t h a t d e te rm ine s h ow p owe r i s d i s t r ibu ted a mong v a r iou s m embe r s o f s oc ie ty f u r the r i lum ina te s t h e l i nk b e tw een l i t e ra ry r e p re sen ta t ion a nd s oc ia l i n s t i tu t ion s" .2 7 D rama p roved t o b e t h e p e rf ec t m echan i sm f o r p rov id ing t h e c i t izen s w i th g r aph ic d ep ic t ion s o f t h e c on sequence s o f t h e d ec l ine o f t h e i n s t i tu t iona l i sed g ende r s t ruc tu re s . Men a nd w om en — a nd t h i s i sa no the r r e a son w hy i tm ake s s en se t oa s sume t h a t w omen w e re p re sen t a t p e rf o rmance s — c ou ld S ee H . R ank in ( 1975 ) . B . G of f ( 1995 , p . 3 54 ) b e l ieve s t h a t ' r i tua l a c t iv i ty , i ti s g ene ra l ly a g r eed , w a s a n a r ea i n w h ich w omen o f a nc ien t G reece w e re p rom inen t , d e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t t h ey w e r e n o t a b le t op a r t ic ipa te i no t he r a r ea s o fp ub l ic l i f e ' . — T he f i r s t p a r t o f my r e sea r ch h a s , Ib e l ieve , d emon s t ra ted t h a tt h i sw a sn o tt r ue . 2 7 L . McC lu r e( 1999 )p p . 4 -5 . 2 5

2 6

7 8

c l ea r ly s e e h ow d e t r imen ta l i tw a s t o u p se t t h e f i xed g ende r o rde r .' I n P o l ic ing A thens ( 1994 ) V i rg in ia H un te r d evo te s t h e f i r s t c hap te rt o ar e f lec t ion o n m a t te r s o f a u tho r i ty a nd g ende r r o le s w i th in t h e A then ian h ou seho ld . S he p r e sen t s c a se s w he re w om en h ave t h e c en t ra l r o le i nm a t te r s o fi n he r i tance , d ome s t ic f i nance s , l e g i t imacy o f m a le c i t izen sh ip a nd c on t inua t ion a nd s t ab i l i ty o f t h e o i kos ( pp . 9 37 ) . A l though n o t as oc ia l h i s to r ian , H un te r , r e ly ing m a in ly o n l e ga l d ocumen t s , c onv inc ing ly c onc lude s t h a t , d e sp i te h e r p ub l ic i mage a s ` j u ra l ly m ino r ' a nd ä Kupog w i th in t h e h ou seho ld , t h e A then ian w oman h ad e nough a u tho r i ty w i th in h e r o i ko s ( p . 3 8 ) t oc r ea te t e n s ion s e x tend ing b eyond t h e d ome s t ic s phe re ( p . 4 1) . H un te r 's w o rk r e inf o r ce s m y s ugge s t ion t h a t t h e re w a s ac ompe l l ing n eed f o r av o ice o f p ub l ic a dmon i t ion c oncer n ing m en a nd w omen . T h roughou tt h ep rev iou s c hap te r s i tb ecam e c l ea rh ow t h e t h ree mo s t w e l l k nown t r aged ian s v i ewed t h e m a t te r o f g ende r r o le s . T hey w e re n o t ap roduc t o ft h e s ame t ime . H ow eve r , w hen t h e ' p rob lem ' o f g ende r -ba lance i n s oc ie ty w a s a dd re s sed , a l l t h ree t r aged ian s a g reed t h a t s t epp ing o u t o f o ne 's g ende r 's b ounda r ie s i sn o t o n ly p o ten t ia l ly b u t a c tua l ly h a rmf u l , a nd t h i s i sg raph ica l ly d ep ic ted i n an umbe r o f p l ay s , s ome o f w h ich w e re a na ly sed i n t h i s w o rk . C on sc iou s o r n o t , i t w a s a s t a temen t m ade b y i n d iv idua ls . E ven i f i t d i d n o t r e p r e sen t t h e o p in ion o f t h e . w ho le o f t h e A then ian p opu la t ion , i ti sh i gh ly l i k e ly t h a t m o s t m a le s pec ta to r s i n t h e d rama t ic p e rf o rmance s w ou ld i d en t if y w i th s u ch a n a t t i tude , a nd t h ey w ou ld h ave t h e i r o wn c onv ic t ion s r e inf o r ced . I n t h i s w ay t r agedy s e rved a s ak i nd o f u ncon sc iou s c u l tu ra l p ropaganda , a l though t h e t e rm c an b e f r igh tf u l ly p rone t om i s in te rp r e ta t ion s . Wha t i sm ean t i st h a t t r agedy h e lped t oj u s t if y ac u l tu ra l s t a tu s q uo t h a t r e l ied o n g ende r d i f f e ren t ia t ion f o r i t s e x i s tence . I th a s l i t t le t o d o w i th u nde re s t ima t ing o ne s ex — a l though f em in i s t s oc ia l h i s to r ian s c ou ld a r gue o t herw i se — a nd i t w ou ld b e am i s take t o l a be l t r agedy a s t h e a dvoca te o f m i sogyny . Ib e l ieve t h a t t h e m a in c oncer n w a s t h e p re serva t ion o f as y s tem w h ich h ad p roved f unc t iona l , e ven i fm a in ly f o r t h e m a le p a r t o ft h e p opu la t ion . I nt h i s r e spec t t r agedy b ecame t h e a dvoca te o f a c u l tu ra l i d eo logy w h ich w e , l i v ing t wen ty -f ive c en tu r ie s l a te r , m ay f i nd d ef ic ien t i n m any r e spec t s , e spec ia l ly w i th r ega rd t ot h ep o s i t ion i ta cco rded w omen . N eve r the le s s , i t i sd i s t inc t ive i n v a r iou s p l ay s t h a t w e r e e xam ined h e re t h a t t h e f ema le s ex i n n o t u nde re s t ima ted o r f r owned u pon . T he i mpo r tance o fw omen i ns o c ie ty a nd mo s t o f a l l i n t h e o i ko s i s a n u nden iab le f a c t , c on s tan t ly

2 8

E spec ia l ly a f t e r t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f B e c op tKä . C f . A rno t t

( 1989 ) . Women 's a t tendance a tt h ed r ama t ic f e s t iva ls h a sb een a m a t te r o fg r ea t c on t rove r sy a mong mode rn c r i t ic s . Much o ft h e e v idence i sd i scu s sed b yJ .H ende r son ( 199 1) ,w ho b e l ieve st h a t w omen d id a t tend d r ama t ic f e s t iva ls . F o r e v idence i nf a vou r o f f ema le a t tendance ,s e eP la to G org ia s5 02 b -d a nd L aw s6 58 a d , a nd A r is tophane s P eace 9 62 -67 . C on t ra ry e v idence c an b e d e r ived f r om A r i s tophane s T he smophor ia zu sae 3 83 -97 , P eace 5 0 -53 , a nd B ird s 7 93 -96 , a nd f r om Menande r T he G rouch 9 65 6 7 . C f . a l so L . McC lu re ( 1999 )p .4 ,n .1 0a nd p .6 ,n .1 6 .

a cknow ledged i np l ay s l i ke A l ce s t i s a nd A n t igone . I na ny c a se , i tw ou ld b e c omp le te ly w rong t og or e ad ing t h rough t r ag ed ie s l o ok ing f o r d i r ec t s t a temen t s a bou t w he the r A then ian s a pp r ec ia ted w om en o r n o t . O ne c an a lway s f i nd p a s sage s t oj u s t if y b o th o p in ion s , e spec ia l ly i fo ne c hoo se s t o i g no r e t h e i n teg ra l c on tex t o ft r ag ic e x t rac t s , l i ke H ippo ly tu s ' mono logue i n E u r ip ide s , f o r e xamp le . A s G omm e p o in ted o u t ( 1925 , p p . 8 -9 ) , f o r e ve ry e xp l ic i t ly m i sogyn i s t ic s t a temen t e x t rac ted f r om l i t e ra tu re , o ne c an f i nd a no th e r t ot h e e f f ec t t h a t t h e re i s n o g r ea te r b l e s s ing f o r am an t h an a g ood w oman . Y e t , t h e r e cu r ren t i mp l ica t ion s t i l l r ema in s t h a t g ende r r o le s s hou ld b e s t r ic t ly d ef ined a nd r e spec ted . Wha t w a s n eeded w a s av o ice t or em ind a l l t h a t n o m an o rw oman s hou ld d ev ia te f r om h i s e s tab l i shed p ub l ic o r p r iva te r o le s ,b o th e qua l ly i mpo r tan tf o rt h ep rope rf un c t ion ing o f t h e c i v ic o rde r . D rama b ecam e t h e l o ud speake r o fs uch a v o ice . P lay s l i ke Med ea a nd A l ce s t i s d i sp lay d rama t ica l ly t h e p ub l ic r e pe r cu s s ion s o f d ome s t ic g ende r a r rangem en t s . I tw a s i mpor tan tf o rt h ep re serva t ion o ft h e c u l tu ra l i d en t i ty , w h ich e ndu r ed t h e d eve lopmen t o f f a r m o r e l i be ra l i d ea s , m any o fw h ich h ave r e ached t h e i r f u l l e x ten t i n o u r o wn d ay . My w o rk s ha re s t h e s ame o b jec t ive s a s S u t ton 's a t temp t ( 1987 , p .7 ) , i nr e la t ion t o A t t ic p o t te ry : i td oe s n o t s e ek t o g l o r if y t h i s a nc ien t i d eo logy , b u t r a the r t o i d en t if y o ne o f t h e s oc ia l m echan i sm s t h rough w h ich i tg a ined p opu la r a ccep tance e ven f r om t h o se w ho w ou ld s e em t o h ave h ad l i t t le t o g a in f r om a dhe rence t oi t— A then ian w omen . T o r e cap i tu la te t h e m a in c onc lu s ion o f my r e sea rch : t r agedy ' t ea che s ' b y p r e sen t ing a s e r ie s o f n ega t ive p a rad igm s , w h ich d e l inea te t h e c on sequen ce s o f d epa r tu re f r om e s tab l i shed g ende r o rde r . T he f i na l q ue s t ion i s : i n a ccep t ing t h i s , a r e w e r e duc ing t h e s p ec if i c i ty o f t h e p l ay s t o o ne f o rmu la ? T he a n sw e r i s ' No , ' a nd t h e e xp lana t ion f o r t h i s l i e s i nt h e e xam ina t ion o ft h e p l ay s t h em se lve s . Ia ccep t t h a t my f o rmu la c an b e a pp l ied t o c e r ta in p l ay s m o re c onv inc ing ly t h an o t he r s . O ne m ay r e ca l l t h e c onc lu s ion s r e a ched a tt h e e nd o ft h e a na ly s i s o ft h eA l ce s t i s . H ow eve r , e ven t h i s p l ay c an s t i l l b e c l a s s if ied a s ' n o rma t ive ' t r agedy , a l though i t s w ay o f ' t each ing ' d i f f e r s f r om t h e w ay o f t h e o the r t r aged ie s e xam ined h e re . F u r the rmo r e , Ia m n o t d eny ing t h a t t r aged ie s m ay a l so b e s u scep t ib le o f mo re u nde r cu t t ing a nd p a radox ica lr e ad ing s , i nr e la t ion t or o le reve r sa l , t h an t h e o ne s Ih ave s e t o u t ; b u t Ib e l ieve my a pp roach h a s a g ood c hance o fc o r re spond ing t ot h a t w h ich w ou ld h ave b een f ound c ongen ia l b y as ub s tan t ia l p a r t o fa n a nc ien t a ud ience .

7 9

B ib l iography A bram son , P . R . & H aya sh i , H . ( 1987 ) ' S e lf i d en t i ty o f J apanese Ame r ican s i n terned d u r ing Wo r ld Wa r2 : An a r ch iva l s t udy ' ; i n P sycho log ia : A n I n teran t iona lJ ourna lo fP sycho logy i nt h e O r ien t , v o l . 3 0 ( 30 ) ,p p . 1 27 -136 . A lex iou , M . ( 1974 ) T he R i tua l L amen t i n G reek T rad i t ion , C amb r idge . A pp le ton , R . B . ( 1927 )E ur ip id e s : t h eI d ea l i s t , L ondon . A rno t t , G . ( 1972 -73 ) ' Eu r ip ide s a nd t h e u nexpec ted ' ; i n G reece a nd R ome , v o l . 1 9 -20 , n o . 2 ,s e cond s e r ie s , p p . 4 4 -64 . A rno t t , P . D . ( 1989 ) P ub l ic a nd P erf ormance i n t h e G reek T hea t re , L ondon . A r r igon i , G . e d . ( 1985 )L e Donne i nG rec ia ,B a r i . A r thu r , M . B . ( 1973 ) ' Ea r ly G reece : t h e o r ig in s o f t h e w e s te rn a t t i tude t owa rd w omen ' ; i nA re thu sa , v o l . 6 ,n o . 1 ,p p . 7 58 . A r thu r , W . M . ( 1976 ) " Trea ted l i ke i mbec i le c h i ld ren" ( D ide ro t ) : T he E n l igh tenmen t a nd t h e s t a tu s o f w omen ' ; i nP . F r i tz & R . Mor ton , W oman i n t h e E igh teen th C en tury a nd O ther E s say s , p p . 8 9 104 , T o ron to . B acon , H . H . ( 1994 ) ' The C ho ru s i n G reek l i f e a nd d rama ' ; i nA n ion ( Fa l l ' 9 4 /W in te r ' 9 5 ) , 3 rd s e r ie s , v o l . 3 ,n o . 1 . B ada , V . ( 2000 ) " C ro ss c u l tu ra l d i a logue s w i th G reek c l a ss ics : Wa lco t t 's T he Od y s sey a nd S oy inka s ' T he B acchae o fE u r ip ide s" ; i nA r ie l -Rev i s ion I n to E ng l i sh 3 1 ( 3 ) ,p p . 7 -28 . B a in , D . ( 1956 )A c tor a nd A ud ience , O xf o rd . B a ld ry , H . C . ( 1949 ) T he C la ss ic s i nt h e Mod ern W or ld , C ape T own . ( 1965 ) T he U n i ty o f Mank ind i n G reek T hough t , C ambr idge . ( 1968 ) A nc ien t G reek L i tera ture i n i t s L iv ing C on tex t , C amb r idge . ( 1971) T he G reek T rag ic T hea ter , L ondon . B a r low , S . A . ( 1989 ) ' S te reo type a nd r eve r sa l i n E u r ip ides ' Med ea ; i n G reece a nd R ome , v o l . 3 6 , p p . 1 58 -71 . ( 1995 ) ' Eu r ip ide s ' Med ea . A s ubve r s ive p l ay? ' ; i nA . G r iff i th s , S tage D irec t ions . E s say s i n A nc ien t D rama i n h onour o fE . W . Hand ley , p p . 3 6 -45 , L ondon . B a r re t , J . ( 1998 ) " Pen theu s a nd t h e s pec ta to r i n E u r ip ide s ' B acchae" ; i nA JPh 10 ( 3 ) , p p . 3 37 3 60 . B eauvo i r , S .d e( 1970 ) T he S econd S ex , P a r i s . B eck , R . H . ( 1975 )A e schy lus : P laywr igh t Educa tor , T he H ague . B eye , C . R . ( 1959 ) ' A lces t i s a nd h e r c r i t ics ' ; i n G reek R oman a nd B y zan t ine S tud ie s , n o . 2 ,p p . 11-27 . B lok , J . & Ma son , P . e dd . ( 1987 ) S exua l A symme t ry : S tud ie s i nA nc ien tS oc ie ty , G ieben , Am s te rdam . B lunde l l , S .( 1995 ) W omen i nA nc ien tG reece , L ondon . B onge r s , B . J . J . ( 2000 ) " Eu r ip ides ' B acchae , 1 064 -9 ; D iony su s , t h e whee l a nd t h e l a n the" ; i n

Mnemosyne 5 5 ( 1 ) ,p p . 8 2 -87 . B ouv r ie D es , S .( 1990 ) W omen i nG reek T raged y , O s lo . B ow ra , C . M . ( 1944 )S ophoc lean T raged y , Oxf ord . B rad ley , E . M . ( 1980 ) ' Adme tu s a nd t h e t r iumph o f f a i lu re i nE u r ip ide s 'A lce s t i s ' ; i nR amus , n o . 9 ,p p . 12 -27 . B rann ingan , A . & G o ldenbe rg , S . ( 1991) ' Po r nog raphy , c on tex t , a nd t h e c ommon l aw o f o b scen i ty . S pec ia l i s sue : S oc io lega l s t ud ies o fo b scen i ty ' ; i n I n terna t iona lJ ourna lo fL aw a nd P sych ia t ry , v o l . 1 4( 1 -2 ) ,p p . 9 7 -116 . B remme r , J .M . ( 1969 ) HA MART IA : T rag ic E rror i nt h e P oe t ics o f A r i s to t le a nd i n G reek T raged y , Am s te rdam . B remme r , J . N . ( 1994 ) G reek R e l ig ion ; i n G reece & R ome , N ew S ur vey s i n t h e C la ss ic s , n o . 2 4 , O xf o rd . B r i l l ian t , R . ( 1984 ) V i sua lN ar ra t ive s , I t haca . B rock , R . ( 1994 ) ' The L abou r o f w omen i n c l a ss ica l A then s ' ; i n C la s s ica l Q uar ter ly , n o . 4 4 ( i ) , p p . 3 36 -346 . B romme r , S . ( 1960 ) V a sen l i s ten z ur g r iech i schen He ld ensage , Ma rbu rg . B rook s , 0 . ( 1981) C osmos a nd T raged y . A nE s say o n t h e Mean ing o fA e schy lus , No r th C a ro l ina P ress . B rown , A . ( 1987 )S ophoc le s :A n t igone , Wa rm in s te r . B u rke r t , W . ( 1979 ) S t ruc ture a nd H i s tory i n G reek My tho logy a nd R i tua l , L ondon . ( 1985 ) G reek R e l ig ion : A rcha ic a nd C lass ica l( t ran s l . o f G r iech i sche R e l ig ion d er a rcha i schen u nd k l a s s i schen E poche , 1 977 ) , Oxf o rd . B ur n e t t , A . P . ( 1965 ) ' The v i r tue s o f Adme tu s ' ; i n C la ss ica lP h i lo logy , n o . 6 0 , p p . 2 40 -55 . R epr in ted i n E . S ega l ( 1983 ) , p p . 2 54 -71 , O xf ord R ead ing s i nG reek T raged y , O xf o rd . B u tz , P . ( 1994 ) ' The d oub le p ub l ica t ion o f as ac red p roh ib i t ion o n D e los . I D 6 8 , Aa nd B ' ; i nB u l le t in d e C orre spondance H e l lM igue , n o . 18 , p p . 6 9 9 8 . B ux ton , R . G . A . ( 1982 ) P er sua s ion i nG reek T raged y : a S tud yo fP e i tho , C amb r idge . ( 1985 ) ' Eu r ip ide s ' A lke s t i s : f i ve a spec t s o f a n

i n te rp re ta t ion ' ;

i n A MONH :

T öpcN L 6 , p p . 7 5 -89 . ( 1989 ) ' The m es senge ra nd t h e maenad s : a s peech f r om E u r ip ide s ' B acchae ( 1043 1152 ) ' ; i n A c ta A n t igua A cad em iae S c ien t iarum Hungar ica e t .xxx i i . F a sc . 3 -4 , p p . 2 25 -234 . B udape s t . ( 1994 )I mag inar y G reece , C amb r idge . C a lde r , W . M . ( 1968 ) Sophok le s ' p o l i t ica l t r agedy , A n t igone ' ; i nG reek R oman a nd B yzan t ine S tud ie s , v o l . 9 ,p p . 3 89 -407 . C a ldwe l l , R . ( 198? ) ' The m isogyny o f E teoc les ' ; i n A re thusa , v o l . 6 ,n o . 1 ,p p . 1 97 -231 . ( 1989 ) T he O r ig in o ft h e G od s ,N ew Yo rk .

8 1

C ampbe l l , J . ( 1970 ) T he Ma sk s o f G od : P r im i t ive My tho logy ,N ew Yo rk . ( 1979 ) Honour , F am i ly a nd P a tronage , O xf o rd . C a rney , E . ( 1995 ) ' Women a nd b a s i le ia : l e g i t imacy a nd f ema le p o l i t ica l a c t ion i n Macedon ia ' ; i n T he C las s ica lJ ourna l , v o l . 9 0 ,n o . 4 ,p p . 3 67 -392 . C a rpen te r , T . H . ( 1991) A r ta nd My th i nA nc ien t G reece , L ondon . C a r t ledge , P . ( 1990 ) N omos . E s say s o n A then ian L aw , P o l i t ics a nd S oc ie ty ; e d i ted b y P . C ar t ledge , P . M i l le t ta nd S .T odd , C amb r idge . ( 1993 ) T he G reek s . AP or tra i t o fS e lf a nd O ther s , O xf o rd . ( 1994 ) ' The G reek s a nd a n thropo logy ' ; i n A n thropo log y T oday , v o l . 1 0 ,n o . 3 ,p p . 3 -6 . ( 1995 ) ' Theban ' p ig s ' b i te b ack ' , Omn ibus ,n o . 2 9 ,p p . 1 4 -17 . C h ronopou los , C . G . ( 1991) S ophoc le s : A S tud y o fh i s p lay s , A then s . C la rk , G . ( 1989 ) ' Women i n t h e a nc ien t w o r ld ' ; i n G reece a nd R ome , N ew S urvey s i n t h e C la s s ics , n o . 2 1 , O xf o rd . C ohen , D . ( 1989 ) ' S ec lu s ion , s epa ra t ion , a nd t h e s t a tu s o f w omen i nc l a s s ica l A then s ' ; i nG reece a nd R ome , v o l . x xxv i ,n o . 1 ,A p r i l . ( 1991) L aw , S exua l i ty a nd S oc ie ty : T he E nf orcemen t o f Mora l s i n C la ss ica l A thens , C ambr idge . C o l la rd , C . e d . ( 1975 )E ur ip id e s 'S upp l ice s , G ron ingen . C o le , S . G . ( 1992 ) ` GUNA IK I OU THE M IS : g ende r d i f f e rence i n t h e G reek L EGES SACRAE ' ; i n H e l ios ,v o l . 1 9 ,n o . 1& 2 ,p p . 1 04 -22 . C o leman , W . ( 1973 ) T he R o le o fF ear i nt h eS oc ia lO rd er o f t h e E x tan t P lay s o fA e schy lu s , ( p roduced i n 1 976 ) , M ich igan . C onache r , D . J .( 1984 ) ' S t ruc tu ra l a spec t s o fE u r ip ides ' A lce s t i s ' ; i n D . E . G e rbe r e d . G reek P oe try a nd P h i losophy : S tud ie s i n Honour o f L eonard W oodbu ry , C h ico , C a l if orn ia ,p p . 7 3 -81 . C ou r tney , R . ( 1995 ) D rama a nd F ee l ing . A n A e s the t ic T heo ry , Mon t rea l . C ou s land , J . R . C . ( 2001) " D iony su s T heomachos? E choe s o f t h e B acchae i n 3 Maccabee s" , i n B ib l ica 8 2 ( 4 ) ,p p . 5 39 -548 . C ra ik , E . ( 1990 ) ' T rag ic l ove , c om ic s ex? ' ; i n T raged y a nd t h eP o l i s . P aper sf rom t h e G reek D rama C onf erence a t N o t t ingham , 1 8 -20 J u ly 1 990 , p p . 2 53 -62 . C roa l ly , N . T . ( 1994 ) E ur ip id ean P o lem ic . T he T ro jan W omen a nd t h eF unc t ion o fT raged y , C ambr idge . C u lham , P . ( 1987 ) ' Ten y ea r s a f te r P ome roy : s t ud ies o f t h e i mage a nd r e a l i ty o f women i n a n t iqu i ty ; i n H e l ios , v o l . 1 3 ( 2 ) ,p p . 9 30 . D a le , A . M . ( 1954 ) E ur ip id e s ' A lce s t i s , Oxf o rd ; r e p r . 1 987 . D anf or th , L . M . ( 1982 ) T he Dea th R i tua l s o f R ura l G reece , P r ince ton . D av id son , J .F .( 1983 ) ' The p a rodo s o ft h eA n t igone ' ; i n B u l le t in o ft h eI ns t i tu te o f C la ss ica l S tud ie s , v o l .

3 0 ,p p .4 1-51 . D av ie s , J .K . ( 1971) A then ian P roper t ied F am i l ie s : 6 00 3 00 BC , O xf o rd . D awe , R . D . ( 1964 ) T he C o l la t ion a nd I nve s t iga t ion o f t h e Manuscr ip t so fA e schy lus , C amb r idge . ( 1968 ) ' Some r ef l ec t ion s o n A te a nd H ama r t ia ' ; i n Harvard S tud ie s i n C la s s ica l P h i lo logy ,v o l . 7 2 ,p p . 8 9 -123 . D edou s i , C . ( 1995 ) ' G reek d rama a nd i t s s pec ta to r s : c onven t ion s a nd r e la t ion sh ip s ' ; i n A . G r iff i th s , S tage D irec t ions . E s says i n A nc ien t D rama i n Honour o fE . W . Hand ley ,p p . 1 23 -32 , L ondon . D e t ienne , M . ( 1974 ) L e s R use s d e l ' I n te l l igence , P a r i s ; t r an s l . b yJ .L loyd , 1 978 , L ondon . ( 1977 ) T he G ard ens o f Ad on i s ( t ran s l . o f L e sJ ard ins d ' Adon i s , 1 972 ) ; H a ssock s . ( 1979 ) ' The v i o lence o fw e l l -bor n l a d ie s ' ; i n D e t ienne , M . & V ernan t , J . P . ( 1979 ) T he C u i s ine o fS acr if i ce Among t h e G reek s , p p . 1 29 4 7 , P a r i s , L ondon ( 1988 ) " The D ana id s among t h em se lve s o r T he v i o len t f ounda t ion s o f ma r r iage" ; i nA re thu sa 2 1 ( 2 ) ,p p . 1 59 -175 . D odd s , E . R . ( 1951) T he G reek s a nd t h e I r ra t iona l , B e rke ley . ( 1960 ) E ur ip id e s ' B acchae , O xf o rd ; r e p r . 1 988 . D onne r s te in , E . ( 1984 ) P ornography a nd S exua l A gg re s s ion , O r lando . D o r son , R . M . ( 1972 ) A f r ican F o lk lore , I nd iana Un ive r s i ty P res s . D ove r , K . T . ( 1973 ) ' C la ss ica l G reek a t t i tude t o s exua l b ehav iou r ' ; i nA re thusa , v o l . 6 ,n o . 1 ,p p . 5 9 -74 . ( 1974 ) G reek P opu lar Mora l i ty i n t h e T ime o fP la to a nd A r i s to t le , O xf o rd . D unn , F . M . ( 1995 ) Tau san ia s o n t h e t omb o f Medea 's c h i ld r en ' ; i n Mnemosyne , v o l . XLV I I I , f a sc . 3 , J une ,p p . 3 48 -51 . D u rand , R . ( 1977 ) ' The d i spos i t ion o ft h e v o ice ' ; i nM . B enamon & C . C a rame l lo P erf ormance s i n P os tmod ern C u l ture , M i lwaukee ,p p . 9 9 -110 . D y son , S . L . ( 1992 ) C ommun i ty a nd S oc ie ty i n R oman I t a ly ,B a l t imore . D y son , M . ( 1988 ) ' A lce s t i s ' c h i ld ren a nd t h e c ha rac te ro f Adme tu s ' ; i n J ourna l o f C la s s ica l S tud ie s , v o l . CV I I I ,p p . 1 5 -26 . E a s te r l ing , P . E . ( 1977 ) ' The i n f an t ic ide i n E u r ip ide s ' Med ea ' , Y a le C la ss ica l S tud ie s , v o l . XXV , p p . 1 77 -191 . ( 1987a ) ' The s e cond s t a s imon o f A n t igone ' ; i n D iony s iaca . P resen ted t o S i r D eny sP age ,p p . 1 41-58 , C ambr idge . ( 1987b ) ' Women i n t r ag ic s pace ' ; i n B u l le t in o ft h eI ns t i tu te o fC la ss ica lS tud ie s o ft h e U n iver s i ty o fL ondon , 3 4 ,p p . 1 0 -26 . ( 1994 ) ' Eu r ip ides o u t s ide A then s : a s pecu la t ive n o te ' ; i nI l l ino i s C la s s ica lS tud ie s , n o . 1 9 ,p p . 7 3 -80 . E dwa rd s , M . ( 2000 ) , " Eu r ip ides ' p l ay s . V o l . 1 , Med ea , T he P hoen ic ian Women , B acchae" ; i n

8 2

C on temporary T hea tre R evue 1 0 ,p p . 1 47 -149 . E h renberg , ( 1954 )S ophoc le sa nd P er ic le s , O xf ord . ( 1968 ) F rom S o lon t o S ocra tes : G reek H i s tory a nd C iv i l iza t ion d ur ing t h eS i x th a nd F if th C en tury BC , 2 nd e d . , L ondon . ( 1974 ) Man , S ta te a nd D e i ty : E ssay s i n A nc ien tH i s tory , L ondon . E l se , G . F .( 1976 ) T he Madne ss o fA n t igone , H e ide lbe rg . E l sh ta in , J . B . ( 1981) P ub l ic Man , P r iva te W oman . W omen i nS oc ia la nd P o l i t ica lT hough t , Oxf o rd . E nge l s , D . ( 1980 ) ' The p rob lem o ff ema le i n f an t ic ide i n t h e G reco -Roman w o r ld ' ; i n C las s ica l P h i lo logy , v o l . 7 5 ,p p . 12 -20 . E uben , P .J .( 1986 ) G reek T raged y a nd P o l i t ica l T heo ry , B e rke ley . F an tham , E . ( 1986 ) 'Women i na n t iqu i ty : as e lec t ive ( and s ub jec t ive ) s u rvey 1 979 1984 ' ; i nC la ss ica l V i ew s , v o l . XXX ,n o . 5 ,p p . 1 24 . F a raone , C . A . ( 1992 ) ' Sex a nd p owe r : m a le ta rge t t ing a ph rod is ia cs i n t h e G reek mag ica l t r ad i t ion ' ; i n He l ios 1 9 ,p p . 9 2 -133 . ( 1994 ) ` De ian i ra ' s m i s take a nd t h e d em i se o f H e rac le s : e ro t ic m ag ic i n S ophok le s ' T rach in iae ' ; i n He l ios 2 1 ,p p . 15 135 . F e r r i s , L . ( 1993 ) C ross ing t h e S tage : C on trover s ie s o n C ross -Dre ss ing , L ondon . F in ley , J r . J .H . ( 1972 ) A e schy lu s ; e d . M . H . McCa l l J r . , L ondon . F i she r ,N . R . E .( 1976 )S oc ia l V a lue s i nC la ss ica lA thens , L ondon . ( 1992 ) . Hybr i s . AS tud y i n t h e V a lues o f Honour a nd S hame i n A nc ien t G reece , Wa rm in s te r . F lace a re , R . ( 1965 ) Da i ly L if e i nG reece a tt h e t ime o f P er ic le s( t ran s l . o f L a V i e Q uo t id ienne e n G rjce a u S i èc le d e Nr ic l i ' s , 1 959 , P a r i s , b y P . G reen ) , L ondon . ( 1970 )E ur ip id eMd je , P a r i s . F l ick inge r , M . K . ( 1935 ) T he

Yo rk . G age r , J .( 1992 ) C ur se T ab le t s a nd B ind ing S pe l l sf rom t h eA nc ien t W or ld , Oxf o rd , N . Yo rk . G an tz , T . ( 1978 ) ' Love a nd d ea th i n t h e S upp l ian t s o f A e schy lu s ' ; i nP hoen ix , v o l . 3 2 ,4 ,p .2 79 -287 . G a rbe r , M . ( 1992 ) V es ted I n tere s t , C ross -Dre s s ing a nd C u l tura lA nx ie ty , L ondon . G a rc ia , J . & Ma i t land , S . ( 1983 ) Wa lk ing o n t h e Wa ter . W omen T a lk a bou tS p ir i tua l i ty , L ondon . G a rd ine r , C . P . ( 1987 ) T he S ophoc lean C horus : AS tud y o fC harac ter a nd F unc t ion , I owa C i ty . G a r land , R . ( 1985 ) T he G reek w ay o fDea th , L ondon . G a rne r , R . ( 1988 ) ' Dea th a nd v i c to ry i n E ur ip ide s ' A lce s t i s ' ; i nC las s ica lA n t iqu i ty , n o . 7 ,p p . 5 8 -71 . G a rv ie , A . F . ( 1969 ) A e schy lu s ' S upp l ice s . P lay a nd T r i logy , L ondon . G e l l ie , G . H . ( 1972 )S ophoc le s : AR ead ing , Me lbou rne . G en i&e , J .d e l a ( 195? ) C orpus V a sorum A n t iquorum : F rance f a sc . 2 0 . Musje d eL aon ,f asc . 1 ,P a r i s . ( 1958 ) , U nerove äO i seaux d u C ab ine td e s M& Ia i l le s , P a r i s . ( 1968 ) R echerche s s ur l ' Age d u F er e n I t a l ie Mjr id iona le , S a la C ons i l ina ,N ap le s . G eo rgan tzog lou , N . ( 1991) ' Aeschy lu s ' S upp l ian t s 5 44 6 ' ; i n Mnemosyne ,n o . 4 4 , f a sc .1/2 ,p p . 1 60 -61 . G er n e t , L . ( 1981) T he A n thropo logy o fA nc ien t G reece ; t r an s l .b yJ .H am i l ton a nd G . Nagy , B a l t imo re . G oe t sch , S .( 1994 ) ' P lay ing a ga in s t t h e t e x t : L e s A t r ide s a nd t h e h i s tory o f r ead ing A eschy lu s ' ; i n TDR , v o l . 3 8 ,p p . 7 5 -95 . Gof f , B . ( 1995) ' The w omen o f T hebes ' , T he C la ss ica l J ourna l , v o l . 9 0 , n o . 4 ,p p . 3 53 -65 . G o lden , M . ( 1981) ' Demog raphy a nd t h e e xposu re o f g i r l sa tA then s ' ; i nP hoen ix , v o l . 3 5 , p p . 3 16 -31 . G o ldf a rb , B .E . ( 1993 ) ' The c onf l ic t o f o b l iga t ion s i n E u r ip ides ' A lce s t i s ' ; i n G reek R oman a nd B yzan t ine S tud ie s , v o l . 3 3 , n o . 2 ,p p . 1 09 -126 . Go ldh i l l , S .( 1986 ) R ead ing G reek T raged y , ( r ep r . 1 992 ) , C amb r idge . ( 1989 ) ' Read ing p e rf o rmance c r i t ic ism ' ; i n G reece a nd R ome , v o l . x xxv i ,n o . 2 ,p p . 1 72 -82 . ( 1991) T he P oe t ' s V o ice , C ambr idge . ( 1994 ) ' Rep resen t ing d emocracy : w omen a tt h e G rea t D iony s ia ' ; o f f p r in t f r om R . O sbor n e &S .H ornb lowe re dd . ,R i tua l , F inance , P o l i t ic s , p p . 3 48 -69 , Oxf o rd . G omme , A . W . ( 1925 ) ' The p o s i t ion o f women i nA then s i n t h e f i f r th a nd f ou r th c en tu ry BC ' ; i n C la ss ica l P h i lo logy , v o l . 2 0 ,p p . 1 25 . Go rdon , R . L . e d . ( 1981) My th , R e l ig ion a nd S oc ie ty , C amb r idge . G ou ld , J . ( 1973 ) I l ik e te ia% i n J ourna l o f H e l len ic S tud ie s , XC I I I ,p .7 4 103 . ( 1980 ) , ' Law , c u s tom a nd my th : a spec t s o f t h e s oc ia l p o s i t ion o fw omen i nc l a s s ica l A then s ' ; i nJ ourna lo fHe l len ic S tud ie s ,n o . 1 00 ,p p . 3 8 -59 . ( 1981) ' Who i s a f ra id o f E u r ip ide s ' Med ea? ' ; i n Omn ibus , 2 nd i s sue ,p p . 7 8 . G rego ry , J .( 1979 ) ' Eu r ip ides ' A lce s t i s ' ; i nH erme s 1 07 , p p . 2 59 -70 .

' Apapn 'a o fS ophoc le s '

A n t igone , I owa C i ty . F o ley , H . P . ( 1975 ) ' S ex a nd s t a te i na nc ien t G reece ' ; i n D iacr i t ic s5 .4 ,p p . 3 1-6 . ( 1981) R ef l ec t ions o fW omen i nA n t iqu i ty , L ondon . ( 1990 ) ' The p o l i t ic s o ft r ag ic l amen ta t ion ' ; i n T raged y a nd t h e P ol s . P aper sf rom t h e G reek D rama C onf erence a tN o t t ingham , 1 8 -20 J u ly 1 990 ,p p . 1 01-144 . F r iedan , B . ( 1963 ) T he F em in ine My s t ique , L ondon . F r ied r ich , R . ( 1990 ) ' Medea a po l i s : o n E u r ip ides ' d rama t iza t ion o ft h e c r i s i so ft h ep o l is ' ; i nT raged y a nd t h e P o l i s . P aper s f rom t h e G reek D rama C onf erence a t N o t t ingham , 1 8 -20 J u ly 1 990 , p p . 2 19 -40 . ( 2000 ) " The n ew r i tua l i sm i n R icha rd S eaf ord 's c ommen ta ry o n t h e B acchae" ( c r i t ica l a s ses smen t ) ; i nA r ion 7( 3 ) ,p p . 15 -152 . F r i tz , K . v on ( 1960 ) A n t ike u nd Mod erne T ragöd ie , B e r l in . F u s te l d e C ou lange s , N . D . ( 1955 ) T he A nc ien t C i ty ,N ew

8 3

( 1997 ) " The Go rgon 's s eve red h ead : s t ud ies o f A lce s t i s , E lec t ra a nd P hoen i s sae" ; i n Amer ican J ourna l o fP h i lo logy 19 ( 1 ) , p p . 1 26 1 28 ( book r ev iew ) . G reen , D . ( 1950 ) Man i n h i s P r id e : aS tud y i n t h e P o l i t ica l P h i lo sophy o f T hucyd id e s a nd P la to , C h icago . G rene , D . & L a t t imo re , R . ( 1960 ) T he C omp le te G reek T raged ie s , C h icago . G reen , J . R . ( 1994 ) T hea t re i n A nc ien t G reek S oc ie ty , L ondon . G reen , M . ( 1963 ) AP or tra i to fA r i s to t le , L ondon . ( 1974 ) T he U nd er s tand ing o f Na ture : E s say s i nt h eP h i losophy o fB io logy , Do rd rech t . G r iff i th , M . ( 1995 ) ' Br i l l ian t d yna s t s : P owe r a nd p o l i tcs i n t h e O re s te ia% i n C la s s ica l A n t iqu i ty , v o l . 1 4 , n o . 1 ,p p . 6 2 -129 . Gu th r ie , W . K . C . ( 1971) T he S oph i s t s , C ambr idge . H ägg , R . ( 1983 ) T he G reek R ena i s sance o ft h e E igh th C en tury BC : T rad i t ion a nd I nnova t ion , S tockho lm . ( 1994 ) A nc ien t G reek C u l t P rac t ice f rom t h eE p igraph ica lE v id ence . P roceed ing s o f t h e S econd I n tena t iona l S em inar o n A nc ien t G reek C u l t , o rgan i zed b yt h e Swed i sh I ns t i tu te a tA thens , 2 2 -24 N ovember , 1 991 , S tockho lm . H a igh , A . E . ( 1939 ) T he A t t ic T hea tre . A De scr ip t ion o f t h e S tage a nd T hea t re o ft h eA then ians a nd o ft h e D rama t ic P erf ormance sa tA thens , O xf o rd . H an sen , M . H . ( 1975 ) E i sange l ia . T he S overe ign ty o ft h e P eop le ' s C our t i nA thens i n t h e F our th C en tu ry BC a nd t h e I mpeachmen t o f G enera l s a nd P o l i t ic ians , Oden se . H an son , A . ( 1975 ) H ippocra te s . D i sease s o f W omen , C h icago . H a r r is , E . M . ( 1990 ) ' D id t h e A then ian s r ega rd s educ t ion a s a w o r se c r ime t h an r ape? ' ; i n C la ss ica l Q uar ter ly , v o l . XL ,n o . 2 ,p p . 3 70 -77 . H a r r i son , A . R . W . ( 1968 ) T he L aw o f A thens : T he F am i ly a nd P roper ty , Oxf o rd . H aw ley , R . & L ev ick , B . ( 1995 ) W omen i n A n t iqu i ty . N ew A ssessmen t s , L ondon , N ew Yo rk . H ea th , M . ( 1987 ) T he P oe t ic so fG reek T raged y , L ondon . H e iden , B . ( 1990 ) ' Emo t ion , a c t ing , a nd t h e A then ian e t hos ' ; i nT raged ya nd t h e P o l i s . P aper sf rom t h e G reek D rama C onf erence a t N o t t ingham , 1 8 -20 J u ly 1 990 , p p . 1 45 -166 . H ende r son , J .( 1991) ' Women i n t h e A then ian d rama t ic f e s t iva ls ' ; i n T ransac t ions o f t h e Amer ican P h i lo log ica lA ssoc ia t ion , v o l . 1 21 , p p . 1 33-47 . H e s te r , D . A . ( 1980 ) ' Law a nd p i e ty i nt h eA n t igone ' ; i n W iener S tud ien , v o l . 1 4 ,p p . 5 8 . H och -Sm i th , J .& S pr ing , A . ( 1978 ) W omen i nR i tua la nd S ymbo l ic R o le s ,N ew Yo rk . H o lde reman , E . S . ( 1985 ) ' Le s a ce rdo tes se : r equ is i t i , f unz ion i , p o te r i ' ; i n G . A r r igon i , L e Donne i n G rec ia , B ar i , p p . 2 99 -344 . H o ls t - Wa rhaf t , G . ( 1992 ) Dangerous V o ice s . W omen ' s L amen t sa nd G reek L i tera ture , L ondon . H umph rey s , S .C . ( 1983 ) T he F am i ly , W omen a nd D ea th ,

8 4

L ondon . H un te r , V . J .( 1994 ) P o l ic ing A thens : S oc ia l C on t ro l i n t h eA t t ic L aw su i t s , 4 20 -320 BC , P r ince ton . I r e land , S . ( 1974 ) ' The p rob lem o f mo t iva t ion i n t h e S upp l ice so fA eschy lu s ' ; i n R he in i sche s Mu seum , v o l . 17 ,p p . 1 4 -29 . I rw in , E .( 1974 ) C o lour T erms i nG reek P oe t ry , T o ron to . J ohan sen , H . F . ( 1968 ) P la ton o g K ierkegaa rd ' ; i n S tud en terkred sen , v o l . 3 6 ,p p . 1 0 15 . ( 1970 ) A e schy lu s : T he S upp l ian t s , v o l . 1 , C openhagen . J akob , D . J .( 1999 ) " The v e rba l a rgumen t i nE u r ip ide s ' A lces t i s a nd t h e c ha rac te ro ft h ep i ece" ; i n Herme s Z e i t schr ief tf ür K la s s i sche P h i lo log ie 127 ( 3 ) , p p . 2 74 -285 . ( 2001) "Who s peak s v e r se s 5 85 a nd 5 94 -5 o f E u r ip ides ' B acchae?" ; i n P h i lo logus 1 45 ( 2 ) , p p . 3 48 -351 . J ones , J . ( 1962 ) O n A r i s to t le a nd G reek T raged y , L ondon . J u s t R . ( 1989 ) W omen i n A then ian L aw a nd L if e , L ondon . K agan , D . ( 1 990 ) P er ic le s o fA thens a nd t h e B ir th o f Democracy , L ondon . K a im io , M . ( 1970 ) ' The c ho ru s o f G reek d r ama w i th in t h e l i gh t o f t h e p e r son a nd n umbe r u sed ' ; i n C ommen ta t iones Humanarum L i terarum , 4 6 , p p . 9 17 . K a tz , M . A . ( 1994 ) ' The c ha rac te r o f t r agedy : Women a nd t h e G reek i mag ina t ion ' ; i nA re thusa , v o l . 2 7 , n o . 1 ,p p . 8 1-104 . K e l ls , J . H . ( 1963 ) ' P rob lem s o f i n te rpe ta t ion i n t h e A n t igone ' ; i nB u l le t in o ft h e I ns t i tu te o fC las s ica l S tud ie s , v o l . 1 0 , p p . 4 7 -64 . K eohane , N . 0 . , R osa ldo , M . Z . & G e lp i , B . C . e dd . ( 1981) F em in i s t T heo ry . A C r i t ique o f I d eo logy , C h icago . K eu l s , E . C . ( 1993 ) T he R e ign o f t h e P ha l lus : S exua l P o l i t ic s i nA nc ien tA thens , B e rke ley , 2 nd e d i t ion ; f i r s te d i t ion : N ew Y o rk ,1985 . K ing , H . ( 1983 ) ' Bound t o b l eed : A r tem i s a nd G reek w omen ' ; i nA . C ame ron & A . K uh r t , I mage s o f W omen i nA n t iqu i ty , L ondon , p p . 9 2 106 . K ing , U . ( 1986 ) W omen i n t h e W or ld ' s R e l ig ions . P a s t a nd P re sen t ,N ew Y o rk . K i rchwey , K . ( 1997 ) " A lce s t i s . A b ed room c omedy" ; i n P ar i sR ev iew 1 42 ,p p . 2 4 -42 . K i rk , G . S .( 1970 ) T he B acchae b yE ur ip id e s , Y a le . K i rkwood , G . M . ( 1958 ) AS tud y o fS ophoc lean D rama , I t haca . K i t to , H . D . F .( 1939 ) G reek T raged y , L ondon . ( 1956 ) F orm a nd Mean ing i n D rama , L ondon . K nox , B . M . W . ( 1964 ) T he H ero ic T emper ,B e rke ley . ( 1979 ) W ord a nd A c t ion , B a l t imo re . ( 1980 ) R ev iew o f W inn ing ton -Ingram , i n C la s s ica lR ev iew , v o l . 3 2 ,p p . 8 12 . ( 1994 ) B ack ing i n to t h e F u ture : t h e C las s ica lT rad i t ion a nd i t s R enewa l ,N ew Y o rk . K on s tan , D . ( 1994 ) S exua lS ymme try :L ove i nt h eA nc ien t

N ove la nd R e la ted G enre s , P r ince ton ,N . J e r sey . K raeme r , R . S . ( 1988 ) Maenad s , Mar tyr s , Ma trons , Monas t ic s . AS ourcebook o n W omen' s R e l ig ions i nt h e G reco -Roman W or ld , P h i lade lph ia . Kun s t le r , B . ( 1987 ) ' Fam i ly d ynam ics a nd f ema le p owe r i na nc ien t S pa r ta ' ; i nH e l ios , v o l . 1 3 , ( 2 ) , p p . 3 14 8 . K ur tz , D . &B oa rdman , J .( 197 1) G reek B ur ia l C us toms , L ondon . L a P enna , A . ( 1997 ) " Con t r ibu t ion t o t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e t e x t o f t h e " A lce s t i s" f r om t h e B a rce lona manu scr ip t" ; i n Ma ia -R iv . L e t terae C las s icae 4 9 ( 3 ) ,p p . 4 15 -420 . L acey , W . K . ( 1968 ) T he F am i ly i n C la s s ica l G reece , L ondon . L a t t imo re , R . ( 1962 ) T heme s i n G reek a nd L a t in E p i taphs , I l ino is . L educ , C . ( 1992 ) ' Ma r r iage i n a nc ien t G reece ' ; i n G . Duby & M . P e r ro t , AH i s to ty o f W omen i n t h e W e s t . I . F rom A nc ien t G odd e s ses t o C hr i s t ian N ame s , C amb r idge ,p p . 2 33 -95 . L e fkow i tz , M . ( 1981) Hero ine sa nd H ys ter ic s , L ondon . ( 1986 ) W omen i nG reek My th ,L ondon . ( 1995 ) ' Wom en a nd f r eedom ' ; i n A re thusa ,v o l . 2 8 ,n o . 1 ,p p . 1 07 -111 . L e fkow i tz , M . a nd F an t , M . ( 1977 ) W omen i nG reece a nd R ome , T o ron to . L e i tao , D . P . ( 1995 ) ' The p e r i l s o fL euk ippos : i n i t ia to ry t r an sve s t ism a nd ma le g ende r i n t h e E kdus ia a t P ha is tos ' ; i nC la ss ica lA n t iqu i ty , v o l . 1 4 ,n o . 1 ,p p . 1 30 -63 . L eka t sa s , P . ( 1989 ) ' I n t roduc t ion t o Med ea ' ; i n G . Ko rda tos , E ur ip id e s . Med ea , C yc lops , A lce s t i s , A then s . L embke , J .( 1975 )A e schy lu s 'S upp l ian t s ,N ew Yo rk . L e sky , A . ( 1925 ) A lke s t i s , d er My thus u nd d as D rama , " SB Wien" , P h i l .-H i s t . K la s se , v o l . 2 03 , H ef t2 ,p . 7 7f . ( 1983 ) G reek T rag ic P oe try , ( t ran s la t ion o f D ie t r ag i sche D ich tung d e rH e l lenen , G ö t t ingen , 1 964 ,b yM . D i l lon ,N ew H aven ) . L ey , G . ( 1994 ) ' P e rf o rmance s t ud ies a nd G reek t r agedy ' ; i nE ranos , v o l . 9 2 , f a sc .1 ,p p . 2 9 -45 . L evy , E . e d . ( 1983 )L aF emme d ans l eS oc id lj sA n t ique s : A c te sd e s C o l loques d e S t ra sburg . Ma i 1 980 e t Mar s 1 981 , S t ra sbu rg . L ew i s , I . M . ( 1971) E c s tac t ic R e l ig ion . A n A n thropo log ica l S tud y o fS p ir i t , P os se s s ion a nd S haman i sm ,H a rmond swo r th , P engu in e d . L inf o r th , I .M . ( 1961) A n t igone a nd C reon ; i nU n iver s i ty o fC a l if orn ia P ub l ica t ion s i nC las s ica lP h i lo logy , v o l . 1 5 , n o . 5 ,p p . 1 83 -259 . L loyd , M . ( 1985 ) ' Eu r ip ide s ' A lce s t i s ' ; i n G reece & R ome , v o l . XXX I I , n o . 2 ,p p . 19 -31 . L loyd Jones , H . ( 1964 ) ' The S upp l ice s o fA e schy lu s : t h e n ew d a te a nd o ld p rob lem s ' ; i n L 'An t iqu W C la ss ique , v o l . 3 3 ,p p . 3 56 -74 . ( 1957 ) ' No te s o n S ophoc le s ' A n t igone ' ; i n C la ss ica lQ uar ter ly , v o l . 7 ,p p . 1 2 -27 . L ong , A . A . ( 1968 )L anguage a nd T hough t i nS ophoc le s ,

C ambr idge . L o raux , N . ( 1987 ) T rag ic Way s o f K i l l ing a W oman , ( t ran s l . o fF avons T rag ique s d e T uer u ne F emme , 1 985 ) , C amb r idge . ( 1989 )L e sE xp & ience sd e T i rj s ias , P a r is . ( 1991) T he C h i ld ren o fA thena : A then ian I d ea s a bou t C i t i zensh ip a nd t h e D iv i s ion b e tween t h e S exe s ( t ran s l . o fL e s E nf an t s d 'A t Hna , 1 984 , b yC . L ev ine ) , P r ince ton . McC lu re , L . ( 1999 ) S poken L ik e a W oman , P r ince ton , N ew J e r sey . ( 1999b ) " The w o r s th u sband : D i scou r ses o f p ra ise a nd b l ame i nE u r ip ides ' Med ea" ; i n CPh 9 4 ( 4 ) ,p p . 3 73 -394 . McDermo t t , E . A . ( 1989 ) E ur ip id e s ' Med ea . T he I ncarna t ion o fD i sord er , P enn sy lvan ia . McDowe l l , D . M . ( 1978 ) T he L aw i n C la ss ica l A thens , L ondon . McK innon , J . K . ( 1978 ) ' The r ea son f o r t h e D ana id s ' f l igh t ' ; i nT he C las s ica lQ uar ter ly , v o l . 2 8 ,p p . 7 4 8 2 . Macu rdy , G . H . ( 1944 ) ' Had t h e D ana id t r i logy a s oc ia l p rob lem ? ' ; i nC la s s ica lP h i lo logy , v o l . 3 9 , p p . 9 5 1 00 . ( 1966 ) T he C hrono logy o ft h eE x tan tP lay s o fE ur ip id e s , N ew Yo rk ( o r ig ina l ly p ub l ished i n L anca s te r , 1 905 ) . Ma i t land , S .( 1983 ) T e l l ing T a les , L ondon , Wes t Nyack . Man tz iou , M .

( 1994 )

HÄt i crpa

TOU

1 1

e v vo ta

r ng

E0 90 a l i '

r qujg

i n

c r rnv

A c oö cjw 7 :

0Mo i loy ia , « Smog HF , p p . 2 49 -73 . Ma rch , J .R . ( 1987 ) T he C rea t ive P oe t ; i nB u l le t in o ft h e I ns t i tu te o fC la ss ica lS tud ie s , s upp l . 4 9 , L ondon . ( 1989 ) ' Eu r ip ides ' B acchae : A r e con s ide ra t ion i n t h e l i gh t o f v a se -pa in t ing s ' ; i n B u l le t in o ft h eI ns t i tu te o fC la ss ica lS tud ie s , s upp l . 3 6 ,p p . 3 3 -65 . Ma r sha l l , C . W . ( 2000 ) " A lces t i s a nd t h e p rob lem o f p ro sa ty r ic d rama" ; i n C la s s ica l P h i lo logy 9 5 ( 3 ) , p p . 2 29 -238 . Ma r tha , J .( 1882 )L e sS acerdoce sA t Un iens . P a r i s . Ma r t in , J .& S au te r , W . ( 1995 ) U nd er s tand ing T hea t re . P erf ormance A na ly s i s i n T heory a nd P rac t ice , S tockho lm . Ma ssey , M . ( 1988 ) W omen i nA nc ien t G reece a nd R ome , C ambr idge . Ma te l i , E .( 2000 ) " The y ea r4 31 B .C . a nd t h e " An t i log ie" o f E u r ip ide s , P ro tago ra s , T hucyd ide s" , i nA evum P a ssegna d i S c ienze S tor iche L ingu i s t iche e F i lo log iche 7 4( 1 ) ,p p . 2 1-46 . Mega s , G . A . ( 1933 ) ' D ie S age v on D anaos u nd d en D ana iden ' ; i nH erme s ,n o . 6 8 , p p . 4 15 -28 . Me ie r , C . ( 1988 ) T he P o l i t ica l A r t o f G reek T raged y , Mun ich ; t r an s l . b yA . Webbe r , 1 993 , C amb r idge . M iche l in i , A . N . ( 1987 ) E ur ip id e s a nd t h e T rag ic T rad i t ion ,W i scon s in . Moo re , T . E , G r if i th s , K . & P ayne , B . ( 1987 ) ' Gende r , a t t i tude s t owa rd s w omen a nd t h e a pp rec ia t ion o f s ex i s t h umo r ' ; i n S ex R o le s , v o l . 1 6 ( 9 -10 ) , p p . 5 21-31 .

8 5

Mo rou ,

A .

( 1993 )

1 1

Mjös ta

M it r tg

K a L

o

p ayv t iT top6g TOU K 6 f rpou ' ;i n Apx cuo i loy ia 4 9 , D ecembe r ,p p . 8 5 -6 . Mo s sj ' , C . ( 1983 ) W omen i nA nc ien tG reece , P a r i s Mue l le r , M . ( 1980 ) C h i ld ren o f O ed ipus a nd O ther E ssay so nt h eI m i ta t ion o fG reek T raged y 1 550 1 800 , T o ron to . ( 2001) " The l a nguage o f r e c ip roc i ty i n E u r ip ides ' Med ea" ; i n AJPh 1 22 ( 4 ) ,p p . 4 71-504 . Mu r ray , G . ( 1912 ) C omp le te P lay so fA e schy lus , L ondon . ( 1965 )E ur ip id e sa nd h i sA ge , Oxf o rd . Mu r ray J r , R . D . ( 1958 ) T he Mo t if o fT o i nA e schy lus ' S upp l ian t s , P r ince ton ,N . J e r sey . N agy , G . ( 1979 ) T he B es to ft h eA chaeans , B a l t imo re . Na than sky , A . ( 1910 ) ' De s A eschy los D ana i s ' ; i n W iener S tud ien 3 2 ,p p . 7 37 . N eubu rg , M . ( 1990 ) ' How l i ke a w oman : An t igone 's ' i ncon s i s tency ' ; i n t h e C la s s ica l Q uar ter ly , v o l . XL ,n o . 1 ,( vo l . DO CX IV ) ,p p . 5 4 -76 . N icos ia , S . ( 1992 ) I l S egno e l a Memor ia , P a le rmo ; t r an s la ted i n to G reek b yE . G a ran toud is , 1 994 . N iha rd , R . ( 1912 ) L e P rob l ime d e s B acchan tes d ' E ur ip id e , P a r i s . N i l s son , M . P .( 1940 ) G reek P opu lar R e l ig ion , O xf ord . Nu t ta l l , A . D . ( 1996 ) W hy d oe s T raged y G ive P lea sure? , Oxf o rd . Nye , A . ( 1988 ) F em in i s t T heory a nd t h e P h i losoph ie s o f Man ,N ew Yo rk , L ondon . O ak ley J .H . & S inos R . ( 1993 ) T he W edd ing i nA nc ien t A thens , W i scon s in , L ondon . O ch son , J .( 1981) T he F ema le E xper ience a nd t h eN a ture o ft h eD iv ine , I nd iana P res s , B loom ing ton . Oh lande r , S .( 1989 )D rama t ic S u spense i nE ur ip id e s 'a nd S eneca ' sMed ea ,N ew Y o rk . O rwe l lG . ( 1984 ) 1 984 , P engu in e d i t ion . O sbor n e , R . ( 1990 ) ' Compe t i t ive f e s t iva l s a nd t h ep o l is : a c on tex t f o r d rama t ic f e s t iva ls a t A then s ' ; i n T raged y a nd t h e P o l i s . P aper s f rom t h e G reek Drama C onf erence a t N o t t ingham , 1 8 -20 J u ly 1 990 ,p p . 2 1-38 . ( 1993) ' Women a nd s a cr if i ce i n c l a ss ica l G reece ' ; i nC la s s ica lQ uar ter ly , v o l . 4 3 , n o . 2 ,p p . 3 92 -405 . O 'Su l l ivan , N . ( 1990 ) ` Sophoc lean l o g ic ( An t igone 1 75 8 1) ' ; i n T he J ourna l o fH e l len ic S tud ie s , v o l . c x , p p . 1 91-92 . O udeman s , C . W . &L a rd ino i s , A . P .M . H . ( 1987 ) T rag ic Amb igu i ty , Kö ln . P ad i l la , M . , ( 2000 ) " G if t s o f h um i l ia t ion : C ha r is a nd t r ag ic e xper ience i n A lce s t i s" ; i n Amer ican J ourna lo fP h i lo logy 1 21 ( 2 ) ,p p . 1 79 -211) . P age , D . L . ( 1934 ) A c tor s ' I n terpo la t ions i n G reek T raged y , Oxf o rd . P an te l P . S . ( 1992 ) ' Rep re sen ta t ion o f w omen ' ; i n G . D uby & M . P e r ro t , A H i s to ry o f W omen i n t h e W e s t . I . F rom A nc ien t G odd e s se s t o C hr i s t ian Name s , C amb r idge , Ma ssachu se t t s , L ondon ,p . 1 . P apadopou lou , T . ( 2001) " The p rophe t ic f i gu re i n E u r ip ides ' P hoen i s sae a nd B acchae" ; i n Herme s 1 29 ( 1 ) ,p p . 2 1-31 .

8 6

P a rke r , R . C . T .( 1983) M ia sma , Oxf o rd . P a rk in , T . ( 1 992 ) Demography a nd R oman S oc ie ty , B a l t imo re . P a r ry , H . ( 1992 ) T he lx i s . Mag ic a nd I mag ina t ion i n G reek My th a nd P oe t ry , L ondon . P a t ter son , C . B . ( 1987 ) ' Ha i A t t ika i : T he o the r A then ian s ' ; i n He l ios , v o l . 1 3 ( 2 ) , p p . 3 1-48 . ( 1 991) ' Ma r r iage a nd t h e m a r r ied w oman i nA then ian l aw ' ; i n S . B . P ome roy , W omen ' s H i s to ry a nd A nc ien tH i s tory , L ondon ,p p . 4 9 -72 . P eek , v on W . ( 1 955 ) G r iech i sche V er s -I n schr if ten , V o l . I ;i nG rab . E p igramme , B e r l in . P emb roke , S .( 1967 ) 'Women i nc ha rge : t h e f unc t ion o f a l ter na t ive s i ne a r ly G reek t r ad i t ion a nd t h e a nc ien t i d ea o f m a tr ia rchy ' ; i n J ourna l o f t h e W arburg a nd C our tau ld I ns t i tu te s , v o l . 3 0 , p p . 1 3 5 . P e ter sman , H . ( 1978 ) ' My tho s u nd G e s ta l tung i n S ophok le s ' A n t igone ; i n W iener S tud ien , v o l . 9 1 , p p . 6 7 -96 . P e t re , Z . ( 1980 ) ` Ao-r ägevot . A p ropo s d u s t a tu t d e s f emme s d an s l a c i te d ' E schy le ' ; i n R evue r ouma ine d 'H i s to ire , v o l . 1 9 , p p . 1 73 -81 . P i cka rd -Cambr idge , A . ( 1988 ) T he D rama t ic F es t iva l s o f A thens , r ev i sed b y J . G ou ld & D . M . L ew i s , O xf o rd . P od leck i A . J . ( 1966 ) T he P o l i t ica l B ackg round o f A e schy lean T raged y , M ich igan . ( 1966 ) ' C reon a nd H e rodo tu s ' ; i n T ransac t ions o f t h e Amer ican P h i lo log ica l A s soc ia t ion , v o l . 9 7 ,p p . 3 59 -71 . ( 1 990 ) K a-r a pxf ig y ap c p iÄaf r iog K s o bg : t h e c oncep to fl e ade r sh ip i nA e schy lu s ; i nT raged y a nd t h e P o l i s . P aper s f rom t h e G reek D rama C onf erence a t N o t t ingham , 1 8 -20 J u ly 1 990 , p p . 5 5 -80 . P ome roy S . B . ( 1974 ) ' F em in i sm i n b ook V o f P la to 's R epub l ic ' ; i nA pe iron , v o l . 8 , p p . 3 2 5 . ( 1975) G odd e s se s , W hore s , W ive s a nd S lave s . W omen i nC la ss ica lA n t iqu i ty ,N ew Y o rk . P ucc i , M . ( 1 980 ) T he V io lence o f P i ty i n E ur ip id e s ' Med ea , L odon R ab inow i tz , N . S . ( 1992 ) ' T ragedy a nd t h e p o l i t ic s o f c on ta inmen t ' ; i n A . R ich l in , P ornography a nd R ere sen ta t ion i n G reece a nd R ome , N ew Y o rk , p p . 3 5 -62 . ( 1993) A nx ie ty V e i led : E ur ip id e s a nd t h e T raf f ic i nW omen , L ondon . R abuzz i , K . ( 1 982 ) T he S acred a nd t h e F em in ine , N ew Y o rk . R ank in , H . D . ( 1975) P en theus & P la to A S tud y i nS oc ia l D i s in tegra t ion , Un ive r s i ty o fS ou thamp ton . R eeder , E . D . ( 1995 ) P andora . W omen i n C la s s ica l G reece ,N ew J e r sey . R ehm , R . ( 1 988 ) ' The s t ag ing o f t h e S upp l ian tp l ay s ' ; i n G reek R oman a nd B y zan t ine S tud ie s , v o l . 2 9 , n o . 3 ,p p . 2 63 -308 . R e inha rd t , K . ( 1979 )S ophoc le s , F rankf u r t . R ich te r D . C . ( 1971) ' The p o s i t ion o fw omen i nc l a s s ica l

A then s ' ; i nC las s ica lJ ourna l , n o . 6 7 ,p p . 1 8 . R i jk sba ron , A . ( 1999 ) " Le the f o r t h e l a the? E u r ip ide s ' B acchae ( 1066 -67 ) a ga in" ; i n Mnemosyne 5 2 ( 6 ) , p p . 7 39 -744 . R oge r s , K . ( 1966 ) T he T roub le some H e lpma te . AH i s tory o fM i sogyny i nL i tera ture , S ea t t le . R o isman , J . ( 1996 ) ` C reon 's r o le s a nd p e r sona l i ty i n S ophoc les 'A n t igone ' ; i nH e l ios , v o l . 2 3 ,n o . 1 . R o l ley , C . ( 1964 ) ` Deux n o te s a uxe r r ro ises ' ; i nB u l le t in d eC or respondance H e l len ique , v o l . 8 8 , p p . 4 42 4 5 . ( 1982 ) L e s V a se s d e B ronze d e l ' A rcha i sme r ecen t e n G rand -Grece , P a r is ; t r an s ! . b yR . Howe l l , 1 986 , L ondon . R o senf i e ld , K . H . ( 2001) " Ho lde r l in 's A n t igone a nd S ophoc les ' t r ag ic p a radox" ; i n P oe t ica 3 3 ( 3 -4 ) , p p . 4 65 -501 . R o senmeye r , T . G . ( 1963 ) T he Ma sk s o fT raged y : E ssay s o nS i x G reek D rama s , A u s t in . ( 1982 ) T he A r t o fA e schy lus , B e rke ley , L . A nge le s . R ös le r , W . ( 1990 ) ' D ie F rage d e r E ch the i t v on S ophok les , A n t igone 9 04 -20 u nd d i e p o l i t i sche F unk t ion d e r a t t ischen T ragöd ie ; i n T raged y a nd t h e P o l i s . P aper s f rom t h e G reek D rama C onf erence a tN o t t ingham , 1 8 -20 J u ly 1 990 , p p . 8 1100 . R ub in , G . ( 1975 ) ' The t r aff i c i n w omen : n o tes o n t h e " po l i t ica l e conomy" o f s ex ' ; i n R . R e ide r e d . , T oward sa nd A n thropo logy o fW omen ,N ew Yo rk , p p . 1 57 -210 . R ue the r , R . R . ( 1985 ) W omangu id e s . R ead ing s T oward a F em in i s tT heo logy , B o s ton . R u schenbu sch , E . ( 1966 ) S o lon . S o lonos N omo i : d i e F ragmen te d e s s o lon i schen G e se t zewerke s m i t e i ner T ex t u nd Ü ber l ief erung sge sch ich te , Wiesbaden . S a le , W . ( 1977 ) E x i s ten t ia l i sm a nd E ur ip id e s , Me lbou rne . S ca if e , R . ( 1995 ) ' R i tua l a nd p e r sua s ion i nt h e h ou se o f I s chomacho s ' ; i n T he C la ss ica l J ourna l , v o l . 9 0 , n o . 3 ,p p . 2 25 -32 . S chap s , D . M . ( 1979 ) E conom ic R igh t s o f W omen i n A nc ien tG reece , E d inbu rgh . S che id , J .( 1992 ) ' The r e l ig iou s r o les o fR oman w omen ' ; i nP . S cm i t t -Pan te l , AH i s to ry o fW omen . V o lume 1 . F rom A nc ien t G odd e s se s t o C hr i s t ian S lave s , H a rva rd , p p . 3 78 -84 . S chmake i t , I . ( 2001) " The D e in i ra o f t h e " T rach in ier innen" a nd t h e E u r ip idean Med ea" ; i n Mnemosyne 5 4 ( 6 ) ,p p . 6 59 -674 . S code l , R . ( 1984 )S ophoc le s , B o s ton . S eaf o rd , R . ( 1981) ` D iony s iac d rama a nd t h e d iony s iac my s ter ie s ' ; i n C las s ica l Q uar ter ly , v o l . 3 1 , n o . 2 , p p . 2 52 -75 . ( 1987 ) Ten theu s ' v i s ion : B acchae 9 18 2 2 ' ; i nC las s ica l Q uar ter ly , v o l . 3 7 , n o . 1 ,p p . 7 6 8 .

v o l . 10 ,p p . 7 6 -90 . ( 1993 ) ' D iony su s a s d e s t roye r o f t h e h ou seho ld : H ome r , t r agedy , a nd t h e p o l is ' , i n T . H . C a rpen te r & C . A . F a raone , C or n e l l U .P . , Ma sk so fD iony su s ,p p . 15 -46 . ( 1994 ) ` Sophok les a nd t h e My s ter ies ' ; i n H erme s , v o l . 1 22 ,n o . 3 .p p . 2 75 -288 . S ea ley , R . ( 1990 ) W omen a nd L aw i n C la s s ica l G reece , C hape lH i l l . S ega l , C . P .( 1968 )E ur ip id e s , N ew J e r sey . ( 1978 ) ' The m enace o f D iony su s : s ex r o le s a nd r eve r sa ls i n E u r ip ide s ' B acchae ' ; i n A re thusa , n o . 1 ,p p . 1 85 -202 . ( 1981) T raged y a nd C iv i l iza t ion , C ambr idge , Ma s sachu se t t s . ( 1986 ) I n terpre t ing G reek T raged y : My th , P oe try , T ex t , I t haca , L ondon . ( 1990 ) ' An t igone : d ea th a nd l ove , H ade s a nd D iony su s ' ; i n H . B loom 's S ophoc le s , N ewYo rk ,p .1 61 . ( 1992a ) ' Adme tu s ' d iv ided h ou se : s pa t ia l d i cho tom ie s a nd g ende r r o le s i n E u r ip ide s ' A lce s t i s ' ; i n Ma ter ia l i ed i scuss ion ip er l ' anna l i s i d e it e s t ic l a ss ic i , n o . 2 8 ,p p . 9 -28 . ( 1992b ) D iony s iac P oe t ic s a nd E ur ip id e s ' B acchae , P r ince ton . ( 1993 ) ' F ema le d ea th a nd m a le t e a r s ' ; i n E ur ip id e s a nd t h e P oe t ic s o fS or row : A r t , G end er a nd C ommemora t ion i nA lce s t i s , H ippo ly tus a nd H ecuba , D u rham , L ondon . ( 1994a ) ' F ema le mour n ing a nd D iony s iac l amen ti nE u r ip ides ' B acchae ' ; i nB . G . T eubne r , O rche s tra ,p p . 1 2 -18 , S t tu tga r t . ( 1994b ) ' C la s s ica l c r i t ic i sm a nd t h e c anon , o r , why r e ad t h e a nc ien t c r i t ics ; i n S .L awa l l e d . , R ead ing W or ld L i tera ture . T heory , H i s tory , P rac t ice , Au s t in . S e l tman , H . ( 1955 ) ' The s t a tu s o f women i nA then s ' ; i n G reece & R ome , 2 nd s e r ie s , v o l . 2 ,p p . 19 -24 . S haw , M . ( 1970 ) ' The f ema le i n t rude r : w omen i n f i f th c en tu ry d rama ' , C la ss ica l P h i lo logy , n o . 7 0 , p . 2 27 . S hecne r , R . & Appe l , W . ( 1990 ) B y Means o f P erf ormance . I n tercu l tura lS tud ies i nT hea tre a nd R i tua l , C ambr idge . S idwe l l , K . ( 1995a ) ` D iony su s ' ; i nT he C la s s ica lR ev iew , v o l . XLV ,n o . 2 ,p p . 7 5 -6 . ( 1995b ) R ead ing Med ieva l L a t in , C amb r idge . S i s sa , G . ( 1987 ) L e s C orp s V i rg ina l . L a V i rg in i te F em in ine e n G r ke A nc ienne , P a r i s ; t r an s la ted i n E ng l i sh b y A . G o ldhamme r , 1 990 , C amb r idge , Ma ss . ( 1992 ) ' The s exua l p o l i t ic s o f P la to a nd A r is to t le ' ; i nP . S .P an te l r d . , AH i s tory o fW omen i n t h e W e s t , p p . 4 64 -71 , C amb r idge , Ma ssachu se t t s , L ondon . S k inne r , M . ( 1987 ) ' Rescu ing C reu sa : n ew m e thodo log ica l a pp roaches t o women i n a n t iqu i ty ' ; i nH e l ios , v o l . 1 3 ( 2 ) — as pec ia l i s sue

( 1990 ) ' The i mpr isonmen t o f w omen i n G reek T ragedy ' ; i n J ourna l o fH e l len ic S tud ie s ,

8 7

I l lu s t ra t ions o fG reek D rama , L ondon . T ur n e r , V . ( 1 982 ) F rom R i tua l t o T hea t re . T he Human S er iousne s so fP lay ,N ew Y o rk . U she r , M . D . ( 2000 ) " S te l le ta i a t B acchae 1 000 : T he Empe ro r 's n ew c l o the s" ; i nC la s s ica lP h i lo log y9 5 ( 1 ) , p p . 7 2 -74 . V e l laco t t , P . ( 1923 ) T he B acchae a nd O ther P lay s , L ondon . ( 1953) A lce s t i s , H ippo ly tu s , I ph igene ia i n T aur i s ; r e is sued w i th a r e v i sed t e x t a nd n ew I n t roduc t ion i n1 974 , S uf f o lk . ( 1963) Med ea a nd O ther P lay s , L ondon . ( 1975 ) I r on ic D rama : a S tud y o f E ur ip id e s ' Me thod a nd Mean ing , L ondon . V e r ra l l . A . W . ( 1910 ) T he B acchan t s o fE ur ip id es a nd O ther E s say s , C ambr idge . V e rden iu s , W . J . ( 1985 ) ' No tes o n t h e p a rodo s o f A eschy lu s ' S upp l ian t s ; i n Mnemosyne , v o l . 2 8 , f a sc . 3 / 4 ,p p . 2 81-306 . ( 1990 ) ` Danau s a nd h i s d augh te r s : n o te s o n A e schy lu s ' S upp l ian t s v v . 1 76 -233 ' ; i n Mnemosyne , v o l . 4 3 , f a sc . 3 /4 ,p p . 4 26 -32 . V ernan t , J -P . ( 1974 ) ' Ma r r iage ' ; i n J . -P . V er nan t , e d . , My th a nd S oc ie ty i nA nc ien tG reece , P a r i s , p p . 5 7 8 2 ( t ran s l . b yJ .L loyd , S u ssex , 1 980 ) . ( 1974 ) ' The c l a ss s t rugg le ' ; p p . 1 18 , i nJ . P .V er nan t , e d . , My th a nd S oc ie ty i n A nc ien t G reece , P a r is ( t ran s l . b yJ .L loyd , S u s sex , 1 980 ) . V e r sne l , H . S . ( 1987 ) ' W if e a nd h e lpma te . Women o f a nc ien t A then s i na n th ropo log ica l p e r spec t ive ' ; i n J .B lok & R . P . Ma son , e dd . , S exua lA symme t ry , p p . 5 9 -86 , Am s te rdam . ( 1993 ) T rans i t ion a nd R eve r sa l i n My th a nd R i tua l , L e iden . V icke r s , B . ( 1973 ) T oward s G reek T raged y : D rama , My th , S oc ie ty , L ondon . V ida l -Naque t , P . & V er nan t , J . -P . ( 1972 ) My the e t T ragg •d ie e n G rke A nc ienne , P a r i s . V ida l -Naque t , P .( 1973 ) T rag& l ie s . TUä t re C omp le t :L e s T rach in ienns , T raduc t ion d eP . Mazon , P a r is . Wa lco t , P . ( 1972 -73 ) ' The f une ra l s peech . A s t udy o f v a lue s ' ; i n G reece a nd R ome , v o l . 1 9 -20 , n o . 2 , s e cond s e r ies ,p p . 11-21 . Wa ldock , A . J . A . ( 1951) S ophoc le s t h e D rama t i s t , C amb r idge . Wa lke r . S . ( 1983 ) 'Women a nd h ou s ing i n c l a s s ica l A then s : t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence ' ; i n A . C ame ron & A . K uh r t , I mage s o f W omen i n A n t iqu i ty , L ondon ,p p . 8 1-91 . Wa l ton ,J .M . ( 1939 ) G reek T hea tre P rac t ice , L ondon . Wa rk , K . ( 1996 ) F em in i sm a nd A nc ien t P h i losophy , L ondon . Web s te r , T . B . L .( 1967 ) Monumen t sI l lu s t ra t ing T raged y a nd S a tyr -P lay ( 2nd e d . ; B u l le t in o f t h e I ns t i tu te o fC las s ica lS tud ie s , s upp l . 2 0 ) , L ondon . Wende r , D . ( 1973 ) ' P la to : m i sogyn is t , p aedoph i le a nd f em in i s t ' ; i nA re thu sa , v o l . 6 ,n o . 1 ,p p . 7 5 -9 . Wes t , M . L .( 1990 )S tud ie si nA e schy lus , S t u t tga r t . Wes t , G . S .( 1982 ) " A re L ucre t iu s ' D ana id s b eau t if u l a nd " de R erum N a tu rae" ; i n C las s ica l P h i lo logy 7 7

o f He l ios . S l a te r , N . W . ( 2000 ) " Dead a ga in : ( En )gender ing p ra ise i n E u r ip ide s ' A lce s t i s" ; i n He l ios 2 7 ( 2 ) , p p . 1 05 1 21 . S l a te r , P .E . ( 1968 ) T he G lory o f Hera . G reek My tho logy a nd t h e G reek F am i ly , P r ince ton , N ew J e r sey . S omme r s te in , A . ( 1990 ) T he C omed ie s o fA r i s tophane s . V o l . 7 .L y s i s tra ta , Wa rm in s te r . S ourv inou Inwood C . ( 1988 )S tud ie s i nG ir l s ' T rans i t ion : A spec t s o ft h e A rk te ia a nd Age R epre sen ta t ion i n A t t ic I conography , L ondon . ( 1989a ) ' A s sump t ion s a nd t h e c r ea t ion o f m ean ing : r e ad ing S ophoc les ' A n t igone ' ; i n J ourna lo fH e l len ic S tud ie s , v o l . c i x ,p p . 1 34 -48 . ( 1989b ) ' The f ou r th s t a s imon o f S ophoc le s ' A n t igone ' ; i nB u l le t in o ft h e I ns t i tu te o fC la ss ica lS tud ie s , 3 6 ,p p . 1 41-65 . ( 1991) " Read ing" G reek C u l ture . T ex t s a nd I mage s , R i tua l sa nd My ths , O xf o rd . S pa tz , L .( 1982 )A e schy lus , B os ton . S t an ton , G .R . ( 1990 ) e lA IA a nd EEN IA i n E u r ip ides ' A lce s t i s ' ; i n Herme s ,v o l .118 ,p p . 4 2 -191 . S t e id le , W . ( 1968 ) S tud ien z um a n t iken D rama , u n ter b esond erer B erück s ich t ingung d e s B ühnensp ie l s , München . S t e ine r , G . ( 1984 )A n t igone s , O xf o rd . S t rau s s , B . S . ( 1993 ) F a ther s a nd S ons i n A thens : I d eo logy a nd S oc ie ty i nt h eE ra o ft h e P e loponne s ian War , L ondon . S t iebe r , M . ( 1988 ) " S ta tua ry i n E u r ip ide s ' A lce s t i s" ; i n A n ion 5( 3 ) ,p p . 6 9 -97 . ( 1999 ) " A n o te o n A e schy lu s ' Agamemnon 4 10 -428 a nd E u r ip ides 'A lce s t i s 3 47 -356 ( Thema t ic c or respondence s b e tween p a s sage s i n A eschy lu s ' Agamemnon a nd E u r ip ide s ' Ake s t i s )" ; i n Mnemosyne 5 2 ( 2 ) ,p p . 1 50 158 . S u t ton , R . F . J r . ( 1993 ) ' Por nog raphy a nd p e r sua s ion o n A t t ic p oe t ry ' ; i n E . C . K eu l s , T he R e ign o ft h e P ha l lus : S exua l P o l i t ic s i n A nc ien t A thens , B e rke ley ,p p . 3 -35 . T ap l in , 0 . ( 1977 ) T he S tagecraf to fA e schy lu s , O xf o rd . ( 1978 ) G reek T raged yi nA c t ion , L ondon . ( 1983 ) ' Emo t ion a nd m ean ing i n G reek t r agedy ' ; i n E . S ega l , O xf ord R ead ing s i n G reek T raged y , O xf o rd ,p p . 1 12 . ( 1984 ) ' The p l ace o f A n t igone ' ; i n Omn ibus , 7 t hi s sue , p p . 1 3 -16 . T he s lef f , H . ( 1965 ) T he P y thagorean T ex t s o f t h e He l len i s t ic P er iod , L ondon . T homp son , W . E .( 1967 ) ' The m a r r iage o ff i r s tc ou s in s i n A then ian s oc ie ty ' ; i nP hoen ix , v o l . 2 1 , 4 ,p p . 2 73 8 2 . ( 1972 ) ' A then ian m a r r iage p a t ter n s : r emmar iage ' ; i n C a l if orn ia S tud ie s i n C la ss ica l A n t iqu i ty ,v o l . 5 ,p p . 2 11-25 . T hu r s ton , R . W . ( 1987 ) L ibera l C i ty , C onser va t ive S ta te . Moscow a nd R us s ia ' s U rban C r i s i s , 1 906 -1914 , N ew Yo rk . T renda l l , A . D . 8 z . Webs te r , T . B . L . e dd . ( 1971)

8 8

( 2 ) ,p p . 1 44 -148 . Wh i teho rne , J . E . G . ( 1983 ) ' The b ackg round t o P o lyne ice s ' d i s in te rmen t a nd r ebu r ia l ' ; i n G reece &R ome , v o l . 3 0 ,p p . 1 29 -42 . Wh i tman , C . H . ( 1951) S ophoc le s : aS tud y i n Hero ic Human i sm , C ambr idge , Ma s s . Wi lk in son , L . P . ( 1978 ) C la ss ica l A t t i tud e s t o Mod ern I s sues ;P opu la t ion a nd F am i ly P lann ing , L ondon . Wi l l iam s , D . ( 1983 ) ' Women o n A then ian v a se s : p rob lem s o f i n te rpe ta t ion ' ; i n A . C ame ron & A . Kuh r t , I mage s o f W omen i n A n t iqu i ty , L ondon , p p . 1 09 -27 . W ink le r , J .J .( 1990 ) ' Lay ing d own t h e l aw : t h e o ve r s igh t o fm en 's s exua l b ehav iou r i nc l a s s ica l A then s ' ; i n M . H a lper in , J .J . Wink le r & F . I .Z e i t l in , B ef ore S exua l i ty P r ince ton ,N . J e r sey ,p p . 1 71-209 . W inn ing ton Ing ram , R . P . ( 1969 ) E ur ip id e s a nd D iony sus , Am s te rdam . ( 1980 ) S ophoc le s : a n I n te rpre ta t ion , C amb r idge . ( 1983 )S tud ie si nA e schy lu s , C amb r idge . Wo lf f , E . A . ( 1958 ) ' The d a te o f A eschy lu s ' D ana id t e t ra logy ' ; i nE ranos , v o l . 5 6 , n o s . 3 -4 , p p . 19 3 9 ; 5 7 ( 1959 )n o s . 1 2 ,p p . 6 34 . Wo lf f , H . J . ( 1944 ) ' Ma r r iage , l aw a nd f am i ly o rgan iza t ion i na nc ien tA then s ' ; i n T rad i t io , n o . 2 , p p . 4 3 -95 . Wo r th ing ton , I . ( 1990 ) ' The e nd ing o f E u r ip ides ' Med ea ' ; i nH erme s ,v o l .118 , p p . 5 02 -505 . Wr igh t F .A . ( 1932 ) F em in i sm i nG reek L i tera ture :f rom Homer t oA r i s to t le , r e p r . ,N ewYo rk . Wy se , W . ( 1904 ) T he S peeche so fI saeus , C ambr idge . Y oung , S . ( 1993) A n A n tho logy o fS acred T ex t s b y a nd a bou t W omen , L ondon ,N ew Yo rk . Z a idman , L .B . ( 1992 ) ' Pando ra 's d augh te r sa nd r i tua l s i n G rec ian c i t ie s ' ; i nG . D uby & M . P e r ro t , AH i s tory o f W omen i n t h e W e s t . I . F rom A nc ien t G odd e s se s t o C hr i s t ian Name s , C amb r idge , Ma s sachu se t t s , p p . 3 38 -76 . Z a idman , L . B . & P an te l , P . S . ( 1989 ) R e l ig ion i n t h e A nc ien t G reek C i ty ; t r an s l . b y P .C a r t ledge , 1 992 , C ambr idge . Z a jko , V . ( 1995 ) ' Speak ing my th ' ,A re thusa , v o l . 2 8 , n o . 1 ,p p . 2 1-38 . Z e i t l in , F .I .( 1982 ) ' Cu l t ic mode l s o ft h e f ema le : r i tes o f D iony su s a nd D eme te r ' ; i n Amer ican C la ss ica l S tud ie s i n Honor o fJ . -P . V ernan t , A re thusa , v o l . 1 5 ,p p . 1 29 -57 . ( 1990 ) ' P lay ing t h e o the r : t h ea te r , t h ea t r ica l i ty , a nd t h e f em in ine i nG reek d rama ' ; i n J .J . Wink le r & F . I .Z e i t l in , N o th ing t o d o w i th D iony sus , P r ince ton ,p p . 6 3 -96 . ( 1991) ' Eu r ip ides ' Hekabe a nd t h e s oma t ic s o f D iony s iac d rama ' ; i n R A MUS , C r i t ica l S tud ie s i n G reek a nd R oman L i tera ture , v o l . 2 0n o . 1 ,p p . 5 3 -94 .

f a c to r i n h umo r a pp rec ia t ion ' ; i n J ourna l o f E xper imen ta lS oc ia lP sycho logy , v o l . 1 0 ( 55 ) , p . 4 80 -488 .

( 1992 ) ' The p o l i t ics o fE ros i nt h e D ana id t r i logy o fA e schy lu s ' ; i n R . H ex te r & D . S e lden , I nnova t ions o fA n t iqu i ty ,N ewYo rk ,p p . 2 03-52 . Z i l lman , D . & B ryan t , J .( 1974 ) ' Re ta l ia tory e qu i ty a s a

8 9