Game Drives of the Aralo-Caspian Region 9781743320105, 9781920899240

Table of contents :
Contents
Figures
Tables
Preface
Introduction
1. Architecture
2. Chronology
3. Function and prey species
4. Archaeological context
5. Historical context
6. Socioeconomic significance
7. Conclusions
Catalogue
Works cited
Index

Citation preview

Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

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Adapa Monographs Series Editors: Alison Betts and Barbara Helwing Executive Editor: Stephen Bourke The Adapa Monographs series focuses on the archaeology of the ancient Near East and adjacent regions from North Africa to Central Asia. Archaeology in these regions is a vibrant and active field of research, further stimulated by issues relating to the loss of cultural heritage to war and other factors. The series is peer-reviewed and published in association with the Near Eastern Archaeology Foundation at the University of Sydney.

The ebb and flow of the Ghūrid empire David C. Thomas Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Vadim N. Yagodin, edited by W. Paul van Pelt and Alison Betts

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Vadim N. Yagodin With contributions by Shamil S. Amirov Translated by W. Paul van Pelt Edited by W. Paul van Pelt and Alison Betts

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This translation first published by Sydney University Press First published in Russian as Strelovidnye Planirovki Ustyurta in 1991 © W. Paul van Pelt and Alison Betts 2019 © Sydney University Press 2019 Reproduction and communication for other purposes Except as permitted under the Act, no part of this edition may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or communicated in any form or by any means without prior written permission. All requests for reproduction or communication should be made to Sydney University Press at the address below: Sydney University Press Fisher Library F03 University of Sydney NSW 2006 AUSTRALIA [email protected] sydney.edu.au/ sup A catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of Australia

ISBN 9781743320105 paperback Cover image: Remnants of an arrow-shaped structure (foreground) along the western escarpment of the Ustyurt Plateau, Boszhira Valley. Photo: Alexander Petrov. Cover design by Miguel Yamin

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Contents Figures Tables Preface

vii xi xiii

Introduction by Vadim N. Yagodin and Shamil S. Amirov 1 1. Architecture by Vadim N. Yagodin and Shamil S. Amirov 9 2. Chronology by Vadim N. Yagodin 93 3. Function and prey species by Vadim N. Yagodin 113 4. Archaeological context by Vadim N. Yagodin 141 5. Historical context by Vadim N. Yagodin 191 6. Socioeconomic significance by Vadim N. Yagodin and Shamil S. Amirov 201 7. Conclusions by Vadim N. Yagodin 213 Catalogue Works cited Index

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217 227 239

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Figures Figure P.1 Vadim N. Yagodin and Alison Betts in-field. xv Figure I.1 View of the western escarpment, Karynzharyk Depression. 1 Figure I.2 Map of Central Asia showing the location of the Ustyurt Plateau. 2 Figure I.3 Remnants of an arrow-shaped structure along the western escarpment, Boszhira Valley. 3 Figure I.4 The Duana subsystems and the area investigated using satellite imagery. 5 Figure I.5 Distribution of arrow-shaped structures on the Ustyurt Plateau. 6 Figure I.6 Distribution of arrow-shaped structures in the North Ustyurt group. 7 Figure 1.1 View of the western escarpment, Zhegalgan Fault. 9 Figure 1.2 Plan of the North Ustyurt group based on the original field drawings. 10 Figure 1.3 Plan of the North Ustyurt group based on satellite imagery. 11 Figure 1.4 Duana 1 arrow-shaped structure 3. 15 Figure 1.5 Aerial view of Duana 1 arrow-shaped structure 5. 18 Figure 1.6 Plan of the Duana cemetery arrow-shaped structure. 25 Figure 1.7 Distribution of arrow-shaped structures in the Bulanbay (V) and Shiykuduk (VI) groups. 27 Figure 1.8 Bulanbay group, arrow-shaped structure 1, seen from the north-east. 28 Figure 1.9 Distribution of arrow-shaped structures in the Shiyoba (III), Kol’say (IV), and Dzharykpak 2 (X) groups. 28 Figure 1.10 Distribution of arrow-shaped structures in the Aksai (VII) group. 29 Figure 1.11 Plan of Aybuyir. 31 Figure 1.12 Aerial view of Berniyaz 3. 34 Figure 1.13 Berniyaz 3. 35 Figure 1.14 Distribution of sites in the Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group. 37 Figure 1.15 Aksaimak 2. 39 Figure 1.16 Aerial view of Ibrakhimsha 3. 43 Figure 1.17 Plan of Kazgan 1. 44 Figure 1.18 Plan of Karamata 7. 47 Figure 1.19 Khantersek. 49 Figure 1.20 Distribution of sites in the Prisar’ikam’ish subgroup. 51 Figure 1.21 Dar’yal’ik 1. 52

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Figure 1.22 Dar’yal’ik 2. 55 Figure 1.23 Aerial view of Dekcha 1. 57 Figure 1.24 Plan of Dekcha 1. 58 Figure 1.25 Plan of Chalburun 1 62 Figure 1.26 Tamga at Chalburun 1. 64 Figure 1.27 Chalburun 1, detail of western arrow-shaped structure. 65 Figure 1.28 Distribution of sites along the eastern edge of the Zhar’inkuduk salt marsh. 66 Figure 1.29 Zhar’inkuduk 6b. 68 Figure 1.30 Plan of Zhar’inkuduk 8. 72 Figure 1.31 Plan of Zhar’inkuduk 12. 73 Figure 1.32 Plan of Zhar’inkuduk 14. 74 Figure 1.33 Plan of Zhar’inkuduk 14. 76 Figure 1.34 Plan of Zhar’inkuduk 14, western arrow-shaped enclosure. 78 Figure 1.35 Zhar’inkuduk 10, occupation site. 80 Figure 1.36 Distribution of sites in the Kend’irlisor group. 83 Figure 1.37 View of the western escarpment. 84 Figure 1.38 Plan of Karamaya 1. 85 Figure 1.39 Plan of Karamaya 3. 86 Figure 1.40 Plan of Karamaya 7. 88 Figure 1.41 Plan of Karamaya 8. 90 Figure 1.42 Group of structures in the Beineu system. 91 Figure 2.1 View of the western escarpment, Tuzbair Sor. 93 Figure 2.2 Satellite view of Duana 1, arrow-shaped structure 3. 95 Figure 2.3 Vessel fragments found in the North Ustyurt group. 96 Figure 2.4 Vessel fragments excavated at Dekcha 1 and Aybuyir. 102 Figure 2.5 Vessel fragments found at Zhar’inkuduk 10. 107 Figure 3.1 View of the western escarpment, Boszhira Valley. 113 Figure 3.2 Aerial photograph of a desert kite in eastern Jordan with a large central enclosure and several surrounding smaller ones. 122 Figure 3.3 Petroglyphs depicting desert kites with trapped animals inside the enclosure. 123 Figure 3.4 Iroquis hunters driving caribou into a chute. 125 Figure 3.5 Kulan (Equus hemionus). 129 Figure 3.6 Distribution of kulan in Central Asia and Kazakhstan and their migration routes in the 18th and 19th centuries. 131 Figure 3.7 Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica). 133 Figure 3.8 Goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa). 135 Figure 3.9 Ustyurt sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei). 136 Figure 4.1 View of the western escarpment, Tortkul Mountain, and the Kend’irlisor salt marsh, Karynzharyk Depression. 141 Figure 4.2 Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3. 146 Figure 4.3 Grave goods found in Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3. 147

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 Figures Figure 4.4 Grave goods found in Ak-Chungul’ 8, kurgan 1. Figure 4.5 Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2. Figure 4.6 Grave goods found in Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2. Figure 4.7 Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 3. Figure 4.8 Grave goods found in Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 3. Figure 4.9 Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4. Figure 4.10 Grave goods found in Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4. Figure 4.11 Grave goods found in Kazgan 4, kurgan cemetery, kurgan 1. Figure 4.12 Kazgan 4, kurgan cemetery, kurgan 2. Figure 4.13 Kazgan 5, kurgan cemetery, kurgan 2. Figure 4.14 Grave goods found in Kalal’ik 2, kurgan 1. Figure 5.1 View of the western escarpment, Boszhira Valley. Figure 6.1 View of the western escarpment, Zhegalgan Fault. Figure 7.1 Remnants of an arrow-shaped structure along the western escarpment, vicinity of Beket-Ata. Figure C.1 The eastern precipice of the Ustyurt Plateau with talus slopes beneath.

149 152 153 155 155 156 157 158 160 162 164 191 201 213 217

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Tables Table 1.1 List of structures by type in the North Ustyurt group. Table 5.1 Qipchaq burial types found in Ustyurt divided by period. Table 6.1 Faunal data from Kurgancha. Proportion of wild and domesticated animal components. Table 6.2 Faunal data from Kurgancha. Wild animal remains divided by species. Table 6.3 Faunal data from Sumbetimeralan-Kurkreuk. Proportion of wild and domesticated animal components. Table 6.4 Faunal data from Sumbetimeralan-Kurkreuk. Wild animal remains divided by species. Table 6.5 Faunal data from arrow-shaped structure Dekcha 1. Wild animal remains divided by species. Table 6.6 Faunal data from arrow-shaped structure Dekcha 1. Relative proportion of wild and domesticated animal components. Table 6.7 Faunal data from Kulanly. Relative proportion of wild and domesticated animal components. Table 6.8 Faunal data from Kulanly. Wild animal remains divided by species. Table C.1 Catalogue of arrow-shaped structures in the North Ustyurt group. Table C.2 Catalogue of other arrow-shaped structures on the Ustyurt Plateau.

26 198 203 204 205 205 209 209 211 211 218 224

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In memory of Vadim N. Yagodin

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Preface W. Paul van Pelt This book is a translation and revised edition of Yagodin’s Strelovidnye Planirovki Ustyurta, originally published in Tashkent in 1991. The volume is one of the most significant works in Ustyurt archaeology and one of the few that integrates (geo)archaeological, ecological, and ethnographic data. It does not merely reapply knowledge and insights acquired in other contexts but provides important socioeconomic and new primary excavation data that are to a large extent Yagodin’s own work. Despite its importance, the book is hardly known outside of Russia and Central Asia. A discouragement to foreign readers has no doubt been the fact that it was directed at a Russian-speaking audience. It is hoped that this English translation will make the book more accessible and help academics realise the extraordinary archaeological potential of the Ustyurt region. In this translation I standardised a few examples of inconsistent use of capitals and numbering. Several measurements and editing errors have also been corrected. The technical terminology has been rendered with phrases specific to the book (e.g. arrow-shaped structures instead of game drives). In translating, a certain loss of the author’s writing style and individuality is practically unavoidable and on occasion I deemed it necessary to omit repetitive passages and to edit ambiguous descriptions for the sake of clarity. Although these alterations might seem prominent at times, they never affect the actual substance of the book. Unless otherwise credited, I accept full responsibility for any translation errors in this volume. The ideas and opinions expressed in the text are those of the author Vadim N. Yagodin. In the course of this translation I was very fortunate to receive the help of numerous friends and colleagues without whose unselfish efforts on my behalf this work could never have been completed. Natasha Simonova (University of Oxford), Olga Kasyanova (University of Cambridge), and Shamil Amirov (Research Institute

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region of the Humanities, Karakalpak Branch of Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan) helped me with numerous problems of Russian and I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to them. Discussion or advice on a wide variety of topics came from Tessa de Roo (University of Cambridge), who supported me with her patience and knowledge throughout writing this translation. Special thanks are due to Alison Betts (University of Sydney) for inspiring me to undertake this work and for reading the whole manuscript and suggesting improvements on almost every page. I also express my deepest gratitude to my college, Trinity Hall, for providing the technical facilities on which the book was put together and for constituting a convivial and friendly environment in which to work. Finally, I thank my family for encouraging me in all my pursuits. I am especially grateful to my parents, Wim van Pelt and Antoinette van Pelt-Elbers. Alison Betts I owe a huge debt of gratitude to the vision, initiative, and academic enthusiasm of Vadim N. Yagodin. Without him, my own long and fascinating career in the archaeology of Central Asia would never have been possible. In 1991 Yagodin was the Director of the Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnography, Karakalpak Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan (now the Research Institute of the Humanities, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan, Karakalpak Branch). Following the fall of the Soviet Union, he saw the great potential offered by the possibilities of international collaboration and I was one of the fortunate recipients of his resourcefulness. I am also grateful to the Lenin Library, Moscow, which even in Soviet times subscribed to the European language journals that made our contact possible. Our common interest in game drives was the inspiration that brought us together, and although our projects since ranged far and wide beyond mass hunting, we both continued to retain strong interests in this area of research. The study of game drives has seen a recent resurgence due to the wide release of high-resolution satellite imagery and the development of Google Earth. However, the study of such structures through remote sensing provides only a small part of the story. The bulk of our understanding of animal drives, including their dates, the ways in which they were used and how they fitted into the lives and economies of the people who built them, can only be achieved through fieldwork. When I first began work in Central Asia, I was keen to bring the research of Russian-speaking colleagues to an international readership. This was an imperative in the early days of the Central Asian Independent States when literature was hard to access, and

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 Preface

few people had the language skills to read it when they could acquire the texts. Since then, the advent of electronic translation, while far from perfect, has been of great assistance in making more material accessible, and the ubiquity of electronic manuscripts has made dissemination of even rare publications widespread. Nonetheless, there is still room for quality translations of key works. Yagodin’s Strelovidnye Planirovki Ustyurta is a classic study of game drives in Central Asia. It is the most detailed work on this subject to date in all of Asia, Central and otherwise. As such, and in gratitude to Yagodin, I am deeply content to see this translation finally in publication, able to reach a fully international audience and to provide comparative data for what I hope will be many new studies on the remarkable phenomenon of game drives. I very much thank W. Paul van Pelt for bravely undertaking the translation of Yagodin’s work and for producing a manuscript of such high quality. His work includes translation, editing, and redrafting of all the illustrations for these sections. The manuscript has also benefitted greatly from new work by Shamil Amirov using remote sensing data which have been incorporated into the original text following translation. This study was carried out prior to Yagodin’s death and he had an active input into the interpretations of the new material. The University of Sydney provided support and facilities for

Figure P.1 Vadim N. Yagodin and Alison Betts in-field. Photo: Michele Minardi.

xv

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region the work of bringing this volume together. This was achieved in part through a Special Studies Programme Award from the Faculty of Arts for 2013 and as part of a publication program conducted under the Australian Research Council Grant DP130101268. Renato Sala and Jean-Marc Deom of the Laboratory of Geoarchaeology, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, have kindly provided images and shared data and ideas. Don Cleveland has provided much helpful editorial advice for this, among other volumes. Finally, I must thank Nicola Gazzana, without whose infinite patience and support work on this volume would have been impossible.

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Introduction Vadim N. Yagodin and Shamil S. Amirov

Figure I.1 View of the western escarpment, Karynzharyk Depression. Photo: Eduard Manukyants (Kovcheg Ecological Center).

1

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

Figure I.2 Map of Central Asia showing the location of the Ustyurt Plateau.

The Ustyurt Plateau lies between the Aral and the Caspian seas in the extreme north-west of Central Asia (Fig. I.2), comprising a vast uplifted desert plain sharply delineated by steep cliffs (chink). The plateau has a stark landscape with low limestone hills and wide sweeping horizons and an altitude varying between 60 and a little over 300 metres above sea level. Across the centre lie the Karabur and Muzbel’ ridges. There are two large drainage depressions, Barsakelmes and Assakeaudan, and extensive sandy upland massifs, which are similar in places to the sandy areas of Sam and Mataykum. The plateau is one of the harshest and driest regions in the world. The climate is continental with extreme daily and annual temperature fluctuations. Average annual rainfall is very low, ranging from 90 mm in the south to 120 mm in the north. With such low rainfall, agriculture is unlikely to be successful outside of the few oases where fields can be irrigated with groundwater. Fodder resources include Artemisia vulgaris, Anabasis salsa, and Crataégus, and are restricted largely to seasonal pastures. A considerable part of the plateau has little or no snow cover, which encourages concentrations of migrating wild animals. It also creates favourable conditions for livestock pasture and seasonal occupation by nomads. The plateau borders the regions of the ancient settled agricultural civilisations of Turkmenia in the south, the valley and delta of the

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 Introduction

Amu-dar’ya and ancient Khwarezm in the south-east, and the regions of South Priuraliya and the Orenburg steppes in the north, which were traditionally inhabited by nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoral tribes (Sauromatian-Sarmatian tribes in antiquity and Pecheneg, Oghuz, and Qipchaq tribes in the medieval period). Archaeological fieldwork in Ustyurt has revealed a number of very large, stationary animal drives. Because of their distinctive shape, these have been given the name ‘arrow-shaped structures’. Some of the structures are ancient, but their use is also recorded in recent ethnographic accounts. An attempt has been made here to study these structures within their broader archaeological and economic context. To this end, this study incorporates a large variety of data. The general distribution of the arrow-shaped structures has been plotted using aerial photography and large-scale topographic maps, while more specific details have been obtained through a combination of archaeological investigation and low-level aerial photography. Additional evidence has been collected from ethnographic sources. This work has recently been updated through a study of satellite imagery.

Figure I.3 Remnants of an arrow-shaped structure (foreground) along the western escarpment, Boszhira Valley. Photo: Alexander Petrov.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

History of research The discovery and study of arrow-shaped structures in Ustyurt is a relatively recent phenomenon (Fig. I.3). The structures were first identified in 1952 during excavations at the site of Erburun-kala, a medieval town on the Khantersek Promontory, at the edge of the Ustyurt Plateau. The leader of the expedition, Tolstov, noted: in many places on the edge of the Ustyurt Plateau very enigmatic structures have been discovered, which consist of trenches radiating across the landscape, paved with rubble or stone slabs, long embankments, and shallow circular pits. Some scanty pottery remains allow us to date these structures to the medieval period. These structures of unknown function are situated mostly on promontories at the edge of the Ustyurt Plateau. The nature of the relief precludes their use as water storage reservoirs. They may have been used to trap animals driven inside them. (Tolstov 1958: 78)

In the early 1970s, the Department of Archaeology of the Institute of History, Language and Literature of the Uzbek Academy of Science, Karakalpak Branch, began an extensive program of archaeological research on the Ustyurt Plateau. Aerial photographs revealed a group of arrow-shaped structures running for dozens of kilometres from the Duana Promontory to the desert of Mataykum (Yagodin et al. 1972: 86–90) (Fig. I.4). In 1975, research continued in the area of the Duana Promontory. It then became clear that the arrow-shaped structures of the North Ustyurt group were combined in a large system. Two structures were studied on the ground. The results of this fieldwork provided evidence for a relative date and possible function of the structures (Yagodin 1978: 79–83). In 1981, several arrow-shaped structures were investigated on the Dekcha Peninsula and on the western cliffs of Ustyurt by the Povolzhsko-Ural expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Fig. I.3). It was suggested that the structures were used for trapping mouflon, but no date could be established for their use (Galkin 1983: 433). In 1983, more arrowshaped structures were discovered in the Aybuyir district around the medieval mausolea of Ibrakhimsha. In addition, four arrow-shaped structures were excavated by the Ustyurt Archaeological expedition at Aybuyir, Berniyaz 3, Khantersek, and Dekcha. In 1984, further work was carried out on structures near the Duana Peninsula. In 1985, the North Ustyurt Archaeological expedition discovered a new

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 Introduction

group of arrow-shaped structures in the Zhar’inkuduk salt marshes. A topographical survey was carried out and several structures were excavated. In 1986, an arrow-shaped structure was discovered near Old Beineu by the Povolzhsko-Ural expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In the same year, an extensive program of archaeological and topographical exploration was completed with the use of a MI-2 helicopter. Aerial reconnaissance made it possible to drastically expand the study area and examine regions that were difficult to reach overland. Several new arrow-shaped structures were discovered as a result. Fieldwork continued in 1987 and 1988, revealing another 12 arrow-shaped structures along the western cliffs of the Ustyurt Plateau. Thus, by the end of 1988, 54 arrow-shaped structures had been identified and studied to different degrees. Further fieldwork was conducted in the first decade of the 21st century in Kazakhstan, resulting in the discovery of a set of 40 new arrow-shaped structures located in three clusters along the northern cliff face in 2007–8 by the Laboratory of Geoarchaeology of Kazakhstan (Deom and Sala 2009: fig. 1). In 2012, a new study of the plateau was made by Amirov (Amirov et al. 2015) using satellite images. This study identified new structures within known systems and also mapped new systems beyond the range of previous fieldwork on the plateau (Fig. I.4). It revealed two previously unknown types of structures,

Figure I.4 The Duana subsystems and the area investigated using satellite imagery.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

Figure I.5 Distribution of arrow-shaped structures on the Ustyurt Plateau: 1 – North Ustyurt group; 2 – Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group: 2.1 – Berniyaz 3 subgroup; 2.2 – Aybuyir subgroup; 2.3 – Kazgan subgroup; 2.4 – the Prisar’ikam’ish subgroup; 3 – Zhar’inkuduk group; 4 – Beineu group; 5 – Kend’irlisor group. This map is from Yagodin’s original publication. For a current distribution map of arrow-shaped structures and related features see Barge et al. 2016: fig. 2.

which are presumed to also be associated with hunting. In 2013, the Globalkites research project team undertook an expedition along the south-western edge of the plateau, in the Ustyurt Nature Reserve. They also carried out a comprehensive survey of the entire plateau using satellite images, discovering a large number of previously unknown structures (Barge et al. 2016). In total, 508 hunting structures are now known on the Ustyurt Plateau.

Distribution The arrow-shaped structures are located in specific regions of the plateau. Based on the pre-1988 fieldwork, five groups were identified: 1. North Ustyurt group: two subsystems

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 Introduction

2. Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group: several subsystems (Aybuyir, Berniyaz 3, Kazgan, Prisar’ikam’ish) 3. Zhar’inkuduk group 4. Beineu group 5. Kend’irlisor group. The Zhar’inkuduk group is located on the interior of the plateau. The North Ustyurt and Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish groups are situated along the cliffs in the east, and the Kend’irlisor and Beineu groups are located along the north-western escarpment (Fig. I.5). Remote sensing studies carried out in 2012 revealed 12 additional subsystems of arrow-shaped structures in North Ustyurt, bringing the total there to 14 (Fig. I.6). These systems cover a vast area and run in an almost continuous line from the shores of the Aral Sea to the western edge of the plateau (c. 155 km from east to west).

Figure I.6 Distribution of arrow-shaped structures in the North Ustyurt group.

Typology The arrow-shaped structures of Ustyurt can be divided into six types: • Type 1 (examples in North Ustyurt and Zhar’inkuduk groups) consists of two or three drivelines leading to a pair of triangular

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region subenclosures that are connected by a large central enclosure. The subenclosures have a ring-shaped bank on each corner. Other banks are sometimes built along their exterior. New research carried out in 2012 shows there are two variants: one opening to the north with some minor variation to east or west (variant 1), and one opening to the south (variant 2). The structures are linked to each other, forming vast chains. • Type 2 (examples in Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish and Kend’irlisor groups) uses the cliff edge as one side of a large triangular enclosure. In most cases the apex of the triangle leads to one or two arrow-shaped subenclosures that are entered through a narrow gap between two inturned walls. These normally have ring-shaped banks on each corner. Other banks are sometimes built along the sides of the enclosures. • Type 3 (examples in Kend’irlisor group) consists of a triangular enclosure with only a single driveline (only Karamaya 7 has two). In some examples the cliff edge functions as a second ‘driveline’. In most examples the enclosure has ring-shaped banks on all corners. Other banks are sometimes built along the exterior of the enclosure. • Type 4 (examples in Kend’irlisor group) consists of walls that are built across a promontory and almost block it from side to side. The entrance of these structures consists of two opposing wall segments that reach down to the cliff edge and often have a ring-shaped bank at their tip. The latter can be doubled and occur on one or both sides of the entrance. Drivelines are not necessary for this type as the promontory itself outlines a large funnel-shaped area (Barge et al. 2016). • Type 5 (examples in North Ustyurt group) consists of a round, elliptical, or sub-triangular enclosure without drivelines. • Type 6 (examples in North Ustyurt and Beineu groups) consists of a very large half-ellipse that tapers to points at the ends, giving it an overall crescent shape. They have wide openings and in some cases the interior corners are fenced off, forming small terminal subenclosures. This type has no drivelines. However, the sides of the entrance together from a funnel into the enclosure.

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1

Architecture Vadim N. Yagodin and Shamil S. Amirov

Figure 1.1 View of the western escarpment, Zhegalgan Fault. Photo: Eduard Manukyants (Kovcheg Ecological Center).

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

North Ustyurt group The North Ustyurt group is situated on the flat plain, south of the North Ustyurt Depression (Figs 1.2–3). The local environment consists of complex loamy desert soils with vegetation made up of three main elements: Salsola arbuscula, Anabasis salsa, and Artemisia spp. (Viktorov 1971: 53). In the ditches of the arrow-shaped structures the vegetation differs from that in drier areas due to the accumulation of rainwater and snow. Here and in natural depressions there are plants that are more characteristic of steppe conditions. These include Stipa spp., Atraphaxis frutescens, and Caragana arborescens. The arrow-shaped structures identified in the field in the 1970s form a single system that can be subdivided into two subsystems: Duana 1 and Duana 2 (Yagodin 1991). Remote sensing recently revealed 12 additional systems in the area. The location of the Duana 1 and Duana 2 subsystems seems to have been largely determined by the surrounding landscape,

Figure 1.2 Plan of the North Ustyurt group based on the original field drawings: A. arrow-shaped structure; B. fault line; C. plateau escarpment; D. Duana cemetery.

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1 Architecture

particularly by a large depression lying along an ancient tectonic fault (Schultz 1970). The fault begins 1.5 km to the south-east of arrow-shaped structure 3 (Duana 1 subsystem) and extends for about 50 km towards the north-west. The layout of the structures in the Duana 1 and Duana 2 subsystems is quite uniform (Fig. 1.2), each consisting of two triangular, arrow-shaped subenclosures that are linked together by a large central enclosure. The apex of the arrowshaped subenclosures always points to the north, onto the plateau (i.e. type 1, first variant; see Introduction). They have an opening between two inturned walls at their southern end and ring-shaped banks on all three corners. In most examples the subenclosures have convex sides but concave and straight-sided examples occur as well. The central enclosure has its opening in the north with drivelines leading up to it. The drivelines run out at an angle until they almost join the drivelines of the adjacent arrow-shaped structure(s), so that from the air it appears as if the structures are linked in a continuous chain. The installations are between 600 and 900 m long and between 400 and 600 m wide. The drivelines are between 400 and 700 m long.

Figure 1.3 Plan of the North Ustyurt group based on satellite imagery.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

Duana 1 subsystem The Duana 1 subsystem contains 16 arrow-shaped structures. They are distributed in a vast arc that starts at the edge of the plateau and extends towards the north-west for almost 26 km (Figs 1.2–3). The distance between the structures ranges from 0.9 to 2.5 km. Arrow-shaped structure 1 Arrow-shaped structure 1 is located along the eastern cliff of the Ustyurt Plateau and has largely collapsed in a landslide. Only parts of the western driveline and arrow-shaped subenclosure remain. The remains are virtually invisible from the surface but can still be made out from the air. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosure consist of a 6 m wide earth bank with a 4.5 m wide ditch on the interior. The inner face of the bank is reinforced with limestone slabs. The ring-shaped earth banks on the corners of the arrowshaped subenclosure have an internal diameter of c. 10 m. They are hollowed out on the inside and internally walled with stone flagging. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosure are between 90 and 100 m long and enclose an area of c. 0.45 hectares with almost no surface topography. Surface finds consisted only of occasional pottery fragments. Arrow-shaped structure 2 Arrow-shaped structure 2 is located 1.5 km to the west of structure 1. The structure was well preserved at the time of research but has now been almost completely destroyed due to the construction of a petrol pipeline between Bukhara and the Ural Mountains. The outlines of both arrow-shaped subenclosures are doubled, which was best visible on aerial photographs. The doubled contours indicate that the structure was rebuilt at least once on a slightly different line. The arrow-shaped subenclosures consist of earth banks with accompanying ditches on the interior. The ring-shaped earth banks on the corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are hollowed out on the inside and reinforced with limestone slabs. Aerial photographs reveal faint traces of drivelines extending from the entrance of the central enclosure. Structure 2 is over 700 m long and c. 550 m wide. The entrance to the central enclosure is about 100 m wide. The sides of the arrowshaped subenclosures are between 100 and 150 m long. The eastern driveline measures almost 950 m. Its western counterpart can be traced over a distance of approximately 800 m. The installation covers

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1 Architecture about 19 hectares. The arrow-shaped subenclosures each have a surface area between 0.70 and 0.75 hectares. Aerial photos revealed several large discolourations on the surface just beyond the southern end of the central enclosure. These were excavated and turned out to be heavily bioturbated ashy deposits with frequent pottery and bone fragments, which often had traces of burning. In one area a circular depression with a diameter of c. 10 m contained silty ash deposits from short-term occupation. Arrow-shaped structure 3 Arrow-shaped structure 3 is located approximately 900 m west of structure 2 (Fig. 1.4). It is the only installation in the group that has been subjected to detailed archaeological investigation. The structure is located on a roughly level plain with Salsola arbuscula, Anabasis salsa, and gray wormwood (Artemisia) vegetation. The contours of the structure are poorly defined and often extremely difficult to make out without the help of aerial photographs. The central enclosure consists of an earth bank with an accompanying ditch on its interior. In some areas the bank appears only as a dark-coloured band in the soil. In others it is well defined and has survived to some height. The eastern and western outlines of the central enclosure are doubled, which is best visible near the entrance. The arrow-shaped subenclosures have been better preserved than the central enclosure and also consist of earth banks with accompanying ditches on the interior. The inner face of the earth banks often still has traces of a dry-stacked limestone retaining wall. The outlines of the eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure are doubled. There are earth ring-shaped banks on all corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosures. These are hollowed out on the inside and internally ringed with stone flagging. The drivelines are virtually indiscernible from the ground and are also hard to make out on aerial photographs. They only appear in places as slight undulations in the terrain or as dark discolourations in the soil. In its entirety structure 3 measures about 750 m long and 650 m wide. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are between 110 and 120 m long. Their entrances are c. 10 m wide. The sides of the central enclosure are between 600 and 700 m long. It has an approximately 100 m wide entrance in the north. The driveline is over 1 km long. The central enclosure has a surface area of approximately 18 hectares. The eastern and western arrow-shaped subenclosures have a surface area of 0.7 and 0.8 hectares respectively.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

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1 Architecture Figure 1.4 (opposite) Duana 1 arrow-shaped structure 3. A. Plan of arrow-shaped structure 3: a. ditch; b. earth bank; c. rounded depressions with signs of short-term occupation; d. sounding; B. Plan of the northern ring-shaped bank in the western arrow-shaped subenclosure: a. limestone revetment; b. modern edge of the earth bank; c. original edge of the earth bank (reconstructed); d. limit of excavation; C. Western arrow-shaped subenclosure, northern ring-shaped bank, section I–I; D. Western arrow-shaped subenclosure, northern ring-shaped bank, section II–II; E. Western arrow-shaped subenclosure, sounding 1, north-south section; F. Enclosure, sounding 3, east-west section; G. Driveline, sounding 2, east-west section; H. Rounded depression 3, sounding 4, East-west section: 1 – topsoil; 2 – gravelly loam bank; 3 – ancient surface level; 4 – grayish brown paleosol; 5 – limestone bedrock; 6 – compact (trampled) loam with frequent limestone chips; 7 – gravelly loam collapse layer with frequent limestone chips; 8 – organic turf layer; 9 – limestone revetment; 10 – reconstructed edge of earth ring-shaped bank; 11 – bioturbated gravelly loam; 12 – gravelly loam with rare ash pockets and frequent pottery and animal bones; 13 – loamy backfill from ditch.

There were five circular depressions near the southern end of the central enclosure, both in and outside of the structure. These depressions were c. 0.5 m deep and had diameters ranging between 10 and 12 m. They contained ashy deposits with fragments of bone and pottery. Ring-shaped bank excavation The northern ring-shaped bank of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure was partly excavated (Fig. 1.4: B). Roughly a quarter of the interior of the bank was cleared to bedrock level and two perpendicularly placed soundings were cut across its centre (Fig. 1.4: C–D, sections I–I and II–II). These soundings enabled a reconstruction of the bank’s construction phases. The builders started by digging a large pit with a diameter of c. 10 m to a depth of over 1 m. The upper 0.5 m of the pit was cut through a grayish brown paleosol. The lower 0.5 m was cut into the limestone bedrock. During excavation the backfill of the pit was evenly distributed along its contours, gradually forming a ring-shaped earth bank. Afterwards the pit was internally revetted with limestone slabs and the exterior of the bank extended with gravelly loam soil. Geochemical analyses of the paleosol below the earth bank (based on carbonate, sulphate, and salt values) suggest that the bank was originally between 3.5 and 4 m wide. The height of the bank would have largely depended on the volume of the backfill. Calculations suggest it would have been between 2.5 and 3 m high. Part of the ring-shaped bank is open towards the arrow-shaped subenclosure, allowing access from this direction. In this area there is a c. 0.6 m high ledge made of limestone slabs. It has a ramp in front,

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region which slowly rises from the surface to the top of the ledge. Behind the ramp there is a 1.6 m high vertical drop. Sounding 1

A sounding measuring 15 by 1 m was cut across the eastern side of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure, c. 30 m east of the northern ring-shaped bank (Fig. 1.4: E). The outer contour of the bank was difficult to make out even in section, but could be approximately located through geochemical analyses. The inner face of the bank had been reinforced with a vertical limestone retaining wall and hence was easy to make out. Originally the bank seems to have been c. 4 m wide at the base. There was a 0.3 m deep ditch on the interior of the earth bank. The ditch had been partially cut into the limestone bedrock and was deepest (0.8 m) immediately east of the bank. It had a trapezoidal cross-section and was c. 6 m wide at the base and 7.5 m wide at the top. The surface area of a trapezoid can be calculated using the formula ½(b1+b2) x h. Thus, for every excavated metre of the ditch, about 5.4 cubic metres of earth had to be removed (i.e. ½ (6.0+7.5) x 0.8). Considering that the ditch fill had a weight of c. 2.65 grams per cubic cm, every excavated metre involved moving c. 14.6 metric tons of soil. The earth bank had clearly been constructed with backfill from the ditch. Extrapolating from the original width of the earth bank (c. 4 m), the surface area of the section of the ditch (5.4 cubic metres) and the expected cross-section of the earth bank (≈ isosceles triangle), it is possible to reconstruct its height at c. 2.7 m (h = 2S/a = 10.8/4). In reality the earth bank would have been less high than this figure due to the poor adhesion of the extracted sediments and wind and water erosion. The retaining wall was absolutely necessary for the construction of the vertical inner face of the bank. Sounding 2

A sounding measuring 6 by 1 m was cut across the western driveline, c. 700 m north of the entrance to the central enclosure. Prior to excavation the driveline was visible only as a slight depression in the sand. Excavation revealed that the wall consisted of two low (0.2 m) and rather narrow (c. 1.5 m) earth banks with a wide (2 m) ditch in between (Fig. 1.4: G). The ditch had a depth of 0.5 m and had been partially cut into the limestone bedrock. The ditch fill consisted of gravelly loam with limestone rubble. The upper horizon of the fill had developed a secondary soil. Both banks consisted of gravelly loam and had been built using the backfill of the ditch.

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1 Architecture Sounding 3

A sounding measuring 9 by 1 m was cut across the side of the central enclosure, c. 30 m south of the southern ring-shaped bank of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure (Fig. 1.4: F). The sounding revealed a 3 m wide ditch with a depth of c. 0.7 m. The top 0.4 m of the ditch had been cut into a grayish brown paleosol. The remaining 0.3 m was cut into the limestone bedrock. There was a low, badly eroded earth bank immediately west of the ditch. Judging by the volume of the backfill of the ditch, this earth bank would not have been higher than 0.6 to 0.7 m. The ditch was filled with gravelly loam, the upper horizon of which had developed a secondary soil. The height difference between the top of the earth bank and the base of the ditch would not have exceeded 1.5 m. Sounding 4

Sounding 4 was cut across depression no. 3 near the south-east of the central enclosure. The depression had a diameter of c. 12 m and a depth of 0.5 m. The sounding was oriented east–west and was 8 m long and 1 m wide (Fig. 1.4: H). It was cleared down to bedrock level and revealed a large pan-shaped depression with a small round pit at its centre. The small pit was filled with gravelly loam with rare ash pockets and frequent pottery shards and animal bone fragments. The number of finds increased towards the base of the pit. The larger pan-shaped pit contained heavily bioturbated gravelly loam. It is difficult to interpret the nature of these features, but it appears that the finds were largely intrusive and stem from higher levels. Sounding 5

The surface around sounding 4 was covered with a sparse scatter of pottery fragments and animal bones. There were also a number of vertically placed limestone orthostats visible on the surface a few metres to the east of the sounding. Sounding 5 was dug to examine these remains. The sounding was relatively small and measured only 3 m long by 1 m wide. The limestone orthostats turned out to be badly eroded and had been exposed as a result of deflation. They did not form any meaningful groupings or outlines of structures. Clearly, the remains did not belong to any kind of permanent dwelling. Rather they appear to have belonged to a short-term occupation site damaged by surface run-off. The surface run-off is presumably responsible for the formation of the gravelly loam deposit with cultural remains in the pits of sounding 4.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

Figure 1.5 Aerial view of Duana 1 arrowshaped structure 5.

Arrow-shaped structure 4 Arrow-shaped structure 4 is located about 1 km to the south-west of structure 3. The outlines of the installation are clearly visible, both on aerial photographs and on the ground. The outlines of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure and the eastern half of the central enclosure are doubled, indicating that the structure was rebuilt at least once. All corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosures have ring-shaped earth banks that are hollowed out on the inside and are internally ringed with stone flagging. There are faint traces of drivelines in front of the main entrance and at the apex of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure. The installation is about 850 m long and over 500 m wide. The entrance of the central enclosure is between 140 and 150 m wide. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are between 120 and 140 m long. The driveline in front of the entrance is c. 1 km long. The western driveline is approximately 400 m long. The structure covers an area of about 21 hectares. The arrow-shaped subenclosures each have a surface area of c. 0.8 hectares.

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1 Architecture Some evidence of short-term occupation was discovered just beyond the southern end of the central enclosure, consisting of 10 to 12 m wide shallow depressions with frequent pottery fragments and animal bones. Arrow-shaped structure 5 Arrow-shaped structure 5 lies about 1 km north-west of structure 4 (Fig. 1.5). The structure is badly eroded. Much of the damage is recent and was caused by the construction of a parking lot. At present only the two arrow-shaped subenclosures and their ring-shaped banks survive to some degree. Despite the poor preservation, an earlier enclosure can be discerned 150 to 160 m to the west of the eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure, indicating that the structure has been rebuilt. All corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosures have ringshaped banks that are hollowed out on the inside and are internally ringed with stone flagging. There are faint traces of a driveline at the apex of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure. The installation is about 800 m long and 600 m wide. The entrance of the central enclosure is c. 150 m wide. The sides of the arrowshaped subenclosures are between 100 and 120 m long. The structure has a surface area of approximately 24 hectares. The arrow-shaped subenclosures each cover an area of c. 0.6 hectares. Surface finds consisted only of rare pottery fragments, a gray slate grinding stone, and several polished fragments of gray quartzite. Arrow-shaped structure 6 Arrow-shaped structure 6 lies about 1.5 km to the north-west of structure 5. The outlines of the installation are well defined on aerial photographs but only the arrow-shaped subenclosures can be discerned on the ground. The earth bank and ditch that make up the central enclosure can be traced only with enormous difficulty, particularly in the south where the structure is badly degraded. In contrast to other structures the ditch is located on the exterior of the bank rather than on its interior. The sides of the eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure are convex-shaped. Those of the western enclosure are concave-convex. All corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosures have a ring-shaped earth bank. The structure is more than 800 m long and about 500 m wide. The entrance of the central enclosure is about 150 m wide. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are c. 100 m long. The installation has a surface area of approximately 20 hectares. The arrow-shaped subenclosures each cover an area of c. 0.5 hectares. Some evidence of short-term occupation was discovered inside the structure, near

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region the southern end of the central enclosure. The evidence consisted of frequent discoloured areas in the soil matrix and a number of shallow depressions with frequent pottery shards and animal bones, often burnt. Similar depressions were discovered further south, just beyond the central enclosure. Arrow-shaped structure 7 Arrow-shaped structure 7 is situated approximately 2.5 km west of structure 6. The installation is relatively well preserved. Its outlines are easily discernible both on the ground and on aerial photographs. As usual the entrance of the structure is oriented to the north-northeast. The driveline in the front of the entrance is slightly curved. The sides of the eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure are convex. Those of the western enclosure are concave-convex. The entire structure is c. 800 m long and 500 m wide. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are about 100 m long. The entrance of the central enclosure is between 120 and 140 m wide. The driveline is approximately 600 m long. The installation has a surface area of c. 20 hectares. The arrow-shaped subenclosures each cover an area of about 0.5 hectares. Arrow-shaped structure 8 Structure 8 lies about 1.8 km to the west of structure 7. The outlines of the structure can be easily discerned on aerial photographs but are difficult to make out from the ground. Only the earth banks and ditches of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are readily visible. The earth bank of the central enclosure is often very poorly defined. The eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure has a double ring-shaped bank at its northern corner. The installation is about 900 m long and 700 m wide. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are between 150 and 200 m long. The entrance of the central enclosure is between 110 and 120 m wide. The structure encloses an area of c. 31 hectares. The arrow-shaped structures each have a surface area of approximately 1.5 hectares. Some evidence of short-term occupation was discovered just south of the central enclosure. This consisted of 10 to 15 m wide shallow depressions with frequent pottery fragments and animal bones. This area also contained a number of quartzite, flint, and black slate fragments. Arrow-shaped structure 9 Structure 9 is located approximately 1.4 km to the north-west of structure 8. The outlines of the installation are clearly visible both on the ground and on aerial photographs. The earth bank of the

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1 Architecture central enclosure is quite degraded. The earth banks and ditches of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are much better preserved. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are slightly convex. On aerial photographs there are faint traces of a driveline extending north from the entrance of the structure. The installation has a number of striking architectural anomalies. First, the western arrow-shaped subenclosure has a double ringshaped bank at its northern corner instead of a single one. Second, the eastern and western ring-shaped banks of the eastern arrowshaped subenclosure have a small earth mound at their centre, whereas the other ring-shaped banks in the North Ustyurt group are all hollowed out on the inside. Similar banks with an earth mound at the centre are found in the arrow-shaped structures of the AybuyirPrisar’ikam’ish group. Third, the outlines of both arrow-shaped subenclosures are formed by a double earth bank with a ditch in between. The central enclosure consists of the usual single earth bank with a shallow ditch on its interior. A final remarkable feature is the presence of round pits, approximately 10 m in diameter, on both sides of the entrance. The installation is about 750 m long and 500 m wide. The entrance of the central enclosure is about 100 m wide. The sides of the arrowshaped subenclosures are between 110 and 120 m long. The structure has a surface area of c. 19 hectares. The arrow-shaped subenclosures each cover an area of between 0.65 and 0.70 hectares. Some evidence of short-term occupation was discovered to the south of the central enclosure. This consisted of 10 to 14 m wide shallow depressions with frequent pottery shards and animal bones and rare stone and iron fragments. Arrow-shaped structure 10 Structure 10 lies approximately 1.9 km north-west of arrow-shaped structure 9. The installation is situated on a gentle slope. Its outlines can clearly be discerned on aerial photographs but are difficult to make out on the ground. The earth banks of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are poorly preserved and mostly consist of gravelly detritus. The eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure has a double ring-shaped bank at its northern corner. The ring-shaped banks on the other corners are not doubled nor are those of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure. The ring-shaped banks of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure have no clear traces of a limestone retaining wall on their inner face but the pits at their centre are quite deep. There are circular pits on each side of the entrance. On aerial photographs there are

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region faint traces of a driveline extending north from the main entrance of the structure. The installation is about 800 m long and 500 m wide. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are c. 150 m wide. The entrance of the central enclosure is more than 100 m wide. The structure has a total surface area of approximately 20 hectares. The arrow-shaped subenclosures each have a surface area between 1 and 1.1 hectares. A few pottery fragments were found on the earth banks of the arrow-shaped subenclosures and some evidence of short-term occupation was discovered to the south of the central enclosure. This consisted of 12 to 14 m wide shallow depressions and two deep pits with frequent ceramics and animal bones and rare stone fragments. Arrow-shaped structure 11 Structure 11 is situated approximately 1.4 km north-west of structure 10. It is situated south of the ancient fault line together with structures N12 to N16 (structures 1 to 10 are all located north of the fault). The outlines of the structure are clearly visible on aerial photographs. As usual, the entrance of the structure is oriented to the north. The installation uses the southern edge of the tectonic fault as part of a large funnel or chute. The structure is about 750 m long and 500 m wide. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are approximately 150 m long. The entrance of the central enclosure is c. 100 m wide. The eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure has two ring-shaped banks at its apex rather than one. The installation covers around 19 hectares. The arrow-shaped subenclosures each have a surface area between 1 and 1.1 hectares. Arrow-shaped structure 12 Arrow-shaped structure 12 is situated c. 600 m to the north-northwest of structure 11. The south-eastern end of the central enclosure is not visible on aerial photographs. The structure is approximately 500 m wide. The entrance of the central enclosure is between 110 to 120 m wide. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are c. 120 m long. The arrow-shaped subenclosures each have a surface area of approximately 0.7 hectares. Arrow-shaped structure 13 Arrow-shaped structure 13 lies c. 1.9 km to the north of structure 12. The southern part of the structure is not visible on aerial photographs. There are faint traces of drivelines in front of the main entrance and at the apex of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure. The structure is about 800 m long and 600 m wide. The entrance of the

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1 Architecture central enclosure is c. 100 m wide. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are between 160 and 180 m long. The installation covers around 24 hectares. The arrow-shaped subenclosures each have a surface area between 1.4 and 1.5 hectares. Arrow-shaped structure 14 Arrow-shaped structure 14 is located c. 1.8 km north-west of structure 13. The southern part of the structure is not visible on aerial photographs. The installation is about 600 m wide. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are approximately 100 m long. The entrance of the central enclosure is c. 100 m wide. The arrow-shaped subenclosures each have a surface area between 1.1 and 1.2 hectares. Arrow-shaped structure 15 Arrow-shaped structure 15 is located 1 km to the north of structure 14. The southern part of the installation is not visible on aerial photographs. The outlines of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure are doubled. The remains of an earlier arrow-shaped subenclosure are still clearly visible below the more recent walls. The earlier arrowshaped subenclosure had a single ring-shaped bank at its northern corner, whereas the later installation had two. The structure is about 800 m wide. The entrance of the central enclosure is between 120 and 130 m wide. The sides of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure are more than 200 m long. Those of the eastern enclosure measure c. 150 m. The arrow-shaped subenclosures each have a surface area of about 1.5 hectares. Arrow-shaped structure 16 Arrow-shaped structure 16 was only recently identified during the remote sensing study and has not been studied on the ground. It has the same design and orientation as the subsystem’s other structures.

Duana 2 subsystem The Duana 2 subsystem is located approximately 6 km to the north of arrow-shaped structure 15. The subsystem consists of four arrowshaped structures that are distributed in a 6 to 6.5 km long chain running from the south-east to the north-west (Figs I.5–6). They are aligned along the same tectonic fault as the Duana 1 structures. Arrow-shaped structure 1 The outlines of arrow-shaped structure 1 are clear on all sides. The structure has relatively large arrow-shaped subenclosures with 200 m

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region long sides. The installation is about 900 m long and 700 m wide. The entrance of the central enclosure is between 110 and 120 m wide. The western driveline leading up to the main entrance is about 1 km long. The eastern driveline can be traced over a distance of c. 400 m. Arrow-shaped structure 2 Arrow-shaped structure 2 lies approximately 2.2 km north-west of arrow-shaped structure 1. The southern part of the structure is not visible on aerial photographs. The installation is about 600 m wide. The entrance of the central enclosure is more than 200 m wide. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are between 150 and 160 m long. Arrow-shaped structure 3 Arrow-shaped structure 3 is located about 1 km to the north-west of structure 2. The installation is very poorly preserved. Only parts of the central enclosure can be seen on aerial photographs. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are approximately 150 m long. Arrow-shaped structure 4 Arrow-shaped structure 4 lies on a relatively steep slope, c. 1.3 km to the north-west of structure 3. Due to large differences in elevation surface run-off has formed many deep gullies in the area. These have destroyed much of the southern end of the structure. Fortunately the remaining outlines of the structure are well defined. The installation is about 500 m wide. The entrance of the central enclosure is c. 200  m wide. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are between 120 and 130 m long. There are faint traces of drivelines near the apex of both arrow-shaped subenclosures. The fault line extends further to the north-west but there appear to be no more arrow-shaped structures in this direction.

Duana complex No discussion of the North Ustyurt system would be complete without a description of the arrow-shaped structure of Duana (Yagodin 1978: fig. 20), although admittedly this installation is located at some distance from the structures in subsystems I and II. The Duana arrow-shaped structure lies between 15 and 40 m from the cliff edge in group 2 of the Duana cemetery, approximately 40 m south of kurgan 4 (Fig. 1.6). It consists of a triangular arrowshaped subenclosure with an 8 m wide entrance between two inturned walls in the north. The sides of the enclosure are between 100 and 120 m long and are slightly convex. The structure has a driveline at

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1 Architecture

Figure 1.6 Plan of the Duana cemetery arrow-shaped structure.

its north-western corner, made of large limestone flagstones placed on their edges. The southern corner of the enclosure has two ringshaped earth banks, one abutting the other. Both have a diameter of approximately 6 m. The western and eastern corners of the arrowshaped subenclosure have a single ring-shaped bank with a similar diameter. A somewhat smaller ring-shaped earth bank is situated at the centre of the enclosure’s eastern side. This example is open towards the enclosure. The other ring-shaped banks are all closed. In the northern wall there is a large kurgan made of dry-stacked limestone slabs between the western ring-shaped bank and the entrance. It has a diameter of about 10 m and is between 1.2 and 1.5 m high. The driveline to the north-west of the enclosure has a length of c. 140 m. It forms a large funnel or chute together with the plateau escarpment. The entire installation has a surface area of approximately 2.5 hectares. The arrow-shaped subenclosure covers c. 0.4 hectares. This brief description illustrates that the Duana arrow-shaped structure is typologically quite distinct from the structures in the Duana 1 and 2 subsystems. These typological differences and the location of the structure (8 to 9 km south of arrow-shaped structure 1 in the Duana 1 subsystem) suggest that it may have been built in a different period.

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Yagodin_Book_1Feb.indb 26

Almambet

Dzharykpak

Duana 1

UZ

UZ

UZ

Kol’taban

KZ/UZ

KZ

KZ

KZ

KZ

Total

Single traps

Shiyoba

Shiykuduk

Taskuduk

Toksanbay

Kol’say

KZ

KZ

Duana 2

Dzharykpak 2

Bulanbay

KZ/UZ

KZ

KZ

Aksay

Aytman

KZ

KZ

Groups

Country

68

7

7

4

1

5

4

4

16

5

7

5

3

Variant 1

Type 1

18

2

5

4

2

2

3

Variant 2

25

3

10

1

2

1

1

1

6

Type 5

7

2

1

4

Type 6

Table 1.1 List of structures by type in the North Ustyurt group (based on Amirov et al. 2015). KZ =Kazakhstan, UZ = Uzbekistan.

118

5

24

8

4

3

6

5

4

16

5

7

12

5

11

3

Total

Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

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1 Architecture

Subsystems III to XIV The availability of satellite imagery recently enabled a much larger survey than could be achieved in the 20th century through low altitude aerial survey. Twelve systems were added to the two subsystems that were previously known in the area. In addition, two hitherto unknown types of arrow-shaped structures were discovered: types 5 and 6 (see Chapter 2: Chronology). Type 5 structures have a round, elliptical, or sub-triangular plan with an opening onto the north (four examples) or south (22 examples), and measure up to 190 by 170 m. Type 6 installations have an oval-shaped enclosure with a wide opening onto the north (four examples) or south (two examples). This type has no drivelines. However, the sides of the entrance together form a funnel into the enclosure. The interior corners adjacent to the drivelines are sometimes fenced off, forming small terminal enclosures. The longitudinal axis of the main enclosure is between 430 and 550 m long. The Duana 1, Duana 2, Shiyoba, Kol’say, Bulanbay, Shijkuduk, Koltaban, Aytman, and Taskuduk groups form a single chain of structures that extends for more than 150 km and almost completely blocks the open ground between the eastern and western escarpments of the Ustyurt Plateau. Type 1, 5, and 6 arrow-shaped structures are clustered into groups and occur in different combinations (Table 1.1). The Duana 1, Duana 2, and Almambet subsystems only have type 1 arrow-shaped structures which open to the north (variant 1).

Figure 1.7 Distribution of arrow-shaped structures in the Bulanbay (V) and Shiykuduk (VI) groups.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

Figure 1.8 Bulanbay group, arrow-shaped structure 1, seen from the north-east. Photo: Sergey Gruzdev, taken using a camera on a kite.

Figure 1.9 Distribution of arrow-shaped structures in the Shiyoba (III), Kol’say (IV), and Dzharykpak 2 (X) groups.

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The Dzharykpak 2 subsystem includes only type 1 arrow-shaped structures that open to the south (variant 2). The Dzharykpak 1 subsystem contains type 1 arrow-shaped structures that open both to the north and the south. The Aksai and Shiyoba groups contain arrow-shaped structures belonging to types 1 and 5. The former include structures that open both to the north and the south. The Kol’say and Shiykuduk groups also contain structures of types 1 and 5. However, here the former only includes structures that open onto the north (variant 1). Finally, the Bulanbay group contains structures of types 1 and 6 with the type 1 structures only opening onto the south (Figs 1.7–8). Within groups there is a discernible arrangement of structures, with those of the same type often being placed in rows. This can be illustrated most clearly in the Shiyoba, Kol’say, and Dzharykpak 2 groups (Fig. 1.9). In the Shiyoba and Aksai group structures that open to the north and south are located in separate rows (Figs 1.9–10).

Figure 1.10 Distribution of arrow-shaped structures in the Aksai (VII) group.

Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group The Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group is located along the south-eastern cliff of the Ustyurt Plateau and extends over an area of more than 90 km. Unlike the vertical cliffs of the eastern escarpment, the plateau between Berniyaz and the Aybuyir Bend falls away in a broken and irregular line. Below the cliffs there are many landslides, which have

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region formed large terraces and gentle slopes towards the alluvial plain of the Amu-dar’ya Delta. In many places surface run-off has created deep gullies. The character of the cliff edge changes dramatically in the area of Lake Aybuyir. Here the gentle slopes are replaced by vertical limestone cliffs with only low talus slopes at the base. The area around the Karaubar Ridge is interrupted by numerous ravines, some of which are tens of kilometres long. These ravines often provide access to and from the plateau. Beyond the Karaubar Ridge the steep cliff edge gives way to broad gentle slopes that gradually drop towards the eastern extremity of the alluvial plain of the Kunya-dar’ya. Past this plain the escarpment once again consists of steep vertical cliffs with numerous promontories and ravines. Between the Dekcha and Chalburun promontories the escarpment has frequent outcrops of Sarmatian limestone. There are very few talus slopes in this area and there is only one large ravine, located west of the Dekcha Promontory. The escarpment terminates in the alluvial plains of the Prisar’ikam’ish Delta and the Sar’ikam’ish Depression. The arrow-shaped structures in the Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group are built either on the edge of the cliff (Dar’yal’ik 1, Dar’yal’ik 2, Kazgan 1, Berniyaz 3), above the steep slopes of the larger ravines (Kazgan 3, Aksaimak 2, Aksaimak 4, Karamata 3, Karamata 7, Erburun, Dekcha 2, Dekcha 3, Dekcha 6), or on top of plateau promontories (Khantersek, Ibrakhimsha 2, Ibrakhimsha 3, Dekcha 1, Chalburun 1). In some areas the escarpment has collapsed, destroying large parts of the arrow-shaped structures (Ibrakhimsha 2).

Aybuyir Aybuyir lies 27 km to the west of Berniyaz 3 and 3 km to the north of Kulanly. The arrow-shaped structure is situated on the edge of the cliff in an area where the escarpment changes direction from east-west to north-south (i.e. the so-called south-eastern ledge). The terrain in this area gradually slopes down towards the cliff edge, falling almost 10 m over a distance of 0.5 km. The arrow-shaped subenclosure lies at the highest point of the terrain. From the air the installation takes the shape of a triangle formed by low rubble walls (Fig. 1.11). The base of the triangle lies on the cliff edge, with the apex to the north, pointing onto the plateau. The arrow-shaped terminal enclosure lies at the apex of the triangle and has a 13 m wide opening at the southern end. The enclosure is formed by earth banks with shallow ditches running parallel on the inside. The earth banks are between 3 and 4 m wide and between 0.2 and 0.3 m high. The accompanying ditches are between 1.5 and

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2 m wide and 0.1 to 0.15 m deep. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosure are approximately 120 m long. It has a surface area of approximately 0.55 hectares. There are ring-shaped banks on each corner of the enclosure. These have a diameter of approximately 16 m and consist of an earth bank made of gravelly loam and limestone chips. The earth banks are between 3.5 and 4 m wide and c. 1 m high. They are reinforced on the inner face with limestone slabs. There is an earth mound, rising slightly higher than the surrounding bank, at the centre of each ring-shaped bank. These mounds have a diameter of about 4.5 and 5 m at the base. A small amount of pottery was collected near the northern ringshaped bank. Two small stone constructions – resembling stone boxes – were discovered near the west wall of the arrow-shaped subenclosure.

Figure 1.11 Plan of Aybuyir: 1. ‘altar’; 2. trapezoidal structure; 3. earth mound; 4. sounding.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Their function is enigmatic but they can tentatively be interpreted as ‘altars’. Near the western ring-shaped bank there was a round pit with limestone slabs scattered around the edges. It had a diameter of about 8 m and has been interpreted as a freestanding ring-shaped bank. The western driveline runs south-west from the western ringshaped bank and is 410 to 415 m long. It runs in a relatively straight line for the first 250 m, after which it bends off almost perpendicularly and meanders towards the edge of the escarpment. There are two further stone ‘altars’ near the cliff edge, one on either side of the driveline. The eastern driveline extends south-east from the eastern ringshaped bank. It consists of an odd combination of walls that form two ‘loops’. The first loop has an elongated shape and measures almost 300 m long and is c. 70 m wide. It encloses a surface area of approximately 1.5 hectares and has a 20 m wide opening at its southern end. It has a second, somewhat smaller opening in the east leading towards the interior of the second loop. This loop is approximately 200 m long and 50 m wide and has a surface area of c. 0.5 hectares. Further south, towards the cliff edge, there is a separate driveline built perpendicular to the escarpment. It runs north for 30 to 35 m and terminates in a stone ring-shaped bank with a diameter of c. 3 m. The opening between this wall and the southern end of the eastern driveline is approximately 120 m wide. Within this opening there is a trapezoidal structure built with vertically placed limestone slabs. It is located approximately 15 m north of the southern driveline. Prior to excavation the structure was almost entirely buried with only the tops of the limestone slabs protruding from the surrounding soil. The central enclosure has a surface area of approximately 7 hectares. The entire structure covers almost 9.5 hectares. The Aybuyir arrow-shaped structure was subjected to detailed archaeological investigation. Sounding 1 A sounding of 10 by 1 m was cut across the western wall of the arrowshaped subenclosure, c. 20 m south-west of the northern ring-shaped bank, in order to study its design and composition. The section showed that the western wall consisted of a double earth bank made of gravel with a shallow ditch in between. The ditch was 1.5 m wide at the top and only 0.30 to 0.35 m deep. It had been dug into a compact layer of white clay. The backfill was deposited on both sides of the ditch, forming two parallel banks. These were not only higher than the surrounding terrain but also had a very distinctive white colour. Both banks were about 2.5 m wide at the base and between 0.30 to 0.35 m

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1 Architecture high. The banks and ditch were badly eroded by water movement. The eastern and southern wall of the arrow-shaped subenclosure and the eastern driveline also consisted of a double earth bank with a ditch in between. Trapezoidal structure An enigmatic trapezoidal structure was discovered at the entrance of the central enclosure. Prior to excavation the structure was only visible as a slight rise in the terrain. It had rather vague outlines with several vertically placed limestone orthostats protruding from the soil. These orthostats formed a rough trapezoid measuring 4 by 5 m, the long axis being oriented east–west. After limited excavation it became apparent that the limestone orthostats continued all the way down to the bedrock, which was situated 25 to 40 cm below the modern surface level. The internal space of the structure was filled with sterile, laminated sandy loam deposits. Western ring-shaped bank The western ring-shaped bank was subjected to detailed archaeological investigation. A quarter of the interior was excavated down to bedrock and one sounding was cut across its centre. The bank was constructed as follows: first, a large circular pit was dug down to the limestone bedrock, and the backfill of the pit was used to erect a ring-shaped earth bank. Then a narrow ditch was excavated into the bedrock along the inner face of the bank. The backfill was used to reinforce the inner face of the bank with limestone flagging. Finally, a mound of brown sandy loam was erected at the centre of the pit. The base of the bank consisted of the same brown sandy loam as the central mound, but was heavily mixed with limestone debris towards the top. The internal ring ditch was filled with laminated gray silty clay deposits with thin washed-out crusts. The bank was closed on all sides and contained no finds. Freestanding ‘bank’ A freestanding ‘bank’ was found immediately west of the western ring-shaped bank. It consisted of a rectangular pit that had been excavated down to the level of the limestone bedrock. The inner faces of the pit were reinforced with limestone slabs. The masonry had a haphazard character and was made up of horizontally, vertically, and diagonally placed slabs. The pit had distinct traces of burning and pockets of calcitic ash at its centre. Immediately west of the burnt area there was a layer of silt

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

Figure 1.12 Aerial view of Berniyaz 3.

with rare fragments of charcoal and animal bones. These inclusions grew more numerous towards the western end of the pit. This area also contained a fragment of iron. The western wall had a small passageway formed by two large limestone slabs placed on their edges. Below the wall there was a thin layer of ash.

Berniyaz 3 Berniyaz 3 is located at the edge of the Ustyurt Plateau, approximately 1.4 km north of Berniyaz. The area surrounding the arrow-shaped structure has many low ridges and hillocks and numerous superficial gullies formed by surface run-off. The structure is badly eroded and barely visible from the ground. However, it can still be clearly seen from the air (Fig. 1.12). The central enclosure has a roughly rectangular shape and uses the cliff edge as one of its sides (Fig. 1.13: A). Its northern side is approximately 770 m long. The eastern and western sides are between 250 and 300 m long and terminate about 100 m north of the escarpment. The enclosure has a surface area of c. 30 hectares. There are arrow-shaped subenclosures in the north-west and

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Figure 1.13 Berniyaz 3. A. Plan of structure; B. Plan and section of eastern ring-shaped bank; C. Section through sounding 1.

1 Architecture

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region north-east corner of the installation. Their south walls turn inwards and have 20 to 25 m wide openings in the centre. The sides of the enclosures are between 100 and 130 m long and consist of an earth bank with a ditch along its inner face. The enclosures have a surface area between 0.6 and 0.65 hectares. There are ring-shaped banks on all corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosures. These have limestone retaining walls on their inner face and internal diameter of 6 to 8 m. In the centre of each bank there is a mound of earth, often badly eroded. The external face of the banks is almost flat and gradually slopes down to the level of the surrounding terrain. The surface of the central enclosure slopes down towards the cliff edge. The arrow-shaped subenclosures are located atop low hills at either side of the installation. The structure is unique in the AybuyirPrisar’ikam’ish group in that it has two arrow-shaped subenclosures instead of one. Berniyaz 3 was subjected to detailed archaeological investigation. Eastern ring-shaped bank At the western arrow-shaped subenclosure a quarter of the eastern ring-shaped bank was excavated down to bedrock level. The bank had been badly eroded by surface run-off and its width could no longer be established (Fig. 1.13: B). The bank had an internal diameter of approximately 8 m. Its construction had started with the cutting of a 1 m deep pit with straight sides and a flat base into the limestone bedrock. The backfill, consisting of limestone chips, was deposited along the edges of the pit, gradually forming a bank. A layer of gravelly sandy loam was subsequently deposited on top to solidify the bank and the inner face revetted with a limestone retaining wall. Finally, a 4 m wide mound of brown gravelly sandy loam was erected at the centre of the pit. Its base was reinforced with limestone slabs. Circular depression A circular depression with a diameter between 8 and 10 m was excavated outside the western end of the central enclosure (Fig. 1.13: B). At the centre of the depression there was a shallow pit measuring 5 m across and roughly 1 m deep. The base of the pit contained ash pockets with a diameter of 0.6 to 0.8 m. These traces contained rare fragments of charcoal and burnt animal bones, indicating that fires were lit in the pit. The pit was cut into a compact clay layer. The depression was filled throughout with geogenic laminated sandy loam deposits with thin washed-out crusts.

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Figure 1.14 Distribution of sites in the Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group. 1. Khantersek, ruined city, burial ground, arrow-shaped structure; 2. Kazgan 1, arrow-shaped structure; 3. Kazgan 2, kurgan cemetery; 4. Kazgan 7, several archaeological sites; 5. Kazgan 3, arrow-shaped structure; 6. Kazgan 4, group of archaeological sites; 7. Kazgan 5, kurgans; 8. Kazgan 6, stone enclosure for livestock; 9. Aksaimak 2, arrow-shaped structure; 10. Aksaimak 4, arrow-shaped structure; 11. Aksaimak 4, stone ditch; 12. Ibrakhimsha 3, arrow-shaped structure; 13. Ibrakhimsha 2, arrow-shaped structure; 14. Karamata 7, arrow-shaped structure; 15. Karamata 2, signal tower; 16. Karamata 3, arrow-shaped structure; 17. Karamata 1, signal tower; A. stone ditch; B. ancient settlement; C. arrow-shaped structure; D. cemetery; E. kurgan cemetery; F. tower; G. archaeological site; H. stone enclosure for livestock.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Sounding 1 A sounding of 8 by 1 m was cut through the northern wall of the triangular enclosure, approximately 40 m south-east of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure (Fig. 1.13: C). The wall consisted of an earth bank with a parallel ditch on its interior. The bank was c. 1.7 m wide at the base and approximately 0.5 m high. The ditch was about 1.3 m wide and 0.3 m deep. The ditch fill consisted of limestone rubble in a gray sandy loam matrix.

The Kazgan subgroup The Kazgan subgroup consists of the arrow-shaped structures of Aksaimak 2 and 4, Ibrakhimsha 2 and 3, Kazgan 1 and 3, Karamata 1, 3, and 7, and Khantersek (Fig. 1.14). Aksaimak 2 Aksaimak 2 is located 1.5 km south-west of Aksaimak 1. The installation lies on a gentle slope at the top of a steep and deep ravine, near the cliff edge. The structure has a triangular shape and is formed by low rubble walls (Fig. 1.15). The base of the structure lies on the cliff edge in the east and is 300 m long. The apex of the triangle lies in the north-northwest, pointing onto the plateau. The arrow-shaped terminal enclosure lies at the apex of the triangle and has a 12 m wide opening between two inturned walls at its southern end. The surface of the main enclosure slopes up towards the arrow-shaped subenclosure. The base of the arrow-shaped subenclosure is approximately 140 m long. Its lateral sides are between 110 and 112 m long. The enclosure covers an area of approximately 0.8 hectares. The installation has a surface area of c. 11 hectares. There are ring-shaped banks on all corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosure. They have an external diameter of 14 to 15 m and an internal diameter of c. 8 m. The inner faces of the banks are vertical and reinforced with well-preserved stone flagging (Fig. 1.15: C). The flagging was laid in horizontal courses without the use of mortar. The outer face of the ring-shaped banks is almost flat. There is a low earth mound in the centre of each ring-shaped bank. There is an additional earth bank with a ditch on its interior at the south-west corner of the arrow-shaped subenclosure (Fig. 1.15: A). It also has an oval-shaped earth mound. The walls of the arrow-shaped subenclosure consist of a double earth bank with a shallow ditch in between. The banks were approximately 4 m wide at the base. The ditch in the middle was between 3 and 4 m wide. Near the ring-shaped banks, the ditch

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Figure 1.15 Aksaimak 2. A. Plan of arrow-shaped structure; B. Plan of arrow-shaped subenclosure; C. Northern ring-shaped bank, plan and section a–b: 1. surface level; 2. limestone rubble in chalk matrix (eroded earth mound); 3. turf layer; gravelly sandy loam with thin washed-out crusts; 5. gravelly sandy loam (collapse layer); 6. limestone bedrock; 7. sandy loam with limestone rubble fragments (earth bank); D. Sounding 2, section a–b: 1. A horizon; 2. gray sandy loam; 3. gravelly loam (earth bank); E. North Sounding 3, section a–b: 1. gravelly loam; 2. gray sandy loam; 3. limestone bedrock; F. limestone cist, plan and north–south section. 39

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region was reinforced with limestone flagging (Fig. 1.15: C) and only 1.7 to 1.9 m wide. The north wall of the main enclosure consists of an earth bank with a shallow ditch on either side (Fig. 1.15: E). The wall extends from the highest point of the terrain to the edge of the ravine and has a total length of approximately 370 m. The final 45 to 50 m of the wall consist only of vertically placed limestone slabs with a height of 0.7 to 1.2 m. The south wall of the main enclosure consists of a double earth bank with a ditch in between (Fig. 1.15: D). It runs for almost 600 m from the highest point of the terrain towards the ravine. It terminates approximately 100 m before the cliff edge, leaving an opening into the enclosure. There is a ring-shaped bank at the south-eastern end of the wall. The bank has an external diameter of c. 10 m and an internal diameter of 6 m. Its outlines are very blurred and difficult to discern. There are faint traces of a driveline within the triangular enclosure, near the entrance of the arrow-shaped subenclosure (Fig. 1.15: A). The driveline is so badly degraded that it can only be traced over a very short area. Sounding 1 A sounding measuring 14 by 1 m was dug across the arrow-shaped subenclosure’s northern ring-shaped bank (Fig. 1.15: C). The section showed that the bank had been about 1.8 m wide at the base. Its external face originally had quite a steep slope (approximately 35 degrees). The internal face was vertical and revetted with a dry-stacked limestone wall. The bank had an external diameter between 12.5 and 13 m and an internal diameter of about 8 m. Along the bank’s internal perimeter, there was a 1.5 m wide and 1 m deep trench cut into the limestone bedrock. The sides of this ditch were vertical or tapered only slightly towards the bottom. At the time of excavation, the height difference between the base of the ditch and the top of the earth bank measured c. 1.8 m. In the centre of the ring-shaped bank, there was an earth mound with a height of 0.25 to 0.30 m (measured from the ancient surface level). Sounding 2 A second sounding measuring 11 by 1 m was cut across the south wall of the main enclosure (Fig. 1.15: D). The two earth banks consisted of gravelly loam and had been preserved to a height of 0.5 to 1 m (measured from the ancient surface level). The external bank was about 2 m wide at the base. The internal bank was approximately

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1 Architecture 3.5 m wide. The ditch between the earth banks was about 3.5 m wide and 0.5 m deep. The height difference between the base of the ditch and the top of the earth banks did not exceed 1.5 m. Sounding 3 A third and final sounding measuring 6 by 1 m was cut across the north wall of the main enclosure (Fig. 1.15: E). The wall consisted of an earth bank with a ditch on either side. The bank was made out of gravelly loam and was approximately 4 m wide at the base and 0.5 m high (measured from the ancient surface level). The ditches had a width between 1.2 and 1.5 m and were 0.3 m deep. They were filled with windblown sand and water-laid gray sandy loam deposits. Stone cists Two stone cists were discovered near the edge of the ravine, approximately 250 m north of the main enclosure (Fig. 1.15: A). The first stone cist was heavily damaged, but the second example was well preserved and completely excavated (Fig. 1.15: F). The cist was built below surface level and consisted of vertically placed limestone slabs. It had a rectangular outline and measured 1.4 by 0.65 m. The cist was divided into two compartments by a limestone slab placed transversely across the interior. The northern compartment was 10 cm deeper than the larger compartment to the south. The cist had originally been sealed with limestone capstones. It did not contain any cultural remains. Aksaimak 4 Aksaimak 4 is located at the top of a steep ravine near the edge of the plateau. The arrow-shaped structure is badly eroded. Its outlines can only be made out with great difficulty. The structure consists of a large triangular enclosure formed by low earth banks. The arrowshaped subenclosure lies in the west, at the apex of the triangle, and has a 12 m wide opening between two inturned walls at its eastern end. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosure are between 60 and 80 m long and consist of a double earth bank with a shallow ditch in between. There are peripheral ring-shaped banks made of gravelly loam on all three corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosure. These are badly degraded, but appear to have external diameters ranging between 12 and 15 m. The south wall of the large triangular enclosure is convex-shaped and consists of a single, badly preserved earth bank. It has a length of c. 80 m and extends from the southern ring-shaped bank to the edge of the ravine.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Ibrakhimsha 2 Ibrakhimsha 2 is located on a promontory, approximately 0.5 km south of Ibrakhimsha 3. The structure consists of a large triangular enclosure with an arrow-shaped subenclosure at its apex. The latter lies to the north, pointing onto the plateau. The sides of the triangular enclosure consist of double earth banks with a ditch in between. The inner earth bank is approximately 5 m wide at the base. The outer bank is c. 3 m wide. The ditch in between is about 2 m wide. The arrow-shaped subenclosure has a 7 m wide opening between two inturned walls at its southern end. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosure are between 90 and 100 m long. There are ring-shaped banks made of gravelly loam on all corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosure. These have an internal diameter of c. 8 m and are internally reinforced with limestone flagging. There is an earth mound at the centre of each ring-shaped bank. The eastern end of the triangular enclosure has largely collapsed in a landslide. The western end terminates before the cliff edge, leaving a wide opening into the enclosure. The missing eastern end would presumably have extended all the way down to the cliff edge, forming a confine (however, see Ibrakhimsha 3). Ibrakhimsha 3 Ibrakhimsha 3 lies on a promontory at the mouth of a deep ravine. From the air the installation takes the shape of a bell-shaped triangle formed by low walls (Fig. 1.16). The base of the triangle lies on the cliff edge. Its apex lies in the north, pointing onto the plateau. The arrow-shaped terminal enclosure is located at the apex of the triangle, on top of a low rise at the end of the promontory. It has a 7 m wide opening between two inturned walls at its southern end. The sides of the enclosure consist of a double earth bank with a ditch in between. The banks and the ditch are each about 3 m wide. There are peripheral ring-shaped banks made of gravelly loam on all corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosure. They are internally lined with limestone flagging. The eastern and western ring-shaped banks have an earth mound in the centre. The western ring-shaped bank has an internal diameter of about 6.5 m. The eastern ring-shaped bank was too degraded to provide any meaningful measurements. The northern ring-shaped bank has two rings, one abutting the other. The inner ring is very deep and has an internal diameter of approximately 8 m. It does not have an earth mound in the centre. The outer ring is slightly larger. It has an internal diameter of c. 10 m and an earth mound at its centre.

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The triangular enclosure has a surface area of approximately 7.5 hectares. The arrow-shaped subenclosure has a surface area of c. 0.3 hectare.

Figure 1.16 Aerial view of Ibrakhimsha 3.

Kazgan 1 Kazgan 1 lies on top of an 80 to 100 m high ridge near the edge of the escarpment (Fig. 1.17). From the air the structure takes the form of a triangle formed by low walls. The base of the triangle lies on the cliff edge. Its apex is oriented to the north, pointing onto the plateau. The arrow-shaped terminal enclosure lies at the apex of the triangle and has an opening between two inturned walls at its southern end. The arrow-shaped subenclosure has convex sides with a length of 90 to 95 m. It has a surface area of c. 0.6 hectare. The walls of the arrow-shaped subenclosure are very badly degraded, but consist of a double earth bank made of gravelly loam with a shallow ditch in between. In some areas, limestone flagging

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

Figure 1.17 Plan of Kazgan 1.

has been preserved on the sides of the ditch, indicating that it was originally reinforced. The earth banks and the ditch are each approximately 3 m wide. There are ring-shaped banks on all corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosure. These were internally ringed with limestone flagging and had an earth mound at the centre. They have an internal diameter of between 10 and 12 m. The main enclosure consists of a single gravelly loam earth bank. It encloses an area of c. 5 hectares. In most places the bank is heavily degraded and only visible as a slight undulation in the terrain. In some areas, it is more clearly defined by the presence of a strip of limestone rubble (sometimes combined with feather-grass and shrubs). The east wall of the enclosure can be traced over its entire extent. It runs from the cliff edge to the eastern ring-shaped bank and is over 300 m

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1 Architecture long. There is a small 15 m wide opening in the wall, c. 100 m north of the cliff face. Just north of this opening, the wall incorporates a small square earth bank, measuring approximately 3 by 3 m. This bank is internally flagged with limestone fieldstones. The west wall can only be partly traced as it is heavily damaged by surface run-off. At present the wall terminates c. 120 m from the cliff edge. There was presumably a large opening here, but its exact dimensions can no longer be determined. About 30 to 35 m south-west of the western ring-shaped bank, the wall incorporates a square stone bank that measures 4.5 by 4.5 m. A sounding was cut across this wall to determine its composition and design. It turned out to be between 0.5 and 0.6 m high and had a 0.4 to 0.5 m deep pit on its interior. Kazgan 3 Kazgan 3 is located just west of a big ravine. From the air the installation has the shape of a large triangle formed by low earth bank walls. The structure uses the ravine edge as one side of the triangle. The apex of the triangle lies to the north-west. The arrow-shaped terminal enclosure lies at the apex of the triangle and has almost equilateral sides. The entrance of the arrow-shaped subenclosure is located in the south-east between straight (rather than inturned) walls. The corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosure have ring-shaped earth banks with earth mounds in the centre. The banks are internally flagged with limestone slabs. The sides of the large triangular enclosure are badly degraded and virtually invisible from the ground. Both sides appear to extend all the way down to the steep cliff face. There must be an entrance into the enclosure but its location can no longer be established. Karamata 3 Karamata 3 is located approximately 0.8 km south of Karamata 1 and 4 km south-west of the mausolea of Ibrakhimsha. The installation lies at the top of a subsidiary gorge of a large ravine that cuts the northern slope of the Karaubar Ridge. It has the shape of a large subtriangle formed by earth bank walls. The ravine edge is used as one side of the enclosure. The apex of the subtriangle lies to the south. The arrow-shaped subenclosure lies at the apex of the triangle on the highest point of the terrain. It has a 10 m wide opening between two heavily inturned walls at its northern end. The sides of the enclosure are curved and consist of a rubbly double earth bank with a ditch in between. There are peripheral ring-shaped banks on all three corners of the enclosure. Their external faces are almost flat,

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region but their internal faces are straight and revetted with limestone slabs. The ring-shaped banks have badly eroded earth mounds at the centre. The large sub-triangular enclosure is located on a gentle slope. It consists of a single earth bank made of gravelly loam. In certain places, the bank has remains of an internal facing of vertically placed limestone slabs. The west wall extends uninterrupted from the western ring-shaped bank to the edge of the ravine. The east wall starts at the eastern ring-shaped bank and terminates 150 to 200 m from the cliff edge, forming a wide entrance. Karamata 7 Karamata 7 lies next to a large ravine that cuts the eastern end of the Karaubar Ridge. The cliff edge is cut by numerous gullies that have formed extensive talus slopes at the bottom of the cliffs. Intermittent heavy rains in the area have created a dry riverbed at the bottom of the ravine (Fig. 1.18). The arrow-shaped structure is badly damaged, particularly near the edge of the ravine. The installation has the shape of a large sub-rounded triangle and is formed by low earth banks. The ravine edge is used as the base of the triangle. The apex is oriented south and has two terminal arrowshaped subenclosures rather than one. These enclosures are situated at the highest points of the terrain. The corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosures all have ring-shaped banks with low earth mounds at the centre. The central ring-shaped bank is shared by both arrowshaped subenclosures and has a small freestanding earth bank to its south. The ring-shaped banks have an external diameter of 15 to 18 m and an internal diameter of 6 to 7 m. Their external faces are almost flat, but the inner faces are vertical and revetted with dry-stacked limestone walls. The latter consist of regularly stacked courses, obliquely stacked courses, or diagonal herringbone courses. In places the masonry has survived up to a height of 1 m above the modern surface level. The mounds at the centre of the banks are between 4 and 5 m wide at the base. The lateral sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosures are slightly convex and approximately 75 m long. The base of the enclosures lies in the north and is c. 95 m wide. They have a 9 to 14 m wide entrance between two wavy, slightly inturned walls. The sides of the enclosures consist of a double earth bank with a ditch in between. The external bank is about 4 m wide. The inner bank has a width of approximately 3 m. The ditch is c. 2 m wide and 0.7 to 0.8 m deep (measured from the modern surface level). The enclosures each have a surface area of about 0.7 hectares. The central enclosure is approximately 300 m long and 200 m

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wide, and has suffered much from water erosion. Parts have been completely washed away, while others show only as bands of rubble or as dark discolourations in the soil. The west wall is very fragmentarily preserved, but originally consisted of a double earth bank made of gravelly loam with a ditch in between. Originally it ran from the

Figure 1.18 Plan of Karamata 7.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region western arrow-shaped subenclosure down to the cliff face, but its northern part has not been preserved. The wall has a 4 by 5 m wide pit on its exterior, approximately 70 to 75 m north of the western arrow-shaped subenclosure. The pit is almost square in plan and faced on all sides with irregularly placed limestone fieldstones. The east wall of the enclosure has been almost completely destroyed by surface run-off, but appears to have consisted only of a single earth bank. The wall terminated approximately 70 m from the cliff face, leaving a large opening into the enclosure. The enclosure has a surface area of approximately 8.5 hectares. In the vicinity there are a number of interesting features that warrant further discussion. First, there are four square-shaped installations at the tip of the ravine, just outside the west wall of the central enclosure. They have stone walls made of large limestone slabs placed on their edges. The structures are roughly oriented on the cardinal points and are between 2 and 2.5 m wide. Second, there are several man-made constructions on the talus slopes at the base of the ravine. The west end of the ravine has a large ridge that forms a natural shelter underneath. In this shelter there are remains of a badly damaged stone wall. Further traces of collapsed masonry can be seen all over the surrounding slopes and the bottom of the valley. Possibly these once belonged to a wall that separated and protected the shelter from the ravine. The collapse contained frequent pottery fragments. There is another small rectangular construction at the bottom of the ravine, consisting of dry-stacked limestone walls that were preserved up to a height of 1.5 m. The interior of the structure was faced with vertically placed limestone slabs. The building measured approximately 5 by 6 m and was roughly oriented on the cardinal points. It had a 1 to 1.2 m wide opening at its southern end. Khantersek Khantersek lies on the Khantersek Promontory in the south-east of Ustyurt, next to the medieval town of the same name. The arrowshaped structure has the shape of a large triangle that is open towards the south (Fig. 1.19). The apex of the installation is located in the north, pointing onto the plateau. The arrow-shaped terminal enclosure lies at the apex of the triangle and has a 10 m wide opening between two straight (rather than inturned) walls at its southern end. The arrow-shaped subenclosure is approximately 60 m wide and 50 m long and has a surface area between 0.18 and 0.19 hectares. Its sides consist of a double earth bank made of gravelly loam (Fig. 1.19: C). There are ring-shaped earth banks on all corners of the enclosure. Their outlines are rather vague, but they appear to have

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Figure 1.19 Khantersek. A. Plan; B. Western wall of central enclosure, east–west section: 1. gravelly loam (earth bank); 2. sandy loam layers with washed-out crusts; C. South wall of arrow-shaped subenclosure, section a–b; D. Western ring-shaped bank, section a–b.

had an external diameter between 15 and 16 m. The earth banks are 3 to 4 m wide at the base and are reinforced on the inside with limestone retaining walls (Fig. 1.19: D). There is a low earth mound at the centre of each ring-shaped bank with a ditch between its base and the bank’s inner face. These ring ditches were cut into the limestone bedrock, sometimes to considerable depths. The walls of the large enclosure cut across the neck of the Khantersek Promontory, almost blocking it from side to side. Both

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region walls have narrow openings to allow access onto the cape. The enclosure measures about 250 m wide and 150 m long and has a surface area of approximately 10 hectares. The east wall of the enclosure consists of two sections. The first sections starts at the cliff face and consists of a single earth bank with a width of 1.5 to 2 m. It runs westwards for a distance of approximately 20 m and then terminates in an area with frequent, randomly oriented limestone slabs. The latter are presumably the remnants of a collapsed ring-shaped bank with a diameter of 3 to 4 m. There is a c. 20 m wide gap between this and the second segment of the wall, which is located further to the west. The second section extends from the eastern ring-shaped bank towards the south-east and forms a funnel together with the edge of the promontory. It consists of a double earth bank made of gravelly loam with a ditch in between. The banks and ditch are each about 3 m wide and have a combined width of almost 10 m. The enclosure’s west wall also consists of two segments. The first segment starts at the cliff face and consists of a double earth bank made of gravelly loam with a shallow ditch in between (Fig. 1.19: B). The section extends north-east for about 25 to 30 m and terminates in a ring-shaped bank. This bank is internally reinforced with limestone flagging that has been preserved up to a height of 0.5 m. The bank has an internal diameter of c. 4 m and was filled with geogenic sandy loam with thin washed-out crusts. There is an approximately 50 m wide gap between the first and second section of the wall. The second segment consists of a single earth bank and extends for about 110 m to the north-west. Here it is joined to the western ring-shaped bank. The enclosure’s west wall forms a large funnel together with the cliff edge. The Khantersek settlement has been discussed by other researchers (Tolstov 1958: 78–81; Manylov 1978: 213–20). Its cemetery runs across the southern end of the arrow-shaped structure. Since it is unlikely that the cemetery was constructed when the arrow-shaped structure was still in use, these graves are presumably of a later date.

The Prisar’ikam’ish subsystem The Prisar’ikam’ish subsystem includes the arrow-shaped structures at Dar’yal’ik 1 and 2, Dekcha 1, 2, 3 and 6, Erburun 1, and Chalburun 1 (Fig. 1.20). Dar’yal’ik 1 Dar’yal’ik 1 lies at the edge of the plateau, approximately 3.5 km east

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Figure 1.20 Distribution of sites in the Prisar’ikam’ish subgroup. 1. Erburun, arrow-shaped structure; 2. Dekcha 2. arrow-shaped structure; 3. Dekcha 3, arrow-shaped structure; 4. Dekcha 1, arrow-shaped structure; 5. Dekcha 5, signal tower; 6. Dekcha 6, arrow-shaped structure; 7. Dar’yal’ik 1, arrow-shaped structure; 8. Dar’yal’ik 2, arrow-shaped structure; 9. Chalburun 1, arrow-shaped structure; A. arrow-shaped structure; B. signal tower.

of Dar’yal’ik 2 (Fig. 1.20). The structure is located on a gentle slope and uses the escarpment – which here consists of 100 m high vertical cliffs – as one of its sides. When seen from the air, the structure takes the shape of a large triangle with the base at the south and the apex at the north-west, pointing onto the plateau (Fig. 1.21). The arrowshaped subenclosure lies at the apex of the triangle on the highest point of the terrain. The sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosure consist of a single earth bank made of gravelly loam with a parallel ditch on its interior. The bank is between 0.5 and 0.7 m high and about 3 m wide at the base. The ditch is approximately 2 m wide at the top. There is

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

Figure 1.21 Dar’yal’ik 1. A. Plan and section; B. Northern ring-shaped bank, section a–b.

an approximately 7 to 8 m wide entrance in the south-east of the enclosure. In most arrow-shaped structures the entrance of the arrow-shaped subenclosure is located between two inturned walls, but here the inturned walls are doubled. The inner pair is oriented inwards as usual, but the outer pair extends outwards. Both have slightly convex walls that almost form small funnels. The lateral sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosure are more than 100 m long. The base is approximately 110 m wide. The enclosure has a surface area of c. 0.55 hectares. The corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosure each have a ringshaped bank with a low earth mounds at the centre. The outer face of

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1 Architecture the banks consists of a gradual slope, but the inner face is vertical and reinforced with a dry-stacked limestone retaining wall (Fig. 1.21: B). The masonry of the retaining walls is laid in regular courses and has been preserved up to a height of 1.7 m. The bases of the walls are often reinforced with large vertically placed limestone slabs, which are sometimes over 1 m high. The banks each have a ditch between the base of the earth mound and the bank’s inner face. These ditches were cut into the limestone bedrock. All banks have traces of short earth ramps leading up to them from the interior of the enclosure. The banks are between 4 and 5 m wide and have an internal diameter of between 7 and 7.5 m. The sides of the main enclosure extend from the base of the arrow-shaped subenclosure to the cliff edge in the south. They consist of a single earth bank made of gravelly loam with a parallel ditch on the interior. The east wall is over 400 m long and gradually curves inward towards the cliff edge. The west wall is approximately 230 m long and has a 16 m wide opening about 80 m north of the cliff edge. In this opening the ends of the wall curve sharply inward, forming a narrow corridor. The enclosure has a surface area of c. 4.5 hectares. There are two pits near the end of the east and west enclosure wall, close to the cliff edge. The eastern pit is round and has a diameter of approximately 4 m. The pit in the west is about 1.5 m deep and has a square plan. It measures c. 7 by 6 m. There is a somewhat enigmatic enclosure, shaped like an elongated triangle, on the external face of the east enclosure wall. The enclosure has 110 to 115 m long sides and its apex in the west. Perhaps it formed part of an earlier arrow-shaped structure. The walls are almost completely levelled but there are still clear traces of a ring-shaped bank at the apex of the enclosure. This ring-shaped bank had been internally reinforced with limestone flagging. The masonry mostly consists of regular courses, but diagonally laid courses occur as well. In the centre of bank there is a low earth mound. There are traces of a dirt ramp leading up to the interior of the enclosure. Dar’yal’ik 2 Dar’yal’ik 2 is located 10 km to the east of Chalburun 1 (Fig. 1.22). The site is situated atop the 100 m high cliff edge and is completely inaccessible from the Prisar’ikam’ish Delta below. The area derives its name from the Dar’yal’ik river, which has formed a deep canyon in the alluvial plain. The site forms a complex system made up of four or five successive structures, which each used elements of the earlier ones (Fig. 1.22: A).

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Arrow-shaped structure 1 Arrow-shaped structure 1 is the best preserved and presumably the most recent installation at Dar’yal’ik 2. It consists of two elements: an arrow-shaped subenclosure and a fragmentarily preserved central enclosure (Fig.1.22: AI). The arrow-shaped subenclosure is located on the highest point of the terrain and has the shape of a triangle with the base at the south and the apex to the north. The base is about 80 m wide and has a 6 m wide opening between two inturned walls at its centre. The lateral sides of the enclosure are each c. 85 m long. All walls consist of a double earth bank made of gravelly loam with a ditch in between (Fig: 1.22: B). The banks are between 4 and 5 m wide at the base and have been preserved to a height of approximately 0.6 m. The ditch in the centre is between 3 and 3.5 m wide. All three corners of the enclosure have a gravelly loam ring-shaped bank with an earth mound in the centre. The exterior of the banks consists of a gradual slope, but the inner face is vertical and reinforced with a dry-stacked limestone retaining wall. The banks have an external diameter between 14 and 16 m and an internal diameter between 8 and 10 m. The arrow-shaped subenclosure has a surface area of approximately 0.4 hectares. The central enclosure used the cliff edge as one of its sides. It has only been fragmentarily preserved. Its east wall can be traced over a distance of about 80 m. The west wall is only preserved for 65 m. In most places the walls only show as bands of gravelly rubble on the surface. The walls were built on a gentle slope and consist of a double earth bank. In the east, a section of structure 3 was used as part of the central enclosure. This section extends from the cliff face to the north-east over a distance of about 125 m. There is a 45 m wide opening at the lowest part of the terrain. In the west, sections of structure 2 and possibly 4 were used as part of the central enclosure. Here, the walls must have extended down to the cliff edge, forming a cul-de-sac. The central enclosure has a surface area of about 4 hectares. Arrow-shaped structure 2 Only the arrow-shaped subenclosure of structure 2 has been partly preserved. The enclosure has the shape of a triangle with its apex in the west (Fig. 1.22: AII). The surviving remains are in a very poor state of preservation and consist of a single earth bank with a parallel ditch on the interior. The north wall of the enclosure appears to be complete and is about 150 m long. The south wall can only be traced as a slight undulation in the terrain over a distance of 30 to 35 m. There is a well-preserved ring-shaped bank at the apex of the

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Figure 1.22 Dar’yal’ik 2. A. Plan: 1. northern structure (I); 2. western structure (II); 3. eastern structure (III); 4. southern structure (IV); B. arrow-shaped subenclosure 1, western wall, section a–b; C. arrowshaped subenclosure 2, western ring-shaped bank, section c–d.

enclosure with an external diameter of approximately 16 m and an internal diameter of 10 m (Fig. 1.22: C). It has an earth mound in the centre and a ditch between the base of the earth mound and the bank’s inner face. The ditch was cut into the limestone bedrock. The bank is internally reinforced with a dry-stacked limestone retaining wall, which has survived to a height of 0.5 m. The masonry is laid in regular courses, but diagonal herringbone courses occur as well. There is a short earth

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region ramp leading up onto the ring-shaped bank from the interior of the enclosure. Arrow-shaped structure 3 Structure 3 is located on the highest point of the Dar’yal’ik 2 terrain. Only a small section of its arrow-shaped subenclosure has been preserved (Fig. 1.22: AIII). The sides of the enclosure consist of a double earth bank made of gravelly loam with a shallow ditch in between. There are several large, later pits cut into parts of the bank. One example in the north is internally faced with vertically placed limestone slabs. These pits are presumably associated with the re-use of the structure. Only one of the ring-shaped banks of the enclosure has survived. As usual, it is internally reinforced with limestone slabs and has an earth mound in the centre with a ring-shaped ditch between the base of the mound and the bank’s inner face. There are faint traces of another ring-shaped bank a few metres to the south-east. The latter is connected to a badly degraded earth bank wall that sets out in an east-northeasterly direction. This wall extends below the arrow-shaped subenclosure of structure 3. It must therefore belong to an even earlier arrow-shaped structure (structure IV). Arrow-shaped structure 4 Structure 4 is very poorly preserved. The surviving walls consist only of levelled strips of gravelly rubble and can be traced over a limited area. The base of the arrow-shaped subenclosure lies in the west and has a 20 m wide opening between two inturned walls (Fig. 1.22: AIV). There are faint traces of a ring-shaped earth bank at the enclosure’s north-western corner. The surface around the structure contained a small amount of pottery and a chirak (torch) fragment. Dekcha 1 Dekcha 1 cuts across the neck of the Dekcha Promontory. The Dekcha tower is located in the vicinity and was constructed with limestone slabs from the arrow-shaped structure. The arrow-shaped subenclosure lies on top of a large outcrop of Sarmatian limestone that gradually slopes down towards the cliff edge. When seen from the air, the enclosure has the shape of a rounded triangle with the apex in the north, pointing onto the plateau (Fig. 1.23). The somewhat unusual shape of the enclosure is largely a result of the outlines of the rocky outcrop on which it was built (Fig. 1.24). It has a 5 m wide opening between two convex, inturned walls in the south. There are

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three ring-shaped earth banks in the north, east, and west. The sides of the enclosure consist of an earth bank with a parallel ditch on the interior. The bank is approximately 4 m wide at the base and has been preserved to a height of 0.4 to 0.5 m. The slopes surrounding the limestone outcrop were covered with frequent limestone collapse from the structure. They seem to indicate that the outer face of the enclosure was originally reinforced with limestone slabs. The enclosure measures approximately 140 by 90 m and has a surface area of c. 0.56 hectares. The western ring-shaped bank has an internal diameter of between 10 and 10.5 m and is slightly oval in shape. It is internally ringed with a limestone retaining wall, laid in regular courses. The wall was built directly on top of the limestone bedrock and is still standing to a height of 1.5 m. The ring-shaped bank consists of gravelly loam mixed with limestone rubble and is between 5 and 5.5 m wide. There is an earth mound at the centre of the bank with a 4.5 to 5 m wide diameter at the base. There is a ditch between the base of the earth mound and the bank’s inner face. The ditch is between 1.2 and 1.3  m wide at the top and was cut into the limestone bedrock to a depth of approximately 1.5 m. The northern ring-shaped bank contains the same features but has a much more angular plan. Its internal axes measure approximately

Figure 1.23 Aerial view of Dekcha 1.

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Figure 1.24 Plan of Dekcha 1.

6 by 8.5 m. The retaining wall on the bank’s inner face has survived to a height of 1.5 to 1.7 m. The earth mound in the centre has only been partly preserved. The eastern ring-shaped bank is the smallest of the three and has an internal diameter of only 6 m. The central earth mound has not been preserved. The bank is made of very compact sandy loam and internally reinforced with a limestone retaining wall, laid in irregular courses. The masonry consists of very large limestone blocks at the base with a thickness up to 0.35 to 0.4 m and of smaller blocks higher up. The wall has survived up to a height of 1.5 m. There are six gravelly loam mounds along the interior of the enclosure. Most of these had moderate amounts of pottery on their surface. Two examples (mounds 1 and 2) were excavated and appeared

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1 Architecture to be purely geogenic. However, they had clearly been used by people. The top of mound 1 contained a Khwarezmian water jug buried on its side (see Chapter 2: Chronology). The top of mound 2 appears to have been faced with limestone slabs. There is another earth mound just outside of the triangular enclosure, north of the western ringshaped bank. The arrow-shaped subenclosure is connected to the cliff edge by two walls. The east wall is arc-shaped and terminates 11 m before the cliff edge, leaving an opening into the confine from the north. The wall consists of a 4 to 4.5 m wide gravelly loam bank with shallow ditches on both sides. The top of the bank is crowned by an almost continuous ridge of jagged limestone slabs, which have been placed at slight angles and point inward. There is a haphazardly built wall, consisting of limestone slabs, just east of the entrance. This wall extends to the cliff edge and was built directly on top of the limestone bedrock. The west wall is arc-shaped and runs from the arrow-shaped subenclosure to the cliff edge. Near the enclosure the wall consists of a double earth bank with a shallow ditch in between. After 100 m it continues as a single earth bank made of gravelly loam with a shallow ditch on either side. The wall has a ring-shaped bank, approximately 10 m north of the cliff edge, with an internal diameter of 4 m. The enclosure has a surface area of c. 4.4 hectares. There is an earth mound just outside of the west wall, near the arrow-shaped subenclosure. It has a diameter between 7 and 8 m and is only about 0.2 m high. It consists of compact sandy loam and was dotted with fragments of animal bones, wood charcoal, limestone debris, and pot shards, many with traces of burning. Excavations in the area revealed a man-made, pan-shaped depression that was filled with a laminated sandy loam deposit. The deposit contained frequent ash, animal bones, charcoal, wood fragments, and limestone debris. The laminae clearly indicate that the deposit had formed over time and had not been laid down in a single event. It is possible that it represents colluvium washed in by water movement. Dekcha 2 Dekcha 2 lies at the top of a ravine between the Erburun and Dekcha promontories. The structure is badly degraded. Only parts of the arrow-shaped subenclosure have been preserved. The central enclosure has either disappeared completely or was never constructed. The arrow-shaped subenclosure has the shape of an elongated triangle with the base in the south and the apex to the north. The ring-shaped banks at the corners of the enclosure are poorly preserved.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region The northern ring-shaped bank consists of little more than an eroded mound of gravelly loam, but the eastern and western ring-shaped banks still have their inner limestone facing and an earth mound at the centre. The banks all have traces of earth ramps leading up to them from the interior of the enclosure. Topographically speaking, the structure differs from the other arrow-shaped structures in the Prisar’ikam’ish group. Here the arrow-shaped subenclosure was built at the bottom of a slope with the entrance facing uphill. In all other cases, the arrow-shaped subenclosure is located at the highest point of the terrain with the entrance facing downhill. Perhaps the structure’s orientation was deemed inappropriate at some point, after which construction was halted. The western ring-shaped bank was later re-used for the construction of a Kazakh-Adai burial. Dekcha 3 Dekcha 3 is located approximately 2.5 km south of Dekcha 2. The structure lies at the top of a ravine between the Erburun and Dekcha promontories and is badly degraded. The earth banks have been almost completely levelled and most of the ring-shaped banks are little more than eroded earth mounds. Close inspection of the remains nevertheless revealed much useful data. The arrow-shaped subenclosure was triangle-shaped and had 100 m long sides. It had its apex in the north, pointing onto the plateau, and an entrance at its southern end. The enclosure was built on top of a slope with its opening facing downhill. There were ring-shaped banks on all three corners. Only the northern ring-shaped bank still remains and is of the usual design. It has a dry-stacked limestone retaining wall along its inner face and a central earth mound with a ring-shaped ditch in between. The bank has an internal diameter of only 5 m and is much smaller than most other examples. The arrow-shaped subenclosure was connected to the cliff edge by two walls. These are now largely destroyed. Dekcha 6 Dekcha 6 is located at the western edge of the Dekcha Promontory on top of a steep slope cut by numerous ravines and gullies. The installation is very eroded. Only parts of the terminal arrow-shaped subenclosure remain and these have been damaged by surface run-off and subsidence. The central enclosure has collapsed in a landslide. The arrow-shaped subenclosure is triangle-shaped and consists of a double earth bank with a shallow ditch in between. The banks

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1 Architecture are each between 5.5 and 6 m wide and in places have survived up to a height of 1.2 to 1.3 m. The ditch is c. 3 m wide. The base of the arrow-shaped subenclosure has an opening between two inturned walls. There used to be ring-shaped banks with earth banks at the centre on all corners of the enclosure. The western and southern ring-shaped banks are relatively well preserved, but the eastern bank has collapsed in a landslide at the edge of the ravine. The exterior of the banks consists of a gradual slope, but the inner face is vertical and reinforced with a dry-stacked limestone retaining wall. The western bank has an internal diameter between 5.5 and 6 m. The southern ring bank is much larger and has an internal diameter between 11.5 and 12 m. Its retaining wall has been preserved up to a height of 1.3 to 1.5 m. Erburun 1 Erburun 1 is located on a gently sloping plain, c. 5 to 6 km north of the Erburun Promontory. The structure has not been studied on the ground so the following description is based on the study of aerial photographs. As usual, the installation consists of two integrated enclosures: a large triangular enclosure with a much smaller arrow-shaped subenclosure at its apex. The arrow-shaped subenclosure is triangleshaped with its apex to the north and its entrance in the south. Its sides consist of a double earth bank made of gravelly loam with a shallow ditch in between. There are ring-shaped banks on all corners of the enclosure with badly eroded earth mounds at the centre. The large enclosure extends from the base of the arrow-shaped subenclosure towards the cliff edge. The west wall consists of a single earth bank. The wall in the east consists of two banks, which appear to be at a considerable distance from one another. The arrowshaped subenclosure lies on a higher part of the terrain than the large enclosure. Chalburun 1 Chalburun 1 lies on top of the Chalburun Promontory at the edge of a steep, 100 m high cliff that is completely inaccessible from the Sar’ikam’ish Depression below. The promontory has little surface relief, but there is a light downslope towards the cliff edge. The area drops only 3 to 4 m over a distance of 0.5 km. Chalburun 1 is a system that consists of two separate arrowshaped structures (Fig. 1.25). Both structures consist of two integrated enclosures: an arrow-shaped subenclosure and a central enclosure that uses the cliff edge as one of its sides. The two structures would have functioned very effectively in tandem, but presumably were not

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Figure 1.25 Plan of Chalburun 1.

constructed at the same time. The arrow-shaped subenclosure of the eastern structure has its apex to the north-east; that in the west is oriented to the north. As usual, the arrow-shaped subenclosures lie on the highest points of the terrain. The east wall of the western arrow-shaped structure is unusually wavy, but this is largely due to it following the contour lines of the terrain. Clearly relief played a pivotal role in planning the arrow-shaped structures. Eastern arrow-shaped structure The eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure has the shape of an elongated triangle with the apex to the north-east and the base in the south-west. Its sides consist of a double earth bank made of gravelly loam with a ditch in between. The earth banks are heavily eroded by surface run-off and in places only survive as strips of gravelly debris. At present they are between 3.5 and 4 m wide. The ditch is between 2 and 2.5 m wide. The inner bank is best preserved and in places still stands up to a height of 1 m. The base of the enclosure consists of two inturned walls. These walls normally have an opening but in this case lack any sort of gap. The lateral sides of the enclosure are approximately 125 m long. The base is only 82 to 85 m wide. The enclosure has a surface area of c. 0.5 hectares. There are ring-shaped banks on all corners of the enclosure, made of gravelly loam. The

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1 Architecture outer face of these banks consists of a gradual slope, but the inner face is vertical and reinforced with a limestone retaining wall. There is a gravelly loam mound in the centre of each bank. The northern ring-shaped bank is much dilapidated and its stone retaining wall has not survived. It has an internal diameter of approximately 10 m with a c. 6 m wide bank around it. The mound at the centre is between 5.5 and 6 m wide at the base, but has slumped due to sheetwash, rill erosion, and rainsplash. The western ring-shaped bank is the best preserved of the three. It has an internal diameter of about 10 m, surrounded by a 4.5 to 5 m wide bank. The mound at the centre has a diameter between 5.5 and 6 m at the base, but has slumped due to water and wind erosion. The inner face of the retaining wall still stands up to a height of 1.3 m. Its masonry consists of rough limestone slabs, dry-stacked in irregular courses. The blocks at the northern end of the structure include a large, flat limestone slab (0.27 by 0.45 m) incised with a cross-shaped tribal sign (tamga) (Fig. 1.26). The cross has short crossbars at the end of each of its arms. The southern ringshaped bank has a well-preserved retaining wall that is similar to that of the western ring-shaped bank. It is still standing to a height of approximately 1.3 m. The structure has an internal diameter of c. 10 m, surrounded by a 4.5 to 5 m wide bank. The earth mound at the centre measures between 6 and 6.5 m at the base, but has sagged somewhat due to adverse environmental conditions. The walls of the central enclosure are joined to the southern and western ring-shaped banks and extend down to the cliff edge. The west enclosure wall is arc-shaped and about 260 m long. Next to the arrow-shaped subenclosure, it consists of a double earth bank made of gravelly loam with a shallow ditch in between. After 90 to 95 m it appears to continue as a single earth bank. The wall terminates approximately 90 m north of the cliff edge, leaving a large opening into the enclosure. The west wall is connected to the east wall by a cross wall with a 6 m wide opening at its centre. The east enclosure wall is straight and approximately 100 m long. It consists of a double earth bank made of gravelly loam with a shallow ditch in between. The wall terminates about 35 to 40 m from the cliff edge. A second wall extends from the cliff edge towards the northwest and terminates after 35 to 40 m in a ring-shaped bank. There is a 10 m wide opening between this wall and the east enclosure wall. The east wall forms a large funnel together with the cliff face. The enclosure has a surface area of approximately 3.5 hectares. Western arrow-shaped structure The western arrow-shaped subenclosure is triangle-shaped and has

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Figure 1.26 Tamga at Chalburun 1.

its apex in the north and its base in the south. The lateral sides of the enclosure are approximately 77 m long. The base is about 70 m wide and has a 4 m wide opening. The enclosure has a surface area of c. 0.3 hectares. The east wall of the enclosure has been preserved to a height of 1 m and consists of a single 4 m wide earth bank. The other walls of the enclosure consist of a double earth bank with a ditch in between (Fig. 1.27). Both banks are about 4 m wide and have been preserved up to a height of 1 m. The ditch is c. 3 m wide. There are ring-shaped banks on all corners of the enclosure. The outer face of the banks consists of a gradual slope, but the inner face is vertical and reinforced with a dry-stacked limestone retaining wall. In places, the retaining walls still stand to a height of 1.5 m. The northern and western ring-shaped banks have an internal diameter between 7.5 and 8 m. The eastern ring-shaped bank is somewhat smaller and has an internal diameter between 6 and 6.5 m. There are faint traces of badly eroded earth mounds at the centre of the banks. The central enclosure has a somewhat unusual shape. Its east wall is very wavy and follows the relief of the area. Next to the arrowshaped subenclosure, it consists of a double earth bank with a shallow ditch in the middle. After 30 m it continues to the cliff face as a single earth bank. The top of the earth bank is sometimes crowned with vertically placed limestone slabs. The wall has a c. 30 m wide opening in the east. The wall segment in the south terminates in a ring-shaped

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bank that is hollowed out on the inside and has a diameter of about 3 m. The west wall consists of a single earth bank and runs from the west ring-shaped bank to the cliff edge. The top of the bank was originally crowned with vertically placed limestone slabs, but most of these have fallen over. The wall has a 10 to 12 m wide opening. The enclosure has a surface area of approximately 3.5 hectares. The layout of the arrow-shaped structures suggests that the western installation was constructed first. The tell-tale clue here is that the enclosure of the eastern structure does not reach all the way down to the cliff edge, but incorporates the western enclosure into its design. After the construction of the eastern structure, the installations may have functioned in tandem.

Figure 1.27 Chalburun 1, detail of western arrow-shaped structure.

Summary In all, 17 arrow-shaped structures have been identified in the AybuyirPrisar’ikam’ish group. These structures share a number of features that are not found among structures elsewhere on the plateau. The structures were built separate from one another and clearly did not function as part of a unified system. They are characterised by plans that always include two major elements: a small (terminal) arrowshaped subenclosure and a larger triangular enclosure. The large enclosure usually incorporates part of the cliff edge into its design.

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Zhar’inkuduk group Zhar’inkuduk is an area of salt marsh in North Ustyurt, broken by banks of sand dunes. The marsh lies in a depression that measures 60 by 30 km and in winter turns into a shallow lake. Geomorphological studies indicate that the area has been submerged for a long time (Gubin 1987). Mesolithic and Neolithic sites are located around the marsh at roughly the same elevation, probably just above an ancient shoreline (Fig. 1.28). Kurgans and arrow-shaped structures are located nearer to the bottom of the depression and may have been built when subsiding water levels caused a reversion to marshland. The Zhar’inkuduk group includes five arrow-shaped structures and two other sites, Zhar’inkuduk 6b and Zhar’inkuduk 10, both of which are occupation sites.

Figure 1.28 Distribution of sites along the eastern edge of the Zhar’inkuduk salt marsh: 1. Zhar’inkuduk 6a, arrow-shaped structure; 2. Zhar’inkuduk 6b, occupation site; 3. Zhar’inkuduk 6b, arrow-shaped structure; 4. Zhar’inkuduk 7, occupation sites; 5. Zhar’inkuduk 8, arrow-shaped structure; 6. Zhar’inkuduk 12, arrow-shaped structure; 7. Zhar’inkuduk 4, groups of burials; 8. Zhar’inkuduk 14, occupation sites, arrow-shaped structure, kurgan; A. cemetery; B. occupation site; C. kurgan; D. arrow-shaped structure.

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Zhar’inkuduk 6a Zhar’inkuduk 6a lies 2.5 km east of the Aydabol well. The structure is badly eroded. Most of its earth banks have completely disappeared and stone elements of the installation are also badly dilapidated. The plan of the structure could not be reconstructed with traditional ground surveying methods.

Zhar’inkuduk 6b, occupation site Zhar’inkuduk 6b is located on the southern slope of the Zhar’inkuduk Depression, about 1.5 km south of the Aydabol well. The site lies between two arrow-shaped structures, Zhar’inkuduk 6a and 6b. The remains here consist of a structure built of limestone slabs that is surrounded by a very large scatter (50 by 60 m) of pottery, burnt bone, and a few stone tools. The structure lies on a gentle, loamy slope with minor gullying, overgrown with shrubs, thistles, and Salsola arbuscula. Surface cleaning of the object scatter revealed a very flimsy ash deposit. Excavations within the limestone structure uncovered no cultural remains whatsoever. The area had suffered considerably from water erosion and deflation.

Zhar’inkuduk 6b, arrow-shaped structure Zhar’inkuduk 6b lies on the southern slope of the Zhar’inkuduk Depression, approximately 2 to 2.2 km south of the Aydabol well. The structure consists of two sub-triangular arrow-shaped subenclosures linked together by a central enclosure (Fig. 1.29: A). Both arrowshaped subenclosures are located on the highest points of the terrain with their entrances facing downhill. Southern arrow-shaped subenclosure The southern arrow-shaped subenclosure has its apex in the south and its base in the north. The base has a 16 to 17 m wide opening between inturned walls. There is another c. 10 m wide opening in the east side of the enclosure. The sides consist of a single earth bank made of gravelly loam (Fig. 1.29: B). The enclosure is badly eroded and in places the earth bank has completely disappeared. The lateral sides of the enclosure are about 110 m long. The base has a width of approximately 85 m. The enclosure has a surface area of c. 0.5 hectares. A sounding (2) was cut across the west wall of the arrow-shaped subenclosure (Fig. 1.26: D). The earth bank turned out to have a maximum width between 4 and 5 m at the base and was revetted

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region on its inner face with limestone slabs. It had a parallel ditch on the interior, which was virtually invisible prior to excavation but could be easily discerned in section. It was about 3 m wide and c. 0.5 m deep. There are ring-shaped banks on all corners of the arrow-shaped subenclosure (1, 5 and 6) and four along its lateral sides: three in the east (2 to 4) and one in the west (7). All ring-shaped banks are internally faced with limestone flagging. The southern ring-shaped bank (1) is located within the interior of the enclosure. The others are peripheral. Except for ring-shaped bank 4, the latter all have a small opening onto the interior of the enclosure. Ring-shaped bank 1 is located on a slope and has an internal diameter of c. 12 m. Its southern end is badly eroded by water movement. It is closed on all sides, but there are small openings, between 1.5 and 2 m wide, between the walls of the enclosure and the eastern and western ends of the bank. A north–south oriented sounding (4) was cut across the centre of the bank to determine its dimensions. The central pit turned out to be between 7 and 8 m wide and c. 0.5 m deep. There were several shallow depressions at the bottom of the pit. These were surface cleaned and hand augered and seem to be round pits that have been cut into the limestone bedrock to a depth of c. 1.1 m. Ring-shaped bank 3 was also subjected to detailed excavation (sounding 3). The centre of the bank contained a 1.7 m deep pit with a diameter of approximately 3.5 m. The pit had been cut into the limestone bedrock and was reinforced on all sides with limestone retaining walls. The top course of the retaining wall consisted of vertically placed limestone slabs. Further down, the wall consisted of dry-stacked, limestone slabs, laid in regular horizontal courses. The bottom of the pit contained a number of kulan bones. Ring-shaped banks 2, 5, 6, and 7 are very similar to 3, both in terms of their size and their layout. Another sounding was cut across the centre of ring-shaped bank 4. It was badly eroded and consisted of a closed gravelly loam earth Figure 1.29 (opposite) Zhar’inkuduk 6b. A. Plan; B. Plan of the southern arrow-shaped subenclosure: 1. limestone driveline or retaining wall; 2. earth bank; 3. outline of ditch or depression; 4. sounding; 5. ringshaped bank; C. Ring-shaped bank 3, sounding 1, section a–b: 1. topsoil; 2. Ah-horizon (humic topsoil); 3. Eb-horizon (eluviated upper subsoil); 4. Eb-horizon with salt encrustations (eluviated upper subsoil); 5. collapse layer with frequent limestone debris; 6. limestone bedrock; 7. marly limestone bedrock; gravelly loam (earth bank); D. West wall of arrow-shaped subenclosure, sounding 2, section a–b: 1. topsoil; 2. gravelly loam (earth bank); 3. buried soil (paleosol); 4. marly limestone bedrock; 5. biologically reworked sediments from eroded earth bank.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region bank with an internal diameter between 15–16 m. Its central pit was only 0.5 m deep and had been cut into the limestone bedrock. To summarise, the enclosure appears to have two types of ringshaped bank. The first type consists of a large ring-shaped bank without openings and with a relatively large and shallow central pit (1 and 4). The second type consists of a small ring-shaped bank that is open towards the interior of the enclosure with a small but deep central pit (2, 3 and 5–7). Northern arrow-shaped subenclosure The northern arrow-shaped subenclosure is very similar to the one just described but is not as well preserved. The enclosure takes the shape of an elongated triangle with the apex in the west-northwest and the base in the east-southeast (Fig. 1.29: A). The walls originally consisted of an earth bank made of gravelly loam with a limestone retaining wall on its inner face. Now only the stone elements remain. There is a 13 to 14 m wide entrance between two inturned walls at the base of the enclosure. There are peripheral ring-shaped banks on all corners of the enclosure. The north-western ring-shaped bank is closed on all sides and has an internal diameter between 11 and 12 m. The northern and southern ring-shaped banks have a narrow opening towards the interior of the enclosure and internal diameters between 5–6 m. There are five additional ring-shaped banks along the lateral sides of the triangle: two in the north and three in the south, all of which open onto the enclosure. The lateral sides of the triangle are c. 110 m long. The base has a width of approximately 70 m. The enclosure has a surface area of c. 0.35 hectares. Central enclosure The outlines of the central enclosure are hardly discernible from the ground. The remains mainly consist of a discontinuous chain of limestone slabs, often with large gaps in between. Some of the slabs are almost completely buried. It is impossible to determine whether the enclosure was entirely stone built or consisted of an earth bank with a limestone inner facing. When seen from the air, the enclosure takes the shape of a sub-rounded triangle with the apex to the north-east. It has an approximately 170 m wide opening between two inturned walls in the south-west. The sides of the enclosure are between 400 and 500 m long. It has a surface area of c. 11 hectares. Drivelines There are two drivelines in front of the entrance of the central enclosure, forming a large chute or funnel. They can be traced over

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1 Architecture a distance of c. 600 m and seem to have consisted only of limestone slabs placed upright. Other finds There are small stone mounds along the contours of the central enclosure. There are also several irregular stone lines that do not seem to be associated with the arrow-shaped structure (Fig. 1.29: A). These features probably represent earlier constructions of unknown function.

Zhar’inkuduk 8 Zhar’inkuduk 8 is located on the northern slopes of the Zhar’inkuduk Depression between the cemeteries of Zhar’inkduk 4 and 5. The structure is badly eroded and its outlines could only be partially determined (Fig. 1.30). Originally the structure must have consisted of two arrow-shaped subenclosures that were linked together by a large central enclosure. The surviving arrow-shaped subenclosure is triangle-shaped and has a flattened apex, oriented to the south. It has a rather narrow opening between two inturned walls at its northern end. The sides of the enclosure consist of a gravelly loam earth bank with a parallel ditch on its interior. The inner face of the earth bank was originally flagged with limestone slabs. The remains of the bank are between 2 and 4 m wide but have suffered much from water movement and deflation. They have been completely destroyed at the enclosure’s north-western end. The arrow-shaped subenclosure has four ring-shaped banks. Two of these are located at the corners at the base of the triangle. The others are situated on the corners of the flattened apex. All of the banks are badly eroded. Those at the apex did not preserve any of their limestone masonry and only show as light coloured patches in the soil, devoid of vegetation. The banks at the base have an internal diameter between 5 and 6 m. There are circular depressions or pits on both lateral sides of the triangle, just outside of the enclosure. The enclosure has a surface area of 0.6 hectares. The central enclosure consists of a discontinuous line of limestone slabs. Most of the slabs were found lying flat but some were still in their original upright position. There were no remains of an earth bank or ditches, so it appears that the central enclosure was entirely stone built. The enclosure would have had its opening towards the south. The second arrow-shaped subenclosure would have been located on the high ground in the south-west.

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Figure 1.30 Plan of Zhar’inkuduk 8: 1. eroded contours of ditch or pit; 2. gravelly loam earth bank with an inner limestone facing; 3. continuous lines of limestone slabs (i.e. remnants of drivelines); 4. discontinuous line of limestone slabs; 5. stone cist burial.

To the north-west of the central enclosure, we noted traces of a second, earlier arrow-shaped structure. The remains are arc-shaped and must have formed the northern end of a central enclosure. The structure was built with limestone slabs, which originally would have been placed upright. However, most examples were found lying flat on the surface. The northern end of the wall had been disrupted by a group of three stone cist burials that were partially built with material re-used from the enclosure. The burials provide a terminus post quem date for the structure in the mid-first millennium BC.

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The outlines of the two central enclosures do not line up. This indicates that the structure was rebuilt at least once on a slightly different line. The southern structure would have completely blocked the northern installation. The latter must therefore have been the older of the two.

Figure 1.31 Plan of Zhar’inkuduk 12: 1. earth bank; 2. ditch; 3. chain of limestone slabs.

Zhar’inkuduk 12 The arrow-shaped structure at Zhar’inkuduk 12 appears to consist only of a small arrow-shaped subenclosure. It takes the shape of a rounded triangle with the apex to the north and the base in the south (Fig. 1.31). The structure lies at the top of a slope. Its layout appears to have been dictacted largely by the local topography. In the west the

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Figure 1.32 Plan of Zhar’inkuduk 14: 1. Zhar’inkduk 10 occupation site; 2. discontinuous chain of limestone slabs; 3. gravelly loam earth bank with an inner limestone facing; 4. kurgan.

structure has been virtually completely destroyed by surface run-off and deflation. It has a 12 to 13 m wide opening towards the south, facing downhill, and ring-shaped banks on all three corners. The ring-shaped banks have an internal diameter between 3 and 4 m and are open towards the enclosure. They were internally ringed with limestone fieldstones. The sides of the enclosure were approximately

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1 Architecture 300 m long and originally consisted of a 2 to 3 m wide, gravelly loam earth bank that was reinforced on both sides with limestone slabs. In most places only the stone retaining walls have survived. The banks had a 1.5 to 2 m wide ditch along their interior. The enclosure has a surface area of c. 7.5 to 8 hectares. There is a wall made of limestone slabs just south-east of the enclosure, which blocks a narrow gap between two slopes.

Zhar’inkuduk 14 Zhar’inkuduk 14 is located on the south-eastern slope of the Zhar’inkuduk Depression, approximately 1.5 to 2 km south-west of the cemetery of Zhar’inkuduk 4. The structure is well preserved and includes all of the typical elements of the North Ustyurt arrowshaped structures. It consists of two arrow-shaped subenclosures with ring-shaped banks, a central enclosure that links the two, and a long driveline (Fig. 1.32). The structure is oriented to the south-west, pointing onto the marshlands. The central enclosure is almost entirely destroyed. There are three kurgans just north of the structure. The Zhar’inkuduk 10 occupation site is also located in this area. Eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure The eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure is located atop a slope and has a very complex configuration. It roughly takes the shape of an elongated triangle with the apex in the south and the base in the north (Fig. 1.33). There is an approximately 15 m wide opening between two inturned walls at the base of the triangle. The sides of the enclosure consist of a gravelly loam earth bank with a limestone retaining wall and a ditch on its interior. The retaining walls usually have multiple courses and consist of vertically and diagonally placed masonry. The banks are badly eroded by surface run-off and deflation. Their external contours are often difficult to make out, particularly at the southern end of the enclosure. Judging by the complete absence of Salsola arbuscula vegetation, which otherwise grows abundantly in the area, the banks must have been approximately 5 m wide. The exterior of the banks would presumably have consisted of a gradual slope. The ditch only shows as a very shallow depression or dark discolouration in the soil. The enclosure has a ring-shaped bank at its north-western corner. The bank is hollowed out on the inside and internally faced with limestone flagging. The masonry consists of multiple courses of vertically and diagonally placed limestone slabs. The bank has an internal diameter of approximately 5 m and is open towards the

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Figure 1.33 Plan of Zhar’inkuduk 14, eastern arrow-shaped enclosure: 1. vertically placed limestone slabs; 2. fragments of worked limestone slabs with ragged edges; 3. gravelly loam earth bank with an inner limestone facing; 4. ditch; 5. chain of limestone slabs; 6. kurgan.

interior of the enclosure. There is a similar ring-shaped bank along the western lateral side of the enclosure. The apex of the triangle is quite badly eroded because of its location on a fairly steep slope, which has greatly exacerbated the harmful effects of surface run-off. Fortunately, the stone masonry has survived and still allows a secure reconstruction of the installation’s

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1 Architecture southern outline. The apex was evidently flattened and had a ringshaped bank at both corners. These banks appear to have been very similar to the example just described (i.e. hollowed out and internally ringed with limestone flagging). The north-eastern corner of the enclosure has a small triangular enclosure, which is closed on all sides. It has a ringshaped bank on each of its three corners. It has a surface area of approximately 0.2 hectares. The larger enclosure has a surface area of c. 0.95 hectares. There is a pronounced vertical drop in the limestone bedrock just south of the enclosure that seems to be partly man-made. Possibly stone was quarried here for the construction of the arrow-shaped structure. Central enclosure The central enclosure is much dilapidated. Only the two inturned walls flanking its entrance have survived. The eastern inturned wall sets out from the eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure as a double line of limestone slabs, which meet approximately 35 m to the north-west. The limestone slabs do not form a continuous wall but are often located quite far apart or partially buried. There can be little doubt that the wall originally consisted of an earth bank with a limestone facing and a ditch on its interior as this is the configuration of the better preserved western inturned wall. Here the masonry consisted of multiple courses of vertically placed limestone slabs. The entrance of the enclosure was between 180 and 190 m wide. Western arrow-shaped subenclosure The western arrow-shaped subenclosure is more symmetrical than its eastern counterpart. It takes the shape of an elongated triangle with a flattened apex, pointing west (Fig. 1.34). The lateral sides of the triangle are approximately 150 m long. Its base is c. 90 m wide and has a c. 15 m wide opening between two inturned walls. There are peripheral ring-shaped banks on all corners of the enclosure (i.e. two at the apex and two at the base). The enclosure has a surface area of about 0.8 hectares. A sounding was dug across one of the lateral sides of the enclosure. The earth bank here was between 2.8 and 2.9 m wide and consisted of gravelly loam. It was reinforced on the inner face with a dry-stacked limestone retaining wall. The bank had a 1.2 m wide and 0.9 m deep ditch on its interior, which had been partly cut into the limestone bedrock. As usual, the backfill of the trench had been used for the construction of the earth bank and its limestone revetment.

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Figure 1.34 Plan of Zhar’inkuduk 14, western arrow-shaped enclosure.

A sounding measuring 13 by 1 m was cut across the centre of the north-eastern ring-shaped bank (1) of the enclosure. The pit at the centre of the bank had a diameter of c. 5 m and was between 1.3 and 1.4 m deep. The sides of the pit were quite irregular and tapered slightly towards the flat base. It had been partially cut into the limestone bedrock. The upper horizon of the bedrock was quite friable, but became much more solid and compact further down. The pit contained a sequence of thin laminated silty loam deposits towards the bottom. The absence of wall collapse and other kinds of debris suggests that these layers belong to the use-phase of the structure, when it was still maintained. The laminated deposits were sealed by a 40 cm thick collapse layer consisting of clayey loam with frequent gravel and limestone slabs. This layer must have formed after the installation was abandoned. The pit was surrounded by a 4 to 5 m wide earth bank with frequent gravel and limestone slab inclusions. The bank was constructed with backfill from the pit and was presumably around 1.5 m high. The bank was internally reinforced with an irregularly laid limestone retaining wall. The outer face of the ring-shaped bank was damaged by water erosion and deflation but most likely had a gradual slope.

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1 Architecture The bank has an approximately 3 m wide opening onto the interior of the enclosure. The south-eastern ring-shaped bank (2) had a similar design and stratigraphy. The two ring-shaped banks (3 and 4) at the apex of the triangle are of a different design. They are both closed on all sides and much smaller than their eastern counterparts. Their internal diameter is only 3 m. A sounding was cut across the centre of the northern ring-shaped bank (3). Its central pit contained an ash deposit with rare burnt animal bones and pottery fragments. The loam below the ash deposit was not blackened or fire reddened, suggesting that the ash was either produced by a short-lived, single fire or was brought in from elsewhere. Drivelines The northern driveline can be traced over a distance of approximately 400 m. It runs from the western arrow-shaped subenclosure towards the south-west and has been preserved as a discontinuous chain of limestone slabs. All of the slabs were found lying flat on the surface but must originally have been placed upright. The driveline crosses a 3 m high hillock and then continues to the Zhar’inkuduk marshlands, where it disappears in dense Haloxylon ammodendron thickets. The southern driveline starts in the middle of the entrance of the central enclosure and runs in a straight line towards the south-west for about 450 m. At that point it bends towards the south-east at a right angle and continues for another 35 to 40 m.

Zhar’inkuduk 10 Zhar’inkuduk 10 is an occupation site that is located on a gentle slope at the southern edge of the Zhar’inkuduk salt marsh, slightly to the north-west of Zhar’inkuduk 14. The site consists of an outer, roughly rectangular enclosure of limestone slabs, which contained a scatter of shards and burnt bone, and a series of circular structures built of limestone slabs. The rectangular enclosure measures almost 40 by 30 m and was partially excavated in two soundings (Fig. 1.35). The first sounding was located near the south-east corner of the enclosure and had a surface area of c. 200 m2. It included one of the stone circular structures as well as a chaotic arrangement of large stone slabs. The circular structure had an internal diameter of c. 2.5 m and was constructed with irregularly placed, dry-stacked limestone slabs. Most of the masonry was found in an upright position but horizontally laid slabs occurred as well. The structure had been built directly on

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Figure 1.35 Zhar’inkuduk 10, occupation site. A. Plan: 1. fire pit with ash; 2. limestone slabs; 3. contour of cultural layer; 4. loam occupation layer with frequent animal bones and pottery fragments; 5. limit of excavation; B. Section a–b: 1. topsoil; 2. compact gravelly loam with rare pottery fragments and animal bones towards the lower boundary; 3. silty loam occupation layer with frequent animal bones and pottery fragments; 4. ash layer with frequent burnt animal bones; 5. limestone bedrock.

top of the limestone bedrock. The overlying soil had evidently been fully stripped off prior to construction. The structure was filled with a 0.5 m thick silty gravelly loam layer with frequent pottery shards and animal bones. Two walls join the structure from the south. These walls consist of vertically or horizontally placed limestone slabs. The layers outside of the enclosure contained almost no finds. The second sounding (c. 20 m2) was situated near the west of the enclosure and incorporated a second circular structure. The structure consisted of a circular pit, 0.7 to 0.8 m deep, with a ring of irregularly

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1 Architecture placed limestone slabs around its perimeter. The pit was cut into the limestone bedrock and had a flat base with a shallow ash pit at its centre. The subsoil of the c. 0.45 m wide ash pit contained no signs of blackening or fire reddening, which may indicate that the ash was dumped here from elsewhere. The ash pit contained many fragments of burnt animal bones. The base of the large pit was covered with a thin silty loam occupation layer with frequent pottery shards and animal bone fragments. This deposit was superimposed by a layer of compact gravelly loam with frequent limestone slabs and rare pottery fragments and animal bones. To the south-west there is a similar enclosure, which also included a disorderly grouping of stones. The surface of the enclosure was covered with small limestone slabs, which had large concentrations of animal bones underneath. There was a small pit in the southern part of the enclosure. It had a diameter of about 0.2 m and was cut into the bedrock to a depth of 0.3 m. The base of the pit contained many animal bones, particularly scapulae and mandible bones of a large type of ungulate (possibly a kulan). Some of the bones had traces of burning. The pit fill also contained occasional ash pockets. The pit should probably be interpreted as a midden. Zhar’inkuduk 10 was in all likelihood not used for habitation per se. Rather, the burial of animal bones (scapulae and mandibles) below flagstones and in pits points towards ritually charged activities. The proximity of Zhar’inkuduk 10 to the arrow-shaped structure of Zhar’ikuduk 14 may indicate that such rituals were somehow related to the use of the arrow-shaped structure.

Kend’irlisor group The Kend’irlisor group is located on the western cliffs of Ustyurt. Most of the plateau here is relatively flat, except near the edge of the cliff where the land falls away in a series of deep gullies, screes, and promontories (Figs 1.36–37). Further inland, the rocky outcrops of Mount Karamaya and Mount Kogusem reach altitudes of 230 to 260 m. One of the area’s most prominent features is the Uval Muzbel’, which is connected to the south-southeast of the western cliff edge. Here the plateau reaches altitudes of up to 340 m. There are numerous wells and springs in the area. Below the escarpment lies the Kend’irlisor salt marsh from which the group derives its name. In this region there are 12 arrow-shaped structures situated along the cliffs (Karamaya 1–3, 5–13). Another structure is located a little further onto the interior of the plateau (Kogusem 2). Only four of

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1 Architecture Figure 1.36 (opposite) Distribution of sites in the Kend’irlisor group. 1. Kogusem 2, arrow-shaped structure; 2. Karamaya 1, arrow-shaped structure; 3. Karamaya 2; 4. Karamaya 3; 5. Karamaya 5; 6. Karamaya 6; 7. Karamaya 7; 8. Karamaya 8; 9. Karamaya 9; 10. Karamaya 10; 11. Karamaya 11; 12. Karamaya 12; 13. Karamaya 13; A. arrow-shaped structure; B. well; C. not surveyed.

these were subjected to detailed ground surveying and mapping. The structures do not form a system and are not located at fixed intervals. Their location appears to have been largely dictated by the presence of desirable landscape features, such as rocky promontories and deep ravines.

Karamaya 1 The arrow-shaped structure of Karamaya 1 lies on the steep edge of the plateau, approximately 2 km north-west of the Kogusem well (Fig. 1.38). The structure has a complex, irregular enclosure made of stone rubble that uses the cliff edge as one of its sides. It has four ring-shaped banks with internal diameters between 3 and 4 m. There is a 37 m wide entrance at the western end of the enclosure. The walls on either side of the entrance are quite wavy and curve outward towards the end. The enclosure has a surface area of approximately 4.2 hectares. There is a driveline on the northern side of the entrance. It extends towards the north-west over a distance of c. 350 m and forms a large funnel together with the cliff face. The driveline is made up of a ‘chain’ of small groups of vertically placed stones placed at 1.5 to 2.5 m intervals. The sides of the enclosure and the ring-shaped banks consist of limestone slabs that have been either placed upright or horizontally dry-stacked directly onto the surface of the plateau. In general, the masonry has a very careless and haphazard character. The ring-shaped banks have been hollowed out on the interior to a depth of 0.5 m. The entrance of the structure faces downhill. The interior of the enclosure has a slight depression almost immediately after the entrance but gradually rises again towards the east. The two northern ring-shaped banks are roughly located on the same elevation as the enclosure’s depression.

Karamaya 2 The arrow-shaped structure of Karamaya 2 lies near the plateau edge, approximately 2.7 km north-west of the Kogusem well and 0.5 to 0.6 km west of Karamaya 1. The structure is badly degraded.

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Figure 1.37 View of the western escarpment. The Kend’irlisor salt marsh is visible on the right. Photo: Alexander Petrov.

Only a small part of the enclosure wall and one of the ring-shaped banks remain. The latter is heavily damaged by water erosion, but originally consisted of a circle of vertically placed limestone slabs with an internal diameter between 3 and 3.5 m. The cliff edge was used as one side of the installation.

Karamaya 3 Karamaya 3 lies near the edge of the cliff edge, 0.8 to 0.9 km west of Karamaya 2 and 3.7 km north-west of the Kogusem well. The structure has a sub-triangular enclosure formed by low rubble walls that uses the cliff edge as one of its sides. Its apex is oriented towards the east, pointing away from the plateau (Fig. 1.39). The enclosure has an 85 to 86 m wide entrance on its western side, which lies on top of a low ridge in the terrain. Beyond the ridge, the interior of the enclosure gradually falls away towards the cliff face. The sides of the enclosure are approximately 200 m long. The walls on either side of the entrance terminate in an outward curve and form a short, wide chute or funnel. There are two ring-shaped banks: one on the north-western corner of the enclosure and one along the enclosure’s northern lateral side, near the cliff face. The ring-shaped banks are somewhat angular and perhaps closer to rectangles than rings. Their

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1 Architecture

Figure 1.38 Plan of Karamaya 1: 1. stone wall; 2. geological fracture with steep edge; 3. cliff edge; 4. discontinuous chain of limestone slabs.

sides are between 3.2 and 3.4 m long. The walls of the enclosure consist of unworked limestone fieldstones. Most of the limestone slabs have fallen over but were originally placed in an upright position. The walls often have wide gaps in between the individual stones. In some cases these have been filled with horizontally stacked limestone slabs but in most cases they were left open. The enclosure has a surface area of c. 3.5 hectares.

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Figure 1.39 Plan of Karamaya 3: 1. stone wall; 2. gulley; 3. cliff edge.

Karamaya 5 The arrow-shaped structure of Karamaya 5 lies on the eastern edge of a deep ravine, c. 9 km west of Mount Kogusem. When seen from the air, the structure takes the shape of a large rectangle. The entrance is located at the northern end of the structure and faces downhill. The structure has 100 to 120 m long sides made of vertically placed limestone slabs. There are rectangular banks on all corners with 2.5 to 3 m long sides. In places, the masonry of the banks has survived up to a height of 1.5 to 1.7 m. Their lower courses consist of vertically placed limestone slabs. The upper courses consist of regular, horizontally laid courses. The edge of the ravine would have functioned as a ‘driveline’.

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Karamaya 6 The arrow-shaped structure of Karamaya 6 is located on a promontory, 1 km south-west of Karamaya 5. The structure consists of a system of low rubble walls with ring-shaped banks.

Karamaya 7 The arrow-shaped structure of Karamaya 7 lies on a promontory at the northern end of the Kend’irlisor Bend, c. 14 km west of Mount Kogusem. There are two arrow-shaped structures at the site with markedly different plans: a northern and a southern installation (Fig. 1.40). It is possible that the structures had slightly different functions and were constructed at different times. Northern arrow-shaped structure The northern structure consists of an elongated triangular enclosure with the apex to the north-east (Fig. 1.40). It has a 28 m wide entrance between two inturned walls at its southern end, facing downhill. There are two drivelines leading up to the entrance, forming a large chute into the enclosure. The lateral sides of the arrow-shaped subenclosure are approximately 150 m long. The base of the triangle has a width of approximately 100 m. There are ring-shaped banks at the corners of the triangle’s base. There is no ring-shaped bank at the apex of the structure. The banks have an internal diameter of about 4 m and are hollowed out on the interior to a depth of 0.5 m. There are remains of another, presumably earlier ring-shaped bank immediately west of the western ring-shaped bank. The enclosure has a surface area of c. 1.8 hectares. The eastern driveline has a length of approximately 300 m and connects to the southern edge of the promontory. The western driveline is c. 165 m long and terminates 75 to 76 m from the cliff edge, leaving an opening into the chute. The surface of the chute rises towards the entrance of the enclosure. The western side of the enclosure and the western driveline form an ‘exterior’ chute with the cliff face. The area has a central depression with takyr soils. The drivelines and enclosure are entirely stone built and consist of vertically placed limestone slabs, sometimes several rows thick. The ring-shaped banks consist of stacked limestone walls, laid in horizontal courses. The lower courses are often revetted with vertically placed limestone slabs. All of the walls were constructed directly on top of the ancient surface level.

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Figure 1.40 Plan of Karamaya 7: 1. stone wall; 2. cliff edge; 3. takyr soil; 4. gulley.

Southern arrow-shaped structure The southern arrow-shaped structure is located on the narrow, elongated tip of the promontory (Fig. 1.40). The enclosure is formed by two walls only, which cut off the beginning of the promontory and almost block it from side to side. They have a 20 m wide opening in the middle. Both walls have an angular (almost rectangular) ‘ring’shaped bank at their centre with 3 to 4 m long sides. These banks have been hollowed out on the interior to a depth of c. 0.5 m. The

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1 Architecture cliff edge makes up the remaining sides of the enclosure. There are additional walls inside the enclosure that block the cornices, slopes, and ledged crevices of the promontory. Two of these have an angular ‘ring’-shaped bank, similar to ones at the entrance. The walls have been preserved up to a height of 1 and 1.5 m and consist of both vertically and horizontally placed limestone slabs. They are constructed directly on top of the ancient surface level. The ring-shaped banks consist of dry-stacked walls, laid in regular horizontal courses. The lower courses are revetted with vertically placed limestone slabs.

Karamaya 8 Karamaya 8 lies on a promontory that juts outs far beyond the line of the escarpment, c. 15 km west of Mount Kogusem (Fig. 1.41). The construction makes optimal use of the shape and relief of the promontory and essentially consists of only two walls. These walls are located at the narrowest point of the promontory and almost block it from side to side, leaving only a 13 to 14 m wide opening. The cliff edge is used for all remaining sides of the enclosure. The walls both have an angular (almost rectangular) peripheral ‘ring’shaped bank at their centre with 3 to 4 m long sides. There is a relatively deep crevice near the southern end of the promontory. This crevice is completely blocked by a wavy wall with an angular (almost rectangular) ‘ring-shaped’ bank on its interior. The enclosure has a surface area of c. 3.8 hectares. Because the promontory is narrow and tapers towards the entrance of the enclosure, there was no need to construct a man-made funnel or chute. The walls are all stone built and constructed directly on top of the ancient surface level. In most cases the masonry consists of vertically laid limestone slabs, but horizontally laid courses occur as well. In some cases, the horizontal masonry is reinforced with vertically placed limestone slabs. The walls have been preserved up to a height of 0.4 to 1 m. The angular ‘ring’ banks all consist of horizontally stacked limestone slabs, reinforced with vertically placed limestone slabs. They have been preserved up to a height of 1.5 m. One of these slabs had an incised tamga. The ‘ring’ banks were hollowed out on the inside to a depth of 0.5 m.

Karamaya 9 The arrow-shaped structure of Karamaya 9 lies next to the escarpment, 0.5 km north of Karamaya 8. When seen from the air, the enclosure takes the shape of a triangle formed by low stone walls with

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Figure 1.41 Plan of Karamaya 8: 1. stone wall; 2. takyr soil; 3. cliff edge.

ring-shaped banks at the corners. The entrance of the enclosure is located at the base between two inturned walls. The structure has one driveline in front of the entrance that forms a long funnel together with the cliff edge.

Karamaya 10 The arrow-shaped structure of Karamaya 10 lies at the base of the promontory. The structure takes the shape of a large triangle formed by low stone walls with the apex to the north, pointing onto the plateau. The entrance is located in the south between two inturned walls. There are peripheral ring-shaped banks on all corners of the triangle. The northern corner has a single ring-shaped bank. The remaining corners have two, located at some distance from one another.

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Karamaya 11 The arrow-shaped structure of Karamaya 11 is located near the cliff edge, c. 1 km north-northwest of Karamaya 8. The structure is badly eroded

Figure 1.42 Group of structures in the Beineu system.

Karamaya 12 and 13 The arrow-shaped structures of Karamaya 12 and 13 lie at the top of a steep ravine, approximately 12 km west of Mount Kogusem. The structures were not surveyed.

Kogusem 2 The arrow-shaped structure of Kogusem 2 lies at some distance from the cliff edge, c. 3.2 km south-east of Mount Kogusem. It consists of a system of low rubble walls with stone ring-shaped banks. The structure was not surveyed.

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Beineu group The Beineu group is located on the western edge of the Ustyurt Plateau, in the area of Old Beineu. The remote sensing results indicate that Beineu is a system of hunting structures, similar to the North Ustyurt group. The system consists of four subsystems (Beineu, Saykuduk, Amanzhol, and Manashi), and one stand-alone structure, Mamay. The structures are located between the saline lands Zhar’inkuduk and Manashi in an area that is traversed by wild ungulates during seasonal migrations. Most of the structures are type 6 ellipsoid structures (Fig. 1.42: 3, 5, 6, 10). There are only four type 1 structures in the group, all of which are located in the Beineu subsystem. The satellite imagery suggests that the Beineu group was used over a considerable period of time. There are clear signs in the Beineu and Saykuduk subsystems that several structures were rebuilt. In the Beineu group a type 1 arrow-shaped structure was built on top of a type 6 structure (Fig. 1.42: 2a, b). This may suggest that the type 6 design predates the type 1 design.

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2

Chronology Vadim N. Yagodin

Figure 2.1 View of the western escarpment, Tuzbair Sor. Photo: Eduard Manukyants (Kovcheg Ecological Center).

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region The arrow-shaped structures that were discovered prior to 1988 can be dated through various relative and absolute means. Due to the absence of fieldwork, no dates are available for any of the arrow-shaped structures that were discovered during the 2012 remote sensing study.

North Ustyurt group Architecture Several arrow-shaped structures in the Duana 1 subsystem show traces of earlier structures beneath the most recent walls (structures 2 to 5 and structure 15) (Fig. 2.2). In the case of structure 2, the outlines of the eastern and western arrow-shaped subenclosures are doubled, indicating that the structure was at least once rebuilt on a slightly different line. Arrow-shaped structure 3 has doubled outlines for most of the central enclosure and the entire eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure. In the case of structure 15, the oldest western arrow-shaped subenclosure has only a single ring-shaped bank, whereas the superimposed, latest enclosure has a double ring-shaped bank. This might indicate that doubled ring-shaped banks are a later innovation. If so, structures 1 to 7, 12 to 14, and the earliest phase of structure 15 would belong to an early group, while structures 8 to 11 and the latest phase of structure 15 would belong to a later group. Building on these observations it is perhaps possible to make some additional inferences. In structure 9 the outlines of the arrow-shaped subenclosure consist of a double earth bank with a wide ditch in between rather than the usual single bank. The ring-shaped banks here also have a small earth mound at their centre as opposed to most other examples, which are hollowed out on the inside. It is possible that these features also represent later innovations. A deep, circular pit at the entrance of arrow-shaped structure 10 might perhaps also be considered a later introduction since the eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure has a double ring-shaped bank. The alterations and the introduction of new features suggest that the Duana 1 subsystem was not planned as a whole but was developed and improved over time. The relatively small number of arrow-shaped structures in the Duana 2 subsystem might indicate that it was used for a shorter period than the Duana 1 subsystem.

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2 Chronology

Figure 2.2 Satellite view of Duana 1, arrowshaped structure 3 (Bing MapsTM).

Pottery The best method for dating the arrow-shaped structures is through surface and excavated pottery. Both crudely fired handmade pottery and well-fired, wheel-made pottery were found in the North Ustyurt group. Duana 1 subsystem The pottery recovered in the Duana 1 subsystem was mostly poorly made, hand-turned blackish ware with a slip applied to the outer surface. Vessels were made from a coarse fabric with large amounts of grog. They were often very crumbly and coloured black when viewed in section.

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Figure 2.3 Vessel fragments found in the North Ustyurt group.

The most common vessel shapes were flat-bottomed pots and restricted globular jars with direct (Fig. 2.3: 1, 3) or modelled rims (Fig. 2.3: 2, 11). A small number of vessels had incised or applied decoration on the exterior, consisting of diamond patterns (Fig. 2.3: 11), circles (Fig. 2.3: 12), or vertical and diagonal lines (Fig. 2.3: 2–3). A very small number of shards had decorative indentations around the top of the rim (Fig. 2.3: 4). The bodies of most vessels were deliberately left rough. They sometimes had well-defined, vertical ribs or striations (Fig. 2.3: 10, 14). In one case the vessel body was decorated with horizontal ribs (Fig. 2.3: 1).

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2 Chronology Similar vessel shapes have been found in Djetiasar sites near the mouth of the Syr-dar’ya (the Jaxartes river of classical antiquity) (Levina 1971: 71, 74–5). They are also characteristic of the ‘swamp town’ culture (Levina 1971: 78–80) and the earliest stages of the Kerder culture in Priaraliya and the Amu-dar’ya Delta, dating to the late seventh to early eighth centuries AD (unpublished material from the Kurgancha settlement: Department of Archaeology of the Institute of History, Language and Literature of the Uzbek Academy of Science, Karakalpak Branch [Republic of Uzbekistan]). The presence of decorative elements such as the applied vertical ribs allows the system to be dated between the last quarter of the seventh century AD and the first half of the eighth century AD, as similar vessels only occur in the Late Djetiasar period (Levina 1974: 74–5). In the Kerder culture applied decoration is typical for jars made during the culture’s earlier stages (unpublished material from the Kurgancha settlement: Department of Archaeology of the Institute of History, Language and Literature of the Uzbek Academy of Science, Karakalpak Branch [Republic of Uzbekistan]). There is also a pottery corpus that has parallels almost exclusively in the ninth and tenth centuries AD. This group was discovered at arrow-shaped structure 10. Based on the relative chronology described above, arrow-shaped structure 10 indeed appears to be among the later arrow-shaped structures of the Duana 1 subsystem. Duana 2 subsystem Less pottery was found in the Duana 2 subsystem. Most were wheelthrown jugs and included two examples of the so-called Afrigid type (Fig. 2.3: 6). These jugs have a wide flaring neck with a modelled, externally thickened rim. The vessel body is egg-shaped with a flat base and a single handle. The jugs were made from a fine clay fabric containing occasional calcitic nodules. Afrigid vessels were first documented by Terenozhin (1940; see also Tolstov 1948a: 142, figs 2.3–5) and have been found over a vast area along both banks of the Amu-dar’ya in Khwarezm (Terenozhin 1940; Tolstov 1948a: 142; Nerazik 1959: 240, fig. 6: 1–2, 1966: 38, fig. 19: 1–8; Yagodin and Hodzhayov 1970: 66–8, fig. 28: 1–5) as well as in Kerder settlements (unpublished material from Kurgancha: Department of Archaeology of the Institute of History, Language and Literature of the Uzbek Academy of Science, Karakalpak Branch [Republic of Uzbekistan]). They date from the last quarter of the seventh century to the first half of the eighth century AD. One jug neck fragment had an almost rectangular cross-section (Fig. 2.3: 16). It was wheel-made and had been evenly fired to a

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region brownish gray colour. The exterior had traces of a faint black slip. Such vessels are typical of pottery group II of the Djetiasar culture (Levina 1971: 68, 73, 75). Another jug neck fragment belonged to a shouldered vessel with a narrow neck (Fig. 2.3: 15). The external surface of the neck was decorated with horizontal grooves, which have parallels in vessels found in all stages of the Djetiasar culture. The fabric consisted of puddled clay with rare gravel inclusions. The vessel had been evenly fired to an off-white cream colour and the external surface had traces of a reddish-brown slip. A third jug neck fragment was part of a medium-sized jar with a modelled rim, flat base, and a single handle (Fig. 2.3: 7). It was wheelmade and evenly fired to a terracotta colour. The fabric consisted of puddled clay without macroscopic inclusions. The shoulder was decorated with two incised horizontal bands with a wavy line in between. This vessel type is typical of the Khwarezmian AfrigidSamanid period of the ninth century AD (Vakturskaya 1959: 272–3) as well as of the late Kerder period, dating to the second half of the eighth to tenth centuries AD (Yagodin 1981: 87, 98, figs 5–6). The Duana 2 subsystem also produced a single fragment of a khoum, a large type of storage vessel (Fig. 2.3: 17). The vessel was wheel-thrown and made of a puddled clay fabric containing small quantities of calcitic nodules. It had been evenly fired to a reddishblack colour and had a yellow slip applied to its outer surface. The exterior of the vessel was decorated with an incised zigzag pattern. These vessels are characteristic of the early medieval Afrigid culture of the seventh to eighth centuries AD. In Khwarezm similar vessels are found in the Late Djetiasar period, dating to the seventh to early ninth centuries AD (Tolstov 1948a; Nerazik 1959: 236–40), and in contexts dating to the early stages of the Kerder culture (Gudovka and Yagodin 1963: 261). Other finds included a single fragment of a small, wheel-thrown jug or mug with a vertical loop handle (Fig. 2.3: 18). It was made from a fine, dense fabric with no macroscopic inclusions. The vessel had been evenly fired to a brick-red colour. The handle was irregularly faceted and had been scraped with a flat tool. The outer surface was covered with a thick dark red slip and burnished, which gave the vessel an attractive shiny finish. This type of vessel has parallels in all three stages of the Djetiasar culture (Levina 1971: 68, 70, 73, 75) and early Kerder assemblages (unpublished material from Kurgancha: Department of Archaeology of the Institute of History, Language and Literature of the Uzbek Academy of Science, Karakalpak Branch [Republic of Uzbekistan]).

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2 Chronology Drawing these observations together, it can be stated that the ceramic remains of the North Ustyurt group form a uniform assemblage. Material from the Late Djetiasar period is most abundant (i.e. late seventh to early ninth centuries AD) but some pottery from the Early and Middle Djetiasar periods is also present.

Other finds Other finds were rare and consisted only of highly fragmented stone and iron objects. A rectangular hammer stone with an oval cross-section and battering marks was discovered together with a fragmentary, gray slate whetstone at arrow-shaped structure 5 of the Duana 1 subsystem. The whetstone was flat and tapered slightly towards the top where it had a drilled perforation, presumably for suspension. A second, fragmentary whetstone, made of fine-grained sandstone, was found at structure 9 of the Duana 1 subsystem. It had a roughly rectangular shape with a square cross-section. Only two iron objects were found. Structure 5 of the Duana 1 subsystem contained a long, narrow forged plate with one rounded end and a sub-triangular cross-section. The rounded end still had an iron rivet in situ. The function of the object is uncertain, but it may have been part of an iron helmet. Structure 9 of the Duana 1 subsystem contained a flat iron plate from a lamellar cuirass. Only the bottom part of the plate had been preserved. It had a rectangular shape with rounded corners and a straight bottom edge. A pair of small perforations, one placed above the other, was located near the bottom edge. These perforations were originally used to attach the plate to the fabric-based armour. Due to its fragmentary nature, it was not possible to accurately date the plate.

The Duana complex There are a number of other archaeological remains in North Ustyurt that may be connected with the use of the arrow-shaped structures. The Duana complex, in particular, may provide valuable dating clues (Yagodin et al. 2007). The large complex includes several cemeteries and sanctuaries. The earliest burials date to the fourth to second centuries BC and consist of single or collective interments in stone cists (c. 25 in total). Burials of the third to fourth centuries AD are numerically abundant (c. 80 in total). These consist of single graves in shallow earth pits, often reinforced with stone slabs. There are also two sanctuaries within the complex. These can be fairly accurately dated on the basis of their associated pottery remains. However,

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region it is important to note that sanctuary 1 has not been excavated and that all pottery finds here were surface collected. Both crudely fired, hand-made pottery and well-fired, wheel-made pottery were present. Hand-turned blackish ware was by far the most abundant and restricted to a limited number of vessel types. Restricted vessel shapes with straight or flaring necks and modelled rims with a distinct flange below the lip were most common and the fabric of the vessels was often coarsely tempered with large amounts of grog. Most vessels had incised decoration on the exterior of the rims. Dotted lines were most common but other designs occurred as well. The vessels are very similar to examples found at the Sumbetimeralan-Kurkreuk sanctuary (Yagodin 1978: 176–8, fig. 64) and the arrow-shaped structures of the North Ustyurt group. They also have parallels in the ceramic assemblages of the Kerder culture, the ‘swamp town’ culture, and the Late Djetiasar period. The assemblage also included hand-thrown pots with a flat base. These vessels were crudely fired and made with a low-quality fabric. They usually had a horizontal band of incised decoration just below the rim. A similar design was found on a miniature globular jar. The wheel-thrown assemblage of sanctuary 1 was of a much higher quality than the hand-made repertoire. Vessel fabrics were fine and did not contain macroscopic inclusions. They usually had been fired to an even pinkish-red or off-white cream colour. The exteriors of the wheel-thrown vessels had an applied white slip, often with dark brown strokes or smears on top. Vessels with a similar slip and strokes are characteristic of the Early and Middle Djetiasar periods (Levina 1971: 72, 74, fig. 15), dating to the first to fourth and fourth to seventh centuries AD, respectively. There were two jug fragments among the wheel-thrown vessels. The first had only part of its vertical loop handle and flaring neck still preserved. The rim was modelled and had a central, horizontal groove along its exterior. The exterior was covered with a reddishbrown slip. The mouth of the vessel had a diameter of c. 8 cm and its walls were c. 0.5 cm thick. The second jug fragment had only a small part of the neck and handle preserved. The exterior was covered with a bright red slip. The handle narrowed from top to bottom and had an oval cross-section. It had a protruding, blunt point at the top. Similar jugs are known from all three stages of the Djetiasar culture (Levina 1971: 69, 73, 75). The evidence suggests there were three use phases of the Duana complex, dating to the second to fourth centuries BC, the third to fourth centuries AD, and the seventh to eighth centuries AD,

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2 Chronology respectively. During the first two periods the complex was used as a burial ground and religious centre, while in the third period it functioned only as a religious centre. It appears that throughout these periods this part of Ustyurt was used primarily as a winter camping ground by nomadic groups, who in addition to herding engaged in the hunt of migrating animals with the use of arrow-shaped structures.

Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group Architecture The arrow-shaped structures in the Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group are quite similar in terms of their overall design. Nevertheless, there are several distinguishing features that suggest that several minor typological developments took place over time. In some cases there is also evidence that structures were modified and extended with the addition or replacement of enclosures and drivelines. Arrow-shaped structures in this group normally have one arrowshaped subenclosure but Chalburun, Dar’yal’ik 2, Berniyaz, and Karamata 7 have two. In the case of Karamata 7 the structure was planned from the outset to have two enclosures but in the remaining examples the second arrow-shaped subenclosure was incorporated or added at a later stage. This is clearest at Chalburun. It seems possible, therefore, that structures with a single arrow-shaped subenclosure predate those with two. Another possible later introduction can be found at the entrance to several of the arrow-shaped subenclosures. Normally, these consist of a narrow gap between two inturned walls. However, in the case of Dar’yal’ik 1, Ibrakhimsha 2, and Chalburun, these inturned walls are doubled. Considering that Chalburun, for the reasons just mentioned, probably represents a later type in the group, it is perhaps warranted to infer that these doubled inturned walls represent a later innovation. Admittedly, these relative dating criteria are quite tentative and limited. However, they do suggest that the Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group was not conceived as a single system but developed over time instead. Several additional dating criteria are available for this group, including pottery remains (from Dekcha 1, Aybuyir, Dar’yal’ik 2, Aksaimak 2, and Karamata 7), horizontal stratigraphy, construction techniques, tribal signs (tamga), and radiocarbon dates.

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Figure 2.4 Vessel fragments excavated at Dekcha 1 and Aybuyir.

Excavated pottery Two earth mounds were excavated in arrow-shaped structure Dekcha 1 (see Chapter 1). Mound 1 contained a virtually complete, one-handled jug with a cylindrical neck and an egg-shaped body with a flat base (Fig. 2.4: 1). The complete vessel would have been approximately 45 cm tall. It had a diameter of 10.5 cm at the bottom and 7.2 cm at the neck. The maximum diameter of the body was 26.5  cm. The complete neck would have been approximately 11 cm high. The vessel was wheel-thrown and made using a fine, puddled clay fabric that did not contain any visible inclusions. There were two incised, decorative horizontal bands with a wavy line in between just below the shoulder of the vessel. The vessel had been fired to an even terracotta colour and the exterior had a thickly applied yellow slip. The vessel was in all likelihood produced by a Khwarezmian workshop. It has direct parallels in Khwarezmian contexts dating to the ninth century AD (Vakturskaya 1959: 272–3, 276) and in late

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2 Chronology Kerder contexts in Priaraliya and the Amu-dar’ya Delta dating to the ninth and tenth centuries AD (Yagodin 1981: 87). Fragments of similar vessels were discovered during the excavation of mound 2. The excavation of the ring-shaped bank, immediately west of the main enclosure of Dekcha 1, also produced several pottery fragments. The most interesting among these was a wheel-thrown vessel fragment with a spout applied to the shoulder and a narrow, flaring neck with a modelled, externally thickened rim (Fig. 2.4: 3). It had a yellow slip on the exterior and was made using a micacious, puddled clay fabric containing frequent calcitic nodules. The exterior had been fired to a uniform red colour but the core was black. Similar vessels are associated with the Kerder culture (seventh to eighth centuries AD) and have been found at several sites on the east bank of the Amu-dar’ya river (unpublished material from the Department of Archaeology of the Institute of History, Language and Literature of the Uzbek Academy of Science, Karakalpak Branch [Republic of Uzbekistan]). A vessel fragment discovered at Aybuyir is also worthy of mention. It concerns a hand-thrown, bag-shaped vessel with a very wide mouth and a folded rim with four flat, rectangular handles (Fig. 2.4: 2). The mouth had a diameter of 21 cm and the vessel walls were between 0.4 and 0.5 cm thick. The fabric was coarsely tempered with chaff and large amounts of grog. The vessel had been crudely fired to a dark red colour and had a black core. Just below the rim the vessel had applied decorations consisting of a small clay cone with a vertical ‘ladder’ motif directly underneath. The outer edge of the handles was decorated with a continuous band of ripples. The vessel seems to have been a local imitation of a type of Khwarezmian bag-shaped jar that is commonly found in 12th- and early 13th-century AD cities and rural settlements (Vakturskaya 1959: 310–13).

Surface pottery Surface pottery was collected at arrow-shaped structures Karamata 7, Dar’yal’ik 2, Aksaimak 2, Dekcha 1, and Aybuyir. At Karamata 7 a small amount of wheel-thrown pottery was recovered from a section of wall collapse near the edge of the ravine. All fragments appear to have belonged to the same vessel type and were made using a fine fabric without any visible inclusions. They had been fired to a uniform red colour. Their exterior was covered with a thick bright red to reddish-brown slip. Although the material was very fragmentary, these ceramics can most likely be associated with group II of the Djetiasar ceramic assemblage (Levina 1971: 68, 73, 75). However,

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region group II ceramics occur in all three stages of the Djetiasar culture. Hence, it is not possible to assign an exact date to these shards. A small number of pottery shards were collected at Aksaimak 2 at the south-west ring-shaped bank of the arrow-shaped subenclosure. The fragments belonged to bag-shaped jars and are characteristic of ninth to 11th century Khwarezmian ceramic assemblages (Vakturskaya 1959: 276–8, fig. 8) Surface finds at Dar’yal’ik 2 consisted of a few pottery fragments made of gray clay. They all belonged to bag-shaped vessels dating to the Golden Horde period (12th to 14th centuries AD).

Horizontal stratigraphy The town of Khantersek on the Khantersek Promontory is dated to the Khwarezmshāh period (12th to early 13th centuries AD) (Tolstov 1958: 78; Yagodin et al. 1975; Manylov 1978: 214–20). The arrowshaped structure lying across the neck of the promontory must be older than the town as it could not have been in use while the town was occupied. It also cannot postdate the cemetery associated with the town as the cemetery stretches across the enclosure. For these reasons the Khantersek arrow-shaped structure cannot be dated later than the 11th century AD.

Construction techniques A careful study of the arrow-shaped structures’ masonry, particularly the coursing of the stone flagging on the interior of the ring-shaped banks, might provide additional dating clues. In the AybuyirPrisar’ikam’ish group there are three styles of stone coursing: regular stacked courses, obliquely stacked courses, and diagonal herringbone courses. The latter two types are only found at arrow-shaped structures Karamata 7, Dar’yal’ik 2, and Dekcha 6. Obliquely stacked masonry and diagonal herringbone masonry have been dated fairly accurately and are considered typical for Golden Horde period architecture (Tolstov 1958: 25; Vakturskaya 1958: 474). In Khwarezm these construction techniques are used in a brick-lined ditch at Tash-kala, which was presumably built at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries AD (Tolstov 1958: 227, fig. 106; Vakturskaya 1958: 474). The 14th-century Shemakha-kala fort (Vakturskaya 1952: 178) and the medieval fort of Yarbekir (Tolstov 1958: 25) also contain these types of masonry. Outside Khwarezm similar construction techniques were used at Samarkand between the 14th and 19th centuries AD (Sukhareva 1979: fig. 35). Obliquely stacked masonry and diagonal

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2 Chronology herringbone masonry are also commonly found in Mongol period structures in Ustyurt (second half of the 13th and 14th centuries AD), such as at Kurgancha (Manylov 1978: 272), Assakeaudan-kala (Manylov 1981: 61–2), and the 14th-century AD caravanserai of Ayata (Yusupov and Manylov 1990). Similar construction techniques were also used at the medieval fortress of Dev-Kesken. According to Bizhanov (1967: 12) the fortress walls constructed in this manner dated to the 16th to 17th centuries AD. However, more recent analyses of the monument date its final restructuring to the 15th century AD (Yagodin and Khozhaniyazov 1986).

Tribal signs (tamgas) A tribal sign (tamga) was discovered on the stone masonry of one of the ring-shaped banks at Chalburun. The sign was cross-shaped and located in the eastern arrow-shaped subenclosure. Cross-shaped tamgas are normally associated with a number of Kazakh tribes, including the Adaev and the Tortkara (Levshin 1832: 234; Vostrov and Mukhanov 1968: 53). The Chalburun example and a similar tamga at Karamaya 8 were presumably used to signify ownership of the structures and the surrounding hunting grounds. There are many ethnographic parallels for such practices among more recent cattle pastoralists (Meyer 1865; Grodekov 1889; Kharuzin 1889; Sokolov 1904; Schmidt 1927). The Chalburun 1 tamga has direct parallels on fired bricks in the Devkesken necropolis (Yagodin and Khozhaniyazov 1986). Other examples have been found in pyramidal platform cemeteries in the Balkhan Range and the Mangyshlak Peninsula (Polyakov 1973: 39, 44–5). In these cemeteries cross-shaped tamgas occur in combination with ‘goose foot’ (kazayak) tamgas and tamgas consisting of a circle with a long straight line extending from the bottom. The earliest examples of these tamgas date to the 13th to 14th centuries AD (Polyakov 1973: 106, 109). Cross-shaped tamgas are also found in pre-Mongol Qipchaq contexts in south-east Europe. According to Poluboyarinova: such tamgas existed among the Turkic peoples of Central Asia, whose ethnogenesis is closely linked to the Qipchaq. It is difficult to determine whether the Qipchaqs used cross-shaped tamgas prior to their incorporation into the Golden Horde, or if the Mongol-Tatars had brought this tamga with them. (Poluboyarinova 1980: 179–80)

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

Radiocarbon dates Three radiocarbon samples were collected during the excavations at Aybuyir, Dekcha 1, and Berniyaz 3. These were analysed by the Leningrad branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences and provided the following dates: 1. Aybuyir (sample LE-2748: charcoal from ash deposit in freestanding ring-shaped bank): 750±40 AD [1206–1380 cal AD] 2. Dekcha 1 (sample LE-2747: wood fragment from isolated ring-shaped bank): 570±40 AD [1299–1428 cal AD] 3. Berniyaz 3 (sample LE-2746: charcoal from ring-shaped bank N4): modern. It seems from the evidence cited above that the arrow-shaped structures of the Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group were built and used over a long period and experienced several stages of expansion and development. This is clearest at Dekcha 1. Here the pottery remains excavated in the ring-shaped banks and the mounds date to the seventh to eighth centuries and ninth to tenth centuries AD respectively, while the radiocarbon date suggests that the structure was still in use in the Golden Horde period (13th to 14th centuries AD). This seems to indicate that Dekcha 1 was used for centuries, from the late sixth to 14th centuries AD. Dar’yal’ik 2 and Chalburun seem to be the latest in the AybuyirPrisar’ikam’ish group on the basis of their associated pottery and the presence of a tamga in the case of Chalburun. They both appear to date to the Golden Horde period.

Zhar’inkuduk group Architecture Zhar’inkuduk 14 can be relatively dated through two means. First, the structure has a terminus ante quem date due to the presence of several grave mounds across the entrance to the enclosure. These mounds effectively block entry to the enclosure and were built with stone slabs taken from the arrow-shaped structure. Finds from the graves date to the ninth to tenth centuries AD (see Chapter 4). Second, Zhar’inkuduk 14 was built with re-used limestone fieldstones, originating from an older arrow-shaped structure located nearby.

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2 Chronology

At Zhar’inkuduk 8 multiple building and use phases can be discerned. Here remains of two arrow-shaped structures were found, with a southern structure partially blocking a northern one, indicating that Zhar’inkuduk 8 was rebuilt at least once. Moreover, the northern structure has a terminus ante quem date as the enclosure has been

Figure 2.5 Vessel fragments found at Zhar’inkuduk 10.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region damaged by the construction of a group of three cist burials dating to the mid-first millennium BC. Additional dates for the Zhar’inkuduk group have been obtained from excavated pottery remains.

Excavated pottery The pottery excavated at Zhar’inkuduk 10 included both crudely fired, hand-made pottery and well-fired, wheel-made pottery, with the former being far more abundant than the latter. The hand-made pottery included various vessel shapes with a range of sizes. The majority of the fragments belonged to large globular jars with wide mouths and modelled, externally thickened rims (Fig. 2.5: 5, 6, 8, 11). Some of the rims had a distinct flange below the lip of the exterior (Fig. 2.5: 5) and most were decorated on the exterior with incised vertical strokes or ovals, normally in one row (Fig. 2.5: 5, 6, 8) but sometimes in two (Fig. 2.5: 11). The hand-made vessels were made from a coarse fabric tempered with large amounts of grog. They had been crudely fired to a gray, black, or brick-red colour. In section they normally had a black core but brick-red examples occurred as well. Most examples were very fragile and crumbly. Small globular vessels were also quite common. They did not differ much in terms of their composition from the larger examples (Fig. 2.5: 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12) but occasionally had narrower necks (Fig. 2.5: 3). One vessel fragment had a small triangular crenellation on the top of the rim (Fig. 2.5: 10). Presumably there were originally two or four of such crenellations placed antithetically around the vessel mouth. Two rim fragments were decorated on the exterior with an incised zigzag line consisting of diagonal strokes (Fig. 2.5: 2, 12). Three other rim fragments were decorated on the exterior with incised ovals or dots, either in one row (Fig. 2.5: 3) or in two (Fig. 2.5: 4). Many of the small globular jars were deliberately left rough on the exterior and had an irregularly applied lumpy clay coating (Fig. 2.5: 9). Wheel-thrown pottery was very rare among the ceramics found at Zhar’inkuduk 10. Most vessel fragments were undiagnostic. The wheel-thrown pottery was made using a fine, puddled clay fabric and had been evenly fired to a red colour. The outer surface sometimes had faint traces of a red slip. Medium-sized jars with a vertical handle were the most common (Fig. 2.5: 1, 13). Only one fragment could be used to partially reconstruct the vessel shape (Fig. 2.5: 1). This vessel had a composite contour with a tall, wide neck and a shouldered body. The neck tapered slightly towards the top and had a direct, angular

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2 Chronology rim. The base of the neck was decorated with transverse depressions. The vessel was made using a fine, puddled clay fabric without any visible inclusions and had been evenly fired to a red colour. When seen in section, the fragment had a pale gray core. The exterior was left rough and covered with a light gray slip. The interior had clear remains of a bright red slip. Parallels for the Zhar’inkuduk 10 ceramic repertoire can be found in the late second and the third stage of the Djetiasar culture, dating to the late seventh to early ninth centuries AD (Levina 1971), the ‘swamp town’ culture, dating to the late seventh to early ninth centuries AD (Tolstov 1947a: 57–71, 1947b: 180–81, 1948b: 210–13; Levina 1971: 77–86), and the pottery of the Kerder culture, dating to the last quarter of the seventh century to the first half of the eighth century AD. Fortunately, certain characteristics may provide a somewhat narrower date. According to Levina (1971: 72, 74–75) vessel exteriors with a rough, lumpy clay coating first appeared towards the end of the Middle Djetiasar period. During the Late Djetiasar period this crude coating was often combined with distinctive vertical ‘ribbing’. No vertically ribbed vessels were found at Zhar’inkuduk 10, which may indicate that the assemblage dates to the end of the Middle Djetiasar period (i.e. the seventh century AD). A similar date can presumably also be assigned to Zhar’inkuduk 14, which is located nearby. There the contents of kurgan 2 provide a terminus ante quem date in the ninth to tenth centuries AD, which does not contradict the ceramic evidence from Zhar’inkuduk 10. In sum, the Zhar’inkuduk structures, save for two exceptions, appear to date to the period from the seventh to the early ninth centuries AD and were repeatedly rebuilt during this time. The first exception is the northern enclosure of Zhar’inkuduk 8, which – on the basis of disruption by cist burials – can be dated to the mid-first millennium BC. The second exception is Zhar’inkuduk 12, which is typologically very similar to a number of arrow-shaped structures in the Kend’irlisor group dating to the Golden Horde period (13th to 14th centuries AD). The chronology of the Zhar’inkuduk arrow-shaped structures can thus be reconstructed as follows: 1. Mid-first millennium BC: the northern enclosure of Zhar’inkuduk 8 2. Seventh to early ninth centuries AD: Zhar’inkuduk 6, Zhar’inkuduk 14, and the southern enclosure of Zhar’inkuduk 8 3. 13th to 14th centuries AD: Zhar’inkuduk 12.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

Kend’irlisor group There is little evidence with which to date the Kend’irlisor group. A tamga was discovered on the masonry of Karamaya 8. The location of the sign suggests it dates to the construction of the structure and is not a later addition. The tamga consists of a circle with a long straight line extending from the bottom. Similar tamgas occur repeatedly on small stone cairns (possibly collapsed stone circles) in the cemetery of Karamola 1, which is located in the same area. These signs are also found on medieval Oghuz-Turkmen graves in the Balkhan Range and the Mangyshlak Peninsula (Polyakov 1973). In the Balkhan Range they are most commonly found on ‘cross-bearing slabs’, dating to the 14th century AD (Polyakov 1973: 45, 104), which were used as grave covers. In the Mangyshlak Peninsula similar tamgas are found in pyramidal platform cemeteries, where they occur in combination with cross-shaped and ‘goose foot’ (kazayak) tamgas (Polyakov 1973: 51). Pyramidal platform burials are commonly dated to the 14th century AD but may be slightly older (Polyakov 1973: 51). According to written sources and ethnographic data the ‘goose foot’ tamgas belonged to the Saloram, one of the medieval Turkmen tribes (MITТ 1939: 309; Rashid ad-Din 1952: 89; Kononov 1958: 53). Based on these parallels the Karamaya 8 tamga provides a broad date for the structure between the 13th and 14th centuries AD. Because the arrow-shaped structures in the group are quite uniform, it is perhaps possible to date the other installations in the Kend’irlisor group to this period as well.

Beineu system The Beineu system is located along the western cliffs of the Ustyurt Plateau. The structures were discovered by Galkin (1987: 561), who dated them to the medieval period. However, Galkin did not elaborate on his dating methods, nor did he provide a detailed account of the available dating evidence, meaning that the truthfulness of his claims cannot be verified.

Summary The dating evidence shows the following sequence for the construction and use of the arrow-shaped structures on the Ustyurt Plateau:

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2 Chronology 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Second half of the first millennium BC Third to fourth centuries AD (Sarmatian-Alan) Seventh to early ninth centuries AD (Djetiasar-Kerder) Ninth to 11th centuries AD (Oghuz) 13th to 14th centuries AD (Turkmen-Qipchaq).

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3

Function and prey species Vadim N. Yagodin

Figure 3.1 View of the western escarpment, Boszhira Valley. Photo: Eduard Manukyants (Kovcheg Ecological Center).

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Since their discovery the arrow-shaped structures of Ustyurt have generated much attention and been the subject of a considerable amount of speculation as to their potential function. However, as previous discussions were invariably based on preliminary and incomplete data, they will not be considered here in extenso. It is clear that the function of the arrow-shaped structures can be best explained through a combination of archaeological and ethnographic data. Archaeological research provides two kinds of evidence: 1) the structures themselves and any associated features, and 2) materials derived from excavation. However, neither of these provides direct or unambiguous evidence of function and this is where ethnographic data can provide useful analogues to aid in the interpretation of the archaeological evidence.

Ethnographic data from the Aralo-Caspian Depression and Kazakhstan Relevant ethnographic accounts from the Aralo-Caspian Depression date to the 19th and early 20th centuries AD and pertain to the Kazakh-Adai and Tab’in (both nomadic cattle-breeders) and the Karakalpaks (the semi-settled inhabitants of the delta regions of the Syr-dar’ya and Amu-dar’ya). There are many ethnographic descriptions of constructions similar to the arrow-shaped structures in this region. Members of the 1925–26 expedition to Ustyurt, led by Volhovsky and Djugamel, noted: there are kulans [wild ass], tarpans [wild horses] and saiga [antelopes] here. Hunters chase the saiga, directing them into stone enclosures with deep ditches in which they fall. (Perv’ie russkie 1963: document N15: 98)

Dr Eversmann, a member of the same expedition, gave a similar, albeit more detailed account of the hunting techniques used by people living on the Ustyurt Plateau: In Ustyurt or on the upper edge of this cliff … which is called chink by the Kirgiz people … saiga are caught using the following method: an appropriate place of about 300 paces long and of varying width is fenced off by a wall, which is three or four feet high. The wall is quickly and haphazardly made from stones laid on top of each other. A small entrance is left on one side of the wall. A second wall is constructed on the steep slopes

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3 Function and prey species [behind the first enclosure]. This wall is so high that the animals cannot jump over it … One of the hunters then rides a horse out onto the steppe … where he lures saiga stags with sounds that imitate the call of the doe. He then drives the lured animals towards the structure. When they near the trap, the hunter dismounts his horse and runs into the enclosure together with the animals. After that another hunter, who was waiting for the herd to enter the enclosure, jumps up and blocks the opening, shouting very loudly. The frightened animals try to run away and jump over the wall into the lower enclosure, whence they cannot escape. They are trapped. (Eversmann 1850: 262)

When Eversmann’s book was published, readers openly questioned the veracity of his account (Perv’ie russkie 1963: 294, note 66). However, this method of hunting was widespread and there are repeated references to it in the ethnographic literature. For example, the Tuvintsoi-Todzhintsoi lured game using a wooden pipe (murga) that imitated the call of the doe. They also used another call-imitating instrument called the ediski, which consisted of a piece of birch bark that was played by pressing it between the lips. It could reproduce sounds that attracted deer (Weinstein 1961: 44, 46). Eversmann also noted the presence of drives used for hunting, not only in Ustyurt but also in adjoining areas: Kirgiz people kill saiga in a very strange manner: on the level ground of the steppe, which is covered with wormwood, the favorite food of the saiga, they make mounds of earth or turf about three feet high. Together the mounds form two long, converging lines meeting at an angle of forty-five to sixty degrees. Near the apex the mounds are located very close to one another, at a distance of about three to five paces, but towards the opening [of the funnel] they are located further apart. Near the opening, the space between the two lines … may be as much as three miles wide, but the narrow end is only about fifteen feet across and left open. Sharp stalks are placed in this space, one to two feet apart. The cane that is used is very strong and hard. Kirgiz hunters on horseback then wait for a herd to appear. When a herd approaches the opening the hunters try to drive the animals inside. Most animals mistake the small earth mounds for people and do not dare to approach them, but run towards the narrow end of the structure, while hunters follow them, screaming loudly. The scared animals then run into the sharp stalks and impale themselves. (Eversmann 1850: 261)

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region In 1832, during his voyage in the Caspian Sea, Karelin (1883: 484) observed Kirgiz hunting kulan, saiga, and mountain sheep in the deserts of western Ustyurt. The hunters used purpose-built structures that sound similar to the arrow-shaped structures found along the western escarpment of the Ustyurt Plateau: There is a place called Kai-daka in Ustyurt, which is higher than the mountains we have previously seen. At the summit of this cliff, at its very edge, there are walls laid out at an angle. They are built out of flagstones and have openings in them. With these walls, they [the Kirgiz] catch saigas in the following way. They build walls along the paths where saigas, tormented by the heat and the midges that stuff their large nostrils, travel largely against the wind and are thus unable to catch the scent of their hunters. The walls go out at an angle, as I already mentioned: at the far end of these walls and at their center there are openings, fairly high up. Apart from these areas, the walls are quite high. Behind the openings, there are ½ arshindeep [c. 0.7 m] pits. When a saiga herd is spotted, the Kirgiz surround and ride towards the herd from all sides. The startled animals run forward, still out of sight of the walls. Meanwhile, the Kirgiz move in close onto the herd so that when the saigas see the walls, fleeing to the sides is impossible. Then the Kirgiz raise ear-deafening cries and the timid animals run straight into the enclosure. Seeing that there are lower areas in the walls, convenient for hopping over, they jump and fall straight into deep pits dug behind. In this way, the Kirgiz catch several dozen saigas at a time. (Karelin 1883: 495)

Descriptions of the kulan hunt in Priaraliya largely correspond to Eversmann’s account of the saiga hunt. Silantev (1898) mentions that kulans were hunted with the help of shelters and sharp cane stalks placed at the bottom of hills. Solomatin (1973) also describes the placement of sharp cane stalks at the bottom of pits in the vicinity of the Aral Sea: pits are dug for the placement of sharp spikes made of a thick sort of reed growing near the mouth of the Syr-dar’ya river. Around the pits heaps of turf or scarecrows are set up. Horseriders then round up and exhaust kulans in the area. Being frightened of the heaps of turf, the animals attempt to avoid them and often fall into one of the pits. Kazakhs-Aksakals say that this is the

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3 Function and prey species most common way to hunt kulans in the area south-east of the Aral Sea. (Silantev 1973: 126)

Older Kazakhs, whose direct ancestors were still nomads, tend to remember the use of hunting drives. According to several informants these structures were called arran and the pointed cane stalks placed at the bottom of pits were named zhebe. Arrans normally consisted of a special, funnel-shaped drive with sharp reed stalks placed at one end: The most widespread way of hunting is by use of a structure formed by two walls with sharpened reed stalks placed at the end. The drivelines consist of heaps of dirt, placed at some distance from one another, forming two parallel lines that converge at a slight angle. The entire structure thus forms a large funnel that can be up to five km long. The narrow end of the funnel is blocked with c. 70 cm long, sharpened reed stalks or stakes. The saiga are driven through the funnel at great speed and slam into the sharp stakes, piercing themselves or ripping open their bellies. (Levshin 1832; cited in Geptner et al. 1961: 483–5)

Arrans often also included a number of pits that were dug to provide shelter for the hunters. An arran was constructed by several nomad families that were sometimes united in a tribe. Normally about 30 to 40 horse riders would chase animals into the arran, where they were slaughtered. The hunt took place in autumn. After the hunt the spoils were distributed among the participants. This perhaps explains why the term arran can also have the meaning of ‘people’ or ‘tribe’ (Radlov 1893: 251). The term arran clearly is quite ancient. It was first mentioned in the dictionary by Makhmud Kasha (1072–1074 AD) with the meaning of ‘stable’ or ‘farmyard’ (Drevnetiurkskii slovar’ [Dictionary of the ancient Turkic language] 1969: 51). Another etymology is ‘sharp tree which is placed in the way of wild animals’ (Radlov 1893: 251). Arran hunting was also practised in Kazakhstan, the Kalmyk Steppe, and Karakalpakstan. The term arran even appears as part of the name of the Arranshi-Keneges tribe, a subdivision of the Tab’in Karakalpaks, highlighting the enormous socioeconomic importance the arran hunt had for this tribe. According to Shirzova Tazhetdinov, a 65-year-old Kuyin Karakalpak from the village of Khalkabad, pits with sharp cane stalks were still used in the early 20th century in the region of the Zhan’i-dar’ya.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region The use of arrans is also known from Karakalpak folklore. In the epic poems Er Ziiuar and K’irkk’iz expressions such as ‘opened the mouth wide like an arran’ are used in a number of places (for example, arrandai auz’in ashad’i: see Karakalpak fol’klor’i 1980: 382; 1981: 57). In his book Shezhure, the historian Berdakh describes arran that were used to catch goitered gazelles: On the steppe graze gazelles, For gazelles arran [traps] are set. (translated from Khamidov 1985: 143)

This hunt would have taken place on a much smaller scale than the saiga hunt as gazelles seldom congregate in big herds (Geptner et al. 1961: 439). Although vast areas of the Aralo-Caspian deserts have now been explored, archaeologists have hitherto failed to locate permanent hunting structures that can be connected with the Kazakh-Adai and Tab’in of the 18th and 19th centuries AD. However, there is clear evidence from 19th-century literary sources that the Kazakhs did use arrans to hunt game in Ustyurt (Karelin 1883: 484, 495). It is quite possible that the arrans constructed by the Kazakhs were made from perishable materials, most notably earth, and simply have not survived. Another possibility is that the Kazakhs re-used medieval arrans that were still in good condition. All of the arrow-shaped structures of the Kend’irlisor group and some of the Zhar’inkuduk group were constructed with stone and may have been re-used at a later date. A final possibility is that natural features, such as ravines, were sometimes used for the arran hunt: in the eastern part of Kazakhstan, there are two large ancient ravines which were probably used to hunt for kulan: one is in the Khantau mountains and is called Kulan-K’ir’ilgan [slaughter of the kulan], the second ravine stretches from Lake Balkhash down to the north-western spurs of Dzhungar Alatau and the river Ili. (Masson 1984: 116)

Ethnographic parallels in Scandinavia, Siberia, and the Kola Peninsula Archaeological and ethnographic parallels for the Ustyurt arrowshaped structures are found throughout Asia, the Ural Mountains, Siberia, and Scandinavia. In the Ural Mountains and Siberia numerous

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3 Function and prey species rock carvings depict structures that closely resemble arrow-shaped structures, often with animals trapped inside them (Chernetsov 1971). Often humans are absent in such carvings. According to Okladinov (1966: 125) they represent ‘the hunt without a hunter’ and ‘passive forms of hunting with the use of permanent fencing devices’. The date of these scenes suggests that this passive hunting was introduced a long time ago in the Urals and Siberia. According to Chertsenov (1971: 110) such scenes first appeared in the Urals before the beginning of the second millennium BC. Similar scenes in Siberia can purportedly be traced back to Palaeolithic times (Okladnikov 1966: 125). Several academics (Tret’yakov 1934: 236; Okladnikov 1966: 125; Chernetsov 1971: 73; Kosarev 1984: 83) have used ethnographic data to aid the interpretation of these representations, including local descriptions of permanent fencing structures to hunt migrating game. According to these accounts, large fencing structures were built by the inhabitants of the Urals during the 18th to early 20th centuries to block ungulate migration routes along rivers and through forests (Teploukhov 1880: 26–27; Glushkov 1900: 36). They consisted of branches, logs, felled trees, or a combination thereof, and were often oriented north–south to intercept migrations between the western and eastern Urals. The migration towards the east took place in autumn, whereas that towards the west took place in spring: Many animals make the migration from the deep snows of the western slopes of the Urals towards the east. Goats herd together in groups of 25 to 50 animals. In 1850 one hunter even saw a herd of 500 animals. (Sabaneev 1872: 63)

A single barrier could extend for tens of kilometres and contained openings at certain intervals with deep pits or traps outside them. The sides of these pits were commonly reinforced with branches or wooden posts and had sharp stakes at the bottom. Teploukhov (1880: 26) writes: The migrations begin in the middle of autumn at the first fall of snow. The animals return to the western slope [of the Urals] in spring when the snow starts to melt. Hunters trap the animals by digging deep pits, which have been noted in considerable numbers along the north–south running ridges of the mountain passes and along the riverbanks where the seasonal migrations regularly take place. The spaces between the pits are blocked by simple barriers. The pits themselves are hidden with branches and moss, rendering them almost invisible. They are about

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region 2 m deep and c. 1.5 m wide. Their bottom is reinforced with reed stalks so that the animal cannot scrape up the earth under itself and jump out. Another series of barriers is often constructed perpendicular to the first set of barriers. These too are in many cases interspaced with pits. When animals reach one of the barriers while crossing the mountains, they initially tend to proceed alongside it in search of a passage. When they subsequently hit one of the perpendicularly placed barriers, they are forced to turn back to the main path. There they see no alternative but to jump over the pits. Many succeed, but several animals are not so fortunate. (Teploukhov 1880: 26)

Several accounts mention the use of snare-triggered crossbow traps instead of pits. The use of such crossbow traps possibly represents a later innovation. According to Kosarev (1984: 85) the use of game drives was common in all areas of Siberia where migrating animals were forced to use narrow mountain paths (see also Weinstein 1961; Vasilevich 1969; Simchenko 1976; Gurvich 1977; S’iroechkovskii 1986). In Zaural’ye drives were used to hunt roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and moose (Alces alces) (Pallas 1786: 328). The Yakuts also hunted with drives leading to pits (Gurvich 1977). In the Taymyr Peninsula the Nganasan built drives made of wooden poles with flags made of geese or tundra grouse wings or long flaps of skin, painted black (Popov 1948; Tretyakov 1934: 246; Syroechkovsky 1986: 174–5). The Nganasan (Popov 1948; Syroechkovsky 1986: 174–6) and the Yukaghir in north-east Asia (Syroechkovsky 1986: 195) sometimes constructed drives near rivers and lakes. In these cases they would select a lake with a long slant jutting into it and shores that were steep on one side and flat on the other. On the flat side of the lake two long drivelines were constructed, often made of wooden planks with clumps of sod strung on them. These could be up to 2 km long and came out onto the slanted strip of land jutting out into the lake. Deer and other game were then herded through the drive and into the lake, where hunters in boats killed them. Hunters in Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula also built drives to hunt moose and deer. Structures commonly consisted of two converging drivelines made of stone, earth, or poles equipped with flags and feathers, leading to traps (Manker 1960: 406; Nesheim 1961: 210; Simchenko 1976: 87–88; Semenov Tyan-Shanskii 1977: 85–88). Pitfalls and snare traps have been found in many areas inhabited by the Sami people, including northern Sweden, Norway, and Finland (Simchenko 1976: 88). It is believed that there were originally wooden

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3 Function and prey species drivelines that funnelled game into these traps, although in some cases natural obstacles such as rock ledges or water bodies were used (Semenov Tyan-Shanskii 1977: 85–86; S’iroechkovskii 1986: 209–10). According to Manker (1960: 406) these hunting methods first appeared in Scandinavia during the Neolithic period. The Sami still used similar drives in the Kola Peninsula in the second half of the 18th century AD (Tret’yakov 1934: 246–7; S’iroechkovskii 1986: 209–10). In sum, in Eurasia two types of hunting were practised with the use of animal drives: passive and active. The first made use of vast structures or chains of structures, built along ungulate migration routes, that intercepted animals with drivelines and guided them to traps or enclosures without the active involvement of the hunter(s). The active hunt made use of much smaller traps, sometimes without drivelines. These structures required hunters to drive game into traps or a confine where they could be killed.

The hunt with animal drives in the Middle East Hunting drives have also been found in the Middle East with the greatest concentrations in Syria and Jordan. These installations are called ‘desert kites’ due to their shape when seen from the air (Field 1960: 129). The first researchers to seriously investigate desert kites were Maitland (1927: 199–207) and Rees (1929). Rees (1929) considered the kites to be corrals used to defend domestic herds in times of peril. Maitland (1927), on the other hand, suggested that they were stationary traps used to hunt game. During the last 80 years various other theories have been proposed but the hunting interpretation has gained wide acceptance. Desert kites exist in various shapes and sizes but generally consist of a central enclosure with triangular or polygonal drivelines (Fig. 3.2). The kites often have ring-shaped banks around the central enclosure. Helms (1981) interprets these as hiding places for hunters, who killed the trapped game with bows (Legge and Rowley-Conwy 1987: 67). The drivelines typically form a large funnel that leads towards the central enclosure. The central enclosure sometimes has narrow passages leading to smaller subsidiary enclosures. Betts (1983: 1–10; 1984: 25–34; 1985: 29–52) and Helms (1981) demonstrated that some of the desert kites in north Jordan are grouped into systems and form vast chains that can extend for tens of kilometres. These systems were used to block ungulate migration routes and intercept migrating game.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

Figure 3.2 Aerial photograph of a desert kite in eastern Jordan with a large central enclosure and several surrounding smaller ones (Safawi Kite 92, Safawi Kite 93 APAAME_20090928_DLK-0021.dng).

Early travellers left eyewitness accounts that are crucial to the desert kites’ interpretation. The earliest account was written by the Portuguese Pedro Teixeira, who saw desert kites in action in 1604 AD at the village of At-Tajbe, north of the Jebel Bishri mountain pass. The kites were used by bedouins to hunt goitered gazelles. The kites were not permanent structures but consisted of a number of flags suspended on poles (Legge and Rowley-Conwy 1987: 68). In the 19th century, Burckhardt (1831: 220–21) described a gazelle hunt in Syria using a construction similar to the desert kites: These [gazelles] are seen in considerable numbers all over the Syrian Desert. On the eastern frontiers of Syria are several places allotted for the hunting of gazelles; these places are called masiade. An open space in the plain, of about one mile and a half square, is enclosed on three sides by a wall of loose stones, too high for the gazelles to leap over. In different parts of this wall gaps are purposely left, and near each gap a deep ditch is made on the outside. The enclosed space is situated near some

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Figure 3.3 Petroglyphs depicting desert kites with trapped animals inside the enclosure. Cairn of Hani, Face A (top); Burqu’ region (bottom) (after Harding 1953 and Betts 1998: fig. 7.3).

rivulet or spring to which in summer the gazelles resort. When the hunting is to begin, many peasants assemble and watch till they see a herd of gazelles advancing from a distance towards the enclosure, into which they drive them; the gazelles, frightened by the shouts of these people, and the discharge of fire-arms, endeavour to leap over the wall, but can only effect this at the gaps, where they fall into the ditch outside, and are easily taken, sometimes by hundreds. The chief of the herd always

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region leaps first, the others follow him one by one. The gazelles thus taken are immediately killed, and their flesh sold to the Arabs and neighbouring Fellahs. Several villages share in the profits of every masiade, or hunting-party, the principal of which are near Kariatein, Hassia, and Homs. Of the gazelle’s skin, a kind of parchment is made, used in covering the small drum or tabl, with which the Syrians accompany some musical instruments or the voice. (Burckhardt 1831: 220–21)

Several rock art scenes in Syria also provide valuable clues concerning the function of desert kites. Harding (1953) published a pre-Islamic petroglyph from the Cairn of Hani that depicts a kite with a rectangular enclosure and two drivelines. A number of trapped gazelles are depicted inside the enclosure. Three hunters are driving more animals between the chute (Fig. 3.3: top). Another petroglyph (Fig. 3.3: bottom) of a kite with trapped animals inside was published by Betts (1998: fig. 7.13). Desert kites have a wide chronological range and were used from the Neolithic all the way up to the ethnographic present. In sum, desert kites can be separated into two groups: those that appear in isolation and those that are part of (very) large systems. The first group was connected with active modes of hunting, which required hunters to drive game inside an enclosure. The second group was associated with passive forms of hunting and intercepted migrating herds without the involvement of the hunter(s). The latter are comparable to the arrow-shaped structures of the North Ustyurt group.

The hunt with animal drives in North America In North America Native Americans also employed active and passive hunting methods. In California several tribes would hunt deer using an impound (pis’kun) method. This involved building a large, v-shaped funnel or drive with a confine or pit on one end. The drive was made of wooden poles or by stretching ropes between trees. The technique was used to hunt deer, bison (Audubon and Bachman 1851: 32–55), and pronghorn antelope (Legge and Rowley-Conwy 1987: 66). Samuel de Champlain (1567–1635 AD), the first governor of New France (Canada), provides an interesting description of the Iroquois’ caribou hunt. One of his drawings depicts a group of hunters with percussion instruments driving caribou into a chute (Fig. 3.4). At the apex of the chute, there is a narrow pass, placed at a sharp

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angle, where hunters ambush and kill caribou with spears. Some of the caribou that escape from the pass are caught with snare traps (Champlain 1929: fig. 55). The Plains Cree used an impound for their winter buffalo hunt. They would select a thicket and then clear an area with a diameter of roughly 9 to 12 m. A 3 to 4.5 m high wall was then constructed around the clearing. Two trees located about 6 m apart were used as the entrance gates. A log was then lashed between these two trees at the height of the wall and a ramp constructed from the ground to this log. A drive was built to guide the buffalo towards the impound, which made a sharp turn right before the entrance. Because of this turn, the buffalo could not see the impound until it was too late for them to stop or change course. Each impound was only used through a single winter. Hunters would locate a herd and drive it towards the chute by slapping their robes against the ground. The herd would be startled by the noise and move away but eventually settled down to graze again. The hunters would then repeat the procedure, gradually

Figure 3.4 Iroquois hunters driving caribou into a chute (after Champlain 1929: fig. 55).

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region leading the herd towards the chute. When the herd got close to the chute’s entrance a single horseman would ride out and move the herd into the drive. Sometimes bison were lured into the trap by tribesmen covering themselves with bison skins imitating their call.

Summary This brief review illustrates that the arrow-shaped structures of Ustyurt have many parallels in northern Europe, Asia, and North America. Their use as hunting traps can hardly be doubted. The hunt with stationary traps can be divided into two types: active and passive. Passive hunting drives include all structures that block ungulate migration routes and do not require the active involvement of the hunter(s) to intercept and trap game. In the material under review here these include the arrow-shaped structures of the North Ustyurt group, fencing structures in Siberia and the Urals, and certain groups of desert kites in the Middle East, particularly in Jordan. Active hunting drives required the hunter(s) to drive animals into a chute or confine. Drives associated with this kind of hunting were often non-permanent and semi-portable. They normally consist of a chute with an impound or a trap on one side. They were made from various materials, including felled trees, poles, and ropes. Occasionaly they incorporated features of the surrounding landscape into their design. Several of the drives reviewed here are associated with active forms of hunting. These include arrow-shaped structures types 2–4, drives near rivers and lakes, and pis’kun impounds in North America. The drives associated with active and passive forms of hunting share many features and can best be discerned on the basis of their location. Passive hunting drives are often linked together and built along animal migration routes. Structures that occur singly tend to be associated with active forms of hunting. This brief review helped to elucidate the overall function of the arrow-shaped structures but also affords a better understanding of their various structural elements, such as drivelines, enclosures, and ring-shaped banks.

Drivelines Drivelines are the most versatile yet characteristic element of hunting drives in Scandinavia, Asia, the Middle East, and North America. In all cases drivelines were intended to funnel herds of ungulates towards a kill site or directly into a trap. Drivelines are characteristic

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3 Function and prey species for arrow-shaped structure types 1–3. Type 1 arrow-shaped structures usually have two or three drivelines. Type 2 structures have two. Type 3 structures have one or two drivelines. Drivelines connecting individual kites, thus forming vast systems, occur mainly in Ustyurt and the Middle East.

Enclosures The drivelines funnelled game into enclosures or impounds. Large central enclosures are characteristic of arrow-shaped structure types 1 and 2. The enclosed area normally has a gradual slope, which is a feature that can be best explained ethologically: herd animals have a tendency to flee uphill or run to high land to get a clear view of the surrounding landscape (Baskin 1976: 259). Most of the arrow-shaped structures belonging to types 1 and 2 have a combination of large and small enclosures. Type 1 arrowshaped structures have two arrow-shaped subenclosures that are linked together by a central enclosure. The central enclosure has a narrow opening between two inturned walls, forming a self-locking system that only allowed animals to move in a single direction. The smaller arrow-shaped subenclosures have similar openings. Type 2 arrow-shaped structures use the cliff edge as one side of a large triangular enclosure. Contrary to type 1 structures, this large enclosure has no self-locking mechanism. Here hunters had to block off the entrance, or exit, of the enclosures. The apex of the main enclosure leads to one or two arrow-shaped subenclosures entered through a narrow gap between two inturned walls. These arrow-shaped subenclosures have small ring-shaped banks or pits at one or both sides of the entrance, which served as hiding places for the hunters who blocked the game inside. Some of the desert kites in the Middle East have roughly similar combinations of large and small enclosures.

Ring-shaped banks Ring-shaped banks are another common feature of the arrow-shaped structures and have a typology of their own. Ring-shaped banks associated with type 1 arrow-shaped structures are hollowed out on the inside and internally walled with stone flagging. The steep walls with stone flagging would have pressured animals to try and jump over the ring-shaped bank. However, the diameter of the bank was carefully calculated to exceed the maximum jumping distance of the targeted game. The animal would consequently end up within the

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region confines of the bank where it could be killed. No stationary weapons (such as spikes) were discovered in any of the ring-shaped banks on the Ustyurt Plateau. This may be due to poor preservation but it is also possible that hunters killed the trapped animals by hand with melee weapons. Similar ring-shaped banks are found in conjunction with type 2 arrow-shaped structures, albeit with a number of new elements. These banks have a small earth mound at the centre and a ditch between the base and the internal contour of the ring-shaped bank. As was the case with type 1 ring-shaped banks, these banks have a diameter that exceeded the maximum jumping distance of the game. Consequently, the jumping animals landed on or near the earth mound at the centre of the pit. Ethnographic accounts describing arrans in Ustyurt and Priaraliya regularly mention the placement of sharp reed stalks at the terminal ends of drives and at the bottom of pits. Although physical remains have not survived, it seems reasonable to postulate that the central mound was covered with wooden or cane stakes. If so, the animals that fell into the ring-shaped bank would have been wounded or killed by the stakes, after which they rolled into the ring ditch. Thus, while with type 1 ring-shaped banks it may have been necessary for the hunter to kill the game by hand, type 2 ring-shaped banks may have trapped and killed animals without the involvement of the hunter(s). In addition to large ring-shaped banks, arrow-shaped structures often have several smaller circular features. In type 1 arrow-shaped structures (Zhar’inkuduk group only) these are located along the outer face of the enclosure. At Zhar’inkuduk 6 one of these features consists of a 1 m deep pit with stone flagging. Type 2 arrow-shaped structures have similar circular features along the main enclosure, both internally and externally. They normally consist of c. 0.5 m deep pits with stone flagging along their upper edges. The outlines of these features are often more angular than circular. In arrow-shaped structures of types 3 and 4 similar features are either round or square in shape and situated at the corners of walls. All of these features are too small to have functioned as animal traps. They presumably served as hiding places for hunters, whence game could be ambushed and attacked with ranged weapons. According to informants the word arran was also used to designate a number of special pits that were located around the drive to shelter and hide hunters. To sum up, ring-shaped banks associated with arrow-shaped structures types 1 and 2 served either as traps or as hiding places for hunters. Hunters stationed next to the entrance of the enclosure were in charge of blocking off the exit once the game was trapped

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inside the confine. Ring-shaped banks associated with arrow-shaped structures of types 3 and 4 were mainly used as hiding places.

Prey

Figure 3.5 Kulan (Equus hemionus). Photo: Sergei25/ Shutterstock.com.

Ustyurt was once home to goitered gazelles, saigas, Ustyurt sheep, and kulans (wild ass, Equus hemionus), all of which were hunted with the use of arrow-shaped structures. The following section discusses the behaviour of these animals and shows how it was exploited by the people who built the arrow-shaped structures.

Kulans (Equus hemionus) Kulans (Fig. 3.5) used to be among the most abundant animals in the deserts and mountainous steppes of Eurasia, from Manchuria in the east to Romania and Bulgaria in the west (Bannikov 1981: 4,

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region 19). Eighteenth- and 19th-century authors frequently mention the enormous size of kulan herds. Vamberi (1867) observed several herds south of Ustyurt, near Kaplangire, which he and his companions initially mistook for approaching groups of cavalrymen. According to Rychkov (1762: 291) kulans living in the Zajaitsky steppe, around the Sary Sû river and the Emba, travelled ‘in great herds of a thousand animals or more’. The oldest kulan remains in Central Asia have been discovered in a Mousterian period cave site in Amankutan near Samarkand (Bibikov 1958). Kulan bones have also been found in several Kaunchi contexts along the middle course of the Syr-dar’ya and its tributaries (Gromova 1940). In Khwarezm, kulan remains have been found in fourth- to first-century BC strata in Dzhanbas-kala, in third-century AD strata in Toirak-kala (Tsalkin 1952: 240, 244; 1966: 145), and in Afrigid feudal castles 19 and 28, dating to the late seventh to early eighth centuries AD (Tsalkin 1966: 145). A complete kulan burial was discovered at feudal castle 19. Kulan bones occur frequently in early Kerder settlements in Priaraliya and the Amu-dar’ya Delta, dating to the late seventh to early eighth centuries AD (Batirov and Batirov 1981). Kulan bones were also discovered in 13th-century AD strata in Shemakha-kala. In Ustyurt kulan bones have been discovered at the Sumbetimeralan-Kurkreuk sanctuary, located in the north-west of the Barsa-Kelmes Basin (Batirov and Batirov 1986), and at arrowshaped structure Dekcha 1. Kulans became extinct in Ustyurt around the end of the 19th century AD (Lomakin 1983). Until then individual herds could include as many as a thousand animals (Baskin 1976: 44; Bannikov 1981: 5, 42–43). In some areas, such as the desert surrounding the Sar’ikam’ish Depression, there was a permanent kulan population, while in the K’iz’il-kum desert kulans were only present during winter (Bogdanov 1882). However, most animals migrated between the north and south of Ustyurt, often over vast distances (Fig. 3.6). In the 18th and 19th centuries AD one of the migration routes ran along the eastern escarpment of the plateau (Bannikov 1981: 43). Several early travellers to the plateau gave eyewitness accounts of the kulan winter herds migrating south in late summer (Severtsov 1861; Vamberi 1867: 98; Rychkov 1762: 291). Migrations were especially large during severe winters (kulans can graze on pastures with a snow cover of up to 30 cm). The herds moved north again as soon as the winter snows started to melt, leaving the summer pastures around April (Bannikov 1981). Travelling kulans often seek out high grounds to inspect the surrounding landscape for impending danger (Baskin 1976: 61).

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Figure 3.6 Distribution of kulan in Central Asia and Kazakhstan and their migration routes in the 18th and 19th centuries (after Bannikov). 1. migration routes; 2. winter pastures; 3. summer pastures.

The animal’s main defence is its speed; they can reach speeds of up to 70 kilometres per hour. Adult males can weigh between 250 and 300 kg (Solomatin 1973: 71). Kulan meat and skins were highly valued in Central Asia (Pallas 1780; Eversmann 1850; Radde and Walter 1889; Gern 1891; Rubrukvis 1911; Lattimore 1929). According to the members of the 1825–26 Volhovsky and Djugamel expedition, kulan meat was consumed and their skins sold in Konrade for three roubles apiece. The rough skin from the rump of the animal, which is not dissimilar to fish scales in both texture and appearance, was used in Bukhara and Khiva for the production of leather shoes. Kulan skins were also used for the manufacture of morocco, saddles, prayer rugs, fur coats (Pallas 1780; Nikolsky 1885; Lattimore 1929), and belts (Gern 1891):

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region In Kyrgyzstan the kulan was considered a most valuable and favorite hunting trophy. Aside from providing pleasure, the hunt of kulans is considered a beneficent activity. According to nomads, kulan meat is the most delicious dish and they appreciate it very highly, so much even that one carcass may cost up to fifteen roubles. The skin is processed into saddles, while skin from the rump and hips is sold separately to dealers for the manufacture of morocco. Kulan skins are also used to produce Mohammedan prayer rugs. (Stepnjak 1896: 73) The nomads often hunt wild kulans. They use their meat as a foodstuff and sell their skins in boundary fortresses. From there the skins are shipped onwards to China and Bukhara, where they are processed into the famous shagreen leather from which boots and galoshes are made. (Eversmann 1850: 231)

Parts of the kulan carcass and several of its internal organs were used in traditional medicine. The liver was used for the treatment of eye cataracts and was believed to return a person’s eyesight (Pallas 1780). In Kyrgyzstan the first Russians used kulan skins as a medicine to combat stomach and liver illnesses (Perv’ie russkie 1963, document no. 18: 148). Kulan fat was used in the treatment of tuberculosis and rheumatism (Geptner 1948). According to Solomatin (1973: 128), curative properties were attributed to the kulan because it was the sacred animal of the god Aresu.

Saiga (Saiga tatarica) Saiga antelopes (Fig. 3.7) are one of the few species to have escaped extinction in Ustyurt. However, this may soon change as they are currently classified as critically endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Saiga bones found at archaeological sites provide evidence for intensive hunting. They first occur in sites dating to the beginning of the Quaternary period. At this time saigas had a vast habitat ranging from Alaska in the east to south Britain in the west. In the north it reached all the way up to the Novosibirsk Islands. In the south it did not extend beyond 44 degrees latitude (Geptner et al. 1961: 445–46). In Asia saiga remains have been found in the Dzungaria Basin, Mongolia, and the area between the Caspian Sea and China (Geptner et al. 1961: 445–46). In Europe saigas predominantly lived in steppe and forest-steppe zones. Saiga bones have been discovered at many archaeological sites along the Aral Sea’s eastern shore and in

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Khwarezm. Excavations at Gurgānj, the medieval capital of Khwarezm (now Old Urgench), produced 186 saiga bones from a minimum number of 99 individuals (Tsalkin 1966: 145). Saiga remains have also been discovered in occupation layers in Ustyurt (Batirov and Batirov 1986: 129). Somewhat surprisingly, no saiga remains have so far been found in the Amu-dar’ya Delta (Tsalkin 1966: 145). Saigas form very large herds of up to 200,000 animals that graze in semi-deserts, steppes, and grasslands (Baskin 1976: 200). Large herds gathered on the Ustyurt Plateau in winter (Naumov 1973; Baskin 1976: 200). Saiga favour flat open ground and are not fond of hilly regions or areas with a rugged topography. There is no consensus among zoologists whether saigas undertook regular seasonal migrations. According to Bannikov (1961), saigas living in western Kazakhstan (Rakov 1956) and in Kalmykia and Mongolia (Geptner et al. 1961) did not. However, Bakeev and Formozov (1955) state that regular seasonal migrations took place elsewhere. Sludsky (1955) mentions the presence of migration tracks, extending for many kilometres, in areas of saiga habitation. Gubin (1955) also noticed migration tracks in west Priaraliya, consisting of long, narrow, c. 0.3 m deep depressions. These tracks were almost devoid of vegetation and had broken up the crust of the takyr soil. Gubin (1955) ascribed their formation to

Figure 3.7 Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica). Photo: Victor Tyakht/ Shutterstock.com.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region long-term, regular migrations of large herds of ungulates. The latter is in accordance with Baskin’s (1976: 127) personal observation of saiga migrations on the Turgay and Kazakh steppes. According to Silantev (1898: 363–64) hundreds of thousands of saiga antelopes were hunted annually in Russia alone at the beginning of the 19th century: the Kyrgyz go to the deep steppes with tubs of salt, strip the meat of the killed animals, salt them, and carry them off for sale. The number of saigas killed in this manner measures in the hundreds of thousands each year. (Silantev 1898: 363–4)

The products extracted from saiga antelopes consisted of highquality meat, skins, and horns. The latter were predominantly exported to China, where they were sold for considerable sums and used in traditional Chinese medicine (Pallas 1788). It is possible to quantify the size of this export thanks to the writings of Nebolsin (1855), who states that merchants from Bukhara and Khiva exported 344,747 saiga horns to China between 1840 and 1850 AD. As only stags grow horns the total number of animals must have been about twice as large (about 700,000).

Goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) Goitered gazelles (Fig. 3.8) were once found from the Trans-Caucasus to China. They were regularly sighted in the areas of Irgiz and ChelkarIrgiz, north of Ustyurt. In the south they lived in the Iranian and Afghan deserts. Quaternary and contemporary distributions of goitered gazelles appear to overlap almost entirely (Geptner et al. 1961: 425–8). Goitered gazelle remains are frequently found in medieval occupation layers in Khwarezm (Tsalkin 1952: 24; Tsalkin 1966: 108), in medieval sites in the Amu-dar’ya Delta (Batirov and Batirov 1981: 138–47), and in medieval layers in Ustyurt (Batygaditch and Batirov 1986: 125). Goitered gazelles occur in all types of desert and semi-desert. Modern herds cover 10 to 30 km per day in the winter and 1 to 3 km in summer. They inhabit the sand and gravel plains in summer and use the mountainous plateaus for lambing. In full gallop goitered gazelles can jump between 310 and 574 cm (Mambetzhumaev 1970: 90). In the Middle East goitered gazelles have regular migration patterns and travel in herds of up to 10,000 animals (Mendelssohn 1974: 722–43).

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3 Function and prey species

In Ustyurt goitered gazelles mainly come to the plateau in autumn and winter. They are present all year round along the coasts of the Aral Sea, where they are attracted by the availability of water (goitered gazelles can drink salt water), the high humidity (which is conducive to the prolonged availability of vegetation), and the presence of erosive landscapes (providing shelter) (Mambetzhumaev 1970: 28–33). Winter migrations are relatively small scale and depend on specific environmental conditions (Kostin 1955; Mambetzhumaev 1970; Geptner et al. 1961). They do not happen at fixed times. Goitered gazelles in the region normally move in small groups of two to five animals except during winter migrations when they may form herds of up to 20 animals. Big herds consisting of several hundred animals do not occur in Ustyurt.

Figure 3.8 Goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa). Photo: Elizaveta Kirina/ Shutterstock.com.

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Figure 3.9 Ustyurt sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei). Photo: Eduard Manukyan (Kovcheg Ecological Center).

Ustyurt sheep (Ovis orientalis vignei) The Ustyurt sheep (Fig. 3.9) is a subspecies of the mountain sheep. Rams have a whitish neck ruff, a dorsal crest, and two large corkscrew horns, some measuring 190 cm in length, which they use for combat. Ewes also carry horns, but these are much smaller. Mountain sheep roam the highlands of Central Asia (Himalaya, Tibet, Altai Mountains), south Turkmenia, Zakaspiya, Mangyshlak, Ustyurt, Afghanistan, and north-east Iran (Tsalkin 1951: 254; Geptner et al. 1961: 634). The Ustyurt sheep living on the east coast of the Caspian Sea, Mangyshlak, and Ustyurt are also referred to as ‘steppe sheep’ (Eversmann 1850). Archaeological data indicate that Ustyurt sheep were already present in Ustyurt by the early medieval period (Batirov and Batirov 1981: 131). Another subspecies of the mountain sheep, the K’iz’il-kum sheep (Ovis Severtzovi), lives in the K’iz’il-kum desert (Tsalkin 1952: 239; Tsalkin 1966: 145). Mountain sheep are rarely encountered on open plains and, if so, only during seasonal migrations. In Ustyurt, Mangyshlak, K’iz’ilkum, and Betpaqdale mountain sheep live mainly on low outlying ridges. From there they regularly visit nearby ravines and gorges, where the vegetation has not been scorched by the sun and puddles of snowmelt and rain water are available longer than in less sheltered areas (Bazhanov 1945; Geptner et al. 1961: 640–42).

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3 Function and prey species Ustyurt sheep migrate between their summer and winter habitats in spring and autumn. The size of the migrations heavily depends on the severity of the summer and winter droughts (Geptner et al. 1961: 646–7). Consequently, herd size varies greatly between two and a hundred animals. Herds are normally segregated by sex, except during breeding season. Summer herds tend to be larger as water sources are more limited (Geptner 1956; Baskin 1976: 150). In certain areas, mostly in semi-deserts and deserts, mountain sheep do not migrate but stay in the same area all year round. Sheep are creatures of habit and use regular paths, routes, and shelters (Tsalkin 1951; Egorov 1971; Baskin 1976: 150–51). The placement of arrow-shaped structures specifically intended for hunting sheep demonstrates that the people who built them were closely familiar with the sheep’s natural habits and exploited this knowhow carefully.

The design of arrow-shaped structures As noted above, there are five major groups of arrow-shaped structures in Ustyurt: (1) the North Ustyurt group; (2) the AybuyirPrisar’ikam’ish group; (3) the Zhar’inkuduk group; (4) the Kend’irlisor group; (5) the Beineu group. The structures in these groups have different layouts and incorporate different landscape features into their design. It is probable that these differences can be partly explained by the presence of different kinds of game in specific areas of Ustyurt and by the different techniques required to hunt them. Saiga and kulan herds typically follow linear features in the landscape, such as a river bed, the edge of a forest or cliff, or a pathway (Baskin 1976: 259). This tendency to follow linear features gave rise to a regular migration route for saigas and kulans along the eastern cliffs of the Ustyurt Plateau, making the cliff edge a prime location for the construction of arrow-shaped structures. In other parts of Ustyurt migration routes were less fixed. The design of arrow-shaped structures made careful use of animal behaviour and exploited their reaction to visible reference points. The drivelines were linear features that enticed saiga and kulan herds to follow them towards the trap enclosures. In addition, small heaps of stones or compacted earth were sometimes erected, serving as scarecrows (Kaznakov 1907; Yazan 1961; Kalugin 1968; Solomatin 1973; Mendelsshon 1974; Baskin 1976). The remote sensing study by Amirov et al. (2015) has revealed the bi-directionality of type 1 arrow-shaped structures in the North Ustyurt group. Most open onto the north, showing that their main focus was on autumn hunting, but structures opening onto the 137

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region south show that arrow-shaped structures were also used to intercept northerly migrations in spring. Since seasonal migrations are only typical for saigas and kulans, it is most likely that the North Ustyurt group was built to hunt these two animals. Structures belonging to types 5 and 6 have not been investigated on the ground and so their exact function remains elusive. However, the structures belonging to type 5 are clearly arranged in a certain order and form a single system in the case of the Aksai group. Structures belonging to types 5 and 6 are also present in the Bulanbay and Shiykuduk groups, which are located between the salt lakes of Kosbulak and Asmantay Matay and completely block the passage between these two basins. It seems probable that they were also used to hunt migrating ungulates in spring and autumn. The arrow-shaped structures of the Zhar’inkuduk group include drivelines, which suggests that these structures were also used to intercept animal migrations. However, migration routes in the area would have been more variable and covered a larger area than along the eastern escarpment of the plateau. Possibly animals were here driven within the chute by hunters. Careful study of the arrow-shaped structures confirms that the height and width of the earth banks and stone-built walls varied between different parts of the structure. The sides of the small enclosures and ring-shaped banks tend to be much higher than the drivelines and the sides of the main enclosure. Apparently, a good knowledge of animal behaviour enabled builders to select the most appropriate height for each structural element, thereby minimising the amount of labour required to build the structure. It would seem that the low walls and ditches that initially guided the animals towards the enclosure could easily be hopped over and would not have provided an effective obstacle. However, the walls and ditches were built in the knowledge that animals such as saigas react to visible obstacles by running along them rather than jumping over them (Geptner et al. 1961: 471). This type of behaviour was similarly manipulated in North America and elsewhere (Dobie 1952; Baskin 1976). One may wonder why animals did not become aware of the danger posed by the arrow-shaped structures and in time learned to avoid them altogether. Zoopsychological experiments have shown that the selection and memorisation of migration routes occurs at the early developmental stages of an animal’s life. Referring to the work of Hafes and Scott (1962: 3–20), Baskin (1976: 172) states that: ‘in experimental settings, these animals [ovicaprids] can only learn the correct path through a maze when they got first acquainted with it as lambs. When animals are introduced into the maze as adults, they can

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3 Function and prey species no longer be trained to find their way out’. As an animal gets older it can survive by copying the behaviour of other animals in the herd. However, as a rule, the larger the herd is, the less necessity animals have to learn to avoid danger (Baskin 1976). Such patterns have been observed among North American bison, where as long as the herd was sufficiently large no sense of fear and danger developed in response to humans. Yet with a decrease in bison population the animals learned to flee from danger quite rapidly (Baskin 1976). It is possible that if the saiga and kulan herds in Ustyurt had been much smaller they too would have learned to avoid the arrow-shaped structures. Several structures in the North Ustyurt group have multiple building phases and have been rebuilt along similar or slightly different lines. This suggests that these traps were abandoned, potentially due to a reduction in the number of migrating ungulates, and may have been rebuilt when the migrating animals returned in sufficient numbers. The following ladder of inference sums up the main argument made above: • The North Ustyurt group used drivelines to intercept seasonal migrations of ungulates. The Zhar’inkuduk group functioned in a roughly similar manner. • Since seasonal migrations are typical only of saigas and kulans, it seems probable that the North Ustyurt and Zhar’inkuduk groups were built to hunt these two animals. • As these structures were placed along migration routes, they would have functioned without the need for a hunter to drive game into the enclosure. The Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group does not form a large system. At present the area coincides with the winter grazing grounds of saigas and goitered gazelles but in earlier periods the abundance of water made it possible for animals to live there all year round (Bannikov 1981: 44–5). At the end of the 19th century Bodganov (1882) noted that there was a permanent population of kulans in the desert near the Sar’ikam’ish Lake (now a depression). According to Severtsov (1861) large winter populations of kulans were also present in this area of Ustyurt, coming from the north. The orientation of the arrow-shaped structures in the Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group varies and appears to have been determined by topography rather than cardinal direction. The structures in this group variably integrate the escarpment (Dar’yal’ik 1, Dar’yal’ik 2, Kazgan 1), promontories (Dekcha 1, Khantersek, Ibrakhimsha 1, Ibrakhimsha 2, Charlburun 1), and ravine edges (Kazgan 2, Aksaimak 3, Karamata 3, Karamata 7,

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Dekcha 3, Dekcha 4) into their design. Unlike the North Ustyurt system, where the animals would migrate directly into the trap enclosures, the animals here had to be driven between the drivelines. In other words, the hunt was active with man himself posing an object of danger to the animals. Another characteristic of the AybuyirPrisar’ikam’ish group is that most of the trap enclosures are located on hilltops rather than flat terrain. This can be explained by the tendency of herd animals to run to hilltops or high land to get a clear view of the surrounding landscape (Baskin 1976: 259). The arrow-shaped structures of the Kend’irlisor group are located on gentle slopes and near edges of deep ravines. Galkin (1988) suggested that these structures were used to hunt wild sheep. As mentioned above, mountain sheep are creatures of habit. They predominantly use familiar habitats with well-known paths, routes, and shelters, and only rarely venture into unknown territory (Tsalkin 1951; Egorov 1971; Baskin 1976: 150–51). In Ustyurt frightened mountain sheep tend to climb and cross gorges and ravines, placing formidable obstacles between themselves and their predators (Baskin 1976: 197). It is possible that hunters manipulated this behaviour by constructing arrow-shaped structures at strategic locations and gradually frightened sheep towards them (Przewalski 1946; Baskin 1976). At present these hunting techniques are not effective as mountain sheep no longer flee from human beings (Geptner et al. 1961; Baskin 1976). To sum up, there is a clear correlation between the placement of the arrow-shaped structures and animal ethology. The structures indicate that the people who built them had an intimate knowledge of ungulate behaviour and could predict animals’ reactions in artificially created or manipulated settings. They were also familiar with the location of seasonal pastures and ungulate migration routes (Baskin 1976: 255). It was the sum of this knowledge that enabled the construction of the arrow-shaped structures and the large-scale hunt of ungulates in Ustyurt. The North Ustyurt structures were intended for the passive form of hunting where animals drift into the traps in the course of their regular movements, not due to the interference of hunters. By building arrow-shaped structures across migration routes entire herds of ungulates could be intercepted. This would have led to high yields. These in turn required the large-scale organisation of the primary processing of products and the prolonged presence of hunters on the Ustyurt Plateau. Arrow-shaped structures in other areas of the Ustyurt Plateau were intended for active forms of hunting and did not form larger systems. These active modes of hunting produced lesser yields than passive hunting and may have been practised for sport rather than as a primary subsistence strategy. 140

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4

Archaeological context Vadim N. Yagodin

Figure 4.1 View of the western escarpment, Tortkul Mountain (foreground), and the Kend’irlisor salt marsh, Karynzharyk Depression. Photo: Eduard Manukyants (Kovcheg Ecological Center).

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Arrow-shaped structures commonly lack occupation layers with diagnostic archaeological remains, such as pottery fragments and other artefacts. As a result it is often very difficult to determine who was responsible for their construction and use. In most cases the cultural contexts of arrow-shaped structures can only be properly understood when they are considered in conjunction with other archaeological data from the Aralo-Caspian region. However, difficulties arise here too due to the preliminary nature of archaeological research in the area. In addition, many excavations in the region have never been fully published, meaning that important data are often unavailable for comparative analysis. The previous chapters have demonstrated that arrow-shaped structures have a wide chronological range and occur in various types. The dating evidence suggests they were constructed and used in the following periods: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Second half of the first millennium BC Third to fourth centuries AD (Alano-Sarmatian) Seventh to early ninth centuries AD (Djetiasar-Kerder) Ninth to 11th centuries AD (Oghuz) 13th to 14th centuries AD (Turkmen-Qipchaq).

This chronological division shall be used in the following review of the archaeology of the Aralo-Caspian region.

Second half of the first millennium BC Two more or less contemporary cultures are known to have traversed the Ustyurt Plateau during the second half of the first millennium BC. The first is the ‘surface burial’ culture, which flourished from the fifth to the second century BC. The culture consisted of nomadic pastoral tribes that occupied the Ustyurt Plateau and its adjoining areas. Archaeological remains of the culture extend from Zakaspiya (Mandelshtam 1976: 21, 1981: 73) and Uzboju (Jusupov 1986: 40) across Ustyurt (Yagodin 1978: 289–90; Yagodin 1982: 43–52, 61–4, 76) to the Mangyshlak Peninsula (Galkin 1988: 95). In the north remains of the culture have been found along the lower reaches of the Emba river (Mandelshtam 1981: 80). Mandelshtam (1976: 25–6), Jusupov (1986: 140–44), and Galkin (1988: 95) tentatively identify the ‘surface burial’ culture with the Massagetae mentioned by Strabo (Strabo XI, 8: 6–7) and other classical authors.

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4 Archaeological context The second culture known to have occupied the Ustyurt Plateau during classical antiquity is that of the Sarmatians (or Sauromatians), a group of originally Iranian stock who migrated from Central Asia to the Ural Mountains between the sixth and fourth century BC (Smirnov 1964: 191–7). Sarmatian remains have been discovered along the Ilek and Or rivers, between Orenburg and Orsk, and in the north-east of the southern Urals, particularly in the southern part of the Chelyabinsk area (Smirnov 1964: 79). The people residing in these areas practised a completely nomadic way of life along the borders of the urban and agricultural civilisations of Khwarezm and south Turkmenia (Yagodin 1978: 290; Yagodin 1982: 781). Evidence for the use of arrow-shaped structures during the second half of the first millennium BC is extremely limited. So far only part of a driveline in the Zhar’inkuduk group can be attributed to this period.

Third to fourth centuries AD (Alano-Sarmatian) Several archaeological sites in Ustyurt date to the third and fourth centuries AD. These predominantly consist of sanctuaries and surface and kurgan burials. Groups IV, V, VI, and X of the Duana cemetery belong to this period (Yagodin 1978: 193–96; Yagodin and Bizhanov 1981; Yagodin 1985a), as do kurgans at Zhi’delibulak 1 (Yagodin 1985a), the burial mounds of S’izly’uj (Yagodin 1985b; 1986b), the surface burials at Dev-Kesken 6 (Yagodin 1986b; 1989), and kurgan groups II and IV of the Kaz’ibaba cemetery (Yagodin 1990). These monuments can all be attributed to the Late Sarmatian culture of South Priuraliya and the lower reaches of the Volga River (Yagodin 1978: 193–6). There are no archaeological remains from this period that can be unambiguously interpreted as arrow-shaped structures. However, there are several indications that arrow-shaped structures did exist during the third and fourth centuries AD. Particularly suggestive is the existence of a large Late Sarmatian cemetery at Duana, which is the only example of a Late Sarmatian burial ground in this region of Ustyurt. All other Late Sarmatian cemeteries are located further south along the Khwarezmian border. It is possible that the location of the Duana cemetery was related to the existence of arrow-shaped structures and temporary dwellings of Late Sarmatian hunters on this part of the Ustyurt Plateau.

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Seventh to early ninth centuries AD (Djetiasar-Kerder) During the seventh to early ninth centuries AD the Ustyurt Plateau was traversed by members of the Djetiasar culture. The heartland of the Djetiasar was located in Priaraliya (Tolstov 1962: 186). There are many general discussions of the Djetiasar culture and excavation reports of Djetiasar remains are numerous (Tolstov 1947a, 1947b, 1948b: 125–40, 1949: 246–54, 1950: 521–31, 1952: 16–9, 1954: 258–62, 1958: 235–52, 1962: 186–9; Senigova 1953; Levina 1966, 1971, 1974, 1977, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1983, 1988: 76–8; Andrianov and Levina 1979; Andrianov 1969: 202–5). The following monuments in Ustyurt have been dated to the seventh to early ninth centuries AD: all arrow-shaped structures of the North Ustyurt group, sanctuary 1 and 2 at Duana, arrowshaped structures Zhar’inkuduk 14 and 15, the sanctuary at Zhar’inkuduk 10, the sanctuary at Sumbetimeralan-Kurkreuk, and the stone construction at Karamaya 7 (Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group). Arrow-shaped structures Dekcha 1 and Aybuyir (both in the AybuyirPrisar’ikam’ish group) should in all likelihood be added to the list on the basis of their associated radiocarbon dates (sixth to eighth centuries AD). Apart from arrow-shaped structures and sanctuaries, no other types of Djetiasar remains have so far been found on the plateau. As cemeteries or habitation sites are completely lacking, it is possible that Djetiasar-Kerder tribes inhabited the plateau on a seasonal basis only. Large Djetiasar settlements are known outside of Ustyurt. Often these have impressive monumental fortifications and large, empty internal spaces (see, for example, Altynasar, Kuraylyasar, Karaasar, Bazarasar and Tompakasar). According to Andrianov and Levina (1979: 95–97) these enclosures were used as cattle shelters in case of military threat, which would highlight the importance of cattle breeding within the Djetiasar economy. All settlements are located along the ancient river course and tend to have associated irrigation systems and kurgan cemeteries, which can contain hundreds of burials. Fortified small villages and hamlets are completely absent in the archaeological record of the Djetiasar. The chronology of the Djetiasar culture has been divided into three periods: 1. Early Djetiasar: late first millennium BC to third century AD 2. Middle Djetiasar: late third/early fourth to seventh centuries AD

3. Late Djetiasar: early eighth to ninth centuries AD (Levina 1971: 64–76).

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4 Archaeological context During the Early and Middle Djetiasar periods, the Djetiasar culture developed mainly within the confines of its heartland in Priaraliya. However, at the beginning of the Late Djetiasar period there was a migration of Djetiasar tribes towards the deltas of the Syr-dar’ya and Amu-dar’ya in the south and west (Levina 1971: 76). Adrianov and Levina (1979: 97) believe that the Djetiasar were displaced by an influx of Turkic tribes from Semirechja and Karatau and Turkisised groups from the middle Syr-dar’ya region (OrtrarKaratau). Environmental changes may also have triggered Djetiasar movements as a number of waterways in the lower Syr-dar’ya seem to have dried up around this time (Levina 1988b: 78). In the west the Djetiasar tribes settled in the delta of the Syr-dar’ya, where they came into close contact with the ‘swamp town’ culture (Tolstov 1947a, 1947b: 211, fig. 80: 1; Levina 1971: 77–86). The Djetiasar tribes migrating south settled in the Kerder region of the Aral Delta, where they established the Kerder culture (Nerazik and Rapoport 1959; Tolstov 1962: 241–44; Gudkov 1964; Weinberg 1973; Yagodin 1973, 1981, 1984a, 1986a). At the beginning of the ninth century AD most Djetiasar sites were abandoned, both in the culture’s heartland and in its periphery.

Thirteenth and 14th centuries AD (Turkmen-Qipchaq) Three groups of archaeological remains, dating to the 13th and 14th centuries AD, have been found on the Ustyurt Plateau. First, there are the arrow-shaped structures. In the period these include: all structures in the Kend’irlisor group, several structures in the Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group, and potentially some structures in the Zhar’inkuduk group. These structures have already been described and classified in Chapter 1. Second, there are the archaeological remains of the nomadic tribes living on the Ustyurt Plateau. These mainly consist of kurgans, but also include sanctuaries and animal shelters. The mortuary archaeology of these nomadic groups is exclusively known from newly acquired data, which are published here in full for the first time. Third, there are the medieval settlement sites and their associated cemeteries and towers. These have been published (Yagodin 1978; Manylov 1978, 1981, 1982; Jusupov and Manylov 1990) and therefore need not be described here in detail.

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Figure 4.2 Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3. A. Plan of the kurgan; B. North–south section across the kurgan; C. Plan of the burial pit: 1 – large cowrie shell; 2 – bronze jingle bell; 3 – silver ring; 4 – cowrie shell; 5 – torque (grivna); 6 – iron fragments, presumably from a horse bit; 7 – decayed wood; 8 – bronze cap and pair of gold earrings (below the skull); D. Section a–b of the burial pit.

Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3 Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3 is located on the south-western edge of the Ustyurt Plateau. The burial mound was heavily damaged and its contours unclear, but originally it must have had a diameter between 6 and 7 m (Fig. 4.2). The mound consisted of earth and contained a moderate number of randomly oriented limestone fieldstones and ceramics. The ceramics included fragments of a large Khwarezmian storage jar (khoum) and a gray Khwarezmshāh (12th to early 13th

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4 Archaeological context

centuries AD) or Golden Horde (second half of the 13th to 14th centuries AD) water jug. A 6 m wide ring of limestone fieldstones was uncovered below the mound on top of the ancient surface level. At the centre of the ring there were several large limestone slabs mixed with rubble and sand, which covered the burial pit. The burial pit had a rectangular shape with rounded corners and measured 1.75 by 0.55 m. Its longitudinal axis was oriented southwest–northeast. The pit was widest at the western end (0.55 m) and narrowed towards the east (0.35 m). The pit was sealed with large limestone fieldstones. Two of these, in the centre of the pit, had shifted from their original position, but the others were still in situ. The pit had been dug into the limestone bedrock to a depth of approximately 1.5 m. It is possible that the pit had not been backfilled after the interment of the deceased, but at the time of excavation it was filled with sand and limestone fragments. These may have seeped in through the cracks between the limestone capstones. The bottom of the pit contained the remains of a complete articulated burial. Judging from the skeleton’s sexually dimorphic features, it concerned a woman lying supine, oriented with the skull to the south-west and feet to the north-east, facing south-east. Both arms were positioned parallel to the body. It is possible that the skeleton was placed on a wooden stretcher or in a coffin, as frequent remnants of decayed wood were recovered from both sides of the body.

Figure 4.3 Grave goods found in Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region The burial contained several grave goods. The southern corner of the pit contained a large cowrie shell (Fig. 4.3: 7) and a bronze jingle bell (Fig. 4.3: 3). A small silver ring was located on the left temporal bone of the skull (Fig. 4.3: 4). A second cowrie shell lay next to the wall of the burial pit in the vicinity of the right humerus (Fig. 4.3: 5). A pair of gold earrings (Fig. 4.3: 2) and a bronze cap were situated below the skull. Part of a torque (grivna) was discovered below the right hip in a small, 30 cm wide pit (Fig. 4.3: 1). A fragment of iron, presumably from a bridle bit, was found near the south wall (Fig. 4.3: 6).

Ak-Chungul’ 8, kurgan 1 The earth burial mound of Ak-Chungul’ 8, kurgan 1 measured approximately 8 m in diameter and was preserved to a height of c. 0.6 m above the modern surface level. The mound was made from a gravel-rich, acidic loamy soil and densely covered with small rubble fragments and randomly oriented plaques of unworked limestone. There were no fieldstones in the centre of the mound. The upper edges of the burial pit had been consolidated with plaster and lumps of greenish clay. The burial pit had been dug into the loam substrate and had a trapezoidal plan with slightly concave sides. It measured c. 2.25 by 0.7 m and was about 1.15 m deep (measured from the ancient surface, which was clearly visible in the section). The longitudinal axis of the pit was oriented southwest–northeast. The pit had an irregular bottom with smaller pits at its eastern and western end. The pit in the east was very shallow, but that in the west was quite deep and filled with frequent limestone fragments. The burial at the bottom of the pit was placed in an extended position with the skull to the west, facing south. The legs and hips were lying supine, but the torso had been turned and was placed on its right side. The right arm was extended forward and strongly flexed at the elbow. The left arm was bent at the elbow with the lower arm resting in front of the face. Both legs were fully extended. The feet were no longer in situ, but were discovered near the east wall of the pit. The age of the deceased could not be ascertained due to the poor preservation of the skeleton. The pit contained several burial goods and frequent fragments of decayed wood. The latter may have originated from a wooden saddle that was damaged when the burial was robbed. The east end of the pit contained the bones of the feet together with two iron stirrups (Fig. 4.4: 1–2), several fragmentary bone facings of a saddle (Fig.

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4 Archaeological context

Figure 4.4 Grave goods found in Ak-Chungul’ 8, kurgan 1.

4.4: 4–5), numerous fragmented and unidentifiable bones, and iron rivets (Fig. 4.4: 6–7). An iron ring was discovered in the fill near the south wall of the pit (Fig. 4.4: 3). Despite its proximity to the bottom of the pit, the ring had clearly been moved from its original position. Part of an iron stirrup was discovered at roughly the same elevation as the ring near the north wall. The backfill of the south part of the pit contained a glass bead (Fig. 4.4: 8). The original arrangement of the grave goods clearly had been altered considerably by tomb robbers. The skeleton, on the other hand, appeared to be largely in its original position.

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Berniyaz 3, kurgan 1 Berniyaz 3, kurgan 1 was located approximately 20 to 25 m to the north of the Ustyurt Plateau edge, within the enclosure of the Berniyaz arrow-shaped structure. The mound consisted of loosely stacked limestone fieldstones and had a diameter between 4.5 and 5 m. It rose about 0.5 m above the modern surface level. The pit was situated below the mound and was approximately 0.45 m deep. It had a roughly square plan with 0.9 to 1.1 m long sides oriented on the cardinal directions. The pit contained no human skeletal remains. It seems likely therefore that the kurgan contained a deposit rather than a grave, which was buried with the full ceremony of the kurgan funerary tradition. The finds included many small rectangular, pierced plates of iron that originally belonged to a lamellar suit of armour. They were found scattered throughout the pit fill without any apparent order. Parts of a horse harness were also discovered, including bone facings of a saddle. Several triangular, perforated pieces of bone found in the pit can presumably be interpreted as decorative elements of a saddle. The pit further contained one iron stirrup and fragments of an iron button. It seems likely that the pit originally contained a complete wooden saddle.

Berniyaz 1, group 1, burial 1 Berniyaz 1, group 1, burial 1 consisted of a shaft burial cut into an earlier Sarmatian burial mound. The shaft was c. 0.4 m deep and had a rectangular shape with rounded corners. Its longitudinal axis was oriented east–west. The shaft measured 2.1 by 1 m. The burial itself was much disturbed and incomplete. The bottom of the shaft contained only disarticulated skeletal remains, including a skull without the mandible, long bones of the arms and legs, hip bones, and several unidentifiable fragments. A kashin vessel was found among the bones.

Zhar’inkuduk 4, ‘kurgan’ 5a The superstructure of Zhar’inkuduk 4, ‘kurgan’ 5a consisted of a roughly rectangular enclosure constructed of limestone slabs rather than a burial mound. Hence the descriptor ‘kurgan’ is here placed between single quotation marks. The slabs were placed on their sides, sloping slightly inward. The walls were one to two stones thick and had a gravelly loam packing on their inner face. At the base of

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4 Archaeological context the exterior, there were one or two additional, horizontally placed limestone fieldstones. The enclosure measured 2.8 to 3 by 1.8 to 2 m. At the centre of the enclosure there was an approximately 0.5 m deep burial pit with a trapezoidal plan with rounded corners and vertical sides. The pit had a maximum width of c. 0.6 m in the west, but gradually narrowed towards the east. Its longitudinal axis was oriented northwest–southeast and measured c. 2 m long. At the bottom of the pit there was a skeleton of an adult female lying supine with the skull to the north-west. A bronze mirror was located on top of the elbow of her right arm. The mirror was originally placed in a cloth bag, parts of which had been preserved by copper oxides originating from the mirror. The mirror had been damaged prior to its interment and was cracked down its centre.

Zhar’inkuduk 4, ‘kurgan’ 5b Zhar’inkuduk 4, ‘kurgan’ 5b lacked a burial mound. Hence the descriptor ‘kurgan’ is here placed between single quotation marks. Above the burial pit there were two limestone orthostats, which were between 0.85 and 0.9 m apart. The burial pit was excavated from the ancient surface level and had stepped sides with a wide entrance shaft and a narrow burial pit. The entrance shaft was rectangular in plan and had rounded corners. It measured c. 2.2 by 1 m and was 0.65 m deep. The bottom of the entrance shaft gave access to a rectangular burial pit with rounded corners and vertical sides. This pit measured 1.9 by 0.4 m and was c. 0.55 m deep. Its longitudinal axis was oriented northwest–southeast. The pit was covered by a number of overlapping limestone fieldstones and slabs. The bottom of the burial pit contained a skeleton of unknown gender, lying on its right side with the skull to the north-west, facing south-west. Both legs were lightly flexed. The arms were fully extended and placed parallel to the body. The burial contained no grave goods.

Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 was located within the Zhar’inkuduk 14 arrow-shaped structure. Its burial mound consisted of irregularly placed limestone fieldstones and had a diameter of 5 to 5.5 m. It was preserved to a height of 0.5 m above the modern surface level. The burial mound was constructed on top of a poorly developed paleosol with a gravelly limestone substrate (Fig. 4.5).

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Figure 4.5 Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2. A. Plan of the kurgan; B. North–south section across the kurgan; C. Plan of the burial pit at two levels. Top level: 1 – iron arrowheads; 2 – iron stirrups; 3 – iron fragments, presumably from a sword; 4 – silver plaques; 5 – bone facings of a saddle; 6 – iron bit with bit rings; 7 – bone facings of a bow. Bottom level: 1–2 – silver suspension loop; 3 – bone facings of a saddle; 4 – iron sword fragment; 5 – charcoal.

The burial pit was dug from the ancient surface level and was approximately 1 m deep. It had a roughly rectangular shape and measured 2.6 by 1.1 m. Its long axis was oriented northwest-southeast. The north wall of the pit had a 0.55 m wide and 0.2 m high step. The south wall had a c. 0.25 m deep recess. The pit appeared to have been excavated with the use of limestone flakes. The stone chippings were re-used for the construction of the kurgan. The mouth of the burial pit was sealed by the burial mound. The pit contained the burials of a human and a horse. Both had been provided with burial goods. Unfortunately, the pit fill had been heavily bioturbated. The bones and the burial goods were often displaced or even partially destroyed. The horse burial was situated just above the step in the north wall of the pit. It consisted only of the skull, with the muzzle to the west, and four fully articulated legs. The horse burial was provided with a

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Figure 4.6 Grave goods found in Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region riding harness. Parts of the iron bit were still clamped between the horse’s teeth (Fig. 4.6: 6). Five silver plaques were discovered around the skull (Fig. 4.6: 9a–e) and should presumably be interpreted as stud decorations of the horse’s bridle. An iron stirrup was found on either side of the incomplete skeleton (Fig. 4.6: 8a–b). Brown discolourations in the soil matrix indicated the presence of a wooden saddle. The latter appears to have had a leather cover decorated with bone facings (Fig. 4.6: 7a–b). A silver, decorative stud was discovered loose in the pit fill (Fig. 4.6: 5). The human burial was located on the bottom of the pit, below the step in the north wall. It comprised the heavily disturbed remains of an adult male, lying supine with the skull to the north-west, facing upwards. The thorax of the deceased had been completely destroyed by burrowing rodents. The funerary goods were much disturbed. Fragments of a sword were discovered around the feet and the hips of the skeleton. The sword was originally sheathed in a scabbard equipped with gilded, silver suspension loops (Fig. 4.6: 3). Four iron arrowheads were discovered at various elevations in the southern half of the pit (Fig. 4.6: 4a–d). Other out-of-context finds included several bone facings of a bow, which were discovered near the skull of the horse (Fig. 4.6: 2), a bronze belt buckle (Fig. 4.6: 10), and several small fragments of fabric (Fig. 4.6: 11–12).

Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 3 The superstructure of Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 3 consisted of a small, low earth burial mound with an oval shape (Fig. 4.7). The burial mound consisted of randomly stacked limestone fieldstones in a gravel matrix and measured approximately 4 by 3 m. It was only c. 0.2 m high at the time of excavation. The burial pit had a roughly rectangular shape with rounded corners. It measured c. 2.1 by 0.65 m at the top and was about 0.8 m deep. The pit was originally blocked with large, unworked limestone capstones. Its sides tapered slightly from top to bottom. The bottom of the pit contained the skeleton of a male, lying supine with the skull towards the south-west, facing upwards. The epiphyses of the long bones were not fully fused, indicating adolescence. The individual was most likely between 18 and 20 years old. The right arm of the deceased was placed parallel to the body. The left arm was lightly flexed at the elbow with the left hand resting on top of the pubic area. The legs were fully stretched.

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Figure 4.7 Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 3. A. Plan of the kurgan; B. North-south section across the kurgan; C. Plan of the overlapping capstones on top of the burial pit; D. Plan of the burial pit: 1 – rectangular iron buckle; 2 – round iron buckle; 3 – fabric fragments; 4 – iron stirrups; 5 – wood fragment, potentially from a saddle; 6 – bone arrow head; 7 – knife.

Figure 4.8 Grave goods found in Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 3.

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Figure 4.9 Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4. A. Plan of the kurgan; B. North–south section across the kurgan; C. Plan of the capstones on top of the burial pit: 1 – elm bark quiver; D. Plan of the burial pit: 1 – knife; 2 – pierced bone disc.

The burial contained several grave goods. Two iron stirrups were located on top of the left and right tibia (Fig. 4.8: 1–2) and a round, iron buckle was discovered between the femurs (Fig. 4.8: 7). The area around the left hip contained a rectangular iron buckle (Fig. 4.8: 3). A bone arrowhead was situated on top of the left sacrum (Fig. 4.8: 6). An iron knife was located directly underneath the same bone. The area around the left tibia contained frequent fragments of decayed wood, which presumably stem from a wooden saddlebow. The area around the knee caps contained remains of decayed leather. The pit fill contained two iron arrowheads (Fig. 4.8: 4–5).

Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4 The superstructure of Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4 consisted of an earth burial mound with a diameter of 4.5 to 5 m. The burial mound rose c. 0.3 m above the modern surface and would have been about 0.1 m higher at the time of construction. The burial mound had been

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4 Archaeological context

damaged by tomb robbers, but was originally covered with limestone fieldstones (Fig. 4.9). The 1.15 m deep burial pit was dug from the ancient surface level. It had a rectangular shape with rounded corners and vertical sides. Its longitudinal axis was oriented east–west. The pit measured c. 2.27 by 0.78 m and was originally blocked by large, unworked limestone capstones. Most of these were displaced during the robbery of the tomb and some had fallen into the burial pit. The bottom of the pit contained the remains of an adult male between 20 and 25 years old. The skeleton was lying supine and was oriented with the skull to the west, facing upwards. Both arms were positioned parallel to the body and both legs were fully extended. The burial contained several grave goods. Fragments of an elm bark quiver were discovered on top of one of the capstones that had fallen into the pit (Fig. 4.10: 1). Around the quiver there were frequent fragments of iron, some of which clearly belonged to a bit, and a pair of stirrups. The bulk of the fragments were unidentifiable. The

Figure 4.10 Grave goods found in Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4.

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Figure 4.11 Grave goods found in Kazgan 4, kurgan cemetery, kurgan 1.

quiver contained five arrowheads. Four of these were made of iron (Fig. 4.10: 3–6). The fifth was made of bone (Fig. 4.10: 2). There was an iron knife below the left sacrum (Fig. 4.10: 9). An oval-shaped, pierced disc made of bone was discovered on the top of the sacrum (Fig. 4.10: 7). An iron fire striker (kresalo) was discovered directly below the hips (Fig. 4.10: 8).

Kazgan 4, kurgan cemetery, kurgan 1 The superstructure of Kazgan 4, kurgan cemetery, kurgan 1 consisted of a large earth burial mound with a diameter of c. 7 m. The burial mound was preserved to a height of 1.3 m and was made of sandy gravel. It had originally been covered with limestone fieldstones. The fieldstones were placed in regularly laid courses at the bottom of the mound, but had no fixed pattern higher up. The centre of the burial mound contained the remains of a secondary shaft burial. This secondary burial contained numerous, randomly oriented limestone plaques and several disarticulated human skeletal remains including a skull. The skeletal morphology indicated the bones belonged to an adolescent between 16 and 18 years old. The secondary shaft had not been covered with limestone slabs after it had been backfilled. In the north-west of the mound there was a shallow pit that contained a horse burial. The skeleton was incomplete, but still largely articulated. The horse was placed on its stomach with the

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4 Archaeological context skull oriented to the south-west (that is, the same orientation as the kurgan’s main burial). All legs were tightly flexed and placed parallel to the body. The horse was equipped with a riding harness. A complete iron bit ring was discovered still in situ between the horse’s teeth (Fig. 4.11: 3) and iron stirrups were found on either side of the skeleton (Fig. 4.11: 1–2). The area between the two stirrups contained frequent fragments of wood that almost surely stem from a decayed saddle. A large, rectangular iron buckle, discovered directly below the ribs of the horse, was used for fastening the girth (Fig. 4.11: 4). The main burial pit was located at the centre of the mound and was sealed by the burial mound. The pit was about 1.1 m deep and had a trapezoidal plan with rounded corners and vertical sides. Its longitudinal axis was oriented northeast–southwest and was 2.35 m long. The pit widened slightly towards the south-west, where it had a width of 1.1 m. The pit was originally covered by large capstones of unworked limestone, but most of these had been removed by tomb robbers. The bottom of the pit contained a human skeleton lying supine with the skull to the south-west. The arms were positioned parallel to the body and the legs were fully extended. Skeletal morphology indicated that the bones belonged to an adult man between 35 and 40 years old. The burial contained no grave goods apart from a number of small iron plates, which were recovered from the top of the humerus (Fig. 4.11: 5). These plates probably belonged to scale-iron body armour.

Kazgan 4, kurgan cemetery, ‘kurgan’ 2 The superstructure of Kazgan 4, kurgan cemetery, ‘kurgan’ 2 consisted of a square enclosure with rounded corners rather than a burial mound. The enclosure was built with limestone fieldstones placed on their sides, sloping slightly inward. Each side of the enclosure was about 4 m long (Fig. 4.12). There was a rectangular burial pit at the centre of the enclosure. The pit measured 1.9 by 0.65 m and was about 0.65 m deep. Its longitudinal axis was oriented east–west. The pit had straight sides and was faced with vertically placed limestone slabs, forming a subterranean cist. The mouth of the pit was covered with limestone fieldstones, which had been preserved to a height of 0.25 m. The bottom of the pit contained a skeleton lying supine, oriented with the skull to the east and the feet to the west. The skull and the upper part of the torso had been displaced by tomb robbers, but the

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Figure 4.12 Kazgan 4, kurgan cemetery, ‘kurgan’ 2. A. Plan of the kurgan; B. North–south section across the kurgan: 1 – gray sandy loam; 2 – sandy loam with frequent gravel inclusions; 3 – limestone (bedrock); C. Plan of the burial.

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4 Archaeological context legs of the skeleton were still in situ and fully extended. The arms were slightly flexed at the elbow with the hands resting on the pelvic area. Skeletal morphology indicated that the remains belonged to an adolescent female between 18 and 20 years old. Not much remained of the grave goods, except for some remnants of gold sewing thread found on top of the skull. The pit fill also contained several ovicaprid bones in the area directly below the limestone capstones.

Kazgan 4, kurgan cemetery, object 3 A 25 to 30 m wide, circular depression was discovered near kurgan cemetery Kazgan 4. The depression was located on the slope of a landslide near the ravine edge. Prior to excavation, only the tops of a number of limestone orthostats could be discerned along its circumference. After clearing the structure, it became clear that these vertically placed limestone slabs completely faced the edges of the depression up to a height of 1.7 m. The feature contained no finds that shed light on its function or date. Both remain obscure as a result.

Kazgan 5, kurgan cemetery, kurgan 2 Kazgan 5, kurgan cemetery, kurgan 2 consisted of a small burial mound made of limestone fieldstones. The mound had a diameter of 4.5 m and was originally about 0.5 m high. The top of the burial mound was covered with small-sized fieldstones, but had much larger limestone slabs underneath. The latter were laid in a circle, often at a slight angle down towards the centre of the mound (Fig. 4.13). The largest limestone slabs were placed at the base of the mound on top of the ancient surface. They measured up to 0.86–0.9 by 0.35–0.37 m and were laid in a specific pattern. Square-shaped slabs were used to construct the circular outline. Rectangular slabs were used to cover the burial pit. The burial pit had a rectangular plan with rounded corners and vertical sides. Its longitudinal axis was oriented north–south. The pit measured 2 by 0.7 m and had a depth of about 0.8 m measured from the ancient surface. The bottom of the pit contained a skeleton lying supine with the skull to the north, facing upwards. Skeletal morphology indicated that the deceased was an adolescent male between 18 and 20 years old. The deceased’s left arm was placed parallel to the body. The right arm was lightly flexed towards the edge of the burial pit. Both legs were fully extended. The bones of the upper body were partly displaced.

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Figure 4.13 Kazgan 5, kurgan cemetery, ‘kurgan’ 2. A. Plan of the kurgan; B. Plan of the burial pit: 1 – iron stirrup fragment; 2 – iron arrowhead; 3 – ovicaprid bone; 4 – wood fragments stemming from a wooden frame; 5 – ovicaprid vertebrae; 6 – fragments of a wooden plank; C. East–west section across the kurgan: 1 – limestone fieldstones; 2 – gray sandy loam; 3 – compact, reddish sand; 4 – limestone (bedrock); D. Iron arrowhead.

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4 Archaeological context The north part of the pit had frequent remnants of decayed wood along the edges and the north-west corner still contained the remains of two perpendicularly placed wooden boards. These finds strongly suggest that the deceased was interred in a wooden coffin. However, due to the poor preservation it is impossible to establish the coffin’s shape and type. The burial was provided with few grave goods. A number of ovicaprid vertebrae were discovered around the thorax area of the skeleton. The north-east corner of the pit contained an ovicaprid leg and fragments of an iron stirrup. An iron arrowhead was discovered next to the left shoulder.

Kazgan 6, spiral bank The remains of an unusual structure, perhaps an animal shelter, were discovered at Kazgan 6. The structure had a spiral-shaped plan and was constructed with limestone fieldstones. It was located on the gentle slope of a deep ravine that was otherwise closed off from all directions, providing shelter against the wind. There were no associated finds with which to date the structure, but it may be medieval.

Kalal’ik 2, kurgan 1 Kalal’ik 2, kurgan 1 was located 500 to 600 m from the cliff edge of the Ustyurt Plateau. Its outlines were somewhat eroded, but originally it must have had a diameter of about 8 m and been c. 0.7 m high. The mound was constructed in two stages. First, it was constructed to a height of 0.4 m and provided with a stone facing, forming a so-called ‘turtle back’ with a diameter of c. 3 m. This mound was later enlarged and again encased in limestone fieldstones. The burial pit was blocked with unworked limestone slabs that covered an area of 3.5 by 2.4 m. The burial pit had a rectangular shape with rounded corners. Its longitudinal axis was oriented northeast–southwest. The pit fill contained a number of scattered human bones, most notably phalanxes. Similar finds were made in the fill of the mound itself. A bone quiver was discovered there as well. The bottom of the pit contained a fully extended skeleton lying on its right side with the skull to the south-west and the feet to the north-east. The left arm was lightly flexed with the left hand resting on the pelvis. The right arm was placed parallel to the body. Skeletal morphology clearly indicated that the deceased was an adult man. The pit contained several grave goods. Fragments of two iron

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Figure 4.14 Grave goods found in Kalal’ik 2, kurgan 1.

stirrups were uncovered near the north-west corner of the pit (Fig. 4.14: 1–2). A large iron sword was discovered in front of the skeleton, placed parallel to the body (Fig. 4.14: 3). Judging from the fragments of decayed wood adhering to its surface, the sword was originally sheathed in a wooden scabbard. The sharp tip of the sword

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4 Archaeological context had been removed prior to its interment and was discovered at a slight distance from the sword. Other finds in the proximity of the sword included: a bark strip, decorated and undecorated bone facings (presumably stemming from the scabbard), and a bone suspension loop. A similar bone suspension loop was discovered in the pit fill. They were presumably used for the suspension of the scabbard. An iron arrowhead was found near the east wall of the pit (Fig. 4.14: 10). This burial was discovered intact. Any displacement of the skeletal remains and grave goods had been due to faunal turbation rather than tomb robbery. The pit fill had frequent traces of animal burrows.

Burial goods Until recently the region between the Aral and Caspian seas was a complete blind spot in the archaeological record of Eurasia. The number of burials excavated on the Ustyurt Plateau remains very limited to this day and not much is known about the burial practices of the region. The small number of known burials can be partly explained from the fact that the plateau was only sparsely populated by nomadic tribes during the late Iron Age. However, it also has to do with the preliminary nature of archaeological research in Ustyurt. Both these observations make the burials published in this volume of significant interest. To help characterise the burials in Ustyurt, it is useful to compare them with contemporaneous examples from Kazakhstan, Central Asia, the Ural Mountains, and Eastern Europe. The grave goods found in the Ustyurt burials can be grouped into the following categories: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Weapons and their accessories Equestrian equipment Jewellery and toiletries Household items Pottery Other finds.

1. Weapons and their accessories Swords A complete sword was discovered in Kalal’ik 2, kurgan 1 (Fig. 4.14: 3). The sword had a double-edged blade with a teardrop-shaped section at the centre and a lenticular section towards the top. The drop-point

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region tip was cut off in a straight line. The sword lacked a cross-guard. The heft was wedge-shaped and still had two iron rivets remaining in situ. The latter were used for the attachment of a wooden hilt. The sword was forged in a single piece. It had a length of 110 cm with an 11 cm long heft and a 99 cm long blade. Its maximum width was 3.5 cm. The sword was discovered east of the skeleton in front of the legs and hips. It is noteworthy that the sword had been intentionally damaged prior to its interment. The tip had been broken off and was found a few cm to the north-east. There are parallels for the ritual destruction of cut-and-thrust weapons (including swords) so as to render them (magically) harmless or ineffectual in Kirghiz Kaganate burials, dating to the fifth to ninth centuries AD. According to Khudyakov (1980: 33) this custom was derived from the Tashtyk culture. Swords similar to the Kalal’ik example are widely attested and have been found in the Srostkin culture (Grjaznov 1956: 146), Qipchaq kurgans in west Kazakhstan (Sinitsyn 1956: 97–98), the southern Ural Mountains (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 10), and the steppes of Eastern Europe (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 24). Further examples were discovered in Yenisei Kirgiz kurgans at Tuva dating from the ninth to 12th centuries AD. Swords of this kind belong to group 2, type 4 of Khudyakov’s typology (1980: 36–39, tables IV: 6, VI: 3–4) because they have a double-edged blade without a cross-guard. Fedorov-Davydov (1966: 24) dates this type to the 13th and 14th centuries AD, using the typology of Ivanov and Kriger (1988: 10, type 1). Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 contained several sword fragments with a drop-shaped cross-section. The fragments were not large enough to be ascribed to a particular type. Scabbards The sword discovered at Kalal’ik 2 was originally sheathed in a wooden scabbard, fragments of which were found still adhering to both sides of the blade. The burial also contained other items that can in all likelihood be interpreted as scabbard fittings. First, a fragment of a 1.5 cm wide bark strip (Fig. 4.14: 12) was discovered in the proximity of the sword. Similar bark strips were used to wrap a wooden knife scabbard in a Kimak burial in East Kazakhstan (Arslanova 1969: 47). Kurgan 1 of the Oryul cemetery also produced fragments of a wooden sword scabbard covered with bark strips (Arslanova 1969: 53). Second, the burial contained several bone plates, which suggests that the scabbard was adorned with decorative bone facings. These included a concave-convex bone plate (Fig. 4.14: 8), which may have been part of the scabbard mount, and a bone plate (Fig. 4.14: 4) with

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4 Archaeological context one straight and one wavy edge. The upper face of the latter was slightly convex and polished. Its reverse was flat and rough and was presumably pasted onto the scabbard with animal glue. Another, similar, bone fragment had an elongated shape with a plano-convex cross-section. Its edges were broken off. The obverse was polished smooth, while the reverse was left unworked and rough. Several round holes were used to fix the small plate onto the scabbard. It seems that the wooden scabbard was also provided with bone suspension loops (Fig. 4.14: 5–7). These were commonly made of poorly preserved leather cords or belts, but other bone examples are known. An example of the latter was discovered in situ next to the blade. Similar suspension loops are attested on quivers (Khudyakov 1980: 117, table XXXVIII). Medieval wooden scabbards were often covered with leather. This may also have been the case with this example. However, no leather fragments were found in the burial. Suspension loops In total three bone suspension loops were discovered, each one differing slightly from the others. The first suspension loop (Fig. 4.14: 5) was made out of a thick, bone plate with sloping ends. It had a flat bottom with a rectangular notch in the centre. The top had a thickened rim. There were four 0.4 cm wide holes across the length of the plate. The plate was 16.2 cm long, 0.8 cm thick, and between 1.2 and 2 cm wide. The rectangular notch at the bottom of the plate was 1.4 cm wide. The plate was made from the tubular bone of a large mammal, which was sawn to shape, trimmed, drilled (unilaterally), and finally polished to acquire an attractive shine. The second suspension loop (Fig. 4.14: 6) also consisted of a thick bone plate with sloping ends. It had a flat bottom with a shallow rectangular cut in the middle. There were four small perforations in the plate. The two largest perforations (0.4 cm) were located at either end of the plate, while two smaller perforations (0.3 cm) were situated on either side of the rectangular notch. The plate was 9.7 cm long and 0.6 cm thick. It had a maximum width of 1.2 cm at the centre and a minimum width of 0.7 cm at the ends. The rectangular hole at the bottom of the plate was 1.1 cm wide. Like the previous suspension loop, the plate was made from the tubular bone of a large mammal that had been sawn to shape, trimmed, drilled (unilaterally and cylindrically), and finally polished. The third suspension loop (Fig. 4.14: 7) consisted of a curved bone plate with one pointed and one sloping end. The bottom was straight and had a shallow rectangular notch near the pointed end of the

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region plate. The top was curved. There were three 0.3 cm wide perforations in the bone for fixing the plate onto another object. The object was 12.5 cm long and 0.4 to 0.6 cm thick. The width varied between 1 and 1.4 cm. The plate was sawn to shape, trimmed, drilled (unilaterally and cylindrically), and finally polished. Bone suspension loops of this kind were often used for suspending quivers, which were either carried on the shoulder or on a belt (Sinitsyn 1956: 112, table VI; Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 31; Artamonov 1958: 39, fig. 25; Medvedev 1959: 146, fig. 11: 6, 147, fig. 40: 6, fig. 11: 5; Khudyakov 1980: 117, table 38). Two of the examples discussed above were found out of context and hence provide little information as to their function. However, the third suspension loop was discovered in situ near a sword. Hence, it seems clear that suspension loops of this kind were also used for carrying sword scabbards. A scabbard with silver suspension loops was found in Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2. The scabbard’s wooden components had all deteriorated and only two long metal covering strips remained. These had an undulating external face decorated with a wavy line with short perpendicular strokes. The inner face was flat and had several right-angled ridges. Both strips were connected with a metal pin to a semi-circular, silver suspension loop consisting of two halves. The ring’s external surface was smooth and decorated with a palmetto. It also had some traces of gilding. Similarly shaped, but differently ornamented suspension loops were discovered on a scabbard in a Bekeshev burial (no. 1) in the southern Urals dating to the ninth century AD (Mazhitov 1977: 24, 28, fig. 5: 2–3, 5). Quivers Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4 contained fragments of a cone-shaped bark quiver (Fig. 4.10: 1). Its top and bottom had not survived, but the remaining part was 65 cm long, 17–18 cm wide at the bottom, and 11–12 cm wide at the top. The quiver was decorated with two parallel lines running down the sides. The space between these lines was originally painted black, but had suffered much weathering. The quiver still contained four iron and one bone arrowhead, but other elements that often form part of quivers, such as suspension loops, hooks, etc., were absent. The quiver had been moved from its original position and was damaged by the tomb robbers. Very similar bark quivers are known from Qipchaq burials in the southern Urals dating to the 12th to 14th centuries AD (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 13: figs 2: 3, 15: 39).

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4 Archaeological context Iron arrowheads Iron arrowheads were discovered in Kazgan 5, kurgan 2 (one example), Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 (four examples), Kazgan 2, group III, kurgans 3 and 4 (two and four examples respectively), and Kalal’ik 2, kurgan 1 (two examples). Fedorov-Davydov (1966) developed a typology for the arrowheads of the medieval nomads of Eastern Europe. This typology was supplemented by Ivanov and Kriger (1988: 25–28) with material from Priuraliya and the southern Ural Mountains. The following discussion builds upon this typology and introduces several new types, based on the index criteria of Fedorov-Davydov (1966). Group A: tanged triple-ribbed blades Type II

Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 contained four forged iron arrowheads with triple-ribbed blades and short, round tangs (Fig. 4.6: 4a–d). The blades were leaf-shaped when viewed in plan. All arrowheads had traces of wood impressions along their tangs. On one example (Fig. 4.6: 4) the imprints of binding could still be discerned. The blades were between 5.5 and 5.9 cm long and between 1.6 and 2 cm wide. Identical arrowheads have been found in Kimak burials in Priobja, the Altai Mountains, and East Kazakhstan, dating to the ninth and tenth centuries AD (Mogil’nikov et al. 1980: fig. 5: 1; Gryaznov 1956: table 1: VII; Borodkin 1977: fig. 11; Arslanova 1969: table 1; Khudyakov 1986: 183, fig. 82: I). Group B: tanged tetrahedral blades Type IV

The bark quiver discovered in Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4 contained two iron-forged arrowheads with tetrahedral blades and round tangs (Fig. 4.10: 3, 5). The blades were between 4 and 5 cm long and between 1.2 and 1.5 cm wide. According to Fedorov-Davydov (1966) arrowheads of this type are relatively rare in Qipchaq burials. When found, they occur alongside arrowheads of type Б3, B2, and B3, stirrups of type Д2, and horse bits of type Г1, Г2, and Г4. As stirrup type Д2 and bit type Г4 are securely dated to the second half of the 13th and 14th centuries AD (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 116), the arrowheads from kurgan 4 can in all likelihood be dated to the same period.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Group C: tanged leaf-shaped blades with a lozenge-shaped section Type I

Kalal’ik 2, kurgan 1 contained one example of an iron-forged arrowhead with a leaf-shaped blade, a slightly lozenge-shaped section, and a round tang (Fig. 4.14: 10). The blade was c. 5.5 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. Arrowheads of this type are common in nomad burials in Eastern Europe (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 27). Further examples are known from several of the Russian cities that were ransacked by the Mongols (Kucera 1962), the Slavic layers of Sarkela-Belaya Vezha (Sorokin 1959: 186, fig. 29: 22), and Black Hats remains in Porosja (Pletnev 1973: tables 30: 1, 4, 46: 10) According to Fedorov-Davydov (1966: 96) arrowheads of this type have a wide chronological range. Consequently, they are not very useful for dating purposes. Type II

Kazgan 5, kurgan 2 contained one example of an iron-forged, leafshaped arrowhead with a rounded, oval-shaped section, and a long, round tang. The blade was c. 2.8 cm long and 1.5 cm wide and had a straight bottom. Arrowheads of this type have been discovered in 13th- and 14th-century AD contexts in the Altai Mountains (Gavrilova 1965: table XXXI: 82) as well as in several of the Russian cities that were destroyed by the Mongols in the early 13th century AD (Kucera 1962: fig. 12: 4). They also occur in Eastern European contexts dating to the 14th century AD (Medvedev 1959: 167, fig. 13: 33; Smirnov 1964: 193, table E: XIV) and in Qipchaq kurgans in the Lower Volga region and the southern Ural Mountains (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 27; Ivanov 1984: 77, figs 3: 2, 4; Pshenichnyuk 1984: fig. 7: 3; Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 11). The tip of an identical iron arrowhead was found in a 13th- to 14th-century AD nomad burial in Khwarezm near the settlement of Pil-kala (Kdyrniyazov 1984: 99, fig. 2: 2a). Further examples are known from 14th-century AD nomad burials in Halchajan (Pugachenkova 1967: 252–58, fig. 1). The seriation analyses of Fedorov-Davydov (1966) and Ivanov and Kriger (1988) have convincingly demonstrated that arrowheads of this type date to the second half of the 13th to 14th centuries AD.

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4 Archaeological context Group D: tanged cone-shaped blades Type 1

Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4 contained one example of an ironforged, cone-shaped arrowhead with a round section and a 3.5 cm long, round tang (Fig. 4.14: 4). The blade was c. 4.2 cm long and 1.7 cm wide. Arrowheads of this type and quality are rare. Ivanov and Kriger (1988: 11, fig. 1: 5) list several examples from Qipchaq burials in the southern Ural Mountains. Type 2

Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 3 contained two examples of a hitherto unknown type of arrowhead (Fig. 4.8: 4–5). They have short, coneshaped blades with a round section and a long round tang. The blades were approximately 1.5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. The tangs were c. 4.5 cm long. Group E: tanged leaf-shaped blades with a triangular section Type 1

Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4 contained one example of an ironforged, leaf-shaped arrowhead with a triangular-shaped section and a long round tang (Fig. 4.10: 6). The blade was 5 cm long and 1.6 cm wide. The tang was more than 5 cm long. Arrowheads of this type and quality are rare. Mazhitov (1981: 98–99, fig. 51: 8) lists several examples from ninth- and tenth-century AD burials in the southern Ural Mountains. Bone arrowheads Type IV Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 3 contained one example of a leaf-shaped, bone arrowhead with a lozenge-shaped section and a long, flattened rectangular tang (Fig. 4.8: 6). The blade was c. 3 cm long and 1.5 cm wide. The tang was about 5 cm long and 0.9 cm wide. Similar arrowheads occur in medieval nomad burials on the Eastern European steppes (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 29) and in Qipchaq burials in the southern Ural Mountains, dating to the 13th and 14th centuries AD (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 12, figs. 8: 13–4, 9: 4, 12–13, 16: 16–7).

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Type V Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4 contained one example of a triangular bone arrowhead with a hexagonic section and a long flat tang (Fig. 4.10: 2). The blade was 2.5 cm long and 1.2 cm wide. The tang was approximately 4 cm long and 1 cm wide. Arrowheads of this type and quality are uncommon. Ivanov and Kriger (1988: 12, fig. 13: 3) list several examples from Qipchaq burials in the southern Ural Mountains, dating to the 13th and 14th centuries AD. Bows Only a single part of a bow was discovered in Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 (Fig. 4.6: 2). It concerned a bent bone plate with a planoconvex section that was originally attached to the belly of a wooden composite bow. The plate’s external surface was polished and had frequent, randomly oriented grooves. The inner surface was rough and joined to the bow with animal glue. The part belongs to type 2 of Fedorov-Davydov’s (1966: 25) bone mount typology. The burial contained no bone bow tips or stiffening laths, suggesting that the belly was the only part of the bow equipped with bone elements. Composite bows of this type belong to type 3 of Khudyakov’s (1986: 181) typology of ninth and tenth century Kimak bows. The type is most commonly found in Kimak burials along the Irtysh river (Arslanova 1969: 45–47, table 1). Lamellar armour Only two burials contained remnants of lamellar amour. A number of rectangular, heavily corroded iron plates (4 by 5 cm) were discovered in Kazgan 4, kurgan 1 (Fig. 4.11: 5). Several researchers rightfully remarked that the production of lamellar amour was a complicated and expensive undertaking. As a result, burials only rarely contain complete suits of armour. It was more common to symbolise its presence through the inclusion of a small number of lamellar iron plates (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 13). It seems likely that the burial of Kazgan 4 also made use of this pars pro toto symbolism. Berniyaz 3, kurgan 1 contained a complete (or at least considerable part of a) lamellar armour cuirass. The burial pit contained numerous identical iron plates between 7.5 and 7.6 cm long and between 2 and 2.2 cm wide. The plates were rectangular with a rounded top. Each had thirteen perforations with a diameter of 2 to 3 mm: six of these (i.e. three pairs) were longitudinally placed at the bottom corners, one was located at the centre of the plate, four (two pairs) were longitudinally placed just below the rounded top, and two were longitudinally placed

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4 Archaeological context in the middle of the rounded top. The lamellar armour cuirass looked like a shirt with short sleeves. The plates were laced together or sown onto a fabric base. Similar plates with various perforations are commonplace in Central Asia and its periphery. They have been found in Slavic monuments, dating from the seventh to the 14th centuries AD (Medvedev 1959: 6, fig. 2), medieval nomad burials on the Eastern European steppes (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 35), western Kazakhstan (Sinitsyn 1956: 97), the southern Ural Mountains (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 13), the Altai Mountains (Gravilova 1965: table V: 1), and south Siberia (Khudyakov 1980: 118–28, table XL: 4). Lamellar armour was used for the protection of both soldiers and horses. For example, burial 250 in Tsozarovka contained a horse skeleton that had a lamellar armour placed over its back (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 35; Pletnev 1973: 31, table A). Berniyaz 3, kurgan 1 contained no burial and the objects found consisted only of horse harness parts, including a saddle and stirrups. It seems quite likely therefore that the mound contained the lamellar armour of a horse rather than that of a person.

2. Equestrian equipment Stirrups Six burials contained fragments of stirrups. The stirrup from Kazgan 5, kurgan 2 was too fragmented to be attributed to a type, but almost all of the remaining examples fall within the typology developed by Fedorov-Davydov (1966: 11–16, fig. 1). They can be divided into the following types:1 • • • • •

type Б1 (one example) type B1 (one example) type B2 (two examples) type Г4 (four examples) type Ж1 (two examples).

Only one example is not covered by Fedorov-Davydov’s typology (1966). Burials normally contain stirrups of the same type. Only Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 contained stirrups of different types. In horse burials, stirrups are usually placed on either side of the skeleton. In burials without horse remains, they are normally located near the feet of the deceased. 1 The original Cyrillic alphabet has been retained for this typology as converting it into the Latin script could create confusion.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Type Б1 A stirrup of type Б1 (Fig. 4.6: 8a) was found together with a stirrup of type B1 (Fig. 4.6: 8b) in Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2. The stirrup had a low, rectangular suspension loop that was separated from the foot loop by a notch on each side. The bottom plate was narrow and concave-convex in section. It had a shallow, semi-circular ledge on the bottom. The stirrup was made of iron and had been forged in a single piece. Stirrups of type Б1 are commonplace. They are found among others in kurgans in the southern Ural Mountains dating to the ninth and tenth centuries AD (Mazhitov 1977: 22, 24, 28, table 1: 200, 1981: figs. 26: 29, 43: 5,8). Similar stirrups are also characteristic of the Saltovo-Mayaki cultures (Pletnev 1967: 167, fig. 46: 8) and the tenth to 11th-century AD steppe nomads of Eastern Europe (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 11) and Hungary (Dienesh 1966: 231, fig. 23; Kiss and Bartha 1970: pl. XXIX: 1–2). They have also been found in Russian (Kirpichnikov 1973: 45, fig. 29: VI, table I: 1, XIV: 1, 6, 11–12) and Siberian (Kiselyov 1951: 518) contexts. According to Fedorov-Davydov (1966:115) stirrups of this type have a narrow chronological range, making them useful chronological markers. Type B1 A stirrup of type B1 (Fig. 4.6: 8b) was discovered in Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2. It had a low, rectangular suspension loop for the stirrup leather. There was a narrow groove below the suspension loop. Unlike type Б1, there were no indentations between the foot loop and the suspension loop. The bottom plate was narrow and concave-convex in section. It had a shallow, semi-circular ledge on the bottom. The stirrup was made of iron and had been forged in a single piece. Fedorov-Davydov (1966) describes stirrups of type B1 as having a flat bottom plate. The longitudinally placed ledge on the bottom of the foot plate therefore represents a variation of the type, intermediate between types Б1 and B1. Similar stirrups are found in Srostkinskoy contexts dating to the eight to tenth centuries AD (Gavrilova 1965: fig. 11: 5) and in ninthand tenth-century burials in the southern Ural Mountains (Mazhitov 1981: figs 41: 10, 45: 6, 46: 20). It is interesting to note that kurgan 3 in the Ishimbaevsk region of the southern Ural Mountains also contained stirrups of both type Б1 and B1 (Mazhitov 1981: fig. 45: 5–6) (i.e. an identical situation to that encountered in Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2). Fedorov-Davydov (1966) notes the presence of stirrup type B1 in monuments dating to the 12th and early 13th centuries AD. In Priuraliya they are found only in association with coins of the late

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4 Archaeological context 13th century and seem to have disappeared by the early 14th century. Further examples are known from both pre-Mongol and Golden Horde contexts in Zavolzhye and the steppes of southern Russia. It seems possible therefore that they survived into the late 13th to 14th centuries AD in the Volzhsko-Ural region (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 26–27). The example from Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 can be securely dated to the ninth to tenth century AD on the basis of its associated finds. It seems clear therefore that stirrups of this type were used over a prolonged period and cannot be used to accurately date monuments. Type B2 Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 3 contained two iron stirrups of type B2 (Fig. 4.8: 1–2). Both stirrups had a low rectangular suspension loop for the stirrup leather. There were no indentations between the foot loop and the suspension loop. The bottom plate was flat, between 7.5 and 7.8 cm wide, and slightly bent in cross-section. The corners between the bottom plate and the sides of the foot loop were slightly flattened. The stirrups were between 15.8 and 16 cm high and between 13.5 and 14 cm wide. Identical stirrups have been found in medieval nomad burials in Eastern Europe. Fedorov-Davydov (1966: 5, 15, 103, 105, fig. 1) tentatively dates stirrups of this type to the 12th and early 13th centuries AD because they share certain characteristics with PreMongolian examples. However, that this date should not be taken as a proven is clearly illustrated by the presence of B2 stirrups in 14th-century Qipchaq burials in the Ural Mountains (Ivanov 1984: 84, 93, figs 7–8, 12). Type Г4 Stirrups of type Г4 were found at Kalal’ik 2 and Ak-Chungul’ 8, kurgan 1 (Fig. 4.4: 1–2). The stirrups were arch-shaped and had shallow ledges at the corners between the sides of the foot loop and the bottom plate. The bottom plates were rather narrow. Three of them had a concave-convex cross-section with the convex part pointing up. The fourth bottom plate was convexo-convex in section. The top of the stirrup had a triangular or sub-triangular shape with a slit-like suspension hole for the stirrup leather. Stirrups of type Г4 are known from burials at Kyz-tepe, dating to the 13th and 14th centuries AD. They are also commonly found in Eastern European kurgans of the same age (Fedorov-Davydov 1996: 12–13, fig. 1) as well as in Russian monuments dating to the 12th and 13th century AD (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 15–16). Examples

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region found in the Kashka-dar’ya Valley in Central Asia (Kabanov 1963) have been erroneously dated to the ninth and tenth centuries AD (cf. Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 15, note 32). Type Ж1 Kazgan 4, kurgan 1 contained two stirrups of type Ж1 (Fig. 4.11: 1–2). The stirrups were arch-shaped and had a wide, oval-shaped bottom plate with a concave-convex cross-section. The top of the foot loop was not flattened as is normally the case and lacked a suspension loop. The stirrups were approximately 12.5 cm high and 14 cm wide at the base. The bottom plate was c. 12 cm wide. Stirrups of this type are rare and are most often found in medieval nomad burials in Eastern Europe. According to Fedorov-Davydov (1966: 13, 116, fig. 1) the type can be securely dated to the second half of the 13th and 14th centuries AD. New type Berniyaz 3, kurgan 1 contained a single example of a hitherto unrecorded stirrup type. The stirrup was arch-shaped with angular ledges at the corners between the sides of the foot loop and the bottom plate. The top of the stirrup had a 5.2 to 5.3 cm wide, oval-shaped suspension loop for the stirrup leather. The bottom plate had been applied separately. The ends of the plate were bent upwards at right angles and were subsequently attached to the ledges at the bottom of the foot loop. The stirrup was 17.5 cm high and 14.5 cm wide. There are no recorded parallels for this type of stirrup, but it seems to be technologically connected to stirrups from Russia, particularly to type 8 of Kirpichnikov’s (1973: 51–55, fig. 29: VIII) typology. The latter is a rare type in Russia that has only been found in late 12th and 13th century contexts at Novgorod and Rossave. According to Kirpichnikov (1973: 52) such stirrups were introduced by European groups. Outside Russia they occur in Cours, Prussia, and Sweden. If it is justified to make a connection between the Ustyurt stirrup and similar examples from Russia and Europe, they may provide evidence for long-distance contact or trade. Bits Three burials contained what appeared to be remains of horse bits. In all cases, the remains were too fragmentary to be securely attributed to a bit type. A complete iron bit ring was discovered in situ between the teeth of a horse’s skull in Kazgan 4, kurgan 1 (Fig. 4.11: 3). As the horse burial was undisturbed and fully intact, it seems that the ring was supposed to represent a complete bit by way of pars

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4 Archaeological context pro toto symbolism. The two remaining examples were found in Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3 and Ak-Chungul’ 8, kurgan 1, but their identification as bit rings is not entirely secure. Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 contained a complete half of a fullcheek snaffle bit with a jointed mouthpiece and loose O-rings (Fig. 4.6: 6). Various variants of full-cheek snaffle bits are known from numerous ninth- to 11th-century contexts in Russia (Kirpichnikov 1973: fig. 4, types 1, 1а, 16) and the southern Ural Mountains (Mazhitov 1981: figs 17: 15, 21: 11, 22: 11, 24: 8, 26: 11, 31: 17, 50: 11). There are also direct parallels in Saltovo-Mayaki contexts dating to the eighth and ninth centuries AD (Pletnev 1989: 81, fig. 38). Bridle Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 contained five small silver mounts and one silver stud that may stem from a horse bridle. Silver mounts The silver mounts all had the same shape and consisted of an eightpetalled, openwork rosette with a whirl-shaped design in the centre (Fig. 4.6: 9a–e). They were stamped out of sheet silver and had three short pins on the reverse that were used for fastening them onto a strap. Similar silver ornaments have been discovered in a burial in the southern Ural Mountains (Mazhitov 1981: 129, fig. 55: 4) and in Kimak graves in Prirtyshya, dating to the ninth and tenth centuries AD. The most famous parallels were found in kurgan 1 of the Oryol cemetery (Arslanova 1969: 45, fig. 1). In all these examples, the ornaments were found in connection with clothing, particularly belts. However, the Ustyurt examples should probably be interpreted as decorative elements of a horse bridle on the basis of their associated finds. Silver stud The silver stud had the shape of an openwork rosette with three petals divided by three-leaf palmettos (Fig. 4.6: 5). There was a second, six-petalled rosette within a round border on the obverse of the stud. The reverse had a shallow sub-triangular depression. The stud was made of cast silver. Objects of this kind were used for fastening horse bridle components. Similar studs have been found across a vast geographical area, from Kirghizia and Prirtyshya in the east to Hungary in the west (Trudy Semirechenskoy 1950: table XLIX: 4; Dienesh 1966; FedorovDavydov 1966: 59; Kazakov 1971: table XII: 22–25; Steppes of Eurasia

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region 1981: figs 26, 57–58, 79). Exact parallels are known only from ninth and tenth century burials in the southern Ural Mountains (Mazhitov 1981: 42, 103, figs 20: 26, 21: 6, 10, 55: 3). Saddles Four burials contained fragments of equestrian saddles. In all cases the wooden saddle tree had completely deteriorated, leaving only traces of wood powder along the withers, back, and croup of the horse skeleton. Bone mounts Three burials contained fragments of bone mounts. Berniyaz 3, kurgan 1 contained nine long, narrow strips of bone, polished smooth on the obverse but left rough on the reverse. These strips all had deep longitudinal cuts on the reserve that were used for gluing them onto the saddle tree. The two bone mounts from Ak-Changul’ 8, kurgan 1 had small holes with which they could be fastened onto the saddle tree (Fig. 4.4: 4–5). Some of these holes still contained short, bone rivets. It was commonplace to furnish saddle edges with narrow bone strips. Saddle fragments with such mounts are known, for example, from Black Hats contexts in Porosja (Pletneva 1973: table 7) and the Kudyrge cemetery in the Altai Mountains (Gavrilova 1965: table XII: 13). Two further decorative bone inlays were discovered in Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 (Fig. 4.6: 7a–b). Harness and saddle buckles Fragments of harness and saddle buckles were found in Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 1 and Kazgan 4, kurgan 3. All three examples were made of iron. Two of the buckles were relatively large. The third was much smaller, but not typologically different. It was presumably used to fasten bridle straps. According to Fedorov-Davydov (1966: 42) iron buckles were a common element of Eurasian equestrian equipment. The following types of Fedorov-Davydov’s typology (1966: 42–47) were represented among the Ustyurt finds. Type 2 A1 A fragment of a large, slightly trapezoidal buckle with a straight, separate tongue was discovered in Kazgan 4, kurgan 1 (Fig. 4.11: 4). The buckle was c. 10 cm long and 9 cm wide. Buckles of this type are typical of ninth- to 11th-century contexts in Eastern Europe (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 46) and Russia (Kirpichnikov

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4 Archaeological context 1973: 76–78, fig. 43: 1–2). They occur slightly later in Qipchaq burials dating to the 12th to 14th centuries AD in the southern Ural Mountains and Priuraliya (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: fig. 3: 1 type A1). Similar buckles have also been found in Saltovo-Mayaki contexts (Pletneva 1967: fig. 46: 1). A similar, albeit much smaller buckle was discovered in Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 3. It concerned a complete, square buckle with a straight, separate tongue (Fig. 4.8: 3). The buckle was c. 3.5 cm long and 3.5 cm wide. Numerous parallels are known from SaltovoMayaki burial contexts, where they are often described as belt buckles (Pletneva 1989: fig. 56, burials 37, 69, 71, 74, 86–89, 95, 98, 102, 106, 118). Type 2 A3 Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 3 contained a large, round buckle with a straight, separate tongue (Fig. 4.8: 7). The buckle had a diameter of c. 7 cm. Parallels are known from 11th to 13th century contexts in Russia (Kirpichnikov 1973: 77, fig. 43: 7–8) and Eastern Europe (FedorovDavydov 1966: 46, fig. 7). Similar buckles have also been found in Qipchaq burials dating to the 12th to 14th centuries AD in the southern Urals (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: fig. 3: 1, type A3).

3. Jewellery and toiletries Earrings Only three earrings were found among the Ustyurt burials. All examples were complete and come from Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 1. This burial contained a pair of earrings made of gold wire hoops and a spherical bead (Fig. 4.3: 2). Both beads were bisected by a triple braid of twisted wire. One of the beads was tightly fixed in place with a double-looped coiling wire. The other bead was loose and movable. The rings had a diameter of 2.3 to 2.4 cm. The gold wire had a reddish hue and was about 0.2 cm thick. The spherical beads had a diameter of approximately 1 cm. Other earrings of this type have been discovered in the 11th-century Shymkent Treasure in Kazakhstan (OAK 1989: 65, fig. 105). Other examples were found in Hungary (Hampel 1905: 368–69) and the Eastern European steppes. Typologically similar earrings are also known from Qipchaq burials in the southern Ural Mountains (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: fig. 4: I, III).

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region The earrings belong to type 3 of Fedorov-Davydov’s typology (1966: 39–40, fig. 6: III) and are considered typical for female burials of the Polovtsian culture (Steppes of Eurasia 1981: 216, fig. 84: 7). The type is dated to the late 11th and 12th centuries AD due to it sharing certain characteristics with similar Russian earrings. Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 1 contained one earring of an altogether different type. It concerned a simple silver wire hoop with a diameter of c. 2 cm (Fig. 4.3: 4). The hoop was not fully closed at the top and was approximately 0.2 cm thick. Earrings of this type belong to type 1 of Fedorov-Davydov’s typology (1966: 39, fig. 6: 1). The type has a rather broad chronological and geographical range, but is most commonly found in female burials dating to the late 11th and 12th centuries AD (Steppes of Eurasia 1981: 216, fig. 84: 2). Ivanov and Kriger (1988: 16, figs 4: 1, 7: 6, 11: 41) discovered similar earrings in 12th- to 14th-century burials in the southern Ural Mountains. Torques A fragment of a silver wire torque (grivna) with a spherical bead was discovered in Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3 (Fig. 4.3: 1). The bead was bisected by a triple braid of twisted wire and secured on both sides with five coils of silver wire. The bead had a diameter of 1.4 cm. The silver wire was approximately 0.3 cm thick. Torques are rare in late nomadic burials in Eastern Europe (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 37). There are no known parallels for the example just described (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 37; Steppes of Eurasia 1981: 217, fig. 84: 5). However, it is interesting to note that the torque is typologically and technologically similar to the gold earrings discussed above (Fig. 4.3: 2). Cowries One large (Fig. 4.3: 7) and one small (Fig. 4.3: 5) cowrie shell were found in Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3. Cowries occur together with beads in Qipchaq burials dating to the 12th to 14th centuries AD in the southern Ural Mountains (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 18, fig. 4: 12). Beads A complete, flattened, spheroid bead was discovered in Ak-Chungul’ 8, kurgan 1 (Fig. 4.4: 8). It was made out of opaque dark glass with light and dark longitudinal veins. The multi-coloured veining was achieved through the application of differently coloured glass rods onto the glass core.

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4 Archaeological context Mirrors Zhar’inkuduk 4, kurgan 5 contained fragments of a circular, cast silver mirror with decoration. The mirror had a diameter of c. 9 cm and was smooth and flat on the obverse. The reverse had a low, rimmed edge and was decorated with a pair of sturgeons (Acipenseridae) with water and weeds. The mirror was cracked down the centre. The mirror belongs to type H1 of Fedorov-Davydov’s (1966: 82, 116) typology and can be dated to the second half of the 13th and 14th centuries AD. Similar mirrors have been found in occupation layers in medieval Khwarezm (Kdyrnijazov 1984: 99, fig. 16), nomad burials in Eastern Europe, and in Golden Horde cities in the Volga region (Fedorov-Davidov 1966: 82, fig. 13, type Н1). Earlier mirrors of this type are known from Far Eastern contexts dating to the 12th and 13th centuries AD (Shavkunov 1960: 235, fig. 6). It seems that the inhabitants of the Golden Horde cities and the steppes of Eastern Europe were influenced by Far Eastern designs. However, the sturgeons depicted on the Ustyurt mirror are a distinctly local feature. They are common fish in both the Aral and Caspian seas. The mirror was probably produced in a Golden Horde workshop in the Volga region or in Khwarezm and ended up in an Ustyurt Qipchaq burial through trade.

4. Household items Knives Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4 contained an iron-forged, tanged knife blade (Fig. 4.10: 9). The blade was single-edged and straight. It had a drop-shaped cross-section and a drop-point tip. The tang was wedgeshaped and would have been socketed to a haft of wood or bone (missing). The tang was placed at a slight angle to the longitudinal axis of the blade. The blade measured c. 19.5 cm long and 2.1 cm wide. The tang was approximately 5.5 cm long. The knife belongs to type 1 of Fedorov-Davydov’s (1966: 85) typology. Knives of this type are extremely common and widespread, both geographically and chronologically. Similar examples were discovered in a large number of Qipchaq burials in the southern Ural Mountains (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 14), but they are much rarer in medieval graves in Central Asia (Zadneprovsky 1975: 277, fig. 2b). The remains of two fragmentary knives were found at Kalal’ik 2 (Fig. 4.14: 9) and Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 3. They were much damaged but appear to be of the same type.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Fire striker (kresalo) A complete, iron-forged fire striker (kresalo) was discovered in Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4. The steel was C-shaped and had a thicker, triangular ‘hump’ on the inner surface (Fig. 4.10: 8). It was approximately 8.5 cm long and 6 cm wide. The striker belongs to type 2 of Fedorov-Davydov’s typology (1966: 84, fig. 12: 8). Examples of the type have been found in medieval nomad burials on the steppes of Eastern Europe and in 13th- and 14th-century Qipchaq burials in the southern Ural Mountains (Ivanov and Kriger 1989: 14, fig. 8: 8). Fire strikers of a slightly different type are known from 13th- and 14th-century nomad burials in Fergana (Zadneprovsky 1975: 277, fig. 2B) and several earlier, 11th- and 12th-century contexts (Kolchin 1959: 101–3; Kyzlasov 1975). Belt buckles A bronze belt buckle was found in Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2. The buckle had an arch-shaped frame with a lipped outer edge (Fig. 4.6: 10). The bottom of the frame was straight and had a rectangular strap loop. The obverse was decorated along the edges with lines of punched, semi-circular motifs and had a lozenge-shaped panel with foliate patterns at its centre. There were three pins on the reverse that were used to attach the buckle to a belt. Decorated belt buckles with strap loops occur in many varieties and have a very wide geographical and chronological range. The Ustyurt example has no known parallels.

5. Pottery Ceramics are extremely rare in the cemeteries of Ustyurt. A few pot shards were discovered in kurgan 2 of the Kosarma cemetery. All of these belonged to a cylinder-necked vessel with a rim diameter of c. 10 cm and 0.4 cm thick walls. The vessel had been thrown on a potter’s wheel and was made using puddled clay. There were fine gypsum nodules visible in the fabric. The fabric was coloured brick-red and had been fired in a kiln. The external surface had faint traces of an off-white slip. Similar vessel fragments were also found scattered around the surface of the mound. The fragments belong to a handled jug of a type that is well known from Khwarezm (Vaktursky 1959: 272–73, 276) and Late Kerder (Yagodin 1981: 87, 98, fig. 6: 5) ceramic assemblages, dating to the ninth to 11th centuries AD. Other fragments belonging to this type were discovered around Kosarma

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4 Archaeological context object 5 (‘the tailed kurgan’) and among a group of hearths with wind breakers at Tajli. Similar pottery fragments were also found at arrow-shaped structures Dekcha 1 and Aksaimak 2. One fragment of a glazed, bluish-green kashin bowl was discovered in Berniyaz 1, group I, kurgan 1. Bowls of this type are characteristic of Khwarezm Golden Horde contexts, dating to the second half of the 13th and 14th centuries AD (Vaktursky 1959: 327).

6. Other finds Jingle bells A cast bronze jingle bell was discovered in Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3. The bell was pear-shaped and hollow on the inside (Fig. 4.3: 3). It had a transverse cut along the bottom and a small suspension loop at the top. The surface had frequent traces of smoothing or sharpening with a file, particularly on the suspension loop. There was a sizable crack on one side of the bell. The bell core still contained a drop-shaped ringer made of bronze with a perforation at the centre. The bell belongs to type 3 of Fedorov-Davydov’s typology (1966: 69, 115) and dates to the tenth and 11th centuries AD. Jingle bells were used for different purposes. They were, among other uses, attached to clothes. In that capacity they presumably served as apotropaic amulets, warding off evil spirits. Jingle bells were also accessories of horse harnesses (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 69; Pletneva 1989: 107). Bone mounts Five bone plates with the shape of an isosceles triangle were discovered in Berniyaz 3, kurgan 1. The obverse of the plates was polished smooth but the reverse was left rough. The latter was presumably pasted onto another surface with animal glue. All examples had a round perforation in the centre with a diameter of 0.7 to 0.9 cm. The arms of the different bone triangles were between 2.4 and 2.9 cm long. There are no exact parallels for these plates. Since they were discovered with the fragmentary remains of a saddle, they can be tentatively interpreted as decorative saddle mounts. Bone discs Berniyaz 3, kurgan 1 also contained two bone discs of uncertain function. The discs had a diameter of c. 2.1 cm and were polished on both surfaces. Both examples had a thin, narrow ridge around the edges of the obverse. One was decorated with two incised concentric

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region circles on the obverse. Another had only one incised concentric circle at the centre. The discs had a longitudinal perforation with fragments of iron wire still in situ. Exact parallels are unknown. It is possible that the discs stem from a saddle on the basis of their associated finds. However, they could also have served as fasteners for the lamellar armour that was discovered in the same burial. Pierced bone disc Kazgan 2, group III, kurgan 4 contained an oval-shaped, pierced bone disc of uncertain function (Fig. 4.10: 7). It might have been a spindle whorl.

Summary The medieval graves of Ustyurt frequently include equestrian equipment, such as bits, saddle fragments, stirrups, and harness buckles. Weaponry is found less frequently, but includes swords, arrowheads, arrow shaft fragments, quivers, and pieces of lamellar armour. Other finds, such as household items, are rare and often represented by a single find only. Chronology It is not very difficult to assign a date to the medieval burials of Ustyurt. The local funerary customs and burial assemblages fall within the scope of well-developed typologies and chronologies of nomadic material culture as found in the southern Ural Mountains, Priuraliya, and the steppes of Eastern Europe (Fedorov-Davydov 1966; Ivanov and Kriger 1988). Although the number of excavated burials is still limited, it is already becoming apparent that the nomads of Ustyurt did not form a separate, culturally isolated group. Rather they seem to have been closely related to Ivanov and Kriger’s (1988) ‘east group’ of southern Ural Qipchaq burials. It is possible to divide the medieval burials of Ustyurt into two groups: burials dating to the ninth to 11th centuries AD, and burials dating to the 12th to 14th centuries AD. Ninth to 11th centuries AD Grave goods show that Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 and Kosarma, kurgan 2 were constructed in the ninth to 11th centuries AD (Yagodin 1978: 138–40). Zhar’inkuduk 14, kurgan 2 dates to the ninth and tenth centuries AD.

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4 Archaeological context Other Ustyurt monuments dating to the ninth to 11th centuries

AD include: some of the arrow-shaped structures of the Aybuyir-

Prisar’ikam’ish group; the ruinous towers of Kazakl’i-degish, Kulanly, and Galygumbe; the towers of Small Aybuyir-kala (Bakkal-kala), Aybuyir, Kaskazhol, Kalal’ik, Tomar-kala, Pul-zhi, Akchulak, Karaumbet, Urga, and Adzhabaj; the settlements of Kulanly, Galygumbez, Small Aybuyir-kala (Bakkal-kala), Karaumbet, Urga, and Adzhibay; the cemeteries of Kulanly, Karaumbet, and Adzhibay (Manylov 1978); the sanctuary of Tajli; and the latest occupation layers of the settlement of Big Aybuyir-kala (Mambetullaev 1978). Twelfth to 14th centuries AD Most burials under review here date to the 12th to 14th centuries AD. Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 1 was constructed before the pre-Mongol period and dates to the 12th to early 13th centuries AD. The remaining burial mounds were all built in the Golden Horde period (second half of the 13th to 14th century AD). A number of these almost surely date to the second half of the 14th century AD as they appear to contain Islamic rather than pagan burials. A number of sites on the Ustyurt Plateau date to the 12th to 14th centuries AD, including several arrow-shaped structures belonging to the Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group. Small Aybuyir-kala (Bakkal-kala), Karaumbet, Adzhibay, the upper occupation layers at Kulanly, the lower occupation layers at Kurgancha (Davletgirey), the settlement and cemetery of Khantersek (Erburun), and the settlements of Saksaulsay-kala and Kyjazhol 1 and 2 date to pre-Mongol times (12th to early 13th centuries AD). The upper occupation layers at Kurgancha date to the second half of the 13th to 14th centuries AD (Manylov 1978: 272). A number of caravanserais along the Ustyurt trade route from Khwarezm to the Volga River also date to this period, including Adzhigeldy, Bulak, Kosbulak, Beleuli, and Churuk (Manylov 1982). Typology of the burial superstructures Preliminary analyses suggest that funerary customs of the Ustyurt Plateau had much in common with those of other nomadic tribes in Eurasia, the Lower Volga, and the southern Urals. The following analysis uses the typology of funerary rites developed by FedorovDavydov (1966), which was later supplemented by Ivanov and Kriger (1988). In Ustyurt the vast majority of the medieval burials are situated below a kurgan. They are found in isolation or in small cemeteries that tend to contain no more than three burial mounds. This pattern

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region is closely mirrored in the southern Ural Mountains, where ‘the overwhelming majority of known burials … date to the Qipchaq period (79%) and occur either as isolated examples or in small groups of two to three burial mounds’ (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 42). In some cases burial mounds of later nomads have been constructed among much older kurgans (for example, Kazgan 2, group III, kurgans 3 and 4; Kazgan 5, kurgan 2). Ninth to 11th centuries AD In Ustyurt there are two types of burial mounds dating to the ninth and tenth centuries AD: 1. Stone-built burial mounds 2. Earth burial mounds with a stone facing (so-called turtle backs). The stone-built burial mounds correspond to type V of FedorovDavydov’s typology. The earth burial mounds with a stone facing correspond to type IV (1966: 122). The latter occur in Priuraliya and the Volga region from the ninth to 11th centuries AD (FedorovDavydov 1966: 122). They are also found in the southern Urals and Podonja during the second half of the 13th and 14th centuries AD (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 122). Twelfth to 14th centuries AD The superstructures of the 12th- to 14th-century burials can be divided into two groups: those with a burial mound and those without. The former are far more abundant and are subdivided in Fedorov-Davydov’s typology (1966: 120). Type IV burial mounds ‘absolutely dominate … and consist of a two-tiered burial mound, one being embedded in the other. The inner burial mound is made out of stone or earth and paved with limestone fieldstones (‘turtle backs’). The outer mound is commonly made of earth and can be stone-covered as well’ (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 120). Other types of superstructure are also found on the Ustyurt Plateau (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 120): • • • •

Type II earth burial mound packed with stones (two examples) Type III pit with horizontally placed capstones (one example) Type V stone burial mound (one example) Type VI enclosure made of limestone fieldstones placed on their sides (two examples).

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4 Archaeological context The burial mounds normally have a diameter of 6–8 m and are between 50–60 cm high. Smaller mounds with a diameter of 3–4 m and a height of 15–20 cm occur as well. In Kurgancha type II, earth burial mounds can have a diameter of up to 40 m and can contain multiple stone cist burials (Yagodin 1978: 128). Zhar’inkuduk 5, cemetery 2 contains graves where the burial mound has been replaced by two vertically placed orthostats above the burial pit. Similar graves are known from the Muslim cemetery of Beleuli, dating to the early 1370s AD (Manylov 1982: 106, 108, 112). Kazgan 4, kurgan 2 belongs to a similar type. Virtually all Ustyurt burial mounds dating to the Qipchaq period (12th to 14th centuries AD) contain stone-built elements of some sort. Ivanov and Kriger (1988: 44–45) use the presence or absence of stone elements as a means to divide the kurgans of Priuraliya and the southern Ural Mountains into an east and a west group. Burial mounds with stone elements are ascribed to the east group; those without are assigned to the west group. Stone elements are rare in 12th-century kurgans in Eastern Europe, but were very common during the 13th and 14th centuries AD (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 120–2). Typology of the subterranean burial complexes Ninth to 11th centuries AD Ustyurt burials dating to the ninth to 11th centuries AD can be subdivided into two types: • •

Type AI simple, rectangular burial pits without horse remains and the deceased lying supine with the skull to the west Type БIII wide burial pits with horse remains (skull or leg bones) placed on a step along the north wall of the pit and the deceased lying supine with the skull to the west.

Types AI and БIII are common from the ninth to 11th centuries

AD and are mainly found in the Volga region. In this period the

Eurasian steppes were dominated by the Pechenegs and the Oghuz, who buried their dead according to burial types AI and БIII (FedorovDavydov 1966: 134). Twelfth to 14th centuries AD Kurgans dating to the 12th to 14th centuries AD usually contain a single burial. In a few cases (Kazgan 4, kurgan 1 and Karakbir) later shaft burials have been sunk into the medieval mounds. Late

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region nomadic shaft burials are also found in the Adzhibay, kurgan 2 and Berniyaz 1, group I, kurgan 1. The medieval burials can be divided into several types (FedorovDavydov 1966). Type AI

The most common type is AI (simple, rectangular burial pits without horse remains and the deceased lying supine with the skull to the west). This type of burial is found in Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3; Ak-Chungul’ 8, kurgan 1; Zhar’inkuduk 4, kurgan 5; Kazgan 2, group III, kurgans 3 and 4; Kalal’ik 2, kurgan 1. Only one of these burials (Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3) dates to 12th to early 13th centuries AD. The others were constructed in the second half of the 13th to 14th centuries AD. Some of the burials (Ak-Chungul’ 1, kurgan 3, Kazgan 2, group III, kurgans 3 and 4, and Kalal’ik 2, kurgan 1) had capstones over the pit. Outside Ustyurt, burials of this type are often covered with wooden planks (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 124). Presumably the capstones served as a surrogate for wooden planks. Stone is much more readily available than wood on the Ustyurt Plateau. Burials belonging to type AI are by far the most common type of burial (72 percent) in stone-built burial mounds in the southern Ural Mountains and Priuraliya. Of these, 31 percent have wooden planks or blocks covering the pit. Type AI burials do not occur in the southern Urals in the pre-Mongol period and only become common there in the second half of the 13th to 14th centuries AD (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 51). Type AII

Type AII (burial pits with a step along the north wall, the deceased lying supine with the skull to the west, and no horse remains) are much less common. In Ustyurt only Kurgancha, kurgan 1 can be attributed to this type. The burial can be tentatively dated to the second half of the 14th century AD. Type AII burials are also rare in the southern Urals and appear to be chronologically restricted to the Golden Horde Muslim period or the second half of the 14th century AD (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: table 6). All known examples belong to the west group (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: table 5). In Eastern Europe the type is likewise rare and only attested in the Lower Volga region (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: table 17). Type AIV

The substructures of Urga, kurgan 3 (Yagodin 1978: 138, fig. 43) and Zhar’inkuduk 4, ‘kurgan’ 5b belong to burial type AIV (burial pit

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4 Archaeological context with stepped sides along the east and west walls, the deceased lying tightly flexed on its right side with the skull in the west, and no horse remains). In both examples the mouth of the pit was covered with limestone capstones. In Eastern Europe pits of this type are covered with wooden planks (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: 124). The type occurs in both the east and west group of Qipchaq burials in the southern Urals. According to Ivanov and Kriger (1988: tables 5–6) the type is chronologically restricted to the Golden Horde period. Pits with a stepped divide between the entrance shaft and the burial pit are typical of medieval Khwarezm cemeteries. In the Mizdahkana cemetery burials of this type date to the second half of the eighth to tenth centuries AD (Yagodin and Khodzhayov 1970: 107–8). Similar dates have been suggested for type AIV burials in the necropolis of Tokkala (Bizhanov and Mambetullaev 1973: 54). Type AV

In Ustyurt, burial type AV (deceased lying supine with the skull to the north in a burial pit lined on the south with vertically placed wooden planks or stone slabs) is only found at Adzhibay, kurgan 2 (Yagodin 1978: 130–34, fig. 42: III). In the Golden Horde period, this type of burial is characteristic for certain areas of the Lower Volga region, Zavolzhye, and the southern Urals. Ivanov and Kriger (Kriger 1984: 111; Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 64) established that the type already occured in pre-Mongol times on the steppes of South Priuraliya and in Zovolzhye (Kriger 1984: 111; Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 64). They also noted the presence of similar burial types below Kimak burial mounds in Prirtyshya dating to the ninth and 11th centuries AD (Arslanova and Samashev 1985). According to Fedorov-Davydov (1966: 160–61) the type was spread by the Mongols and by other tribes involved in the Tatar-Mongolian migrations from the east. In the southern Urals, burials of type AV are Islamic and date to the second half of the 14th century AD (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: table 6). Although Adzhibay, kurgan 2 contained no burial goods, it may by analogy also be Islamic. Type AVIII

Burial type AVIII (the deceased lying supine with the skull to the west in a rectangular stone cist, and no horse remains) is found in two Ustyurt graves: Karakibir, kurgan 1 and Kurgancha, kurgan 2 (Yagodin 1978: 128–30). The type is rare. Parallels are only known below kurgans in Crimea, dating to the 12th century AD (Fedorov-Davydov 1966: table 15),

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region and the Lower Volga region, dating to the second half of the 13th to 14th centuries AD (Fedorov-Davydov 1996: table 17). Type БI

The substructures of Kazgan 4, kurgan 1 and three burial mounds at Karakibir (Yagodin 1978: 129–30) belong to type БI (simple burial pit with the deceased lying supine with the skull in the west and with disarticulated horse remains – normally the skull, tail, and four legs – placed roughly in their correct anatomical position). Type БI burials are attested on the plateau in the ninth and tenth centuries AD, but disappear during the tenth to 13th centuries AD. They reappear in the second half of the 13th and 14th centuries AD. This pattern can perhaps be best explained through the migration of Oghuz-Pecheneg tribes to Porose and their return to the eastern steppes and deserts of the Lower Volga region, South Priuraliya, and the Aralo-Caspian Peninsula during the Golden Horde period. Type ДIV

The substructure of Kazgan 5, kurgan 2 can be attributed to FedorovDavydov’s (1966: 127) type ДIV (simple burial pit with a rectangular stone or wooden cist without a bottom plate and the deceased placed on the side with the skull to the north, and no horse remains). Burials of this type only occur in significant numbers in the Golden Horde period. They have been found in the southern Russian steppes, the Volga region, Zavolzhye, and South Priuraliya. So far no examples dating to pre-Mongol times have been discovered. FedorovDavydov (1966: 159) and Ivanov and Kriger (1988: 64) believe, on the basis of 13th and 14th century parallels, that burials of this type were introduced from Siberia by Tatar-Mongolian tribes.

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5

Historical context Vadim N. Yagodin

Figure 5.1 View of the western escarpment, Boszhira Valley. Photo: Eduard Manukyants (Kovcheg Ecological Center).

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region This chapter places the arrow-shaped structures in a wider historical context. It has been demonstrated in Chapter 2 that most of the arrow-shaped structures date to the medieval period. The following discussion is therefore limited to the medieval evidence and does not touch upon the identity and traditions of earlier nomads living on the plateau. The cultural history of Ustyurt has hitherto been reconstructed within a framework of nomadic, cattle-breeding tribes (mainly the Oghuz and Qipchaq). Yet these reconstructions suffer from one major drawback: they are largely based on the analysis of historical records. Admittedly, several researchers have attempted to approach the issue from an archaeological perspective (Tolstov 1948: 6; Manylov 1978), but they restricted themselves to only limited categories of evidence (settlement data and to a lesser degree cemetery data). Now that a considerable amount of archaeological data is available for medieval Ustyurt, it is appropriate to reconsider the cultural history of the plateau in a more comprehensive manner, including all categories of archaeological remains: arrow-shaped structures, camp remains, farmyards, and burials.

Seventh to eighth centuries AD Only two types of monuments dating to the seventh and eighth centuries AD have been found on the Ustyurt Plateau: arrow-shaped structures and sanctuaries, all of which were constructed by DjetiasarKerder tribes. The Djetiasar were closely connected to the ancient Kangar. The Kangar made up the core of the Besenyo coalition, which formed as a result of the ethnic mixing of the inhabitants of the Lower Syrdar’ya with incoming Turkic-speaking tribes (Weinberg 1973: 115; Andrianov and Levin 1979: 97). Several researchers (Nerazik 1968: 206; Levin 1971: 242; Yagodin 1971: 69–71) characterise the early Kerder culture as an ethnic hybrid. There are also signs that at a later stage, during the ninth and tenth centuries AD, the Kerder played a role in the ethnogenesis of the Oghuz (Gudkova 1964: 141–42; Yagodin 1971: 71).

Ninth to 11th centuries AD In the ninth to 11th centuries AD the kurgans of Ustyurt were usually made out of stone and contained burials belonging to types AI and

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5 Historical context AIII. Type БIII burials almost surely belong to Oghuz nomads as they closely correspond with Ahmed ibn Fadlān’s description (written in 921–22 AD) of Oghuz funerary customs: when a person dies from their [Oghuz] ranks, a grave as large as a house is dug. The brethren of the deceased take him and dress him in his jacket and his belt. They provide him with his bow and place his hand in a bowl of nabid [an alcoholic drink made with raisins, grapes, or figs]. They then bring all his belongings and place him in this house [the grave]. They cover the house with layers of fabric, resembling a yurt. They take horses regardless of their number and kill a hundred of them, or two hundred, or one, and eat their meat, apart from the head, feet, skin and tail. For, indeed, they stretch this on pieces of wood and say, ‘These are his horses, mounted on which he will ride to paradise.’ If he [the deceased] killed a man and was brave, his brethren cut the images of those he killed out of a tree and place them on his grave … (ibn Fadlān 1939: 63)

Ethnographic sources unequivocally show that the Aralo-Caspian region was inhabited by Oghuz tribes. The anonymous Farsi Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam, composed in the last quarter of the tenth century AD, states: The Caspian Sea. On its eastern side is a desert, adjoining the [region of the] Oghuz and Horez and partly the Hazars … and also the Horez [Aral] Sea … All the areas surrounding it belong to the Oghuz. (МIТТ 1939: 209–10)

In the Kitab al-Tanbih wa al-ishraf, al-Masudi writes: and there are many nomadic camps of the Guz around it [the Caspian Sea], belonging to the Turkic inhabitants of the desert, who are located there. (МIТТ 1939: 166)

In the Al-masaalik wa al-mamaalik the Persian geographer al-Istakhri clearly locates Guz in Ustyurt. The account was written between 930 and 933 AD and was based on a geography book by Abu Zayd al-Balkhi (МIТТ 1939: 26): Then Jaihun reaches the Horez [Aral] Sea in a place where fishermen live and there are no settlements or buildings. This place is called Halidjan. On the shores of this sea is the land of the Guz, in peacetime they come from that side [of the sea] to the

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region settlement of Barategik, and on the other side into Georgiania – both of these are border fortresses. (МIТТ 1939: 179–80)

Halidjan was situated below the east escarpment of the Ustyurt Plateau, between the lake of Aybuyir and Cape Urga. The settlement of Barategin has been identified as the town of Big Aybuyir-kala (Yagodin 1986: 102). The text thus indicates that the land of the Guz ran along almost the entire extent of the east escarpment. The cliff edge evidently functioned as a natural boundary that divided the medieval agriculturalists of Khwarezm and the nomadic Guz tribes. Archaeological evidence for an Oghuz presence in Ustyurt comes mainly from ancient settlements and cemeteries along the east escarpment of the plateau. Most of these sites were first studied by the Khwarezm Archeo-Ethnographic expedition under the direction of Tolstov (1958: 74 et seq.; Tolstov et al. 1963: 27) and later were investigated by the Karakalpak Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Manylov 1978: 199 et seq.). According to Biruni (1957: 257) the Khwarezm Shahs went on campaigns every autumn, ‘driving the Guz away from its [Khwarezm’s] borders and protecting the periphery of their territories’. Tolstov (1948b: 249) suggested that the towers and small towns on the south-east escarpment of Ustyurt formed part of a Khwarezmian defence system that was erected against Oghuz attacks. However, recent investigations have shown that the towers and fortifications in this area were constructed at different periods and are typologically heterogeneous. It is quite clear that they did not belong to a single Khwarezmian defensive system. Moreover, according to Manylov (1978: 273 et seq.) many settlements in the area have been erroneously interpreted as military establishments. He argues that many of the sites were in fact caravanserais that supported Khwarezmian trade with the Pechenegs, Oghuz, and Eastern Europe. Such an interpretation would be consistent with the important role of nomadic trade in medieval Khwarezm, particularly in its northern territories (Barthold 1963a: 124; Jakubowski 1932: 15). However, one should be careful not to interpret all medieval habitation sites on the south-east escarpment as caravanserais. Most importantly, there are significant planological differences between the sites, whereas caravanserais normally have relatively fixed (and hence similar) ground plans. For example, the 11th- and 12th-century caravanserais along the trade routes from Khwarezm to Bukhara (Lohovits 1979: 112 et seq.) and from Merv to Transoxiana (Masson 1966) all have roughly identical ground plans with a big central courtyard open to the sky, surrounded by a number of small chambers, bays, or

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5 Historical context niches to accommodate merchants and their servants, animals, and merchandise. Several of the Ustyurt settlements have a markedly different ground plan with a high central tower enclosed by thick fortification walls. As such, the layout of these settlements is more reminiscent of some of the early medieval castles in the Berkut Kalin Oasis, Kumbaskan-kala, and Teshik-kala (Tolstov 1948a: 137, figs 77–81; Nerazik 1966: 138–48, fig. 40). According to Kyzlasov (1969: 61–63, fig. 11), Uighur ‘castles’ dating to the eighth and ninth centuries AD served as craft and trade centres and also as places of refuge for nomadic groups in case of military threat. It seems probable that certain sites on the south-east escarpment should be interpreted in a similar way. Other Ustyurt settlements, such as Small Aybuyir-kala and Adzhibay, are more comparable to Khwarezmian rural estates, particularly the so-called early medieval ‘estates without donjon’. These have a wide range of facilities under a single roof and are normally separated into two halves by a central corridor. Typical examples are estate numbers 28 and 136 in the Berkut Kalin Oasis (Nerazik 1966: figs 40, 43). Small Aybuyir-kala and Adzhibay are in no way comparable to traditional caravanserais. A similar case can be made for the settlement of Kulanly (contra Manylov 1978: 208). Al-Idrisi (1099–1065/6 AD) made a comment that is perhaps quite relevant for the correct interpretation of the medieval settlements of Ustyurt: ‘they [the Oghuz] of the Ominous Mountains [possibly the Ustyurt escarpment] have fortified strongholds there, which house their princes and store their food supplies’ (МIТТ 1939: 220). The settlements and towers on the east escarpment of Ustyurt should perhaps be interpreted as the strongholds of Oghuz tribal leaders rather than Khwarezmian military establishments. The relations between the nomadic Oghuz tribes and the settled agriculturalists of Khwarezm were complex and ambiguous. Barthold (1963b: 243–44) already noted that: in addition to trading and raiding, the nomads in the borderlands looked for convenient places to spend the winter, and occasionally contacted sovereigns and deputies with requests to that end. The arrival of the nomads in winter was none the less often connected with armed robberies and attacks, and forced local governments to take necessary precautions.

Numerous sources paint a picture of continuous wars between the Oghuz and the agricultural states in the area. According to Tolstov (1938b: 244):

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region war with the Oghuz was part of Khwarezmian daily life in the tenth century AD, and was firmly rooted in Khwarezmian culture through traditional customs and ceremonies.

Biruni (973–1048 AD) describes the Khwarezmian Fagburija feast, ‘the exit of the Tsar’, which took place at the onset of the autumn cold. At this time the Tsar would set out from his residence and start the traditional winter campaign against the Oghuz, expelling them from his borders. Al-Istakhri (d. 957 AD) writes that: all the borders of Maverannihr, from Khwarezm to the outskirts of Isfidzhab, were the site of military activity against the Turks and Guz. (МIТТ 1939: 178)

Yet the same al-Istakhri also states that: meat is brought to them [in Mawarannahr] by the Oghuz and the Karluk, and from neighbouring places in larger amounts than was necessary for them. (МIТТ 1939: 178)

Tolstov’s interpretation of continuous military confrontation may therefore need to be nuanced somewhat. It seems that the Oghuz living in the southern Ural Mountains, the Lower Volga region, and Ustyurt belonged to a single cultural group of nomadic pastoralists that moved seasonally with their herds. Their winter grounds were situated on the Ustyurt Plateau and below the Ustyurt escarpment, where they constructed strongholds for their tribal leaders (such as Kulanly, Small Aybuyir-kala, and Adzhibay). Khwarezmian frontier towns were also located in the area, which engaged in trade with the Oghuz. The settlement of Barategin was specifically constructed on the Khwarezmian-Oghuz border to facilitate this trade, while Gurgānj became the largest trade centre for Oghuz goods. These extensive trading networks stimulated cultural exchange and entanglement. All along the Khwarezmian-Oghuz border nomads gradually adopted Islam and cemeteries in the area reveal a gradual blending of pagan and Islamic burial practices. Khwarezmian builders almost surely also participated in the construction of the residences of the Oghuz leaders. Periods of military conflict were thus clearly followed by periods of stability and peace. It is under these conditions that the hunt with the use of arrowshaped structures acquired its mass character, providing yields that far exceeded the subsistence requirements of the hunting tribes. The

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5 Historical context resulting surplus was used in barter exchanges in the markets of Barategin and Gurgānj and tied into the broader economy of the Khwarezmian state.

Thirteenth to 14th centuries AD In Priuraliya the Oghuz were driven out by the Qipchaq in the 11th century. According to Beyhaki (1962: 104) Qipchaq tribes appeared on the borders of Khwarezm in the 1030s AD. In pre-Mongol times the Qipchaq were united in a loose confederation with a shared material culture. According to Chinese sources, Qipchaqs were also settled in the Jujliboli district and had a ruling dynasty led by khans (Kychanov 1963: 62). Historians have established that Jujliboli was located in South Priuraliya and north-west Kazakhstan. Jujliboli is a Chinese bastardisation of the ethnonym Ilbari, the name of a tribe known in written sources as the Elbuli (Ibn Khaldūn) or Olburlik (Rashid ad-Din) to which the Qipchaq khans belonged (Ahinzhanov 1973: 61, note 8). The history of pre-Mongol Khwarezm was to a large extent shaped by the empire’s relations with the Qipchaq. Khwarezm campaigned extensively in Qipchaq lands and hired Qipchaq mercenaries to serve in the Khwarezmian armies. There were also dynastic marriages between the Khwarezm Shahs and the Qipchaq khans to help consolidate mutual bonds. During this period Khwarezm continued its trade with the cattle-breeding nomadic populations living at the periphery of the empire. In total 15 burials dating to the 12th to 14th centuries have been discovered in Ustyurt (Table 5.1). Only one of these dates to preMongol times. The remaining examples date to the Golden Horde period. Most of the burials are concentrated in the south-east of the plateau, where the winter pastures were situated. The arrow-shaped structures of the Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group and several animal pens are also located in this area. Similar burials are located in Desht-i Qipchaq north of Ustyurt. However, here kurgans are concentrated in much larger cemeteries and never occur singly (Ivanov 1984). It is generally accepted that Desht-i Qipchaq was the heartland of the Qipchaq nomads. If correct, the limited number of Qipchaq burials in Ustyurt is perhaps a result of only short-term habitation on the plateau by small Qipchaq groups. The seasonal hunt of ungulates with the use of arrow-shaped structures may have been one possible reason for their temporary presence on the plateau.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Table 5.1 Qipchaq burial types found in Ustyurt divided by period. Type according to Fedorov-Davydov (1966)

Period Pre-Mongol, 12th to early 13th centuries AD

Golden Horde, second half of the 13th and 14th centuries AD

Golden Horde, Muslim, second half of the 14th century AD

AI

1

7

-

A IV

-

-

A II

A VIII

БI

Б II

-

-

-

-

-

1

1

-

2

1

-

1

-

Д IV

-

1

-

Total

1

10

4

Several settlements, cemeteries, and towers dating to the 12th and early 13th centuries AD are located on the south-east escarpment of Ustyurt: the cemetery and settlement of Khantersek (Erburunkala), the cemetery and settlement (top stratum only) of Kulanly, the settlement (top stratum only) of Small Aybuyir-kala, the settlement of Saksaulsay-kala, the cemetery and settlement (top stratum only) of Karaumbet, the settlements of Kyyazhol 1 and 2, the settlement (top stratum only) of Urga, the settlement of Adzhibay (top stratum only), and the settlement (bottom stratum only) of Kurgancha. In addition to Qipchaq remains, the ceramic assemblages of these settlements have a significant Khwarezmian component. It is probable that this chain of sites on the north-west border of Khwarezm served a similar purpose as the earlier Oghuz settlements in the area. In both cases the region seems to have functioned as a contact or buffer zone with a mixed Khwarezmian and Qipchaq population. Especially in winter, Qipchaq nomads appear to have settled in the area to trade. New Khwarezmian settlements were founded below the Ustyurt escarpment in the 12th and early 13th centuries AD and their economies appear to have been similar to that of Shibindy, which was aimed specifically at nomad trade and exchange. The Qipchaq inhabiting this buffer zone show certain hybrid traits and were heavily influenced by Khwarezmian culture. Almost all of the Qipchaq cemeteries in this area provide evidence of entangled Islam–pagan burial practices.

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5 Historical context Islam reached the southern Ural Mountains by the second half of the 14th century AD and greatly influenced local burial rites.1 Ivanov and Kriger (1988: 53–54) note the introduction of new funerary customs in the region during this period, including new ‘grave constructions consisting of rectangular stone or brick walls around a tomb’ (for example, Urta-Burtja, kurgans 3 and 4, Lebedevka 8, kurgans 1 and 5, Fedorovka kurgan 1). Many pagan practices, such as the inclusion of grave goods, horse burials, and funerary feasts, rapidly abated and eventually disappeared altogether. However, some cultural vestiges can be found in the continued use of kurgans, wooden tomb elements (floors, coffins), and ledges along tomb walls (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 52–53). The Islamisation of the Qipchaq nomads in Eastern Europe and the southern Ural Mountains resulted in the appearance of culturally entangled kurgans that blended pagan and Islamic burial practices. The same phenomenon can be observed in Ustyurt, although here the wooden tomb elements were replaced with stone, and stone cists were used instead of coffins (for example, Kazgan 5, kurgan 2). This is most likely due to the fact that stone was ubiquitous on the plateau whereas wood was scarce. Islamic graves in the area are often characterised by the absence of funerary goods and the orientation of the burial towards Mecca. Importantly, here too vestiges of pagan practices can be found, such as the continued use of kurgans and the placement of limestone fieldstones on the ancient surface level below the mound. In Ustyurt there was thus a gradual blending of Islamic and nomadic funerary practices. Similar developments have been noted near the north-west borders of medieval Khwarezm (Manylov 1978: 240). In the 13th and 14th centuries AD the west escarpment of Ustyurt and the Mangyshlak Peninsula were not inhabited by Qipchaq groups but by Turkmen, Imur, Afshar, and Kyzyk tribes (Polyakov 1973: 131, map 2). Archaeological investigations on the west escarpment of Ustyurt have not uncovered any medieval remains in the areas immediately adjoining Mangyshlak other than the Kend’irlisor arrowshaped structures. These structures are situated immediately east of medieval Turkmen settlements in Mangyshlak. 1 In the southern Ural Mountains, burials dating to the second half of the 14th century AD are quite uniform. Burials of type A are by far the most common (90.8 percent), particularly type AI (75 percent). The remaining burials all belong to type Д1 (9.2 percent) (Ivanov and Kriger 1988: 52).

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6

Socioeconomic significance Vadim N. Yagodin and Shamil S. Amirov

Figure 6.1 View of the western escarpment, Zhegalgan Fault. Photo: Eduard Manukyants (Kovcheg Ecological Center).

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region With the advent of agriculture and animal domestication the economic importance of hunting gradually declined in many parts of the world. Only in areas where agriculture was difficult or even impossible to practise due to unfavourable environmental conditions did hunting retain its crucial role as a means of subsistence. This was also the case in Ustyurt where hunting remained of pivotal importance to local communities up to the ethnographic present. When evaluating the long-term importance of hunting in Ustyurt, it is necessary to not only look at archaeological data but also to study orally transmitted hunting stories and ethnographic accounts. The available archaeological data are often very limited and can only be properly understood in conjunction with ethnographic data, which are often (much) later in date. One particularly striking feature of the arrow-shaped structures is their vast size. Meat, skins, and horns must have been extracted in such quantities that they could not have been used solely by the small nomadic hunting communities of Ustyurt. This must have resulted in an economic surplus that was available for trade. At the same time, their labour-intensive construction and use must have involved collective labour and given rise to complex organisational structures. In the previous chapters arrow-shaped structures were interpreted as stationary hunting facilities. It was also established that the hunt was aimed at ungulates, particularly kulans, saigas, gazelles, and Ustyurt sheep. In this chapter an attempt is made to estimate the socioeconomic importance of the hunt.

Social organisation and economic importance When discussing the socioeconomic importance of arrow-shaped structures, it is useful to distinguish their use by period: • • • • •

Second half of the first millennium BC Third to fourth centuries AD (Alano-Sarmatian period) Seventh to eighth centuries AD (Djetiasar-Kerder period) Ninth to 14th centuries AD (Oghuz-Qipchaq period) 17th to 19th centuries AD (Kazhak period).

The evidence available for the first two periods is extremely limited. As a result little can be said except that animals were already hunted with the use of arrow-shaped structures.

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6 Socioeconomic significance Table 6.1 Faunal data from Kurgancha. Proportion of wild and domesticated animal components. Bones Animals

MNI

n

%

n

%

Domesticated

6400 827

88.6

11.4

834

265

75.8

24.2

Total

7227

100.0

1099

100.0

Wild

Seventh to eighth centuries ad (Djetiasar-Kerder period) The Djetiasar culture is commonly described as consisting of semisettled farmers and cattle breeders (Tolstov 1947a: 57–70). Their economy combined irrigation, agriculture (Andrian 1969: 202–5), cattle breeding, and to a lesser extent fishing (Zhdanko 1961: 60–61). According to Levin (1971: 10) the Djetiasar economy was also based on hunting. The importance of hunting in the Djetiasar-Kerder economy can be analysed through excavated faunal remains from habitation sites and sanctuaries in Ustyurt. These data have already been published and extensively analysed elsewhere (Batirov and Batirov 1981, 1986; Yagodin 1986). Hence a generalised description of the most pertinent results suffices here. The material culture of the Kerder group is best known from the settlement of Kurgancha. Osteological data from the site highlight the pivotal importance of hunting in the local economy (Table 6.1). No less than 24.2 percent of all animal bones found at the site stem from wild species. Table 6.2 divides the wild animal remains by species. Kulans and gazelles make up almost half of the assemblage (45.6 percent) and were clearly the main foci of the hunt. Deer and wild boar were in all likelihood hunted for meat. Wolves, jackals, hares, foxes, martens, and felines provided fur. The amount of turtle bones is remarkable. Turtles seem to have formed an important part of the diet, but being such slow animals they were most likely not considered to be game. The faunal assemblage of Sumbetimeralan-Kurkreuk similarly indicates that the Kerder consumed both domesticated and undomesticated animals (Tables 6.3–4). Here wild animals account for more than half of the minimum number of individuals.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Table 6.2 Faunal data from Kurgancha. Wild animal remains divided by species. Species Kulan

Gazelle

Deer

Wild boars

Wolves

Hares

Foxes

Jackals

Large felines

Birds

Gerbils

Martens

Rats

Porcupines

Bones

MNI

%

298

51

19.2

137

70

26.4

123

37

14.0

66

30

11.3

108

30

11.3

16

12

6

1

0.4

29

17

6.4

1

1

0.4

18

1

0.4

11 6

4

4

6

3 3

3

Total

827

265

Turtles

1236

99

4.6 2.3

1.1 1.1

1.1 100.0

The Djetiasar culture made its first appearance on the Ustyurt Plateau during the Late Djetiasar period, marked by the construction of both sanctuaries and arrow-shaped structures. According to Andrianov and Levina (1979: 96) the arrival of Djetiasar tribes in Ustyurt was connected with the growing importance of pasturebased cattle breeding in the Djetiasar economy. The Ustyurt Plateau purportedly would have provided suitable pastures. However, Adrianov and Levina’s reconstruction of the Djetiasar economy is mainly based on faunal evidence and appears to be too one-sided when considered against recent findings concerning the purpose and use of arrow-shaped structures. Ethnographic and faunal data suggest that hunting with arrow-shaped structures produced vast spoils that may well have outweighed the yields of pasture-based cattle breeding. It thus seems reasonable to conclude that both hunting and cattle breeding played a very important role in the Djetiasar economy. In the ethnographic past, group hunting was predominantly practised during periods of large animal migrations when animals gathered in a single location, for example in the tundra zone (Pallas 1788: 94–98). According to Kosarev (1984) certain families

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6 Socioeconomic significance Table 6.3 Faunal data from Sumbetimeralan-Kurkreuk. Proportion of wild and domesticated animal components. Bones Animals

MNI

n

%

n

%

Domesticated

1001

43.4

55

43.7

Total

2306

100.0

126

100.0

Wild

1305

56.6

71

56.3

Table 6.4 Faunal data from Sumbetimeralan-Kurkreuk. Wild animal remains divided by species. Bones Species

MNI

n

%

n

%

Kulan

981

80.0

28

39.4

Foxes

70

5.7

11

15.5

Gazelle Birds

Martens

73

23

1

Wild boars

12

Ovicaprids

11

Corsac foxes Gophers Total Turtles

50

3

1224

6.0

1.9

0.1

1.0

4.1

1.0

0.2

100.0

13

6

1

3

6

2

1

71

18.4

8.4

1.4

4.3

8.4

2.8

1.4

100.0

81

temporarily coalesced into larger groups during such periods to form the social structure necessary to co-ordinate the hunt and the subsequent processing of spoils. There are ample examples of similar practices in the ethnographic literature (Dolgikh 1960: 169; Khlobistin 1972: 32; Simchenko 1976: 185–89; Kosarev 1984: 141). For example, Omaha Indians (Omahas) living on the prairies acquired a considerable part of their subsistence requirements through the bison hunt. At the end of the agricultural season, entire communities with the exception of old and sickly would go to the hunting grounds for a period of six to eight weeks. The hunt had special organisational structures and was led by specifically elected leaders. Processing and the distribution of spoils were also

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region strictly controlled. The end of the hunting season was celebrated with a large communal feast. After this, the hunters parted ways and returned to their respective homes (Kunov 1929: 164). The Pueblo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico had similar customs and sent out small bands of hunters in autumn and winter. These hunting parties were formed through mass round-ups and frequently consisted of the inhabitants of different pueblos (Kunov 1929: 201). During the hunt each community was divided into two groups or wings, headed by a skilled hunter (Averkieva 1970: 29–30). A similar type of organisation was found among the Buryats of Siberia, who had a form of group hunt called the zegete-aba or ‘the great hunt’. Its later manifestations are closely interwoven with ritual feasting and are well documented in the ethnographic literature (Hangalov 1898). In the zegete-aba, the hunters had clearly prescribed tasks, which also involved ceremonial and ritual acts, and wore strictly regulated costumes (Hangalov 1898: 1–17; Klements and Hangalov 1910). All adults, irrespective of gender, participated in the hunt. The total number of participants could reach up to several hundred or even several thousand people. The leader of the group was elected and was supported by an extensive, hierarchically organised body of subordinates. The hunt itself was supervised by two gazarsha. The next hierarchical tier consisted of the zahuly, whose number varied according to the total number of participants. The zahuly were responsible for the recruitment of hunters and conflict resolution within the group. The drafted hunters gathered in a central place called the tobshi. The gazarsha divided the participants into a right and a left wing, each going their respective ways from the tobshi. The two wings would form a big ellipse into which game were funnelled and killed with spears or bows. All spoils were collected at the tobshi for distribution. Those who had transgressed the rules of the hunt were also punished there. The zegete-aba was not only a hunting community, but could also function as a military force. Specific religious practices and rituals were also associated with the zegeta-aba and the leaders of the group performed both secular and religious tasks. There was a public prayer before the hunt for the success of the enterprise, followed by sacrificial ceremonies (Hangalov 1898: 1–17). It is highly likely that similar organisational structures existed among the Djetiasar-Kerder tribes, particularly in areas where several arrow-shaped structures were combined to form systems, such as in the North Ustyurt group. In most of the documented ethnographic examples, the group hunt ended with special festivals, ceremonies, and rituals, which provided opportunities for the distribution of spoils,

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6 Socioeconomic significance trade, and exchange, and the forging of social bonds. The sanctuaries at Sumbetimeralan-Kurkreuk, Duana, and Zhar’inkuduk 10 hint at the existence of similar feasts for the Djetiasar. At present there is only evidence for seasonal occupation of the Djetiasar-Kerder tribes on the Ustyurt Plateau. Hence, it is reasonable to assume that these tribes were semi-nomadic and moved around periodically. It is possible that their intermittent presence on the plateau was specifically aimed at the hunt of ungulates. Effective hunting demanded the construction of large-scale, stationary hunting traps and resulted in complex organisational structures to manage the hunt and the large-scale processing of spoils. To summarise, in the Djetiasar-Kerder period, passive forms of group hunting existed along the seasonal migration routes of wild ungulates. The Ustyurt Plateau was in all likelihood divided into separate hunting territories, each belonging to one of the DjetiasarKerder tribes. Many of these had a sanctuary at their centre where rituals associated with the hunt were performed. Judging by the number of sanctuaries, Ustyurt was divided into roughly three areas that belonged to three different cultural spheres: the Djetiasar culture (Late Djetiasar period only), the ‘swamp town’ culture, and the early Kerder culture. These cultures are normally characterised as semi-settled farmers and pastoralists. However, this analysis of arrow-shaped structures shows that hunting also played a fundamental role in these societies, both socially and economically. Participation in rituals and sacrificial ceremonies relating to the hunt was possibly restricted to specific members of the community. The produce of the arrow-shaped structures seems to have far exceeded the basic requirements of the hunting communities. Parts of the proceeds would therefore have been available for trade in markets. With these characteristics, the Djetiasar-Kerder economy had a far more complex character than has hitherto been recognised.

Ninth to 14th centuries ad (Oghuz-Qipchaq period) Oghuz Sources paint a somewhat ambivalent picture of the Oghuz. They are characterised as living sedentary lives in settlements on the one hand and as nomadic pastoralists living in yurts on the other. Clearly, the Oghuz tribes did not all adhere to a single way of life. Along the Syr-dar’ya they seem to have lived a largely sedentary existence with a complex economy based on cattle breeding, fishing, and farming

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region (Tolstov 1947a, 1948b: 6, 246). In the west, the Oghuz inhabited the deserts of the Aralo-Caspian Depression and the steppes of Zavolzhye and South Priuraliya. Here the tribes were largely nomadic and mainly practised cattle breeding (Tolstov 1948b: 6, 247). The historical record shows that hunting played an important role in the economy of the Oghuz alongside cattle breeding (Agadzhanov 1969: 93). The earliest historical information is provided by the ninthcentury accounts of Iakubi and Dzhahizu. According to Iakubi the first nomadic Turkmen (including the Oghuz) ‘ate predominantly game’ (МIТТ 1939: 150). Dzhahizu mentions that Turkmen were big fans of hunting and practised it even during times of conflict. ‘Mounted Turkmen shoot birds and pursue wild animals … They do not derive pleasure from a meal if it is not prepared from game’ (Mandelshtam 1956: 230, 232, 235). Oghuz hunting techniques were first described in sources dating to the tenth and 11th centuries AD. Masudi (896–956 AD) writes that the Oghuz ‘do not know of any other matter than hunting’. According to al-Idrisi (1099–1165/6 AD) the Oghuz hunted for fur on the steppes of South Priuraliya and along the rivers of the Ural Mountains and the Emba. Seljuk tribes used birds of prey and hunting dogs. Hunting is also a regular activity of the heroes of the Oghuz epos (Agadzhanov 1959: 93). It seems clear therefore that hunting had an important function in Oghuz society (Kononov 1958: 64–65). Arrow-shaped structures dating to the ninth to 11th centuries AD have only been found in the Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish group. The overwhelming majority of the faunal material recovered in this group, both in terms of the total number of bones and the minimum number of individuals, belong to saiga antelopes and gazelles. Non-herding animals are strongly underrepresented. This discrepancy is readily explained when the specialised, herd-oriented nature of the hunt with arrow-shaped structures is considered. It is useful to briefly consider the exact composition of the bone assemblage of arrow-shaped structure Dekcha 1 (Table 6.5). Calculations based on the total number of bones and the minimum number of individuals illustrate the presence of a statistically insignificant amount of domesticated animals (Table 6.6). Clearly, the structure was built for the hunt of wild ungulates. It seems that the lives of the Ustyurt nomads underwent some important changes between the ninth and 11th centuries AD. During this period, the communal sanctuaries disappeared and were replaced by isolated cult constructions with stone altars. The Oghuz retained only one large cult centre at Tiley, which should probably be interpreted as an ancestral or a fertility shrine. Perhaps more active

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6 Socioeconomic significance Table 6.5 Faunal data from arrow-shaped structure Dekcha 1. Wild animal remains divided by species. Bones Species Saigas

Gazelles

Kulans Total

n

MNI %

996

65.44

n

%

14

45.2

526

34.50

16

51.6

1523

100.0

31

100.0

1

0.06

1

3.2

Table 6.6 Faunal data from arrow-shaped structure Dekcha 1. Relative proportion of wild and domesticated animal components. Bones Animals

MNI

n

%

n

%

Wild

1532

99.0

31

96.9

Total

1548

100.0

32

100.0

Domesticated

15

1.0

1

3.1

modes of hunting reduced the number of group hunts over time. Qipchaq As with the Oghuz, hunting played an important role in the economy of the Qipchaq. According to the Italian merchant Barbaro, the Qipchaq were ‘perfectly able hunters, using mainly bows’ (Barbaro and Contarini 1971: 142). Ibn Ruzbihan (1128–1209 AD) mentions that gazelle herds, grazing on the steppe pastures of Turkestan, were hunted by the local nomads: All the steppes of that blessed country are full of game. Saigas occur in abundance on the meadows and, like fat cows, are incapable of running. As a result, hunters in the area never require the aid of a horse in their pursuit of game. When visiting a household in the area, the master of the house always observes strict rules of hospitality and entertainment. Should the need for meat arise, which is customary for the inhabitants of Turkestan, he immediately swings a mighty bow with several arrows over his shoulder and goes hunting to provide a supper for his visitor. After having ventured to the steppe, he skilfully fells a fat kulan with a single shot of his bow. Having thus procured enough

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region meat and fat for the entertainment of his visitor, he returns home. (Ruzbihan Isfahani 1976: 75)

Several Islamic authors mention that various kinds of hunting were practised at the time, using shelters, birds of prey, and packs of dogs (Sultans 1982: 60). The discovery of arrow-shaped structures dating to the 13th and 14th centuries AD furthermore proves that the Ustyurt nomads still practised group hunting. The hunt with birds of prey doubtlessly had a more individual character. The importance of hunting in the economic life of the nomadic and semi-nomadic Qipchaq tribes can be assessed through excavated settlement remains. Most of the available data stem from the northwest border area of Khwarezm. Kulanly in modern Turkmenistan in particular provides useful faunal remains from occupation layers dating to the 12th and early 13th centuries AD. The faunal assemblages recovered from these strata indicate that hunting played a significant role in the economy of the settlement. Wild animals account for almost a third of the minimum number of individuals (Table 6.7). When the absolute number of bones is considered, wild species are even more abundant. When the wild animal remains are divided by species (Table 6.8), it becomes clear that hunting at Kulanly had both a communal and an individual character. Certain ungulates, such as gazelles, kulans, and ovicaprids, were presumably hunted en masse with the use of arrow-shaped structures. The importance of the group hunt is highlighted by the cumulative proportion of kulan, gazelle, and sheep remains, which together account for 78.5 percent of the wild faunal assemblage. Gazelles appear to have been the most important prey animal. They account for more than half (57.1 percent) of the minimum number of individuals and make up almost 90 percent of all of the wild faunal material. Animals such as wild boars, foxes, and birds were most likely hunted individually, providing both meat and fur. It is important to note that the importance of the fur hunt is almost surely undervalued. The meat of animals hunted for fur was not necessarily consumed and for that reason their bones did not always find their way to occupation strata. According to ethnographic sources fur hunting was often carried out with birds of prey. There is sufficient reason to believe that the patrimonial ownership of the hunting grounds and their associated arrow-shaped structures remained in place during the Qipchaq period. However, the absence of communal sanctuaries, which were prevalent in the preceding era,

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6 Socioeconomic significance Table 6.7 Faunal data from Kulanly. Relative proportion of wild and domesticated animal components. Bones Animals Domesticated

MNI

n

%

n

%

1942

63.1

108 42

72.0

28.0

150

100.0

Wild

1137

36.9

Total

3079

100.0

Table 6.8 Faunal data from Kulanly. Wild animal remains divided by species. Bones

MNI

Species

n

%

n

%

Gazelles

999

87.9

24

57.1

14

1.2

4

9.5

Kulans

Ovicaprids

Wild boars Foxes

95

8

8

8.4

0.7

0.7

11.9

5

11.9

2

4.8

2

4.8

Birds

13

Total

1137

100.0

42

100.0

10

-

-

-

Turtles

1.1

5

and their replacement by individual stone ‘box’-altars, suggest that the Qipchaq traversed the Ustyurt Plateau in small kinship groups that had relatively little contact with each other.

Seventeeth to 19th centuries ad (Kazakh period) Kazakhs Written sources indicate that the Kazakhs used stationary hunting traps during the 17th and 19th centuries AD in Ustyurt and Karakalpakstan. It was already remarked that the best-preserved medieval arrowshaped structures were potentially re-used by Kazakhs. Kazakh and Karakalpak texts call the hunt with stationary hunting traps arran. It is interesting to note that in Turkic languages this word translates as ‘farmyard’ or ‘pointed reed’. The ‘pointed reeds’ allude to the sharp spikes that were placed at the bottom of pits during the

211

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region group hunt of ungulates. In certain contexts the word arran can also mean ‘tribe’ (Radlov 1883: 251). There are numerous references to arran hunting in Karakalpak texts, folklore, and ethnography. It appears that the Karakalpaks practised arran hunting in east and south-east Priaraliya, although no archaeological remains of stationary traps have hitherto been found there. Perhaps the traps were not made using durable materials such as stone. Most researchers agree that hunting played an important role in the Karakalpak economy alongside cattle breeding (Kamalov 1968: 59). Despite the relatively rich ethnographic record, there is no direct information on the social organisation of Karakalpak nomadic groups during the medieval period. However, the nature of the recent Karakalpak economy, limited as it has been by environmental constraints, may not have been dissimilar to that of the past. If so, the Karakalpaks would have consisted of small, economically independent extended family groups.

212

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7

Conclusions Vadim N. Yagodin

Figure 7.1 Remnants of an arrow-shaped structure along the western escarpment, vicinity of Beket-Ata. Photo: Eduard Manukyants (Kovcheg Ecological Center).

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region The data presented here have demonstrated that arrow-shaped structures were used in Ustyurt from the second half of the first millennium BC up to the ethnographic present. However, many of the structures are difficult to date due to the paucity of the archaeological evidence. Arrow-shaped structures can be divided into six types: • Type 1 (examples in North Ustyurt and Zhar’inkuduk groups) consists of two or three drivelines leading to a pair of triangular subenclosures that are connected by a large central enclosure. The subenclosures have a ring-shaped bank on each corner. Other banks are sometimes built along their exterior. New research carried out in 2012 shows there are two variants: one opening to the north with some minor variation to east or west (variant 1), and one opening to the south (variant 2). The structures are linked to each other, forming vast chains. • Type 2 (examples in Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish and Kend’irlisor groups) uses the cliff edge as one side of a large triangular enclosure. In most cases the apex of the triangle leads to one or two arrow-shaped subenclosures that are entered through a narrow gap between two inturned walls. These normally have ring-shaped banks on each corner. Other banks are sometimes built along the sides of the enclosures. • Type 3 (examples in Kend’irlisor group) consists of a triangular enclosure with only a single driveline (only Karamaya 7 has two). In some examples the cliff edge functions as a second ‘driveline’. In most examples the enclosure has ring-shaped banks on all corners. Other banks are sometimes built along the exterior of the enclosure. • Type 4 (examples in Kend’irlisor group) consists of walls that are built across a promontory and almost block it from side to side. The entrance of these structures consists of two opposing wall segments that reach down to the cliff edge and often have a ring-shaped bank at their tip. The latter can be doubled and occur on one or both sides of the entrance. Drivelines are not necessary for this type as the promontory itself outlines a large funnel-shaped area (Barge et al. 2016). • Type 5 (examples in North Ustyurt group) consists of a round, elliptical, or sub-triangular enclosure without drivelines.

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7 Conclusions • Type 6 (examples in North Ustyurt and Beineu groups) consists of a very large half-ellipse that tapers to points at the ends, giving it an overall crescent shape. They have wide openings and, in some cases, the interior corners are fenced off, forming small terminal subenclosures. This type has no drivelines. However, the sides of the entrance together form a funnel into the enclosure. The term arran was used in connection with the most recent, ethnographically documented stationary hunting devices. The term arran is an ancient one in Turkic languages. It was mentioned in the dictionary by Makhmud Kashgar (1072–1074 AD) with the meaning of ‘stable’ and ‘farmyard’ (Drevnetiurkskii slovar’ [Dictionary of the ancient Turkic language] 1969: 51). The term is also used in Kazakh and Karakalpak folklore. Comparisons with similar structures elsewhere (e.g. the Middle East, northern Europe, and North America) show that arrow-shaped structures were used for hunting herds of game. Arrow-shaped structures of type 1 were constructed along the migration routes of wild ungulates such as kulans and saigas, while arrow-shaped structures types 2 and 3 were used to hunt kulans, saigas, and gazelles on their winter pastures. Arrow-shaped structures of type 4 were constructed in areas where wild ungulates were present throughout the year and were largely used for hunting wild sheep. The placement of the arrow-shaped structures demonstrates that their builders possessed an intimate knowledge of ungulate behaviour and exploited this knowhow carefully. Hunting played an important part in the economy of the Ustyurt region up to recent times. Hunting by means of arrow-shaped structures was a commercial activity since the amount of procured meat, bones, and hides far exceeded the personal needs of the hunters. Parts of the proceeds were thus available for trade. The huge effort invested in the construction and use of arrow-shaped structures is reflective of an economic structure that was tied into markets and states. It illustrates the enormous adaptivity, particularly in economic terms, of the people living in the hostile desert environment of Eurasia and the Ustyurt Plateau. The construction and use of arrow-shaped structures required a relatively high degree of co-operation among a large number of people. There is no direct information on the social structure of the nomadic groups in the medieval period or earlier. However, in the ethnographic past in certain circumstances tribes coalesced into larger groups for a short period of time to exploit seasonally available food supplies and to form the requisite social structure to co-ordinate

215

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region the hunt and the subsequent processing of spoils. Archaeological evidence indicates that small, economically independent extended family groups lived in small numbers in the Ustyurt region. It is possible that each family owned a single arrow-shaped structure within the North Ustyurt group. However, since the hunt required co-operation between groups, it seems reasonable to assume that normally autonomous groups came together and co-operated for the duration of the hunting season. The use of arrow-shaped structures was largely governed by environmental and ecological factors. Across the globe, different cultures converged on similar solutions under similar physical constraints. The virtually incessant use of arrow-shaped structures in the Aralo-Caspian Depression over a period of thousands of years by an impressive array of cultures stands as a testament to the ingenuity and success of this hunting strategy.

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Catalogue

Figure C.1 The eastern precipice of the Ustyurt Plateau with talus slopes beneath. Photo: Eduard Manukyants (Kovcheg Ecological Center).

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Group name

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 1

Duana 2

Duana 2

Duana 2

Duana 2

Group no.

I

 

Yagodin_Book_1Feb.indb 218

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

II

 

 

 

4

3

2

1

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Structure

Table C.1 Catalogue of arrow-shaped structures in the North Ustyurt group.

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Type

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

Orientation

45°29’55,08”

45°29’24,30”

45°29’06,33”

45°28’20,01”

45°25’42,87”

45°24’39,12”

45°23’47,49”

45°22’46,40”

45°21’44,26”

45°21’10,81”

45°20’45,56”

45°19’58,76”

45°19’15,93”

45°18’54,69”

45°18’41,06”

45°18’08,52”

45°17’48,42”

45°17’57,36”

45°17’57,14”

45°18’09,11”

Northing

58°05’13,99”

58°06’07,11”

58°07’23,73”

58°09’10,81”

58°07’18,72”

58°08’20,60”

58°08’49,26”

58°09’46,50”

58°10’23,98”

58°11’01,98”

58°12’16,45”

58°13’37,21”

58°14’59,39”

58°16’35,22”

58°18’37,17”

58°19’53,64”

58°20’52,19”

58°21’52,02”

58°22’55,63”

58°23’56,19”

Easting

Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

218

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Group name

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Group no.

III

Yagodin_Book_1Feb.indb 219

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

21

20

19

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Structure

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Type

S

S

S

S

S

S

N

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

Orientation

45°35’38,36”

45°37’08,87”

45°36’47,76”

45°36’43,88”

45°35’44,07”

45°36’02,98”

45°36’44,70”

45°32’53,30”

45°32’18,42”

45°33’18,02”

45°34’23,23”

45°35’08,04”

45°35’38,37”

45°35’30,53”

45°35’39,85”

45°34’59,71”

45°33’34,18”

45°32’53,30”

45°32’08,27”

45°31’47,49”

45°31’41,36”

Northing

58°05’04,65”

58°00’11,13”

57°58’09,15”

57°57’50,92”

57°55’57,73”

57°50’26,67”

57°48’37,91”

57°58’53,37”

58°02’21,59”

58°00’25,35”

57°57’41,55”

57°56’12,23”

57°55’06,03”

57°52’57,56”

57°51’22,56”

57°53’37,73”

57°56’34,86”

57°58’53,37”

58°00’37,58”

58°02’50,75”

58°04’41,68”

Easting

 Catalogue

219

12/3/19 4:46 pm

Group name

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Shiyoba

Kol’say

Kol’say

Kol’say

Kol’say

Kol’say

Bulanbay

Bulanbay

Bulanbay

Bulanbay

Bulanbay

Bulanbay

Bulanbay

Bulanbay

Bulanbay

Bulanbay

Bulanbay

Bulanbay

Group no.

 

 

 

IV

Yagodin_Book_1Feb.indb 220

 

 

 

 

V

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

24

23

22

Structure

6

5

6

6

6

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

5

1

1

1

1

6

5

5

Type

S

S

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

S

N

N

N

N

S

S

S

Orientation

45°39’04,22”

45°44’18,02”

45°42’04,58”

45°41’56,91”

45°42’01,78”

45°44’30,10”

45°43’29,80”

45°43’10,66”

45°42’06,32”

45°41’01,52”

45°40’46,30”

45°40’58,58”

45°32’37,79

45°32’40,48”

45°32’58,09”

45°32’17,74”

45°32’25,40”

45°34’45,40”

45°35’21,75”

45°35’45,34”

Northing

57°33’35,57”

57°33’53,81”

57°34’49,40”

57°34’29,45”

57°33’42,42”

57°33’44,38”

57°31’34,28”

57°33’30,69”

57°33’13,65”

57°32’08,13”

57°30’52,58”

57°29’03,13”

57°49’54,80

57°46’34,93”

57°44’29,09”

57°42’14,92”

57°40’40,82”

57°56’14,81”

58°14’43,32”

58°12’30,54”

Easting

Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

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Yagodin_Book_1Feb.indb 221

Group name

Shiykuduk

Shiykuduk

Shiykuduk

Shiykuduk

Shiykuduk

Shiykuduk

Shiykuduk

Shiykuduk

Aksai

Aksai

Aksai

Aksai

Aksai

Aksai

Aksai

Aksai

Aksai

Aksai

Aksai

Almambet

Almambet

Group no.

VI

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

VII

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

VIII

 

2

1

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Structure

1

1

5

5

5

5

5

5

1

1

1

1

1

5

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Type

N

N

N

S

S

S

S

S

N

N

N

N

N

S

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

Orientation

45°12’48,17”

45°14’25,74”

45°43’52,64”

45°44’23,63”

45°45’18,86”

45°47’53,71”

45°50’12,16”

45°49’05,70”

45°49’41,82”

45°47’57,21”

45°47’59,14”

45°46’51,49”

45°46’16,15”

45°42’59,72”

45°43’38,03”

45°43’15,38”

45°43’11,53”

45°42’47,18”

45°42’18,45”

45°42’09,36”

45°41’42,06”

Northing

57°35’44,49”

57°34’14,58”

58°10’11,49”

58°11’06,16”

58°08’43,75”

58°06’20,40”

58°03’47,93”

58°00’47,23”

58°02’24,48”

58°00’11,39”

57°55’50,96”

57°58’01,51”

57°59’35,13”

57°21’58,25”

57°20’13,78”

57°21’29,14”

57°20’49,64”

57°20’06,26”

57°19’01,52”

57°18’26,91”

57°18’18,73”

Easting

 Catalogue

221

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Group name

Almambet

Almambet

Almambet

Dzharykpak 1

Dzharykpak 1

Dzharykpak 1

Dzharykpak 1

Dzharykpak 1

Dzharykpak 1

Dzharykpak 1

Dzharykpak 2

Dzharykpak 2

Dzharykpak 2

Dzharykpak 2

Dzharykpak 2

Aytman

Aytman

Aytman

Kol’taban

Kol’taban

Kol’taban

Group no.

 

 

 

IX

Yagodin_Book_1Feb.indb 222

 

 

 

 

 

 

X

 

 

 

 

XI

 

 

XII

 

 

3

2

1

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

Structure

5

1

1

1

1

1

6

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Type

S

N

N

S

S

S

N

S

S

S

S

S

S

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

Orientation

45°41’26,15”

45°41’23,33”

45°41’14,47”

45°47’19,15”

45°47’40,11”

45°47’30,08”

45°25’21,61”

45°25’29,07”

45°26’34,77”

45°29’52,59”

45°33’22,64”

45°17’25,87”

45°18’54,66”

45°17’46,77”

45°18’09,50”

45°19’07,72”

45°19’36,84”

45°21’09,31”

45°08’40,15”

45°10’25,25”

45°12’20,21”

Northing

56°59’57,00”

57°01’19,67”

57°02’18,85”

56°46’43,53”

56°48’25,66”

56°50’05,76”

57°48’03,61”

57°49’44,55”

57°46’21,96”

57°42’55,09”

57°38’53,12”

57°59’48,13”

57°57’51,93”

57°54’51,92”

57°53’00,53”

57°51’37,42”

57°50’17,50”

57°49’31,63”

57°42’25,09”

57°41’28,40”

57°38’00,20”

Easting

Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region

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Yagodin_Book_1Feb.indb 223

2 3

Taskuduk

Toksanbay

Toksanbay

Toksanbay

 

XIV

SINGLE TRAPS

1

Taskuduk

 

1 5 1 5 5

Koshpay

Mataykum

Takyrsay 1

Takyrsay 2

1

5

5

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Type

Duana

4

3

2

Taskuduk

 

1

6

Kol’taban

Taskuduk

5

Kol’taban

XIII

4

Kol’taban

 

Structure

Group name

Group no.

S

S

S

S

S

N

S

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

N

Orientation

45°58’56,69”

45°57’52,93”

45°37’50,50”

45°44’20,84

45°13’41,92”

45°51’10,19”

45°50’04,66”

45°49’51,40”

45°42’54,39”

45°42’49,75”

45°43’08,95”

45°43’23,03”

45°43’50,15”

45°42’37,13”

45°41’37,57”

Northing

58°02’31,09”

57°56’18,41”

56°57’12,33”

57°06’12,53”

58°21’21,67”

56°33’54,75”

56°37’32,20”

56°37’28,91”

56°44’52,14”

56°43’47,72”

56°42’40,51”

56°41’59,14”

56°57’01,98”

56°57’12,78”

56°57’13,10”

Easting

 Catalogue

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Table C.2 Catalogue of other arrow-shaped structures on the Ustyurt Plateau. Subgroup

Zhar’inkuduk

Prisar’ikam’ish

Aybuyir-Prisar’ikam’ish

Kazgan

Group

Name

Northing

Easting

Khantersek

42°26’51,73”

58°08’07,32”

Kazgan 1

42°30’26,49”

58°04’31,67”

Kazgan 3

42°32’36,43”

58°03’04,48”

Kazgan new

42°33’15,55”

58°02’20,11”

Aksaimak 2

42°30’56,84”

57°59’59,53”

Aksaimak 4

42°29’11,14”

57°58’36,17”

Ibrakhimsha 2

42°25’43,15”

57°58’02,58”

Ibrakhimsha 3

42°26’05,88”

57°57’55,99”

Karamata 3

42°24’05,57”

57°56’09,73”

Karamata 7

42°25’20,89”

57°54’16,04”

Erburun 1

42°16’01,75”

57°51’38,04”

Dekcha 1

42°10’19,19”

57°51’46,05”

Dekcha 2

42°14’23,71”

57°50’09,31”

Dekcha 3

42°13’02,42”

57°49’25,38”

Dekcha 6

42°10’37,32”

57°49’59,32”

Dar’yal’ik 1

42°10’20,87”

57°47’36,80”

Dar’yal’ik 2

42°10’19,12”

57°45’36,68”

Chalburun 1

42°08’22,50”

57°39’19,09”

Zhar’inkuduk 6a

44°54’18,96”

56°21’59,30”

Zhar’inkuduk 6b

44°52’55,92”

56°20’08,33”

Zhar’inkuduk 8

44°57’40,87”

56°15’35,93”

Zhar’inkuduk 12

44°58’27,45”

56°14’51,43”

Zhar’inkuduk 14

44°57’08,35”

56°13’35,24”

224

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 Catalogue Group

Subgroup

Name

Beineu

Beineu

Saykuduk

Amanzhol

Manashi

Northing

Easting

1

45°09’16,90”

55°10’08,40”

2a

45°10’02,20”

55°11’26,89”

2b

45°10’09,70”

55°11’48,97”

3

45°10’32,13”

55°12’26,14”

4

45°10’42,26”

55°13’38,98”

5

45°10’13,14”

55°12’02,62”

6

45°10’11,02”

55°11’40,13”

7

45°09’33,09”

55°10’26,90”

8

45°09’41,19”

55°09’59,53”

9

45°09’31,55”

55°10’36,23”

10

45°10’11,06”

55°12’17,19”

1

45°12’01,01”

55°18’46,46”

2

45°12’07,96”

55°18’59,82”

3

45°12’05,91”

55°19’24,45”

4

45°12’06,07”

55°19’56,32”

1

45°06’24,89”

55°14’40,82”

2

45°06’16,45”

55°15’02,13”

3

45°06’17,28”

55°15’30,85”

1

45°01’13,07”

55°07’45,17”

2

45°01’14,57”

55°07’17,01”

3

45°00’47,47”

55°06’33,56”

4

45°00’43,05”

55°05’52,56”

5

45°00’48,34”

55°05’25,99”

225

Yagodin_Book_1Feb.indb 225

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Subgroup

Northing

Easting

Karamaya 1

43°11’58,15

54°51’52,61

Karamaya 2

43°12’03,89

54°51’31,75

Karamaya 3

43°12’06,88

54°50’56,46

Kayamaya 5

43°12’08,91

54°47’20,53

Karamaya 6

43°11’57,01

54°46’32,60

Karamaya 7

43°12’50,37

54°43’30,39

Karamaya 8

43°13’07,38

54°42’45,15

Karamaya 9

43°13’24,64

54°42’46,05

Karamaya 10

43°13’49,75

54°42’32,87

Karamaya 11

43°13’50,76

54°42’25,61

Karamaya 12

43°12’36,63

54°44’23,87

Karamaya 13

43°13’02,10

54°44’54,96

Kogusem 2

43°12’17,32

54°56’29,72

45°17’02,30”

55°22’41,47”

Aybuyir

42°38’20,33”

58°09’46,23”

Berniyaz 3

42°38’57,41”

58°28’55,01”

Kendirlisor

Group

Name

  SINGLE TRAPS Mamay 1

 

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Works cited Agazhdanov, S.G. 1969. Ocherki istorii oguzov i turkmen Sredney Azii i Kazakhstana. Moscow: Narody Sredney Azii i Kazakhstana 1. Akhinzhanov, S.M. 1973. Iz istorii vzaimootnosheniy Qipchaqov i Khwarezma v XII – nachale XIII vv. Alma-Ata: Arkheologicheskie issledovaniya v Kazakhstane. Akademia Nauk Kazakhskoi SSR. Amirov, S., Betts, A.V.G. and Yagodin, V.N. 2015. Mapping ancient hunting installations on the Ustyurt Plateau, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan: new results from remote sensing imagery. Paleorient 41(1): 199–219. Andrianov, B.V. 1969. Drevnie orositel’nye sistemy Priaral’ya. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Andrianov, B.V. and Levina, L.M. 1979. Nekotorye voprosy istoricheskoy etnografii Vostochnogo Priaral’ya v 1 tysyacheletii n.e. Etnografiya i arkheologiya Sredney Azii. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Arkheologicheskaya karta 1960. Arkheologicheskaya karta Kazakhstana. Alma-Ata: Akademia Nauk Kazakhskoi SSR. Arslanova, F.K. 1969. Pogrebeniya tyurskogo vremeni v Vostochnom Kazakhstane. Kul’tura drevnikh skotovodov i zemledel’tsev Kazakhstana. Alma-Ata: Akademia Nauk Kazakhskoi SSR. Arslanova, F.K. and Samashev, Z.S. 1985. Kurgany kimakov v Semipalatinskom Priirtysh’e. Problemy srednevekovoy arkheologii Urala i Povolzh’ya: 122–33. Ufa: Fan SSSR. Artamonov, M.I. 1958. Sarkel – Belaya Vezha. Leningrad: Materialy i issledovaniia po arkheologii SSSR 62. Audubon, J.J. and Bachman, J. 1851. The Quadrupeds of North America. New York: V.G. Audubon. Averkieva, Y.P. 1970. Indeyskoe kochevoe obshchestvo XVIII–XIX vv. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Barbaro, G. and Contarini, A. 1971. Istorii ital’yano-russkikh svyazey v XV v. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Barge, O., Brochier, J.E., Deom, J.-M., Sala, R., Karakhanyan, A., Avagyan, A. and Plakhov, K. 2016. The ‘desert kites’ of the Ustyurt Plateau. Quaternary International 395: 113–32. Bartold, V.V. 1963a. Istoriya Turkestana (konskpekt lektsiy). Moscow: Obshchie raboty po istorii Sredney Azii II.1. Raboty po istorii Kavkaza i Vostochnoy Evropy. Bartold, V.V. 1963b. Istoriya kul’turnoi zhizni Turkestana. Moscow: Obshchie raboty po istorii Sredney Azii II.1. Raboty po istorii Kavkaza i Vostochnoy Evropy. Batyrov, B. and Batyrov, A. 1981. Srednevekovaya fauna poseleniya Kurgancha. Istoriya material’noy kul’tury Uzbekistana 16: 138–155. Batyrov, B. and Batyrov, A. 1986. Fauna mlekopitayushchikh Sumbetymeralan-Kurkreuk na plato Ustyurt. Tashkent: Arkheologiya Priaral’ya III: 125–133. Beyhaki, A. 1962. Istoriya Masuda 1030–1041 gg. Vstupitel’naya stat’ya perevod i primechaniya A.I. Arendsa. Tashkent: Izd-vo Fan Uzbekskoy SSR. Betts, A.V.G. 1983. Black Desert Survey, Jordan: first preliminary report. Levant 15: 1–10. Betts, A.V.G 1984. Black Desert Survey, Jordan: second preliminary report. Levant 16: 25–34. Betts, A.V.G 1985. Black Desert Survey, Jordan: third preliminary report. Levant 17: 29–52. Biruni, M. 1957. Pamyatniki minuvshikh pokoleniy. Izbr. Proizvedenie. Tashkent; Izd-vo Fan Uzbekskoy SSR. Bizhanov, E.B. 1967. Arkheologicheskie pamyatniki yugo-vostochnogo Ustiurta. Nukus: Unpublished thesis. Bizhanov, E.B. and Mambetullaev, M. 1973. Raskopki nekropolya Tokkaly v 1968 godu. Tashkent: Antropologiya i kul’tura Kerdera. Izd-vo Fan Uzbekskoy SSR. Borodkin, Y.M. 1977. Kurgany u sela Tarasovo. Kemerovo: Arkheologiya Yuzhnoy Sibiri. Kemerovo State University Burckhardt, J.L. 1831. Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys. London: H. Colburn and R. Bentley. Champlain, S. de 1929. The Works of Samuel de Champlain. Toronto: The Champlain Society. Chernetsov V.N. 1971. Naskal’nye izobrazhennya Urala. Svod arkheologicheskikh istochnikov SSSR 12/2. Deom J.-M. and Sala R. 2009. Regulirovanie pogolovya dikikh zhivotnykh v aridnykh regionakh v drevnosti: novye svidetelstva iz Severnogo Ustiurta, in: B.T. Zhanaev (ed.) Nauchnye chteniya pamyati N.E. Masanova: sbornik materialov nauchno-prakticheskoi konferentsii Almaty, 25–26 Aprelya 2008, Almaty. Daik-Press: 135–41.

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 Works cited Dienesh, I. 1966. Nekotorye vyvody otnositel’no konskoy sbrui vengrov – zavoevateley rodiny. Archaeologiai Értesito. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. Dolgikh, B.O. 1960. Rodovoy i plemennoy sostav narodov Sibiri v XVII b. Moscow: Trudy Instituta Zoologii Akademia Nauk Kazakhskoi SSR 55. Drevnetyurskiy slovar’ 1969. (Dictionary of the ancient Turkic language). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. Eversmann, E. 1850. Estestvennaya istoriya Orenburgskogo kraya. Kazan. Tip. Kazan. Univ. Fedorov-Davydov, G.A. 1966. Kochevniki Vostochnoy Evropy pod vlast’yu zolotoordynskikh khanov. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Field, H. 1960. North Arabian Desert Archaeological Survey 1925–1950. Philadelphia: Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology 45(2). Galkin, L.L. 1983. Razvedki i raskopki v severo-vostochnom Prikaspii. Arkheologicheskie otkritiya 1981. Galkin, L.L. 1987. Izyckaniya v severo-vostochnom Prikaspii. Arkheologicheskie otkritiya 1985. Galkin, L.L. 1988. Kameniye batyry Ustyurta. Nauka i zhizn’ 3. Gavrilova, A.A. 1965. Mogil’nik Kudyrge kak istochnik po istorii altayskikh plemen. Moscow – Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. Geptner, V.G. 1948. Kulan i perspektivy ego sushchestvovaniya v USSR. Okhrana prirody 2. Geptner, V.G., Nasimovich, A.A. and Bannikov, A.G. 1961. Mlekopitayushchie Sovetskogo Soyuza I. Parnokolytnye i neparnokopytnie. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Gern, V. 1891. Zoogeograficheskie zametki po Akmolinskomu uezdu. Semipalatinsk. Glushkov, I.N. 1900. Cherdynskie voguly. Moscow: Etnograficheskoe obozrenie XIV/2. Akademia Nauk. Grodekov, N.I. 1889. Kirgizy i karakirgizy Syrdar’inskoy oblasti 1. Tashkent. Gromova, V.I. 1940. Materialy k izucheniyu drevneyshikh zhivotnykh Sredney Azii. Grigorev G. V. Kaunchi-tepa (raskopki 1935 goda). Tashkent: Izd-vo Fan Uzbekskoy SSR. Gryaznov, M.P. 1956. Istoriya drevnikh plemen Verkhney Obi po raskopkam bliz s Bol’shaya Rechka. Moscow – Leningrad: Materialy i issledovaniya po arkheologii SSSR 48. Akademia Nauk. Gubin, S.V. 1985. Otchet o pochvenno-arkheologicheskikh v yugovostochnoy chasti plato Ustiurt. Prilozhenie 2 k Otchetu o rabotakh Ustiurtskogo arkheologicheskogo ekspeditsionnogo otryada 1984 g. Nauchinyy Arkhiv Otdel Arkheologii Instituta Istorii, Yazika i Literatury Karakalpakskogo Filiala Akademia Nauk UzSSR.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Gudkova, A.V. 1964. Tok-kala. Tashkent: Izd-vo Nauka Uzbekskoy SSR Gudovka, A.V. and Yagodin, V.N. 1963. Arkheologicheskie issledovaniya v Pravo-berezhnoy chasti Priaral’skoy del’ty Amudar’i v 1958–1959 gg. Moscow: Materialy Khorezmskoi Ekspeditsii 6. Akademia Nauk. Gurvich, I.S. 1977. Kul’tura severnykh yakutov-olenevodov. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Hampel, J. 1905. Altertümen des frühen Mittelalters in Ungarn. Vol. II. Braunscheng: F. Vieweg und Sohn. Harding, G.L. 1953. The Cairn of Hani’. Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 2: 8–56. Helms, S.W. 1981. Jawa: Lost City of the Black Desert. London – New York. Ibn Fadlān, A. 1939. Puteshestvie Ibn Fadlana na Volgu. Moscow – Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. Ibn Ruzbihan Ifahani, F. 1976. Mikhman-name-iy Bukhara (Zapiski bukharsokgo gostya). Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Ivanov, V.A. 1984. Pogrebeniya Qipchaqov v basseyne r. Ural. Ufa: Pamyatniki kochevnikov Yuzhnogo Urala. Ivanov, V.A. and Kriger, V.A. 1988. Kurgany kypchakskogo vremeni na Yuzhnom Urale (XII–XIV vv). Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Kabanov, S.K. 1963. Pogrebeniya voina v doline r. Kashka-Dar’ya. Moscow: Sovetskaya arkheologiya 3. Kamalov, S.K. 1968. Karakalpaki v XVII–XIX vv. Tashkent: Izd-vo Fan Uzbekskoy SSR. Karakalpak fol’klor’i 1980. Karakalpak fol’klor’i. Nukus: T.V. Kyryk kiz. Karelin, G.S. 1883. Puteshestviya G.S. Karelina po Kaspiiyskomy mory. Zapiski Imperatorskoe russkoe geograficheskoe obshey geografii 10. Kazakov, E.P. 1971. Pogrebal’nyy inventar’ Tankeevskogo mogil’nika. Kazan:Vopr. Etnogeneza tyurkoyazychnykh narodov Srednego Povolzh’ya. Kdyrniyazov, M.S. 1984. Kul’turnye svyazi srednevekovykh gorodov Khwarezma. Tashkent: Arkheologia Priaral’ya II. Izd-vo Fan Uzbekskoy SSR. Khamidov, U. 1985. Eski karakalpak tilkinni zhazba estelikleri. Nukus. Khangalov, M.N. 1898. Oblava na zverey u drevnikh buryat. St Petersburg: Izvestiya Vostochno-Sibirskogo otdeleniya Imperatorskoe russkoe geograficheskoe obshestvo. Kharuzin, A.N. 1889. Kirgizy Bukeevskoy ordy. Moscow: Tip. Levenson i Ko. Khlobistin, L.P. 1972. Problemy sotsiologii neolita Severnoy Evrazii. Leningrad: Okhotniki, sobirateli, rybolovy. Akademia Nauk. Khudyakov, Y.S. 1980. Vooruzhenie eniseyskikh kyrgizov. Novosibirsk: Nauka.

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 Works cited Khudyakov, Y.S. 1986. Vooruzhenie srednivekovykh kochevnikov Yuzhnoy Sibiri i Tsentral’noy Azii. Novosibirsk: Nauka. Kirpichnikov, A.N. 1973. Snaryazhenie vsadnika i verkhovogo konya na Rusi IX–XIII vv. Leningrad: Svod arkheologicheskikh istochnikov SSSR E1–36. Kiselyov, S.V. 1951. Drevnyaya istoriya Yuzhnoy Sibiri. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Kiss, A. and Bartha, A. 1970. Graves from the Age of the Hungarian Conquest at Bana. Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 22 (1970): 219–60. Klements, D. and Khangalov, M. 1910. Obshchestvennye okhoty u buryat. St Petersburg: Materialy po etnografii Rossii 1. Akademia Nauk. Kolchin, B.A. 1959. Zhelezoobrabatyvayushchee remeslo Novgoroda Velikogo. Moscow: Materialy i issledovaniya po arkheologii SSSR 66. Akademia Nauk. Kononov, A.N. 1958. Rodoslovnaya turkmen. Sochineniya Abu-l-Gazi khana Khivinskogo. Moscow – Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. Kosarev, M.F. 1984. Zapadnaya Sibir’ v drevnosti. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Kriger, V.A. 1984. Pogrebeniya Qipchaqskogo vremeni v mogil’nikakh u pos. Lebedevka Ural’skoy oblasti. Ufa: Pamyatniki kochevnikov Yuzhnogo Urala. Kuchera, M.P. 1962. Drevnniy Plines’k. Kiev: Arkheologichni pam’yatki URSR XII. Kychanov, E.I. 1963. Svedenie ‘Yuan-shi’ o pereselenii kirgizov v XIII v. Frunze: Izvestiya Akademia Nauk KirgSSR, ser. Obshch 1. Nauk Kyzlasov, L.R. 1969. Istoriya Tuvy v srednie veka. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Kyzlasov, L.R. 1975. Kurgany srednevekovykh khakasov (Askizskaya kul’tura). In A.M. Mandelstam (ed.) Pervobytnaya arkheologiya Sibiri: 193–211. Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. Lattimore, O. 1929. The desert road to Turkestan. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. Legge, A. and Rowley-Conwy, P.A. 1987. Gazelle killing in Stone Age Syria. Scientific American 255: 88–95. Levina, L.M. 1966. Keramika i voprosy khronologii pamyatnikov DzhetyAsarskoy kul’tury. Moscow: Material’naya kul’tura narodov Sredney Azii i Kazakhstana. Akademia Nauk. Levina, L.M. 1971. Keramika nizhney i sredney Syrdar’i v 1 tysyacheletii n.e. Moscow: Trudy Khorezmskoi Arkheologo-Etnografcheskoi Ekspeditsii VII. Akademia Nauk. Levina, L.M. 1974. Raboty v Djetiasarskom urochishe. Arkheologicheskie otkrytiya 1973 goda. Moscow: Akademia Nauk.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Levina, L.M. 1977. Issledovaniya v Djetiasarskom urochishche. Arkheologicheskie otkrytiya 1976 goda. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Levina, L.M. 1979. Issledovaniya v Djetiasarskom urochishche. Arkheologicheskie otkrytiya 1978 goda. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Levina, L.M. 1980. Raskopki gorodischch Djetiasarskogo urochishcha. Arkheologicheskie otkrytiya 1979 goda. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Levina, L.M. 1981. Issledovaniya v Djetiasarskom urochishche. Arkheologicheskie otkrytiya 1980 goda. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Levina, L.M. 1983. Issledovaniya v Djetiasarskom urochishche. Arkheologicheskie otkrytiya 1981 goda. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Levina, L.M. 1988a. Issledovaniya v severo-vostochnyom Priaral’e. Arkheologicheskie otkrytiya 1986 goda. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Levina L.M. 1988b. Pamyatniki Djetiasarskoy kul’tury v svete etnicheskoy istorii Sredniy Azii (seredina 1 tys. do n.e. – VIII vv. n.e.): Problemy etnogeneza i eticheskoy istorii narodov Sredney Azii i Kazakhstana. Tezesy dokl. Vsesoyuzn. Konfrenetsii (20–23 noyabrya 1988 g., Moskva) Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Levshin, A. 1832. Opisanie Kirgiz-kazach’ikh ili Kirgiz-kaysatskikh ord I stepey. St Petersburg: Tip. K. Krayia . Lokhovits, V.A. 1979. Karavan-sarai Verkhnego Khwarezma. Moscow: Etnografiya i arkheologiya Sredney Azii. Akademia Nauk. Maitland, P. 1927. The ‘Works of the Old Men’ in Arabia. Antiquity 1: 196–203. Mambetullaev, M. 1978. Gorodishche Bol’shaya Aybugir-kala (raskopki 1976 g.): Nukus: Vestnik Karakalpakskogo filiala Akademii Nauk UzSSR 4. Mandelshtam, A.M. 1956. Kharakteristika tyurok IX v. v ‘Poslanii Fatkhu ibn Hakanu’ al-Dzhahiza. Alma-Ata: Trudy Instituta istorii arkheologii i etnografii Akademii Nauk KazSSR 1. Mandelshtam, A.M. 1976. K kharakteristike rannikh kochevnikov Zakaspiya. Moscow: Kratkie soovsheniya o dokladakh i polevykh issledovaniyakh Instituta Arkheologiya Akademii Nauk USSR 167. Mandelshtam, A.M. 1981. Mogil’nik Dzhanak. Moscow: Kratkie soovsheniya o dokladakh i polevykh issledovaniyakh Instituta Arkheologiya Akademii Nauk SSSR 167. Manker. E. 1960. Fangstgropar och stalotomter. Kuturlämningar fran lapsk forntid av Ernst Manker. Uppsala: Nordiska Museet: Acta Lapponica XV. Manylov, Y.P. 1978. Srednevekovye Khwarezmiyskie pamyatniki Vostochnogo chika. Drevnyaya i srednevekovaya kultura yugovostochnogo Ustiurta. Tashkent: Izd-vo Fan Uzbekskoy SSR. Manylov, Y.P. 1981. Raboty na gorodishe Assakeaudan-kala. Nukus: Vestnik Karakalpakskogo filiala Akademii Nauk UzSSR 3.

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 Works cited Manylov, Y.P. 1982. Arkheologicheskie issledovaniya karavan-saraev Tsentral’nogo Ustiurta. Tashkent: Arkheologiya Priaral’ya 1. Izd-vo Fan Uzbekskoy SSR. Markov, G.E. 1961. Ocherk istorii formirovaniya severnykh turkmen. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Masson, M.E. 1966. Srednevekovye torgovye puti iz Merva v Khwarezm i v Maverannakhr. Ashgabat: Trudy Yuzhno-Turkemnistanskoy arkheologicheskoy kompleksnoy ekspeditsii XIII. Mazhitov, N.A. 1977. Yuzhnyy Ural v VII–XIV vv. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Mazhitov, N.A. 1981. Kurgany Yuzhnogo Urala VIII–XII vv. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Medvedev, A.F. 1959a. Oruzhie Novgoroda Velikogo. Moscow: Materialy i issledovaniya po arkheologii SSSR 65. Akademia Nauk. Meyer, L. 1865. Kirgizy Orenburgskogo vedomstva. St Petersburg. MITT 1939. Materialy po istorii turkmen i Turkmenii 1. Moscow – Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. Mogil’nikov, V.A., Neberov, S.V., Umanskiy, A.P. and Shemykina, A.S. 1980. Kurgany u derevni Grysznovo. Barnayal: Drevnyaya istoriya Altaya. Nebolsin, P. 1852. Ocherki byta kalmykov Khoshoutovskogo ulusa. St Petersburg: Akademia Nauk. Nerazik, E.E. 1959. Keramika Khwarezma afrigidskogo pernoda. Moscow: Trudy Khorezmskoy arkheologo-ethnograficheskoy ekspeditsii Akademii Nauk SSSR IV. Akademia Nauk. Nerazik, E.E. 1966. Sel’skie poseleniya afrigidskogo Khwarezma. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Nerazik, E.E. 1968. O nekotorykh napravleniyakh etnicheskikh svyazey naseleniya Yuzhnogo i Yugo-Vostochnogo Priaral’ya v IV–VIII vv. Moscow: Istoriya, arkheologiya i etnografiya Sredney Azii. Akademia Nauk. Nerazik, E.E. and Rapoport, Y.A. 1959. Kuyuk-kala v 1956 g. Moscow: Materialy Khorezmskoy arkheologo-etnograficheskoy ekspeditsii Akademia Nauk SSSR 1. Akademia Nauk. Nesheim, A. 1961. Fangstgropar och stalomter. London: Man XI. Nikolskiy, A.M. 1885. Puteshestvie na Balkhash i v Semipalatinskuyu obl. Zapiski Zapadno-Sibirskogo otdenleniya. Imperatorskoe russkoe geograficheskoe obshestvo 7.1. Okladinov, A.P. 1966. Petroglify Angary. Moscow: Akademia Nauk Pallas, P.S. 1786. Puteshestviya po raznym provintsiyam Rossiyskogo gosudarstva. Chasty vtoraya polovina pervaya. St Petersburg. Pallas, P.S. 1788. Puteshestviya po raznym provintsiyam Rossiyskogo gosudarstva. St Petersburg: Carl Schnoor.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Perv’ie russkie 1963. Perv’ie russkie issledovannya Ustiurta. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Pletneva, S.A. 1958. Pechenegi, torki, polovtsy v yuzhnorusskikh stepyak. Moscow – Leningrad: Trudy Volgo-Donskoy arkheologicheskoy ekspeditsii 1. Materialy i issledovaniya po arkheologii SSSR 62. Akademia Nauk. Pletneva, S.A. 1967. Ot kocheviy k gorodam. Saltovo-mayatskaya kul’tura. Mosow: Materialy i issledovaniya po arkheologii SSSR 142. Pletneva, S.A. 1973. Drevnosti chernykh klobukov. Moscow: Svod arkheologicheskikh istochnikov SSSR E1–19. Akademia Nauk. Pletneva, S.A. 1989. Na slavyano-khazarskom pogranich’e. Dmitrievskiy arkheologichiskiy kompleks. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Polyakov, S.P. 1973. Etnicheskaya istoriya Severo-Zapadnoy Turkmenii v srednie veka. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Poluboyarinova, M.D. 1980. Znaki na zolotoordynskoi keramike. Moscow: Srednevekovye drevnosti Evraziyskikh stepey. Akademia Nauk. Pshenichnyuk, A.K. 1984. Kurgany srednevekovykh kochevnikov na Yuzhnom Urale. Ufa: Pamaytniki kochevnikov Yuzhnogo Urala. Pugachenkova, G.A. 1967. Pogrebenie mongol’skogo vremeni v Khalchayane. Moscow: Sovetskaya arkheologiya 2. Radde, G. and Walter, A. 1889. Die Säugethiere Transcaspiens. Zool. Jahrb., Abth Svst. 4: 993–1094. Radlov, V.V. 1893. Opyt slovarya tyurkskikh narechiy 1. St Petersburg: Tip. Imperatorskoi Akademia Nauk. Rashid ad-Din, 1952. Sbornik letopisey. Moscow – Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. Rees, L.W.B. 1929. The Transjordan Desert. Antiquity 3: 389–406. Rubrukvis, V. 1911. Puteshestvie v vostochnye strany v leto blagodati. 1253. St Petersburg. Rychkov, P. 1762. Topografiya Orenburgskaya, to est’ obstyatel’noe opisanie Orenburgskoy gubernii, sochinennoe kollezhkskim sovetnikom Imp. Akademia Nauk korrespondentom Petrom Rychkovym. Part 1. St Petersburg: Akademia Nauk Sabaneev, L.P. 1872. Zverinyy promysel v Uralskikh gorak. St Petersburg: Beseda 6. Schmidt, E.A. 1927. Materialy po rodovomu sostavu kazakhskogo nasaleniya. V.V. Bartol’d. Tashkent. Semenov-Tyanshanskii, O.I. 1977. Severnyy olen’. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Senigova, T.N. 1953. Keramika gorodishcha Altyn-Asar (Opyt khronologicheskoy periodizatsii). Unpublished thesis. Moscow.

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 Works cited Silantev, A.A. 1898. Obzor promyslovykh okhot v Rossii. St Petersburg: Tip. Kirshbauma. Simchenko, Y.B. 1976. Kul’tura okhotnikov na oleney Severnoy Evrazii. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Sinitsyn, I.V. 1956. Arkheologicheskie issledovaniya v Zapadnom Kazhakhstane. Alma-Ata: Trudy Instituta istorii, arkheologii I etnografii Akademia Nauk KazSSR. Vol. 1. Arkheologiya. Shavkunov, E.B. 1960. Klad chzhurchzhenskikh zerkal. Trudy Dal’nevostochnoy arkheologicheskoy ekspeditsii. Vol. I. Moscow – Leningrad: Materialy i issledovaniya po arkheologii SSSR 86. Akademia Nauk. S’iroechkovskii, E.E. 1986. Severnyy olen’. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Sludsky, A.A. 1955. Saygak v Kazakhstane. Alma-Ata: Trudy Instituta etnografii Akademia Nauk KazSSR IV. Smirnov, K.F. 1964. Savromaty. Moscow: Rannyaya istoriya i kul’tura sarmatov. Akademia Nauk. Sokolov, D.N. 1904. O bashkirskikh tamgak. Orenburg: Trudy Orenburgskoy uchenoy arkhivnoy komissii XIII. Solomatin, A.O. 1973. Kulan. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Sorokin, S.S. 1959. Zheleznye izdeliya Sarkela – Beloy Vezhi. Moscow: Materialy i issledovaniya po arkheologii SSSR. 75. Stepnjak, K. 1896. Okhota na kulanov. Moscow: Priroda i okhota 3. Steppes of Eurasia 1981. Stepi Evrazii v epokhu srednevekov’ya. Moscow: Arkheologiya SSSR. Strabo. Geographia. Translation, article, and commentary by Stratanovskiy. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Sukhareva, O.A. 1979. Oboronitel’iye steny Samarkanda. Moscow: Kultura i istusstvo Sredney Azii. Sultanov, T.I. 1982. Kochevye plemena Priaral’ya v XV–XVIII vv. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Teploukhov, A.F. 1880. O doistoricheskikh zhertvennykh mestakh na Ural’skikh gorak. Ekaterinburg: Zapiski Ural’skogo otdeleniya Obshestva lyubiteley estestvoznaniya VI/1. Terenozhin, A. I. 1940. O drevnem goncharstve v Khwarezme. Izvestiya Uzbekskogo fijiala Akademia Nauk SSSR 6. Tolstov, S.P. 1947a. Goroda guzov. Moscow: Sovetskaya Etnografiya 3. Tolstov, S.P. 1947b. Drevne Khwarezmiyskaya tsivilizatsiya v svete noveyshikh arkheologicheskikh otkrytiy (1937–1945). Moscow – Leningrad: Obshchee sobranie Akademia Nauk SSSR 1-4 iyulya 1946 g. Tolstov, S.P. 1948a. Drevniy Khwarezm. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Tolstov, S.P. 1948b. Po sledam drevne Khwarezmiyskoy tsivilizatsii. Moscow – Leningrad: Akademia Nauk.

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Tolstov, S.P. 1949. Khwarezmskaya arkheologo-etnograficheskaya ekspeditsiya v 1948 godu. Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, seriya istorii i filosofii 3. Tolstov, S.P. 1950. Khwarezmskaya arkheologo-etnograficheskaya ekspeditsya. Akademia Nauk SSSR v 1949 godu. Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, seriya istorii i filosofii 6. Tolstov, S.P. 1952. Khwarezmskaya arkheologo-etnograficheskaya ekspeditsiya. Akademia Nauk SSSR (1945–1948 gg.) Moscow: Trudy Khorezmskoy arkheologo-etnograficheskoy ekspeditsii 1. Tolstov, S.P. 1954. Arkheologicheskie raboty Khwarezmskoy ekspeditsii 1951 g. Moscow: Sovetskaya arkheologiya XIX. Tolstov, S.P 1958. Raboti Khorezmskoy arkheologo-etnograficheskoy ekspeditstii Akademia Nauk SSSR v 1949–1953 gg. Moscow: Trudy Khorezmskoy arkheologo-etnograficheskoy ekspeditsii 11. Tolstov, S.P. 1962. Po drevnim del’tam Oksa i Yaksarta. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Tolstov, S.P., Zhdanko, T.A. and Itina, M.A. 1963. Raboty Khwarezmskoy arkheologo-etnograficheskoy ekspeditsii 1958–1961 gg. Moscow: Materialy Khorezmskoy arkheologo-etnograficheskoy ekspeditstii Akademii Nauk 6. Tret’yakov, P.N. 1934. Pervobytnaya okhota v Severnoy Azii. Moscow: Istvestiya gos. Akademii istorii material’noy kultur’ 106. Trudy Orenburgskoi 1906. Trudy Orenburgskoi uchenoy arkhivnoy komissii. Orenburg: 1906 16. Protokol 14 ot 17/XXI 1904 g. Trudy Orenburgskoi 1950. Trudy Semirechenskoy arkheologicheskoy ekspeditsii ‘Chuyskaya dolina’. Moscow – Leningrad: Sostavleny pod rukovodstvom A.N. Bernshtama. Materialy i issledovaniyapo arkheologii SSSR 86. Vakturskaya, N.N. 1952. O raskopkakh 1948 goda na sprednevekovom gorodishe Shemakha-kala Turkmenskoy SSR. Moscow: Trudy Khorezmskoy arkheologo-etnograficheskoy ekspeditsii 1. Vakturskaya, N.N. 1958. Raskopki goroishe Urgench v 1952 godu. Moscow: Trudy Khorezmskoy arkheologo-etnograficheskoy ekspeditsii. Vakturskaya, N.N. 1959. Klassifikatsiya srednevekovoy keramiki Khwarezma (IX–XVII gg.) Moscow: Trudy Khorezmskoy arkheologo-etnograficheskoy ekspeditsii IV. Valikhanov, C.C. 1904. Zapiski otdeleniya etnografii. St Petersburg: Imperatorskoe russkoe geograficheskoe obshestvo XXIX. Vamberi, A. 1867. Puteshestvie po Sredney Azii. Moscow. Varushchenko, S.I., Varushenko, A.H. and Klige, R.K. 1987. Izmenenie rezhima Kaspiyskogo moray i besstochnykh vodoemov v paleovrememi. Moscow: Akademia Nauk.

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 Works cited Vasilevich, G.M. 1969. Evenki. Istoriko-etnograficheskie ocherki (XVIII – nachalo XX gg). Leningrad: Akademia Nauk. Vaynberg, B.I. 1973. Udel’nyy chekan rannesrednevekovogo Kerdera. Tashkent: Voprosy antropologii i material’noy kul’tury Kerdera. Izd-vo Fan Uzbekskoy SSR. Viktorov, S.V. 1971. Pustynya Ustiurt i voprocy ee osvoeniya. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Vostrov, V.V. and Mukhanov, O.M. 1968. Rodoplemennoy stroy i rasselenie kazakhov. Alma-Ata: Akademia Nauk. Weinstein, S.I. 1961. Tyvintsy-Todzhintsy. Istoriko-etnograficheskie ocherki. Moscow: Akademia Nauk. Yagodin, V.N. 1971. Ob etnicheskom opredelenii kerderskoy kul’tury i ee roli v etnogeneze karakalpakov. Nukus: Vestnik Karakalpakskogo filiala Akademia Nauk UzSSR 3. Yagodin, V.N. 1973. Kerderskoe poselenie Kurgancha (K izucheniyu istoricheskoy topografii i khronologii). Voprosy antropologii i material’noy kul’tury Kerdera. Tashkent: Izd-vo Fan Uzbekskoy SSR. Yagodin, V.N. 1978. Pamyatniki kochevykh plemen drevnosti i srednevekovya. Drevnyaya i srednevekovaya kultura yugo-vostochnogo Ustiurta. Tashkent: Izd-vo Fan Uzbekskoy SSR. Yagodin, V.N. 1981. Khyvan-kala – rannesrednevekovyy Kerder. Tashkent: Arkheologicheskie issledovaniya v Karakalpakii. Izd-vo Fan Uzbekskoy SSR. Yagodin, V.N. 1982. Arkheologicheskoe izuchenie kurgannykh mogil’nikov Kaskashol i Berniyaz na Usyurte. Tashkent: Arkheologiya Priaral’ya I. Yagodin, V.N. 1984a. Kerderskoe poselenie Kuyuk-kala. Istoricheskaya topografiya i khronologiya. Tashkent: Arkheologiya Priaral’ya II. Yagodin, V.N. 1985a. Otchet o rabotakh Ustiurtskogo arkheologicheskogo ekspeditsionnogo otryada 1984 goda. Nukus: Nauchnyy arkhiv Otdel arkheologii Instituta istorii, yazyka i literatury Karakalpakskogo filila Akademii Nauk UzSSR. Yagodin, V.N. 1986a. Nekotorye voprosy istoricheskoy geografii Priaral’skoy del’ty Amudar’i v VII–XIV gg. Tashkent: Arkheologiya Priaral’ya III. Yagodin, V.N. 1986b. Otchet o rabotakh SeveroUstiurtskogo arkheologicheskogo ekspeditsionnogo otryada 1985 goda. Nukus: Nauchnyy arkhiv Otdel arkheologii Instituta istorii, yazyka i literatury Karakalpakskogo filila Akademii Nauk UzSSR. Yagodin, V.N. 1989. Otchet o rabotakh ZapadnoUstiurtskogo arkheologicheskogo ekspeditsionnogo otryada 1989 goda. Nukus: Nauchnyy arkhiv Otdel arkheologii Instituta istorii, yazyka i literatury Karakalpakskogo filila Akademii Nauk UzSSR. Yagodin, V.N. 1990. Otchet o rabotakh YuzhnoUstiurtskogo arkheologicheskogo ekspeditsionnogo otryada 1990 goda. Nukus:

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Nauchnyy arkhiv Otdel arkheologii Instituta istorii, yazyka i literatury Karakalpakskogo filila Akademii Nauk UzSSR. Yagodin, V.N. 1991. Strelovidnye Planirovki Ustiurta. Tashkent: Arkheologiya Priaral’ya V. Yagodin, V.N. and Khodzhayov, T.K. 1970. Nekropol’ drevnego Mizdakhkana. Tashkent: Izd-vo Fan UzSSR. Yagodin, V.N. and Bizhanov, E.B. 1981. Otchet o rabotakh Ustiurtskogo arkheologicheskogo ekspeditsionnogo otryada 1980 goda. Nukus: Nauchnyy arkhiv Otdel arkheologii Instituta istorii, yazyka i literatury Karakalpakskogo filila Akademii Nauk UzSSR. Yagodin, V.N., Bizhanov, E.B. and Manylov, Y.P. 1975. Otchet ob arkheologo-topograficheskikh issledovannyakh na plato Ustiurt v 1974 godu. Nukus: Nauchnyy arkhiv Otdel arkheologii Instituta istorii, yazyka i literatury Karakalpakskogo filila Akademii Nauk UzSSR. Yagodin, V.N. and Khodzhaniyazov, G.K. 1986. Otchet o rabotakh YuzhnoUstiurtaskogo arkheologicheskogo ekspeditsionnogo otryada 1985 goda. Nukus: Nauchnyy arkhiv Otdel arkheologii Instituta istorii, yazyka i literatury Karakalpakskogo filila Akademii Nauk UzSSr. Yagodin, V.N., Betts, A.V.G. and Blau, S. 2007. Ancient nomads of the Aralo-Caspian Region. The Duana Archaeological Complex. Leuven: Ancient Near Eastern Studies Supplement Series 25. Yakubovskiy A.Y. 1932. Feodal’noe obshchestvo Sredney Azii i ego torgovlya s Vostochnoy Evropoy v X–XV vv. Leningrad: Materialy po istorii Uzbekskoy, Tadzhikskoy i Turkmenskoy SSR 1. Akademia Nauk. Yusupov, Kh. 1986. Drevnosti Uzboya. Ashgabat: Ylym. Yusupov, N.Y. and Manylov, Y.P. 1990. Issedovaniya srednevekovykh gorodish Vostochnogo chinka Usrtyurta. Tashkent: Arkheologiya Priaral’ya IV. Zadneproskiy, Y.A. 1975. Kochevnicheskoe pogrebenie XIII–XIV gg. Fergane. Moscow: Sovetskaya arkheologiya 4. Zhdanko, T.A. 1961. Problema poluosedlogo naseleniya v istorii Sredney Azii i Kazakhstana. Moscow: Sovetskaya etnografiya 2.

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Index active hunting 126, 140 Adaev 105 Adai. See Khazakhs Adzhibay 185, 188, 189, 195, 198 Adzhigeldy 185 Afghanistan 134, 136 Afrigid 97–99, 130 Afrigid-Samanid period 98 Afshar 199 Akchulak 185 Ak-Chungul’ 146–149, 175, 177–180, 183, 188 Aksai group 29, 138 Aksaimak 30, 38–41, 101, 103, 183 Alano 111, 142–143, 202. See also Sarmatians Alaska 132 Almambet 27 Altai Mountains 136, 169, 170, 173, 178 altars 32–33, 208, 211 Altynasar 144 Amankutan 130 Amanzhol 92 Amu-dar’ya 3, 114, 145 Amu-dar’ya Delta 30, 97, 103, 130, 133–134 amulets. See jewellery Anabasis salsa 2, 10, 13 animal bones 17, 20–22, 34, 59, 68, 79–81, 130, 132, 187, 203, 208, 210 animal shelters 144, 145, 163 animal skins. See fur

antelope 124, 208. See also saigas Aralo-Caspian Depression 114, 208, 216 Aral Sea 2, 7, 116, 132, 135, 193 Aresu 132 armour 99, 159. See also lamella armour arran 117–118, 128, 211, 215 Arranshi-Keneges tribe 117 arrowheads 154, 158, 169, 170, 179 bone arrowheads 156, 171–172 iron arrowheads 154, 156, 169–171 Artemisia spp. 2, 10, 13 ash 13, 17, 34, 36, 59, 79–81, 106 Asia 118, 126, 132, 176 Asmantay Matay 138 Assakeaudan-kala 2, 105 Atraphaxis frutescens 10 At-Tajbe 122 Ayata 105 Aybuyir-kala 185–186, 194–196, 198 Aybuyir subsystem 4, 7–8, 21, 29–62, 101–106, 103, 139–140, 144, 185, 208 Lake Aybuyir 30, 194 Aydabol well 67–68 Aytman 27 Bakkal-kala 185–186 Balkhan Range 105, 110 Barategin 194, 196 Barsa-Kelmes Basin 2, 130

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Bazarasar 144 bedouins 122 Beineu group 5, 7, 92, 110, 137, 215 Beleuli 185, 187 bells 148, 183 belt buckles 154, 179, 182 Berkut Kalin Oasis 195 Berniyaz 4, 7, 29, 30, 34–37, 101, 106, 150, 172–173, 176, 178, 183, 188 Besenyo coalition 192 Betpaqdale 136 birch bark 115 birds 204–205, 208, 211 of prey 208, 210 bison 124, 126, 139, 205 bits. See equestrian equipment Black Hats 170, 178 black slate. See slate bows 121, 154, 172, 206, 209 bricks 104, 105, 199 bridle. See equestrian equipment Britain 132 bronze cap 148 buffalo 125 Bukhara 12, 131–132, 134, 194 Bulak 185 Bulanbay 27–28, 138 Bulgaria 129 Buryats 206 Cairn of Hani 124 Cape Urga 194 Caragana arborescens 10 caravanserais 105, 185, 194–195 caribou 124–125 Caspian Sea 2, 116, 132, 136, 181, 193 cataracts 132 cattle 105, 114, 144, 197, 207–208, 208–209 cemeteries 50, 71, 75, 104–105, 110, 143–145, 166, 177– 178, 182, 185, 189, 194, 196–198 Duana cemetery 24, 99, 143 Kurgan Cemetery 158–162

Chalburun 30, 50, 61–65, 101, 105–106 charcoal. See ash Chelkar-Irgiz 134 Chelyabinsk 143 Chernye Klobuki. See Black Hats China 132, 134 chink 2 Churuk 185 cists 41, 72, 99, 109, 159, 187, 199 coffins 147, 163 Cours 176 cowrie shells 148, 180 Crataégus 2 Crimea 189 crossbow traps 120 cuirass 99, 172 Dar’yal’ik 30, 50–55, 101, 103– 104, 106, 139 deer 115, 120, 124, 203–204 Dekcha 4, 30–31, 50, 56–64, 101–103, 106, 130, 144, 183, 208 Promontory 30, 56, 59–60 tower 56 ‘desert kites’ 121–125 Desht-i Qipchaq 197 Dev-Kesken 105, 143 Djetiasar 97–100, 103, 111, 142, 144–145, 192, 203–207 Early and Middle period 99, 100, 109 Late period 97–98, 100, 109 dogs (hunting) 208, 210 donjon 195 drums. See tabl Duana 4 Duana subsystem 10–28, 94–100, 143, 207 Dzhanbas-kala 130 Dzharykpak 29 Dzungaria Basin. See Mongolia earrings. See jewellery Eastern Europe 165–170, 174– 181, 184, 187–188, 194, 199

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 Index ediski 115 Elbuli (Ibn Khaldūn). See Ilbari Emba River 130, 142, 208 enclosures 27, 36, 46, 61, 101, 121, 127 equestrian equipment 165, 173–178 bits 154, 157, 169, 176–177 bone mounts and facings 148, 150, 154, 165, 178, 183 bridle 148, 154, 177 harnesses 150, 154, 159, 178, 183 saddles 131, 132, 148, 150, 154, 156, 178 stirrups 148, 156–157, 159, 163–164, 173–176 Erburun 30, 50, 59–60, 185 Erburun-kala 4, 198 Er Ziiuar 118 ethology 140 Eurasia 121, 129, 165, 177, 185, 215 evil spirits 183 Fagburija 196 farming 207, 208 Fedorovka 199 Fellahs 124 fertility shrine 209 Finland 120 fire 36, 79 fire striker (kresalo) 158, 182–183 fishing 193, 207, 208 flint 20 foxes 203–205, 210–211 fur 134, 203, 208, 210 coats 131 Galygumbe 185 gazarsha 206 gazelles 118, 202–203, 208, 210, 215 Georgiania 194 gerbils 204 goitered gazelles 118, 122–124, 129, 134–135, 139, 209 Golden Horde 104–106, 109, 147, 181, 185, 188–190, 197

gold thread 161 gophers 205 grasslands 133 graves 50, 99, 106, 110, 177, 184, 187, 199. See also cemeteries grinding stone 19 grivna. See jewellery Gurgānj 133, 196, 197 Guz 193–196 Halchajan 170 Halidjan 193 Haloxylon ammodendron 79 halters. See equestrian equipment hares 203–204 Hassia 124 Hazars 193 helmets 99 herringbone courses 46, 55, 104–105 Himalayas 136 Homs 124 Horez 193 horizontal stratigraphy 101, 104 horns 134, 136, 202 horses 114–115, 152–154, 173, 187, 193. See also equestrian equipment horse burial 152–154, 158–159, 176, 199 Hungary 174, 177, 179 Ibrakhimsha 4, 30, 38, 42–44, 45, 101, 139 Ilbari 197 Ilek River 143 Imur 199 Iran 134, 136, 143 Irgiz 134 iron 21, 34, 99, 148–150, 154–159, 163–167, 169–171 Iron Age 165 iron rivets 149, 166 Iroquois. See Native Americans Irtysh River 172 Isfidzhab 196

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region Ishimbaevsk 174 Islam 185, 189, 196, 198–199 Islamic burial 185, 189 jackals 203–204 Jaihun 193 Jaxartes River 97 Jebel Bishri 122 jewellery 165, 179–180 amulets 183 beads 149, 179–180 earrings 148, 179–180 rings 148 torque (grivna) 148, 180 Jordan 121, 126 Jujliboli 197 Kai-daka 116 Kalal’ik group 163–166, 170, 175, 181, 182, 188 Kalmykia 133 Kalmyk Steppe 117 Kangar 192 Kaplangire 130 Karaasar 144 Karabur 2 Karakalpak 97, 103, 194, 212 Karakalpaks 114, 117–118, 211–212, 215 Karakalpakstan 117, 211 Karakibir 189–190 Karamata 30, 38, 45–48, 101, 103, 139 Karamaya 81–90, 105, 110, 144, 214 Karamola 110 Karaubar Ridge 30, 45–46 Karaumbet 185, 198 Kariatein 124 kashin 150, 183 Kashka-dar’ya Valley 176 Kaskazhol 185 Kaunchi contexts 130 Kazakh-Adai 60, 114, 118 Kazakhs 105, 117–118, 211–212, 215 Kazakhstan 5, 114, 117, 133, 169, 179, 180, 197

Kazakl’i-degish 185 Kazgan 7 Kazgan group 30, 38–49, 154–163, 168–172, 186–190 Kaz’ibaba cemetery 143 Kend’irlisor group 7, 81–91, 110, 118, 137, 140, 145, 214 Kend’irlisor Bend 87 Kend’irlisor salt marsh 81 Kerder culture 97–98, 100, 103, 109, 111, 130, 142, 144–145, 182, 192, 203–207 Khantersek 4, 30, 38, 48–49, 104, 185, 198 Promontory 48, 104, 139 settlement 50 Khiva 131, 134 khoum 98, 146 Khwarezm 3, 97–98, 102–104, 130, 133–134, 143, 170, 181, 194–199, 210 cemeteries 189 Shahs 104, 194 Kimak 166, 169, 172, 177, 189 Kirghizia 177 Kirgiz people 114–116, 166 K’irkk’iz 118 K’iz’il-kum desert 130, 136 K’iz’il-kum sheep 136 knives 156, 158, 181 Kogusem 81–83, 91 Kola Peninsula 120–121 Kol’say 27 Koltaban 27 Konrade 131 Kosarma 184, 185 cemetery 182 Kosbulak 138, 185 kresalo. See fire striker (kresalo) Kudyrge cemetery 178 Kulanly 30, 185–186, 195, 198, 210 kulans 68, 114, 116, 118, 129–132, 137–139, 203–205, 209, 210, 215 skins 131 Kumbaskan-kala 195 Kunya-dar’ya 30

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 Index Kuraylyasar 144 Kurgancha settlement 97, 105, 185–187, 198, 203 kurgans 24, 66, 75, 109, 143, 146–190, 197, 199 Kurkreuk. See Sumbetimeralan Kyjazhol 185 Kyrgyzstan 132 Kyyazhol 198 Kyz-tepe 175 Kyzyk 199 lamellar armour 99, 150, 172–173, 184 leather 131, 156, 167, 174 Lebedevka 199 liver illness 132 Mamay 92 Manashi 92 Manchuria 129 mandibles. See animal bones Mangyshlak 136, 199 Mangyshlak Peninsula 105, 110, 142, 199 martens 203–205 masonry 33, 46, 48, 53, 55, 58, 63, 71, 75–77, 83, 89, 104–105 Massagetae 142 Matay 138 Mataykum 2, 4 mausolea 4, 45 Maverannihr 196 medieval period 48, 98, 104–105, 110, 118, 134, 136, 145, 163, 169–171, 181, 184–185, 192, 194–195, 199, 215 Merv 194 Mesolithic period 66 Middle East 121, 126–127 migration of animals 92, 119, 126, 130, 133–140, 204, 207 migration of people 145, 189–190 mirrors 151, 181–182 Mizdahkana cemetery 189 Mongolia 132, 133 Dzungaria Basin 132

Mongol period 105 Mongols 170, 189 moose 120 morocco 131–132 mouflon 4 mountain sheep 116, 136–137, 140 Mount Karamaya 81 Mount Kogusem 81, 86, 89–90 Mousterian 130 murga 115 Muslim cemetery 187 Muzbel’ 2 Native Americans 124 Iroquois 124 Omaha Indians 205 Plains Cree 125 Pueblo Indians 206 Neolithic period 66, 121, 124 Nganasan 120 North America 124–126, 138 Arizona 206 California 124 New Mexico 206 North Ustyurt group 10–27, 75, 94–101, 124, 126, 137–140, 144, 206 Norway 120 Novgorod 176 Novosibirsk Islands 132 Oghuz 110–111, 142, 187, 190, 192–198, 207–209 Oghuz tribe 3 Olburlik (Rashid ad-Din). See Ilbari Old Beineu 92 Orenburg 3, 143 Or River 143 Orsk 143 Ortrar 145 Oryul cemetery 166 pagan burials 185, 196, 198–199 Palaeolithic times 119 palmettos 168, 177

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region passive hunting 119, 124, 126, 140, 207 Pechenegs 3, 187, 190, 194 petroglyphs 124 Pil-kala 170 pis’kun 124, 126 pits 21–22, 53, 56, 68, 71, 116– 117, 119–120, 128, 148, 212 Polovtsian culture 180 porcupines 204 Porose 190 Porosja 170, 178 Povolzhsko-Ural expedition 4, 5 prayer rugs 131–132 Priaraliya 97, 103, 116, 128, 130, 133, 143, 144, 145, 169, 174, 184, 186, 187, 188, 197, 208 Priobja 169 Prirtyshya 177, 189 Prisar’ikam’ish subsystem 7, 30, 36, 50–65, 101–106, 137, 139–140, 144–145, 185– 186, 197, 208 Priuraliya 179 Prussia 176 Pul-zhi 185 Qipchaq 3, 105, 111, 142, 145, 166, 168, 168–172, 179– 182, 187, 197–199, 209–211 quartzite 20 Quaternary period 132, 134 quivers 157, 163, 168–169 radiocarbon dating 101, 106, 144 rats 204 rheumatism 132 rock art 124 Romania 129 rosette 177 Rossave 176 rural estates 195 Russia 132, 134, 170, 175–181, 190. See also Siberia Russian Academy of Sciences 4, 5

saddles. See equestrian equipment saigas 114–118, 129, 132–134, 137–139, 202, 208–209 Saksaulsay-kala 185, 198 Salsola arbuscula 10, 13, 67, 75 Saltovo-Mayaki culture 174, 177, 179 Sam 2 Samarkand 104, 130 Sami people 120–121 sanctuary 99–100, 144, 185, 207 Sar’ikam’ish Depression 30, 61, 130 Sar’ikam’ish Lake 139 Sarkela-Belaya Vezha 170 Sarmatian limestone 30, 56 Sarmatians 3, 111, 142–143, 150, 202. See also Alano Sary Sû river 130 Sauromatians. See Sarmatians Sauromatian tribe 3 Saykuduk 92 scabbards 154, 164–168 Scandinavia 118, 120–121, 126 scapulae. See animal bones scarecrows 116, 137 Semirechja 145 Shemakha-kala 130 Shemakha-kala fort 104 Shibindy 198 Shijkuduk 27 Shymkent Treasure 179 Siberia 118–120, 126, 173, 190, 206 silver 154, 177, 180 S’izly’uj 143 slate 20, 99 snare traps 120, 125 social organisation 202–212 South Priuraliya 3 Srostkin culture 166 Srostkinskoy 174 steppes 10, 115, 132–134, 166, 175, 209 Stipa 10 stirrups. See equestrian equipment stomach illness 132

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 Index stone flagging 12–13, 19, 33, 38, 42, 43, 50, 53, 68, 75, 104, 127–128 Strabo 142 sturgeons 181 Sumbetimeralan 100, 144, 203, 207 Sumbetimeralan-Kurkreuk sanctuary 130 summer pastures 130 suspension loops 154, 165, 167–168, 174–176, 183 ‘swamp town’ culture 97 Sweden 120, 176 swords 154, 164–168, 184 wooden hilt 166 Syr-dar’ya 97, 114, 116, 130, 145, 192, 207 Syria 121, 124 Tab’in 114, 117–118 tabl 124 tamgas 64–65, 89, 101, 105–106, 110 tarpans 114 Tash-kala 104 Taskuduk 27 Tatar-Mongolian tribes 105, 189, 190 Taymyr Peninsula 120 Teixeira, Pedro 122 Teshik-kala 195 Tibet 136 tobshi 206 toiletries 165, 179 Toirak-kala 130 Tokkala, necropolis of 189 Tolstov 4 Tomar-kala 185 Tompakasar 144 torque. See jewellery Tortkara 105 traditional medicine 132, 134 Transoxiana 194 traps 118–121, 125, 126, 128, 139–140, 207, 211 Tsozarovka 173

tuberculosis 132 tubular bone 167 Turkestan 209 Turkic peoples 105, 110, 145, 192–193 Turkmenia 2, 136, 143 Turkmenistan 210 Turkmen tribes 110–111, 142, 145, 199, 208 turtles 203–205 Tuva 166 Tuvintsoi-Todzhintsoi 115 Uighur 195 ungulates 81, 92, 119, 121, 126, 134, 138–140, 197, 202, 207, 210–211, 215. See also deer, kulans, saigas Ural Mountains 12, 118–119, 143, 165–166, 169–182, 184, 189, 196, 199, 208 Urga 185, 188, 198 Urta-Burtja 199 USSR Academy of Sciences 106 Ustyurt 48, 81, 101, 105, 139, 143, 165, 178, 182, 184, 192–196, 202, 207, 210, 214 North Ustyurt group 6 Ustyurt Archaeological expedition 4 Ustyurt Plateau 12, 27–28, 34, 92, 110, 114, 142–146, 150, 163, 185, 194, 204, 207, 211, 215 Ustyurt sheep 129, 136–137, 202 Uval Muzbel’ 81 Uzbek Academy of Science 4, 97–98, 103 Volga River 143, 170, 181, 185–189, 196 Volhovsky and Djugamel expedition 114, 131 weapons 128, 165–167. See also arrowheads, bows, quivers, swords whetstone 99

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Game drives of the Aralo-Caspian region wild ass. See kulans wild boars 203–205, 210–211 wolves 203 wooden saddles. See equestrian equipment Yakuts 120 Yarbekir fort 104 Yenisei Kirgiz kurgans 166 Yukaghir 120 zahuly 206 Zajaitsky steppe 130

Zakaspiya 136, 142 Zaural’ye 120 Zavolzhye 175, 189–190, 208 zegete-aba 206 Zhan’i-dar’ya 117 Zhar’inkuduk group 5, 7, 66–80, 106–109, 118, 143, 150– 153, 166, 172, 175, 182, 184, 187–188, 207 Depression 67, 71, 75 salt marsh 5, 66, 79 zhebe 117 Zhegalgan Fault 9, 201

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