Fungi for Human Health: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives [1st ed.] 9783030587550, 9783030587567

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-xii
Introduction (Uzma Azeem, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, M. Ali)....Pages 1-4
Taxonomy (Uzma Azeem, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, M. Ali)....Pages 5-11
Ecology and Distribution (Uzma Azeem, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, M. Ali)....Pages 13-22
Ethnomycology (Uzma Azeem, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, M. Ali)....Pages 23-39
Toxigenic Fungi (Uzma Azeem, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, M. Ali)....Pages 41-48
Nutritional Significance (Uzma Azeem, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, M. Ali)....Pages 49-57
Bioactive Constituents and Pharmacological Activities (Uzma Azeem, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, M. Ali)....Pages 59-95
Commercialization and Conservation (Uzma Azeem, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, M. Ali)....Pages 97-106
Outlook and Future Prospects (Uzma Azeem, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, M. Ali)....Pages 107-110
Concluding Remarks (Uzma Azeem, Khalid Rehman Hakeem, M. Ali)....Pages 111-113

Citation preview

Uzma Azeem Khalid Rehman Hakeem M. Ali

Fungi for Human Health Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives

Fungi for Human Health

Uzma Azeem • Khalid Rehman Hakeem • M. Ali

Fungi for Human Health Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives

Uzma Azeem Former Assistant Professor in Botany Sanmati Government College of Science Education and Research Jagraon, Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Khalid Rehman Hakeem Department of Biological Sciences Faculty of Science King Abdulaziz University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

M. Ali Department of Pharmacognosy Jazan University Jazan, Saudi Arabia

ISBN 978-3-030-58755-0    ISBN 978-3-030-58756-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58756-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

This book is dedicated to our parents and siblings

Preface

This book spotlights macrofungi with health-promising properties, which mainly belong to Basidiomycota (Agaricomycotina) and Ascomycota (Pezizomycotina). Macrofungi or higher fungi are ascomycetous and basidiomycetous mushrooms forming conspicuous, epigeous, or hypogeous sporocarps and are large enough to be seen by the naked eye. The consumption of wild macrofungi by man goes back 13,000 years. Macrofungi vary in structure and reproduction and occur in a wide range of habitats in different ecogeographic zones of the world. Ethnomycological surveys across the globe reveal the food value and therapeutic significance of wild species in diet and folk medicine. Scientific research proves the nutritional and pharmacological properties of these macrofungi. The latter are consecrated with a wealth of nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fatty acids, amino acids, minerals, and vitamins contributing to their food value. The sporocarps/cultured mycelia or cultured broths of these fungi are rich in numerous high and low molecular weight bioactive constituents. These bioactive components include polysaccharides, proteins, fatty acids, proteoglycans, terpenoids, and phenolics, accounting for a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, antitumor, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antifungal, immunomodulatory, antimalarial, and antiviral. Several health-promoting products of macrofungal origin are available in market in the form of tablets, capsules, syrups, pastes, and powders. In spite of huge benefits of macrofungi, these are often overlooked as far as conservation efforts are concerned. Many macrofungal species are red listed by IUCN and need immediate attention to conserve and ensure sustainable use of this inexpensive natural treasure with huge health benefits. In this book, we endeavored to highlight the future prospects of macrofungi and tried to shed light on the taxonomy, ecology, ethnomycology, nutraceutical composition, bioactive active and pharmacological activities, commercialization, and conservation. Some information on cultivation and toxigenic macrofungi is also provided. Hopefully, the information cited within this

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book will prove beneficial to the mycophiles, amateur naturalists, the general public, researchers, and industrialists interested in the consumption, research, and marketing of macrofungi. Jagraon, Ludhiana, Punjab, India  Uzma Azeem Jeddah, Saudi Arabia  Khalid Rehman Hakeem Jazan, Saudi Arabia  M. Ali

Contents

1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     1 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     3 2 Taxonomy������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     5 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    10 3 Ecology and Distribution����������������������������������������������������������������������    13 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    18 4 Ethnomycology��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    23 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    36 5 Toxigenic Fungi����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   41 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    46 6 Nutritional Significance������������������������������������������������������������������������    49 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    54 7 Bioactive Constituents and Pharmacological Activities ��������������������    59 Antioxidant Activity��������������������������������������������������������������������������������    60 Antitumor Activity ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������    63 Antidiabetic Activity��������������������������������������������������������������������������������    67 Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities����������������������������������������������������    69 Antimalarial Activity�������������������������������������������������������������������������������    72 Antiviral Activity ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    74 Immunomodulatory, Neuroprotective, and Anti-inflammatory Activities������������������������������������������������������������    76 Miscellaneous Activities��������������������������������������������������������������������������    79 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    80 8 Commercialization and Conservation��������������������������������������������������    97 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   103

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9 Outlook and Future Prospects��������������������������������������������������������������   107 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   109 10 Concluding Remarks ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   111 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   113

About the Authors

Uzma  Azeem, Ph.D., is a postgraduate, M.Phil. and doctorate from Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India. She spent more than a decade there from 2006 to 2018. Dr. Azeem completed her Doctorate in Botany with specialization in Mycology and Plant Pathology from Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India, in 2018. She worked at Sri Guru Granth Sahib World University, Fatehgarh Sahib, Punjab, India, as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Botany from August 1, 2018, to January 21, 2019. Dr. Azeem joined Sanmati Government College of Science Education and Research, Jagraon, Ludhiana, Punjab, India, on January 21, 2019, and worked there for a short period. She has been awarded with the Maulana Azad National Fellowship for Minority Students by the University Grants Commission, New Delhi, India, in 2011. So far, she has authored nine papers (eight research papers plus one review paper) in peer-reviewed national and international journals. Dr. Azeem has participated and presented her research work at various conferences/symposia across India winning appreciation and awards. This is her first endeavor in book publication.  

Khalid  Rehman  Hakeem, Ph.D., is Professor at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. After completing his doctorate (Botany, specialization in Plant Eco-physiology and Molecular Biology) from Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India, in 2011, he worked as a Lecturer at the University of Kashmir, Srinagar, for a short period. Later, he joined Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia, and worked there as Postdoctoral Fellow in 2012 and Fellow Researcher (Associate Prof.) from 2013 to 2016. Dr. Hakeem has more than 10  years of teaching and research experience in plant eco-physiology, biotechnology and molecular biology, medicinal plant research, plant-microbe-soil interactions, as well as environmental studies. He is the recipient of several fellowships at both national and international levels; he has also served as Visiting Scientist at Jinan University, Guangzhou, China. Currently, he is involved in a number of international research projects with different government organizations. So far, Dr. Hakeem has authored and edited more than 50 books with international publishers, including Springer Nature, Academic Press (Elsevier), and CRC  

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Press. He also has to his credit more than 110 research publications in peer-reviewed international journals and 60 book chapters in edited volumes with international publishers. At present, Dr. Hakeem serves as an editorial board member and reviewer of several high-impact international scientific journals from Elsevier, Springer Nature, Taylor and Francis, Cambridge, and John Wiley Publishers. He is included in the advisory board of Cambridge Scholars Publishing, UK. Dr. Hakeem is also a fellow of Plantae group of the American Society of Plant Biologists; member of the World Academy of Sciences; member of the International Society for Development and Sustainability, Japan; and member of Asian Federation of Biotechnology, Korea. Dr. Hakeem has been listed in Marquis Who’s Who in the World between 2014 and 2020. Currently, Dr. Hakeem is engaged in studying plant processes at eco-­ physiological as well as molecular levels. M. Ali is currently working under the Ministry of Higher Education as a Lecturer of Pharmacognosy in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). He received his Ph.D. from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2012 for “Phytochemical and Pharmacological Studies of an Anticancer Medicinal Plant and Its Authentication Using Molecular Biology Techniques.” Dr. Ali is also recipient of Government of India’s Junior Research Fellowship (JRF, GATE) for pursuing a master’s degree in pharmacy (M. Pharm) for “Enhanced Production of Vasicine and Vasicinone from Callus Culture of Adhatoda vasica.” He has published/presented about 25 research articles in national and international journals of repute. Dr. Ali has reviewed scientific papers in the field of pharmaceutical science.  

Chapter 1

Introduction

Fungi constitute a group of eukaryotic, spore-bearing, achlorophyllous, saprotrophic or parasitic, sexually or asexually reproducing organisms with unicellular to filamentous (hyphal) forms, filaments, or hyphae branched or unbranched typically enclosed by cell wall made up of chitin or cellulose or both (Alexopoulos et  al. 1996). In the sixteenth century, fungi were represented by two genera, Fungus and Tuber (De Lobel 1581). At the end of the seventeenth century and start of the eighteenth century, De Tournefort (1656–1708), father of modern generic concept, added five new genera including Agaricus (Bauhin 1623; De Tournefort 1694, 1700). Great mycologist Micheli, known as the father of mycology, proposed 30 new genera to fungi (Micheli 1729). This number is incessantly piling up with new reports. Approximately, 1200 new species are being reported per annum. Fungi are classified into six phyla: Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota, Glomeromycota, Microsporidia, and Zygomycota (Kirk et al. 2008). Based on morphology, ecology, phylogeny, and various other extrapolation techniques, fungal diversity is estimated to be approximately 3 to 5.1  million globally (Dai 2010; Blackwell 2011; Hawksworth 2012). However, 92% of these fungi are still undescribed (Hawksworth and Lücking 2017). Majority of all the described fungi belong to the subkingdom Dikarya including Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Ascomycota represents the largest phylum of kingdom fungi and consists of nearly 90,000 described species of fungi belonging to Taphrinomycotina (yeast-like and some filamentous fungi), Saccharomycotina (the true yeasts), and Pezizomycotina (with majority of the filamentous and mushroom-forming ascomycetes). Basidiomycota follows Ascomycota and comprises of approximately 50,000 species of fungi divided into Pucciniomycotina (rust fungi: plant pathogens), Ustilaginomycotina (true smuts, some yeasts, and some filamentous fungi), and Agaricomycotina (most of the mushroom-producing fungi) (Cannon et al. 2018; Niskanen et al. 2018). The mushroom-forming fungi, macrofungi, constitute a phylogenetically heterogeneous fungal group with species forming epigeal/hypogeal, large spore-bearing structures called sporocarps. An estimated number of macrofungi in the world have risen from © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 U. Azeem et al., Fungi for Human Health, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58756-7_1

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140,000 to 1,250,000 with majority of these belonging to Basidiomycota (Agaricomycotina) followed by Ascomycota (Pezizomycotina) and Zygomycota (a few taxa occasionally) including species with health-promising effects. Macrofungi include true mushrooms, poricins, earthstars, club corals, pig’s ears, false truffles, stinkhorns, coral fungi, crust fungi, polypores, conks, brittle gills, milk caps, earth fans, jelly fungi, true truffles, morels, earth tongues, chicken lips, green elf cup fungi, and toadstools (Hawksworth 2001; Mueller et al. 2007; Tripathi et al. 2017; Thiers and Halling 2018). This number keeps on increasing with the addition of new taxa by reports coming from less explored and unexplored regions across the globe. The use of edible macrofungi as human food is 13,000 years back as indicated by archaeological records from Chile (Rojas and Mansur 1995). Extreme levels of mycophilia have been observed in most regions of Southern and Eastern Europe, Turkey, parts of Africa, Mexico, and majority of the Asian continent (Boa 2004). Macrofungi show structural and ecological variations and occur in almost all ecogeographic zones throughout the world. These are heterotrophic organisms with saprotrophic, symbiotic, or parasitic mode of nutrition (Naranjo-Ortiz and Gabaldón 2019). In spite of great benefits of macrofungi to human health, these are often neglected and misunderstood organisms (De Mattos-Shipley et al. 2016; Tripathi et  al. 2017; Roncero-Ramos and Delgado-Andrade 2017). However, ethnomycological surveys and scientific research across the world successfully changed these misconceptions and unveil the significance of macrofungi as food and medicine. Edible macrofungi are eaten as food, medicinal species are used for the treatment of various human disorders, while some macrofungal species are both edible and medicinal. Some have value in religious rituals, crafts, and myths and beliefs (Dugan 2011). Macrofungi are rich in diverse nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, dietary fibers, amino acids, minerals, and vitamins but low in fats and calories contributing towards their food value (Turfan et al. 2018). More recently several species are used as dietary supplements (DSs), prebiotics, and functional foods (Vikineswary and Chang 2013; Nowak et  al. 2018; Perera et  al. 2018; Üstün et  al. 2018). The essences and extracts prepared from medicinal species of macrofungi have been consumed as alternative medicine in China, Japan, Korea, and Eastern Europe for hundreds of years (Lakhanpal and Rana 2005). Scientific research proves that the extracts made from sporocarps/cultured mycelia or cultured broths of medicinal macrofungi exhibit a number of pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, antidiabetic, antitumor, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, antimalarial, antiviral, etc. which can be associated with their unique mycochemical composition. Macrofungi are reservoirs of several bioactive constituents including polysaccharides, proteins, polyphenols, terpenoids, steroids, polyketides, etc. This supports their candidature as natural resources for novel drug discovery (Wasser 2017; Chang and Wasser 2018; Elkhateeb 2020). During the past few decades, much attention is paid on exploring the natural resources for drug development against various diseases in an attempt to get rid of many precarious health effects of synthetic drugs (Karimi et al. 2015; Sorokina and Steinbeck 2020). New findings in the field of medical mycology enhance knowledge base and dimensions of this subject. Keeping in view the growing emphasis in exploring the natural

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resources with health-promising effects as nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals, we endeavored to highlight the significance of macrofungi in human health.

References Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M (1996) Introductory mycology, 4th edn. Wiley, New York Bauhin C (1623) Pinax theatri botanici. Sumptibus et typis Ludovici Regis, Basileae Helvet Blackwell M (2011) The Fungi: 1, 2, 3 … 5.1 million species? Am J Bot 98(3):426–438 Boa E (2004) Wild edible fungi: a global overview of their use and importance to people. Non-­ wood forest products (No. 17). FAO, Rome Cannon PF, Aguirre-Hudson B, Aime C, Aime MC, Vanzela A, Ainsworth AM, Bidartondo M, Gaya E, Hawksworth D, Kirk PM, Leitch I, Lucking R (2018) Definition and diversity. In: Willis KJ (ed) State of the world’s fungi. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, pp 4–11 Chang ST, Wasser SP (2018) Current and future research trends in agricultural and biomedical applications of medicinal mushrooms and mushroom products (review). Int J Med Mushrooms 20(12):1121–1133 Dai YC (2010) Hymenochaetaceae (Basidiomycota) in China. Fungal Divers 45(1):131–343 De Lobel M (1581) Kruydtboeck oft Beschryvinghe van allerleye ghewassen, kruyderen, hesteren, ende gheboomten. Antwerpen, By Chrostoffel Plantyn De Mattos-Shipley KMJ, Ford KL, Alberti F, Banks AM, Bailey AM, Foster GD (2016) The good, the bad and the tasty: the many roles of mushrooms. Stud Mycol 85:125–157 De Tournefort JP (1694) Élémens de botanique: ou méthode pour connoitre les plantes, vol 1. De L’Imprimerie Royale, Paris De Tournefort JP (1700) Institutiones rei herbariae, vol 1. E typographia regia, Paris Dugan FM (2011) Conspectus of world ethnomycology: fungi in ceremonies, crafts, diets, medicines and myths. St. Paul, American Phytopathological Society Elkhateeb WA (2020) What medicinal mushroom can do? Chem Res J 5(1):106–118 Hawksworth DL (2001) The magnitude of fungal diversity: the 1.5 million species estimate revisited. Microbiol Res 105(12):1422–1432 Hawksworth DL (2012) Global species number of fungi: are tropical studies and molecular approaches contributing to a more robust estimate? Biodivers Conserv 21(9):2425–2433 Hawksworth DL, Lücking R (2017) Fungal diversity revisited: 2.2 to 3.8 million species. In: Heitman J, Howlett BJ, Crous PW, Stukenbrock EH, James TY, Gow NAR (eds) The fungal kingdom. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, DC, pp 79–95 Karimi A, Majlesi M, Rafieian-Kopaei M (2015) Herbal versus synthetic drugs: beliefs and facts. J Nephropharmacol 4(1):27–30 Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008) Ainsworth and Bisby’s dictionary of the fungi, 10th edn. CABI, Wallingford Lakhanpal TN, Rana M (2005) Medicinal and nutraceutical genetic resources of mushrooms. Plant Genet Resours 3(2):288–303 Micheli PA (1729) Nova plantarum genera juxta Tournefortianam methodum disposita. Typis Bernardi Paperinii, Florence Mueller GM, Schmit JP, Leacock PR, Buyck B, Cifuentes J, Desjardin DE, Halling RE, Hjortstam K, Iturriaga T, Larsson KH, Lodge DJ (2007) Global diversity and distribution of macrofungi. Biodivers Conserv 16(1):37–48 Naranjo-Ortiz MA, Gabaldón T (2019) Fungal evolution: diversity, taxonomy and phylogeny of the fungi. Biol Rev 94(6):2101–2137 Niskanen T, Douglas B, Kirk P, Crous PW, Lücking R, Matheny PB, Cai L, Hyde K (2018) New discoveries: species of fungi described in 2017. In: Willis KJ (ed) State of the world’s fungi. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, pp 18–23

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Nowak R, Nowacka-Jechalke N, Juda M, Malm A (2018) The preliminary study of prebiotic potential of Polish wild mushroom polysaccharides: the stimulation effect on Lactobacillus strains growth. Eur J Nutr 57(4):1511–1521 Perera N, Yang F-L, Lu Y-T, Li L-H, Hua K-F, Wu S-H (2018) Antrodia cinnamomea galactomannan elicits immuno-stimulatory activity through toll-like receptor. Int J Biol Sci 14(10):1378–1388 Rojas C, Mansur E (1995) Ecuador: informaciones generales sobre productos non madereros en Ecuador. In: Memoria, consulta de expertos sobre productos forestales no madereros para America Latina y el Caribe, Serie Forestal. FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, pp 208–223 Roncero-Ramos I, Delgado-Andrade C (2017) The beneficial role of edible mushrooms in human health. Curr Opin Food Sci 14:122–128 Sorokina M, Steinbeck C (2020) Review on natural products databases: where to find data in 2020. J Cheminform 12(20):1–51 Thiers BM, Halling RE (2018) The macrofungi collection consortium. Appl Plant Sci 6(2):1–7 Tripathi NN, Singh P, Vishwakarma P (2017) Biodiversity of macrofungi with special reference to edible forms: a review. J Indian Bot Soc 96(3):144–187 Turfan N, Pekşen A, Kibar B, Ünal S (2018) Determination of nutritional and bioactive properties in some selected wild growing and cultivated mushrooms from Turkey. Acta Sci Pol Hortorum Cultus 17(3):57–72 Üstün NŞ, Bulam S, Pekşen A (2018) The use of mushrooms and their extracts and compounds in functional foods and nutraceuticals. Türkmen, A (ed.) 1:1205–1222 Vikineswary S, Chang ST (2013) Edible and medicinal mushrooms for sub-health intervention and prevention of lifestyle diseases. Tech Monitor 3:33–43 Wasser SP (2017) Medicinal mushrooms in human clinical studies. part 1. anticancer, oncoimmunological, and immunomodulatory activities: a review. Int J Med Mushrooms 19(4):279–317

Chapter 2

Taxonomy

Fungi constitute the third kingdom of organisms which are highly diverse, heterotrophic eukaryotes characterized by chitinous cell wall ranging from unicellular to syncytial filamentous forms divided into six phyla Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota, Glomeromycota, Microsporidia, and Zygomycota (Kirk et  al. 2008). Majority of all the described fungi belong to the subkingdom Dikarya represented by Ascomycota, Taphrinomycotina (yeast-like and some filamentous fungi), Saccharomycotina (the true yeasts), and Pezizomycotina (with majority of the filamentous and mushroom-forming ascomycetes), and Basidiomycota, ­ Pucciniomycotina (rust fungi-plant pathogens), Ustilaginomycotina (true smuts, some yeasts, and some filamentous fungi), and Agaricomycotina (most of the mushroom-­producing fungi) (Cannon et al. 2018; Niskanen et al. 2018). Macrofungi also known as higher fungi/macromycetes include the taxa known to form large, conspicuous, and epigeous or hypogeous sporocarps which are the “fruit” or the reproductive parts of the vegetative fungal mycelium. Sporocarps are the products of sexual reproduction (Fig. 2.1) (Aneja and Mehrotra 2015). There are approximately 1,250,000 macrofungi with majority belonging to Basidiomycota (Agaricomycotina: Tremellomycetes, Dacrymycetes, and Agaricomycetes) followed by Ascomycota (Pezizomycotina: Leotiomycetes, Pezizomycetes, and Sordariomycetes) and Zygomycota (a few in number). The class Agaricomycetes dominates with maximum number of macrofungi among all the ascomycetous and basidiomycetous classes consisting of macrofungi (Mueller et  al. 2007; Tripathi et al. 2017; Thiers and Halling 2018). In Agaricomycotina, the yeast forming states occur in Tremellomycetes. The latter includes yeast forms that can be dimorphic, forming large gelatinous basidiocarps (e.g., Cryptococcus, Tremella, Cystofilobasidium) or species with no yeast stage (Hibbett 2006; Hibbett et al. 2007; Adl et  al. 2012, 2018). Dacrymycetes (jelly fungi) include the wood-degrading, gelatinous species with large highly pigmented basidiocarps (Hibbett 2006; Shirouzu et al. 2013, 2016). The class Agaricomycetes represents the largest and the most diverse group in Agaricomycotina. It includes nearly 21,000 described species © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 U. Azeem et al., Fungi for Human Health, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58756-7_2

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Meiosis

Spores

Karyogamy

Diploid (2N)

Dikaryotic sporocarps with basidia and asci

Haploid (N)

Spore germination

Plasmogamy

Haploid (N+N)

Dikaryotic mycelium

Fig. 2.1  Production of sporocarp in sexual life cycle of a macrofungus

(Kirk et al. 2008). The members of the class produce a variety of forms of basidiocarps. The class includes 16,000 identified species of mushroom-forming fungi (Petersen 2012; Money 2016) classified in Agaricales (true mushrooms), Atheliales, Boletales (poricins), Geastrales (earth stars), Gomphales (club corals, pigs ears), Hysterangiales (false truffles), Phallales (stinkhorns), Cantharellales (coral fungi), Corticiales (crust fungi), Hymenochaetales (crust fungi), Polyporales (polypores, conks), Russulales (brittle gills, milk caps), Thelephorales (earth fans), and Trechisporales (Thiers and Halling 2018). The structure of the basidiocarps is very complex with spore-bearing surface either on lamellae or inside the tubes opening through pores. The lamellate species are known as agarics/euagarics (Agaricales) and the poroid species with tubes as boletes and polypores. A typical agaric basidiocarp consists of five parts: the pileus, lamellae (gills), annulus (ring), stipe, and volva (Fig. 2.2). Various forms of basidiocarps and hymenophore configurations are found among different orders of the class Agaricomycetes, e.g., resupinate, effused-­ reflexed, pileate-stipitate/substipitate or sessile, coralloid, polyporoid, corticioid, and gasteroid (Hibbett 2007). The resupinate forms occur in almost all orders of Agaricomycetes. The orders, namely, Geastrales, Hysterangiales, and Phallales, do not consist of any resupinate form. The orders Amylocorticiales, Atheliales, Corticiales, Jaapiales, Trechisporales, and Lepidostromatales comprise only or almost only resupinate forms. The rest of the members belonging to different orders of the class Agaricomycetes include resupinate to pileate-stipitate/sessile forms (epigeous or hypogeous, gilled or not, and gasteroid or not). Several genera classified in different of orders of the class include macrofungal species known to form large conspicuous basidiocarps of various kinds, e.g., Agaricus, Amanita, Clavaria,

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Pileus/Cap Gills/Lamellae Annulus/Ring Stipe/Stalk

Volva

Fig. 2.2  Morphology of a typical agaric mushroom (e.g. Amanita phylloides)

Coprinopsis, Coprinus, Entoloma, Fistulina, Lepiota, Lycoperdon, and Pleurotus (Agaricales); Hydnum and Cantharellus (Cantharellales); Auricularia auricula-­ judae (wood ear) (Auriculariales); Boletus and Paxillus (Boletales); Geastrum (Geastrales); Gomphus and Ramaria (Gomphales); Phallus (Phallales); Phellinus and Trichaptum (Hymenochaetales); Fomes, Ganoderma, Lenzites, and Sparassis (Polyporales); Thelephora (Thelephorales); and Russula, Lactarius, and Hericium (Russulales). The hymenophore of these species exhibits huge variation in configuration from smooth to hydnoid, poroid, toothed, spiny, tuberculate, etc. (Hibbett et  al. 2014). Several types of fruiting bodies called as ascocarps are formed in Ascomycota such as apothecia, perithecia, pseudoperithecia, and cleistothecia (Pöggeler et al. 2006; Schmitt 2011). Macrofungi such as morels, false morels, earth tongues, truffles, chicken lips, green elf cup species belong to Ascomycota (Pezizomycotina) spreading over Leotiales, e.g., Leotia, Chlorociboria, Pezizales, e.g., Morchella, Geoglossum, Gyromitra, Helvella, Peziza, Pyronema, Tuber, and Verpa and Hypocreales, e.g., Cordyceps spp. with diverse forms of ascocarps (Adl et  al. 2012; Thiers and Halling 2018). In field, one can identify the sporocarps (basidiocarps and ascocarps) with their diverse color, shape, dimensions, and consistency. These appear fleshy, subfleshy/leathery or sometimes woody hard growing singly or in clusters on a vast diversity of substrates as saprotrophs, parasites, or symbionts (Fig. 2.3). Microscopically, the sporocarp is made up of mycelium consisting of hyphae. The ascospore-bearing structures are asci within the ascocarps and basidiospores are produced exogenously attached to the sterigmata of the club-­ shaped basidia. The ascospores and basidiospores are usually eight per ascus and four per basidium, respectively. The number of spores varies among different taxa, but this is constant for a species. The spores vary in color, size, and shape and are thin to thick walled. The spore wall may be smooth or ornamented variously and an

Fig. 2.3  The sporocarps of wild (edible/medicinal) macrofungi growing (singly or in clusters) as saprotrophs (in soil, grass, animal dung, leaf litter, woody debris, decaying trees), tree parasites or symbionts (ECM forms and termite-symbionts) distributed in different parts of the world (1) Agaricus campestris (2) Amanita caesarea (3) A. vaginata (4) Auricularia auricula-judae

2 Taxonomy

9

Fig. 2.3 (continued) (5) Armillaria mellea (6) Boletus pinophilus (7) Calvatia gigantea (8) Cookeina speciosa (9) Coprinus comatus (young and old fruit bodies) (10) Cordyceps militaris (11) Fomes fomentarius (12) Ganoderma lucidum (13) Grifola frondosa (14) Gyromitra esculenta (15) Helvella crispa (16) Hericium erinaceus (17) Hydnum repandum (18) Hygrocybe miniata (19) Hygrophorus chrysodon (20) Inonotus obliquus (21) Laccaria laccata (22) Lactarius deliciosus (23) Lactifluus pelliculatus (24) Leccinum aurantiacum (25) Lentinula edodes (26) Leucopaxillus giganteus (27) Lycoperdon perlatum (28) Lycoperdon pratense (29) Marasmius buzungolo (30) Morchella esculenta (31) Phellinus linteus (32) Pleurotus cornucopiae (33) P. ostreatus (34) Psathyrella tuberculata (35) Ramaria botrytis (36) Russula sesenagula (37) Sarcodon imbricatus (38) Schizophyllum commune (39) Sparassis crispa (40) Terfezia arenaria (41) Termitomyces microcarpus (42) T. titanicus (43) Trametes versicolor (44) Tremella mesenterica (45) Volvariella volvacea (47) Xerocomus cisalpinus (47) Xylaria hypoxylon. (https:// en.wikipedia.org; http://www.asociacionmicologicamairei.com; https://www.efta-online.org; https://www.first-nature.com; https://www.flickr.com; https://www.mushroomexpert.com; https:// www.pinterest.com; www.medicalmushrooms.net; www.muse.it; www.tropicalfungi.org)

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important taxonomic feature. Several sterile structures are also found in the hymenium, subhymenium, or tramal region (Alexopoulos et al. 1996; Hibbett et al. 2014). Literature reports reveal that several macrofungal taxa have immense significance in human health as food and medicine. These health benefitting macrofungi are classified mainly in Agaricomycotina (Tremellomycetes, Dacrymycetes, Agaricomycetes) followed by Pezizomycotina (Leotiomycetes, Pezizomycetes, Sordariomycetes). Majority of the edible and medicinal macrofungi occur in Agaricomycetes, e.g., Agaricus, Boletus, Fomes, Ganoderma, Lycoperdon, Pleurotus, Russula, etc. (Tripathi et al. 2017). However, some agaricomycetous species are toadstools, e.g., Amanita phalloides, Galerina autumnalis, and others, which sometimes might cause severe toxicity (Benjamin 1995).

References Adl SM, Simpson AG, Lane CE, Lukeˇs J, Bass D, Bowser SS, Brown M, Burki F, Dunthorn M, Hampl V, Heiss A, Hoppenrath M, Lara E, Le Gall L, Lynn DH, McManus H, Mitchell EAD, Mozley-Stanridge SE, Parfrey LW, Pawlowski J, Rueckert S, Shadwick L, Schoch CL, Smirnov A, Spiegel FW (2012) The revised classification of eukaryotes. J Eukaryot Microbiol 59(5):1–45 Adl SM, Bass D, Lane CE, Lukes J, Schoch CL, Smirnov A, Agatha S, Berney C, Brown MW, Burki F, Cardenas P, Cepicka I, Chistyakova L, del Campo J, Dunthorn M et al (2018) Revisions to the classification, nomenclature and diversity of eukaryotes. J Eukaryot Microbiol 66(1):4–119 Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M (1996) Introductory mycology, 4th edn. Wiley, New York Aneja KR, Mehrotra RS (2015) An introduction to mycology, 2nd edn. New Age International Pvt. Ltd., Daryaganj, New Delhi Benjamin DR (1995) Mushrooms: poisons and panaceas. WH Freeman, New York Cannon PF, Aguirre-Hudson B, Aime C, Aime MC, Vanzela A, Ainsworth AM, Bidartondo M, Gaya E, Hawksworth D, Kirk PM, Leitch I, Lucking R (2018) Definition and diversity. In: Willis KJ (ed) State of the world’s fungi. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, pp 4–11 Hibbett DS (2006) A phylogenetic overview of the Agaricomycotina. Mycologia 98(6):917–925 Hibbett DS (2007) After the gold rush, or before the flood? Evolutionary morphology of mushroom forming fungi (Agaricomycetes) in the early 21st century. Mycol Res 111:1001–1018 Hibbett DS, Binder M, Bischoff JF, Blackwell M, Cannon PF, Eriksson OE, Huhndorf S, James T, Kirk PM, Lucking R, Lumbsch HT, Lutzoni F, Matheny PB, Mclaughlin DJ, Powell MJ, Redhead S, Schoch CL, Spatafora JW, Zhang N (2007) A higher-level phylogenetic classification of the fungi. Mycol Res 111(5):509–547 Hibbett DS, Bauer R, Binder M, Giachini AJ, Hosaka K, Justo A, Larsson E, Larsson KH, Lawrey JD, Miettinen O, Nagy LG (2014) Agaricomycetes. In: Systematics and evolution. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, pp 373–429 Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008) Ainsworth and Bisby’s dictionary of the fungi, 10th edn. CABI, Wallingford Money NP (2016) Fungal diversity. In: The fungi. Academic Press, pp 1–36 Mueller GM, Schmit JP, Leacock PR, Buyck B, Cifuentes J, Desjardin DE, Halling RE, Hjortstam K, Iturriaga T, Larsson KH, Lodge DJ (2007) Global diversity and distribution of macrofungi. Biodivers Conserv 16(1):37–48 Niskanen T, Douglas B, Kirk P, Crous PW, Lücking R, Matheny PB, Cai L, Hyde K (2018) New discoveries: species of fungi described in 2017. In: Willis KJ (ed) State of the world’s fungi. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, pp 18–23

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Petersen JH (2012) The kingdom of fungi. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ Pöggeler S, Nowrousian M, Kück U (2006) Fruiting-body development in ascomycetes. In: Growth, differentiation and sexuality. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, pp 325–355 Schmitt I (2011) Fruiting body evolution in the ascomycota: a molecular perspective integrating lichenized and non-lichenized groups. In: Evolution of fungi and fungal-like organisms. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, pp 187–204 Shirouzu T, Hirose D, Oberwinkler F, Shimomura N, Maekawa N, Tokumasu S (2013) Combined molecular and morphological data for improving phylogenetic hypothesis in Dacrymycetes. Mycologia 105(5):1110–1125 Shirouzu T, Uno K, Hosaka K, Hosoya T (2016) Early-diverging wood-decaying fungi detected using three complementary sampling methods. Mol Phylogenet Evol 98:11–20 Thiers BM, Halling RE (2018) The macrofungi collection consortium. Appli Plant Sci 6(2):1–7 Tripathi NN, Singh P, Vishwakarma P (2017) Biodiversity of macrofungi with special reference to edible forms: a review. J Indian Bot Soc 96(3 and 4):144–187

Websites Followed http://www.asociacionmicologicamairei.com https://en.wikipedia.org https://www.efta-online.org https://www.first-nature.com https://www.flickr.com https://www.mushroomexpert.com https://www.pinterest.com www.medicalmushrooms.net www.muse.it www.tropicalfungi.org

Chapter 3

Ecology and Distribution

Macrofungi are ubiquitous in distribution and occur in various regions across the world such as in North America, tropical (Central and South America), temperate South America, Africa, temperate and tropical Asia, Australasia (Australia, New Caledonia, New Guinea, and New Zealand), and Western Europe (Mueller et  al. 2007). As per the estimate of the Macrofungi Collection Consortium (MaCC) project (2012–2017) financially supported by the National Science Foundation (NSA), United States (US), there are 1,250,000 specimens of macrofungi from North America (73%); Central America, South America, and the Caribbean region (18%); Europe (5%); Asia and the Pacific region (2%); Australia and New Zealand (1%); and Africa (1%). Polyporaceae is the dominant family with 202,069 specimens followed by Agaricaceae (100,416), Russulaceae (85,127), Tricholomataceae (77,078), Strophariaceae (65,111), Boletaceae (59,781), Cortinariaceae (55,833), Hymenochaetaceae (40,564), Stereaceae (37,607), Amanitaceae (37,105), Mycenaceae (36,376), Meruliaceae (35,599), Inocybaceae (33,042), Hygrophoraceae (28,253), Fomitopsidaceae (26,479), Corticiaceae (25,137), Entolomataceae (24,826), Gomphaceae (20,373), Psathyrellaceae (18,558), and Peniophoraceae (17,585) (Thiers and Halling 2018). The number of known and unknown macrofungal species is continuously increasing as there are still underexplored and unexplored regions in the world. It has increased from 140,000 (Hawksworth 2001) to 1,250,000 (Thiers and Halling 2018) and is still continuous to increase. Macrofungi have a wide distribution range and occur in almost all forest types across the globe such as moist, dry, deciduous, evergreen forests of tropical, subtropical, temperate, and alpine regions (Tripathi et al. 2017; Sarrionandia and Salcedo 2018; Monteiro et al. 2020). Fungal diversity flourishes more and is higher in tropics than the temperate regions. The reason behind this is the suitable environmental conditions prevailing across the year, diverse forms of vascular plants providing habitat to macrofungi and the occurrence of various ecotones in tropical forests (Hawksworth 2001; Kark 2007). As accessed by Lopez-Quintero et  al. (2012), tropical lowland forests in Colombia are a home for 403 macromycetes © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 U. Azeem et al., Fungi for Human Health, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58756-7_3

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spreading over 129 genera and 48 families of Basidiomycota and Ascomycota with dominancy of Polyporaceae, Marasmiaceae, and Agaricaceae. The gasteroid fungi, 47 species characterized by closed hymenium with 48% Geastrum species, have been reported from 3 forest ecosystems (lowland rain forest, Araucaria forest, and semi-deciduous forest) in South Brazilian Atlantic forest. Other species found growing in these ecosystems belong to the genera Bovista, Clavatia, Cyathus, Lycoperdon, Morganella, Mutinus, Phallus, Scleroderma, and Vascellum (Alves et al. 2018). Macrofungi belonging to Agaricomycotina and Pezizomycotina spreading across 8 orders, 24 families, 47 genera, and 57 species have been collected and identified from Tian Shan mountain forest ranges in Kyrgyzstan (Central Asia). Agaricomycotina exhibits maximum species diversity with dominant species in Polyporaceae (eight species), Agaricaceae (six species), Hymenogastraceae, and Psathyrellaceae (four species) (Cho et al. 2019). Fernández et al. (2020) reported 189 epigeous macrofungal species from the Mediterranean forest ecosystems with majority of the Basidiomycetes (Tricholomataceae, Cortinariaceae, and Russulaceae). Approximately, 280 macrofungal species have been reported from the hilly regions of Jammu and Kashmir (India). Majority of these species belong to Basidiomycota with the dominancy of macromycetes in the family Russulaceae (29 species) followed by Cortinariaceae (17 species) and Boletaceae (17 species), Coprinaceae (12 species), and Tricholomataceae (11 species). Russula dominate the genera with 21 species followed by Amanita (11 species). Among Ascomycetes, the fungal diversity follows the trend of Morchellaceae (seven species) > Helvellaceae (six species) > Pyronemataceae (five species) with five species each of Morchella and Helvella (Wani et al. 2020). The mangrove forest ecosystems distributed along the coastlines in tropics and subtropics also provide shelter to macrofungi. Ghate and Sridhar (2016) reported 46 macrofungal species belonging to 27 genera from 5 mangroves of Southwest India (Paduhithlu, Nadikudru, Sasihithlu, Thokottu, and Batapady). These macrofungi include maximum number of woody litter decomposing species (26) followed by 22 terricolous species and 7 species growing on leaf litter. Tripathi et  al. (2017) provided a comprehensive data (1921–2016) of macrofungi including a treasure of health promising edible/medicinal species distributed in a broad spectrum of forest types such as moist, dry, deciduous, evergreen, tropical, subtropical, temperate, and alpine forests across the globe, growing on a variety of substrates/hosts along with the mycologists who reported these taxa. Priyamvada et  al. (2017) recorded 113 macrofungal species from the tropical dry evergreen forests of Southern India belonging to 54 genera and 23 families with the dominancy of Ascomycota (96%) followed by Basidiomycota (4%). The Agaricaceae (25.3%) members dominated the mycobiota followed by Polyporaceae (15.3%) and Marasmiaceae (10.8%). Fungi in large number approximately 193 taxa have been recorded from the Italian Alps (Jamoni 2008). In spite of harsh weather conditions (heavy rains, snow, freezing and thawing, drought and strong sun rays), alpine regions of Switzerland, France, and Germany provide home to diverse macrofungi. Favre (1955) reported 204 species of macrofungi from Switzerland. Majority of these species belong to Basidiomycota and only 12 are ascomycetous. These macromycetes include ectomycorrhizal (ECM) taxa s­ ymbiotic

3  Ecology and Distribution

15

with alpine plant hosts and saprotrophic species deconstructing the plant litter and organic matter present in soil. Combined list of alpine fungi from Switzerland, France, and Germany including Favre (1955) and the “Swissfungi” database increase the number to 210 ECM taxa with dominancy of Inocybe followed by Cortinarius (Brunner et al. 2017). Macrofungi are also capable of inhabiting arid and semi-arid regions surrounding the Mediterranean and the Middle East (Iddison 2011). The “desert truffles” (Pezizales) are the representatives of such fungi, e.g., Terfezia, Tirmania, Tuber, Delastria, Loculotuber, and Picoa (Owaid 2018). Macrofungal species, viz., Helvella acetabulum, H. corium, H. queletii, and H. macropus, have also been found fruiting in the cold desert of Leh, Ladakh, Jammu, and Kashmir, India (Dorjey et al. 2013). Most of the taxonomic reports from different countries have been published on macrofungal diversity in forests, national parks neglecting the urban areas (Borkar et al. 2015; Jang et al. 2016; Kim et al. 2015; Lee et al. 2014; Semwal et al. 2018). Cho et al. (2020) collected and identified macrofungi classified in 37 families, 90 genera, and 139 species form the urbanized areas in Gyeongsang Province located in the southern part of Korea. Of the total macrofungal diversity, 37 species have been found growing on legally protected trees, 48 species in urban parks, and 84 species in cultural heritage protection zones. Macrofungi exhibit seasonal variation in growth and development with maximum growth in the rainy season because of high moisture and nutrient availability needed for spore germination, growth, and development of the sporocarps (Andrew et al. 2013; Kim et al. 2017; Thulasinathan et al. 2018). Macrofungi are achlorophyllous, do not perform photosynthesis, and are heterotrophs. These play diverse roles in forest ecosystems such as nutrient cycling, as saprotrophs, predators, pathogens, and parasites, and affect the diversity of other forest communities (Bajpai et  al. 2019; Copoț and Tănase 2019). The macrofungal species can be saprotrophs (humicolous, lignicolous, wood deconstructors, coprophilous, and saprotrophs on litter), symbiotic, or parasitic growing solitary/in groups at one place or scattered (singly or in clusters) on a variety of substrates including different types of soil rich in moisture and humus, grassy ground, dead decaying wood and organic matter, leaf litter, animal dung, and termite mounds, on a broad spectrum of live trees (Naranjo-­ Ortiz and Gabaldón 2019) and on plastic debris such as Agaricus bisporus and Marasmius oreades (Brunner et al. 2018). Maximum species generally utilize tree trunks as substrates followed by soil, leaves, twigs, and the minimum number of species fruit on insects (Lopez-Quintero et al. 2012). The species fruiting on soil grow well in the wet soils enriched with dead decaying organic matter (dirt) providing nutrients and energy required for growth and development of sporocarps. Sometimes, the soil-inhabiting species dominate the species fruiting on other substrates (Thulasinathan et  al. 2018). The soil type, porosity, pH, and supplement accessibility significantly affect the dirt development acting as a substrate for the macrofungal species (Karwa and Rai 2010). The saprotrophic species act as ecosystem scavengers degrading plant debris and animal remains (coprophilous or dung fungi). The rotting efficiency is due the presence of different kinds of enzymes enabling the saprotrophs to degrade a variety of substrates (Conceição et al. 2018). The wood-decaying saprotrophs such as Armillaria sp., Fomes fomentarius,

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Fomitopsis pinicola, Ganoderma applanatum, Hypoxylon sp., Lycoperdon perlatum, L. pyriforme, Pleurotus ostreatus, Scutellinia sp., Xylaria longipes, etc. have been found associated with coarse woody debris, stumps, and dead standing trees (Kacprzyk et al. 2014). The wood decomposition rate of wood-deconstructing saprotrophs depends upon wood properties and enzyme activities (Kahl et al. 2017). Krupodorova et al. (2014) reported six types of extracellular enzymes activities in 30 macrofungi fruiting on decaying wood, saprotrophic, entomophilous, and decaying leaf litter and belonging to 6 orders and 18 families. The evolution of mycorrhizae occurred in parallel with the establishment of the first land plant 450–500 million years ago, and this symbiosis still exists in most plant species (Cairney 2000). Of the mycorrhizal fungi, ECM forms present vast diversity and are of great ecological significance. Most of these belong to Basidiomycota and to some extent to Ascomycota (Smith and Read 2008). These ECM forms provide host plant access to the soil nutrients, e.g., N and P, and improve resistance of host towards drought, disease, and heavy metal excess in exchange for carbon (Nouhra et al. 2005; Toju et  al. 2014). Macrofungi in Agaricomycotina belong to Tremellomycetes, Dacrymycetes, and Agaricomycetes and exhibit great variation in nutritional mode. The species in Dacrymycetes and Tremellomycetes are saprotrophic on wood (gelatinous basidiocarp-forming species). Agaricomycetous species display diverse nutritional differences and are saprotrophic, plant parasitic, ECM forms, endophytes, mycoparasites, amoebophagous, symbionts, lichens, etc. (Adl et al. 2012). Majority of the Agaricomycetes are saprotrophs and are members of all orders, while ECM forms belong to at least 13 orders of the class. Nearly 20,000 to 25,000 ECM fungi form association with 6000 tree species (Rinaldi et al. 2008; Tedersoo et al. 2010). About 90% of plant species are in association with mycorrhizal fungi (Suz et al. 2018). The most common species ECM forms occur in the genera, e.g., Cantharellus, Coltricia, Geastrum, Laccaria, Microporus, Paxillus, Ramaria, and Russula. Several taxa are common plant parasites, e.g., Armillaria, Coprinellus, Fomitiporia, and Phellinus species (Hibbett et al. 2014). The most common mode of nutrition in the members of Agaricomycetes is the wood-degrading saprotrophic mode. The wood-degrading saprotrophs in Agaricomycetes possess multiple ligninolytic fungal peroxidases (PODs) and many other plant cell wall (PCW) decaying enzymes and hence are capable of producing white rot (resulting in degradation of mainly cellulose and some lignin present in PCW (Floudas et al. 2012; Ruiz-Duenas et al. 2013). The species in the genera such as Auricularia, Pleurotus, Stereum, and Trichaptum cause white rot, while some others, e.g., Fistulina species, are the common brown rotters (Hibbett et al. 2014). Brown rot (in which mainly cellulose is degraded) in Polyporales, Boletales, and Gloeophyllales, and the evolution of ECM forms, e.g., Laccaria bicolor (Agaricales), might occur due to the repeated loss of PODs and other PCW decaying enzymes. Some saprotrophic agaricomycetous forms do not cause white rot or brown rot, e.g., Schizophyllum commune and Fistulina hepatica, and some soil-, litter-, and dung-inhabiting fungi, e.g., A. bisporus and Coprinopsis cinerea (Ohm et  al. 2010; Stajich et  al. 2010; Morin et  al. 2012). Most of the plant saprotrophic/parasitic or ECM macrofungi occur on the angiosperms and sometimes on gymnosperms, namely, Abies pindrow, Acer

3  Ecology and Distribution

17

­cappadocicum, Aesculus indica, Albizia lebbeck, A. procera, Artocarpus chaplasha, Bambusa vulgaris, Betula utilis, Corylus jacquemontii, Dalbergia sissoo, Juglans regia, Macrophyla mahogoni, Picea smithiana, Pinus wallichiana, Quercus semecarpifolia, Rhododendron arboretum, Tectona grandis, etc. (Chander 2016; Marzana et al. 2018). Many species have wide host range, while some others display host exclusivity/recurrence (Nogueira-Melo et  al. 2017). For example, A. auricula-­judae shows wide host range infecting Acacia catechu, Bauhinia variegata, Bombax ceiba, Dalbergia sissoo, Ficus benghalensis, Melia azedarach, Tamarindus indica, and Toona ciliata. Some have narrow host range, e.g., Ganoderma lucidum gets associated only with Pyrus pashia, Tamarindus indica, Toona ciliata and Ziziphus jujuba, while Pleurotus ostreatus displays host exclusivity infecting only Melia azedarach (Pathania and Chander 2018). Laetiporus sulphureus, an edible and wood-decaying fungus, is found associated with bamboo; living and dead oaks; hardwoods such as Quercus, Prunus, Pyrus, Populus, Salix, Robinia, Fagus, Ceratonia, and Eucalyptus; and occasionally conifers (Verma et al. 2017). The habit of exclusivity/recurrence could be attributed to their mycorrhizal interactions with specific tree species; role in decaying particular types of substrates such as litter, animal dung, etc.; and colonization upon the types of soil formed in a habitat by their interaction with host species as well as rotting of fallen litters (Pradhan et al. 2013). Coprophilous fungi such as species in the genera Coprinopsis, Conocybe, Lycoperdon, Mycena, Stropharia, and Tricholoma grow on herbivorous animal dung (camel, cattle, buffalo, donkey, goat, horse) rich in the most resistant and undigested remains of feed such as cell wall constituents (cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin), animal gut microbiota, and many other components containing nitrogen (Mohammed et al. 2017; Mumpuni et al. 2020). The coprophilous species contain lytic enzymes and decompose the undigested portion of feed present in the animal dung (Couturier et al. 2016). The macrofungal species form some interesting symbiotic association with insects, e.g., Termitomyces species exhibit symbiosis with termites (Nobre et al. 2011). Termitomycetes include tiny Termitomyces microcarpus and giant T. titanicus (Tibuhwa et  al. 2010). There are 40 species of Termitomyces exhibiting symbiosis with termites (Kirk et al. 2001). This type of association is common in Africa and Asia resulting in decay and production of materials needed for termites. About 330 species of the subfamily Macrotermitinae are involved in termitomycete cultivation (Mueller et al. 2005). Likewise, 34 species in the genus Apterostigma participate in the cultivation of the coral fungi placed in Pterulaceae (Mehdiabadi and Schultz 2010). Macrofungi exhibit the tendency of multi-trophic life strategies under certain circumstances such as biotrophy and saprotrophy, or necrotrophy and saprotrophy, or endophytism and saprotrophy, as these are not obligatory “mutually exclusive.” For example, Armillaria mellea, a typical necrotrophic basidiomycete of living trees, also shows mycorrhizal relationship with orchids (Kikuchi et  al. 2008a, b). Most of the Pezizomycotina members are lichen-forming species. About 40% of this group form lichens and four classes, namely, Arthoniomycetes, Coniocybomycetes, Lichinomycetes, and Lecanoromycetes, consisting of only lichen-forming fungi. Nearly 98% of lichens are Pezizomycotina (Grube and Wedin 2016). Other life strategies of Pezizomycotina

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3  Ecology and Distribution

species are mycorrhizal, plant parasitic, endophytes, animal parasitic and symbionts, mycoparasitic amoebophagous, endolichenic, or endolithic (Stajich et  al. 2009; Corsaro et  al. 2017; Spatafora et  al. 2017). The ascomycetous macrofungi occur in Leotiomycetes, Pezizomycetes, and Sordariomycetes. Leotiomycetes are saprotrophs, plant pathogenic, rarely lichen-forming species. Members in the class Pezizomycetes are saprotrophs, ECM forms, or plant pathogens. The species placed in the class Sordariomycetes can be saprotrophs, plant pathogenic, parasitic on animals and fungi, endophytes, or rarely form lichens (Adl et al. 2012). The representative ascomycetous macrofungal genera include Cordyceps, Gyromitra, Helvella, Leotia, Morchella, Peziza, Pyronema, Terfezia, and Tuber. Entomophagous macrofungi are capable of parasitizing insects and their larvae. Cordyceps spp. are known parasites of an array of insects and their larvae. There are about 500 species of the genus Cordyceps reported worldwide (Sung et al. 2007; Kepler et al. 2012; Dattaraj et al. 2018).

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Copoț O, Tănase C (2019) Lignicolous fungi ecology-biotic and abiotic interactions in forest ecosystems. Memoirs of the scientific sections of the Romanian academy 42 Corsaro D, Kohsler M, Wylezich C, Venditti D, Walochnik J, Michel R (2017) New insights from molecular phylogenetics of amoebophagous fungi (Zoopagomycota, Zoopagales). Parasitol Res 17(1):157–167 Couturier M, Tangthirasunun N, Ning X, Brun S, Gautier V, Bennati-Granier C, Silar P, Berrin JG (2016) Plant biomass degrading ability of the coprophilic ascomycete fungus Podospora anserina. Biotechnology Adv 34(5):976–983 Dattaraj HR, Jagadish BR, Sridhar KR, Ghate SD (2018) Are the scrub jungles of Southwest India potential habitats of Cordyceps? Kavaka 51:20–22 Dorjey K, Kumar S, Sharma YP (2013) Four Helvella (Ascomycota: Pezizales: Helvellaceae) species from the Cold Desert of Leh, Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, India. J Threat Taxa 5(5):3981–3984 Favre J (1955) Les champignons supérieurs de la zone alpine du Parc National Suisse. Ergebn Wiss, Untersuch. Schweiz 5:1–212 Fernández A, Sánchez S, García P, Sánchez J (2020) Macrofungal diversity in an isolated and fragmented Mediterranean forest ecosystem. Plant Biosyst 154(2):139–148 Floudas D, Binder M, Riley R, Barry K, Blanchette RA, Henrissat B, Martinez AT, Otillar R, Spatafora JW, Yadav JS, Aerts A, Benoit I, Boyd A, Carlson A, Copeland A, Coutinho PM, de Vries RP, Ferreira P, Findley K, Foster B, Gaskell J, Glotzer D, Gorecki P, Heitman J, Hesse C, Hori C, Igarashi K, Jurgens JA, Kallen N, Kersten P, Kohler A, Kues U, Kumar TKA, Kuo A, LaButti K, Larrondo LF, Lindquist E, Ling A, Lombard V, Lucas S, Lundell T, Martin R, McLaughlin DJ, Morgenstern I, Morin E, Murat C, Nagy LG, Nolan M, Ohm RA, Patyshakuliyeva A, Rokas A, Ruiz-Duenas FJ, Sabat G, Salamov A, Samejima M, Schmutz J, Slot JC, St John F, Stenlid J, Sun H, Sun S, Syed K, Tsang A, Wiebenga A, Young D, Pisabarro A, Eastwood DC, Martin F, Cullen D, Grigoriev IV, Hibbett DS (2012) The Paleozoic origin of enzymatic lignin decomposition reconstructed from 31 fungal genomes. Science 336:1715–1719 Ghate SD, Sridhar KR (2016) Contribution to the knowledge on macrofungi in mangroves of the Southwest India. Plant Biosyst 150(5):977–986 Grube M, Wedin M (2016) Lichenized fungi and the evolution of symbiotic organization. Microbiol Spectr 4:749–765 Hawksworth DL (2001) The magnitude of fungal diversity: the 1.5 million species estimate revisited. Microbiol Res 105:1422–1432 Hibbett DS, Bauer R, Binder M, Giachini AJ, Hosaka K, Justo A, Larsson E, Larsson KH, Lawrey JD, Miettinen O, Nagy LG (2014) Agaricomycetes. In: Systematics and evolution. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, pp 373–429 Iddison P (2011) Truffles in middle eastern cookery. Emirates Natural History Group, (Patron: H. E. Sheikh Nahayan bin Mubarak Al Nahayan); Available from http://www.enhg.org/alain/ phil/truffle/truffle.htm Jamoni PG (2008) Funghi alpini delle zone alpine superiori e inferiori. Associazione Micologica Bresadola Jang Y, Jang S, Lee J, Lee H, Lim YW, Kim C, Kim JJ (2016) Diversity of wood-inhabiting poly­ poroid and corticioid fungi in Odaesan National Park, Korea. Mycobiology 44(4):217–236 Kacprzyk M, Bednarz B, Kuźnik E (2014) Dead trees in beech stands of the Bieszczady National Park: quantitative and qualitative structure of associated macrofungi. Appl Ecol Env Res 12(2):325–344 Kahl T, Arnstadt T, Baber K, Bässler C, Bauhus J, Borken W, Buscot F, Floren A, Heibl C, Hessenmöller D, Hofrichter M (2017) Wood decay rates of 13 temperate tree species in relation to wood properties, enzyme activities and organismic diversities. Forest Ecol Manag 391:86–95 Kark S (2007) Effects of ecotones on biodiversity. In: Levin S (ed) Encyclopedia of biodiversity. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 142–148

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Karwa A, Rai M (2010) Tapping into the edible fungi biodiversity of Central India. Biodiversitas 11(2):97–101 Kepler RM, Sung GH, Ban S, Nakagiri A, Chen MJ, Huang B, Li Z, Spatafora JW (2012) New teleomorph combinations in the entomopathogenic genus Metacordyceps. Mycologia 104(1):182–197 Kikuchi G, Higuchi M, Morota T, Nagasawa E, Suzuki A (2008a) Fungal symbiont and cultivation test of Gastrodia elata Blume (Orchidaceae). J Jpn Bot 83:88–95 Kikuchi G, Higuchi M, Yoshimura H, Morota T, Suzuki A (2008b) In vitro symbiosis between Gastrodia elata Blume (Orchidaceae) and Armillaria Kummer (Tricholomataceae) species isolated from orchid tuber. J Jpn Bot 83(2):77–87 Kim CS, Jo JW, Kwag YN, Sung GH, Lee SG, Kim SY, Shin CH, Han SK (2015) Mushroom flora of Ulleung-gun and a newly recorded Bovista species in the Republic of Korea. Mycobiology 43(3):239–257 Kim CS, Han SK, Nam JW, Jo JW, Kwag Y-N, Han J-G, Sung G-H, Lim YW, Oh S (2017) Fungal communities in a Korean red pine stand, Gwangneung Forest, Korea. J Asia Pac Biodivers 10(4):559–572 Kirk PM, Cannon PF, David JC, Stalpers JA (2001) Ainsworth & Bisby’s dictionary of the fungi, 9th edn. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK Krupodorova T, Ivanova T, Barshteyn V (2014) Screening of extracellular enzymatic activity of macrofungi. J Microbiol Biotech Food Sci 3(4):315–318 Lee WD, Lee H, Fong JJ, Oh SY, Park MS, Quan Y, Jung PE, Lim YW (2014) A checklist of the basidiomycetous macrofungi and a record of five new species from Mt. Oseo in Korea. Mycobiology 42(2):132–139 Lopez-Quintero CA, Straatsma G, Franco-Molano AE, Boekhout T (2012) Macrofungal diversity in Colombian Amazon forests varies with regions and regimes of disturbance. Biodivers Conserv 21:2221–2243 Marzana A, Aminuzzaman FM, Chowdhury MSM, Mohsin SM, Das K (2018) diversity and ecology of macrofungi in Rangamati of Chittagong hill tracts under tropical evergreen and semi-­ evergreen forest of Bangladesh. Advan Res 13(5):1–17 Mehdiabadi NJ, Schultz TR (2010) Natural history and phylogeny of the fungus-farming ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Myrmicinae: Attini). Myrmecol News 13:37–55 Mohammed N, Shinkafi SA, Enagi MY (2017) Isolation of coprophilous mycoflora from different dung types in some local government areas of Niger state, Nigeria. Am J Lif Sci 5(3–1):24–29 Monteiro M, Reino L, Schertler A, Essl F, Figueira R, Ferreira MT, Capinha C (2020) A database of the global distribution of alien macrofungi. Biodivers Data J 8:1–11 Morin E, Kohler A, Baker AR, Foulongne-Oriol M, Lombard V, Nagy LG, Ohm RA, Patyshakuliyeva A, Brun A, Aerts AL, Bailey AM, Billette C, Coutinho PM, Deakin G, Doddapaneni H, Floudas D, Grimwood J, Hilden K, Kues U, Labutti KM, Lapidus A, Lindquist EA, Lucas SM, Murat C, Riley RW, Salamov AA, Schmutz J, Subramanian V, Wosten HA, Xu J, Eastwood DC, Foster GD, Sonnenberg AS, Cullen D, de Vries RP, Lundell T, Hibbett DS, Henrissat B, Burton KS, Kerrigan RW, Challen MP, Grigoriev IV, Martin F (2012) Genome sequence of the button mushroom Agaricus bisporus reveals mechanisms governing adaptation to a humic-rich ecological niche. Proc Natl Acad Sci, USA 109:17501–17506 Mueller UG, Gerardo NM, Aanen DK, Six DL, Schultz TR (2005) The evolution of agriculture in insects. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 36:563–595 Mueller GM, Schmit JP, Leacock PR, Buyck B, Cifuentes J, Desjardin DE, Halling RE, Hjortstam K, Iturriaga T, Larsson KH, Lodge DJ (2007) Global diversity and distribution of macrofungi. Biodiver conserv 16(1):37–48 Mumpuni A, Ekowati N, Wahyono DJ (2020) The existence of coprophilous macrofungi in Banyumas, Central Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21(1):282–289 Naranjo-Ortiz MA, Gabaldón T (2019) Fungal evolution: diversity, taxonomy and phylogeny of the fungi. Biol Rev 94:2101–2137

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Nobre T, Koné NA, Konaté S, Linsenmair KE, Aanen DK (2011) Dating the fungus-growing termites’ mutualism shows a mixture between ancient codiversification and recent symbiont dispersal across divergent hosts. Mol Ecol (12):2619–2627 Nogueira-Melo GS, Santos PJ, Gibertoni TB (2017) Host-exclusivity and host-recurrence by wood decay fungi (Basidiomycota-Agaricomycetes) in Brazilian mangroves. Acta Bot Bras 31(4):566–570 Nouhra ER, Horton TR, Cazares E, Castellano MA (2005) Morphological and molecular characterization of selected Ramaria mycorrhizae. Mycorrhiza 15(1):55–59 Ohm RA, de Jong JF, Lugones LG, Aerts A, Kothe E, Stajich JE, de Vries RP, Record E, Levasseur A, Baker SE, Bartholomew KA, Coutinho PM, Erdmann S, Fowler TJ, Gathman AC, Lombard V, Henrissat B, Knabe N, Kues U, Lilly WW, Lindquist E, Lucas S, Magnuson JK, Piumi F, Raudaskoski M, Salamov A, Schmutz J, Schwarze FWMR, van Kuyk PA, Horton JS, Grigoriev IV, HAB W (2010) Genome sequence of the model mushroom Schizophyllum commune. Nat Biotechnol 28(9):957–963 Owaid MN (2018) Bioecology and uses of desert truffles (Pezizales) in the Middle East. Walailak J Sci Tech 15(3):179–188 Pathania J, Chander H (2018) Nutritional qualities and host specificity of most common edible macrofungi of Hamirpur district, Himachal Pradesh. J Biol Chem Chron 4(2):86–89 Pradhan P, Dutta AK, Roy A, Bsu SK, Acharya K (2013) Macrofungal diversity and habitat specificity: a case study. Biodivers 14(3):147–161 Priyamvada H, Akila M, Singh RK, Ravikrishna R, Verma RS, Philip L, Marathe RR, Sahu LK, Sudheer P K, Gunthe SS (2017) Terrestrial macrofungal diversity from the tropical dry evergreen biome of southern India and its potential role in aerobiology. PLoS ONE 12:1):1–1)21 Rinaldi AC, Comandini O, Kuyper TW (2008) Ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity: separating the wheat from the chaff. Fungal Divers 33:1–45 Ruiz-Duenas FJ, Lundell T, Floudas D, Nagy L, Barrassa JM, Hibbett D, Martınez AT (2013) Lignindegrading peroxidases in Polyporales: an evolutionary survey based on ten sequenced genomes. Mycologia 105(6):1428–1444 Sarrionandia E, Salcedo I (2018) Macrofungal diversity of holm-oak forests at the northern limit of their distribution range in the Iberian Peninsula. Scand J For Res 33(1):23–31 Semwal KC, Bhatt VK, Stephenson SL (2018) A survey of macrofungal diversity in the Bharsar region, Uttarakhand Himalaya, India. Jasia Pac Biodivers 11(4):560–565 Smith SE, Read DJ (2008) Mycorrhizal symbiosis. Academic Press Ltd, Cambridge, UK Spatafora JW, Aime MC, Grigoriev IV, Martin F, Stajich JE, Blackwell M (2017) The Fungal tree of life: from molecular systematics to senome-scale phylogenies. Microbiol Spectr 5:3–34 Stajich JE, Berbee ML, Blackwell M, Hibbett DS, James TY, Spatafora JW, Taylor JW (2009) The fungi. Curr Biol 19:840–845 Stajich JE, Wilke SK, Ahren D, Au CH, Birren BW, Borodovsky M, Burns C, Canback B, Casselton LA, Cheng CK, Deng J, Dietrich FS, Fargo DC, Farman ML, Gathman AC, Goldberg J, Guigo R, Hoegger PJ, Hooker JB, Huggins A, James TY, Kamada T, Kilaru S, Kodira C, Kues U, Kupfer D, Kwan HS, Lomsadze A, Li W, Lilly WW, Ma LJ, Mackey AJ, Manning G, Martin F, Muraguchi H, Natvig DO, Palmerini H, Ramesh MA, Rehmeyer CJ, Roe BA, Shenoy N, Stanke M, Ter-Hovhannisyan V, Tunlid A, Velagapudi R, Vision TJ, Zeng Q, Zolan ME, Pukkila PJ (2010) Insights into evolution of multicellular fungi from the assembled chromosomes of the mushroom Coprinopsis cinerea (Coprinus cinereus). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:11889–11189 Sung GH, Hywel-Jones NL, Sung JM, Luangsa-ard JJ, Shrestha B, Spatafora JW (2007) Phylogenetic classification of Cordyceps and the clavicipitaceous fungi. Stud mycol 57:5–59 Suz LM, Sarasan V, Weam JA et al (2018) Positive plant fungal interactions. In: Willis KJ (ed) State of the world fungi. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, pp 32–39 Tedersoo L, May TW, Smith ME (2010) Ectomycorrhizal lifestyle in fungi: global diversity, distribution, and evolution of phylogenetic lineages. Mycorrhiza 20(4):217–263 Thiers BM, Halling RE (2018) The macrofungi collection consortium. Appl Plant Sci 6(2):1–7

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Thulasinathan B, Kulanthaisamy MR, Nagarajan A, Soorangkattan S, Muthuramalingam JB, Jeyaraman J, Arun A (2018) Studies on the diversity of macrofungus in Kodaikanal region of Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India. Biodiversitas 19(6):2283–2293 Tibuhwa DD, Kivaisi AK, Magingo FSS (2010) Utility of the macro-micro morphological characteristics used in classifying the species of Termitomyces. Tanz J Sci 36(1):31–45 Toju H, Guimaraes PR, Olesen JM, Thompson JN (2014) Assembly of complex plant–fungus networks. Nat Commun 5(1):1–7 Tripathi NN, Singh P, Vishwakarma P (2017) Biodiversity of macrofungi with special reference to edible forms: a review. J Indian Bot Soc 96(3 and 4):144–187 Verma RK, Asaiya AJK, Chitra C, Vimal P (2017) Diversity of macro-fungi in Central India-IX: Laetiporus sulphurous. Van Sangyan 4(11):1–44 Wani AH, Pala SA, Boda RH, Bhat MY (2020) Fungal diversity in the Kashmir Himalaya. In: Biodiversity of the Himalaya: Jammu and Kashmir State. Springer, Singapore, pp 319–341

Chapter 4

Ethnomycology

Ethnomycology is a subject of concern and spotlights the cultural significance and history of uses of macrofungi in human life (Dugan 2011; Brown 2019). Ethnomycological surveys add to our knowledge of various practices involving macrofungi by the locals and are beneficial in a better valorization of their uses (Guissou et al. 2014). Ethnomycological investigations help to decide which species is better to cultivate by conveying information regarding its benefits provided to the locals, unveil the cultural differences among communities with respect to the uses of the species, and also play significant role in the management and conservation plans to save the species involving the locals (Garibay-Orijel et al. 2007). For the past few decades, tribal people are losing their tradition and culture with increase in deforestation, urbanization, and exodus and integration of tribals into urban society (Lachure 2012). Therefore, it becomes important to collect, preserve, and transmit ethnomycological information to the future generations making them aware of the use value of macrofungi and for innovations in the field of mycology. The mycophilic societies/cultures in Greek, Rome, Egypt, China, and Russia collect and use wild fungi as food, in ethnomedicine, and to perform religious rituals (Miles and Chang 2004). In Finland, Italy, Spain, and the United Republic of Tanzania, the opinion towards wild fungi varies even among different parts of the same country (Härkönen et al. 1994; Härkönen 1998). Russians have deep passion for wild fungi evidenced by various sayings. The Estonians describe this Russian passion as “Where there is a mushroom coming up, there is always a Russian waiting for it.” In Finnish, Karelia, there is a popular saying “Shouting like Russians in a mushroom forest.” Russians are famous for hunting fungi at every weekend (Villarreal and Perez-Moreno 1989; Filipov 1998). In mycophobic countries like Britain, people are afraid of consuming them (Dyke and Newton 1999). However, this fear is disappearing, and the use of macrofungi is expanding because of immigrants from mycophilic regions. In Guatemala, people ignored B. edulis but later started consuming it (Flores et al. 2002). Macrofungi always enticed man with their beautiful color and form. People inhabiting different regions of the world consume macrofungi in © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 U. Azeem et al., Fungi for Human Health, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58756-7_4

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d­ ifferent ways (Table  4.1). Archaeological records indicate association of edible species of macrofungi with humans living 13,000 years ago in Chile (Rojas and Mansur 1995). The eating of wild macrofungi is reported for the first time from China several hundred years back before the birth of Christ (Aaronson 2000). The use of fungi as human food is evident from the reference of a desert truffle, Terfezia arenaria, in the bible as “bread from heaven” and “manna of the Israelites” (Pegler 2002). Edible taxa are known for their delicious taste, exotic aroma, and pleasing flavor. Several species have mythological significance related to their growth and collection. The Gaddang people in the Philippines think that spontaneous lightening promotes fungal growth (Lazo et al. 2015). In West Bengal (India), collection of mushrooms is done on full moon days and new moon days (Dutta and Achariya 2014). The Mexican Indians have mythological thinking that hallucinogenic mushrooms are mediators with God, while Nahum Aztecs considered mushrooms as teonanacatl, meaning God’s flesh (Singh 1999). In certain parts of the world, macrofungi have ludic value. The children of different communities in Mexico use sporocarps of Calvatia and Pisolithus species as balls and projectiles (Hernández-Santiago et al. 2016). Adhikari et al. (2005) conducted an ethnomycological survey in the vicinities of Lumle and Kathmandu Valley of Nepal and gathered information about the culinary uses of 18 macrofungi, medicinal uses of 8 species, and utilization of 3 species for other purposes. In North Central Nigeria, majority of natives consume macrofungi for their nutritional, palatability, and medicinal characteristics (Ayodele et al. 2009). Kimn and Song (2014) recorded 38 species of mushrooms belonging to 33 genera and 22 families (mainly Tricholomataceae, Pleurotaceae, Polyporaceae, and Hymenochaetaceae) which are used in 158 types of practices by the tribal communities in Korea. This report shows 24 ways to cook mushrooms such as soups, teas, simmering, roasting, etc. in addition to their medicinal uses. In Gorakhpur Forest Division of Uttar Pradesh (India), the tribals and forest dwellers use Termitomyces species as food as well as for medicinal purposes (Srivastava et al. (2011). Fourteen macrofungal genera classified in 11 families and 7 orders have been collected and identified from different habitats (semidesert, gardens, park) associated with decaying roots of dead trees and some under the living trees in Qatar. These macrofungi mainly include truffles, e.g., Phaeangium lefebvrei, Terfezia claveryi, Tirmania nivea, etc. (Al-Thani 2010). Majangir tribe and Wacha inhabitants of Southwestern Ethiopia collect, wash, chop, and use fresh mushrooms in the preparation of stew and soup. People here consider mushrooms as supplement or alternative to meat or fish (Tuno 2001; Teferi et al. 2013). Dutta and Achariya (2014) conducted an ethnomycological survey in West Bengal, India, where the locals and tribals use 34 species of macrofungi of which 31 species are edible and 5 are of medicinal significance, while some of these species solve both the purposes. The inner Baduy people in Cikartawana hamlet, Korea, consume 12 edible macrofungi either fresh or dried in elaborated stew such as soup, steamed, or stir fried (Khastini et al. 2018). In Menge District, Asosa Zone, Benishangul-Gumuz Region of Ethiopia, 20 edible and medicinal mushroom species belonging to 10 genera and 6 families have been identified. Of these, 15 species have been reported to be edible including Termitomyces schimperi ranked as first followed by T. le-testui,

4 Ethnomycology

25

Table 4.1  Macrofungi with use value to man commonly utilized by different ethnic groups across the globe

Family Agaricaceae

Amanitaceae

Auriculariaceae

Bankeraceae

Current scientific name Agaricus arvensis, A. bambusicola, A. blazei, A. bisporus, A. campestris, A. crocopeplus, A. semotus, A. subrutilescens, A. subsaharianus, Calvatia cyathiformis, C. lilacina, Chlorophyllum brunneum, C. olivieri, Cyathus limbatus, Gastropila fumosa, Leucocoprinus cepistipes, Lycoperdon lividum, L. marginatum, L. pratense, Macrolepiota mastoidea, M. procera, and Xanthagaricus luteolosporus Bovista plumbea, B. pusilla, Calvatia craniiformis, C. gigantea, Chlorophyllum rhacodes, Lepiota cristata, L. perlatum, L. pyriforme, L. subincarnata, and Podaxis pistillaris Amanita annulatovaginata, A. caesarea, A. chepangiana, A. congolensis, A. craseoderma, A. crassiconus, A. echinulata, A. fulva, A. hemibapha, A. jacksonii, A. laurae, A. marmorata, A. masasiensis, A. novinupta, A. pudica, A. robusta, A. rubescens, A. strobilaceovolvata, A. subviscosa, A. tuza, A. vaginata, and A. xanthogala Auricularia cornea, A. delicata, and A. fuscosuccinea

E (edible)/M (medicinal) Reference E Valverde et al. (2015), Basumatary and Gogoi (2016), Kinge et al. (2017), Foo et al. (2018), Kamalebo et al. (2018), Liu et al. (2018), Murati and Rexhepi (2018), Robles-García et al. (2018), Rothman (2018), Debnath et al. (2019), Haro-Luna et al. (2019), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Ponce et al. (2019) M

Smith (1932), Smith (1933), Debnath et al. (2019) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019)

E

Montoya et al. (2003), Semwal et al. (2014), Kamalebo et al. (2018), Robles-García et al. (2018), Haro-Luna et al. (2019), Soro et al. (2019), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Ponce et al. (2019)

E

Lazo et al. (2015), Kinge et al. (2017), Foo et al. (2018) and Kamalebo et al. (2018) Kinge et al. (2017), Foo et al. (2018), Debnath et al. (2019) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) Kotowski et al. (2019) Liu et al. (2018)

A. auricula-judae and A. nigricans

E and M

Sarcodon squamosus S. imbricatus

E M

(continued)

26

4 Ethnomycology

Table 4.1 (continued)

Family Boletaceae

E (edible)/M (medicinal) Reference E Montoya et al. (2003), Stryamets et al. (2015), Kamalebo et al. (2018), Murati and Rexhepi (2018), Robles-García et al. (2018), Haro-­ Luna et al. (2019), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Soro et al. (2019)

Current scientific name Boletus aestivalis, B. atkinsonii, B. auripes, B. badius, B. loosei, B. speciosus, B. pinophilus, B. regius, B. variipes, Chalciporus luteopurpureus, Fistulinella wolfeana, Harrya chromipes, Imleria badia, Leccinum aurantiacum, L. quercinum, L. rugosiceps, L. pseudoscabrum, L. scabrum, L. variicolor, L. versipelle, Retiboletus griseus, Rubroboletus dupainii, Sutorius luridiformis, Xerocomellus chrysenteron, X. pruinatus, Xerocomus cisalpinus, X. ferrugineus, X. illudens, X. spinulosus, and X. subtomentosus B. edulis E and M

Tylopilus felleus Macrocybe titans Coprinus africanus Coprinus comatus and Coprinellus disseminatus

M E E E and M

Coprinellus micaceus Cordyceps militaris and C. sinensis

M M

E

Diplocystaceae

Cortinarius caperatus and C. mucosus Astraeus hygrometricus

Discinaceae

Gyromitra esculenta

E and M

Entolomataceae

Gyromitra sphaerospora M Entoloma bloxami and Clitopilus M passeckerianus

Catathelasmataceae Coprinaceae

Cordycipitaceae

Cortinariaceae

E and M

Liu et al. (2018), Debnath et al. (2019) and Haro-Luna et al. (2019) Kotowski et al. (2019) Zent et al. (2004) Soro et al. (2019) Kinge et al. (2017), Kamalebo et al. (2018), Rothman (2018) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) Debnath et al. (2019) Sung et al. (1998), Semwal et al. (2014) and Debnath et al. (2019) Kotowski et al. (2019) Semwal et al. (2014) and Debnath et al. (2019) Stryamets et al. (2015) and Kotowski et al. (2019) Debnath et al. (2019) De Mattos-Shipley et al. (2016), Debnath et al. (2019) (continued)

4 Ethnomycology

27

Table 4.1 (continued)

Family Exidiaceae

Current scientific name Pseudohydnum gelatinosum

Fomitopsidaceae

F. pinicola Grifola frondosa and L. sulphureus

Fistulinaceae

Fistulina hepatica

Ganodermataceae

Amauroderma omphalodes Ganoderma oerstedii G. applanatum, G. lucidum, and G. tsugae

Geastraceae Gomphaceae

E (edible)/M (medicinal) Reference E Stoyneva-Gärtner et al. (2017) M Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) E and M Stryamets et al. et al. (2015), Kinge et al. (2017) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) M Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) E Zent et al. (2004) E and M Haro-Luna et al. (2019) M Kamalebo et al. (2018), Debnath et al. (2019) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) M Debnath et al. (2019) E Montoya et al. (2003), Kang et al. (2016), Liu et al. (2018) and Larios-Trujillo et al. (2019)

Geastrum triplex Gomphus clavatus, Ramaria bonii, R. cystidiophora, R. fennica, R. flava, R. flavigelatinosa, R. madagascariensis, R. rubiginosa, R. rubripermanens, R. sanguinea, R. testaceoflava, and R. versatilis Gomphus floccosus and Ramaria E and M botrytis M E E

Helvellaceae

Corallium formosum Chroogomphus jamaicensis Gyroporus castaneus and G. cyanescens Helvella crispa

E and M M

Hericiaceae

Helvella lacunosa Helvella macropus and H. acetabulum Hericium erinaceus Hericium coralloides

M

Gomphidiaceae Gyroporaceae

E

E and M

Semwal et al. (2014), Liu et al. (2018) and Debnath et al. (2019) Debnath et al. (2019) Montoya et al. (2003) Kotowski et al. (2019) Montoya et al. (2003) and Robles-García et al. (2018) Debnath et al. (2019) Debnath et al. (2019) Semwal et al. (2014) and Liu et al. (2018) Debnath et al. (2019) (continued)

28

4 Ethnomycology

Table 4.1 (continued)

Family Hydnaceae

E (edible)/M (medicinal) Reference E Semwal et al. (2014), Stryamets et al. (2015), Foo et al. (2018), Kamalebo et al. (2018), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Larios-Trujillo et al. (2019)

Current scientific name Cantharellus cerinoalbus, C. congolensis, C. densifolius, C. floridulus, C. isabellinus, C. longisporus, C. luteopunctatus, C. miniatescens, C. minor, C. pseudofriesii, C. ruber, C. rufopunctatus, Craterellus tubaeformis, Hydnum ellipsosporum, H. repandum, and Pseudocraterellus undulatus Cantharellus cibarius E and M

Hydnangiaceae

Laccaria amethystina, L. bicolor, E and L. laccata

Hygrophoraceae

Hygrocybe cantharellus, H. miniata, H. chrysodon, and H. hypothejus

E

Hygrophoropsidaceae Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca

E

Hymenochaetaceae

Inonotus hispidus, I. obliquus, Phellinus fastuosus, and Ph. linteus

M

Hypocreaceae

Hypomyces lactifluorum

E and M

Hypoxylaceae

Daldinia concentrica and D. eschscholtzii

M

Liu et al. (2018), Robles-García et al. (2018), Haro-Luna et al. (2019), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Ponce et al. (2019) Montoya et al. (2003), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Larios-Trujillo et al. (2019) Montoya et al. (2003), Foo et al. (2018), Kamalebo et al. (2018) and Kotowski et al. (2019) Larios-Trujillo et al. (2019) Illana-Esteban (2011), Khastini et al. (2018) and Debnath et al. (2019) Robles-García et al. (2018), Haro-Luna et al. (2019), Larios-­ Trujillo et al. (2019) and Ponce et al. (2019) Debnath et al. (2019) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) (continued)

4 Ethnomycology

29

Table 4.1 (continued)

Family Lyophyllaceae

Current scientific name Calocybe gambosa, Termitomyces aurantiacus, T. eurrhizus, T. fuliginosus, T. le-testui, T. mammiformis, T. medius, T. robustus, T. schimperi, T. striatus, T. tyleranus, and T. umkowaani

Lyophyllum decastes and Termitomyces albuminosus, T. clypeatus, T. heimii, T. microcarpus, and T. titanicus

Marasmiaceae

Meripilaceae Morchellaceae

Mycenaceae Omphalotaceae

Hypsizygus tessulatus and Termitomyces tyleranus Calyptella longipes, Marasmius arborescens, M. bekolacongoli, M. buzungolo, M. confertus, M. oreades, and Trogia infundibuliformis Meripilus giganteus Morchella elata

E (edible)/M (medicinal) Reference E Montoya et al. (2003), Basumatary and Gogoi (2016), Kinge et al. (2017), Foo et al. (2018), Kamalebo et al. (2018), Rothman (2018), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Soro et al. (2019) E and M Semwal et al. (2014), Kinge et al. (2017), Liu et al. (2018), Debnath et al. (2019), Larios-­ Trujillo et al. (2019) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) M Debnath et al. (2019) E

E E

M. esculenta

E and M

Disciotis venosa, Morchella angusticeps, M. conica, M. hybrida, M. vulgaris, and Ptychoverpa bohemica Mycena sp. Gymnopus dryophilus, G. sp., and Lentinula edodes

M

Ophiocordycipitaceae Ophiocordyceps sinensis Paxillaceae Paxillus cuprinus Phallaceae Phallus indusiatus Phallus impudicus and P. rubicundus Pezizaceae Peziza repanda Pyronemataceae G. sumneriana and Humaria hemisphaerica

E E

M E E and M M M M

Kamalebo et al. (2018), Robles-García et al. (2018), Haro-Luna et al. (2019) and Kotowski et al. (2019) De Leon et al. (2016) Kang et al. (2016) and Kotowski et al. (2019) Semwal et al. (2014), Debnath et al. (2019), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) Debnath et al. (2019) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) Kamalebo et al. (2018) Foo et al. (2018), Kamalebo et al. (2018) and Robles-García et al. (2018) Liu et al. (2018) Kotowski et al. (2019) Liu et al. (2018) Debnath et al. (2019) Debnath et al. (2019)

(continued)

30

4 Ethnomycology

Table 4.1 (continued)

Family Physalacriaceae

Pleurotaceae

Pluteaceae

Polyporaceae

E (edible)/M (medicinal) Reference Current scientific name Armillaria borealis, A. lutea, and E Robles-García et al. A. mellea (2018), Haro-Luna et al. (2019) and Kotowski et al. (2019) Flammulina velutipes E and M Smiderle et al. (2006) and Debnath et al. (2019) E Semwal et al. (2014), Pleurotus cornucopiae, Valverde et al. (2015), P. cystidiosus, P. djamor var. Parveen et al. (2017), djamor, P. djamor var. roseus, Kinge et al. (2017), P. eryngii, P. giganteus, Foo et al. (2018), P. sapidus, and P. opuntiae Kamalebo et al. (2018), Haro-Luna et al. (2019) and Kotowski et al. (2019) Pleurotus ostreatus and Lentinus E and M Valverde et al. (2015), tuber-regium Kotowski et al. (2019), Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) and Foo et al. (2018) Volvariella bombycina and E Haro-Luna et al. V. earlei (2019) and Soro et al. (2019) Volvariella volvacea E and M Basumatary and Gogoi (2016), Foo et al. (2018) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) Volvariella glandiformis and M Vishwakarma and V. indica Tripathi (2019) Zent et al. (2004), Coriolopsis caperata, Daedalea E Stryamets et al. (2015), flavida, Favolus tenuiculus, Basumatary and Gogoi Lentinus brunneofloccosus, (2016), Parveen et al. L. crinitus, L. levis, (2017), Kamalebo et al. L. polychrous, L. sajor-caju, (2018), Foo et al. Lentinus squarrosulus, (2018) and Haro-Luna L. strigosus, Lignosus sp., et al. (2019) L. sulphureus, and Polyporus umbellatus Echinochaete brachypora and E and M Foo et al. (2018) and Lentinus tuber-regium Soro et al. (2019) Parveen et al. (2017), F. fomentarius, Lentinus tigrinus, M Kamalebo et al. (2018), Lenzites betulina, Microporus Debnath et al. (2019), xanthopus, Polyporus squamosus, Haro-Luna et al. Pycnoporus cinnabarinus, (2019) and P. sanguineus, Trametes gibbosa, Vishwakarma and T. hirsuta, and T. versicolor Tripathi (2019) (continued)

4 Ethnomycology

31

Table 4.1 (continued) E (edible)/M (medicinal) Reference E and M Soro et al. (2019) M Debnath et al. (2019) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) M Debnath et al. (2019)

Family Psathyrellaceae

Current scientific name Psathyrella tuberculata Coprinopsis atramentaria and Panaeolus papilionaceus

Rhizopogonaceae

Rhizopogon roseolus and R. villosulus Cotylidia aurantiaca E E Lactarius acutus, L. azonites, L. camphoratus, L. deliciosus, L. deterrimus, L. indigo, L. pubescens, L. resimus, L. rimosellus, L. rubrilacteus, L. salmonicolor, L. saponaceus, L. tenellus, L. torminosus, L. vellereus, L. volemus, Lactifluus annulatoangustifolius, L. flammans, L. gymnocarpoides, L. heimii, L. luteopus, L. pelliculatus, L. volemoides, Russula aeruginea, R. alutacea, R. annulata, R. aurea, R brevipes, R. cellulata, R. claroflava, R. ciliata, R. congoana, R. cyanoxantha, R. delica, R. grisea, R. inflata, R. integra, R. lepida, R. nitida, R. rosea, R. meleagris, R. nigricans, R. ochroleuca, R. oleifera, R. porphyrocephala, R. pruinata, R. sesemoindu, sesenagula, R. striatoviridis, and R. virescens Russula aquosa and R. emetica M

Rikenellaceae Russulaceae

Sarcoscyphaceae Sarcosomataceae Schizophyllaceae

Sclerodermataceae

Cookeina speciosa, C. sulcipes, and C. tricholoma Galiella rufa S. commune

E

Scleroderma citrinum and Calostoma insigne

E

Pisolithus arrhizus

M

E E and M

Kamalebo et al. (2018) Montoya et al. (2003), Comandini et al. (2012), Semwal et al. (2014), Stryamets et al. (2015), Kang et al. (2016), Kamalebo et al. (2018), Liu et al. (2018), Robles-García et al. (2018), Haro-­ Luna et al. (2019), Kotowski et al. (2019), Ponce et al. (2019) and Soro et al. (2019)

Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) Foo et al. (2018) and Kamalebo et al. (2018) Foo et al. (2018) Kamalebo et al. (2018), Foo et al. (2018), Debnath et al. (2019) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) De Leon et al. (2016), Foo et al. (2018) and Kotowski et al. (2019) Debnath et al. (2019) (continued)

32

4 Ethnomycology

Table 4.1 (continued)

Family Sparassidaceae

Current scientific name S. crispa

Stereaceae

Sparassis spathulata Stereum hirsutum

Strophariaceae

Gymnopilus zenkeri, Hebeloma mesophaeum, and Protostropharia semiglobata Stropharia rugosoannulata

Suillaceae

Suillus bovinus, S. granulatus, S. grevillei, S. luteus, S. pseudobrevipes, S. salmonicolor, and S. variegatus

Tapinellaceae Tremellaceae

Tapinella panuoides Tremella fuciformis and T. mesenterica

Tricholomataceae

Clitocybe fragrans, C. squamulosa, Collybia aurea, Gerhardtia cibaria, Infundibulicybe gibba, Lepista nuda, L. sordida, Leucopaxillus giganteus, Tricholoma equestre, and T. portentosum

Lycoperdon perlatum and Tricholoma matsutake

Tuberaceae

Tuber aestivum, T. brumale, T. nigrum, and T. sp.

Xylariaceae

Xylaria hypoxylon and X. polymorpha

E (edible)/M (medicinal) Reference E and M Semwal et al. (2014), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) M Debnath et al. (2019) M Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) E Montoya et al. (2003), Basumatary and Gogoi (2016) and Kamalebo et al. (2018) E and M Alinia-Ahandani et al. (2018) and Liu et al. (2018) E Montoya et al. (2003), Stryamets et al. (2015), Robles-García et al. (2018), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Ponce et al. (2019) E Kamalebo et al. (2018) E Stoyneva-Gärtner et al. (2017) and Foo et al. (2018) E Montoya et al. (2003), Trutmann et al. (2012), Kang et al. (2016), Kamalebo et al. (2018), Rothman (2018), Robles-García et al. (2018), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Ponce et al. (2019) E and M Valverde et al. (2015), Liu et al. (2018), Robles-García et al. (2018), Rothman (2018) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019) E Murati and Rexhepi (2018), Debnath et al. (2019) and Kotowski et al. (2019) M Debnath et al. (2019) and Vishwakarma and Tripathi (2019)

4 Ethnomycology

33

T. m ­ icrocarpus, and T. eurhizus (Sitotaw et  al. 2020). In India, the edible and medicinal practices of mushrooms are quite common dating back to 1700–1100 BC (Wasson 1971). Edible mushrooms have been used in different states of India such as Odisha, West Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh (Baruah et al. 1971; Sing and Sing 1993; Sing et al. 2002; Sarma et al. 2010; Tanti et al. 2011). The most commonly consumed species in these regions belong to the genera Agaricus, Auricularia, Boletus, Cantharellus, Coprinus, Lactarius, Lentinus, Lycoperdon, Morchella, Ramaria, Russula, Schizophyllum, Termitomyces, Tricholoma, etc. (Choudhary et al. 2015). An ethnomycological survey revealed the use of 12 edible macrofungal species, namely, Agaricus campestris, Helvella compressa, Morchella conica, M. esculenta, M. deliciosa, Ramaria botrytis, Lactarius deliciosus, Rhizopogon vulgaris, Sparassis crispa, Gyromitra sp., Hygrophorus sp., and Lycoperdon sp., which are cooked and eaten as food by the local tribal people in Kinnaur District of Himachal Pradesh (India). Out of these, Morchella species are highly prized and traded in the markets between Rs.8,000 and 12,000/kg (Chauhan et al. 2014). The collection and marketing of macrofungal species in local markets proves as a good income source for the locals and tribal people. In Nepal, 49 taxa of macrofungi including L. sulphureus, B. edulis, C. cibarius, P. ostreatus, A. hygrometricus, and T. heimii are used as food and in ethnomedicine (Pandey et al. 2006). Some of these species are being sold fresh in the local markets, while few are sold in dried forms, e.g., Ramaria spp. at NPR 100/100 g and dried M. conica at NPR 3000 to NPR 7000/kg (Kharel and Rajbhandary 2005). In Mexico, 30 edible mushrooms are known being collected for personal use and sold in the market by the locals. People in the State of Tlaxcala fetch 15.44 Mexican pesos (2.54 USD)/day from mushroom selling in 1995. The average earnings for mushroom collecting per family in Javier Mina range from 62 to 82 Mexican pesos (10.27–13.47 USD)/day (Montoya et al. 2008). Lactarius, Russula, Cantharellus, and Amanita species are commonly collected and consumed among Benna and Hehe communities inhabiting southern highlands of Tanzania. These people earn 500–650 USD per collection season from 1000 to 1500 kg mushrooms, while retailers make 750–1000 USD per season from 750 at 800 kg of mushrooms (Chelela et al. 2014). Cortés et al. (2018) reported 21 wild macromycete species, of which R. chloroides, Ampulloclitocybe clavipes, A. mellea, B. edulis, and L. indigo have been found commercially important. In India, local people of Jammu Province collect, consume Geopora arenicola widely, and also sell it in the local markets at INR 50/kg. Other species sold here include Ramaria formosa at INR 40–50/kg, Ramaria flavobrunnescens at INR 30/kg, S. crispa at Rs. 50–60/kg, and T. striatus at INR 70/kg. Besides these, Morchella spp. are sold by the villagers to the middleman at INR 2000–3000/kg, who further sell these to the wholesalers at INR 5000–7000/kg (Kumar and Sharma 2010). The collection of wild macrofungi and selling them in local markets are reported to be a common tradition among Khasi tribe of Meghalaya, an eastern state of India (Khaund and Joshi 2013). The edible species commonly traded here are G. floccosus at INR 200/kg, Tricholoma viridiolivaceum at INR 200/kg, Tricholoma saponaceum at INR 200/kg, Craterellus lateritius at INR 280/kg, L. volemus and C. cibarius at INR 280/

34

4 Ethnomycology

kg, Laccaria fraterina at INR 280–300/kg, Albatrellus sp. at INR 200/kg, Ramaria sp. at INR 250–300/kg, and Clavulina sp. at INR 300–350/kg. Wild edible and medicinal truffles (Pezizales) such as species in the genera Terfezia, Tirmania, Tuber, Picoa, and Phaeangium have feeding, medicinal, and economic significance and are also sold in the local markets (Owaid 2018). Several edible ­species are considered medicinal or to be a medicinal food that helps in curing a number of ailments being rich in an array of nutrients (Bautista-González and Moreno-Fuentes 2014). There are approximately 7000 species of mushrooms which are considered to have varying levels of edibility. More than 700 species are documented to have considerable pharmacological properties (Jo et al. 2014). Medicinal species are used either directly as sporocarps or in the form of powder/paste for the treatment of different diseases. In communities of Baduy tribe, Indonesia, Amauroderma sp. is considered as a good analgesic, which helps to cure fever and immunity deficiency; G. lucidum and G. applanatum act against cancer and immunodeficiency disorders; F. fomentarius is good in fever; and Ph. linteus acts against cancer and is known to improve blood circulation (Khastini et al. 2018). An ethnomycological survey in Chuxiong City, Yunnan (China), reveals the medicinal uses of L. volemus (acting against cancer, lowering blood pressure, improving working of the liver, detoxifying, and useful in diuresis), O. sinensis (working against cancer, nourishing lungs, and regulating breath), Ramaria botrytis (good for the stomach and acting against cancer), P. indusiatus (good for the lungs, regulating breath, improving sleep, and stimulating immunity), S. crispa (as antiaging, declining cholesterol, anticancer, and immunostimulatory agent), Stropharia rugosoannulata (nourishing brain), T. matsutake (boosting immunity, acting against aging and cancer, elevating cardiovascular health, good for gastrointestinal functions, and protecting liver), and T. albuminosus (as immunostimulant and sleep enhancer) (Liu et  al. 2018). As per the survey of Apetorgbor et al. (2006), A. auricula-judae and Trametes sp. are good blood tonic; Collybia sp. works against fever and as blood tonic; C. disseminatus and S. commune are good blood tonic and help to treat eye infection; Lentinus tuber-regium acts against asthma; G. lucidum helps to cure cancer; T. clypeatus is used to treat rheumatism and diarrhea; T. globules is a blood tonic and helps in lowering high blood pressure; T. microcarpus is a blood tonic and lowers blood glucose; T. robustus is a blood tonic and V. volvacea lowers high blood pressure; C. cibarius cleanses the liver, increases vision, nourishes lungs, regulates breath, and is good in diuresis; H. crispa helps in curing pernicious anemia, improves neurasthenia, and lowers cholesterol; H. erinaceus exhibits antiaging, anti-­inflammatory, antitumor, and antiulcer characteristics, protects the liver, boosts immunity, and enhances blood circulation; and L. deliciosus and Sarcodon imbricatus possess anticancer properties, provide strength to the body, condition the stomach, are analgesic, nourish lungs, and manage breath in parts of Ghana. Okigbo and Nwatu (2015) documented the use of six fungal species by the people of Anambra State (Nigeria), viz., A. auricula-judae and L. squarrosulus to treat infertility and anemia; D. concentrica to cure stomach upset; Termitomyces sp. in anemia, weakness, and high blood pressure; Trichobatrachus robustus in anemia and high blood pressure; and V. volvacea only in anemia. Ayta communities in Bataan, Philippines, use macrofungi as remedy

4 Ethnomycology

35

against weakness, cough, common cold, and poor eyesight (Tantengco and Ragragio 2018). In Cameroon, Auricularia nigricans is used during pregnancy and against nausea, D. concentrica to treat hypertension, G. applanatum and T. versicolor to boost the immune system, L. squarrosulus in system cleaning, Polyporus dictyopus against abdominal pain and headaches, T. ­microcarpus in strengthening bones in children and against fever, Lycoperdon pratense against fever, and Xylaria sp. against hypertension and fever (Teke et al. 2018). In Chakrata, Dehradun, a hilly region of Northwest India, A. hygrometricus is used against ear puss; A. auricula-judae enhances milk secretion; the spore mass of Geastrum triplex, Lycoperdon perlatum, and P. pistillaris is used as burn remedy; Phallus sp. is an aphrodisiac; Stereum sp. acts as a wound healer and truffle; and Tuber sp. is used as a mouth freshener (Kumar et al. 2017). Agaricus augustus is a food and general health tonic, a supplementary diet to patients suffering from asthma, stroke, heart ailments, and diabetes. A. bisporus acts as a general health tonic, immunomodulator, and antidiabetic agent. B. edulis is useful after deliveries taken alone or with dandelion as expectorant, is antidepressant, and is used to treat lumbago, leg pains, numbness in limbs and tendon discomfort, against respiratory tract infections, and frost bites. C. cibarius is a natural health tonic, heals wounds, and cures bone ailments, general weakness, respiratory ailments, and diabetes. Disciotis venosa cures common cold and is used as a tonic and immunomodulatory agent. F. velutipes treats skin ailments and provides cure to hypertensive patients. F. fomentarius strengthens the immune system and works against cough and common cold. G. sumneriana is a stimulant, tonic, anticold agent, and immunomodulator. H. acetabulum cures chronic cough. H. crispa is a brain tonic; provides cure in asthma, cold, cough, and diabetes; and releases intestinal inflammation and mouth ulceration. H. coralloides acts as a sex stimulant and cures gastric irritation and heart burns. L. deliciosus is taken as food; is a brain tonic; works against anger, dry cough, and asthma; and promotes digestion. M. conica treats heart ailments, is a brain tonic and sex stimulant, and cures arthritis and general weakness. M. hybrida is a brain tonic and cures heart ailments, body weakness, and arthritis. M. vulgaris heals wounds. P. impudicus is a tonic against weakness. Ramaria stricta helps to treat asthma and other respiratory ailments, is blood purifier, enhances skin color, and cures eye ailments. R. villosulus works against kidney stones and urinary tract infections and cures fatty liver and asthma. R. roseolus is used to treat urinary tract infections. S. crispa is a general tonic, blood purifier, and anticold agent and treats memory loss, depression, anger, and chest pain. S. spathulata is a health tonic, anticold agent, and blood purifier; cures skin diseases such as rashes, itching, and dryness; and heals wounds. L. perlatum and L. pyriforme are used to heal wounds and frost bites in northern districts of Jammu and Kashmir, India (Malik et al. 2017). In Tamil Nadu (India), D. concentrica is used against skin irritation and helps in healing wounds, C. gigantea helps to cure upset stomach and stomachache in woman during menstruation, and P. pistillaris cures skin diseases and skin burns (Thangaraj et al. 2017). There is a long list of macrofungi with use value in human health which keeps on extending with the continuous discovery of new taxa. However, the ethnomycological knowledge available on many taxa is not yet enough which requires a thorough and extensive exploration.

36

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Malik AR, Wani AH, Bhat MY, Parveen S (2017) Ethnomycological knowledge of some wild mushrooms of northern districts of Jammu and Kashmir, India. Asian J Pharm Clin Res 10(9):399–405 Miles PG, Chang ST (2004) Mushrooms: cultivation, nutritional value, medicinal effect and environmental impact. CRC Press Montoya A, Hernandez-Totomoch O, Estrada-Torres A, Kong A, Caballero J (2003) Traditional knowledge about mushrooms in a Nahua community in the state of Tlaxcala, Mexico. Mycologia 95(5):793–806 Montoya A, Hernández N, Mapes C, Kong A, Estrada-Torres A (2008) The collection and sale of wild mushrooms in a community of Tlaxcala, Mexico. Econ Bot 62:413–424 Murati E, Rexhepi B (2018) Edible and poisonous mushrooms. ECOTEC-J Sci Env Technol 1(1):41–44 Okigbo RN, Nwatu CM (2015) Ethnostudy and usage of edible and medicinal mushrooms in some parts of Anambra state, Nigeria. Nat Resour 6(1):79–89 Owaid MN (2018) Bioecology and uses of desert truffles (Pezizales) in the Middle East. Walailak J Sci Tech 15(3):179–188 Pandey N, Devkota S, Christensen M, Budathoki U (2006) Use of wild mushrooms among the Tamangs of Nepal. Nepal J Sci Technol 7:97–104 Parveen A, Khataniar L, Goswami G, Hazarika DJ, Das P, Gautom T, Barooah M, Boro RC (2017) A study on the diversity and habitat specificity of macrofungi of Assam, India. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci 6(12):275–297 Pegler DN (2002) Useful fungi of the world: the ‘Poor man’s tuffles of Arabia’ and ‘Manna of the Israelites’. Mycologist 16(1):8–9 Ponce JPM, Hernández Calderón MA, Comandini O, Rinaldi AC, Arzú RF (2019) Ethnomycological knowledge among Kaqchikel, indigenous Maya people of Guatemalan highlands. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 15(36):1–24 Robles-García D, Suzán-Azpiri H, Montoya-Esquivel A, García-Jiménez J, Esquivel-Naranjo EU, Yahia E, Landeros-Jaime F (2018) Ethnomycological knowledge in three communities in Amealco, Quéretaro, México. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 14(7):1–13 Rojas C, Mansur E (1995) Ecuador: informaciones generales sobre productos non madereros en Ecuador. In: Memoria, consulta de expertos sobre productos forestales no madereros para America Latina y el Caribe, pp 208–223 Rothman S (2018) Edible macrofungi of Namibia’s thorn bush savanna bioregion and their potential for sustainable development. Master’s thesis. Natural Resource Management, Raseborg Sarma TC, Sarma I, Patiri BN (2010) Wild edible mushrooms used by some ethnic tribes of Western Assam. Bioscan 10(3):613–625 Semwal KC, Stephenson SL, Bhatt VK, Bhatt RP (2014) Edible mushrooms of the North Western Himalaya, India: a study of indigenous knowledge, distribution and diversity. Mycosphere 5(3):440–461 Sing NI, Sing SM (1993) Wild Edible fleshy fungal flora of Manipur. Bioveel 4(2):153–158 Sing NI, Sing SM, Th C (2002) Fleshy fungi of Manipur. In: Plant genetic diversity: exploration, evaluation, conservation. Affiliated East West Press Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, pp 9–13 Singh J (1999) Ethnomycology and folk remedies: fact and fiction. In: From ethnomycology to fungal biotechnology. Springer, Boston, pp 11–17 Sitotaw R, Lulekal E, Abate D (2020) Ethnomycological study of edible and medicinal mushrooms in Menge district, Assosa zone, Benishangul-Gumuz region, Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 16:11):1–11)14 Smiderle FR, Carbonero ER, Mellinger CG, Sassaki GL, Gorin PAJ, Iacomini M (2006) Structural characterization of a polysaccharide and a α-glucan isolated from the edible mushroom Flammulina velutipes. Phytochem 67(19):2189–2196 Smith (1932) Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe Indians. Bull Public Mus Milwaukee 4(3):327–524 Smith (1933) Ethnobotany of the forest Potawatomi Indians. Bull Public Mus Milwaukee 7(1):1–230

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Soro B, Koné NA, Vanié-Léabo LPL, Konaté S, Bakayoko A, Koné D (2019) Phytogeographical and sociolinguistical patterns of the diversity, distribution, and uses of wild mushrooms in Côte d’Ivoire, West Africa. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 15(5):1–12 Srivastava B, Dwivedi AK, Pandey VN (2011) Ethnobotanical survey, distribution and utilization of Termitomyces species in Gorakhpur forest division. PSF 1(3):28–33 Stoyneva-Gärtner MP, Uzunov BA, Dimitrova P (2017) Jelly-like algae and fungi used as food in Bulgaria. Acta Sci Nutr Health 1(1):51–54 Stryamets N, Elbakidze M, Ceuterick M, Angelstam P, Axelsson R (2015) From economic survival to recreation: contemporary uses of wild food and medicine in rural Sweden, Ukraine and NW Russia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 11:53):1–53)19 Sung JM, Lee HK, Yoo YJ, Choi YS, Kim SH, Kim YO, Sung GH (1998) Classification of Cordyceps species based on protein banding pattern. Kor J Mycol 26:1–7 Tantengco OAG, Ragragio EM (2018) Ethnomycological survey of macrofungi utilized by Ayta communities in Bataan, Philippines. Curr Res Environ Appl Mycol 8(1):104–108 Tanti B, Lisha G, Sharma GC (2011) Wild edible fungal resources used by ethnic tribes of Nagaland, India. Indian J Tradit Know 10:512–515 Teferi Y, Muleta D, Woyessa D (2013) Mushroom consumption habits of Wacha Kebele resident, Southwestern Ethiopia. Global Res J Agric Biol Sci 4(1):6–66 Teke NA, Kinge TR, Bechem E, Nji TM, Ndam LM, Mih AM (2018) Ethnomycological study in the Kilum-Ijim mountain forest, Northwest region, Cameroon. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 14(1):25 Thangaraj R, Raj S, Renganathan K (2017) Wound healing effect of King Alfred’s mushroom (D.concentrica) used by tribes of Sirumalai hills, Tamil Nadu, India. Int J Pharm Pharm Sci 9(7):161–164 Trutmann P, Holgado ME, Quispe A, Luque A (2012) Native mushrooms, local knowledge, and potential for food and health in the Peruvian Andes: update 2012. Annual report 2012, Global Mountain Action, pp 1–6 Tuno N (2001) Mushroom utilization by the Majangir, an Ethiopian tribe. Mycologist 15(2):78–79 Valverde ME, Hernández-Pérez T, Paredes-López O (2015) Edible mushrooms: improving human health and promoting quality life. Int J Microbiol 2015:1–14 Villarreal L, Perez-Moreno J (1989) Los hongos comestibles silvestres de Mexico, un enfoque integral. Micologia Neotropica Aplicada 2:77–114 Vishwakarma P, Tripathi NN (2019) Ethnomacrofungal study of some wild macrofungi used by local people of Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh. Indian J Nat Prod Resour 10(1):81–89 Wasson RG (1971) Soma: divine mushroom of immortality, Ethnomycology studies No. 1, Harvest special. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York Zent EL, Zent S, Iturriaga T (2004) Knowledge and use of fungi by a mycophilic society of the Venezuelan Amazon. Econ Bot 58(2):214–226

Chapter 5

Toxigenic Fungi

Majority of the macrofungi are edible/medicinal, while some species are toxigenic causing fatal accidents annually (Wu et al. 2019). Of all the identified fungi in the world, less than 1% are toxigenic (Chang 2008). The poisoning of macrofungi in humans is known since time immemorial and is mentioned in ancient writings like “Rigveda” (at least 3500 B.C.) and “Atharvaveda” (at least 1500 B.C.) (Verma et al. 2014). Avoidance, insufficient knowledge, and misidentification lead to the consumption of toxic macrofungi causing various health hazards, such as vomiting, nausea, stomachache, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and neurotoxicity, may cause rhabdomyolysis symptoms and erythromelalgia syndrome, and even sometimes lead to mortality (Erguven et al. 2007; Vişneci et al. 2019). Therefore, grasping, preservation, and transmission of ethnomycological knowledge are critical to prevent fungal poisoning or mycetism (Kim and Song 2014). Most of the time, accidental toxicity happens because of misidentification leading to ingestion of toxigenic fungi. The lack of data on toxigenic fungi and information pertaining to toxicological profiles of these fungi contributes more towards their consumption (White et al. 2003; Flesch and Saviuc 2004). Therefore, correct identification of the collected specimens before utilization is prerequisite to avoid toxicity. Some of the common differences usually observed between edible and toxigenic species are given in Table 5.1. Moreover, the national governments in different countries release guidelines and enact legislations for safe commerce and utilization of macrofungi (Peintner et al. 2013). Most of the toxigenic species occur in the genera Amanita (Amanitaceae), Clitocybe (Physalacriaceae), Cortinarius (Cortinariaceae), Conocybe (Bolbitiaceae), Entoloma (Entolomataceae), Gyromitra (Discinaceae), Hebeloma (Strophariaceae), Inocybe (Strophariaceae), Lepiota (Agaricaceae), Omphalotus (Omphalotaceae), Psilocybe (Strophariaceae), and Russula (Russulaceae), etc. as is evident from the data provided in Table 5.2 (Fig 5.1).

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 U. Azeem et al., Fungi for Human Health, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58756-7_5

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Table 5.1  Differences between edible and toxigenic fungi (Ramírez-Terrazo et al. 2014) Edible fungi Fruit in familiar substratum or dead and decaying tree trunk. Have a clear distinct ring on the stalk at maturity Have familiar and pleasant odor Sporocarps or gills become red brown when harvested Stipe becomes brown on breakage and releases brown color in the water

Toxigenic fungi Grow generally on partially decomposing animal dung (coprophilous fungi) without ring and black gills. Net mushrooms (the macrofungi having net on the sporocarps) are considered highly poisonous With peculiar and unpleasant odor Colored sporocarps with black spots on gills and turn black on breakage Stipe turns black on breakage or when picked up from the soil. Sporocarps on breakage release mucilage substance from stalk and turn black or blue in a mixture of salt water with lemon juice

Many myths are associated with the toxicity of macrofungi. It is believed that some macrofungal species are tested by snakes making them poisonous. In Western Burundi (Africa), it is famous that if once poisonous mushroom is collected, it should be kept back to its place to avoid any mishappening (Atri and Mridu 2018). The scientific cause of toxicity is the presence of different classes of toxins present in macrofungal species. The diseases caused by intake of mycotoxins are called mycotoxicoses. Toxins such as coprine (Coprinus atramentarius), acromelic acid (C. acromelalga), agaritine (A. bisporus), amatoxin (different species of Amanita), gyromitrin (G. esculenta), ibotenic acid and muscimol (A. muscaria and A. pantherina), muscarine (Clitocybe serussata, C. dealbata, C. phyllophila, C. rivulosa, and A. muscaria), orellanine (P. ostreatus and C. orellanus), ostreolysin (P. ostreatus), phallotoxin (A. phalloides), psilocybin and psilocin (Psilocybe cubensis), etc. cause toxicity following diverse routes inside the human body. Some species in the genera Inocybe and Clitocybe are more toxic as compared to their counterparts in Entoloma and Mycena because the concentration of toxins is higher in the former genera. Muscarine (a toxin) is 0.1 and 0.33% in Inocybe and Clitocybe spp., respectively, while it is 0.0003% in A. muscaria accounting for less toxicity of the latter species than the species in the former genera (Gupta 2018). Toxins present in some species are also beneficial (Nieminen et al. 2006). For instance, Agaricus xanthodermus is a poisonous mushroom but possesses medicinal properties such as anti-­ atherosclerosis, antioxidant, and antimicrobial effects (Özaltun and Sevindik 2020). Accidents of mild poisoning also occur with the ingestion of edible/medicinal species occasionally. This possibility of toxicity can be avoided through some recipes such as a drop of lemon is added to the basidiocarps of Termitomyces while cooking (Semwal et al. 2014). In case of G. floccosus, scales are removed from the cap and

5  Toxigenic Fungi

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Table 5.2  The most commonly occurring species of toxigenic fungi in the world Current scientific name Agaricus moelleri, A. bresadolanus, A. hondensis, A. silvaticus, A. squarrosus, A. xanthodermus, Chlorophyllum molybdites, and Lepiota cristata

Family Agaricaceae

Amanitaceae Amanita arocheae, A. bisporigera, A. citrine, A. echinocephala, A. eliae, A. flavoconia, A. gemmata, A. muscaria, A. pantherina, A. phalloides, A. rubescens, A. solitaria, A. smithiana, A. verna, and A. virosa Bolbitius sp. and Conocybe albipes Bolbitiaceae Boletaceae B. edulis, B. miniato-pallescens, Leccinum aurantiacum, Rubroboletus satanas, Suillellus luridus, and Xerocomus truncatus Cortinarius orellanus, C. speciosissimus, and C. sp. G. esculenta Entoloma incanum, E. sericellum, E. sericeoides, and E. sinuatum Ganoderma neojaponicum Corallium formosum Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca Podostroma cornu-damae and P. rubicundulus Inocybe asterospora, I. dulcamara, I. erubescens, I. fastigiata f. subcandida, I. lilacina, I. napipes, I. pallidicremea, I. patouilladii, I. radiate, I. repanda, and I. rimosa Pleurocybella porrigens Morchella sp. Mycena pura Omphalotus japonicus, O. olearius, and O. olivascens Paxillus involutus

Cortinariaceae Discinaceae Entolomataceae

Reference Joval et al. (1996), Demürel and Uzun (2004), Beug (2010), Lima et al. (2012), Edwards and Leech (2014), Liu et al. (2018), Rothman (2018), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Vishwakarma et al. (2019) Montoya et al. (2003), Demürel and Uzun (2004), Borovicka (2006), Yardan et al. (2008), Murati and Rexhepi (2018), Ruan-Soto (2018), Kotowski et al. (2019) and White et al. (2019) Hallen et al. (2003) and Haro-Luna et al. (2019) Montoya et al. (2003), Demürel and Uzun (2004), Ruan-Soto (2018), White et al. (2019), Haro-Luna et al. (2019) and Kotowski et al. (2019) Lima et al. (2012) and White et al. (2019) Yardan et al. (2008) Demürel and Uzun (2004)

Ganodermataceae White et al. (2019) Gomphaceae Ruan-Soto (2018) Hygrophoropsidaceae Desjardin et al. (2015) and Kotowski et al. (2019) Hypocreaceae Demürel and Uzun (2004) and White et al. (2019) Inocybaceae Demürel and Uzun (2004), Lima et al. (2012) and Ruan-Soto (2018)

Marasmiaceae Morchellaceae Mycenaceae Omphalotaceae Paxillaceae

Lima et al. (2012) and White et al. (2019) White et al. (2019) Verma et al. (2014) Verma et al. (2014) and Bal et al. (2016), Sugano et al. (2017) White et al. (2019) (continued)

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Table 5.2 (continued) Current scientific name Sarcosphaera crassa

Family Pezizaceae

Hapalopilus nidulans

Phanerochaetaceae

Pluteus salicinus

Pluteaceae

Panaeolus antillarum, P. foenisecii, and P. olivaceus

Psathyrellaceae

Ramaria abietina and R. apiculata Lactarius aurantiacus, L. luculentus, L. piperatus, L. torminosus, Russula betularum, R. emetica, R. fellea, R. fragilis, R. luteotacta, R. subnigricans

Ramariaceae Russulaceae

Scleroderma areolatum Galerina marginata, Hebeloma fusipes, H. mesophaeum, H. sinapizans, Hypholoma fasciculare, Psilocybe baeocystis, P. bohemica, P. cubensis, P. mexicana, and P. semilanceata Tapinella atrotomentosa Clitocybe amoenolens, C. acromelalga, C. dealbata, C. phyllophila, C. rivulosa, Leucocybe candicans, Tricholoma equestre, T. scalpturatum, and T. ustale

Sclerodermataceae Strophariaceae

Tapinellaceae Tricholomataceae

Reference Demürel and Uzun (2004), Dahlberg and Croneborg (2006) and Tedersoo et al. (2006) Lima et al. (2012) and White et al. (2019) Demürel and Uzun (2004) and Justo et al. (2014) Demürel and Uzun (2004), Desjardin and Perry (2017) and Haro-Luna et al. (2019) Montoya et al. (2003) Montoya et al. (2003), Demürel and Uzun (2004), Phillips (2006), Ruan-Soto (2018), White et al. (2019), Kotowski et al. (2019) and Verma et al. (2019) Ruan-Soto (2018) Lima et al. (2012)

Kotowski et al. (2019) Demürel and Uzun (2004), Lima et al. (2012), Nakajima et al. (2013) and White et al. (2019)

5  Toxigenic Fungi

45

Fig. 5.1.  Some common toxigenic macrofungal species known for causing mycetism (1) Agaricus xanthodermus, (2) A. muscaria, (3) A. pantherina, (4) A. rubescens, (5) Boletus edulis, (6) Chalciporus piperatus, (7) Coprinopsis atramentaria, (8) Entoloma sinuatum, (9) Hebeloma sinapizans, (10) Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca, (11) Inocybe erubescens, (12) Lactarius torminosus, (13) Panaeolus foenisecii, (14) P. olivaceus, (15) Pluteus salicinus, (16) Psilocybe semilanceata, (17) Ramaria abietina, (18) Rubroboletus satanas, (19) Russula emetica, (20) Sarcosphaera crassa, (21) S. luridus, (22) Tricholoma ustale. (https://www.first-nature.com; https://www.gbif. org; https://en.wikipedia.org)

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Fig. 5.1 (continued)

the veins of the sporocarps before cooking to get rid of bitterness (Lincof and Mitchel 1977). Thus, proper identification and edibility studies are necessary for correct scientific valorization of macrofungal taxa as food and medicine.

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Rothman S (2018) Edible macrofungi of Namibia’s thorn bush savanna bioregion and their potential for sustainable development. Master’s thesis. Natural Resource Management, Raseborg Ruan-Soto F (2018) Sociodemographic differences in the cultural significance of edible and toxic mushrooms among Tsotsil towns in the highlands of Chiapas. Mexico. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 14(32):1–19 Semwal KC, Stephenson SL, Bhatt VK, Bhatt RP (2014) Edible mushrooms of the Northwestern Himalaya, India: a study of indigenous knowledge. distribution and diversity. Mycosphere 5(3):440–461 Sugano Y, Sakata K, Nakamura K, Noguchi A, Fukuda N, Suzuki T, Kondo K (2017) Rapid identification method of Omphalotus japonicus by Polymerase Chain Reaction-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-RFLP). Shokuhin eiseigaku zasshi. J Food Hyg Soc Jpn 58(3):113–123 Tedersoo L, Hansen K, Perry BA, Kjøller R (2006) Molecular and morphological diversity of Pezizalean ectomycorrhiza. New Phytol 170(3):581–596 Verma N, Bhalla A, Kumar S, Dhimany RK, Chawlay YK (2014) Wild mushroom poisoning in North India: Case series with review of literature. J Clin Exp Hepatol 4(4):361–365 Verma RK, Pandro V, Rao GR (2019) Three records of Russula mushroom from Sal forest of Central India. Int J Curr Microbiol Appl Sci 8(2):445–455 Vishwakarma P, Singh P, Tripathi NN (2019) Biodiversity of macrofungi from Gorakhpur district (UP), India. NeBIO 10(1):5–11 Vişneci EF, Acar D, Özdamar EN, Güven M, Patat M (2019) Mushroom poisoning cases from an emergency department in Central Anatolia: Comparison and evaluation of wild and cultivated mushroom poisoning. Eurasian J Emerg Med 18(1):28–33 White J, Warrell D, Eddleston M, Currie BJ, Whyte IM, Isbister GK (2003) Clinical toxinology: where are we now? J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 41(3):263–726 White J, Weinsteina SA, Harob LD, Bédryc R, Schaperd A, Rumacke BH, Zilkerf T (2019) Mushroom poisoning: A proposed new clinical classification. Toxicon 157:53–65 Wu F, Zhou LW, Yang ZL, Bau T, Li TH, Dai YC (2019) Resource diversity of Chinese macrofungi: Edible, medicinal and poisonous species. Fungal Divers 98(1):1–76 Yardan T, Eden AO, Baydin A, Arslan B, Vural K (2008) Mushroom poisonings. Ondokuz Mayis Uni Med J 25(2):75–83

Websites Followed https://en.wikipedia.org https://www.first-nature.com https://www.gbif.org

Chapter 6

Nutritional Significance

An array of nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, fats, fatty acids, fibers, minerals, and vitamins are present in macrofungi. These nutrients make them an ideal candidate to be used in nutraceutical formulations. Macrofungi are low in calories and cholesterol and are rich in antioxidants adding more to their health-­ promoting qualities (Akata et al. 2013; Chauhan et al. 2014; Sinanoglou et al. 2014; Ghosh 2016; Reis et al. 2017; Üstün et al. 2018; Tietel and Masaphy 2018). The amount of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, fibers, moisture, and ashes lies approximately in the range of 31.40–49.05%, 41.25–65%, 0.25–1.08%, 6.41–17.97%, 54.75–76.97%, and 2.64–10.34%, respectively (Vishwakarma et  al. 2016). This range of mycochemicals varies with the species under investigation. Polysaccharides in mushrooms are made up of many monosaccharides such as glucose, galactose, fructose, xylose, mannose, fucose, rhamnose, arabinose, trehalose, and mannitol (Valverde et al. 2015). Fungi are known for their high protein content consisting of various types of amino acids. Amino acid profiling of A. hemibapha, Boletinus pinetorus, Baorangia bicolor, B. speciosus, B. sinicus, B. craspedius, B. griseus, B. ornatipes, Suillus placidus, T. microcarpus, Tricholoma terreum, Tricholomopsis lividipileata, and Xerocomus has been performed through pre-column derivatization reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). These species have been found containing all the 20 amino acids, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, serine, glycine, alanine, praline, cysteine, valine, methionine, phenylalanine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, histidine, threonine, asparagine, glutamine, arginine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, but each species has presented its own amino acid profile. The total free amino acid content varies from 1462.6 to 13,106.2 mg/100 g. Alanine, cysteine, glutamine, and glutamic acid represent the most abundant amino acids present in these species (Sun et al. 2017). Fats occur in low amounts in macrofungi and are rich in both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids such as cis-11-eicosenoic acids, cis-10-pentadecenoic acid, linoelaidic acid, linoleic acid, myristic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, pentadecanoic acid, etc. as analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and chromatography coupled with mass © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 U. Azeem et al., Fungi for Human Health, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58756-7_6

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spectroscopy (GC-MS). Unsaturated fatty acids dominate fats in macrofungi and mainly consist of linoleic acid (10–51%) (Türkekul et  al. 2017; Bengu 2020). Besides, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, various minerals, and vitamins have also been found in many macrofungal taxa (Thatoi and Singdevsachan 2014; Nakalembe et al. 2015). Mineral profiling performed through wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WDXRF) technique has detected the presence of several mineral nutrients in the dry ash made from basidiocarps of Phellinus mushrooms, namely, Ph. conchatus, Ph. rimosus, Ph. igniarius, Ph. gilvus, and Ph. nigrolimitatus (Chenghom et al. 2010). Several mineral nutrients such as Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, Co, Cd, Ni, and Pb have been determined in 24 macrofungal species (Yilmaz et  al. 2003). Vitamins such as A, B, C, D, and E have been detected in several fungal species (Wani et al. 2010; Phillips et al. 2011; Phillips and Rasor 2013; Gaitán-Hernández et al. 2019). The liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy (LC-MS) reported the presence of several phenolics and flavonoids in the mature and immature summer truffle (T. aestivum) (Shah et al. 2020). Since macrofungi contain a variety of nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins, amino acids, fatty acids, etc. (Table 6.1), the consumption of these species has enhanced either as whole mushrooms or extracted supplements. The DSs of mushrooms boost the innate immunity and help the body to fight against various diseases. Edible mushroom supplements enriched with nutrients have also been screened for their pharmaceutical potential especially against cancer. A. bisporus (white button mushroom) nutritional supplements have been found to strengthen the innate immunity which proves helpful to fight against tumors and viruses by promoting natural killer (NK) cell potential probably mediated through enhanced production of interferon gamma (IFNγ) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) (Wu et al. 2007). A dietary supplement, MycoPhyto® Complex (MC), is a mixture of mycelia from A. blazei, G. frondosa, G. lucidum, T. versicolor, O. sinensis, P. umbellatus, and β-1,3-glucan extracted from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This mixture possesses antiproliferative properties and arrests the cell cycle at G2/M phase of human breast cancer cells MDA-MB-231 through the suppression of cell cycle regulatory genes (ANAPC2, ANAPC2, BIRC5, Cyclin B1, Cyclin H, CDC20, CDK2, CKS1B, Cullin 1, E2F1, KPNA2, PKMYT1, and TFDP1). The anti-invasive effect of MC is due to the inhibition of production of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) from MDA-MB-231 cells (Jiang and Sliva 2010). It has been reported that dietary supplementation of P. eryngii powder (1.5 and 2%) improves the humoral innate immune responses, antibacterial efficiency of skin mucus, and growth performance of Koi fish (Safari and Sarkheil 2018). The cultivated basidiocarps of G. lucidum have been found to accumulate elements from the substrate and can be utilized for the production of supplements rich in mineral nutrients (Rzymski et al. 2016). Taiwanofungus camphoratus mushroom is parasite on Cinnamomum kanehirae, and the cold water-soluble polysaccharide (galactomannan-­repeated, molecular weight >70 kDa) isolated from this mushroom exhibits immuno-enhancing properties. The DSs of this polysaccharide show immunomodulation in mouse macrophages and human dendritic cells. It can be used as adjuvant in immunotherapy and vaccination (Perera et al. 2018). Mushroom polysaccharides have also been developed and exploited as functional foods such as the

6  Nutritional Significance

51

Table 6.1  Nutritional composition of some health-benefiting macrofungi Current name Auricularia nigricans, Bovista pusilla, Calvatia gigantea, L. squarrosulus, Macrocybe lobayensis, P. ostreatus, L. tuber-regium, Psathyrella atroumbonata, S. commune, T. microcarpus, T. globulus, and Volvariella esculenta A. bisporus, A. silvaticus, A. sylvicola, B. edulis, C. gambosa, C. cibarius, Craterellus cornucopioides, and Marasmius oreades A. mellea, A. tabesceus, Boletus aureus, C. cibarius, Fistulina hepatica, Hygrophorus russula, Lepista nuda, Ramaria largentii, and Russula delica var. chloroides Chlorophyllum molybditis, Lentinus subnudus, Marasmus sp., and L. tuberregium C. cibarius, Clitocybe odora, H. erinaceus, Laccaria laccata, L. deliciosus, Lepista nuda, L. saeva, M. procera, and P. ostreatus A. auricula-judae, G. frondosa, L. squarrosulus, Lentinus sajor-caju, L. tuber-regium, P. ostreatus, Pleurotus roseolus, T. microcarpus, Termitomyces heimii, and V. volvacea A. bisporus, L. edodes, P. ostreatus, P. eryngii, and F. velutipes Ramaria aurea

Nutraceutical components Reference Carbohydrates, sugars (rhamnose, fructose, Gbolagade mannitol, sucrose, and trehalose), glycogen, et al. (2006) fibers, ashes, fats, proteins, moisture, and minerals (Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, and Zn)

Carbohydrates, sugars, proteins, fibers, ashes, fats, fatty acids, phenolics, flavonoids, carotenoids, and ascorbic acid

Barros et al. (2008)

Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, moisture, ashes, and fibers

Ouzouni et al. (2009)

Carbohydrates, proteins, fat, moisture, fibers, and ashes

Adedayo et al. (2010)

Carbohydrates, proteins, fibers, ashes, fats, minerals (Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, and Na), alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, and tannins

Egwim et al. (2011)

Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, moisture, ashes, and minerals

Johnsy et al. (2011)

Carbohydrates, proteins, moisture, fatty acids, sugars, and tocopherol

Reis et al. (2012)

Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, amino acids, crude fiber, and minerals

Manjula and Krishnendu (2012) Musieba et al. (2013)

Fibers, proteins, fats, moisture, minerals, amino acids, vitamins (B2, B3, B5, B12, and vitamin A) L. squarrosulus, Russula albonigra, Proteins, lipids, moisture, and fibers Tricholoma giganteum P. cornucopiae, P. ostreatus, Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, ashes, P. pulmonarius, and P. sapidus moisture, phenolics, flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, steroids, phlobatannins, and anthraquinones Pleurotus citrinopileatus

Giri et al. (2013) Adebayo et al. (2014)

(continued)

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6  Nutritional Significance

Table 6.1 (continued) Current name A. bisporus, A. caesarea, B. edulis, C. cibarius, F. velutipes, F. hepatica, L. deliciosus, L. edodes, M. procera, M. esculenta, P. eryngii, and P. ostreatus Agaricus brasiliensis, C. comatus, Cordyceps militaris, F. velutipes, G. lucidum, G. frondosa, H. erinaceus, L. edodes, O. sinensis P. ostreatus, T. versicolor, and T. fuciformis Polyporus tenuiculus, T. clypeatus, T. microcarpus, T. tyleranus, and Volvariella gloiocephala

Nutraceutical components Ergosterol

Reference Barreira et al. (2014)

Cohen et al. Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fatty acids, (2014) amino acids, moisture, minerals (Ag, Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, S, Se, Sr, Ti, V, W, and Zn), and ashes

Carbohydrates, proteins, moisture, minerals (K, P, Fe Ca, Cu, Mg, Mn, Na, Se, Zn), vitamins (thiamin, vitamin C, folic acid, and niacin), and ashes Termitomyces robustus and Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, mineral L. squarrosulus nutrients (Ca, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Pb, and Zn), moisture, amino acids, vitamins (vitamin A, vitamin C, thiamine, and tocopherol), phenolic compounds (gallic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, ellagic acid, epicatechin, rutin, isoquercitrin, quercitrin, quercetin, and kaempferol), tannins saponins, terpenoids, and ashes Carbohydrates, proteins, sugars, fats, fatty Aleurodiscus vitellinus, Cyttaria hariotii, Cortinarius magellanicus, acids, tocopherols, organic acids, phenolic Fistulina hepatica, Grifola gargal, compounds and ashes Hydropus dusenii, L. nuda, and Ramaria patagonica Carbohydrates, proteins, phenols, Fuscoporia torulosa, Phellinus allardii, P. gilvus, P. fastuosus, and flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, sugars, glycosides, terpenoids, steroids, ashes, and P. sanfordii moisture H. repandum, L. deliciosus, and Carbohydrates, sugars (glucose, mannitol, Tricholoma equestre trehalose), proteins, fats, mineral nutrients (Na, K, Mg, Ca, Cu, Fe, Zn), amino acids, ashes, and moisture Twelve wild strains of Ganoderma Carbohydrates (free sugars: rhamnose, sp. fructose, mannitol, sucrose, trehalose, and β-glucans) proteins, fats, fatty acids, organic acids, phenolic compounds, minerals, vitamins, and ashes G. lucidum L. edodes, P. eryngii Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, moisture, and P. ostreatus, and V. volvacea fibers, ashes, and minerals (Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn and P Zn), as well as micronutrient

Nakalembe et al. (2015)

Borokini et al. (2016)

Toledo et al. (2016)

Azeem (2017)

Jedidi et al. (2017)

Obodai et al. (2017)

Salamat et al. (2017) (continued)

6  Nutritional Significance

53

Table 6.1 (continued) Current name Clavaria amoena, C. coralloides, C. fragilis, C. rosea, C. vermicularis, Clavulina amethystina Ramaria aurea, R. botrytis, R. flava, R. flavescens, R. rubripermanens, and R. stricta Agaricus campestris, Amanita vaginata, Astraeus hygromatricus, Leucopaxillus sp., P. ostreatus, Russula delica, S. commune, and T. heimii A. campestris, Helvella imbricatum, P. ostreatus and S. crispa P. ostreatus, L. edodes, and M. procera

Amanita rubescens var. rubescens, B. edulis, G. arenicola, Morchella deliciosa, and S. crispa Picoa juniperi, Terfezia boudieri, T. claveryi, T. sp., Tirmania nivea, and T. pinoyi A. auricula-judae, G. applanatum, G. lucidum, P. ostreatus, and S. commune

Nutraceutical components Carbohydrates, proteins, ashes, moisture, minerals (Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, and Na), fatty acids, amino acids, phenolics, tocopherols, anthocyanins, and carotenoids

Reference Sharma and Gautam (2017)

Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, moisture, fibers, and ashes

Singha et al. (2017)

Proteins, fats, moisture, and fibers

Ullah et al. (2017)

Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, moisture, ashes, α-glucans, β-glucans, and minerals (Ag, Al, As, B, Ba, Bi, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ga, Ge, In, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Pt, Sb, Se, Si, Sr, Ti, and Zn) Proteins, phenols, fibers, ashes, and minerals (Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn)

Kolundžić et al. (2018)

Lalotra et al. (2018)

Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, moisture, fibers, and ashes

Owaid (2018)

Carbohydrates (glucose, mannose, xylose, and galactose), proteins, amino acids, fats, fibers, ashes, and minerals (Ca, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, P, and Zn) Carbohydrate, proteins, amino acids, B. edulis, C. cornucopioides, phenols, flavonoids, sugars (glucose, G. lucidum, H. erinaceus, fructose, and sucrose), and elements (Ag, L. deliciosus, L. sulphureus, L. edodes, M. oreades, M. conica, Al, As, Ba, Bi, Br, Ca, Cd, Cl, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ga, Ge, Hg, Hf, I, K, La, Mg, Mn, Mo, P. ostreatus, R. botrytis, and Na, Nb, Nd, Ni, P, Pb, Pr, Rb, S, Sb, Se, Si, T. terreum Sn, Sr, and Ta) Carbohydrates, proteins, fibers, moisture, A. auricula-judae, A. nigricans, Lactifluus piperatus, L. sulphureus, ashes, sugars, phenols, and flavonoids L. edodes, L. squarrosulus, L. sajor-caju, L. tigrinus, S. commune, and T. heimii Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fibers, ashes, A. auricula-judae, A. fuscosuccinea, A. nigricans, and sugars, amino acids, and minerals (Ca, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni. P, and Zn) A. thailandica T. aestivum Phenolics, flavonoids, and fatty acids

Pathania and Chander (2018) Turfan et al. (2018)

Ao and Deb (2019)

Bandara et al. (2019) Shah et al. (2020) (continued)

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6  Nutritional Significance

Table 6.1 (continued) Current name Infundibulicybe geotropa

Nutraceutical components Phenols (catechin, chlorogenic acid, and coumaric acid) and minerals (Fe, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn)

Reference Sevindik et al. (2020)

lentinan in L. edodes, schizophyllan in S. commune, pleuran in Pleurotus species, calocyban in Calocybe indica, and ganoderan in G. lucidum (Villares et al. 2012; Badalyan 2016). They function as dietary fibers and interact with microbiota residing in the gastrointestinal tract bringing changes in the gut microbiota abundance which in turn impacts the host health (Jayachandran et  al. 2017). Basically, gut microbiota degrade the polysaccharides, and some specific gut bacteria use them as energy source which help in their propagation and release many beneficial compounds mainly short chain fatty acids such as acetate, propionate, butyrate, and valeric acid (Kong et  al. 2016; Zhu et  al. 2016; Ma et  al. 2017). The impacts of fungal polysaccharides on gut microbiota can prove beneficial in the treatment of various health issues such as the autoimmune diseases, allergic disorders, inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, ulcers, colorectal cancer, necrotizing enterocolitis, and obesity (Milani et  al. 2016). Polysaccharides from 53 wild-growing mushrooms have been observed to stimulate Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus rhamnosus growth. These polysaccharides can pass through the stomach unchanged, reach the colon, and enhance the growth of beneficial gut microbes stronger than commercially available prebiotics like inulin or fructo-­ oligosaccharides (Nowak et al. 2018). There are different authorities, namely, the World Health Organization (WHO), US Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), New Zealand Dietary Supplements Regulations (NZDSR), etc., active to regulate the quality, intake, safety, and effectiveness of food and medicinal products including mushroom-derived DSs and functional foods (Wasser and Akavia 2008). To ensure adequate intake of DSs and functional foods, several national medical research bodies such as the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) in India are regularly releasing advisories and recommend the dietary intakes of mushrooms, e.g., G. lucidum species (Singh et al. 2020).

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Lalotra P, Bala P, Kumar S, Sharma YP (2018) Biochemical characterization of some wild edible mushrooms from Jammu and Kashmir. Proc Natl Acad Sci, India, Sect B Biol Sci 88(2):539–545 Ma G, Kimatu BM, Zhao L, Yang W, Pie F, Hu Q (2017) In vivo fermentation of a Pleurotus eryngii polysaccharide and its effects on fecal microbiota composition and immune response. Food Funct 8:1810–1821 Manjula R, Krishnendu A (2012) Proximate composition, free radical scavenging and NOS activation properties of Ramaria aurea. Res J Pharmacy Technol 5(11):1421–1427 Milani C, Ferrario C, Turroni F, Duranti S, Mangifesta M, Van Sinderen D, Ventura M (2016) The human gut microbiota and its interactive connections to diet. J Hum Nutr Diet 29:539–546 Musieba F, Okoth S, Mibey RK, Wanjiku S, Moraa K (2013) Proximate composition, amino acids and vitamins profile of Pleurotus citrinopileatus singer: an indigenous mushroom in Kenya. Amer J Food Tech 8(3):200–206 Nakalembe I, Kabasa JD, Olila D (2015) Comparative nutrient composition of selected wild edible mushrooms from two agro-ecological zones, Uganda. Springerplus 4(433):1–15 Nowak R, Nowacka-Jechalke N, Juda M, Malm A (2018) The preliminary study of prebiotic potential of Polish wild mushroom polysaccharides: the stimulation effect on Lactobacillus strains growth. Eur J Nutr 57(4):1511–1521 Obodai M, Mensah DLN, Fernandes A, Kortei NK, Dzomeku M, Teegarden M, Schwartz SJ, Barros L, Prempeh J, Takli RK, Ferreira ICFR (2017) Chemical characterization and antioxidant potential of wild Ganoderma species from Ghana. Molecules 22(196):1–18 Ouzouni PK, Petridis D, Koller W-D, Riganakos KA (2009) Nutritional value and metal content of wild edible mushrooms collected from West Macedonia and Epirus, Greece. Food Chem 115(4):1575–1580 Owaid MN (2018) Bioecology and uses of desert truffles (Pezizales) in the Middle East. Walailak J Sci Tech 15(3):179–188 Pathania J, Chander H (2018) Nutritional qualities and host specificity of most common edible macrofungi of Hamirpur district, Himachal Pradesh. J Biol Chem Chron 4(2):86–89 Perera N, Yang F-L, Lu Y-T, Li L-H, Hua K-F, Wu S-H (2018) Antrodia cinnamomea galactomannan elicits immuno-stimulatory activity through Toll-like receptor. Int J Biol Sci 14(10):1378–1388 Phillips KM, Rasor AS (2013) A nutritionally meaningful increase in the vitamin D in retail mushrooms is attainable by exposure to sunlight prior to consumption. Nutr Food Sci 3(6):2155–9600 Phillips KM, Ruggio DM, Horst RL, Minor B, Simon RR, Feeney MJ, Byrdwell WC, Haytowitz DB (2011) Vitamin D and sterol composition of 10 types of mushrooms from retail suppliers in the United States. J Agric Food Chem 59(14):7841–7853 Reis FS, Barros L, Martins A, Ferreiraa ICFR (2012) Chemical composition and nutritional value of the most widely appreciated cultivated mushrooms: an inter-species comparative study. Food Chem Toxicol 50(2):191–197 Reis FS, Martins A, Vasconcelos MH, Morales P, Ferreira ICFR (2017) Functional foods based on extracts or compounds derived from mushrooms. Trends in Food Sci Technol 66:48–62 Rzymski P, Mleczek M, Niedzielski P, Siwulski M, Gąsecka M (2016) Potential of cultivated Ganoderma lucidum mushrooms for the production of supplements enriched with essential elements. J Food Sci 81(3):587–592 Safari O, Sarkheil M (2018) Dietary administration of eryngii mushroom (Pleurotus eryngii) powder on haemato-immunological responses, bactericidal activity of skin mucus and growth performance of koi carp fingerlings (Cyprinus carpio koi). Fish Shellfish Immunol 80:505–513 Salamat S, Shahid M, Najeeb J (2017) Proximate analysis and simultaneous mineral profiling of five selected wild commercial mushroom as a potential nutraceutical. Int J Chem Stud 5(3):297–303 Sevindik M, Akgul H, Selamoglu Z, Braidy N (2020) Antioxidant and antigenotoxic potential of Infundibulicybe geotropa mushroom collected from Northwestern Turkey. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2020:1–8 Shah N, Usvalampi A, Chaudhary S, Seppänen-Laakso T, Marathe S, Bankar S, Singha R, Shamekh S (2020) An investigation on changes in composition and antioxidant potential of mature and immature summer truffle (Tuber aestivum). Eur Food Res Technol 246:723–731

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Chapter 7

Bioactive Constituents and Pharmacological Activities

The taxa designated as macrofungi represent a wealth of health-promising fungi rich in a wide spectrum of mycochemicals of nutraceutical and therapeutic value (Wasser 2011; Sanico et  al. 2014; Rahi and Malik 2016; Hoeksma et  al. 2019). However, only a small fraction out of a vast diversity of fungi in millions (nearly 3–5.1 millions) has been explored for nutrients and therapeutic components. In the last few decades, massive research has been carried out and continues to grow incessantly to explore the biochemistry of macrofungi (De Silva et al. 2013; Flores Jr et al. 2014; Dıaz-Godınez 2015; Badalyan 2016; Kalac 2016; Kivrak et al. 2016; Rathore et al. 2017; Elkhateeb et al. 2019a, b). This is necessary in order to give scientific valorization to the traditional practices of macrofungi especially the medicinal uses. The medicinal species largely belong to the genera Auricularia, Cantharellus, Ganoderma, Pleurotus, Lentinus, Trametes, Tremella, Amanita, etc. and possess a number of high and low molecular weight bioactive constituents responsible for their pharmacological potential (Diksha et al. 2018). Many members of Basidiomycota as well as some of the Ascomycota are rich in antitumor, antimicrobial, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, immunomodulating as well as prebiotic substances (Lindequist et al. 2010; Chang and Wasser 2012; Giavasis 2013; Mizuno and Nishitani 2013; Wasser 2014; Singh et al. 2017; Chaturvedi et al. 2018; Fernando et al. 2018; Schüffler 2018; Liu et al. 2020). The major bioactive components present in higher fungi are polysaccharides (homo- and hetero-polysaccharides), terpenes (monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, and triterpenoids), proteins/peptides, glycoproteins, alkaloids, phenolics, tocopherols, ergosterols, and various fatty acids accounting for their biological activities. These are collectively described as “biological response modifiers” because of their multiple biological impacts which trigger the immune response and elevate the curative properties of the human body (Khatua et  al. 2013; Barreira et  al. 2014; Kumar 2015; Heleno et al. 2015a; Ruthes et al. 2016; Tel-Cayan et al. 2017; Ma et al. 2018; Phan et al. 2018). The crude extracts and isolated bioactive components from sporocarps and/or mycelial biomass of macrofungi have been appraised for © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 U. Azeem et al., Fungi for Human Health, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58756-7_7

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7  Bioactive Constituents and Pharmacological Activities

their pharmacological activities. These exhibit anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-­ inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective activities through various metabolic pathways (Thu et  al. 2020). However, only a few clinical studies have been performed and need much attention for authentication of the medicinal uses of macrofungi to treat human disorders (Wasser 2017).

Antioxidant Activity Antioxidants provide protection against oxidative stress resulting from the excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Several synthetic antioxidants such as butylhydroxyanisole, butylhydroxytoluene, propyl gallate, and tertbutylhydroquinone are in use for years (Atta et al. 2017). However, their safety is argumentative and makes it urgent to find natural sources for novel antioxidants (Ramana et al. 2018). Macrofungi are rich in antioxidants and exhibit free radical scavenging, reducing power, β-carotene bleaching inhibition, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) inhibition properties, etc. (Toledo et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2018a). Twelve wild strains of Ganoderma sp. from Ghana have been found to be rich in fatty acids, sugars (rhamnose, fructose, mannitol, sucrose, and trehalose), β-glucans, organic acids, phenolic compounds, tocopherols, ergosterol, vitamins, and minerals and show antioxidant potential. These constituents display reducing power and play a role in free radical scavenging and lipid peroxidation inhibition (Obodai et  al. 2017). Mushroom polysaccharides possess various medicinal properties such as antiaging, antidiabetic, antitumor, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, etc. (Ferreira et al. 2015; Ruthes et al. 2016; Li 2017; Kothari et al. 2018; Yu et al. 2018; Yuan et al. 2018). Polysaccharides recovered from Trametes robiniophila exhibit appreciable 2,2-azino-bis-3ethylbenzothiazoline-­­ 6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), superoxide anion, and hydroxyl radical scavenging effects in vitro (Wang et al. 2014). The free radical scavenging activities of mushrooms show a dose-dependent trend (Du et al. 2015). Furthermore, the antioxidant potential of mushroom polysaccharides can be improved through the exposure of stress. Heat stress of 42°C for 2h has significantly increased polysaccharide production to nearly 45.63% in G. lucidum basidiocarps and also improved antioxidant potential of polysaccharides (Tan et al. 2018). In addition to stress treatment, the structural modifications of polysaccharides, e.g., phosphorylation, elevate the antioxidative efficacy. Phosphorylated polysaccharides of Russula alutacea display greater hydroxyl radical, superoxide anion, and 2,2’-azino-bis(3-­ ethylbenzothiazoline-­6-sulphonic acid (DPPH) radical scavenging activity as compared to the unmodified ones (Zhao et  al. 2018a). Antioxidant potential of mushrooms makes immune health strong. The S. granulatus polysaccharide (SGP) fractions SGP I-b and SGP II-b, purified from the basidiocarps of Suillus granulatus enhance lymphocyte proliferation in  vitro through free radical scavenging and reduction capacity (Chen et al. 2018a, b). P. involutus polysaccharides through their

Antioxidant Activity

61

scavenging ABTS, DPPH, and hydroxyl and superoxide radicals modulate the immune response increasing release of TNF-α and interleukin-6 (IL-6) from RAW264.7 cells (Liu et al. 2018). A variety of phenolics such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, lignans, tannins, stilbenes, and oxidized polyphenols are also present in macrofungi (Palacios et  al. 2011). They form a class of bioactive mycochemicals with significant free radical scavenging and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) (Yahia et  al. 2017). Several yellow polyphenol pigments referred to as styrylpyrones are found in medicinal mushrooms, e.g., Phellinus and Inonotus species (Hymenochaetaceae) with plausible antioxidant potential. Coculturing like that of I. obliquus with Phellinus punctatus might prove an inexpensive strategy for upregulating the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds. Enhanced production and variations in metabolic profiles involving various metabolites such as inoscavin B (1), inoscavin C (2), methylinoscavin A (3), davallialactone (4), and methyldavallialactone (5) (Fig. 7.1; 1–5) from dual cultures of different mushrooms could prove helpful in the discovery of new bioactive compounds (Zheng et al. 2011). In addition to contributing towards bitterness of mushrooms such as Pholiota and Hypoholoma, styrylpyrone pigments have role in various pharmacological activities such as anticancer, antidiabetic, antioxidative, antitumor, and antiviral and are of great significance in various pharmaceutical applications (Lee et al. 2008; Lee and Yun 2011; Ayala-Zavala et al. 2012).

HO

OH

OH

O O O

O

OH

O

HO

OH

O

O

O

HO OH OH

O O

OH

O

OH

HO OH

davallialactone

OH

methylincoscavin A

(3) OH

HO

O

HO

methyldavallialactone

O

HO

HO O

OH

phelligridin H

OH O

O

O

HO

phelligridin I OH

O

HO

O

(7)

O

O

(6)

O

HO

OH

O

HO

(5)

O

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

O

(4)

O

O

HO

(2)

O

OCH3

O

HO

incoscavin C

(1) O O

OO

O

HO

incoscavin B

OH

OH

O OH

O O phelligridin J

(8)

Fig. 7.1  Chemical structures of selected styrylpyrone derivatives in the genera Phellinus and Inonotus (Hymenochaetaceae)

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7  Bioactive Constituents and Pharmacological Activities

The styrylpyrone pigments, e.g., inoscavins A–E, methylinoscavins A–D, inonoblins A–C, phelligridins D–E, and G, isolated from the basidiocarps of Phellinus and Inonotus have the ability of free radical scavenging against ABTS, DPPH, and superoxide radicals and to prevent lipid peroxidation (Wang et al. 2005; Lee and Yun 2007; Lee et al. 2007a,b; Jung et al. 2008). A number of biological activities have been credited to the species classified in the genus Phellinus because of the presence of various bioactive constituents including styrylpyrones (Azeem et  al. 2018). The phelligridins H–J (Fig.7.1; 6–8) of Ph. igniarius exhibit antioxidant and cytotoxic potential (Wang et al. 2007a; Lu et al. 2009; Huang et al. 2010). Antioxidant properties of hispidin defend from inflammation through blockade of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) activation in mouse macrophage cells (Shao et al. 2015). Hispolon, another phenolic antioxidant compound isolated from Ph. linteus, decreases the level of malondialdehyde (MDA) in the edema paw and enhances the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione reductase (GRx) in the liver (Chang et al. 2011). Macrocybe lobayensis is an edible mushroom and due to its aroma and taste becomes an integral part of tribal cuisines of India. This mushroom contains phenolic compounds (p-hydroxybenzoic acid, p-Coumaric acid, cinnamic acid, salicylic acid, pyrogallol) as well as ascorbic acid and carotenoids which probably contribute towards its antioxidant potential evident from the ABTS and DPPH radical scavenging, chelating ability of ferrous ion, reducing power, and total antioxidant capacity (Khatua et al. 2017). The phenol-rich extract of wood ear mushroom, A. nigricans, cultivated on rubberwood sawdust causes DPPH; hydroxyl, superoxide anion; and peroxyl radical scavenging and exhibits reducing power (Teoh et al. 2019). Three polyketide-type antioxidant compounds, cyathusals A–C, and pulvinatal have been obtained from the cultures of Cyathus stercoreus (the coprophilous mushroom). These exhibit free radical scavenging efficiency against DPPH radical with IC50s of 41.6, 46.0, 26.6, and 28.6 μM, respectively, and on the ABTS radical with IC50s of 7.9, 11.1, 9.1, and 8.4  μM, respectively (Kang et al. 2007). Total phenols along with metal nutrients have been detected in edible mushrooms collected from Sinop (Turkey), namely, A. caesarea, B. edulis, G. frondosa, H. repandum, L. deliciosus, L. piperatus, L. volemus, L. sulphureus, P. ostreatus, and R. flava. These species exhibit antioxidant properties (free radical scavenging activity, lipid peroxidation inhibition, and metal chelation ability) and hence might prove as promising DSs to prevent various infectious diseases (Ozen et  al. 2019). Tricholoma populinum, T. scalpturatum, Neolentinus cyathiformis, Chlorophyllum agaricoides, and Calvatia utriformis are traditional foods in Turkey for a long time. Chromatography of these mushroom extracts shows the presence of phenolic acids (protocatechuic, gallic, and chlorogenic acids) and fatty acids (oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids) responsible for their antioxidant activities (Sezgin et al. 2020). P. cystidiosus mushroom has been found to be rich in 11 mycochemicals including essential oil, triterpenes, anthraquinones, tannins, flavonoids, phenols, fatty acids, alkaloids, steroids, sugars, and coumarins. Furthermore, ethanolic extract of mycelial strain (WS218-2) of P. cystidiosus have shown the highest radical scavenging activity (79.01%) with maximum phenolic content (95.67 mg gallic acid equivalents/g of sample) (Garcia et al. 2020). Two samples of

Antitumor Activity

63

M. esculenta, one of the most highly prized edible mushrooms collected from Portugal and Serbia, have been found to be rich in carbohydrates (including free sugars), proteins, saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, and many other bioactive compounds (organic acids, phenolic compounds, and tocopherols). These mushrooms display antioxidant properties (radical scavenging, reducing power, and lipid peroxidation inhibition) in addition to antimicrobial activity (antibacterial and demelanizing properties) (Heleno et al. 2013). The polyunsaturated fatty acids, ergosterol, and tocopherols are scavengers of free radicals and protect from the hazardous effects of ROS in degenerative, microbial, and cardiovascular diseases (Guillamón et  al. 2010; Heleno et  al. 2012; Kalac 2013; Heleno et al. 2015b; Jaworska et al. 2015).

Antitumor Activity Human beings are continuously suffering from the scourge of cancer, a disease characterized by uncontrolled cell growth. It has been reported to be one of the leading causes of death globally after cardiovascular disorders accounting for an estimated 9.6 million deaths or 1 in 6 deaths in 2018 (https://www.who.int/news-room/ fact-sheets/detail/cancer accessed on May16, 2020). Fungi are new attractive sources of natural antitumor compounds for future cancer therapy (Blagodatski et al. 2018). Polysaccharides from different natural sources such as plants, animals, microbes, and fungi have broad application prospects including anticancer efficacy (Ling and Gangliang 2018). They when obtained from P. ostreatus have been observed to reduce the colony size and invasive capabilities of BGC-823 cells (Cao et al. 2015). The polysaccharides extracted from P. eryngii are able to arrest the cell cycle at the S-phase, stimulating the production of ROS in HepG-2 cells, suppressing their proliferation, and increasing the exit of lactate dehydrogenase from HepG-2 cells (Ma et al. 2014a, b; Ren et al. 2016). Polysaccharides from G. lucidum activate the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways in human leukemia (HL-60) cells (Yang et al. 2016). Antitumor potential of A. bisporus can be credited to polysaccharides inducing apoptosis through mitochondrial death pathway (Pires et al. 2017). L. edodes polysaccharides induce apoptosis of human colon cancer cells through ROS-mediated intrinsic and TNF-α-mediated extrinsic pathway (Wang et al. 2017). Proteins provide multiple health benefits such as improvement of digestion and absorption of exogenous nutritional components stimulating the immune system and defending the host from the entry of pathogens and inhibition of some enzyme activities (Petrovska 2001). Overall, proteins and peptides have pharmaceutical significance such as lectins, fungal immunomodulatory proteins, ribosome-­ inactivating proteins, ribonucleases, and laccases (Xu et  al. 2011). Fungal immunomodulatory proteins possess antitumor potential as they inhibit the invasion and metastasis of tumor cells (Lin et al. 2010). G. tsugae and G. microsporum contain fungal immunomodulatory proteins, which cause growth inhibition of cancer cells, and induce autophagy-dependent caspase-independent cell death through the

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7  Bioactive Constituents and Pharmacological Activities

accumulation of autophagosome (Hsin et  al. 2015, 2016). Lectins obtained from M. procera show antitumor activities by binding two glycoproteins (aminopeptidase N (CD13), integrin α3β1) that are overexpressed on the membrane of tumor cells and allow the entry of protein drugs into cancer cells and Ganoderma lipsiense against human tumor (HT-29) colon adenocarcinoma cells (Kumaran et al. 2017; Zurga et al. 2017). G. lucidum, Lyophyllum shimeji, and Tuber indicum ribonucleases possess antitumor potential against hepatoma (HepG2), human breast cancer cell lines (MCF7), and HCT116 cells (Zhang et al. 2010; Dan et al. 2016; Xiao et al. 2017). G. lucidum, Sanghuangporus baumii, C. comatus, and Cerrena unicolor laccases show antitumor activities against HepG2 and L1210 cells and leukemic cells (Matuszewska et al. 2016). The low molecular weight subfractions isolated from the secondary metabolites of white rot fungus, C. unicolor, exhibit antioxidant and antitumor activities in human colon cancer cells (stage 1) HT-29. These subfractions result in apoptosis and suppress the proliferation of cells (47.5–9.2%) at the maximum concentration, and this effect exhibits a parallel trend with the dose (Matuszewska et al. 2019). Several terpenes including sesquiterpenoids (aristolane, bisabolane, cuparene, drimane, fomannosane, lactarane, nordasi-nane, spiro, sterpurane), diterpenoids of cyathane type, and triterpenoid of lanostane type are present in macrofungi (Duru and Cayan 2015). Irofulven, named as 6-hydroxymethylacylfulvene and MGI-114 derived from illudin-S, a sesquiterpenoid obtained from O. olearius cultures have antitumor effects (McMorris et  al. 1996; McMorris 1999; Schobert et al. 2011). Irofulven inhibits synthesis of DNA and stimulates apoptosis even in the nM range (Woynarowski et al. 1997; Kelner et  al. 2008). The flammulinol A (9), an isolactarane sesquiterpene (10), seven isolactarane-­related norsesquiterpenes, flammulinolides A–G (11–17), and sterpuric acid have been obtained from F. velutipes culture (Fig. 7.2). These compounds exhibit cytotoxic effects on KB cells with IC50s of 3.6–4.7 μM. Flammulinolide C exerts cytotoxic action on HeLa cells with IC50 of 3.0 μM (Wang et al. 2012a), and those obtained from Inonotus rickii act against human colon cancer SW480 (Chen et  al. 2014). From the fermentation products of Coprinellus radians, 13 new guanacastane-­type diterpenoids, named radianspenes, have been isolated, and these terpenes exert antitumor effects against MDA-MB-435 cells (Ou et  al. 2012). Diterpenoids present in P. eryngii produce cytotoxic effects on human cancer cell lines (Wang et al. 2012b). Triterpenoids from G. lucidum exhibit excellent antitumor potential. Ganoderic acid T (18) causes apoptosis of metastatic lung tumor cells through an intrinsic pathway linked to mitochondrial dysfunction (Tang et  al. 2006a). A triterpenoid, ganoderic acid DM (19) recovered from G. lucidum shows antiproliferation activity and effectively suppresses MCF-7 human breast cancer cell proliferation. It is believed to induce cell cycle (G1) arrest and apoptosis in MCF7 cells (Liu et al. 2012a; Wu et al. 2012). Furthermore, lucidenic acids A–C (20–22) and N (23) obtained from the basidiocarps of a new strain of G. lucidum (YK-02) extracts exhibit anti-invasive effects on hepatoma cells (Weng et al. 2007). Additionally, ganoderic acid named as 3α, 22β-diacetoxy-7α-hydroxy-5α-­­ lanosta-8,24E-dien-26-oic acid (24) (Fig.  7.3; 18–24) identified from G. lucidum mycelia has displayed considerable cytotoxicity (Li et al. 2013). Aside from other bioactive metabolites, lanostane-type triterpenoids have also been isolated from

Antitumor Activity

65 HO

HO

O

H

HOH2C

O

O

O

H

O

HO

O

H

H

H

H

(9)

flammulinolide C

flammulinolide B

flammulinolide A

flammulinol

(10)

(11)

(12)

HO

O O

HO

O OH

O

H

O

H

O

H

O

OH

flammulinolide E

flammulinolide D

(13)

flammulinolide F

(14)

(15)

Fig. 7.2  Chemical structures of cytotoxic terpenoids from Flammulina velutipes OCOCH3

O

OH

OH

R

O

OCOCH3

H3COCO

O O

ganoderic acid T (18)

H

O

O

H

OH

ganoderic acid DM (19) lucideric acid A R= H (20); lucidenic acid B R= β-OH (21)

O R

OH

O

O

OCOCH3 OH

O

OH O

O HO

H

H3COCO

OH

lucidenic acid C

R= β-OH (22)

OH

3α,22β-diacetoxy-7α-hydroxy-5α-lanosta-8,24E-dien-26-oic acid (24)

lucidenic acid N R= H (23)

Fig. 7.3  Chemical structures of antitumor triterpenoids from Ganoderma lucidum

I. obliquus with potent antitumor efficacies (Zheng et al. 2010; Kim et al. 2011). Earlier studies revealed the structures of these compounds isolated from the sclerotia of this mushroom: inonotsuoxides A and B (Nakata et al. 2007); inonotsulides A, B, and C (Taji et al. 2007); inonotsutriols A–C (Taji et al. 2008a); inonotsutriols D–E (Tanaka et  al. 2011); and lanosta-8,23E-diene-3β,22R,25-triol, lanosta-7:9(11),23E-triene-3β,22R,25-triol, and 3β-hydroxylanosta-8,24-dien-21-al

66

7  Bioactive Constituents and Pharmacological Activities

(Taji et al. 2008b). Inotodiol isolated from the same mushroom exhibits antitumor activity through caspase-3-dependent apoptosis in tumor cells (Nomura et al. 2008). Other lanostane-type triterpenes obtained from sclerotia of I. obliquus are spiroinonotsuoxodiol, lanostane-type triterpenoids, inonotsudiol A, and inonotsuoxodiol A with cytotoxic effects (Handa et  al. 2010). Lanostanes (3β,15α-­ dihydroxylanosta-­7,9(11),24-triene-21-oic acid, dehydroeburicoic acid, 15α-acetyl-­ dehydrosulphurenic acid, dehydrosulphurenic acid and sulphurenic acid) and ergostane-type triterpenes (methyl zhankuic acid A, zhankuic acid A, and zhankuic acid C isolated from basidiocarps of T. camphoratus) exhibit in vitro cytotoxicity against various cancer cell lines including human breast cancer cells (Yeh et  al. 2009). The lanostane-type triterpenoid, 25-methoxyporicoic acid A, isolated from the epidermis of the sclerotia of Wolfiporia extensa suppresses skin tumor promotion under in  vivo investigations (Akihisa et  al. 2009). From ethyl acetate crude extract of Ganoderma zonatum, lanostane-type triterpenoids, steroids, and a benzene derivative have been isolated. Lanostane triterpenoid, ganoderic acid Y shows cytotoxicity against two human cancer cell lines, SMMC-7721 (liver cancer) and A549 (lung cancer) (Kinge and Mih 2011). Antrocin obtained from the basidiocarps of T. camphoratus has anticancer activity against MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 cells with an IC50 value of 0.6 μM (Rao et al. 2011). The bioactive compound 4,7-­dimet hoxy-­5-methyl-1,3-benzodioxole isolated from the basidiocarps of T. camphoratus displays potent in vivo antitumor effects by activating p53-mediated p27/Kip1 signaling pathway (Tu et al. 2012). A lanostane triterpene glycoside, namely, fomitoside-­K, from Fomitopsis nigra activates apoptosis of human oral squamous cell carcinomas (YD-10B) through the ROS-dependent mitochondrial dysfunction signaling pathway (Bhattarai et al. 2012; Lee et al. 2012). Triterpenoids obtained from Hypholoma fasciculare show anticancer properties against four human cancer cell lines (A549, SK-OV-3, SK-MEL-2, and HCT-15) (Kim et al. 2013). Further, another class of terpenoids, sesterpenoids (C-25), displays a number of bioactivities including anticancer activity (Antonio et al. 2015). Styrylpyrone compounds phelligridins C–F cause cytotoxicity against a human lung cancer cell line and a liver cancer cell line, and phelligridins C and D show potent anticancer effects with IC50s in the range of 100 nM against A549 and Bel7402 (Mo et al. 2004). Hispolon found in Phellinus species has been observed to induce epidermoid and gastric cancer cell apoptosis and regardless of p53 status inhibited the breast and bladder cancer cell growth (Patel and Goyal 2012). The methanol extracts of Agaricus arvensis, A. urinascens, Albatrellus pes-caprae, A. caesarea, A. citrine, A. rubescens, Boletus aereus, B. edulis, C. gambosa, C. cibarius, C. cinereus, Craterellus cornucopioides, F. velutipes, G. lucidum, H. repandum, Hygrophorus marzuolus, H. russula, I. geotropa, L. volemus, M. mastoidea, M. conica, M. elata, M. esculenta, M. procera, P. eryngii, P. ostreatus, R. cyanoxantha, and R. virescens species, rich in phenols and flavonoids, possess antioxidant, antitumor, antiproliferative, cytotoxic, and proapoptotic activities against human lung adenocarcinoma cell line A549 by the MTT.  Piceatannol (a phenolic compound) has been found as the bioactive compound responsible for the antiproliferative action of these species (Vasdekis et al. 2018).

Antidiabetic Activity

67

Antidiabetic Activity Diabetes mellitus is a chronic carbohydrate metabolic syndrome leading to several health problems related to hyperglycemia and occurs in people in low- to middle-­ income countries. The population of diabetics has risen from 108 million in 1980 to 422 million in 2014 according to WHO estimates (https://www.who.int/news-room/ fact-sheets/detail/diabetes accessed on May16, 2020). The major cause of diabetes mellitus is insufficient production of insulin and/or insulin resistance and is diagnosed by persistent high concentration of glucose in the blood (Zaccardi et al. 2016). Edible macrofungi represent ideal diets for diabetics and low in energy with negligible amount of fats and cholesterol and contain carbohydrates, fibers, high content of proteins, vitamins, and minerals (Cheung 2013; Dubey et al. 2019). The sporocarps and mycelia of macrofungi either in powder form or extracts made in different solvents exhibit antidiabetic efficacies through different metabolic pathways resulting in decline in blood glucose level, elevation in insulin level and sensitivity, lowering of cholesterol and triglyceride levels, etc. (Kaur et  al. 2015; Srivastava et  al. 2018; Gulati et al. 2019). Alpha-glucosidase represents the most important enzyme involved in carbohydrate digestion inside the human body. Therefore, inhibiting the activity of this enzyme may prove beneficial in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. The hydroalcoholic extracts of Phellinus species enriched with different mycochemicals display antidiabetic potential through the inhibition of carbohydrate-digesting enzymes, α-amylase and α-glucosidase (Azeem 2017). An acid protein-bound polysaccharide derived from I. obliquus displays an inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase (an enzyme-cleaving carbohydrates to glucose) with inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 93.3 μg/mL and prevents lipid peroxidation in rat liver tissues (Chen et al. 2010). A lanostane triterpenoid from G. lucidum, namely, ganoderol B-[(3β,24E)-lanosta-7,9(11),24-trien-3, 26-diol], has strong inhibitory action on α-glucosidase (Fatmawati et al. 2011). The ethanol extracts of Phellinus merrillii containing hispidin (25), hispolon (26), and inotilone (27) (Fig. 7.4; 25–27) display significant α-glucosidase and aldose reductase inhibitory activities in  vivo (Lee et al. 2010; Huang et al. 2011). All the three compounds, namely, hispidin, hispolon, and inotilone, have shown inhibition of α-glucosidase with IC50s of 297.06, 12.38, and 18.62 μg/mL, respectively, while aldose reductase inhibition with IC50 of 48.26, 9.47, and 15.37  μg/mL, respectively. In addition, hispidin from Ph. linteus indirectly exerts antihyperglycemic effect through β-cell protection from the toxic actions of ROS during diabetes (Jang et  al. 2010). P. ostreatus, C. indica, and V. volvacea cause concentration-dependent inhibition of α-amylase and increase in glucose transport across yeast cells in vitro. C. indica extracts have shown maximum enzyme inhibition and glucose uptake by yeast cells in vitro and at 400 mg/kg dose lower blood glucose concentration comparable to acarbose by increasing starch tolerance in starch-fed mice (Singh et al. 2017). In addition to the inhibition of carbohydrate-digesting enzymes, mycochemicals follow various other metabolic routes to combat diabetes mellitus. P. eryngii polysaccharides increase the level of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and liver glycogen, while P. ostreatus

68

7  Bioactive Constituents and Pharmacological Activities OH

OH

HO

O

O

O

OH

OH

HO

OH

hispidin

HO

O

hispolon

O

(25)

(26)

(27)

Fig. 7.4  Chemical structures of bioactive compounds hispidin, hispolon, and inotilone

polysaccharide-­rich extracts activate GSK3 phosphorylation and GLUT4 translocation in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats (Chen et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2016). G. lucidum polysaccharides show antidiabetic activity by downregulation of hepatic glucose-regulated enzyme mRNA levels through AMPK activation, lowering of epididymal fat/BW ratio, elevation of insulin sensitivity, and improvement of gut microbiota composition (Xu et al. 2017). Three polysaccharides extracted from S. luridus (Suilu-A, Suilu-C, and Suilu-S) have shown potential antidiabetic effects and improvement in pathologic morphologies of the liver and kidney in STZ-­ induced diabetic mice (Zhang et al. 2018b). Another strategy to combat hyperglycemia is through the inhibitory effect on the formation of advanced glycation end products. A. auricula-judae polysaccharides and their hydrolysates significantly inhibit the formation of advanced glycation end products in short- and long-term glycosylation in a dose-dependent manner and extend the lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans cells by 32.9% under high sugar stress (Shen et al. 2019). Hyperglycemia exacerbates ROS production leading to mitochondrial dysfunction. ROS production arises from the NADPH oxidases and/or from the mitochondria in hyperglycemic cells (Dymkowska et al. 2014). Excessive glucose entering into the susceptible diabetic cells, such as endothelial cells, would cause hike in mitochondrial pyruvate and reduced substrates, NADH and FADH2, in the electron transport chain (ETC) leading to ETC dysfunctioning (Nishikawa et al. 2000). This may cause production of superoxide anion radicals in mitochondrial complex I (NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase) and III (ubiquinol: cytochrome c oxidoreductase) (Halliwell 2006). The excess of ROS causes lipid, protein, and DNA damage, cell dysfunction, and apoptosis adding to diabetic complications (Dymkowska et al. 2014; Hyvönen et al. 2015; Rahvar et  al. 2017). Pleurotus albidus extract inhibits the increase in the activity of complex I of the electron transport chain and reduces ROS production induced by hyperglycemia in EA.hy926 endothelial cells. Moreover, this extract prevents oxidative damage to lipids and proteins, modulates activities of SOD and catalase (CAT), and lowers the nitric oxide production under hyperglycemia (Gambato et  al. 2018). A. bisporus, an edible mushroom cultivated in the world widely, has been found to be rich in flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, and saponins.

Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities

69

The hydroalcoholic extract of A. bisporus has antidiabetic potential bringing decrease in blood glucose through the amelioration of oxidative stress, i.e., lowering MDA levels and increasing SOD activity in alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Ekowati et al. 2018). The ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Ganoderma cupreolaccatum and G. resinaceum enriched with proteins, phenols, and flavonoids exhibit antidiabetic activity. The said extracts show antidiabetic action by increasing body weight, elevating glucose tolerance of rats subjected to oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), bringing changes in pancreatic and liver morphology, and increasing the antioxidant potential in alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Raseta et al. 2020).

Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities A number of infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, and fungi or other parasites are among the major causes of morbidity and mortality throughout the world. The most serious problem in the treatment of such diseases is the developing multiresistant nature of the causal agents. This emphasizes the need to explore new drug resources against these microbes (Prestinaci et al. 2015; Vacca et al. 2018; Watkins et al. 2019). Macrofungi possess antibacterial and antifungal components such as polysaccharides, terpenoids, phenolics, proteins, etc. which may prove beneficial in the discovery of novel antimicrobial drugs to combat microbial infections (Alves et al. 2012; Bal 2019; Gebreyohannes et al. 2019). Extracellular and intracellular polysaccharides from submerged culture of Cordyceps cicadae inhibit the growth of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Vibrio alginolyticus, V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pneumoniae (Sharma et al. 2015). Hot water extract, partially purified polysaccharides, and hot alkali extract of wild mushroom G. lipsiense exhibit antimicrobial potential against five Gram-negative (Proteus hauseri, E. coli, Salmonella enteritidis, Shigella sonnei, and Yersinia enterocolitica) and five Gram-positive (Listeria monocytogenes, S. aureus, B. cereus, Geobacillus stearothermophilus, and Enterococcus faecalis) bacterial strains and two fungal strains (Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans) (Klaus et al. 2017). Antimicrobial activities of several other proteins/peptides of fungal origin have been documented in literature. For example, lectins from Sparassis latifolia inhibit growth of E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and resistant strains of S. aureus and fungal species, namely, Candida and Fusarium spp. (Chandrasekaran et al. 2016). Fungal ribonucleases have remarkable antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa, P. fluorescens, and S. aureus at the RNA level (Alves et al. 2013). Plectasin is a cysteine-rich host defense peptide and is the first defensin extracted from Pseudoplectania nigrella that displays significant antibacterial efficacy against S. pneumoniae (Mygind et  al. 2005). Hybrid antimicrobial peptide magainin II-cecropin B (Mag II-CB) isolated from the medicinal fungus C. militaris exhibits antibacterial and immunomodulatory effects in BALB/c mice infected with E. coli. Mag II-CB has been found to ameliorate E. coli-related

70

7  Bioactive Constituents and Pharmacological Activities

intestinal damage, upregulate tight junction proteins (zonula occludens-1, claudin-1, and occludin), positively modulate the intestinal microbial flora, and regulate plasma immunoglobulin and ileum secreted immunoglobulin A levels by attenuating their pro-inflammatory cytokine levels and elevating their anti-inflammatory cytokines levels in mice infected with E. coli (Zhang et al. 2018c). S. aureus infections cause illness, mortality, and serious economic burden on patients across the world and require novel antibacterial drugs urgently to treat these infections (Klein et al. 2007; Boucher and Corey 2008). Macrofungal species rich in anti-Staphylococcus constituents might prove as a natural source for new drug discovery against S. aureus infections. Coprinol, an antibacterial cuparane-type terpenoid obtained from the cultures of a Coprinus sp., shows anti-Staphylococcus effect along with bactericidal potential against multidrug-resistant Gram-positive bacteria, namely, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas sp., Haemophilus influenzae, S. pneumoniae, and Enterococcus faecium (Johansson et al. 2001). The sesquiterpenoid-rich ethyl acetate extract of G. praelongum shows maximum antibacterial activity at 35.67 ± 0.62 μM with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.390–6.25 mg/ mL (Ameri et al. 2011). In addition to their inhibitory action on the growth of E. coli and Bacillus subtilis, sesquiterpenoids from F. velutipes also have the potential to inhibit the growth of methicillin-resistant S. aureus and can prove helpful in treating the infections of S. aureus (Wang et al. 2012a). G. lucidum, G. praelongum, and G. resinaceum have been tested against 30 strains of clinical isolates of methicillinresistant and methicillin-­sensitive S. aureus. Armillaria species have great antimicrobial potential credited to several sesquiterpene aryl esters present in them. Arnamial from A. mellea proves to be the most effective compound against Penicillium oxalicum and four basidiomycetes with MICs of 0.22, 0.22, and 0.19 mM, respectively. Moreover, ganodermadiol acts against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) causing lip exanthema and other symptoms with IC50 of 0.068 mM in Vero cells (Mothana et al. 2003). Many lanostane triterpenes, namely, colossolactones, have been extracted from the basidiocarps of Ganoderma colossum. These have antiviral activities against HIV-1 virus and suppress HIV-1 protease with IC50s 5–39  μg/mL with colossolactone V and below 10  μg/mL with colossolactone G and schisanlactone A (El Dine et  al. 2008). Ganoderma sinense triterpenoids, ganoderic acid GS-2, 20-hydroxylucidenic acid N, 20(21)-dehydrolucidenic acid N, and ganoderiol F exhibit antiviral effects

OH

O

O

OH HO

H

agrocybone

ganodermadiol

(36)

(37) OH O

H O

OH O

HO

H

O

lucidadiol

(38)

O

OH OH O

applanoxidic acid G

(39)

Fig. 7.7  Chemical structures of some antiviral compounds from Agrocybe salicacicola (agrocybone) and Ganoderma cupreolaccatum (ganodermadiol, lucidadiol, and applanoxidic acid)

76

7  Bioactive Constituents and Pharmacological Activities

against HIV-1 protease with IC50s in the range of 20–40  μM (Sato et  al. 2009). Earlier reports shed light on the relationship between oxidative stress and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), indicating the role of antioxidants in the treatment of AIDS (Foster 2007). Three antioxidant compounds, namely, adenosine, dimethylguanosine, and iso-sinensetin, from the ascocarps of C. militaris show moderate HIV-1 protease inhibiting potential (Jiang et al. 2011). It is well known that antiviral constituents act at different stages in the life cycle of the target virus and protect the host from infection. Aqueous extract of A. blazei acts directly on virus particles, namely, BoHV-1 and HSV-1 (Bruggemann et al. 2006), in the same way as an antiviral protein from G. frondosa acts on HSV (Gu et  al. 2007) and aurenitol from Chaetomium coarctatum prevent adsorption of A (H3N2) (Sacramento et al. 2015) virus particles on the host cell surface. Another effective way to manage viral infections is the inhibition of viral replication. Polysaccharide-­ rich extracts of Agaricus subrufescens neither show virucidal action or prevent adsorption nor effect cells prior to infection. However, after infection, inhibit both virus strains, namely, HSV and bovine herpes virus, in HEp-2 cell cultures indicating their inhibitory effect on replication of these viruses (Yamamoto et al. 2013). Polysaccharopeptide complex from T. versicolor suppresses replication of HIV, influenza virus, and HSV (Collins and Ng, 1997; Krupodorova et al. 2014). Various other fungal bioactive metabolites target virus proteins, for example, velutin from F. velutipes targets HIV reverse transcriptase (Wang and Ng 2000) and 4.5  kDa protein of Russula paludosa inhibits HIV protease (Wang et al. 2007b). Ganoderic acid and triterpenoids of G. lucidum target enterovirus 71 and HIV (Min et al. 1998; Zhang et  al. 2014b). Species in the genus Ganoderma possess various protease inhibitory compounds against HIV-1, e.g., ganomycin I and ganomycin B isolated from Ganoderma colossus (El Dine et al. 2009) and ganoderic acid B, ganoderic acid C1, ganoderic acid β, ganodermanondiol, ganodermanontriol, lucidumol B, and 3-5-dihydroxy-6-methoxyergosta-7,22-diene from G. lucidum (Tang et  al. 2006b; Martinez-Montemayor et al. 2019).

Immunomodulatory, Neuroprotective, and Anti-inflammatory Activities Several immunomodulatory, bioactive constituents of macrofungi participate in providing protection from cancer (Ayeka 2018), microbes (Mahamat et al. 2018), inflammation (Shao et al. 2019), etc. Polysaccharides from G. lucidum exhibit anti-­ Alzheimer’s disease (Huang et  al. 2017) and anti-inflammatory activities (Nagai et al. 2017), and those from C. indica and F. velutipes are neuroprotective (Govindan et al. 2014; Yang et al. 2015). C. sinensis and Ganoderma atrum polysaccharides produce immunomodulatory effects and provide in  vivo protection from colon immune dysfunction induced by 150 mg/kg cyclophosphamide (CP) and also show anti-inflammatory properties. C. sinensis polysaccharides significantly increase the microbial-derived butyrate to improve histone h3 acetylation mediating regulatory Treg (T) cell-specific Foxp3 and restore CP-induced elevation of interleukin (IL)-17

Immunomodulatory, Neuroprotective, and Anti-inflammatory Activities

77

and IL-21. Moreover, G. atrum polysaccharides exhibit significant downregulation of MyD88 and enhancement in IL-10 and TGF-β3. The mixture of fungal polysaccharides from C. sinensis and G. atrum balance the disequilibrium of cytokine secretion and Foxp3/RORγt ratio related Treg/T helper 17 (Th17) balance, downregulate the TLR-mediated inflammatory signaling pathway, and increase secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) secretion to inhibit colonic inflammation (Fan et  al. 2018). Fungal immunomodulatory proteins found in Stachybotrys chlorohalonata and F. velutipes function as immunomodulatory as well as anti-inflammatory agents (Chu et al. 2017; Li et al. 2017a). Lectins (the nonimmune proteins or glycoproteins of the cell surface) in addition to antibacterial, antifungal, antitumor, and antiviral activities also exhibit various immunomodulatory properties (Singh et  al. 2014). P. ostreatus and A. bisporus lectins produce immunomodulatory effects like activation of Toll-like receptor 6 signal pathway of dendritic cells and reduction of the innate and adaptive responses, respectively (Ditamo et  al. 2016; He et  al. 2017). Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the accumulation of insoluble fibrillar senile plaques surrounding the neurons and deposition of hyperphosphorylated tau proteins (Duyckaerts et al. 2009). These plaques mainly consist of an amino acid peptide known as amyloid β-peptide (Aβ), which causes inadequacy of neurotransmitters, loss of neural functions, and death of neurons. All these events collectively lead to the development of Alzheimer’s disease (Christen 2000; Smith et al. 2000; Sastre et al. 2006). Three labdane diterpenes derived from the basidiocarps of T. camphoratus show neuroprotective effects under in  vitro studies (Chen et al. 2006). Some cyathane diterpenoids, namely, scabronines and sarcodonins, have been isolated from the basidiocarps of the basidiomycete Sarcodon scabrosus. Sarcodonins A (40) and G (41) at 25 μM concentration have been observed showing significant neurite outgrowth (neurite genesis)-promoting activities in the presence of 20 ng/mL NGF after 24 h treatment (Shi et al. 2011). It has been reported that scabronine M acts in a dose-dependent manner to inhibit NGF-induced neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells without causing any cytotoxic effect, probably by suppressing the phosphorylation of the receptor Trk A and the extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) (Liu et  al. 2012b). Further, cyathane diterpenes, namely, cyrneines A and B, from Sarcodon cyrneus induce neurite outgrowth in the PC12 cell model of neuronal differentiation, and cyrneine A even promotes neurite outgrowth in an Rac1-dependent mechanism in PC12 cells (Marcotullio et  al. 2006; Obara et  al. 2007). Four new benzofuran derivatives, ribisins A–D (42–45) (Fig. 7.8; 40–45), isolated from the methanolic extract of the basidiocarps of Phellinus ribis enhance neurite outgrowth in NGF-mediated PC12 cells 1 to 30 μM concentrations (Liu et al. 2012c). Terpenes isolated from Cyathus striatus, C. africanus, and C. hookeri also display neuroprotection (Han et al. 2013; Xu et al. 2013; Bai et al. 2015). Another major consequence of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, and the prion diseases is neuronal cell death induced by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Hence, the compounds having the potential to low ER stress are helpful in the attenuation of neuronal cell death which in turn reduces damage in neurodegenerative disorders (Kawagishi et al. 1994; Shimoke et al. 2004). H. erinaceus is an edible and medicinal fungus

78

7  Bioactive Constituents and Pharmacological Activities

O

OH

OH

H

O

OH

HO

HO O

O

sarcodonin A

sarcodonin G

(40)

(41)

OH O

ribisin B

(43)

ribisin A

(42) OH

OH

O

O

O

O

O

O

O

O ribisin C

(44)

HO

O

O

O

O

O

ribisin D

(45)

Fig. 7.8  Chemical structures of some bioactive compounds from Sarcodon species (sarcodonin A and sarcodonin G), benzofuran derivatives from Phellinus ribis (ribisin A, ribisin B, ribisin C, and ribisin D with neuroprotective effects

consisting of at least 2543 unique proteins, and by differential regulation of biosynthesis genes, this fungus could produce various bioactive metabolites with pharmacological effects (Zeng et al. 2018). Terpenoids, namely, hericenones and erinacines, isolated from H. erinaceus are able to cross the blood-brain barrier (Moldavan et al. 2007; Kawagishi and Zhuang 2008; Ma et  al. 2010). Dilinoleoyl-­ phosphatidylethanolamine and 3-hydroxyhericenone F compounds isolated from H. erinaceus decrease ER stress-dependent neuronal cell death (Nagai et al. 2006; Ueda et al. 2008). In vivo studies conducted using erinacine A significantly enhances the level of nerve growth factor (NGF) in the rat’s locus coeruleus and hippocampus but not in the cerebral cortex. This indicates medicinal characteristics of erinacines against degenerative nerve disorders and peripheral neuron regeneration (Shimbo et  al. 2005). Phenolic compounds through their antioxidant potential protect the brain from oxidative stress produced under neurodegenerative disorders. Six phenolic compounds from F. velutipes have been observed to ameliorate H2O2-induced oxidative damage in PC12 cells and displayed neuroprotective potential along with their antioxidant action (Hu et al. 2017). The phenolic compounds present in S. baumii, an edible mushroom, have been observed to inhibit LPS-stimulated nitric oxide (NO) production in RAW 264.7 cells (Lee et al. 2017). Additionally, these phenolics also show neuroprotective potential due to their anti-acetylcholinesterase inhibitory

Miscellaneous Activities

79

activity as is reported for G. lucidum extracts (Cör et al. 2017). Linoleic acid, the most common polyunsaturated fatty acid in macrofungi, serves many physiological functions. It acts against inflammation by inhibiting the NO production and suppressing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and NOS2, in RAW 264.7 cells (Saiki et al. 2017) and protects from Alzheimer’s disease risk through the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase (Öztürk et al. 2014). Further, macrofungal species exhibit antimicrobial activities through the modulation of immune response. T. clypeatus, an edible mushroom growing commonly in different regions of Cameroon, shows bactericidal effect on five bacterial strains, viz., Pasteurella multocida NCTC 12178, methicillin-sensitive S. aureus, E. coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, and Salmonella typhi, and antifungal activities against two yeast species (Candida albicans and C. glabrata). The administration of T. clypeatus extract results in the delayed-type hypersensitivity response in healthy and dexamethasone immunosuppressed mice demonstrating the antibacterial and immunostimulatory activities of the extract on both cell-mediated and humoral immunity (Mahamat et  al. 2018). Both edible and medicinal species of macrofungi have mycochemicals with excellent anti-inflammatory properties (Dua et al. 2018; Muszyńska et al. 2018). The ethanol extracts of six wild edible mushrooms, namely, Craterellus cornucopioides, C. tubaeformis, Lactarius blennius, Russula fellea, R. mairei, and hot water extract of Pseudocraterellus undulatus mushroom, exhibit anti-inflammatory potential in lipopolysaccharide-induced mouse RAW264.7 macrophage cell model of inflammation by lowering NO and IL-6 production (O’Callaghan et al. 2015). Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) plays important role in immune response and inflammation. Compounds isolated from Ph. igniarius (known as Sang huang in traditional Chinese medicine) cause inhibition of NF-κB in tumor necrosis factor-α-induced HeLa cells and protect from inflammation (Jiang et al. 2018). Total flavones recovered from the fermentation broth of the coculture of C. comatus and M. esculenta display anti-inflammtory effects in liposaccharide-challenged RAW264.7 macrophages via mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. These flavone treatments lowers nitric oxide, TN-α and inteleukin-1β (IL-1β), and the activities of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) (Zhao et al. 2018b). Three acetylated polysaccharides (Ac-PMEP1-3) obtained from Morchella angusticeps exhibit immunomodulatory efficacy and anti-inflammatory action on RAW264.7 macrophages via NF-κB and p38/MAPK signaling pathways (Yang et al. 2019).

Miscellaneous Activities Polysaccharides account for many health benefits, for example, those from A. bisporus display antiaging effect and protect from liver and nephric problems through the improvement of serum enzyme activities and modulating the levels of various biochemicals, lipids, and antioxidants (Li et al. 2017b). Antidiabetic, antioxidant, and anti-nephritic activities have been observed with G. frondosa polysaccharides.

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G. frondosa polysaccharide mixtures (especially GFPS3 and GFPS4), have shown increase in body weight; lowering of plasma glucose; regulation of serum creatinine; blood urea nitrogen; N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and albuminuria; inhibition of interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, and TNF-α levels in serum; improvement in the serum levels of matrix metalloproteinase 9 and interferon-α; and amelioration of pathological changes in the kidneys. Moreover, they have displayed modulations in the serum levels of SOD, GPx, CAT, MDA, and ROS as well as suppression of nuclear factor kappa B activities in the serum and kidneys (Kou et  al. 2019). Bioactive fungal metabolites can be sustainably used to develop cosmeceutical or nutricosmetic formulations. Scientific data support that extracts made from medicinal, edible species and their individual metabolites possess antioxidant, anti-­ inflammatory, antimicrobial, photoprotective, anti-tyrosinase, anti-elastase, and anticollagenase activities. Therefore, these species can be employed as ingredients to get rid of hyperpigmentation, inflammatory skin disorders, and sun burning. However, stability, compatibility, and safety assessment and toxicological studies are still needed to be considered (Oludemi et al. 2020).

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Stanikunaite R, Radwan MM, Trappe JM, Fronczek F, Ross SA (2008) Lanostane-type triterpenes from the mushroom Astraeus pteridis with antituberculosis activity. J Nat Prod 71(12):2077–2079 Sun J, Chen QJ, Zhu MJ, Wang HX, Zhang GQ (2014) An extracellular laccase with antiproliferative activity from the sanghuang mushroom Inonotus baumii. J Mol Catal B: Enzym 99:20–25 Suseem SR, Saral AM (2013) Analysis on essential fatty acid esters of mushrooms Pleurotus eous and its antibacterial activity. Asian J Pharmaceut Clin Res 6(1):188–191 Suwannarach N, Kumla J, Sujarit K, Pattananandecha T, Saenjum C, Lumyong S (2020) Natural bioactive compounds from fungi as potential candidates for protease inhibitors and immunomodulators to apply for coronaviruses. Molecules 25(1800):1–21 Taji S, Yamada T, In Y, Wada S, Usami Y, Sakuma K, Tanaka R (2007) Three new lanostane triterpenoids from Inonotus obliquus. Helv Chim Acta 90(11):2047–2057 Taji S, Yamada T, Tanaka R (2008a) Three new lanostane triterpenoids, inonotsutriols A, B, and C from Inonotus obliquus. Helv Chim Acta 91(8):1513–1524 Taji S, Yamada T, Wada S, Tokuda H, Sakuma K, Tanaka R (2008b) Lanostane-type triterpenoids from the sclerotia of Inonotus obliquus possessing anti-tumor promoting activity. Eur J Med Chem 43(11):2373–2379 Tan X, Sun J, Xu Z, Li H, Hu J, Ning H, Qin Z, Pei H, Sun T, Zhang X (2018) Effect of heat stress on production and in  vitro antioxidant activity of polysaccharides in Ganoderma lucidum. Bioproc Biosyst Eng 41(1):35–141 Tanaka R, Toyoshima M, Yamada T (2011) New lanostane triterpenoids, inonotsutriols D and E from Inonotus obliquus. Phytochem Lett 4(3):329–332 Tang W, Gu T, Zhong JJ (2006a) Separation of targeted ganoderic acids from Ganoderma lucidum by reversed phase liquid chromatography with ultraviolet and mass spectrometry detections. Biochem Eng J 32:205–210 Tang W, Liu JW, ZhaoWM WDZ, Zhong JJ (2006b) Ganoderic acid T from Ganoderma lucidum mycelia induces mitochondria mediated apoptosis in lung cancer cells. Life Sci 80:205–211 Tel-Cayan G, Ozturk M, Duru ME, Turkoglu A (2017) Fatty acid profiles in wild mushroom species from Anatolia. Chem Nat Compd 53(2):351–353 Teoh HL, Ahmad IS, Johari NMK, Aminudin N, Abdullah N (2019) Antioxidant properties and yield of wood ear mushroom, Auricularia polytricha (Agaricomycetes), cultivated on rubberwood sawdust. Int J Med Mushrooms 20(4):369–380 Thu ZM, Myo KK, Aung HT, Clericuzio M, Armijos C, Vidari G (2020) Bioactive phytochemical constituents of wild edible mushrooms from Southeast Asia. Molecules 25(8):1972 Toledo CV, Barroetaveña C, Fernandes A, Barros L, Ferreira ICFR (2016) Chemical and antioxidant properties of wild edible mushrooms from native Nothofagus spp. Forest, Argentina. Molecules 21(1201):1–15 Kadhila NP, Sekhoacha M, Tselanyane M, Malefa L, Chinsembu KC (2018) Anti-plasmodial activities in mushrooms. Int J Vector Borne Dis 2018:139–142 Tu SH, Wu CH, Chen LC, Huang CS, Chang HW, Chang CH, Lien HM, Ho YS (2012) In vivo antitumor effects of 4,7-dimethoxy-5-methyl- 1,3-benzodioxole isolated from the fruiting body of Antrodia camphorata through activation of the p53-mediated p27/Kip1 signaling pathway. J Agric Food Chem 60(14):3612–3618 Tzeng MA, Chung CH, Lin FH, Chiang CP, Yeh CB, Huang SY, Lu RB, Chang HA, Kao YC, Yeh HW, Chiang WS, Chou YC, Tsao CH, Wu YF, Chien WC (2018) Anti-herpetic medications and reduced risk of dementia in patients with herpes simplex virus infections-a nationwide, population-based cohort study in Taiwan. Neurother 15(2):417–429 Ueda K, Tsujimori M, Kodani S, Chiba A, Kubo M, Masuno K, Sekiya A, Nagai K, Kawagishi H (2008) An endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-suppressive compound and its analogues from the mushroom Hericium erinaceum. Bioorg Med Chem 16(21):9467–9470 Vacca P, Fazio C, Neri A, Ambrosio L, Palmieri A, Stefanelli P (2018) Neisseria meningitidis antimicrobial resistance in Italy, 2006 to 2016. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 62(9)

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Websites Followed https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer. Accessed on 16 May 2020 https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes. Accessed on 16 May 2020 https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/world-malaria-report-2019. Accessed on 16 May 2020

Chapter 8

Commercialization and Conservation

Macrofungi have great economic value and are traded at world market fetching billions of dollars per annum. This high cost is probably because most species cannot be cultivated but are in great demand for gourmet cooking in many European countries and North America (Yun and Hall 2004; Karwa et al. 2011). As per the retail market, C. cibarius and B. edulis have estimated 1.67 billion USD and more than 250 million USD per annum, respectively. A. caesarea is also in demand in international market. Major countries demanding these species include China, the United States, France, Italy, Spain Canada, and Germany (Hall et  al. 2003; Arora and Dunham 2008). Both wild and cultivated macrofungi with use value to mankind contribute tremendously to world economy. The sporocarps are sold fresh or dried in local markets or traded distantly on large scale at national and international level (Gold et al. 2008; Turtiainen and Nuutinen 2012; Bulam et al. 2018). Occurrence of macrofungi in wild is a natural and chance phenomenon. To take advantages of useful macrofungi, these must be made available to the rapidly growing human population and that too at cheaper prices. Moreover, the extraction and purification of fungal metabolites for use as nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals require large-scale production of fungal biomass. To obtain this meet, several species of useful wild fungi are under cultivation in different regions of the world. The most common mushrooms in cultivation worldwide are A. bisporus, Cordyceps sinensis, L. edodes, Pleurotus spp., Auricularia spp., and F. velutipes, G. lucidum, and Poria cocos. China leads mushroom production followed by Italy, the United States, Netherlands, and Poland (Feeney et al. 2014; Grimm and Wösten 2018). According to an estimate, mushroom production in China keeps on increasing with 4,826,000–7,786,368 tonnes of mushrooms produced during 2010–2016. Current data shows that the global mushroom market had a value of 35 billion USD in 2015. During the period from 2016 to 2021, this market is expected to grow more by 9.2%, reaching nearly 60 billion USD in 2021 (Raman et al. 2018). The consumption increased from 1 to 4.7 kg of cultivated edible mushrooms per capita during 1997–2013 (Royse et al. 2017). This consumption keeps on increasing in the coming years, resulting in © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 U. Azeem et al., Fungi for Human Health, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58756-7_8

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annual sales going from 34 to 60  billion USD (https://www.zionmarketresearch. com). Post harvest technology is applied to both the produce of field collection and cultivation yield of macrofungi for its protection, processing, distribution, marketing, and utilization as per the needs and demands of the consumers (Thakur 2018). Extracts of many edible/medicinal macrofungi are marketed as DSs for their immunostimulatory and other health-promoting properties (Table 8.1). Many products own patents too (Chang 2006; Chang and wasser 2018). For example, nutrient formulations obtained from A. bisporus, L. edodes, P. ostreatus, and G. frondosa (patent application number: WO2007US63984 20070314) are helpful in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and damage from radiations (Beelman et al. 2007). Food supplement made from G. frondosa, P. eryngii, and H. erinaceus (patent application number: CN 101292726 A20081029) reduce blood sugar and lipid levels (Liu et al. 2008). Ganoderic acid T-amide derivative TLTO-A (patent application number: CN102219822) causes growth inhibition and apoptosis of tumor cells (Zhong et al. 2011). A terpenoid (spiroketal) compound from A. subrufescens and related Agaricus spp. (patent application number: EP 2 468 253 A1) possesses therapeutic potential against the disorder of having Liver X Receptor (LXR) agonists activity (Grothe et  al. 2012). Mushroom extracts from Agaricus spp., H. erinaceus, and Hypsizygus marmoreus (patent application number: JP 2012077004A) boost insulin secretion and are taken as health foods for prevention and curing diabetes mellitus (Takeshi et al. 2012). Several types of mushroom products have been developed in the form of powder, capsules, or tablets using the wild/ cultivated mushrooms or mycelial biomass extracts or spores and extracts of spores (Pöder 2005; Chang and Wasser 2012) (Fig. 8.1). Medicinal mushrooms have been used in nearly 400 clinical trials against different ailments. Over 50000 scientific papers have been published including 15000 patents related to different aspects of medicinal mushrooms (Wasser 2014). Ganoderma, known as ‟mushroom of immortality,” alone holds more than 10000 publications with 7000 related patents. More than 1000 Ganoderma health food products have been certified by Chinese government (Chen et al. 2016). G. lucidum is the most commonly used species in the genus Ganoderma. This is consumed as a functional food such as soup, tea, wine, and yoghourt in daily life (Dong and Han 2015). Several drugs and food supplements of G. lucidum are available in China such as G. lucidum compound capsules (Chongqing Taiji Industry (Group) Co. Ltd), syrups (Guizhou Shunjian Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd), spore powder capsules enriched with Se (Guizhou Lingkangshi Biological Technology Co. Ltd), G. lucidum spore powder (Yunnan Xianghui Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd), spore powder oil capsules (FGTZ Biotechnology Company), broken G. lucidum spore powder (Chengdu Dujiangyan Chunsheng Chinese Herbal Pieces Co. Ltd), and basidiocarp slices (Sichuan Zibo Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd). Further, many DXN, MAVEX, and other cosmetic products of Ganoderma species are available in market (Hapuarachchi et al. 2018). Another important medicinal mushroom, I. obliquus (chaga mushroom), products are famous in market such as extracts, powder, chaga tea, capsules, cosmetic products, etc. (Illana-Esteban 2011). In addition to G. lucidum and I. obliquus, many more species such as A. subrufescens, C. sinensis, L. edodes, S. commune, and Tremella fuciformis have been utilized as skin and

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Table 8.1  The most popular marketed products of macrofungal extracts with claimed therapeutic potential Market product BIOIMMUNOGEN PSK-16™ -polysaccharide protein

Breast-Mate®

MycoPhyto® Complex

Mycoformulas Memory

New Chapter® Life Shield® Immunity

ORIVEDA® Coriolus PSP extract Pleuran Imunoglukan P4H® capsules

ReishiMax capsules

Coriolus-MRL

Function Immunomodulatory, supports natural killer (NK) cell, T-cell, activity of macrophages and production of cytokine Antitumor potential

Extract Reference Mixture of 16 http://www. mushroom complex qualityahcc.com

Sliva (2010); http://www. swansonvitamins. com Antiproliferative and cell Mixture of mycelia Jiang and Sliva (2010) from A. blazei, C. cycle arrest at the G2/M sinensis, T. phase of highly invasive human breast cancer cells, versicolor, G. lucidum, G. MDA-MB-231 frondosa, and P. umbellatus and β-1,3-glucan from Saccharomyces cerevisiae H. erinaceus http:// Enhance healthy brain mycoformulas. function and nervous com system http://www. Promotes overall immune G. lucidum newchapter.com health and vitality mycelium and basidiocarps in combination with many other mushrooms PSP extract T. http://www. Immunostimulator and oriveda.com adjuvant during anticancer versicolor therapy Immunostimulator β-Glucan from P. http://www. ostreatus pleuran.com; Bobovcak et al. (2010); Bergendiova et al. (2011) Thyagarajan-Sahu Polysaccharides Prevents adipocyte recovered from G. et al. (2011) differentiation, increases lucidum glucose uptake, and activates AMPK http://www.mrlusa. Mycelium and Immunostimulator and primordia of young com; Córdoba and protects from chronic basidiocarps of T. Ríos (2012) ailments versicolor Ph. linteus

(continued)

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Table 8.1 (continued) Market product Breast Defend™

Function Antiproliferative and metastatic behavior of MDA-MB-231 invasive human breast cancer cells

CV Skinlabs Body Repair Lotion, US; Dr. Andrew Weil for Origins Mega-Mushroom, Skin Relief Face Mask, U.S.; Kat Burki Form Control Marine Collagen, Gel, UK; Tela Beauty Organics Encore Styling, Cream, UK Dr. Andrew Weil for Origins Mega-­ Mushroom, Moisturizing body Cream, US; Estée Lauder, Re-Nutriv Sun Supreme Rescue Serum sun care product, US; Menard Embellir, Night cream, Japan

Wound-healing and anti-inflammatory; boost collagen, improve elasticity, and provide hydration; provide hair with sun protection and prevent color fading

Capsules

Extract Extracts of Trametes versicolor, G. lucidum, and Ph. linteus G. lucidum

G. lucidum Skin antiaging; triple-­ action repair technology to enhance the skin’s own natural defenses against the visible effects of sun exposure and sun-stressed skin; eliminate toxins and help repair skin damage associated with overexposure to UV radiation and free radicals Health supplements I. obliquus, C. sinensis, H. erinaceus

Reference Jiang et al. (2012)

Wu et al. (2016)

Taofiq et al. (2016)

https:// in.pipingrock.com

hair care products. This property is due to the antiaging (firming, lifting, and anti-­ wrinkle), antioxidant, and moisturizing effects of various mycochemicals such as polysaccharides, phenols, steroids, alkaloids, saponins, etc. present in these mushroom species (Wu et al. 2016). Additionally, some toxigenic species of coprophilous fungi consist of hallucinogenic psychotropic compounds which are used in producing tranquilizers (Griffiths et  al. 2016). The advances in biotechnology including DNA barcoding, proteomics, nanotechnology, etc. revolutionize the utilization of macrofungi and commercialization of macrofungal products (Sridhar and Deshmukh 2019). In order to maintain the increasing demands for fungal material used for cultivation, preservation of mycelia is the most important thing. Generally, mineral oil and distilled water are used for short-term preservation. However, lyophilization and cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen are long-term preservation techniques which inhibit growth and may compromise some metabolic processes (Richter and Bruhn 1989; Croan et al. 1999; Colauto and Linde 2012a, b). During preservation, it is crucial to observe the viability and morphology of the mycelium regularly (Clark

Fig. 8.1  Market products of mushrooms: Ganoderma lucidum (Lingzhi/Reishi) capsules (1), tea (2), vinaigrette (3), and capsules (4); Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom) flavoring powder (5); Inonotus obliquus (chaga) tea (6), extract (7), alcohol tincture (8), and chunks (9); Trametes versicolor (Turkey tail) tincture (10), capsules (11), and powder (12); Arabica coffee with Inonotus obliquus and Cordyceps mushrooms (13); H. erinaceus (Lion’s mane) and Cordyceps mushrooms with cacao mix (14); Cordyceps sinensis capsules (15); C. militaris capsules (16); Phellinus linteus lotion (17), tea (18), capsules (19), extract (20); Phellinus igniarius extract (21) and Flammulina velutipes (enokitake) snacks (22). (https://www.amazon.com; https://www.amazon.in; http://asterforce.com; https://www.desertcart.de; https://www.desertcart.in; https://www.dxn2u.com; https:// www.exportersindia.com; https://www.21food.com; https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com; https:// www.healthysupplies.co.uk; https://herb-era.com; https://mblovesskincare.com; https://www. indiamart.com; http://www.pleuran.com; https://in.pipingrock.com; https://www.qtrove.com; https://www.phytoextractum.com; https://www.tonicology.com; https://www.trianglehealing.com; https://www.tradekorea.com; https://www.shanbally.ie)

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Fig. 8.1 (continued)

and Anderson 2004; Marín et al. 2008). It is also important to check the genetic stability of the mycelium under preservation. Various modern techniques such as polymerase chain reaction and other methods of DNA analysis such as random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers have been employed to observe the intraspecific variability (Atienzar et al. 2002; Neves et al. 2005) and DNA damages and mutations (Lee et  al. 2000). Currently, higher fungi are facing great threat because of habitat loss and overharvesting of wild stocks. Thus, the conservation of useful fungi, utilized in agro-industrial, medicinal, and commercial purposes is necessary to make them available to the next generations. By creating awareness of issues posing threat to useful fungi, we wish to promote a sustainable use of these natural products (Mortimer et al. 2012). In addition to in situ approach, culture collections of fungi representing an ex situ strategy also markedly contribute towards conservation of macrofungi. Conservation of fungal species diversity and genetic resources in culture collections provides an essential basis for biotechnological potential (Bisko et al. 2018). The World Data Center for Microorganisms (WDCM), founded as the data center for World Federation for Culture Collections (WFCC

References

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established in 1970), collects and keeps the record of worldwide culture collections of microorganisms including fungi. By May 22, 2020, as per the data of WDCM database management system, Culture Collections Information Worldwide (CCINFO), 792 culture collections from 78 countries have been registered. This data also shows that over 3233108 of microorganism cultures have been maintained including 859234 cultures of fungi (http://www.wfcc.info). As a conservation wing of European Mycological Association (EMA) since 2003, the European Council for Conservation of Fungi (ECCF established in 1985) is appreciably improving mycological infrastructure in Europe. The ECCF applies the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) categories and criteria for the assessment of fungal diversity whenever possible. Therefore, the national Red Lists of fungi in many European countries are prepared at least partly following the IUCN criteria. By 2010, 5500 species of fungi from 33 European countries have red-listed (Dahlberg et  al. 2010). A shortlist of fungi comprising 5705 species representing potential candidates for Red List evaluation at the European level is currently available at the ECCF website (http://www.eccf.eu). The red-listing of fungi promotes research initiatives on fungal distribution, population structure, and dynamics and proves helpful to collect data for making conservation decisions and taking actions (Dahlberg and Mueller 2011).

References Arora D, Dunham SM (2008) A new, commercially valuable Chanterelle species, Cantharellus californicus sp. nov., associated with live oak in California, USA. Econ Bot 62(3):376 Atienzar FA, Venier P, Jha AN, Depledge MH (2002) Evaluation of the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) assay for the detection of DNA damage and mutations. Mutat Res 521(1–2):151–163 Beelman RB, Dubost NJ, Peterson DG, Hausman M (2007) Phytonutrient compositions from mushrooms or filamentous fungi comprising ergothioneine for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and radiation damage Database: CAPLUS. WO 2007106859 A2 20070920 Bergendiova K, Tibenska E, Majtan J (2011) Pleuran (β-glucan from Pleurotus ostreatus) supplementation, cellular immune response and respiratory tract infections in athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 111(9):2033–2040 Bisko NA, Lomberg ML, Mykchaylova OB, Mytropolska NY (2018) Conservation of biotechnological important species diversity and genetic resource of rare and endangered fungi of Ukraine. Plant & Fungal Research (1):18–27 Bobovcak M, Kuniakova R, Gabriz J, Majtan J (2010) Effect of Pleuran (beta-glucan from Pleurotus ostreatus) supplementation on cellular immune response after intensive exercise in elite athletes. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 35(6):755–762 Bulam S, Üstün NŞ, Pekşen A (2018) Mushroom foreign trade of Turkey in the last decade. In: International congress on engineering and life sciences (ICELIS 2018), pp 779–784 Chang ST (2006) The World mushroom industry: trends and technological development. Int J Med Mushrooms 8(4):297–314 Chang ST, Wasser SP (2012) The role of culinary-medicinal mushrooms on human welfare with a pyramid model for human health. Int J Med Mushrooms 14(2):95–134

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Chang ST, Wasser SP (2018) Current and future research trends in agricultural and biomedical applications of medicinal mushrooms and mushroom products (review). Int J Med Mushrooms 20(12):1121–1133 Chen RY, Kang J, Du GH (2016) Construction of the quality control system of Ganoderma products. Edib Med Mushrooms 24(6):339–344 Clark TA, Anderson JB (2004) Dikaryons of the basidiomycete fungus Schizophyllum commune: evolution in long-term culture. Genetics 167(4):1663–1167 Colauto NB, Linde GA (2012a) Avances sobre el cultivo del “Cogumelo-do-sol” en Brasil. In: Hongos comestibles y medicinales en Iberoamérica: investigación ydesarrollo en un entorno multicultura. Ecosur, Chiapas, pp 121–136 Colauto NB, Linde GA (2012b) Organización y preservación de microorganismos en Brasil. In: Hongos comestibles y medicinales en iberoamérica: investigación y desarrollo en un entorno multicultura. Ecosur, Chiapas, pp 53–68 Córdoba KAM, Ríos AH (2012) Biotechnological applications and potential uses of the mushroom Tramestes versicolor. Vitae 19(1):70–76 Croan SC, Burdsall HH Jr, Rentmeester RM (1999) Preservation of tropical wood-inhabiting basidiomycetes. Mycologia 91(5):908–916 Dahlberg A, Mueller GM (2011) Applying IUCN red-listing criteria for assessing and reporting on the conservation status of fungal species. Fungal Ecol 4(2):147–162 Dahlberg A, Genney DR, Heilmann-Clausen J (2010) Developing a comprehensive strategy for fungal conservation in Europe: current status and future needs. Fungal Ecol 3(2):50–64 Dong C, Han Q (2015) Ganoderma lucidum (Lingzhi, Ganoderma): fungi, algae, and other materials. In: Dietary Chinese herbs chemistry: pharmacology and clinical evidence. Springer, London, pp 759–765 Feeney MJ, Dwyer J, Hasler-Lewis CM, Milner JA, Noakes M, Rowe S, Wach M, Beelman RB, Caldwell J, Cantorna MT, Castlebury LA (2014) Mushrooms and health summit proceedings. J Nutr 144(7):1128S–1136S Gold MA, Cernusca MM, Godsey LD (2008) A competitive market analysis of the United States shiitake mushroom marketplace. Horttechnology 18(3):489–499 Griffiths RR, Johnson MW, Carducci MA, Umbricht A, Richards WA, Richards BD, Cosimano MP, Klinedinst MA (2016) Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: a randomized double-blind trial. J Psychopharmacol 30(12):1181–1197 Grimm D, Wösten HAB (2018) Mushroom cultivation in the circular economy. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 102(18):7795–7803 Grothe T, Stadler M, Köpcke B, Roemer E, Bitzer J, Wabnitz P (2012) Terpenoid spiro ketal compounds with LXR agonists activity, their use and formulations with them. EP2468253 A1 Hall IR, Wang Y, Amicucci A (2003) Cultivation of edible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms. Trends Biotechnol 21(10):433–438 Hapuarachchi KK, Elkhateeb WA, Karunarathna SC, Cheng CR, Bandara AR, Kakumyan P, Hyde KD, Daba GM, Wen TC (2018) Current status of global Ganoderma cultivation, products, industry and market. Mycosphere 9(5):1025–1052 Illana-Esteban C (2011) Interés medicinal del “Chaga” (Inonotus obliquus). Bol Soc Micol 35:175–185 Jiang J, Sliva D (2010) Novel medicinal mushroom blend suppresses growth and invasiveness of human breast cancer cells. Int J Oncol 37(6):1529–1536 Jiang J, Thyagarajan-Sahu A, Loganathan J, Eliaz I, Terry C, Sandusky GE, Sliva D (2012) BreastDefend™ prevents breast-to-lung cancer metastases in an orthotopic animal model of triple-negative human breast cancer. Oncol Rep 28(4):1139–1145 Karwa A, Vamma A, Rai M (2011) Edible ectomycorrhizal fungi: cultivation, conservation and challenges. In: Diversity and biotechnology of ectomycorrhizae. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, pp 429–453

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Lee YK, Chang HH, Kim JS, Kim JK, Lee KS (2000) Lignocellulolytic mutants of Pleurotus ostreatus induced by gamma-ray radiation and their genetic similarities. Radiat Phys Chem 57(2):145–150 Liu Z, Cang L, Chen C, Zhou G (2008) Method for preparing gold needle mushroom canned food for decreasing blood sugar and adjusting blood fat Database: CAPLUS. CN 101292726 A 20081029 Marín S, Cuevas D, Ramos AJ, Sanchis V (2008) Fitting of colony diameter and ergosterol as indicators of food borne mould growth to known growth models in solid medium. Int J Food Microbiol 121(2):139–149 Mortimer PE, Karunarathna SC, Li Q, Gui H, Yang X, Yang X, He J, Ye L, Guo J, Li H, Sysouphanthong P (2012) Prized edible Asian mushrooms: ecology, conservation and sustainability. Fungal Divers 56(1):31–47 Neves MA, Kasuya MCM, Araújo EF, Leite CL, Camelini CM, Ribas LCC, Mendonça MM (2005) Physiological and genetic variability of commercial isolates of culinary-medicinal mushroom Agaricus brasiliensis S. Wasser et al. (Agaricomycetideae) cultivated in Brazil. Int J Med Mushrooms 7(4):575–585 Pöder R (2005) The Ice man’s fungi: facts and mysteries. Int J Med Mushrooms 7(3):357–359 Raman J, Lee S-K, Im J-H, Oh M-J, Oh Y-L, Jang K-Y (2018) Current prospects of mushroom production and industrial growth in India. J Mushrooms 16(4):239–249 Richter DL, Bruhn JN (1989) Revival of saprotrophic and mycorrhizal basidiomycete cultures from cold storage in sterile water. Can J Microbiol 35(11):1055–1060 Royse DJ, Baars J, Tan Q (2017) Current overview of mushroom production in the world. In: Edible and medicinal mushrooms: technology and applications. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 5–13 Sliva D (2010) Medicinal mushroom Phellinus linteus as an alternative cancer therapy. Exp Ther Med 1(3):407–411 Sridhar KR, Deshmukh SK (eds) (2019) Advances in macrofungi: diversity, ecology and biotechnology. CRC Press Takeshi I, Hiroshi H, Satoshi I, Aya K (2012) Mushroom extracts from Agaricus , Hericium erinaceum, and Hypsizigus marmoreus as insulin secretion stimulators and health foods for prevention and therapy of diabetes mellitus. JP 2012077004A Taofiq O, González-Paramás AM, Martins A, Barreiro MF, Ferreira IC (2016) Mushrooms extracts and compounds in cosmetics, cosmeceuticals and nutricosmetics  – a review. Ind Crop Prod 90:38–48 Thakur MP (2018) Advances in post-harvest technology and value additions of edible mushrooms. Indian Phytopathol 71(3):303–315 Thyagarajan-Sahu A, Lane B, Sliva D (2011) ReishiMax, mushroom based dietary supplement, inhibits adipocyte differentiation, stimulates glucose uptake and activates AMPK.  BMC Complement Altern Med 11(1):1–4 Turtiainen M, Nuutinen T (2012) Evaluation of information on wild berry and mushroom markets in European countries. Small-scale For 11(1):131–145 Wasser SP (2014) Medicinal mushroom science: current perspectives, advances, evidences, and challenges. Biomed J 37(6):345–356 Wu Y, Choi MH, Li J, Yang H, Shin HJ (2016) Mushroom cosmetics: the present and future. Cosmetics 3(3):22 Yun W, Hall IR (2004) Edible ectomicorrhizal mushrooms: challenges and achievements. Can J Bot 82(8):1063–1073 Zhong J, Liu R, Li Y (2011) Ganoderic acid T amide derivative TLTO-A and synthetic method and application thereof Database: CAPLUS. CN 102219822 A 20111019

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Websites Followed http://asterforce.com http://mycoformulas.com http://www.eccf.eu. Accessed on 22 May 2020 http://www.mrlusa.com http://www.newchapter.com http://www.oriveda.com http://www.pleuran.com http://www.qualityahcc.com http://www.swansonvitamins.com http://www.wfcc.info. Accessed on 22 May 2020 https://herb-era.com https://in.pipingrock.com https://mblovesskincare.com https://www.21food.com https://www.amazon.com https://www.amazon.in https://www.desertcart.de https://www.desertcart.in https://www.dxn2u.com https://www.exportersindia.com https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com https://www.healthysupplies.co.uk https://www.indiamart.com https://www.phytoextractum.com https://www.qtrove.com https://www.shanbally.ie https://www.tonicology.com https://www.tradekorea.com https://www.trianglehealing.com https://www.zionmarketresearch.com

8  Commercialization and Conservation

Chapter 9

Outlook and Future Prospects

The major step before consumption of the collected macrofungal species is correct identification. Misidentification of macrofungi often leads to the consumption of toxigenic species causing adverse health effects and sometimes may prove lethal. Without correct scientific nomenclature of the collection material, further studies have no validity. For example, in earlier pharmacological investigations, most of the species reported as Lingzhi or Reishi (G. lucidum) were mistakenly identified. G. lucidum represents a taxon-linneon or species-complex, and the future subdivision of this needs caution (Wasser et al. 2006). Therefore, due to misidentification, the publications, patents, and products are also at risk. Classical methods include the study of morphology (color, size, shape, etc.) and microscopic examination (hyphae, spores, sporing structures, sterile elements, etc.) of the specimen. Field guides, monographs, and identification keys bearing photographs and detailed descriptions of species are also beneficial in identification. Preserving wild specimen in different herbaria is greatly encouraged to physically compare and identify the specimens collected later. In addition to classical taxonomic methods, advances in electron microscopy and molecular techniques bring significant improvements and rapidity in the identification, nomenclature, and classification of the specimens (Abdel-Azeem et al. 2018; Wu et al. 2018). The gathered information from different sources is compiled into various databases and is made available online on various websites such as Mycobank, Species Fungorum, MyCoPortal, etc. A vast diversity of macrofungi exists on earth with continuous additions of species from different parts of the world. Still there are some regions left unexplored or are underexplored. More field work is needed to explore and document macrofungal diversity, particularly in the tropics utilizing morphological and molecular identification techniques (Lopez-Quintero et al. 2012; Ambrosio et al. 2015; Iqbal et al. 2016). Macrofungi have long history of use in human life as is evident from ethnomycology. In addition to cultural significance, the information pertaining to the edibility, medicinal value, or toxicity of macrofungi can be gathered by conducting ethnomycological surveys to different parts of the world (Yamin-Pasternak, 2011; Ingvar 2018). The © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 U. Azeem et al., Fungi for Human Health, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58756-7_9

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e­ thnomycological data about the uses of macrofungi in human health need scientific valorization which is possible through the analysis of mycochemical composition and evaluation of biological activities. This has become possible with use of biotechnology involving genomics, proteomics, and other modern-day techniques such as WDXRF, chromatography, and mass spectrometry, e.g., GC/MS, LC/MS, etc. (Lozano et al. 2012; Lau et al. 2014; Parmar and Kumar 2015; Ham et al. 2020; Shao et al. 2020). Besides aiding in identification, biotechnology makes it possible to generate complete mycochemical profiles, to elucidate the structures of bioactive compounds, and to evaluate the pharmacological activities of macrofungal species (Liu et al. 2017; Dong et al. 2018). However, numerous species of macrofungi still need scientific evaluation with respect to their mycochemical composition and pharmacological potential. Further advances in medical mycology are the need of the hour to make the clinical use of macrofungi in the treatment of various ailments. Empirical evidences may prove helpful to decide the edibility of a species. The scientific literature also proves as the best source of advice. The ingestion of fresh mushrooms rich in health boosting nutrients and other bioactive metabolites is beneficial, e.g., it enhances the serum levels of anti-β-glucan antibodies. As per the opinion of the Ohno Group from Japan, mushrooms when taken fresh would provide defense from pathogenic fungi in a better way (Ishibashi et al. 2005). Currently, much attention is paid to develop mushroom biomass or extracts as DSs or functional foods or prebiotics (indigestible β-glucans). However, a number of significant queries arise with establishing DSs and medicinal mushroom products concerning their safety, standardization, regulation, efficacy, and mechanism of action. However, this is a pity that even today standardization of DSs and medicinal mushroom products is in its early stages including the insufficient knowledge of the bioactive constituents and consequences of consumption of DSs. The standards and protocols employed to produce and test the medicinal mushroom products are not well recognized. The lack of proper standards and protocols results into adulterated and less durable mushroom products making them markedly different in composition and affectivity. It is unclear whether the health effect is produced by a single component or is the outcome of synergistic action of several ingredients. Moreover, insufficient data is available to decide which components possess better potential – those recovered from sporocarps or from submerged mycelia powder versus extracts. Other questions which frequently arise include whether the simple dried sporocarps or mycelia powders are more effective compared to aqueous, alcoholic, or hydroalcoholic extracts. Moreover, between crude extracts and isolated fractions, which one is more effective and safe? What is the role of low molecular weight compounds present in medicinal macrofungi? What is more effective, the combination of bioactive component-enriched biomass or extracts of 2–10 different species in a single pill or one species in one pill? Is it possible to access the potential of different mushroom products when mixing in several species in single product (“shotgun” approach)? Since the mushroom products can be cytokine stimulants, at what age these can be safe to administer in young children as their immune system is immature? The other controversial thing is what dosages are safe and affective especially during pregnancy and nursing? In several clinical trials, six capsules (three capsules

References

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twice a day or two capsules thrice a day) of 500–1000 mg each (biomass or extracts) have been accepted as the affective dosage of medicinal mushroom formulations. As per the traditional Chinese medicine, the standard dose of tablets, capsules, liquid extracts, etc. made from dried sporocarps or biomass must be 100–150 g a day of fresh mushroom material (Wasser 2014). The high molecular weight compounds, especially polysaccharides of medicinal macrofungi are used for drug development. However, these cannot be synthesized, and their production is confined to isolation from sporocarps/cultured mycelium or cultured broth which is an expensive approach (Papaspyridi et al. 2018). Therefore, an attempt should be made for drug development from low molecular weight compounds (Zaidman et  al. 2005). Furthermore, the adulteration of mushroom products causes adverse health impacts such as nephropathy, acute hepatitis, coma, and fever. For example, the production of pure β-glucans is difficult, and 90–95% of β-glucan in the market are considered adulterated (Deng et al. 2009; Wasser 2011). Therefore, we must pay attention to adopt regulations, standards, and practices most valuable in the quest for human health promotion. Research should lay emphasis on improvements in cultivation technology, and attempts should be made for successful cultivation of useful macrofungi which are not under cultivation yet. The protection of intellectual properties (IPs) of genetic resources of medicinal macrofungi needs more attention. These are used and exploited by the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, agricultural, food, enzyme, and chemical industries. We should educate the public and make them aware of the use value of macrofungi in boosting human health. The most important above all is the conservation of the inexpensive natural treasure of macrofungi for sustainable use.

References Abdel-Azeem AM, Blanchette RA, Held BW (2018) New record of Chaetomium grande Asgari & Zare (Chaetomiaceae) for the Egyptian and African mycobiota. Phytotaxa 343(3):283–288 Ambrosio E, Lancellotti E, Brotzu R, Salch H, Franceschini A, Zotti M (2015) Assessment of macrofungal diversity in Silver Fir plantation in Sardinia (Italy) using a standardized sampling procedure. Micol Ital 44(1):1–17 Deng G, Lin H, Seidman A, Fornier M, D’Andrea G, Wesa K, Yeung S, Cunningham-Rundles S, Vickers AJ, Cassileth BA (2009) A phase I/II trial of a polysaccharide extract from Grifola frondosa (Maitake mushroom) in breast cancer patients: immunological effects. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 135(9):1215–1221 Dong M, Qin L, Xue J, Du M, Lin S-Y, Xu X-B, Zhu BW (2018) Simultaneous quantification of free amino acids and 5′-nucleotides in shiitake mushrooms by stable isotope labeling-LC-MS/ MS analysis. Food Chem 268(1):57–65 Ham TH, Lee Y, Kwon SW, Jang MJ, Park YJ, Lee J (2020) Increasing coverage of proteome identification of the fruiting body of Agaricus bisporus by Shotgun proteomics. Foods 9(5):632 Ingvar I (2018) Ethnomycological Notes on Haploporus odorus and other polypores in Northern Fennoscandia. J North Stud 12(1):73–91 Iqbal AM, Vidyasagaran K, Ganesh PN (2016) New records of polypores (Basidiomycota: Aphyllophorales) from the southern Western Ghats with an identification key for polypores in peechi-vazhani Wildlife sanctuary, Kerala, India. J Threat Taxa 8(9):9198–9207

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Ishibashi KI, Dogasaki C, Iriki T, Motoi M, Kurone YI, Miura NN, Adachi Y, Ohno N (2005) Anti-­ β-­glucan antibody in Bovine sera. Int J Med Mushrooms 7(4):513 Lau CC, Abdullah N, Shuib AS, Aminudin N (2014) Novel angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides derived from edible mushroom Agaricus bisporus (J.E.  Lange) Imbach identified by LC–MS/MS. Food Chem 148(1):396–401 Liu K, Xiao X, Wang J, Chen CYO, Hue H (2017) Polyphenolic composition and antioxidant, antiproliferative and antimicrobial activities of mushroom Inonotus sanghuang. LWT-Food Sci Technol 82(1):154–161 Lopez-Quintero CA, Straastsma G, Franco-Molano AE, Boekhout T (2012) Macrofungal diversity in Colombian Amazon forests varies with regions and regimes of disturbance. Biodivers Conserv 21:2221–2243 Lozano A, Martínez-Uroz MA, Gómez-Ramos MJ, Gómez-Ramos MM, Mezcua M, Fernández-­ Alba AR (2012) Determination of nicotine in mushrooms by various GC/MS and LC/MS-based methods. Anal Bioanal Chem 402:935–943 Papaspyridi L-M, Zerva A, Topakas E (2018) Biocatalytic synthesis of fungal β-glucans. Catalysts 8(7):274 Parmar R, Kumar D (2015) Study of chemical composition in wild edible mushroom Pleurotus cornucopiae (Paulet) from Himachal Pradesh, India by using fourier transforms infrared spectrometry (FTIR), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF). Biol Forum Int J 7(2):1057–1066 Shao Y, Guo H, Zhang J, Liu H, Wang K, Zuo S, Xu P, Xia Z, Zhou Q, Zhang H, Wang X, Chen A, Wang Y (2020) The genome of the medicinal macrofungus sanghuang provides insights into the synthesis of diverse secondary metabolites. Front Microbiol 10:3035 Wasser SP (2011) Current findings, future trends, and unsolved problems in studies of medicinal mushrooms. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 89(5):1323–1332 Wasser SP (2014) Medicinal Mushroom Science: current perspectives, advances, evidences, and challenges. Biomed J 37(6):345–356 Wasser SP, Zmitrovich IV, Didukh MY, Spirin WA, Malysheva VF (2006) Morphological traits of Ganoderma lucidum complex highlighting G. tsugae var. jannieae: the current generalization. ARA Gantner Verlag K-G, Ruggell Wu G, Lee SML, Horak E, Yang ZL (2018) Spongispora temasekensis, a new boletoid genus and species from Singapore. Mycologia 110(5):919–929 Yamin-Pasternak S (2011) Ethnomycology: fungi and mushrooms in cultural entanglements. In: Ethnobiology. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 213–230 Zaidman BZ, Yassin M, Mahajna J, Wasser SP (2005) Medicinal mushroom modulators of molecular targets as cancer therapeutics. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 67:453–468

Chapter 10

Concluding Remarks

Our literature survey reveals that majority of the health benefitting taxa of macrofungi chiefly belong to Agaricomycotina followed by Pezizomycotina with dominancy of species in Agaricomycetes. In the present work, we made an effort to shed light on the health-promoting efficacies of the edible and medicinal macrofungi and discussed these species following the classification of Kirk et  al. (2008) current names of macrofungi as per Mycobank database (www.mycobank.org). Macrofungi are represented by 1,250,000 specimens across the globe (Thiers and Halling 2018). This data keeps on changing with the underexplored and unexplored ecogeographic zones. Macromycetes exhibit variations in structure and reproduction, ecology, and edibility. These species are capable of growing on a broad spectrum of substrates such as various types of soil rich in moisture and humus, litter, animal dung, dead decaying wood and organic matter, termite mounds, live trees, and a few even on plastic debris (Brunner et al. 2018; Karun et al. 2018). These species play several pivotal functions in the forest ecosystems such as in cycling of nutrients, as ecosystem scavengers, as pathogens, and as symbionts (Bajpai et  al. 2019; Copoț and Tănase 2019). Macrofungi have wide distribution range occurring in various tropical, subtropical, temperate, and alpine forests and even in deserts of different countries across Europe, Africa, America, Asia, and Australia (Tripathi et  al. 2017). Macromycetes (edible/medicinal) have marked significance as human health-­ promising agents. Edible species in the genera Agaricus, Auricularia, Betula, Cordyceps, Morchella, Pleurotus, Russula, Terfezia, etc. are eaten as food, while medicinal species placed in the genera Fomes, Ganoderma, Inonotus, Phellinus, Trametes, etc. are utilized to treat different kinds of diseases in different parts of the world as is evidenced by ethnomycology. The sporocarps of wild edible species of macrofungi are eaten after cooking following different recipes across the world. For medicinal use, the sporocarps of medicinal species are used as whole, in the form of powder or paste. Additionally, some species are toxigenic and accidental consumption of such species cause several precarious health effects such as vomiting, nausea, stomachache, gastroenteritis, diarrhea, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 U. Azeem et al., Fungi for Human Health, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58756-7_10

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neurotoxicity, etc. and in certain cases may prove fatal (Erguven et al. 2007; Vişneci et al. 2019). Therefore, correct identification is prerequisite for the consumption of these species. However, various toxins obtained from the toxigenic species, e.g. A. xanthodermus, possess medicinal properties (Özaltun and Sevindik 2020). Macrofungi are enriched with diverse kinds of nutrients such as carbohydrates, sugars, proteins, fats, fatty acids, amino acids, minerals, and vitamins responsible for their food value. The medicinal mushrooms possess high as well a low molecular weight bioactive constituents. High molecular weight compounds mainly include polysaccharides (β-glucans) and proteins, whereas low molecular weight compounds are secondary metabolites, e.g., terpenoids, phenols, tannins, flavonoids, steroids, alkaloids, etc. All these mycochemicals contribute towards pharmacological activities of mushrooms such as antioxidant, antitumor, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antimalarial, antiviral, and neurodegenerative. Evolution of modern-day techniques such as electron microscopy, WDXRF, GC-MS, LC-MS, etc. revolutionizes the identification, analysis of mycochemical composition, and evaluation of pharmacological potential of macrofungi. The mycelial biomass or extracts of health-promoting edible/medicinal macrofungi are being developed as DSs/functional foods or prebiotics. Several medicinal macrofungal products are available in the market as health supplements in the form of tablets, capsules, powder, or extract, as cosmetics (skin, hair products), tea, antifatigue and immunostimulatory agents, etc. There are various regulatory authorities such as WHO, FAO, and FDA to manage the use and ensure the quality of these commercial products. The wild mushrooms grow naturally, and their growth and occurrence in nature is a chance phenomenon. To meet the growing needs of higher fungi as food, in medicine and industry, cultivation is the best option. Several species of macrofungi with use value to man are in cultivation worldwide with China leading in this industry. A. bisporus, C. sinensis, L. edodes, Pleurotus spp., Auricularia spp., and F. velutipes, G. lucidum, and P. cocos represent the commonly cultivated species in the world. In spite of these inestimable benefits of macrofungi, these are often overlooked and often kept out of conservation plans. Natural calamities like forest fire, floods, tornadoes, etc. disturb the structure and function of ecosystem which is a home to diverse forms of life including macrofungi (Salo and Kouki 2018; Ford et al. 2018). Anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, industrialization, and urbanization are responsible for climatic change which in turn bring changes in the diversity and distribution of macrofungi (Lees and Pimm 2015; Wagensommer et al. 2018). Because of overexploitation, anthropogenic activities, and climate change, wild macrofungi are facing threat of extinction, and several taxa are red listed by IUCN (http://www.eccf.eu). Therefore, for sustainable use of wild macrofungi and to maintain the genetic stability in culture collections, several in situ and ex situ conservation efforts are made regularly by IUCN and other national and international organizations.

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