Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods [2015 ed.] 3319107461, 9783319107462

Table of contents :
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Authors
Chapter-1
Setting the Stage
1.1 A Look Back
1.2 Sustainability; Principles and Components
1.2.1 The Path of Least Negative Impact
1.2.2 Self-Sustaining Process
1.2.3 Supporting Relation
1.2.4 A Life Cycle Approach
1.3 Influencing Participants
1.3.1 Governments
1.3.2 Financial Institutions
1.3.3 The Homebuilder
1.4 The Design Firm
1.5 Product Manufacturers
1.6 The Homebuyer
Conclusion
Chapter-2
Forms of Sustainable Neighborhoods
2.1 Choosing a Form
2.2 Rethinking Urban Density
2.3 Designing Denser Communities
2.3.1 Density Yardsticks
2.3.2 Lot Dimensions and Siting
2.4 Waste Management
2.5 District Heating
2.6 The Making of a High-Density Neighborhood
2.6.1 High-Density Design Options
2.6.2 Guiding Design Principles
2.6.2.1 Roads and Parking
2.6.2.2 Dwellings
Chapter-3
Streets for People
3.1 Current Road Design Practices
3.2 Alternative Streets Design
3.2.1 Narrow Streets
3.2.2 Shared Streets
3.2.3 Cul-de-sac and Loop Streets
3.3 Parking
3.3.1 Parking in Commercial Settings
3.3.1.1 Mixing Land Uses
3.3.1.2 Designing for Different Peak Uses
3.3.1.3 Parking “Plazas”
3.3.2 Residential Parking
3.3.2.1 On-Street Parking
3.3.2.2 Grouped Parking
3.3.2.3 Alleys
3.3.2.4 Shared Drives
3.4 Active Mobility
3.4.1 Moving by Foot
3.4.1.1 Safety
3.4.1.2 Continuous Sidewalks and Safer Crossings
3.4.1.3 Convenience and the Pleasure of Walking
3.4.2 Moving by Bicycle
3.4.2.1 Bicycle Freeway
3.4.3 Active Mobility in Porvoo
Chapter-4
Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature
4.1 Ground Related Elements
4.1.1 Site Selection and Land Use
4.1.2 Water
4.1.3 Topography
4.1.4 Soil and Rock Formations
4.1.5 Vegetation
4.2 Microclimate
4.2.1 Sun
4.2.2 Wind
4.3 Housing in the Forest
4.3.1 Ecological Patches
4.3.2 Climatic Influences
4.3.3 Site Plan
Chapter-5
Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces
5.1 Public Outdoor Space
5.1.1 Scale
5.1.2 Interconnectedness
5.1.3 Visual Aspects
5.1.4 Proprietorship
5.2 Streetscapes
5.2.1 Proportion
5.2.2 Accessibility
5.2.3 Comfort
5.2.4 Appearance
5.2.5 Vegetation
5.3 Edible Landscapes
5.4 A New Hybrid Community
5.4.1 Pedestrian Paths
5.4.2 Land–Dwellings Relationships
5.4.3 Private Horticultural Options
5.4.4 Yard Gardens
5.4.5 Greenhouses and Roof Gardens
5.4.6 Community Planning
Chapter-6
Sustaining Shorelines
6.1 The Evolution of Lakeside Lifestyle
6.2 Environmental Effects of Shoreline Development
6.3 Strategies for Successful Protection of Shorelines
6.3.1 Siting Buildings
6.3.2 Paths
6.4 Shoreline Demonstration
6.4.1 Design Principles
6.4.1.1 Slope Zoning and Roofs
6.4.1.2 Building Orientation
6.5 Vegetation as a Tool
6.5.1 Common Area, Parking Arrangement, and Paths
6.6 Treating the Shoreline
Chapter-7
Social Capital and Integrated Communities
7.1 Social Capital
7.2 Strategies for Mixed-Use Planning
7.2.1 Pedestrian Pockets
7.2.2 Transit-Oriented Development
7.2.3 Commercial Centers
7.2.4 Vertical Mixed-Use
7.2.5 Locating Civic Institutions and Other Amenities
7.2.6 Designing for Live-Work Arrangements
7.3 Mixing Commerce and Residences in Peace River
7.3.1 Opportunities and Barriers
7.3.2 A Planning Proposal
Chapter-8
Sustainable Dwellings
8.1 Societal Transformations
8.2 Planning Strategies for Dense Living
8.2.1 Zero-Lot-Line
8.2.2 Z-Lot Housing
8.2.3 Clustered Housing
8.2.4 Narrow Houses
8.2.5 Grow Homes
8.2.6 Adaptable Houses
8.3 Constructing for Energy Conservation
8.4 The Next Home
8.4.1 Components à La Carte
8.4.2 Flexibility of Building Exterior
8.4.3 A New Urban Perspective
8.4.4 Application of the Next Home Concept
Appendix
Project Teams
Illustration Credits
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods

Avi Friedman

Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods

2123

Avi Friedman McGill School of Architecture Montreal Québec Canada

ISBN 978-3-319-10746-2 ISBN 978-3-319-10747-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10747-9 Library of Congress Control Number: 2014955104 Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Preface

Recent societal transformations have given rise to the need to rethink community and dwelling design. Climate change, aging populations, persistent economic challenges, and new lifestyle trends are some of the factors that bring about an urgent need to plan different neighborhoods and homes. The catalyst for such changes is also the realization that the development practices that prevailed after World War II, primarily in North America, had been overly wasteful. Such practices led to the consumption of vast amounts of agricultural and forested land, made commuting by fuel-consuming and polluting vehicles more common, and used ample valuable nonrenewable natural resources during the construction and after the occupancy of sprawling homes. It has become abundantly clear that this development path and consumption rate is unsustainable. If continued, future generations will lack the resources to support their own development needs. Neighborhoods must be regarded as a vital block of society. Their successes will often determine how well a city and even a country will perform. Therefore, the need to include a social perspective in their conception needs to be a part of the planning process. In addition to economic successes and environmental considerations, a mark of a successful neighborhood will be an enriched web of social relations between residents, which serves as another mark of sustainability. To reverse the current development trends and to achieve many of the goals that contribute to sustainable living, one needs to closely examine the notion of density. When more people live in closer proximity to one another, various services and amenities such as public transit become economically viable. Higher densities are not easy to introduce in places where people are accustomed to single-family homes on large lots. The challenge then becomes how to have higher densities while maintaining the basic draws of lower-density developments such as privacy and open spaces. This book offers strategies for community design based on sustainable principles. The scale looked at here is that of a place whose size may vary according to location, yet it houses between 10,000 and 20,000 people. The first chapter sets the stage for the ones that follow by describing the roots, evolution, and ramifications of past developments, offering background and casting principles of sustainable development, listing key players in residential development and their potential contribution to attaining sustainability. Chapter 2 outlines principles of places whose v

vi

Preface

density exceeds 25 units per acre (10 units/ha). It offers yardsticks, forms and planning strategies for denser communities, introduces methods of waste management and district heating, and illustrates those principles using a design of a community. Chapter 3 looks at how mobility and connectivity in neighborhoods can be planned to render a place more sustainable. By challenging conventional road design and parking standards and by examining how these can better accommodate everyday social interaction, healthy life style, and cost reduction, the chapter aims to introduce guidelines for creating residential streets and parking areas that serve multiple purposes. Chapter 4 offers a guide on how natural attributes should be considered and integrated to support development of sustainable neighborhoods. The subjects include ground related elements, aspects associated with the climatic conditions of the area and a demonstration project. Higher-density communities are commonly perceived by the public as places with reduced public open spaces. Yet, when properly designed, such projects can have a variety of well-thought out outdoor places that address the recreational needs of all dwellers. In addition, the function that those spaces play and their physical arrangements and locations influence their success, and the character of the neighborhood. Chapter 5 focuses on streetscapes and open and edible lands as a means of defining the aesthetic, social qualities, and the sustainability of a community. Chapter 6 discusses the desire for public reclamation of the water’s edge and proposes sustainable design practices that meet the demands of near-shore residents without compromising public accessibility and enjoyment. Specific techniques elaborate the philosophies for preserving shoreline integrity and present strategies for sustainable form development. The chapter merges community and development objectives to produce holistically liveable shorelines. Chapter 7 begins by discussing issues related to social capital and focuses on incorporating nonresidential spaces and activities into neighborhoods. By investigating traditional living patterns, the chapter aims to offer strategies for creating mixed-use transit-oriented neighborhoods. Chapter 8 focuses on the dwelling and begins by listing social transformations and applicable solutions that respond to the newly emerging needs in a sustainable way, lists architectural strategies for dense contemporary living, describes methods of construction for energy conservation, and the design of a multiunit demonstration structure for flexibility and adaptability. This book is meant to bridge a gap between theoretical notions of environmental sustainability in community design and link them to practical examples. It is the hope that the outcome of this text will help guide current urban development practices to a more sustainable course. Avi Friedman

Acknowledgments

Over the years, I have researched, wrote, taught, lectured, and designed sustainable projects. Many assistants and collaborators took part in these endeavours. I have attempted to remember and acknowledge them all. My apology if I have mistakenly omitted the name of someone who contributed to the ideas, text or illustrations that have been included in this book. I will do my best to correct an omission in future editions. This book could not have been written without contribution to the research and writing by a highly dedicated team of assistants who participated in several research projects that I directed. They included Daniel Casey, Colin Hanley, Po Sune, Archana Vyas, and Martine Whitaker. The help of the Woodcock Foundation, which sponsored the research that led to this book, is truly appreciated. The projects depicted at the end of several chapters have been designed under the direction of my colleague, Professor Louis Pretty and I, and by a team of highly capable graduate students whose names have been listed in the Projects Credits List and includes Kalpita Basu, Shuangqing Cao, Xifan Chen, Mingcheng Fu, Nan Haijun, Qian Huang, Nirit Pilosof, Jiantong Wei, and Xiaoliang Zhao. Many thanks are also extended to those who contributed to the creation of the graphic material that illustrated the chapters. They included Mingcheng Fu, Jing (Jay) Han, Jeff Jerome, and Renier Silva. Special thanks is also extended to Nyd Garavito-Bruhn. Nyd’s hard work and dedication in organizing the data, editing, and preparing the book for publication is much appreciated. To Michael Luby, Senior Publishing Editor and to Marry Struber Associate Editor at Springer, many thanks. I would also like to offer a vote of gratitude to the McGill School of Architecture, where the research projects took place, for its support. Finally, my heartfelt thanks and appreciation to my wife, Dr. Sorel Friedman, and children, Paloma and Ben, for their love and support.

vii

Contents

1 Setting the Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 A Look Back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Sustainability; Principles and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 The Path of Least Negative Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Self-Sustaining Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Supporting Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.4 A Life Cycle Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Influencing Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Financial Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 The Homebuilder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 The Design Firm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Product Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 The Homebuyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 7 8 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14

2

Forms of Sustainable Neighborhoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Choosing a Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Rethinking Urban Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Designing Denser Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Density Yardsticks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Lot Dimensions and Siting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 District Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 The Making of a High-Density Neighborhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.1 High-Density Design Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.2 Guiding Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15 15 17 20 20 21 23 24 25 26 28

3

Streets for People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Current Road Design Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Alternative Streets Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Narrow Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Shared Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Cul-de-sac and Loop Streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33 33 34 35 36 37 ix

x

Contents

3.3

Parking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Parking in Commercial Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Residential Parking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Active Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Moving by Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Moving by Bicycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Active Mobility in Porvoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38 38 40 45 46 48 49

4 Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Ground Related Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Site Selection and Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.4 Soil and Rock Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.5 Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Microclimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Housing in the Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Ecological Patches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Climatic Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Site Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55 55 55 56 57 59 60 62 62 66 69 70 71 73

5

77 77 77 78 80 82 82 83 84 85 86 88 89 90 90 93 94 95 98 98

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Public Outdoor Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Interconnectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Visual Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.4 Proprietorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Streetscapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4 Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.5 Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Edible Landscapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 A New Hybrid Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Pedestrian Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Land–Dwellings Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3 Private Horticultural Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.4 Yard Gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.5 Greenhouses and Roof Gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.6 Community Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Contents

xi

6 Sustaining Shorelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 The Evolution of Lakeside Lifestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Environmental Effects of Shoreline Development . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Strategies for Successful Protection of Shorelines . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Siting Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Shoreline Demonstration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Vegetation as a Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 Common Area, Parking Arrangement, and Paths . . . . . . . 6.6 Treating the Shoreline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

101 101 105 107 109 110 113 113 115 115 116

7 Social Capital and Integrated Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Social Capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Strategies for Mixed-Use Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Pedestrian Pockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Transit-Oriented Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Commercial Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.4 Vertical Mixed-Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.5 Locating Civic Institutions and Other Amenities . . . . . . . . 7.2.6 Designing for Live-Work Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Mixing Commerce and Residences in Peace River . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Opportunities and Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 A Planning Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

119 119 125 127 127 129 132 133 135 136 136 139

8

Sustainable Dwellings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Societal Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Planning Strategies for Dense Living . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 Zero-Lot-Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.2 Z-Lot Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.3 Clustered Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.4 Narrow Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.5 Grow Homes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.6 Adaptable Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Constructing for Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 The Next Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.1 Components à La Carte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.2 Flexibility of Building Exterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.3 A New Urban Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.4 Application of the Next Home Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

143 143 144 145 146 146 147 152 155 158 161 163 165 165 168

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

171

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

173

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

177

About the Authors

Dr. Avi Friedman received his Bachelor’s degree in Architecture and Town Planning from the Israel Institute of Technology, his Master’s Degree from McGill University, and his Doctorate from the University of Montréal. In 1988, he founded the Affordable Homes Program at the McGill School of Architecture where he teaches and an Honorary Professor in Lancaster University in the UK. He is known for his housing innovation and in particular for the Grow Home and Next Home designs. He is the author of 14 books and was a syndicated columnist for the CanWest Chain of daily newspapers. He is the Principal of Avi Friedman Consultants Inc. and the recipient of numerous awards including the Lifetime Achievement Award from Sustainable Buildings Canada, Manning Innovation Award and the World Habitat Award. In the year 2000 he was selected by Wallpaper magazine as 1 of 10 people from around the world “most likely to change the way we live.” McGill University, School of Architecture Macdonald-Harrington Building 815 Sherbrooke Street West Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2K6 E-mail: [email protected]

Avi Friedman, Ph.D.

xiii

1

Setting the Stage

Current modes of community and dwelling design are undergoing rethinking of their philosophy and form. Common post World War II development practices no longer address present and future societal challenges. The need to halt overconsumption of natural resources and explore alternative design and practices is evident. At the turn of the twenty-first century, urban sprawl, with its many, far-reaching negative implications for the society, economy and the environment, requires a fundamental reconsideration and a search for new urban forms. This chapter set the stage for the ones that follow by describing the roots, evolution, and ramifications of past developments, offering background and casting principles of sustainable development, listing key players in residential development and their potential contribution to attaining sustainability.

1.1 A Look Back One can trace the development of contemporary suburban communities to ideas put forward by theorists like Robert Owen and Charles Fournier at the turn of the eighteenth century. Building self-sufficient communities was at the heart of their vision. The relationship between built environments, their natural context and the linking of small towns with large urban centers via public transportation were some of the main features of their schemes. One of the earliest planning concepts was Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City, which described a city in a garden (Fig. 1.1). Although Howard’s ideas were not realized until 1903, when Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker planned the city of Letchworth, UK, illustrated in Fig. 1.2, his work offered the first definition of contemporary planning (Edwards 1981). The city center, according to Howard would radiate out from a central park, followed by commercial amenities, then residential area surrounded by a greenbelt to form a town–country relation. The center would be complimented by structured wards, joined among themselves and with the center, and the distant city by means of rail lines and roads

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 A. Friedman, Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10747-9_1

1

2

1

Setting the Stage

Fig. 1.1 Howard’s proposal of a Garden City offered a relation between a Central City and the surrounding country

network. Green space was segregated from residential areas, but outdoor civic places, such as the Grand Avenue, were integrated with the community plan. The streetscapes were dominated by a radial grid and the open space was not as natural as originally envisioned (Girling and Helphand 1994).

1.1 A Look Back

3

Fig. 1.2 Unwin and Parker design of Letchworth, UK, was based on Howard’s Garden City proposal

Some of these ideas were put into practice with the move to the countryside that began at the turn of the nineteenth century. Wealthy city dwellers purchased large tracts of land in scenic areas near lakes, river shores, and forested areas on which they built summer homes. Some regions with intense migration saw outgrowth of the city’s urban grid to the outskirts. However, the planners of most newly designed communities included nature like components in their plans. Neighborhoods such as Riverside, Illinois, planned by landscape architects Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux in 1869, were thought to be more organic with swats of green areas separating clusters of dwellings (Fig. 1.3). In them, a railway line acted as the main mode of transportation and common open space was more dispersed and widely accessible then in Howard’s plan. The master plan did not emphasize the houses, but rather the naturally flowing curves of the tree-lined streets framed by foliage (Southworth and Ben-Joseph 1997).

4

1

Setting the Stage

Fig. 1.3 Landscape architects Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux’s design of Riverside, Illinois, US was organic with swaths of green areas separating clusters of dwellings

This residential development model eroded in the middle of the twentieth century. Post World War II suburbanization cast a new paradigm in urban planning. The need to house a large number of people away from over-crowded cities, coupled with the popularity and availability of the private motor vehicle, as well as advances in house construction, spurred a massive expansion around urban hubs. There were many ramifications of such practices, and the environment was one of the main casualties. Forested and agricultural land was cleared to make room for tract developments with wide roads. Public parks and private lawns were covered with sod that needed large quantities of fresh water during dry summer months. The homes themselves swelled in size. Strict bylaws mandated large setbacks, footprints, and proportions that bared no resemblance to earlier building patterns, and heritage structures were completely ignored or demolished. Neighborhoods, detached from vernacular context, soon started to resemble each other. Developers and homebuyers produced and consumed domestic space much like any other product. The design of homes became more intricate and complex, resulting in the

1.1 A Look Back

5

Fig. 1.4 Energy consumption in the USA increased as a result of growth in the number of appliances per household

use of many natural resources, of which lumber was the main. Once built, the homes used excessive amount of energy to keep warm in winter and cool in summer as illustrated in Fig. 1.4, vast amount of fresh water and generated waste with damaging consequences on local and indirectly on global environments. In addition, private cars become the chief means of commuting between suburban subdivisions, the city, and local nonresidential amenities whose integration within those neighborhoods was economically prohibitive. Despite the fact that many suburban developments were built as edge cities, with their own commercial and industrial centers, the large city remained the main hub. In recent decades, ownership of private motor vehicles has increased substantially, while the use of public transit has steadily decreased. The ramifications are not only long lineups on highways during rush hours, but also a continuing need to build or expand new and existing roads. The environmental ramifications are also staggering. Carbon dioxide emissions have been recognised by scientists as one of the major causes of global climate change. The social cost of building highways is also significant, as public funds have to be withdrawn from already stretched-out health and education systems for example. Social transformation is another argument for a need for a new thinking about residential design. The demographic makeup of some nations is rapidly changing, and the number of people that are commonly referred to as nontraditional families is growing. Couples with no children, single-parent families, and singles contributed to the reduction of household size in Canada for example (Fig. 1.5). These families, although interested in suburban living, do not necessarily wish to reside in a huge hard to maintain home.

6

1

Setting the Stage

Fig. 1.5 Average household size in Canada 1971–2006

Another demographic trend that is likely to accelerate and merit a sustainable mind-set, is the greying of the population as illustrated in Fig. 1.6. As people live longer, the large single-family home may not be their ideal retirement dwelling due to higher maintenance requirements and physical challenges like stairs. Increased demand for smaller homes in higher density arrangement is likely to occur. This trend is expected to increase in the coming years with the retirement of the “baby boom” generation. These societal transformations bring about a need to propose and implement practices for the development of new communities and the retooling of existing ones to better respond to current and future concerns. New challenges is making decision makers recognize, that old practices needed to be abandoned and new ones based on novel paradigms put in place. Sustainable residential planning reduces reliance on cars by encouraging pedestrian activities and a mix of commercial and residential land uses. Alternative building products and construction methods that consume fewer natural resources are becoming widespread. Attention is being paid to constructing better-insulated homes that consume less energy, and positioning houses to maximise passive solar gain. New lifestyle trend such as the proliferation of digital communications and the rising popularity of working at home have also reduced travel time. Earlier in the twentieth century, sustainable development practices were largely ignored, but alarming scientific evidence and public concerns makes it timely to chart a new course. A catalyst for adopting a new direction is the rate at which land for development is being consumed. Therefore, the need to increase dwelling density is strikingly clear. The intention of this book is not to ignore the positive attributes that draw people to the suburbs in the first place. Affordability, proximity to nature, and having a single-family home with a backyard should be the foundations upon which future development decisions should be based. These aspects should be kept, yet transform and used with care in denser settings.

1.2 Sustainability; Principles and Components

7

Fig. 1.6 Seniors by age groups as percentage of the total Canadian population 1921–2041

1.2 Sustainability; Principles and Components The notion of sustainability was introduced in the mid 1970s as a result of the recognition that current development practices had caused environmental harm. Theorists like Schumacher in a book called Small is Beautiful (1973) warned of actions that, if pursued further, could among others endanger the delicate balance between people and nature. Years later, this reflection led to the establishment of several international initiatives that attempted to outline specific remedial actions. The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), also known as the Brundtland Commission, is probably the best-known international initiative of them all. In a report called Our Common Future (WCED 1987), the commissioners defined sustainable development as “development that meets the present need without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” A conceptual approach, whereby every present action has to be taken while considering its future effect on the environment, was put in place. When broken into subcomponents, it becomes clear that five main aspects influence the functioning of a community (Fig. 1.7). The first is society itself: the residents on their demographic makeup and chosen lifestyles. The second is the economic vitality of a place, since financial failure of an initiative will cause the enterprise to cease to exist. The third factor is the environment itself on its many facets including the built components and nature. The forth aspect has to do with the cultural characteristics of a community and their effect on social attitudes. The last element to affect sustainability is governance. A community, to a large extend, depends on its leadership when it comes to decision-making and their implementation. Only when these aspects are considered and a balance is struck between them, one can also take the future into consideration, how sustainable development is attainable.

8 Fig. 1.7 Five key aspects likely to contribute and influence the sustainable functioning of a community

1

Culture

Setting the Stage

Economy

Governance

Society

Environment

When an attempt is made to diagnose the root cause that led to poor suburban planning practices, ignorance of the inner workings of these pivotal issues can arguably be one of the reasons. Mainstream developments are often regarded as a product, rather than a process, where a range of aspects are being systematically explored and manipulated. The process, the key issues and the relations among them are illustrated below with four general principles. When followed, these principles can guide the conception of a sustainable residential community.

1.2.1 The Path of Least Negative Impact The path of least negative impact is meant to argue that a decision maker of any planning endeavour needs to choose a process that will leave the smallest negative footprints on environmental, societal or economic aspects affecting or affected by the project. At the process outset, impact assessment will be undertaken to ensure that decisions made during the planning stage will have short or no long-term disruptive ramifications on those issues. The negative effects of a project on nature were touched upon above. Yet, a project can also have unwelcomed economic ramifications. A high-priced luxury project in a neighborhood, made of low-income rental units may trigger gentrification, conversion of properties into high priced condominiums and force economically volatile residents out. Also, poorly constructed homes, for example, may stigmatize its occupants and cost more to heat and cool. If a development is constructed by a government authority, taxpayers will have to foot the bill throughout the project’s life.

1.2 Sustainability; Principles and Components

9

Fig. 1.8 Solar powered homes in Alkmaar, the Netherlands

1.2.2

Self-Sustaining Process

When a development is planned, minimizing the project’s initial impact would preferably be a priority. The project’s lifecycle can also be viewed as a self-sustaining process of resources and activities. Metaphorically, one can regard the energy that was used in the project’s conception and building as a generator of additional sources to power its existence and even contribute to the creation of additional similar projects. The self-sustaining principle is applied to each of the subcomponents that makeup sustainable approaches to design and were listed above. When the homes are designed and constructed to include photovoltaic panels or solar collectors, energy generated through them can power the house and avoid reliance on public utilities (Fig. 1.8). Similarly, when rainwater is gathered, purified, and converted into drinking water, the home will have the means to be self sustaining. When excess energy or water is produced, they can potentially be used for communal needs. Additional stored energy, for example, may power streetlights. A similar analogy can be made when the project’s economic performance is studied. Successful projects will attract occupants that will lead to the rapid sale of units, whose profit will be invested in initiating other projects. A self-sustaining initiative can also benefit from a proper mix of dwelling units. When a project offers homes to young families and residences to seniors, a self-sustained social network is put in place. When needed, the young can care for their older family members who live in the same community.

10

1.2.3

1

Setting the Stage

Supporting Relation

Another keystone of a sustainable project is the relationship between its pivotal parts. When a supporting relation is established, attributes of one component can propel activity in another. Influence between disciplines and effects of one on the other will in turn create a supporting system. A design that seeks to leave the list environmental footprints on the site will see, fewer trees cut and might become a marketing success. The project’s economic outcome may benefit clients who will be attracted to the project due to its “green” image. A supporting relation was, therefore, established between environmental and monetary interests. The use of lower cost products made of recycled materials may help address environmental concerns, but also give developer a price advantage over competitors and benefit the project financially. Building smaller homes in a denser configuration, for example, will result in a reduction of urban sprawl. It will also save on cost of land and infrastructure that, when transferred to an end user will produce affordable housing. Municipalities will benefit by ensuring a supply of housing that will help keep their young, first-time homebuyers in the community and create a much-desired social and demographic continuum.

1.2.4 A Life Cycle Approach The mark of a good decision-making for a sustainable system is a project’s ability to sustain itself throughout its entire lifecycle. Be it through each of its components or their interrelation, the conception and construction needs to ensure that the original attributes of the project will be of value, years later. Contributions made in part of the process, although appreciated, will have a lesser impact than those made throughout. If the project is well conceived and economically successful, homeowners will be more likely to invest in maintenance and upkeep, replace old windows, for example, which will contribute to energy savings. A well built home will save its owner expenses on maintenance and operation in the long run. The longer the useful life of a project can be stretched, the better it is. A life cycle approach sees the built environment subjected to an ongoing change and evolution. The process’ elasticity and ability to adapt to various emerging circumstances is one of its key attributes. When a product has a finite life, it will be of lesser value than one that can be refurbished and reused. When dwellings are designed for adaptability and can easily be modified to the needs of subsequent occupants, obsolescence and demolition are prevented. A similar view needs to prevail when codes and bylaws are enacted. They ought to provide a framework for action, yet not restrict the introduction of amendments and changes when times and circumstances require that they be introduced. These principles will be further elaborated and referred to when discussion of various projects will be made below.

1.3 Influencing Participants

1.3

11

Influencing Participants

Building sustainable communities and dwellings requires participation and contribution on the part of all players throughout the project’s lifecycle, as illustrated in Fig. 1.9. This section recognizes each key player’s motive, and, at times, barriers to the building of a residential development based on sustainable principles.

1.3.1 Governments All levels of government are, both directly and indirectly, involved in housing their citizens. Another obligation is to manage natural resources efficiently and to contribute to the adoption of sustainable practices at the local level. It is, therefore, in the best interest of any government to see that its citizens are not only housed adequately, but that the resources used in the construction and upkeep of the homes are well managed. With the growing importance of negotiated environmental protection agreements, governments must also meet international obligations to keep emission levels within set limits. For example, in North America, governments traditionally play a modest role in homebuilding. The act of building is left to the private sector. When govern-

Homebuyers

Governments

- Make decisions about choice of residence and type of purchased home.

- Save resources - Energy-efficent homes - Respect agreements - Regulating agencies

Product Manufacturers - Introduce new “green” products - Active promotion and marketing of products

Financial Institutions

Sustainable Development

- Lend funds to builders - Tend to avoid risks - In a position to offer better loans for purchasing green products

Design Firms

Homebuilders

- Provide information to builders - Introduce new concepts and strategies

- In a position to select “green” strategies and products - Can influence design concepts

Fig. 1.9 Building sustainable communities and dwellings requires participation and contribution on the part of all players throughout the project’s lifecycle

12

1

Setting the Stage

ments do build, they produce dwellings known as public or community housing. Regulation is the primary tool through which authorities control environmental performance of its manufacturing, transport, and building sectors. Different levels of governments set building code standards and zoning laws that exercise control over the end product. It is, therefore, one of the key avenues through which the residential development industry can be affected. Lobbying for change of code standards is the main avenue to achieve sustainability.

1.3.2

Financial Institutions

In a privately managed housing sector, such as that of North America, financial institutions play a critical role. Rarely are residential projects constructed with the builder’s own funds. The main objective of a lender is to decrease the risk associated with the loan. Financing experimental projects with untested technology will not be commonly attempted. Bankers want to make sure that funded projects or their parts will last and will not fail while the bank has still owed money. Several financial institutions that hold themselves to a higher “green standard” are now offering loans with reduced interest rates to support environmental projects.

1.3.3 The Homebuilder A housing project may be initiated by a nonprofit or for-profit organization. The nonprofit sector can either be a government-run agency or a nongovernmental organization (NGO). A government-run project uses public funds to create public or community housing. The project will be not only funded initially, but will be managed or financially supported through its lifecycle by its initiators or their representatives. NGOs have no legal affiliation with any level of government. The organization can, however, benefit from a subsidy program provided by a government agency. The NGO may organize itself in a variety of legal structures. It can be a cooperative, for example, whose members are affiliated based on their ideological beliefs. When a nonprofit organization undertakes a project, funding sources will likely be governmental. A condition to lending may be that the design holds itself to a higher environmental standard. NGOs, such as cooperatives, are also often motivated by their care and respect of an environmental issue. It is likely, therefore, that the many facets of sustainable design will be included in such a project. A for-profit developer can be any private sector firm that sets to develop, build, sell, or rent housing. It can be a land development company that purchased, subdivided, and made land into lots for sale to builders or to be built upon by the development company itself. Despite the fact that construction practices have changed in recent years, the for-profit sector still has a short-term objective to sell homes and invest the profits in another project. Building practices or components that benefit

1.5 Product Manufacturers

13

the environment, yet are costly, time-consuming to install, and have a long payback period may not work in the interest of private builders. Attempts to offer them will be made when and if they can assist in the marketing of the home. The number of “green builders,” nonetheless, has increased, and many are demonstrating that building communities based on sustainable principles are contributing to their bottom line.

1.4 The Design Firm In design firms, planning, architecture, and engineering provide vital knowledge to developers about strategies and technologies for achieving sustainability in the community or the unit levels. When such firms are engaged, they tend to be the principle source of information about new products to make the home energy or resource efficient, for example. However, design firms are not always asked to participate in a common residential project. Small building firms often tend to use old drawings or engage a technician rather than a licensed design consultant or architect. Builders are also reluctant to get involved in the design process due to the ethical implications. Often, designs are changed on site without advance notice or design fees are held back. Large development companies, however, tend to employ consultants and their input is commonly made in large projects.

1.5

Product Manufacturers

Manufacturers and suppliers form a vital part of the building process. For the most part, they are the only participants in the homebuilding industry with sizeable investments in facilities and production equipment. But their greater, more important role has been in the development and promotion of new products that contribute significantly to resource and energy efficiency, for example. One such product is the prefabricated roof truss, which changed the way roofs on wood-frame buildings were constructed and saved significant amounts of material and labor. Another notable example of significant savings in labor and wood is the plywood board. It altered the way roofs and exterior walls, as well as interior subfloors, were constructed by enabling coverage of large surfaces without using solid sawn lumber. Products, tools, and new technologies are continuously invented. Some inventions hold promise, but they require time to be accepted by mainstream builders before they will generate the economy of scale that contributes to resource savings. Builders and investors must be cautious, however, as past experience shows that a “miracle product” has sometimes resulted in failures that necessitated replacement or additional expenses.

14

1

Setting the Stage

1.6 The Homebuyer The homebuyer, the ultimate user of the home, will have an important role to play throughout the project’s lifecycle. When a request to the builder is made, features contributing to resource efficiency may be installed. The occupant will also contribute by upgrading the structure’s performance and renovation or by participating in a recycling program. Traditionally, in lower cost housing, it is not affordable to equip the dwelling with many costly resource-saving features or build to higher building standards. For a buyer, it is therefore a balancing act between cost and performance.

1.7 Conclusion Designing sustainable communities is a holistic process. It is a continuous chain of events that regards the life of communities and homes from site selection to retrofitting residences when they run their useful life. Another critical planning issue is the need to balance social, cultural, environmental and economic aspects. Since developments in many countries are initiated and driven by a profit-motivated private sector, proposing solutions that ignore the priorities of the initiating party are destined to fail. The following chapters were written with the notion that ideas that foster sustainability need to be innovative yet realistic if they are to be implemented.

2

Forms of Sustainable Neighborhoods

Dense urban forms are vital to achieving sustainable neighborhoods. When a large number of people reside in a community, a wide range of amenities and planning strategies become economically viable and possible to introduce. Public transit, commercial and institutional amenities can all become part of the design which will also make the place walkable. The challenge is to choose an appropriate density and make these places appealing and livable. This chapter outlines principles of places whose density exceeds 25 units/acre (62 units/ha). It offers yardsticks, forms and planning strategies for denser communities, introduce methods of waste management and district heating, and illustrate those principles using a design of a community.

2.1

Choosing a Form

A community location and its chosen urban form are often related to the presence and type of major transit systems. A community may have a main arterial road, be it located a short distance from a major highway, or have a railway line and a station at their heart to name a few (Fig. 2.1). Such features can dictate other key aspects of the road network that needs to regard a range of uses and users including motorists, cyclists, and pedestrians. Since the beginning of the twentieth century and with the proliferation of cars, road configuration has changed as a result of parallel evolution in planning concepts. The rise of suburbia and landmark developments such as Radburn, New Jersey, cast a model that influenced residential design to this day. In general, concepts that reduce area allocated to roads and increase dwelling density are more likely to turn a community sustainable. The need for the densification and reduction of urban sprawl witness a call for closing gaps between urban hubs and edge cities (Fig. 2.2). In a nutshell, circulation networks that connect places rather than facilitate movement are likely to be more successful.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 A. Friedman, Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10747-9_2

15

2 Forms of Sustainable Neighborhoods

Major access

16

Adjacent to highway

Light rail crosses

Gridiron

Loops

Cul-de-sacs

Single commercial center

Smaller commercial centers

Sharing commercial center

Green belt

Around a green feature

Integrate small green features

Green natural features

Type of Commerce

Local roads

Arterial road crossing

Fig. 2.1 Key elements affecting the form of a community are: adjacency to major access and thoroughfares, local roads, type of commerce, and natural features

Determining areas and types of the public and private open spaces system is another key conceptual stage in a high-density neighborhood planning. Open spaces are easily accessible networks of green areas that range from the regional to individual dwelling unit levels. Large-scale parks, located outside the neighborhood, will often constitute the majority of the public green spaces. Enclosed outdoor areas adjacent to homes, on the other end, are the private ones. Within these two extremes are neighborhood parks and communal areas for clusters of homes. As density increases, the importance of open spaces rises, since the amount of area allocated to each home declines. In addition to traditional roles, open spaces let sunlight and fresh air into the heart of the neighborhood and accommodate the recreational needs of people of all ages.

2.2 Rethinking Urban Density

Nineteenth Century Pattern

17

Twentieth Century Pattern

Avoiding Sprawl

Fig. 2.2 The need for the densification and reduction of urban sprawl witness a call for closing gaps between urban hubs and edge cities

Deciding about the type of homes and how they should relate to each other is another phase in conceiving a sustainable community. To reach higher-density, the traditional single-family dwelling on a large lot needs to be replaced with multifamily configurations. Apartment houses or stacked dwellings need to be considered (Fig. 2.3). In addition, clustering structures of various densities will lead to a variety of dwelling types and mixed households. In addition, the combination of land uses will also foster a different neighborhood dynamic and will affect its mobility. These issues are elaborated in the following sections.

2.2 Rethinking Urban Density Once the location of a neighborhood has been chosen, and its edges drawn, the desired density will be considered. With an overall drive to curb urban sprawl and increase density, several researchers looked at the relation between higher-density and liveability. Shibu (2010) noted that more than the overall density, what affects social interactions in a community is how those places have been planned (Fig. 2.4). Such a view was supported by Lovejoy et al. (2010) and Howley et al. (2009), who found that what affects residents’ satisfaction is not whether the planning follows traditional or suburban principles but aspects such as housing types, schools’ standing, noise, lack of community involvement, traffic, and absence of amenities. As for compactness, several factors determine what would be considered low-, medium-, or high-density neighborhood. Choices made with respect to the average dwellings’ size, type of parking and the amount of private outdoor space will all affect the resulting densities. For example, attached units can be mixed with detached houses to elevate the overall density and limit sprawl. The attached dwellings can provide owners with privacy, affordability, and help foster a sense of place. The

1 or 2

1 or 2

Number of floors/unit

1 or 2

1200 (111.5)

0.56 72%

19 (47)

3 Row house

1

1200 (111.5)

0.60 80%

21 (52)

4 Triplex 5

1

800 (74.3)

1.36 55%

65 (160)

3-story walk-up apartment

Fig. 2.3 To achieve higher-density, housing prototypes other than single-family homes need to be considered

1200 (111.5)

1200 (111.5)

0.38 81%

0.24 76%

Floor area ratio % open space

Unit area in square feet (unit area in square meters)

14 (35)

2 Semi detached

8 (20)

1 Single detached

Dwelling units/acre (dwelling units/hectare)

Plot plan

Isometric

Dwelling type

1.92 62%

84 (207)

Combined apartments & row houses

1 and 2

800 & 1200 (74.3 & 111.5)

6 7

1

800 (74.3)

1.78 62%

90 (222)

Slab block apartment 8

1

800 (74.3)

2.62 87%

120 (296)

High rise point block apartment

18 2 Forms of Sustainable Neighborhoods

2.2 Rethinking Urban Density

19

Fig. 2.4 Having public open spaces that facilitate social interaction between residents can contribute to the appreciation of higherdensity communities by their residents, as shown in this Querétaro, Mexico neighborhood

higher-density also lowers the need for privately owned vehicles since the increased number of residents makes public transit economically viable. Single-family detached dwellings on their typically low-density of 4–6 units/ acre (10–15 units/ha) are not sustainable. These homes accommodate 25 % fewer people, consume 15–67 % more energy than row houses or apartment for example. The increase in smaller households due to having families with fewer children, single parent, and an ageing population, means that detached houses once built for nuclear families may no longer meet future demand. In addition, many small households cannot afford to buy a home due to lower income, land scarcity, increasing infrastructure, and construction costs. From a development perspective, dense designs such as townhomes that are illustrated in Fig. 2.5 are more profitable because they require less investment in infrastructure and produce more units per land area. At present, land available for development, particularly in North America, does not seem to be overly scarce. Yet, constraints due to the need to preserve natural and agricultural areas, the high cost of fuel, and the distance that people are willing to commute to their workplaces, all place a finite limit on the amount of land around a city that can be developed. Nonetheless, for any residential development to be feasible, it must appeal to potential homebuyers. In other words, be it a lowdensity or a high-density development, the design must be attractive. Therefore, the introduction and success of higher-density housing prototypes need to depend on design factors that are carefully thought out to create a place where people enjoy their living environment. Restrictions of dense residential development revolve around several factors. First, zoning in many places favours single-family detached dwellings because municipal governments collect more taxes when costly homes are built. Second, historically poor perception of row houses continues to stigmatise the modern adaptations of these units. On the other hand, history also demonstrates that properly designed compact housing forms can offer very pleasant living environments.

20

2 Forms of Sustainable Neighborhoods

Fig. 2.5 Townhouses accommodate more people per unit area and consume less energy due to their attached configuration

Despite some legal and market barriers to dense residential designs, those challenges can be overcome. Issues involving circulation and parking, private and public open space provisions, and individual and community identity can all be thoughtfully addressed to attract residents who are looking for quality affordable accommodation. Attractive, dense sustainable communities can accommodate automobile and pedestrian movement, the clustering of multiuse living arrangements, and reduce energy consumption (Calthorpe 1993; Barton 2000).

2.3 Designing Denser Communities The introduction of communities with high-density dwellings needs to be undertaken with caution. The advantageous aspects of single-family homes, such as privacy and open space, must be incorporated in new designs. Simultaneous elimination of environmentally unsustainable elements such as excessive road coverage must also be considered. Several key aspects that affect the design of such developments have been assembled here, selected in accordance with their contribution to the environmental, economic, and social viability of a place.

2.3.1

Density Yardsticks

Urban density is a subjective term that relates to a particular location and culture. An Asian neighborhood is likely to be much denser than its North American counterpart, for example. The question is, therefore, how should density be regarded and what are the common yardsticks of such neighborhoods? Typical twentieth century suburban and city forms have two distinct densities. The first is of considerably lower and averages 7 units/acre (17 units/ha). The large lot size and infrastructure costs per unit are high and may result in higher dwelling

2.3 Designing Denser Communities

21

costs and foster urban sprawl. In contrast, a high-density areas has over 31 units/ acre (77.5 units/ha), which is likely to be unpopular with the typical buying public. Typical would-be buyers will be reluctant to accept crowded communities that lack public and private open spaces, for example. By combining planning features from low-density and high-density designs as illustrated in Fig. 2.6, one can introduce urban forms with a unique character. Such a design averages 25 units/acre (55 units/ha), with rear private parking and yards for each unit. Minimal, though acceptable, widths separate the houses. Moreover, green open space located at the center of the cluster can be made accessible from each unit, which is associated with the notion that public parks are crucial to community interaction. The new design for high-density communities mixes ideas taken from traditional, late nineteenth century high-density communities with contemporary designs.

2.3.2 Lot Dimensions and Siting Choice of lot dimensions and home siting is a rudimentary phase in higher-density planning. A typical lot size in post-World War II suburban design was 50 by 100 ft (15 by 30 m). Over time, similar lot sizes have been written into the bylaws of many municipalities. Increasing density, however, is mandating choice of a narrower lot. To achieve this, the planner must transform the house’s traditional siting and move the garage, often located at the front, to the rear, which also requires the introduction of a lanes system. The front setback can be reduced and the home can be “pushed” forward. The length of the lot could then be shortened from the common 100 ft (30 m) to 92 ft (28 m), with a 16 ft (5 m) rear lane. A narrow street with slightly taller buildings will also foster a more pleasant human scale. When subdividing land, the tendency in low density development is to have more homes face a green open space, be it a park or a golf course. This practice needs to be used with care in higher-density developments. A desirable situation will be to have streets with homes on either side which would also make efficient use of costly infrastructure. The intermittent introduction of small public squares and parks can help alleviate feelings of crowdedness (Fig. 2.7). Reduction of lot sizes means that arrangements for privacy and landscaping must be reconfigured to accommodate higher-density. Houses, for example, can be clustered, which preserves any natural areas around the build site. Clustered dwellings work well for groups of 8–12 units where open, shared common spaces can be placed between buildings and smaller private yards can be part of each home as demonstrated in Fig. 2.8. The different orientation of the dwellings also allows for views onto green areas as opposed to views into other units. In the past highdensity developments, individual private open spaces, even though small, were appreciated and used for such activities as clothes drying, children’s play, sitting, and gardening.

22 Fig. 2.6 Mixing aspects of high-density neighborhoods with privacy and green open spaces can create livable denser communities

2 Forms of Sustainable Neighborhoods

2.4 Waste Management

23

Fig. 2.7 A front green open space can lessen the higher-density effect of townhomes as shown in this Montreal, Canada project

Fig. 2.8 Orientation of clusters of dwellings toward common green areas can alleviate the feeling of crowdedness as shown in this project in Haarlem, the Netherlands

2.4 Waste Management The conventional methods of dealing with waste entail shipping garbage to a seemingly limitless, out-of-sight landfill. However, present landfills are becoming increasingly concerning as waste levels rise, leachates pollute groundwater, and odors permeate inhabited areas. According to studies by the city of Halifax and Environment Canada (1992), about a third of all the total nonhazardous waste is generated by residential sources. The burden of waste collection and removal on the environment and community’s finances can be greatly reduced if sustainable recycling programs are made available and attractive (Fig. 2.9). The potential of such actions becomes evident as up to approximately 75 % of this waste could be recycled, reused, or composted, diverting it away from toxic landfill systems.

24

2 Forms of Sustainable Neighborhoods

Fig. 2.9 Recycling domestic waste has become a common practice in many cities

By virtue of its layout, a high-density community already contributes to reduction of waste in construction material and energy needed to construct and provide basic services such as roads, electrical wiring, and wastewater treatment. The additional impact of the dense housing offers opportunity for communal composting and recycling centers that require less land and storage space for waste and recyclables than personal composters or recycling boxes. Composters, purchased or made from recycled wooded pallets, are size-adjustable to accommodate more than one household. Leaves, lawn clippings, fruit and vegetable wastes and scraps, and wood ash from fireplaces or wood stoves can all be added to a compost pile. The bin can be located away from uncontrollable water sources, far away from the edge of a roof, and aerated to speed composting. The combined savings from composting waste from landfills reduces landfill costs to the community and slows extraction of natural resources for new materials. Implementing composting, and recycling strategies in a new or existing neighborhood could be accomplished with little disruption to original plans. Communal and personal composters can be installed in backyards and common areas. By designing areas for compostable waste, inhabitants will be encouraged to reduce their impacts on the environment.

2.5

District Heating

When a central, common source of heating is powering a neighborhood, it is referred to as district heating. The source can be of any kind, including wind, solar, geothermal, or even fuel-based (Fig. 2.10). The advantage of such a system is the savings that it offers to each household. No heating system has to be purchased by individual homeowners. The system is installed by the developing firm, which charges each dweller based on consumption. It offers savings through economies

2.6 The Making of a High-Density Neighborhood

25

Fig. 2.10 Power generating wind turbines near Glasgow, Scotland supply power to nearby communities

of scale that reduces the cost for each individual homeowner. To be economically viable, large numbers of users must be connected to the system. District heating is common in some countries. In Iceland, for example, geothermal water sources are used to heat residences. Solar heating systems were implemented in Herlev near Copenhagen in Denmark (Boyle 1996), providing space heating to 92 dwelling units. There, a central solar collector field of 11,000 ft2 (1025 m2) heats a large insulated water tank to 176 °F (80 °C). The system also satisfies the community’s hot water requirement. The Southampton Geothermal District Heating Scheme in Southampton, UK, is another example of a district heating system. In this project, a borehole was drilled near the city to a depth of 6000 ft (1800 m) to encounter water at 158 °F (70 °C). Through a system of coils and pipes, the water is brought to the surface and then distributed within a 1.2 mile (2 km) radius to several buildings. Studies demonstrate that the system saved the town substantial amounts of money in energy costs (Boyle 1996).

2.6 The Making of a High-Density Neighborhood The site chosen to illustrate a high-density neighborhood design is located in the City of Pointe Claire, a Montreal suburb that is in close proximity to two other suburban cities, Kirkland and Dollard-des-Ormeaux (Fig. 2.11). The site borders a large shopping center to east and that include a public transit hub. Highway 40 stretches across the southern portion causing a significant noise by the constant flow of speeding vehicles and to the west lies a pharmaceutical facility (Fig. 2.12). Documentation of the place’s existing vegetation coverage inspired the site planning and helped decide where clusters of units are to be built. The vegetation can be categorised into three types. Forestland covers 31 % of the site, and low-lying

26

2 Forms of Sustainable Neighborhoods

Fig. 2.11 The location of the project’s site in the City of Pointe-Claire, Quebec, Canada

vegetation covers 41.8 % with grassy terrain encompassing the remaining 26.7 % of the area (Fig. 2.13). Socio-economic factors also influenced the design of both the community and choice of units. As for housing tenure in the area, 60 % of residents are homeowners while 40 % are renters. Affordability, diversity of housing types, accessibility for people with reduced mobility, and easy maintenance were all identified as necessary elements to consider when the program was established.

2.6.1 High-Density Design Options As noted above, twentieth century residential designs can be categorised in two types. The first was considerably low density pattern with large lots and high cost of land and services. In contrast, the high-density design which can be found in cities has apartment and row houses. It was therefore established that potential buyers in our site would be less likely to accept a crowded community with reduced green open space. As such, extremely dense housing form may not be as attractive. Merging principles from both densities, introduces a combination design where the averages can be 22 units/acre (55 units/ha), with private parking and yards for each unit. Minimal, though acceptable, widths separate houses. Moreover, it was envisioned that the green open space located in the center of the cluster will be accessible from each unit. In high-density communities averaging 15–30 units/acre (35–75 units/ha) alleys were used not only for parking and delivery of utilities but also as extensions of people’s backyards to become social spaces. Therefore, the proposed community combines elements such as the alley, open space and the existing forestland. It is important to note that a neighborhood is not only a spatial concept, but also includes number of psychological attributes.

2.6 The Making of a High-Density Neighborhood

1. Existing Community

27

2. Pharmaceutical Plant

4 1

TE

SI

3 2

3. Commercial Area

4. Fairview Shopping Mall

Fig. 2.12 The site borders shopping centers, existing community and a pharmaceutical plant

28

2 Forms of Sustainable Neighborhoods

Fig. 2.13 The site’s existing natural vegetation

2.6.2 Guiding Design Principles The design principles adopted here build upon successes and failures experienced throughout successive design stages which included research and fieldwork. Below are some of the key components (Figs. 2.14 and 2.15).

2.6.2.1 Roads and Parking The dense design considered the local context and proposed the placement of the highest-density developments around the site’s edge. As a result, traffic noise would be largely blocked. The streets’ systems originate from the existing roads surrounding the site, which facilitates traffic flow among the intersection and Fairview Mall. These guiding design principles ensure that the community integrates harmoniously with the surrounding neighborhoods. New circulation systems connect to existing roads and maintain traffic flows. Moreover, the houses are aligned along an existing traffic axis consistent with nearby developments to respect the area’s urban fabric. On-street parking provisions complimented street sizes. Main streets are wide enough to fit street parking on either side. In contrast, secondary and tertiary streets can accommodate parking on one side only. On-site parking solutions offered several models. First, parking lots relegated to clusters’ corners make efficient use of land while ensuring a quiet, residential feel. Alternatively, indoor parking may reduce cost of land which is most appropriate for high-density dwellings. 2.6.2.2 Dwellings Following a careful consideration of 37 acres (11 ha) site area and an average density of 20 units/acre (50 units/ha), the total number of units was 530. Dwelling design varies with 110 single detached houses or 21 % of all the units, and 140 semidetached dwellings comprising 27 % of the total. There were also 192 rowhouses which amounted to 37 % of the units. The remaining 88 units, or 15 %, were in apartments buildings.

2.6 The Making of a High-Density Neighborhood

29

Conceptual representation of the master plan

Built and open areas

The road system in each cluster

Fig. 2.14 The guiding planning principles

30

2 Forms of Sustainable Neighborhoods

Fig. 2.15 The master plan

Clusters of 46 lots with 68 units enclose a green open space (Fig. 2.16). The medium-size park of 12,400 ft2 (1152 m2) is placed in the center. To create a livable green open space system, several small yards, were integrated between clusters of units measuring 818 ft2 (76 m2) each. The large green area demarcates space between the private and the public realm, essential attributes in any higher-density development. Moreover, the residential open space creates a place for community gathering. Importantly, the quiet, community image was maintained due to the traffic circulation scheme, with secondary and tertiary streets connecting the clusters. The alley, a common and useful North American design staple, was efficiently used. The communal park sits in the center of the cluster to extend the green space of each unit beyond the alley and into the park. Parking provisions allow for 1.55 spaces per unit, where each single-detached dwelling owns one parking space and each semidetached unit claims three parking spots. The challenge of developing an appropriate site plan was to increase the neighborhood’s density while simultaneously increasing the percentage of green open space (Figs. 2.17 and 2.18). However, these two goals typically are opposite to traditional and contemporary dense dwelling design. A balance among demands was achieved. While density decreased from 25 to 20 units/acre (62 to 50 units/ ha), green space increased from 10 to 14.4 % of the total area. The rationale behind the changes stemmed from a site-sensitive analysis. The area near Highway 40 was chosen to be the hub of commercial activity. As a result, the total area for development dropped from 37 acres (15 ha) to 26 acres (10.5 ha). The designers decided that 25 units/acre (62 units/ha) in the 26 acre (10.5 ha) residential site would have been too compact. Developments must be socially acceptable as well as liveable.

2.6 The Making of a High-Density Neighborhood

31 Cluster area: 15,672 square feet (1,456 square meters); Green space: 12,400 square feet (1,152 square meters); Units: 68 units; Parking space: 1.55 units

Central green area

Vehicular and pedestrian circulation

Parking arrangement

Fig. 2.16 A proposed typical dwelling cluster

Therefore, the design increased the amount of existing open space allocated in the site plan. Subsequently, the total density lowered to 20 units/acre (50 units/ha), which is nonetheless higher than the usual suburban density of 12 dwelling units per acre (30 units/ha). Since demand for high-density is likely to increase, planners can disseminate past lessons learnt and improve upon them. Designers can respond in a way that reintroduces compact communities in a positive light, and ensures that they be both livable and sustainable.

32

Fig. 2.17 An aerial view of the site plan

Fig. 2.18 The site plan in the adjacent urban context

2 Forms of Sustainable Neighborhoods

3

Streets for People

Zoning regulations and codes that guided the planning of post-World War II communities regarded the fast and efficient movement of privet cars as one of their central goals. Street design has been based on engineering conventions that made it easy for drivers to reach their destination while in parallel, unintentionally, reducing the comfort level of pedestrians and cyclists. This chapter looks at how mobility and connectivity in neighborhoods can be planned to render a place more sustainable. By challenging conventional road design and parking standards and by examining how these can better accommodate everyday social interaction, healthy life style, and cost reduction, the chapter aims to introduce guidelines for creating residential streets and parking areas that serve multiple purposes.

3.1 Current Road Design Practices Neighborhood streets are designed to function in an hierarchical manner. Commonly, a series of arterial roads border the edges of a neighborhood from which smaller collector streets branch off. These collectors constitute the community’s main residential streets and are also likely to house commercial activities. Then, local streets branch off from the collectors. Finally, lower on the hierarchy of roads are cul-de-sac streets, loop roads and lanes. There is no single set of rules for street widths. However, most suburban municipalities commonly regulate 50–60 ft (15.2–18.3 m) rights-of-way, the distance between the lots lines of residences across the road from each other as illustrated in Fig. 3.1. This usually results in a 30 ft (9.1 m) asphalt covered driving width from curb to curb, and an allowance of 10 ft (3 m) on either side for sidewalks. In most municipalities the 10 ft (3 m) of land directly adjacent to the sidewalk which bordered a private lot is considered municipal property. Current roads’ designs are formulated on two basic criteria: improvement of safety and the elimination of traffic congestion. The outcome of this practice have © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 A. Friedman, Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10747-9_3

33

34

3 Streets for People

6’

7’

(1.8m)(2.1m)

34’

(10.4m)

60’

(18.3m)

Fig. 3.1 A typical cross section of North American suburban residential street

usually been more cars on the road and increased operating speeds. The common approach for further increasing safety on streets has been to create wider and straighter roads with fewer interruptions. In most newly built places, local roads built according to those standards, could comfortably accommodate four lanes of moving traffic, but studies show that such streets never experiences the high traffic volume to which they have been designed not even during rush hours. While wide and straight streets may improve visibility, give the driver a sense of control, they accommodate faster-moving traffic that poses greater danger to other road users. Drivers have less time to react to pedestrians crossing the street, walking to parked cars or children at play. Rather than planning communities with narrower streets most municipalities are resorting to placing speed bumps and other means to slow down through traffic as illustrated in Fig. 3.2.

3.2 Alternative Streets Design Well planned streets in sustainable communities need to reflect local history, the economic and social diversity of a neighborhood, be pedestrian-friendly, livable and respond to the unique geographic characteristics of a place. There should be a bal-

Fig. 3.2 Most municipalities are resorting to placing speed bumps and other means to slow down traffic as shown in a community near Amsterdam, the Netherlands

3.2 Alternative Streets Design

35

Fig. 3.3 An 18 ft (5.5 m) wide local street in Montreal, Quebec, Canada

ance between the motorized and nonmotorized users to which Francis (1987) refers to as “democratic” streets. It should be however noted that not all residential streets are similar. Some serve bigger traffic volumes in places with higher residential densities. The planning of those streets need to suit the local requirements. Some alternative street designs that encourage sustainable practices are presented below.

3.2.1

Narrow Streets

Narrow streets require drivers to slow down without a need to introduce speed bumps or alerting signage. Less paved surface area will also ultimately result in having more area for other land uses, higher-density developments, increased green spaces, and lower housing cost (Fig. 3.3). Untermann (1987) suggests that “the optimum speed is far slower than people realize, given the fact that drivers tend to exceed the posted limit by 5 to 7 mile/h (8– 11 km/h)”. Along heavily walked streets, Untermann estimates the maximum safe speed to be 20 miles/h (32 km/h). On neighborhood streets, it should be 15 miles/h (24 km/h) with speeds posted at 10 miles/h (16 km/h). According to the author some drivers will inevitably be annoyed at first, but new speed limits may provoke them to switch, at least occasionally, to foot or bicycle travel. Straight streets can also encourage higher driving speeds. Streets with bent alignments do not allow drivers to see too far ahead, inducing them to proceed cautiously. Slower driving speeds on residential streets can be achieved by periodically narrowing the roadway, a practice known as bottlenecking. Adding planter boxes

36

3 Streets for People

Fig. 3.4 A shared street in a Malmo, Sweden neighborhood

and other street furniture at intervals on the side of roads could achieve this end, as they signify an area dedicated to pedestrians and encourage drivers to proceed with caution.

3.2.2

Shared Streets

Streets should be seen as a physical and social settings integrated with the dwellings (Fig. 3.4). They can be used simultaneously for vehicular movement, social contact, play, and civic gathering. The integration of traffic and residential activities has stimulated new street design that increased the level of walkability and safety. Shared Streets in countries like Germany, the Netherlands, UK, Australia, and Japan have significantly altered the character of a place and contributed positively to the pedestrian experience. The surface area of shared streets is greatly reduced from the typical 12 to 30 ft (3.6–9.1 m) to a narrower dimension, depending on local standards, to enhanced comfort (Fig. 3.5). There are several advantages to the use of shared streets over conventional ones. Planter boxes and other landscaping features, the presence of parked cars, and the unique textured surface help slow down through traffic. Drivers seeking faster efficient travel will often use alternate routes,

3.2 Alternative Streets Design

37

12’

(10.4m)

20’

(1.8m)

50’

(18.3m)

Fig. 3.5 A typical cross section of a shared street

thereby reducing the amount through traffic. The connective nature of shared streets with local amenities increases the ease and the purpose of walking, fostering higher degrees of active lifestyle and livability. These attributes commonly contribute to the establishment of better community’s sense of ownership (Appleyard 1987). Parked cars can be nicely integrated into shared streets. The presence of the car can be made less noticeable by creating bays and planting trees near them. In existing neighborhoods roads facing public institutions such as schools, libraries, athletic facilities, or markets could be transformed and become sheared. These areas can be seen as entry plazas or extensions of the institution into the public realm. The portion of roadway directly in front of an institution should be treated differently from the rest of the street with unique paving patterns, streetscaping, and landscaping.

3.2.3 Cul-de-sac and Loop Streets The term cul-de-sac literally means the bottom of a sack. A single point of entry and exit characterizes those dead-end streets which also have circular ends. Only a small number of local residents or service vehicles are likely to drive on them which offer an incentive to reduce their right of way. Yet, it is not unusual for a cul-de-sac with ten dwellings to unnecessarily have a 30 ft (9 m) roadway and a 50–55 ft (15–17 m) turning radius. Studies show that a 20 ft (6.1 m) roadway should be sufficient. In general, residents and land developers alike prefer cul-de-sac and loop streets, since they offer greater privacy, safety, and calm play area for children. However, when poorly designed, they lack connectivity with other clusters of homes, parks, playgrounds, and other amenities. In a proper design, loop and cul-de-sac streets can maintain these advantages while at the same time establish a greater network by creating footpaths that connect streets to one another. The commonly used scale of cul-de-sac streets therefore has to be reexamined. In many ways, they can be regarded as shared courts with houses clustered around it.They can be designed around the principles of shared streets and include the features that were noted above. The planted area in the center of the loop or cul-de-sac can be at the level of the road and include street furniture such as benches under trees and parking spaces (Fig. 3.6). When suitably planned, cul-de-sac or loop roads

38

3 Streets for People

Fig. 3.6 Cul-de-sac with visitors’ parking arrangement

can become part of the green public realm further contributing to social interactions (Fig. 3.7).

3.3 Parking Commonly, in residential areas and the commercial places that serve them, vast amount of space are dedicated to parking. It is the outcome of a prevalent “car culture” and an urban planning that saw segregation of land uses and low level of public transit. The need to adopt a new mind-set and reconfigure parking alternatives is therefore necessary if a sustainable community is to be established. Some alternatives are presented below.

3.3.1 Parking in Commercial Settings In commercial zones, a common practice is to site row of stores or malls far back from the road and place parking lots in between. This configuration contributes to lack of pedestrian activity and forces walkers to use their cars. Typically, parking requirements in commercial area are mandated by building size. Zoning are frequently required between three and five parking spaces per every 1000 ft2 (92.9 m2) of floor area. Four spaces per 1000 ft2 (92.9 m2) are often referred to by planners as

3.3 Parking

39

Fig. 3.7 A cul-de-sac with a green median in Alkmaar, the Netherlands

a “magical number” or the “golden rule” in designing parking spots near commercial establishments (Wilson 1995). The underlying principle of the ideas presented below is to have parking facilities serve more than a single function.

3.3.1.1 Mixing Land Uses Encouraging shoppers to walk or bike to a store could reduce parking requirement. This is influenced by factors such as accessibility to and the location of amenities, journey distances, safety and the quality of pedestrian routes. Introduction of higher residential densities coupled with mixed-use planning, can help make walking to commercial establishments more attractive (Fig. 3.8). Pedestrian friendly and sheared streets, shorter walking distances, and connected networks are essential to encouraging walking and cycling. In addition, adjacent parking lots may be connected to one another via bike and pedestrian paths which will make them more accessible and usable turning them into a walkable system.

Fig. 3.8 An apartment building with residences above large stores in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

40

3 Streets for People

3.3.1.2 Designing for Different Peak Uses There are alternatives to the creation of large expanses of asphalt covered parking lots that are often overdesigned to accommodate many vehicles in peak period use. This means that they are underused in the rest of the time. Reducing the amount of parking can be accomplished by sharing lots. Businesses with different peak hours use, could share spaces instead of each one having their own. For example, an office building that is part of a mall would have peak parking hours on weekdays between 9:00 AM and 6:00 PM, whereas restaurants or movie theatres would have evening and weekend peak hours. As a result, the size of each lot could be greatly reduced if these establishments are to combine their parking facilities. 3.3.1.3 Parking “Plazas” Another consideration for improving surface parking is by adding landscaping features. According to Childs (1999) parking lots can become spaces in which people meet each other and engage in conversations. Parking lots can therefore be designed as part of the public realm and treated as places for interaction. Trees and other plants can create a softer pleasing space instead of vast expanse of asphalt. Trees and shrubs can provide shade and foster a comfortable microclimate and reduce urban heat island. Parking lots placed to the side of a building can be screened-off from the sidewalk with low shrubs or fences. With careful consideration of landscaping, they can take on the appearance and qualities of green open spaces. Business activities could also spill out into those parking lots to create a usable outdoor space. Parked cars near restaurants for example, can be screened off an outdoor terrace with a row of trees or tall plants. For example, a movie theatre of a community center could create a small outdoor screening area by projecting films on blank walls at night. Such ideas may reinforce the use of parking lots as public places. Their physical characteristics also makes parking lots suitable to accommodate activities such as garage sales, farmers markets, and large public gatherings.

3.3.2

Residential Parking

According to Childs (1999) a typical car spends nearly half of its life parked at or near the owner’s place of residence. With the ever increasing number of private vehicles, the total area dedicated to indoor or outdoor residential parking is highly significant and costly. In a typical suburban development with 5000 ft2 (450 m2) lots, 56 ft (17 m) right-of-ways, and a 20 ft (6.1 m) driveway attached to every house, the total amount of paved land can reach about 50 % of the entire neighborhood area (Southworth and Ben-Joseph 1997). This land could be better used for residences, open spaces, and public areas. Parking garages which have traditionally been placed at the rear, have been moved to the front and grown to dominate the house. In newer developments, garage doors have become the main visual feature and driveways and have become a middle domain between homes and streets. It is ironic that in some neighborhoods

3.3 Parking

41

Fig. 3.9 On-street parking in Porvoo, Finland

the entry to a parking garage is way more dominant than the walkway to the occupant’s dwelling. Parking in residential areas would be more sustainable if they were designed to serve more than one function and better integrated with local landscape and streetscape. Alternative parking arrangements can help restore a human scale and sense of place. The following suggestions are aimed to minimize the focus on, and the amount of valuable land taken up by the automobile.

3.3.2.1 On-Street Parking In new communities local zoning often limit or prohibit on-street parking since some argue, that it may diminishes the aesthetic qualities of the streets. Yet, onstreet parking has several advantages worth looking at. First, residents do not have to provide additional paved space for their cars on their own property as illustrated in Fig. 3.9. This could offer financial savings as well as reduce the total amount of paved area which means more green or buildable spaces for community use. Second, parked cars along streets may slow drivers down by narrowing the streets. Third, the row of parked cars provides a buffer zone between pedestrians and moving traffic making walking safer. The visual effect of parked cars can also be minimized by suitable landscaping and streetscaping.

42

3 Streets for People

Fig. 3.10 Grouped parking can be planned above ground ( left) and below ground ( right)

The disadvantage of on-street parking is that the parked cars may screen pedestrians trying to cross a street or children chasing a ball. These challenges could be avoided if the speed on local streets is lowered.

3.3.2.2 Grouped Parking Grouped parking for about 20 cars can maximize the flexibility of that space, minimize construction and maintenance cost, and fit well when integrated with small clusters of dwellings (Fig. 3.10). The area needed for 20 cars is about 4000 ft2 (400 m2). If the grouped parking areas are too large, they may compete and take away from space allocated to dwelling and green space. However, if they are made too small, due to luck of maneuvering room they may not be functional (Zhang 2002). People often meet where they park their cars. Grouped parking can potentially provide a social setting for some residents and contain rechargeable shard auto spots (Fig. 3.11). Therefore, they can be designed to become part of an open space system, be comfortable outdoor like rooms, and landscaped to fit nicely with street and green areas design. 3.3.2.3 Alleys Cars and garages can be placed at the rear of homes by employing a secondary street system of back alleys. Images of dark, dangerous, narrow access ways come to mind when the word “alley” comes up. After World War II in North America, from variety of reasons that are mostly rooted in economy, many municipalities and land developers have chosen to eliminate alleys from their urban vocabulary. However, garages, offices, garden sheds, basketball hoops, and guest houses can all share space with parking and transform an alley into well used activity space (Fig. 3.12).

3.3 Parking

43

Fig. 3.11 A rechargeable shared auto parking station near Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Fig. 3.12 A paved and landscaped lane in Malmo, Sweden

Care must be taken in planning an alley with adequate lighting and clear views from residences. They can support many social activities as well as serve utilitarian purposes. Waste bins and other utilities should be kept in dedicated screened areas to limit their visibility. Alternative planning arrangements, paving materials such as grass, permeable concrete pavers, or a pair of wheel ways may help differentiate the alley from the street and signal to drivers to proceed slowly (Fig. 3.13). If alleys are to be designed as outdoor rooms, their civic function will become clear and useful. In addition, streetscape will be improved when alleys and garages are placed at the rear because the most prominent feature of the street then becomes the house itself and not the cars, driveways, and garage doors.

44

3 Streets for People

Fig. 3.13 Alternative lane parking arrangements in high-density neighborhoods

3.4 Active Mobility

45

Fig. 3.14 In this street in Texel, the Netherlands, use of cars is permitted on certain hours only

3.3.2.4 Shared Drives Vehicles crossing sidewalks are a hindrance to pedestrians. In addition, curb cuts create obstacles for wheelchairs and people pushing baby strollers for example. A single driveway shared between two adjacent homes decreases the number of required curb cuts and minimizes potential safety hazards. Shared driveways along property lines could function to serve a group of adjacent home. A well designed shared drive could also play a social function much like the parking courts and the alleys that were discussed above.

3.4

Active Mobility

Providing a sidewalk may not go far enough in creating good pedestrian environments. An extensive, safe, and efficient sidewalks and paths networks alone does not necessary foster walking and cycling habits. Shorter travel distances, integration of other means of transportation, street furniture, nice places to walk or bike to, and higher-densities of dwellings that include commercial and institutional amenities are also essential (Fig. 3.14). The design of a comprehensive system for active transportation must address these issues as well as the physical attributes of streets and pathways. Density and land use zoning severely limit the practicality of walking and cycling for purposes other than recreation. Suburban neighborhoods tend to be low density with long travel distances between activity hubs, whereas cities offer a richer mix of uses. When it comes down to personal safety, many pedestrians are understandably unwilling to use streets on foot or bicycle.

46

3 Streets for People

Consideration for the well-being and convenience of pedestrians and cyclists must take priority in the design of sustainable neighborhoods. A greater degree of thought and planning for users other than the driver is therefore necessary. Safety, convenience, and ease of walking and cycling are essential and will be outlined below.

3.4.1 Moving by Foot Walking has many benefits, including increased socialization, enhanced physical health, relaxation, and independence. Pedestrian activity makes a neighborhood safer, livable and the presence of people on a street makes others feel utterly comfortable. Important considerations for the integration of pedestrian movement into the road and street network are illustrated below.

3.4.1.1 Safety Road design, traffic intensity, and speed greatly influence the perceived and actual safety of walking on any given street. In residential communities, most serious accidents occur on busy roads without sidewalks and at intersections (Untermann 1987). Providing wide sidewalks, separated from traffic lanes by planted strips, and installing appropriate signage improves the safety of walkers along busier roads (Fig. 3.15). Planted strips can help shield pedestrians from traffic and soften the effect of hard asphalt surfaces. Intersections can be made safer for pedestrians by building narrower streets, which allow for smaller intersections and shorter crossing distance. At wider intersections and street crossings, pedestrian refuges provide waiting areas for pedestrians until it is clear to cross. Those refuges are raised islands in the middle of the street that allow slower walkers to cross one lane of traffic at a time. They should be of minimum 4 ft (1.2 m) wide and extend beyond the crosswalk to protect pedestrians from left-turning traffic. 3.4.1.2 Continuous Sidewalks and Safer Crossings Pedestrians can be further protected from moving vehicles by having continuous, uninterrupted sidewalks that are distant from the street that ensures a walker’s safety (Fig. 3.16). At intersections the street slopes upward to meet the crosswalk, allowing cars to pass over them. Creating raised crosswalks is a greater civic gesture than the random placement of speed bumps. Raised crosswalks would serve the same function and force drivers to slow down when approaching an intersection, whether pedestrians are crossing or not. Expanding a sidewalk into an adjacent driving lane at intersections provides pedestrians with a better view of oncoming traffic. Intersections are made safer by providing additional waiting room for walkers as well as reducing the crossing distance to the other side of a road.

3.4 Active Mobility

47

Fig. 3.15 A sign alerting motorists to slow down and permit seniors to cross safely in a Melbourne, Australia and neighborhood

Fig. 3.16 Uninterrupted sidewalks that are distant from the street that ensures a walker’s safety as shown in this Montreal neighborhood

3.4.1.3 Convenience and the Pleasure of Walking Improving the convenience of walking depends on the route’s path, its continuity and the travel distances. There must also be a connection to other forms of public transit such as buses and commuter trains. Pedestrian networks must work with other transportation networks at both the departure point and the destination if they are to be well used. A simple and comfortable transition from one form of transport to another should be made accessible for users of all ages. Reducing distances can go a long way to encourage walking. It can be seen in cities where many small trips are made on foot rather than cars. Shorter travel distances are related to density as well as planning for mixed uses. Denser, mixed-use

48

3 Streets for People

communities that place more recreational, commercial, and employment closer to homes foster good walking habits. Travel distance is also related to the directness of routes. Networks of paths and streets connecting many facilities to one another are important. Being physically close to a shopping area is of less value unless there is quick access to it. Travel routes should be free of obstacles and include footbridges to allow pedestrians to cross a busy expressway. Considering the needs of pedestrian and cyclist must come at the initial stages of design and not be an afterthought. The pleasure of walking will also be increased by having suitable street furniture such as benches which may allow for social interaction as well.

3.4.2 Moving by Bicycle Much of the considerations that may enhance walkability are also relevant for increase of cyclists’ activity in neighborhoods. Some communities have created bike lanes by painting white lines on roads’ sides. Yet, often consideration for cyclists’ need seems to be an afterthought. There are a large number of private driveways that line the bike path. Cars backing into a bike lane threaten the safety of the cyclists using it. Potentially all road users could share the paved surface instead of restricting pedestrian and bicycle traffic to the edges. Bicycle integration can begin by slowing down vehicular traffic on residential streets. A system of well-marked bike paths, like well-designed pedestrian networks, need to link a variety of urban nodes to one another (Fig. 3.17). Regional and local parks, shopping areas, neighborhoods, and the downtown core need to be made part of that system. Part of overdesigned streets in communities can be converted for use by bicycles. On local residential streets with modest cars traffic volumes, the entire roadway should be shared between all users as noted above. The integration of bicycle traffic can be accomplished by narrowing vehicles’ traffic lanes, converting some roads to one-way streets and using the remaining lane for bicycle paths, segregating cyclists from cars, or by developing separate paths for bikes traveling in opposite directions.

3.4.2.1 Bicycle Freeway In much the same way as our road system is designed, so too should bicycle routes. Bike paths should follow a similar hierarchical system as the street system. Bicycle freeways should be established for cross-town and inter-community routes. These can be created on abandoned railroads, utility and sewer easements, freeway service roads, river courses, and secondary or very lightly traveled roads. Though bikeways are best separated from automobile traffic, bike routes along arterials might need physical separation where traffic is heavy. Using arterial roads as commuter cycling routes may be most efficient in increasing nonmotorized traffic, as arterial streets lead to places where people can have an easy access to bicycles work, shop, and carry out recreational activities (Fig. 3.18) (Untermann 1984).

3.4 Active Mobility

49

Fig. 3.17 A well-marked bicycle path system in Haarlem, the Netherlands

Fig. 3.18 A bicycle rental station in a Mexico City Neighborhood

3.4.3 Active Mobility in Porvoo Located 50 km east of Helsinki, Porvoo, population 48,000, is an example of what design for active mobility and lifestyle looks like. Despite its small size, buses reach all edges of town. In Finland, like most Scandinavian countries, investing in public transit is regarded as investment in any other utility, such as water and sewage pipes. The mind-set is investing money in shared commuting, is way cheaper than building new hospitals. All bus stops in this Nordic city, often heated shelters, are equipped with digital readouts linked to buses’ Global Positioning Systems, which let waiting riders know the second the next bus will pull into the station. But perhaps most intriguing is the attention paid to the design of a new neighborhood on the western bank of the Porvoonjoki River that runs through the town. The project is a splendid example of weaving old and new across a waterway. Color choice, red ochre boiled paint, is also a reminder that innovation and tradition

50

3 Streets for People

Fig. 3.19 Site plan of the Porvoo, Finland housing development showing an above ground grouped parking

are not contradictory terms. The approach to the site, which is bounded by a river on one side and a park on the other, encompasses principles of walkability, and incorporation of “green features” such as recycling and composting bins. What becomes apparent is the lack of car dominance and the prominent pedestrian paths that, like a web, connect a variety of dwelling types. When one strolls along the unpaved paths that meander between the ochre, saffron, and green painted modern-styled homes, it is easy to notice that the place breaks down much of the common thinking that guided suburban North American neighborhood planning. Winner of a national competition, architect Tuomo Siitonen designed a community for healthy living where pedestrians concerns, rather than motorists where considered first (Figs. 3.19 and 3.20). No cars cross the place. Drivers park in an aboveground common parking in the perimeter of the community or in a shed and walk a short distance home (Figs. 3.21, 3.22, and 3.23). Walking was made comfortable through proper placement of taller buildings and tree planting that block cold winds. The walking paths are paved with granular crushed stones and not asphalt, to avoid summer overheating and make jogging comfortable. The surrounding sidewalks have a dotted line run in their middle. They have been designed for joint use by pedestrians and bike rides as local signs indicate. Cyclists keep to the right and walkers to the left. The well-being and safe play of children was also a prime concern in Porvoo. Near every cluster of dwellings, there is a play area, which was sited for easy watch

3.4 Active Mobility Fig. 3.20 Pedestrian paths makeup all the movement networks in Porvoo

Fig. 3.21 Motorists park their cars in the perimeter of the community and walk to their homes

Fig. 3.22 The entrance gate to the covered parking area

51

52

3 Streets for People

Fig. 3.23 The covered parking area

Fig. 3.24 Play space near homes

by parents from homes (Fig. 3.24). In some spots, there is outdoor fitness equipment for accompanying adults. Public clotheslines, and rug-dusting structures are also built near dwellings. Public composting stations are spread throughout. There is no sense in equipping each home with its own composter if it can be done in public, to which people can walk. To increase safety the sidewalks are doted to separate movement by pedestrians and cyclists (Fig. 3.25).

3.4 Active Mobility Fig. 3.25 The sidewalks in Porvoo are dotted to separate movement by pedestrians and cyclists

53

4

Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature

The site’s natural attributes need to be considered at the outset of a planning process. Those attributes include precipitation, wind direction, sun path, soil condition, topography, flora and fauna to name a few. Further, these aspects are not limited to the building site, but they need to be examined as part of a regional context. This chapter offers a guide on how these factors should be considered and integrated to support development of sustainable neighborhoods. The subjects include ground related elements, aspects associated with the climatic conditions of the area and a demonstration project.

4.1 Ground Related Elements Ground related aspects must be made an integral part of any planning, dwellings, and landscape designs of a community. Elements to be considered may include water flowing patterns, topography, soil and rock formations, and vegetation. Prior to the start of the design, these elements should be studied and documented at the region and site the scales. The resulting concept should reflect the qualities of the site, be ecologically sustainable and relate the natural features to the built forms.

4.1.1

Site Selection and Land Use

Achieving a higher level of sustainability of a residential project begins by recording the site’s natural features and properly locating roads and homes (Fig. 4.1). Sensitive environments, such as woodlands, wetlands that are home to wildlife and vegetation will be protected. Any development within these areas is likely to encroach on already fragile ecosystems. Building on agricultural land should be scaled back and ideally some fields will return to their natural state. Areas most appropriate for development are those located immediately next to existing communities, as well as brownfield sites which are places of former industrial activities (Benson and Roe 2000). In general, densification and infill © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 A. Friedman, Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10747-9_4

55

56

4 Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature

Fig. 4.1 Achieving a higher level of sustainability of a residential project begins by recording the site’s natural features, as was the case in this project near Québec City, Québec, Canada

developments are the most responsive development strategies since they avoid appropriating locations with strong natural attributes.

4.1.2 Water If the site is edged by a lakeshore or a waterway, or even if a stream passes through it, water should be one of the primary design focuses (Fig. 4.2). For example, roads should be routed along the contour of the water, running roughly parallel to the waterline and kept a distance away. The natural solution for runoff drainage is absorption into the soil. Therefore, hard paved surfaces should be sloped toward grass cover ground. Rather than provide hard concrete curbs with rainwater drains that flow into a storm sewage system, pavement should be edged by same level grass with gravel shoulder. The grass should slope down to a runoff bio swell, running parallel to the street (Fig. 4.3). The land would then slope back up toward the dwellings, thereby having the bio swell serve for both house and street rainwater drainage. Water would generally be absorbed into the soil, except during periods of heavy precipitation or during the spring melt. At these times, when the ground is too saturated to accept more water, surface drainage would take the excess water along the roadside bio swells to a lower elevation and would eventually be returned to a natural waterway. Where necessary, retention ponds should be created in larger developments where lowlands prevent off-site drainage. In this case, water should be allowed

4.1 Ground Related Elements

57

Fig. 4.2 If the site is edged by a waterway, or even if a stream passes through it, water should be one of the primary design focuses

Fig. 4.3 The grass on a road’s side should slope down to a bio swell, running parallel to the street

to filter into the ground, evaporate or be absorbed by vegetation. Such ponds can serve, both their environmental purpose as well as become public recreation areas.

4.1.3 Topography New construction needs to adhere to the site’s lay of the land. The design will encompass existing features of the terrain, prevent significant alterations to the landscape, and respond to natural landmarks unique to the area (Fig. 4.4). Consequently, the plan of neighborhoods should conform to the topography’s contours and streets to run along the sides and ridges of hills. Although access roads are needed to feed these streets parallel to contour lines, they should not ascend directly up a hill,

58

4 Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature

Fig. 4.4 New construction needs to adhere to the site’s lay of the land to prevent significant alterations to the landscape as shown in this Langford, Canada project

which would require significant amounts of cut and fill and would make the slope of the road quite steep. If this pattern is followed, the resulting form will be the terracing of homes along the side of the hill. It will allow all dwellings to have a downhill view that is especially important and appreciated in hilly areas. Minimizing the amount of alterations to a site also aid the natural drainage systems. When the topography of a subdivision is maintained, existing surface runoff patterns can continue to drain rainwater off naturally, without the use of a man made system. The dwelling’s design should fit the shape of the land as well. This way, houses built along a moderate slope of over 10 % grade, can be articulated so that their various parts are constructed at different elevations (Fig. 4.5). This technique should not be applied for a slight slope, where adjusting rooms to a difference of a few inches would unjustifiably increase costs. It should be applied where there is a difference of 1 ft (30 cm) or more between the mean ground elevations for different rooms. This internal terracing of levels provides a more natural fit to the landscape, whereby lower level rooms are always close to the ground and excessive cut and fill of the soil is avoided. Furthermore, where significantly steep slopes exist of over 25 % grade, 1:4 slope, a split-level solution should be selected or, ultimately, an extra level added along the lower section of the building’s footprint. The landscaping of a site should also not significantly alter existing land patterns. When construction is complete, backfill must be built up along the perimeter of the building, such that water runs away from the foundation walls. However, the natural drainage pattern of the property should not be altered beyond the area excavated for construction. Respecting this natural flow is particularly essential in more hilly terrain. In areas of more subdued terrain with differences of less than 2.5 % grade, 1:40 slope, where an engineered drainage system is required, the landscape must be adequately modified to serve the given system, but the grading of the land should not affect existing vegetation or other natural elements, such as visual landmarks or rock outcroppings. If new construction is to fit the landscape, rather than

4.1 Ground Related Elements

59

Fig. 4.5 Houses built along a moderate slope of over 10 % grade, can be articulated so that their various parts are constructed at different elevations

vice versa, the resulting outcome will be a more aesthetically pleasing and environmentally responsive solution.

4.1.4 Soil and Rock Formations The design of a new neighborhood should recognize the type of soil, and take advantage of its natural quality. Effected by the permeability of the soil, level of bedrock, and the water retention provided by groundcover and other vegetation, most storm water penetrates directly into the soil. These characteristics of the soil limit surface runoff to periods of heavy rainfall and the spring thaw, thereby diminishing the threat of flooding. To protect effects of the natural soil quality, several measures should be implemented. First, wherever possible, the cut and fill of the terrain should be avoided so as not to disrupt the existing balance in physical and structural composition of the soil (Fig. 4.6). Grading of properties should be kept to a minimum and emphasize natural drainage patterns. Next, the soil should be kept onsite and minimal amounts of offsite fill should be introduced. If additional soil is needed, offsite fill should originate and be of an equivalent composition. Third, as much vegetation as possible, including groundcover, must be protected during the building process, as any loss in green cover will reduce the ability of the soil to absorb water and prevent erosion (Corbett and Corbett 2000). Furthermore, the amount of undisturbed land must be maintained. Consequently, as a strategy, the footprint of buildings and parking areas, and paved streets should be reduced. Streets with widths of 30 ft (9 m) or more, consume vast qualities of land, effectively reducing the fertility of the existing soil. Street widths of 20 ft (6 m)—or potentially even less—without sidewalks but soft shoulders instead, reduce the amount of wasted land, allowing the fertile soil to support vegetation.

60

4 Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature

Fig. 4.6 The cut and fill of the rocky terrain in this Quebec City, Quebec, Canada project was avoided so as not to disrupt the existing lay of the site

4.1.5 Vegetation Developments must relate, respect, and conform to existing patterns of vegetation. As such, the built environment must not cause unnecessary damage to plant life, but rather benefit from the advantages of plant growth and protect the natural diversity of vegetation within each of an area’s ecosystems (Fig. 4.7). First, new construction should have a minimal impact on existing vegetation, especially mature trees. As such, vulnerable areas must be protected and only sites where vegetation can accommodate construction should be built on. Consequently, forested land—defined as lands with tree cover over 60 %—and wetlands must be preserved wherever possible. Woodlands—tree cover between 20 and 60 %—and fields are more suitable to growth and such sites should therefore be selected first for development (Marsh 1978). An evaluation of existing vegetation will determine the level of tolerance of the plant life. Sick or damaged trees may be felled and their remains should be allowed to decompose elsewhere onsite, unless disease threatens to spread. An inventory of mature trees that are at least 6 in (15 cm) in diameter or 20 ft (6 m) in height, but varies according to the species should indicate where growth should not be allowed (Corbett and Corbett 2000). The siting of the homes should be laid out according to the location of the saved trees. This is not to say that the house should wrap around individual trees—indeed it should not—but the general shape and orientation of the house should minimize the number of trees that must be cut. Construction work should not damage nearby vegetation and the excavation will not disturb root systems, which are roughly the same size as the breadth of a tree’s foliage, nor should machinery crack branches of nearby trees (Fig. 4.8) (Friedman

4.1 Ground Related Elements

61

6’-7” 2m

Fig. 4.7 Planning strategies need to be introduced for a development to relate, respect, and conform to the existing patterns of vegetation of a site Fig. 4.8 Trees and their root systems need to be protected during construction work

2002). Further, paved surfaces must be limited in size and should conform more stringently to the location of existing vegetation (Thompson and Sorvig 2000). Additionally, paved surfaces should not pass over principal roots close to the trunk of a mature tree, as this will reduce the amount of water accessible to the roots and diminish the stability of the tree as a whole. As for landscaping and planting, conventionally used groundcover should be avoided. Grass may be a natural solution, yet the associated maintenance regime and frequent limitation of not allowing other forms of vegetation both detract from the benefits of such a natural solution. Existing vegetation, including underbrush

62

4 Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature

and other forms of groundcover, should be allowed to grow at a reasonable distance from the home. Front and back yards will include native plants and trees, and be maintained on the site or planted. Trees and other plants also serve as natural mechanisms to moderate the effects of the region’s climatic conditions and the effect of sun, and wind. Methods of tapping these benefits are further discussed below.

4.2 Microclimate In sustainable development, the built environment should be designed in response to the site microclimatic conditions. Some aspects of importance that need to be considered in the planning process are listed below.

4.2.1

Sun

Considering and incorporating the effects of the sun on buildings into a design may reduce energy consumption by as much as 30 % (Brooks 1988). Maximizing natural light and energy gains is important year-round, while orienting the house for passive solar gain can assist during winter. The literature suggests that houses should be sited in east–west direction, such that one of the main façades faces south. Guidelines also recommend that the same main façade be oriented within 20 ° east of south or 30 ° west of south (Fig. 4.9) (AIA Research Corporation 1979). However, since in the northern hemisphere winter heating is a bigger concern than summer cooling, orientations as close as possible to due south are recommended, ideally within 10 ° west of south (Stitt 1999). This slight westerly direction is most beneficial as the sun’s intensity peaks early in the afternoon and not when the sun reaches its midday zenith. The south facing façade should be well fenestrated with over 20 % of the wall area dedicated to windows (McPherson 1984; Olgyay 1963). Although excessive glazing reduces the effectiveness of insulation, large windows are needed nonetheless to absorb natural light and solar heat. Windows should be double glazed and operable, so as to provide ventilation when needed. Fig. 4.9 For passive solar gain houses should be sited in east–west direction, such that one of the main façades faces south

4.2 Microclimate

63

Fig. 4.10 The seasonal varying sun paths

During the winter months, sunlight and solar heat are desired. As the sun is low on the horizon, peaking at only 21 ° at noon on the winter solstice, windows should be as close to vertical as possible (Fig. 4.10). Skylights in the roof may provide some natural lighting, but the incident angle at which the sun’s rays hit will not provide much thermal absorption into the house. Further, the low winter sun should not be obstructed, so the area within 60° of due south of the house should allow as much light to pass as possible. This is not to say that the land should be clear; rather, sunlight must be able to penetrate the house. For instance, vegetation in front of the southern façade should ideally be composed of deciduous trees, which permit over 50 % of solar radiation to pass through their empty winter branches (Fig. 4.11) (Stitt 1999). In comparison, coniferous trees only permit approximately 10 % transparency year-round (Thomas 1996).

Fig. 4.11 Solar penetration through coniferous trees, full-foliage deciduous trees and bare deciduous trees

64

4 Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature

Conversely, solar heating is not desirable during the hot summer months, so the sun should be blocked out or reflected as much as possible. The highest angle the sun will reach is 68 ° above the horizon at noon on the summer solstice. The intensity of the sun is very high and any surface that is near normal to the sun’s rays will absorb large amounts of solar heat. Although this condition is advantageous for photovoltaic panels, the absorption of heat into the house through the black asphalt roof shingles, for example, is unbearable. To prevent overheating, several measures should be incorporated into the design. First, the roof should be steeply pitched to the south, so the summer sun will hit the plane at an angle and be primarily reflected rather than absorbed. Skylights in the south facing pitch of the roof need to be avoided as the sun will enter the house directly, heating the interior. Skylights on the north side are preferable, as natural lighting will be provided without excessive heating. Although a north-facing skylight is not ideal during the winter, ambient natural lighting will be provided yearround without much solar heat gain. Second, the south-facing wall of the house, which needs to be well glazed, must also be protected from intense sunlight. As such, overhangs over the windows provide adequate shade from the high summer sun, yet still permit the low winter sun to penetrate. Shade should be provided for the months’ when cooling is need the most. For instance, to minimize solar heat gain between the beginning of May through to late August for a window 4 ft (1.2 m) tall, located 3 ft (0.9 m) above the floor in an 8 ft (2.4 m) tall room, the exterior overhang should extend 32 in (80 cm) out from the plane of the wall (Fig. 4.12). This configuration, approximately double the current standard, also permits daylight to penetrate unobstructed from mid-October to early March. Third, the summer shade that deciduous trees provide further reinforces the planting of these trees to the south of the house. Depending on the species, deciduous trees permit between 10 and 25 % solar radiation penetration when they are fully leaved. This significant amount of shade permits some natural light to pass, while blocking out most of the summer heat. Further, when these trees tower over the house, not only do they provide shade for the walls, but also for the roof, which is otherwise the most important heat sink in terms of solar absorption. While most of the discussion has focused on the south facing façade, the side and northern walls must be considered as well. In detached houses, the sidewalls—facing east and west—should be adequately fenestrated preferably between 5 and 10 % of the wall area to provide some natural lighting (McPherson 1984). As the sun is generally low on the horizon in the morning and in the evening, when the sun illuminates these sidewalls, little heat will be absorbed from the sun. Natural lighting, however, should be the principal design consideration and the orientation should contribute to the internal organization of the house. For instance, rooms that require more morning lighting, such as the bedroom, need to be principally east-oriented, while rooms more active in the afternoon and evening hours, such as the kitchen and the living room, should face the west. This organization maximizes the use of natural lighting.

4.2 Microclimate

65

Fig. 4.12 The roof’s overhang should extend 32 in. (80 cm) out from the wall

As for the north-facing façade, this wall rarely receives any direct access to sunlight, with the exception of some low-intensity early morning and late evening sunlight during the summer. As such, fenestration should be limited to a maximum of 5 % of the wall area along this façade, unless it faces the street or a natural vista (Fig. 4.13) (McPherson 1984). Natural lighting that enters through the openings

66

4 Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature

Fig. 4.13 Fenestration was avoided on the north wall of this Quebec City, Quebec, Canada project

in the north facing wall will be primarily diffuse and reflected, so will not be adequate alone for indoor lighting. No heat can be gained by north facing windows; in fact, significant amounts of heat will actually be lost through glass on this side. For these reasons, glazing should be kept to an absolute minimum. However, this restriction provides the opportunity to internally organize most of the services along one wall. Any services that require little or no access to a window, such as the wet functions, the stairs, utilities, and so on, can be lined up mainly against the northern wall, eliminating the need for significant openings. Not only does this organization provide full insulation along the northerly exposed wall, it also reduces energy loss through this same wall. In these ways, properly orienting a house, according to the sun path as it affects an area, improves the project’s sustainability. Not only is energy conserved when these design guidelines are implemented, but the energy is used more efficiently.

4.2.2 Wind Wind direction is another element that must be integrated into community design. As such, strong gusts of wind must be prevented, and an aerating breeze must be allowed to pass through the area. Beyond regional conditions, local wind patterns are determined by three causes. First, wind velocity picks up over flat surfaces, such as bodies of water, whereas winds tend to decelerate over areas of rough alterations in terrain or land cover. Abrupt changes in landscape, like the vertical plane of a highrise building for example, do not slow the wind however, but gradual or moderate changes in height do. Second, daytime breezes tend to flow inland from bodies of water, yet the direction reverses itself during the night due to pressure differentials (Fig. 4.14). Similarly, the third cause is that wind flows uphill over mountains and ridges during the day, but blows downhill toward valleys and lowlands during the night.

4.2 Microclimate

67

Fig. 4.14 Wind pattern changes during day, night, and in proximity to bodies of water

Combined, these effects indicate that sites along the shores are therefore among the windiest areas and thereby must be sheltered from strong winds. As a result, public spaces along the waterfront should not be cleared open areas. Rather, they should provide shelterbelts of vegetation to act as windbreaks. Even moderate amounts of trees, are adequate to cut the velocity of winds. Similarly, private waterfront properties should be significantly treed to avoid excessive wind speeds. Public spaces more inland are less sensitive to the effects of cleared, open land, but excessive plains should be avoided nonetheless. Spaces requiring open plains, such as sports fields and golf courses, should be limited in size and broken up with buffers of vegetation, which will act as a shelterbelt to cut wind speeds. A dense patch of vegetation can substantially reduce the speed of the wind by more than half for a distance 12 times the height of the shelterbelt, so these buffer zones may be very effective (Fig. 4.15) (Thomas 1996). At the scale of the neighborhood, streets should be designed to avoid creating a wind tunnel along the route. High surface wind speeds occur when wind is funneled between sharp, aligned edges, along a relatively wide path and following a straight line. To avoid this hazard, streets should be gently curving and houses should be closer to the street’s edge. Setback should vary slightly from house to house to avoid aligning front façades. Ideally, plentiful vegetation should dot the neighborhood to direct wind and dwelling heights should be kept roughly consistent to avoid any abrupt change in elevation (Fig. 4.16). As for individual homes, access to the wind is important to maintain natural ventilation, yet the house must be shielded from cold winter gusts. Vegetation should be abundant, as it adequately cuts most of the strongest winds, while still allowing fresh air to penetrate the house. More specifically, trees that maintain their foliage in the winter are best suited to control winter winds. As such, coniferous trees, such

68

4 Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature

Fig. 4.15 A dense patch of vegetation can substantially reduce the speed of the wind

as local varieties of cedar and pine, can be planted, either individually or in hedges. The desired location for such shelterbelts of vegetation is to the north of the building, as this is where arctic winds generally blow in from, yet waterfront sites or properties on the edge of open fields may need the appropriate side shielded as well.

Fig. 4.16 Trees should be planted to direct wind during summer and winter time

4.3 Housing in the Forest

69

Finally, high-rise buildings may cause the surface wind speed to reach hazardous levels, so attention to proper design of these blocks is essential. First, high-rises should not be located in close proximity to the lakeshore as, not only do they block the view of the water, they also aggravate wind conditions in areas that are windy enough already. Further, the levels of these buildings should be terraced in a general pyramidal shape to allow a gradual change in the direction of the airflow over the building (Fig. 4.17) (Thomas 1996). Additionally, opening such as balconies, and architectural details, like cornices and sills, should break up the vertical planes of the walls, as these interruptions reduce the overall effects of an abrupt surface. Finally, tall trees should be allowed to grow around the high-rise, as vegetation is the most effective windbreak available. By employing these principles, the negative effects of the wind can be lessened, while the design can still take advantage of the positive aspects of the wind.

4.3 Housing in the Forest Development initiatives that first clear and then consume land are giving way to sustainable practices. To illustrate sustainable conservation principles of forested areas, this section presents a project that was designed with this goal in mind. The site is located in the western part of the Island of Montreal, in Quebec, Canada (Fig. 4.18). Originally the region was a chosen location of wealthy city dwellers seeking suburban retreats. Post-World War II housing boom, spurred construction of low-density single-family homes. Over time, the area has been transformed from an agricultural and forested land into an urban extension renowned for its scenic landscapes. The site’s area measures 33 acres (13 ha) and is adjacent to developed and undeveloped land. The developed lands border the towns of Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue and Kirkland. The undeveloped land is forested, even though it is more heavily treed in some segments than in others. The diverse natural conditions characterising the area will be considered below. Fig. 4.17 Structures should be terraced in a general pyramidal shape to allow a gradual change in the direction of the airflow over them as shown in this project in Copenhagen, Denmark

70

4 Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature

Fig. 4.18 The site is located in the western part of the Montreal Island and is endowed with agricultural lands and forests

4.3.1

Ecological Patches

Designating ecological patches was a key site planning principle. These are areas of concentrated natural vegetation that protect aquifers and interconnecting networks of water stream. Additionally, the linkage of these areas sustains viable populations of species and permit near-natural disturbance regimes (Fig. 4.19). A round core protects resources while curvilinear boundaries with extending fingers or corridors aid species dispersal. As part of the planning strategies it was decided that to maintain the integrity of the ecological systems, vegetation both within and around the site must be conserved. Woodlands cover 90 % of the site’s area and are composed of mixed growth. Most of the trees are deciduous, with maple dominating over other species such as birch, elm, beech, and alder. These trees represent several stages of growth and range from early successive to mature woodlands. Environmentally responsive design implies that attention be focused upon internal site variations, such as discrepancies in vegetation cover. Part 1 represents the densest section of the site. Trees are predominantly mature deciduous species. Covering 95 % of the land, an average of 12 in (30 cm) separates trees 80–90 in (203– 229 cm) in height. Moreover, undergrowth is thick and measures 4–5 in (10–13 cm) tall. Here, development should be sparse if endeavoured at all. In comparison, Part

4.3 Housing in the Forest

71

Fig. 4.19 An ecological patch has a soft, curvilinear shape ( left), in contrast to rigidly straight man-made edges ( center). Housing can be built to accommodate, rather than build over the ecological patch ( right)

2 runs along the l’Anse à l’Orme Road’s edge. The edges of ecological patches are curvilinear, complex, and soft. However, in this section the edge, abruptly interrupts the natural environment. Densely situated trees 60–70 in (152–178 cm) in height cover approximately 80 % of the area. This section is more favourable for development given the younger flora and previous construction. However, due to this part’s proximity to l’Anse à l’Orme Natural Park, continuous vegetation corridors must be maintained throughout developed units’ backyards. Part 3 is close to the Kirkland community of Timberlea. Flora is quite mature, but some has been destroyed in favour of the bordering suburban development. Only 70 % of the natural woodland survived. Furthermore, vegetation is more sparsely situated than in Parts 1 and 2, averaging 20 in (50 cm) between trees. These conditions favour development that incorporates the existing characteristics of both the natural environment and the adjacent residential community. In contrast, vegetation in Part 4 is almost completely removed as two large construction sites have already taken over the land. Given the depleted conditions, dense development will most likely occupy this section of the site (Fig. 4.20).

4.3.2

Climatic Influences

The extreme regional climatic conditions producing cold, snowy winters and hot, humid summers are typical of the site. Temperatures fluctuate between winter lows of 5.1 °F (− 14.9 °C) in January, to summer highs of 29.3 °F to 104 °F (26.3 °C to 40 °C). Similar to other low latitude areas, the sun peaks at a relatively low 68 degrees on the summer solstice and only 21 degrees on the winter solstice. Only south-facing facades tend to receive substantial direct sunlight in winter months, while east and west-facing walls benefit from solar light when the sun is low upon the horizon. Therefore, a great importance was given to south-facing façades in the neighboring Kirkland community of Timberlea, which could also be applied to the adjacent area. In general, the site does not receive an optimal amount of annual sunlight.

72

4 Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature

1: Coverage: 95% Height: 80’~90’ Undergrowth: 4’~5’

2: Coverage: 85% Height: 60’~70’ Undergrowth: 2’~4’

3: Coverage: 70% Height: 80’~90’ Undergrowth: 4’~5’

4: Coverage: 10% Height: 60’~70’ Undergrowth: 2’~4’

Fig. 4.20 Discrepancies among woodland vegetation cover characterize the natural conditions of the site (parts 1 to 4 represent these variations)

Climatic conditions characterising the site are not only influenced by solar reception: winds also influence the local environment. Due to the geographical location of the site, wind patterns tend to differ seasonally. North-westerly winter winds strongly bluster while south-easterly breezes cool summertime heat (Fig. 4.21). Importantly, within the context of the site, the woodlands act as windbreaks by diluting severe airstreams. Creating sustainable communities includes not only temperature responsiveness, but also winds receptiveness. The design must, therefore, consider the interdependent relationships governing microclimates.

4.3 Housing in the Forest

73

Fig. 4.21 The shaded area delineates woodland windbreaks that disperse winds blowing into the site. Natural windbreaks can be oriented so as to maximize cooling summer breezes coming from the south, and to avoid cold winter winds from the north

4.3.3

Site Plan

The new design will purposefully increase dwelling densities, providing options of single—and semi-detached dwellings as well as row houses. Increasing density from the average of 4–7 units/acre (10–18 units/ha) to 15 or more units per acre (38 or more units per hectare) leaves more natural spaces undisturbed (Fig. 4.22). Building upon conservation design principles, the site plan is based on sustainable development guidelines. Respecting the natural conditions of forested sections, housing units are spread out at varying densities across the site. Predominantly, development is sited within the area referred to as Part 4, a section where forest cover is reduced to only 10 %. Here the neighborhood swimming pool is located along a main road that provides access to all residential routes. High-density dwelling units such as row houses cover the majority of this treeless area. Part 3 is also more developed than others. Bordering the Kirkland community of Timberlea, this area includes both detached and semi-detached units. Moreover, note that the green belt bordering the southern edge of Part 2 is maintained both inside and outside of the plan’s boundary, whereas Part 1, the dense, older growth forest, remains largely undeveloped. The master plan resembles an ecological patch, with fingers of residential cul-de-sacs dispersing from the southeast core (Fig. 4.23). In the plan, houses are aligned on either side of the roads. Importantly, dwellings are not in a continuous form (Fig. 4.24). Instead, units sometimes yield to nature by

74

4 Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature

Fig. 4.22 The master plan situates the community center and higher density homes in the leasttreed area Fig. 4.23 The plan resembles an ecological patch, with fingers extending into the more densely-treed areas

letting the forests reach the roads. In this way, the built environment integrates into the natural environment causing residents to feel that they inhabit ‘islands’ within the forest. Despite this feeling, development continues to maintain the degree of density necessary for community interaction. This site plan encourages people to connect with and explore surrounding natural areas.

4.3 Housing in the Forest

75

Fig. 4.24 Clusters of units are interspersed by forested areas along the road

The feeling of being immersed in the forest stems from not only the dwelling clusters, but also from provisions limiting the width and extent of roads, which cover only 9.2 % of the total site area (Fig. 4.25). Most vehicular paths accommodate two lanes measuring 20 ft (6 m) across. Only the most heavily trafficked street near the community pool is 30 ft (9 m) wide. Moreover, parking restrictions disseminated in the guiding design principles create 34 lots consuming only 1394 ft (425 m) of space. Interspersed between road systems, pedestrian paths are planned in two circles around the site and never extend more than 3 ft (1 m) in width. In summary, sustainable design principles can be used to design communities that are built into the forest and therefore preserve as much woodland vegetation as possible. In this proposed site plan, the extending, narrow fingers of development amount to 56.8 % of conserved forestland.

76

4 Weaving Neighborhoods and Nature

Fig. 4.25 The roads and the pedestrian paths network link the residential clusters to the neighborhood’s center

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

Higher-density communities are commonly perceived by the public as places with reduced public open spaces. Yet, when properly designed, such projects can have a variety of well thought of outdoor places that address the recreational needs of all dwellers. In addition, the function that those spaces play, their physical arrangements and locations influence their success and the character of the neighborhood. This chapter focuses on streetscapes, open and edible lands as a means of defining the aesthetic, social qualities and the sustainability of a community.

5.1 Public Outdoor Space Contemporary planning of neighborhoods often concentrates the land allocated to green public space into a single location. A planed subdivision is first divided up into blocks and streets, then a certain amount of land, often 10 % of the total development area, is set aside for parks. This type of planning is referred to as additive where by the designer starts with a blank canvas to which components are added. However, when new neighborhoods are planned in areas rich with natural features, they should be planned by subtraction. The built environment should be carved out of the existing natural elements (Fig. 5.1). When this method is followed, the public outdoor space, intrinsic to the design, can wave organically with the built features. There will be no need to plant new vegetation as the mature existing trees and shrubbery will provide the desired shade, contribute to a unique sense of place, and maintain the places biodiversity.

5.1.1

Scale

When public outdoor spaces disperse throughout a community, their scale needs to correspond to the neighborhood’s own scale. Very often, the population size, its demographic makeup, and as a result the designated function determines the usefulness of a space. Soccer fields, for instance, will be spread out throughout neighbor© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 A. Friedman, Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10747-9_5

77

78

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

Fig. 5.1 Green public spaces should be part of the existing natural areas as demonstrated in a master plan for the town of Stony Plain, Alberta, Canada by the author

hoods with more organized teams, while smaller play spaces should be scattered elsewhere to accommodate toddlers (Fig. 5.2). Large expanses of natural green belts will be more conducive to interaction between backyards of dwellings. All parks and play spaces need to consider human scale. Smaller parks are less intimidating for young users, as they are likely to feel more fit with a local context Finally, open spaces should be within walking-distance from all homes.

5.1.2

Interconnectedness

The neighborhood’s open spaces need to be regarded as a system where places are connected to one another to form a network as shown in Fig. 5.3. Currently, commercial hubs are well linked by highways and arterial roads, yet places of civic gathering are scattered and often disconnected. As such, it is vital to establish green open belts and have pedestrian and bicycle networks link them.

5.1 Public Outdoor Space

79

Fig. 5.2 Public recreational spaces of various scales such as large parks and small play areas should be available to the neighbourhood’s residents

Fig. 5.3 Open spaces need to be regarded as a connected system as shown in a plan proposed by the author for the Municipality of Middlesex Centre, Ontario, Canada

80

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

Fig. 5.4 Having a network of bicycle and pedestrian paths connecting green spaces would encourage their use

From a biodiversity perspective, natural spaces better support wildlife when they are linked. City-friendly fauna is better able to cope in a connected ecosystem and are less likely to become nuisances if passing through neighborhoods. Additionally, establishing a network of bicycle paths and pedestrian trails throughout and between these spaces would encourage their use (Fig. 5.4). However, if these paths are connected to general interest nodes—public squares in reinvigorated city centers or parks, for instance—their use would become both recreational and functional. Pedestrian networks would further enhance the closeness of a community: nodes which have always been within walking distance, yet inaccessible due to the preferential treatment of the automobile would be rediscovered on foot.

5.1.3 Visual Aspects The proper landscaping of open public spaces plays a significant role in determining its quality. Considerations such as the choice of vegetation, placement of amenities and furniture, and access networks are important in establishing the park’s close tie with the neighborhood. Once natural areas are preserved they should not be rearranged to accommodate stylistic or visual desires (Fig. 5.5). Sections of park accommodating higher traffic can be cleared slightly to allow for more interaction between visitors, but should not be felled completely. Public meeting spaces are important, but should not be made the focus of the paths and trails. The natural landscape can be complemented by the park design, not removed or altered. Areas for active recreation such as sports fields, which must be cleared and leveled, would be assigned sparingly to preserve their natural integrity. Furthermore, playing fields can be separated from the areas of more passive recreation by buffer zones of light vegetation or suitable topography.

5.1 Public Outdoor Space

81

Fig. 5.5 Once natural areas and features such as water streams are preserved, they should not be rearranged to accommodate stylistic or visual desires

The internal organization of elements within the public outdoor spaces can respond to the needs of the immediate population. Playgrounds may be placed in close proximity to cluster of homes, while areas of passive recreation should be distanced both from areas of high activity and from streets. Sports fields can be placed comfortably away from houses and near streets. The physical arrangement often dictates the successful use of public spaces, so each element must be placed in relation to its purpose. Having street furniture in public spaces is an indication of the level of interaction possible between residents. Benches and bleachers can be provided at the soccer field while, at the other extremity, a lamppost accompanies several benches and a garbage bin. Instead of concentrating this equipment, they can be dispersed at comfortable intervals, offering opportunity to rest alone or in the company of others. Lighting should be provided along paths, regularly spaced out and scaled to the size of the path, its surroundings, and its level of use. Stylistically, the appearance of street furniture must be coherent and respective of the space and the neighborhood at large. Finally, paths between and within open spaces should be appealing, comfortable, accessible, and safe for the residents. The paths should be paved in pedestrian-friendly materials for use by people with reduced mobility (Fig. 5.6). Access between parks and public spaces is essential, but so too are entries to and from commercial areas, roads, and houses. Lastly, citizens must be secure using the paths. Adequate lighting, uninterrupted views from neighboring houses and sufficient clearance on either side of the path are all necessary.

82

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

Fig. 5.6 Paths connection important community spots should be paved in pedestrian-friendly materials for use by people with reduced mobility as shown in this Melbourne, Australia neighbourhood

5.1.4

Proprietorship

Outdoor spaces can be publicly or privately owned. However, if encouraging social interaction between residents is a design objective, a shift in mind-set is needed. Privacy is an important concern primarily in the North American residential context, so the backyard should remain a private family refuge. However, the current practice of fencing in properties limits the possibility of interaction between neighbors and with the community at large. Furthermore, access to open spaces should aim to integrate public and private outdoor spaces (Fig. 5.7). Lots can back onto open space while privacy can be maintained with a hedge or a low fence. The cut and dried distinction between public and private can be blurred to allow larger outdoor areas to be accessible. The concerns of residents would also be addressed and increased safety could be achieved by allowing more houses to directly overlook public land, lot sizes would be kept or even enlarged, while maintenance would be shared between public and private entities. Interaction between neighbors would not be limited to those on the same street; indeed, one’s backyard neighbors would be accessible, but at a comfortable distance so as to guard privacy but close enough to enhance social interactions. Finally, the sharing of outdoor spaces could allow for a better organization of recreational spaces between municipal and school board authorities.

5.2

Streetscapes

Streetscapes are man-made intervention in the design of outdoor areas. They enhance the function of a place and are useful in proportioning yards street dimension and appearance. Several elements therefore can be considered in their design.

5.2 Streetscapes

83

Fig. 5.7 Access to open spaces should aim to integrate public and private outdoor spaces as was the case in this Montreal, Quebec, Canada neighborhood

5.2.1

Proportion

As was elaborated in Chap. 3, a typical street in low-density communities has disproportionate scale. Commonly, wide paved streets, bounded by hard curbs and expanses of lawns lead up to the façades of one- or two-story houses. Visually, there are no vertical elements to counterbalance the stark horizontality of the vista. To improve this condition, designers of new neighborhoods can establish a balance between the horizontal and the vertical. Low-rise dwellings, can be set within 8–15 ft (2.5–4.5 m) of right of way, on fairly small lots with some vegetation. Homes, taller than two stories can be sited on proportionally larger lots, well treed and set back between 12 and 25 ft (3.5–7.5 m) from the right of way so as not to impose on the street. Furthermore, setbacks should vary slightly from one house to the next and be separated by approximately one half of the front setback requirement. Multi-family units, such as apartment buildings, can be dispersed on larger properties that are well treed and provide a buffer between the building and the street. One exception to these guidelines would apply in areas around town centers. In these areas, where a bold urban character exists, setbacks should be established within 10 ft (3 m) of the sidewalks and the height set at two stories, to encourage a village-like feel of the main commercial artery. Furthermore, street furniture and vegetation can be scaled to the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the other streetscape’s features. For instance, lampposts should not tower over the street, nor should trees be dwarfed on large, bare front yards. Rather, lampposts should be a maximum of 20 ft (6 m) in height, while the majority of trees should have this same requirement as a minimum. Setback requirements in primarily residential areas should be adjusted according to the heights of the houses and should differ slightly from one house to the next. As for the massing of houses, a consistent height should be maintained along a street block, roughly mirrored on either side of the street, while footprint sizes should differ persistently as shown in Fig. 5.8. This requirement forces a diversity

84

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

Fig. 5.8 In this Haarlem, the Netherlands, neighbourhood a consistent height was maintained along a street block, roughly mirrored on either side of the street

of house types, while maintaining a stylistic similarity, providing a rhythm instead of a repetition of masses along the street.

5.2.2 Accessibility With typical streets dominated by front garages jutting out toward the street, the role of the automobile must be questioned. The importance of the car must be acknowledged and accommodated, as its use will not diminish until an overhaul of the area’s infrastructure is undertaken. As such, adequately coping with the prominence of the automobile is the challenge. First, the garage should not occupy the majority of the façade. Garages must not extend beyond the house façade, preferably set back at least 3 ft (0.9 m) from the main building line. Alternatively, the negative visual effect of garages can be reduced by making them part of a basement level as shown in Fig. 5.9. The size of the garage, when present, should not exceed more than 30 % of the first floor façade area. Entry walkways should extend from the house to the street and be visually distinct from the driveway. Driveways should be tucked away to the side of the property, elongating rather than widening the pavement to allow for multiple vehicles. Further, the driveway should be a maximum of 15 ft (4 m) wide—one car’s width—where the driveway meets the street. As for the design of the street, the average residential street should not exceed 20 ft (6 m) in width with a right-of-way of 40 ft (12 m). Soft shoulders or canals should edge the pavement instead of a curb, thereby allowing rainwater to drain into natural systems as shown in Fig. 5.10. A soft shoulder allows the street to be more widely accessible, whereas a curbed street feels more restrictive, as if the paved area was designed exclusively for the car and the bicycle. In all, as noted in Chap. 3 the streetscape must be a shared environment, serving at once as a vehicular street, a bicycle path, a pedestrian trail, a dog run, and a play area. Contrary to the common association of street and vehicle, its actual use is much more varied.

5.2 Streetscapes

85

Fig. 5.9 The negative visual effect of garages can be reduced by making them part of a basement level as was the case in this Montreal, Quebec, Canada neighborhood

Fig. 5.10 Canals edge the pavement of this Malmo, Sweden community allowing rainwater to drain into natural systems

5.2.3 Comfort A streetscape is said to be comfortable when it is aesthetically pleasing, but more importantly, when it conjures domestic qualities. In this sense, a comfortable streetscape is one that provides security, and a feeling of closeness. Providing a secure street and pedestrian paths can be achieved through various streetscape elements such as lighting. Lampposts should be present at regular intervals along the

86

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

Fig. 5.11 A well-used pedestrian path was achieved in this Montreal, Quebec, Canada neighborhood by using various streetscape elements such as benches and lighting

street and especially at intersections. Furthermore, house façades should not look in on themselves; rather, façades should be significantly fenestrated so as to provide an eye on the street, for both comfort and security. A place to rest also adds to the comfort of a street. Benches in quite spots, gently tucked back from the street, serve as a resting place and can double as waiting areas at bus stops (Fig. 5.11). Benches should be present at every intersection and midway along lengthier blocks. Furthermore, other street furniture, such as planters, should be appropriate to double as a resting place, to either sit on or lean against. Familiarity and community are two assets of a successful streetscape, both achieved by drawing the residents in from the street (Fig. 5.12). Setbacks of approximately 10 ft (3.2 m) allow a comfortable distance between the public and private domains, allowing neighbors—and strangers—to engage or withdraw from conversation at their convenience (Gehl 1987). A place to step off the street and converse should be provided. As such, awnings and terraces should be established in town centers, while open porches should be built in residential areas, rather than the unfriendly common concrete front steps. Lastly, a feeling of visual closeness can be achieved along a street if front yards provide for active engagement. Garden patches and tree swings provide an excuse to be outdoors, in close proximity to the happenings along the street.

5.2.4

Appearance

The aesthetics of a streetscape are usually the deciding factor in the appreciation of a neighborhood. Given the fact that an experiential awareness is overwhelmingly visual, a beautiful street is essential. A visual focus should orient the streets to a particular landmark as shown in Fig. 5.13. Furthermore, each house must have its own

5.2 Streetscapes

87

Fig. 5.12 Public table tennis was provided for the residents in a strip of land between a street and a public park in a Berlin, Germany neighborhood

Fig. 5.13 A bandstand and a water fountain form the visual focus of a cul-de-sac of a Montreal, Quebec, Canada neighborhood

character without withdrawing from the fabric of the neighborhood. To accomplish this, elements of unity and diversity must be established by the designer. Height should be consistent, while footprint size and lot size should vary. Setback should be roughly altered from house to house, to allow for the personalization of front yards. Stylistically, a single architectural language should be maintained along sections of the street, but each house should be unique. House size and layout will vary—as will be externally visible—so the same style will not become monotonous. Facing materials should be vernacular and cover all sides of the house. A rhythm of color schemes and easily personalized components is desirable, yet care must be taken not to become repetitious. Most significantly, in creating an individual character for each dwelling, the appearance of the neighborhood must not become disjointed.

88

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

Fig. 5.14 Lush vegetation and well-placed shrubs are potentially the most potent unifiers of any streetscape design as shown in this Singapore neighborhood

5.2.5 Vegetation Nature is a component of streetscapes not to be dismissed. Significant tree cover, lush vegetation and well-placed shrubs are potentially the most potent unifiers of any streetscape design (Fig. 5.14). As noted above, newly built suburban developments should attempt to leave as much land untouched as possible. Rather than felling all the trees on a new subdivision to simplify construction, only to replant them, the extra expense must be spent to spare as many trees as possible. As trees require a minimum of 15 years to mature, houses and streets must be built around the oldest ones in order to preserve these aged jewels. Mature trees provide significant shade and shelter, both over properties and the street. Such a canopy is desired as it completes the frame of the streetscape. The vista that the road provides is bounded by the house façades on either side, the street below them, and now the tree cover above. Indeed, this vegetation unifies the appearance of the street and expresses a feeling of closeness, which is a sign of a sustainable neighborhood. Furthermore, vegetation must be appropriately dispersed on—and between— properties, creating a consistent but nonredundant pattern of foliage. Shrubs can be kept close to the house and be used, in conjunction with hedges, as property delimiters instead of fences. Empty lawns of grass must be discouraged in favor of gardens and other forms of vegetation. When trees do need to be planted, they must be native to the region and be nursery raised, so as to prevent the dwarfing of trees in a yard. Finally, lush vegetation can continue from house to house and from private to public outdoor spaces. Distinctions between properties should be softened and blurred, creating a vision of the community, rather than the image of individual houses in a housing development.

5.3 Edible Landscapes

89

Fig. 5.15 A community garden in a Montreal, neighborhood

5.3

Edible Landscapes

Crop cultivation can be a domestic activity of residents, who can harvest produce from community gardens, which are smaller and located within a neighborhood (Fig. 5.15). Desirable design would site the gardens in the core of each residential cluster. Buildings enclosing communal gardens can create pleasing living environments with each unit having a view. In addition, individual units can have their own horticultural opportunities. Vertical planting, for example, is a solution relevant to a small yard, greenhouse, and rooftop gardens (Fig. 5.16). It is an efficient garden design that incorporates a variety of plants on cable trellises and shades surfaces in summer while insulating them in winter. Vertical planting also makes efficient use of limited spaces. According to Puma (1985) produce from private horticulture can both feed and flower households. Private greenhouses absorb and trap heat from long-wave thermal radiation. As a result, vegetation flourishes as growing seasons extended beyond natural cycles (Puma 1985). Greenhouses can be constructed as separate structures or be a part of the main dwelling. As additions, greenhouses can heat and provide fresh air for houses if proper ventilation systems are installed. Greenhouses best located beside or atop units facing south to maximise sun exposure. May (1993) suggests that the shrinking space left over for building, the very great demand for green spaces and gardens in our cities make the use of roof areas for gardens highly desirable. Similarly, rooftops are leftover spaces in design, which are flat and often underused and offer a relatively inexpensive large space for production. Roofs can provide surface for vegetation growth, when structurally reinforced and water leaking prevented. Since standard roof design does not take into account the additional weight of soil, plant material, and gardening implements, technical adjustments must be made and accessibility considered.

90

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

Fig. 5.16 Vertical planting at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada

5.4 A New Hybrid Community In the face of on-going urban sprawl encroaching on agricultural areas, and in some cases a scarcity of land for construction, farms and residential developments need to find ways to co-exist. The project described here aims at laying out practical guidelines for achieving this goal. The site is located in an area which historically was used for agriculture. It is an undeveloped plot nestled within the City of Pierrefonds, in the western edge of the Island of Montreal (Fig. 5.17). The area still contains some active farms on its fertile soils which produce vegetable and grain crops. Low-density single-detached dwellings, row houses, and semidetached units surround the site. In conjunction with both active and idle farmlands, the site conditions include a mixed variety of dense residential, nonresidential and farm properties (Fig. 5.18). It is therefore, assumed that 30 % of the occupants will likely be first time home buyers for whom the neighborhood was designed and whose planning principles are outlined below.

5.4.1

Pedestrian Paths

A merger of sustainable agricultural and urban systems required the setting of economic, ecological, and social objectives. To be successful, urban agriculture needs to incorporate communal integration into the core of its design. The proposed project offered this by aligning itself with the conditions of the areas adjacent to the site, which in the farming area have a predominantly single and semidetached dwelling. Higher-density areas may correspond to an average of 20 units per acre (50 units per hectare) surrounding agricultural plots. The principal strategy was to reduce the size of private lots so that more land may be allocated to community agriculture (Fig. 5.19). Reducing private lots’ size is also an affordable and effective way to create cultivatable community lands. The necessity for more integral

5.4 A New Hybrid Community

91

Fig. 5.17 The site of the hybrid development is located in the City of Pierrefonds, Quebec, Canada in an area which was historically used for agriculture

farming space stems from the desire for flexibility since more open spaces create opportunities for a greater variety of produce. Within the site, design must be innovative enough to support all forms of growing as well as provide residential amenities. Reducing private lot sizes entails other alterations of the design. Placing trees along residential roads, for example, creates more land for cultivation and alternative crop production. Such principles of efficient and aesthetic residential beautification also create pleasing, inhabitable environments. Traditional farmland design is planned to facilitate machine accessibility. Alternatively, new farm siting needs to allow more access from each private dwelling

92

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

Fig. 5.18 The City of Pierrefonds was traditionally a farming community. Some agricultural plots still remain, but the majority of land is occupied by low-density residential developments

Densities surrounding the farm space may vary according to the chosen housing types.

More open space creates opportunities for greater cultivation variety in contrast to irregular, sectioned land designs.

Reducing the area of private lots creates more space for community cultivatable land

Fig. 5.19 On-site farmland formation requires reductions in private lot areas. The resulting open space, creates opportunities for a greater variety in cultivation

5.4 A New Hybrid Community

93

Fig. 5.20 Traditionally planed ( left) and a proposed open farming spaces ( right)

as shown in Fig. 5.20. The less flexible traditional design incorporates a wide access point at the northern edge for machines, such as tractors. Great quantities of seed are sown in straight lines on rectangular, traditional farmlands so that tractors can manoeuvre easily. In contrast, the more organic design does not require large equipment and is oriented toward greater human involvement. The shape of the site also permits more buildings to be located beside the community’s shared farmland. Moreover, the layout provides a chance for the farm area to be integrated with other functions such as public parks. Yet, the farmland is still large enough to allow significant crop cultivation and harvests can reap produce for both domestic and commercial uses. Alternative farmland designs that integrate housing need to offer more than cultivation opportunities. Figure 5.21 demonstrates suitable pedestrian path design. Whereas typical suburban walkways are curvilinear, the paths in the proposed design respect the regularity of the property boundaries so as not to disturb proper crop production (Fig. 5.22).

5.4.2

Land–Dwellings Relationships

Crop cultivation can be a domestic activity of residents who can harvest produce not only from large farmland, but also from community gardens. The difference between the two is that community gardens are smaller and are located among the residences. Desirable design would site gardens in the middle of each residential cluster. Buildings enclosing communal gardens create pleasing living environments

94

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

Fig. 5.21 The proposed farm area was designed to be accessed from each home

with each unit having an enjoyable view of the garden (Fig. 5.23). In contrast, undesirable garden design would situate parking in the middle of clusters which would generate noise and smells, and would prevent residences from enjoying garden views.

5.4.3

Private Horticultural Options

In addition to having access to a collective growing land, individual units can have their own horticultural opportunities, such as private residential gardens. For example, vertical planting is a flexible solution applicable to small yard, greenhouse, and

5.4 A New Hybrid Community

95

Fig. 5.22 The paths in the proposed design ( right) respected the regularity of private properties’ boundaries so as not to disturb proper crop production

rooftop gardens (Fig. 5.24). It is also an efficient garden design that incorporates not only a variety of plants, but also other household benefits. Vegetation growing on cable trellises shades surfaces in summer while insulating them in winter. Vertical planting also makes efficient use of limited spaces. To best protect trees and houses, additional vegetation coverage can thwart the effects of unfavourable natural weather conditions. In summer, trees absorb breezes that may damage plants. Moreover, trees provide shade to shield both houses and gardens from intensive solar heat. In contrast, alternative tree species with heavier canopies best protect homes from winter winds (Fig. 5.25). If properly planned, vegetation can create walls that help divert winds from blustering onto private gardens and dwellings.

5.4.4 Yard Gardens Private gardeners should focus on one or two crop species for more productive growth. Cedar hedges, for example, a natural windbreak, can separate and protect a vegetable and flower garden. Importantly, sun exposure nourishes crops and helps them grow to their utmost potential. To increase production in the small area, crop rows are best placed every 30 in (76 cm). Reducing growing spaces from the standard 48 in (121 cm) commercial rows is a more sensible solution for home production. For the horticulturist, the tool shed, frames, and compost should be easily accessible. The proposed plan also beautifies and makes efficient use of the yard. Specifically, the garden extends into the dwelling’s sides, separating parking, and entrance area (Fig. 5.26).

96

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

Fig. 5.23 The relationship between land and dwellings considered sights, sounds and smells

5.4 A New Hybrid Community

97

Fig. 5.24 Vertical planting was introduced as a flexible solution to small yard, greenhouse and rooftop gardens

Fig. 5.25 Appropriate plant material have been chosen to creates natural walls that divert winds from private gardens and homes

Fig. 5.26 The proposed home garden arrangements made the most efficient use of their limited yards. Solutions included accessible tools, narrower crop rows, side yards, and separated, protected crop plots

98

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

5.4.5 Greenhouses and Roof Gardens Private greenhouses absorb and trap heat from long-wave thermal radiation. As a result, vegetation flourishes as growing seasons extended beyond natural cycles (Puma 1985). Greenhouses can be constructed as separate structures as part of the dwelling or as an adjacent addition. As additions, greenhouses can heat and provide fresh air for houses if proper ventilation systems are installed. Greenhouses are best located beside or atop units facing south to maximise sun exposure. Rooftops of residences with flat roofs can be regarded as leftover and often under-used spaces and offer a relatively inexpensive large places for agricultural production. Roofs can provide surface for vegetation growth, when structurally reinforced and water leaking prevented. Since standard roof design does not take into account the additional weight of soil, plant material, and gardening implements, technical adjustments must be made and accessibility considered.

5.4.6

Community Planning

The proposed master plan of the development offers a variety of residential types at different densities to conform to Pierrefonds’ housing needs (Fig. 5.27). The success of this new community depends on implementing the design principles listed above. A community greenhouse and commercial farmland were placed in the center of the site. Orchards line the roadways, both beautifying streets and freeing up land for farming. This development option attempts to provide the best that both rural and urban amenities had to offer. Therefore, squares, a community center, and centralization of communal farmland would increase opportunities for social interaction. Furthermore, large- and small-scale horticultural establishments can feed the community economically, sustain farming activities, as well as save household income. The hierarchical road plan reinforces the agricultural activities set by the guiding site design principles. Central routes enclose the commercial farmland and exit out of the site. Quiet secondary and tertiary roadways connect residents with their private dwellings. As a result, accessibility to community areas such as the communal centre and agricultural land is through the prime roadway. The Pierrefonds project presents an opportunity for alternative suburban development which can merge the advantages of both urban and rural attributes. The proposition of fusing suburban development with rural community values is increasingly attractive to the public. People are seeking more socially, environmentally, and economically sustainable lifestyles. Therefore, a design with community farming at its core incorporates changing public perceptions and attitudes. Agricultural cultivation can occur on both large-scale communal land and small-scale

5.4 A New Hybrid Community

99

Fig. 5.27 The hierarchical movement system connect secondary and tertiary streets to the nearby residential developments

domestic lots. All residents, regardless of dwelling type, can grow nourishing produce. Design principles such as vertical planting, green roofs, greenhouses, street side orchards, and both rear and side yard gardens can yield produce for household use and the consumer markets (Fig. 5.28).

100

5

Streetscapes and Outdoor Spaces

Fig. 5.28 The master plan situates houses along the border of the site, where they integrated with the surrounding suburban fabric

6

Sustaining Shorelines

An increase interest in waterfront development has made shorelines a valued commodity sometimes to the loss of nature. The need to guard the environmental value of shorelines while making them accessible to the public, present new challenges to planners. This chapter explores the urban evolution of shoreline settlements, present guidelines for their sustainable development and describes a design of a riverfront community.

6.1 The Evolution of Lakeside Lifestyle Many early settlements on different continents were established alongside banks of rivers, lakes, or oceans. Waterways were the primary means of transportation between the old and the new worlds and instrumental in fostering trade (Fig. 6.1). Shorelines also offered a natural defence for enemy attracts and presented views of approaching ships (Cohen 1999; Laporte 1989; Torre 1989). The upstream rapids along the river also spawned towns, because travelers broke their trips and stayed the night before challenging the rapids at dawn or portaging across the lake-dotted landscape (Fig. 6.2). Rivers and oceans were also source of food for fisherman who settled along them (Fig. 6.3). Given the topography and flood risks riverside settlements confronted, buildings were erected either just above the water level or embankments were constructed for protection (Gravel and Bouchard 1999; Frost 1981). Shoreline communities expanded with an increase in population and trade. Given the necessity of water routes, the land alongside shorelines was commonly the first to be settled. The subdivision of land to long, narrow lots ensured that people had access to farmland on the river’s edge. The shoreline was not entirely considered a private good. First, the long lot, established under the seigniorial system, was given as land granted to tenants. Industrialization altered the nature of waterfront communities. Whereas, waterfront settlements were once the place of ship passengers or fishing trawlers, the © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 A. Friedman, Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10747-9_6

101

102 Fig. 6.1 The waterfront in Honfleur, France was a place of departure of several maritime voyages to the “New World”

Fig. 6.2 The Town of Peace River, Alberta, Canada began as a service settlement along the banks of the Peace and the Smoky Rivers

Fig. 6.3 One of the canals that runs through the fisherman village that is also known as Water Town of Zhouzhuang, China

6

Sustaining Shorelines

6.1 The Evolution of Lakeside Lifestyle

103

Fig. 6.4 Industrial Revolution era waterfront warehouses and manufacturing facilities in Hamburg, Germany

Fig. 6.5 Early twentieth century riverfront cottages in the city of Stratford, Ontario Canada

Industrial Revolution introduced steam engines, manufacturing facilities and trade to cities and towns on several continents (Fig. 6.4). In the mid eighteen century land developers began to offer accessible means to “civilized lifestyles” near waterfronts. With the advent of railroad transit, lands near rivers or lakeshore become a choice place for wealthy residents of seasonal cottages (Fig. 6.5) (Torre 1989). Subsequently, entrepreneurs erected leisure facilities such as resorts, yacht clubs, and secondary homes within proximity to water and public paths provided access to the water’s edge (Baird and Hall 1998). One of the planning movements that greatly influenced developments along waterfront was the City Beautiful Movement. Appalled with the outcome of the Industrial Revolution that wreaked havoc on the environment and civic moral, the movement rooted itself in a concern for social well-being and attempted to rehabilitate the deteriorating built environment waterfront cities among them (Breen and Rigby 1994). Design drew inspiration from neoclassical values that emphasized

104

6

Sustaining Shorelines

Fig. 6.6 An oceanfront suburban community near Cape Town, South Africa

order and human connection with the surrounding natural environments. The idea “was to deliberately exploit urban design as an uplifting and civilizing influence, while at the same time emphasizing civic pride and power” (Knox and Marston 2001). In other words, the movement saw prosperity as connected to interaction with beautiful landscapes. For example, in Canada, the City of Toronto was one of the first to be inspired by this design discourse. In 1912, Toronto initiated its Waterfront Plan based upon City Beautiful principles. Beaches and open spaces developed along the Lake Ontario shoreline. This plan influenced creation of 2000 acres (809 ha) of waterfront land from the downtown harbour to the outlying residential ‘Beaches’ community. In all, the City Beautiful inspired the Waterfront Plan, “established principles of openness and an accessible public realm” that shaped planning ordinances around the city today (Breen and Rigby 1994). According to Torre (1989) with the introduction of the automobile, waterfront access was curtailed even further. People sought refuge from intense urban conditions in peaceful lakeside retreats. The movement of city residents to scenic locations spurred suburbanisation and the development of ‘fringe’ areas (Knox and Marston 2001). People built in scenic landscapes on cheap land within commuting distance from urban employment. Essentially, the openness and public accessibility of the City Beautiful Movement was reverted with suburbanisation. Instead, the automobile encouraged the development of residential developments in outlying areas where land was bountiful and cheap as shown in Fig. 6.6. Moreover, scenic landscapes, such as lakeshores, provided an abundance of leisure activities for the increasingly wealthy middle class. The push to get away from the bustling industrial city and the leisure associated with a lakeshore lifestyle were not the only factors contributing to moves by many to waterfronts. Burgeoning traffic, rising income, and the desire for family life in a picturesque location contributed to the attractiveness of lakeside development in the twentieth century. Whether a permanent residence or a weekend retreat, shorelines

6.2 Environmental Effects of Shoreline Development

105

Fig. 6.7 Waterfront residential towers in Melbourne, Australia

developments grew in popularity, because they provided alternative activities in enjoyable environments (Fig. 6.7). Accessibility, according to Clawson (1972), represented another factor that encouraged shoreline development. Transportation improvements increased access to previously remote locations. However, with greater shoreline development, the number of publicly-accessible lake and river shores decreased. Instead, demand for private shoreline property rose dramatically. Notably, land use bylaws, and land subdivision regulations directed latter twentieth century development. With increased private property purchases, planning regulation such as street layouts and plot sizes have been introduced. As a result, the development of masterplanned subdivisions had a great influence on design, including lakeshores. However, as demand for lakeshore accessibility grew, supply decreased. With economic values high, much lakeside land was subdivided and sold to the highest private bidder (Fig. 6.8). In the privatization of previously public waterfronts, both public interests and environmental concerns took a backseat to private shoreline development.

6.2 Environmental Effects of Shoreline Development As development expanded around shorelines, dwellings, commercial, and institutional amenities appropriated nature. Whittig (1998) stresses that a distinction can be made between naturally functioning environments such as lakeshore ecosystems, and areas containing natural elements such as inserted landscaping. Simply put, built environments are not natural. The net effect of community infrastructures on nature is called fragmentation, which is defined as “the partition of ecosystems and/ or habitats of plant and animal populations into smaller, more isolated units” (Van Bohemen and Meesters 1992). One form of fragmentation is the destruction or total loss of habitats when housing for example, replaces naturally-existing ecosystems.

106

6

Sustaining Shorelines

Fig. 6.8 Ocean front highrise residential towers built by private sector developers in Vancouver, Canada

Fig. 6.9 A runoff stream in the Town of Peace River, Alberta, Canada

Another form of fragmentation is the disturbance or deterioration of natural habitats due to influences such as traffic noise and noxious emissions. A final mode of fragmentation is through barrier action, which is the separation of a continuous ecosystem by infrastructure development (Van Bohemen and Meesters 1992). The environmental effects of shoreline development extend beyond instances of fragmentation, and may, for example, also lead to storm water runoff (Fig. 6.9). Roads and parking lots construction which uses paving entails the laying of impervious surfaces over land. Runoff is collected in subsurface drainage facilities and then discharges into nearby waterways. The negative effects of runoff are manifold. It contains pollutants such as pesticides, salt, and oil that are flushed into water systems. To counteract pollution, some communities treat sewage. However, the over-treatment of water-based waste creates eutrophic or nutrient-rich conditions, which can contaminate lakes and reservoirs. Species that thrive in eutrophic conditions, such as algae, invade and proceed to ‘green’ the water with excessive

6.3 Strategies for Successful Protection of Shorelines

107

Fig. 6.10 To counter the effect of polluting runoffs, permeable pavements need to be made part of a sustainable residential development

growth. Moreover, impervious surfaces prevent groundwater recharge as water cannot leach naturally in soils. As a result, water bodies fluctuate between extreme periods of scouring and drought that erode shorelines as sands and mud are washed away or dry out. As awareness grows, so does the interest in making waterfronts a public good. Increasingly, people are demanding accessibility to waterfronts. Shorelines are not merely a commodity within the leisure economy, but a public asset belonging to all. Yet, lakeshore development norms continue to support private property claims to waterfront uses over those of public ones (Laporte 1989). Therefore, if reclamation of waterfronts is to be successful, a compromise must be made. In any design innovation, public approval is crucial to the longevity and dynamism of newly created spaces. Design needs to address social concern such as safety, environmental protection, and the treatment of views (Fig. 6.10). If development meets these objectives, then the reclamation of public access to shorelines will succeed. The most important approach to waterfront reclamation is to learn from what exists. In other words, inspiration for shoreline development should stem from a careful observation of existing site conditions (Gordon 1996; Kono 1998). As such, design will not seem forced or artificially imposed, but will integrate into surrounding environments. Design integration is the incorporation of human and natural elements. People need to actively accept, and not just tolerate, shoreline development. In terms of the natural environment, design must limit fragmentation. Environmental assessment and proper management must uphold the lake ecologies. Essentially, lakeside development cannot be isolated from the greater context of surrounding site conditions but be integrated into local populations and incorporate local water systems.

6.3

Strategies for Successful Protection of Shorelines

Municipal regulations commonly dictate that developers submit Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) and mitigation plans prior to a project approval. The purpose of EIA is to “achieve sensible integration of environment and development”

108

6

Sustaining Shorelines

Fig. 6.11 A water stream was left undisturbed in the heart of a community near Burlington, Vermont, USA

Fig. 6.12 Apartment buildings were set back from the sea to form a pedestrian promenade in Malmo, Sweden

(Nakamura et al. 1989). EIA involves an interdisciplinary approach that combines scientific analysis, political persuasion, and administrative processes. Consideration is given to water quality and quantity, physical changes of shoreline properties such as erosion, salination, and vegetation or water way disruption (Fig. 6.11). EIA also quantify irreversible changes to aesthetic properties, such as waterside views that may result from development identify best, worst, and median case scenarios of projected shoreline development (Fig. 6.12). These scenarios include perspectives from environmental, commercial, residential, political, and public groups. EIAs usually commence early in the design stage and results in the establishment of mitigation plan that extends beyond protecting the biological diversity of water systems to including land and building protection if necessary. An example of an area requiring environmental mitigation through proper construction is flood plain development. Flood plains are the relatively flat areas of land bordering water. Developments in these areas are in danger of flooding due to their location or poor planning. Flood periods are relatively predictable and occur

6.3 Strategies for Successful Protection of Shorelines

109

Fig. 6.13 Homes built near a canal in Alkmaar, the Netherlands

during spring thaws and seasonal rains. Therefore, appropriate mitigation can protect development from flooding. Construction can occur on flood plains if the design reinforces land and the housing is ‘flood-proofed’. Basic methods for safe construction include rock-and-earth fill or posts and piers that raise a building above flood levels. Basement design may either create strong, watertight rooms capable of withstanding encroaching floodwater or allow for flooding. Basement flooding equalizes structural pressure and, therefore, extends the amount of time inhabitants may stay in their homes during floods. Finally, floodwalls built higher than is required for ‘once-in-a-hundred-years’ flood levels also protect buildings (CMHC 1983). Flood-resistant construction techniques do not only apply to building properties, but also to agricultural lands. Reinforcing the water edges stabilizes erosion and mitigates flooding, a technique that has been applied since the introduction of agriculture (Brutuisworo 1989; Torre 1989). At present, newer technologies replace costly and time-consuming traditional stabilisation techniques such as stone setting and sheet piling. Such techniques are well established in the Netherland, a country below sea level where canals are common as shown in Fig. 6.13. Gabions are an excellent example of a contemporary construction technique. Originating in late nineteenth century Italy, gabions are wire boxes containing various size stones, tied together, stacked, and graded one on top of the other. The effect is economic and architecturally attractive. Moreover, since gabions are sub-surface stonewalls they also provide habitats for marine biology. Other modes of protecting shorelines are outlined below.

6.3.1

Siting Buildings

Buildings should be set back from shorelines threatened by flooding (CMHC 1983). They should also be set back to ensure views of and public access to water edges. Proper setbacks and building heights protect views and create visual corridors as

110

6

Sustaining Shorelines

Fig. 6.14 A visual corridor in Cornwall, Ontario, Canada

Fig. 6.15 Pedestrian paths along rivers are an important urban feature that ensure public attraction and use of shorelines as is the case in Stratford, Ontario, Canada

shown in Fig. 6.14. Slope zoning is one method of ensuring this as it creates more views for inhabitants. Setbacks similarly create more waterfront views. Lynch (1960) states that the visibility of an environment adds to an area’s image ability. If buildings are set directly on the water’s edge, then only shore-facing fronts have water views.

6.3.2

Paths

Visual corridors and pedestrian paths are important urban features that ensure public attraction to shorelines and their reclamation (Fig. 6.15). Open vistas of shorelines contrast with land development to enhance the attractiveness of water edges. Yet,

6.3 Strategies for Successful Protection of Shorelines

111

design must not only consider lake views. How space unveils as a person moves toward it also influences perception and scale. Scale refers to the apparent size of a place in contrast to its actual spatial dimensions. Two primary factors influencing scale are the human eye and path gradients. The human eye horizontally perceives views within a 60° range, and vertically within a 27° range. The eye perceives the total impression of a place at an 18° angle (Zucker 1959). Therefore, emergence from a narrow corridor into an open vista has a great visual impact. Moreover, the gradient of the path taken alters the progression of shoreline presentation. For example, if one is advancing from a hill, the open space is revealed bit by bit as one nears it. Alternatively, if one is entering a place from a narrow path, then the open space may all at once appear in full view, greatly impacting one’s perception of its scale. What is more, alteration in light, sound and smell may enhance the perception of place. The spaces people move through dramatically affect their perception of the surrounding environments. Furthermore, accessibility is fundamental to the creation of successful paths, and it refers to people’s ease and experience of entry into a distinctive area. The number of entry points and the degree of physical interference, such as traffic, determine accessibility. Given the importance of path definition and accessibility, design must neutralize conflicts between vehicular and pedestrian pathways. Often, roads are erected next to shorelines without any consideration for pedestrian access. In such scenarios, the extension of shorelines through the construction of gabion systems can create shoreline boulevards. Moreover, designs may plan parking lots near lakeshores since they effectively separate vehicles from shorelines. Parking must be both visually integrating and non-threatening to pedestrians and using proper landscaping is one strategy to ensure this. It both beautifies parking environments as well as slows traffic moving throughout a site. If, however, design cannot influence roadway redevelopment, then an elevated walkways present another alternative that separate pedestrians from a nearby site (Laporte 1989). Gabions, elevated sidewalks or other paths that allow pedestrians to have scenic waterfront views add to a site’s attractiveness as shown in Fig. 6.16. There are five elements which contribute to a place’s beauty that directly can apply to public shoreline design. First, Lynch (1960) describes paths, such as pedestrian and vehicular routes, as the channels of movement and an element of imageability. Lynch also includes landmarks or physical reference points, such as central docks and sitting arrangements as enhancing perception of place (Fig. 6.17). Third, edges, such as water edges, are visually prominent boundaries between two areas. Fourth, nodes or points of activity influence imageability because people are drawn to bustling places. The sum total of these elements represents districts, which is the fifth element of imageability. Districts are medium to large size sections of a broader area (Laporte 1989; Lynch 1960; Macionis and Parrillo 2001). It is integrative imageability that designed strategies should seek

112

6

Sustaining Shorelines

Fig. 6.16 A pedestrian promenade along the water edge in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada

Fig. 6.17 A public sitting arrangement near a river in Malmo, Sweden

to attain. If designers reflect upon the traditions that past shoreline development averted and contemplate the adverse conditions contemporary shorelines confront, then strategies may emerge to create economically, aesthetically, and environmentally productive places.

6.4 Shoreline Demonstration

6.4

113

Shoreline Demonstration

This section describes the planning of a new shoreline neighborhood in the Town of Saint-Genevieve in Quebec, Canada (Fig. 6.18). With one side of the 2 acres (0.8 ha) site bordered by the Rivière des Prairies, it was a good location to demonstrate guiding design principles of sustainable building practices on shoreline. The site is located in an established neighborhood with an adjacent high school, church, small supermarket, parking lot, and a two-storey senior citizens’ residence that occupies the center. To its south and west there is an open green space complete with a garden and small bandstand. The open space continues in the south and south-westward direction toward the shoreline. The site also has lawns and low-lying shrubs and trees. This combination of vegetation influences breezes dispersing through the site. The topography is relatively flat with a slight slope leading toward the river’s edge. Winter winds from the north diffuse as they pass through the bushes and trees. Summer air streams the breeze from the south-east and cools the building before dispersing. Given the buildings in the north-eastern portion of the site, the open space along the southern and western edges, the predominance of low-lying vegetation, and the relatively flat topography, riverfront views are significantly better from the south and relatively blocked from the north. In contrast, the open space area in the west and southwest portions of the site provide excellent views of the riverside. Instead, it was decided that new buildings should settle around the site’s boundaries to avoid blocking waterfront views to fit naturally into the existing context.

6.4.1

Design Principles

The following guiding design principles establish the theme, orientation, function, and place-making crucial to the development of attractive and sustainable lakeside living. Fig. 6.18 The site is located in the Town of SaintGenevieve, Quebec, Canada and borders the Rivière des Prairies

114

6

Sustaining Shorelines

Fig. 6.19 For a better view, building heights can be increased the farther they are set back from a shoreline ( left). Lower buildings closer to the shoreline can have pitched roofs ( right)

Fig. 6.20 Building orientation along a diagonal access will maximize units’ views ( left). A double loaded corridor will also offer a view to dwellings on either side ( right)

6.4.1.1 Slope Zoning and Roofs The new design respects the surrounding low-density housing character. Design can raise building heights to three stories without blocking waterfront views. A useful tool to achieve this would be slope zoning, which grades building heights in relation to their distance from the water’s edge. As illustrated in Fig. 6.19, building can increase in height the farther they set back from the shoreline. The result is a reduction of blocked views caused by other buildings. Sloped roof design is another effective tool that reduces blocked views. As a result, the human eye can perceive a wider angle of the shoreline and the community grounds. 6.4.1.2 Building Orientation Appropriate orientation of buildings greatly facilitates the affect that slope zoning and sloped roofs have on views. Shown in Fig. 6.20, building layouts along a diagonal axis ensure a greater view from each dwelling unit. However, not all buildings should be oriented along diagonal axes. Rear units enclosing the back of residential complexes may be better sited parallel to water edges. When buildings are laid out along a diagonal axis, units are arranged along either side of a double loaded corridor so more units will have riverside views.

6.5 Vegetation as a Tool

115

Fig. 6.21 Brushes and trees can effectively diffuse breezes that blow toward the buildings

6.5 Vegetation as a Tool Vegetation such as grass, brush, and trees cover the site and are an advantageous design tool. Whereas brush and trees help control local climates, river winds sweep over the bank (Fig. 6.21). Brushes and trees effectively diffuse breezes that blow toward the buildings. Notably, low-lying brush can grow closer to the water’s edge with medium and large trees growing closer to buildings. In other words, vegetation planting should adhere to the same principles as slope zoning. The height of vegetation should be increased to greater heights as the distance from the shoreline also increases. The result is the maximization of waterfront views and greater protection of buildings from severe cold winds. However, mature trees should not grow directly beside buildings. A certain distance should separate leafy, mature vegetation from buildings to prevent shadows from covering structures.

6.5.1

Common Area, Parking Arrangement, and Paths

The provision of common central space was meant to enhance the occupants’ residential experience. As shown in Fig. 6.22, many of the units have views of the area making it highly accessible. For convenience and safety, parking was located near buildings for quick and easy access. The result of combining both common and

Fig. 6.22 Pedestrian paths connect units with each other, a shared open space and a shoreline boardwalk

116

6

Sustaining Shorelines

Fig. 6.23 The master plan of the proposed shoreline community

parking spaces was the flexible use of other outdoor areas. It was also decided that pedestrian paths should be connected to the central open space, to other residential clusters and to the waterfront.

6.6 Treating the Shoreline Guided by the aforementioned design principles, the site contains 114 dwelling units with a total density of 45 units/acre (112 units/ha) (Fig. 6.23). Porches and balconies designed into the back façades of the row houses allow the inhabitants to enjoy fresh river breezes and beautiful views (Fig. 6.24). Beyond the garden, the connecting pedestrian paths lead to the public boardwalk and the Rivière des Prairies’ edge. A shoreline community design needs to be oriented to maximize views, connect private and public paths, and above all, integrate built and marine environments in a sustainable way. In planning future communities, twenty-first century errors should not repeat those of the twentieth. If residents are to take pride in their communities, then they will be more inclined to share it with others.

6.6 Treating the Shoreline

Fig. 6.24 A rendering of the common area and the dwellings that border it

117

7

Social Capital and Integrated Communities

Separation of land uses in the post-World War II era saw the development of communities made only of residences. Yet, when properly planned, activities such as working, shopping, sitting at a café, visiting a gym can take place in neighborhoods to increase walkability and contribute to the place’s social sustainability. Woven into the residents’ lives, those activities make most of their daily trips. Studies show that one-third of all daily trips are work related, 24 % are for shopping, school or visiting religious institutions, and the remaining 35 % are for either recreation or personal business (Van der Ryn and Calthorpe 1986). This chapter begins by discussing issues related to social capital and focuses on incorporating nonresidential spaces into neighborhoods. By investigating traditional living patterns, the chapter aims to offer strategies for creating mixed-use, transit-oriented neighborhoods.

7.1

Social Capital

It can be argued that a neighborhood’s small-scale can also affect the place’s social relations and potentially lead to greater closeness between residents. Having meeting spots will result in more frequent encounters and foster the creation of a wider social web (Fig. 7.1). Several attributes of communal behavior are referred to by scientists as social capital or human capital. Svendsen (2010) described social capital as outward looking open networks that encompass people across diverse “social cleavages”. He goes on to define “bonding” social capital, as consisted of inward looking networks that tend to reinforce exclusive identities and homogenous groups. He also suggests that social capital is about people who meet, get to know one another and help each other in various ways. The Slow Living movement, for example, attempts to put a name and draw some social characteristics of these unique places (Fig. 7.2). Another all-encompassing term that includes economic, social, spiritual, and health related aspects by a group, is well-being. It is a holistic term that looks at how well groups are doing using various scales and criteria. © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 A. Friedman, Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10747-9_7

119

120

7 Social Capital and Integrated Communities

Fig. 7.1 A neighborhood meeting spot in Tel Aviv, Israel

Known as socio-spatial attributes, meeting places provide the spots in which human interaction takes place (Fig. 7.3). Without them, there would be fewer opportunities for vital communal encounters. American sociologist James Coleman (1988) argues that human capital presupposes social capital much like among family members. If people do not spend time together, there would be fewer opportunities for transfer of knowledge, material, leaning, cooperation, and trust. Some researchers also draw a link between well-developed social capital and a place’s creativity, urban growth, and economic performance. In their article Fig. 7.2 The slow cities movement, of which the city of Trani, Italy is a member, includes communities who adopt a lifestyle that enhance the sense of social well-being of their residents

7.1 Social Capital

121

Fig. 7.3 A café and a play space under apartment building in a neighborhood in Barcelona, Spain

“Rethinking Human Capital, Creativity and Urban Growth”, Storper and Scott (2009) asked “Do jobs follow people or do people follow jobs?” They suggest that current approaches to urbanization, most notably Florida’s (2002) a Creative Class notion, privileging the role of individual locations as engines of urban growth and personal development. What draws people to a place and enriches their residency experience will be, among other factors, the offered local amenities. These include cultural attractions such as museums, orchestras, attractive architecture, and innovative urban planning, to name a few. Therefore, creating a suitable place for information and cultural exchanges as shown in Fig. 7.4 has been regarded as a direct contributor to a place’s economic and social prosperity. Svendsen (2010) argues that regular face-to-face meetings also involve increased formation of human capital and ultimately contribute to economic and social sustainability. Williams (2006) suggest that opportunities for personal meetings diminished with the invention of information and communication tools and rise of social media. Indeed, the power of the internet and “Skype conversations” cannot be discounted. On the other hand, the digital age has offered people and communities effective tools to connect across a wide range of geographical spectrums. For example, a visit to a local public square or a café demonstrates that those places are often the sites where digital devices are offered and used (Fig. 7.5). Patrons enjoy the company of others while attending to their information appliances. Public health is another aspect of a neighborhood’s well-being. It includes physical and mental health, which are affected by, among other factors, the way a place was planned (Gidlow et al. 2010; Baum et al. 2009). The authors argue that people’s mental health would be better when they are socially active, feel supported, safe and trust their neighbors. These studies often regard key indicators of social capital, such as trust and participation as predictors of physical health as well. For example, residing in a walkable neighborhood will improve people’s chances of being active. Evans (2003) suggests that characteristics such as type of housing, crowding, noise, indoor air quality, and natural light will have a direct effect on mental health.

122

7 Social Capital and Integrated Communities

Fig. 7.4 A public meeting place in an Antwerp, Belgium neighborhood

For example, crowdedness and higher density will diminish supportive relations within a household. Among the positive social attributes that are associated with the built environment, Evans (2003) includes natural areas, visual prospects, and inclusion of activity generators such as markets and streetscaping. Two cohorts to which researchers pay special attention are younger and older populations. Abbott-Chapman and Robertson (2009) found that adolescent preferences for having their own bedroom and a secluded place in the natural environment express a way to define personal sought after privacy. It is part of a young person’s self-discovery and socialization that leads to their emerging identity. Having access to congregation and open spaces is highly valued as aspects that foster a sense of freedom through playing and experimenting (Fig. 7.6). Communities that lack such places or those that locate them away from residences deprive these populations of various opportunities. Children hold different perceptions of spaces. Generally, small towns offer more natural outdoor play areas that are liked by children and are not common in big cities. Several researchers have found that younger people value locations where they can engage in sports or physical activities, due to objects or meeting places that the place has. On the other hand, they dislike places with features that they perceive to pose social or physical threats to their safety (Castonguay and Jutras 2009) On the other end of the age spectrum, studies have been conducted on the relationships between older people and their social space. Andrews and Phillips (2005)

7.1 Social Capital

123

Fig. 7.5 A free internet service is offered in a public neighborhood square in Queretaro, Mexico

Fig. 7.6 A playground in the heart of a residential cluster in Tel Aviv, Israel

suggested that attachment to a place enables seniors to draw meaning, security, and a sense of identity that facilitates life-cycle adjustment (Fig. 7.7). Therefore, residences that were designed for Aging in Place can be seen not only as cost-effective for individuals and governments, but beneficial from a communal point of view. Wiles et al. (2009) coined the term social space when studying places preferred by seniors. The authors suggest that these places are multilayered, connected, imaginative, emotional, and symbolic. As people age and their mobility reduced, their definition and the ability to reach some destinations will also be diminished. Seniors who do not drive will not endeavor to reach places that are not served by public transit for example.

124

7 Social Capital and Integrated Communities

Fig. 7.7 A public sitting arrangement for seniors in Salerno, Italy

The prevalence of overweight and obese populations among all ages and, in particular children, has become a global concern for demographics, citizens of small towns included. A New York Times article (Singer 2010) goes on to suggests that in the USA, despite attempts by some states and city to tax and limit the size of soda pop, promote farm stands, require healthier school lunches, or mandate calorie information in chain restaurants, obesity rates are still growing. The article goes on to report that, according to recent data published by the United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention, an estimated 72.5 million adults are obese. Only recently has attention been given to the fact that the built environment has over time been altered to curtail physical activity. Low residential density implies that basic services and amenities, that can potentially get people active, are not economically viable. For example, there are not sufficient riders to justify the introduction of a public transit and not enough shoppers to support a corner grocery store to which people can walk. In fact, things have gone from bad to worse when it comes to public health implications of neighborhood planning decisions.

7.2 Strategies for Mixed-Use Planning

125

In the name of efficiency, schools have been relocated from their traditional spots in the heart of neighborhoods to the outskirts where they can easily be accessed from major roads by car. That has meant that a pupil’s short walk or easy bike ride has been rendered impossible. Another feature that found its way into the municipal waste basket was small play areas near homes that have been replaced by a huge play field, to which children have to be driven. The play itself has been morphed into regimented leagues and strict schedules. Spontaneity, unfortunately, has been taken out of kids’ play. Past play spaces that engaged children in different ways, shown in Fig. 7.8, have also disappear. It is no wonder that TV watching and computer games have replaced outdoor play. Studies suggest that TV viewing is North American youth’s primary activity, with 1.5 to 2.5 h on average per day. Some of this time includes watching advertising for high-caloric foods (Larson 2001). Another casualty of contemporary planning was the continued and safe sidewalk that in most developments where eliminated altogether and are now being reintroduces in some communities (Fig. 7.9). Seniors, parents pushing a stroller and children had to share the road with motorists, often putting their lives at risk. When the sidewalk vanished, benches followed, leaving no places to sit on, or trees to stand under and talk with a neighbor on a sunny day. Reintroducing features that over the past half-century have been taken out from neighborhoods planning need to take place. Homes and cities must be regarded as exercise machines for all ages. Along with the reintroduction of physical changes, public health officials need to continue and warn citizens about the grim consequences of inactive lifestyles. Enforcing attributes of social capital in community design through mixed-use planning will be outlined below.

7.2 Strategies for Mixed-Use Planning Segregation of land use began in the mid-nineteenth century when cities faced pollution coupled with crowded conditions resulting from the Industrial Revolution. Planners and civic leaders began to advocate the separation of industries from residential areas. Over time, the segregation, once used only to incompatible uses, is now applied to many land uses. For example, shopping may be separated from housing or workplaces. Another aspect that led to the demise of main street and mixed-use neighborhoods was the introduction of shopping malls. In 1923, J.C. Nichols’s Country Club Plaza shopping center opened in Kansas (Palen 1995). It was meant to be a town center and not just a collection of stores and included a mix of uses. The buildings were two stories tall were the ground floor was used for shops and the second for offices. The introduction of shopping malls forced mom and pop stores to close down further removing commerce from neighborhoods. Varieties of planning strategies have been suggested in recent years for the reestablishment of sustainable mixed-use communities. The thrust of the concept is to have commerce, employment, and housing combined in the neighborhood to rein-

126

7 Social Capital and Integrated Communities

Fig. 7.8 Three conceptual plans of children’s play spaces, providing physical, social, creative and quiet play areas

7.2 Strategies for Mixed-Use Planning

127

Fig. 7.9 Continued and safe sidewalk in a community in Montreal, Canada

force public transit use, encourage walking and preserve open space. Some of these approaches will be described below.

7.2.1

Pedestrian Pockets

One such approach, known as “pedestrian pockets”, was meant to establish a network spanning infill and greenfield sites (Calthorpe 1993). Pedestrian pockets were designed with the idea that retail, employment, and transit were nodal and decentralising at a rapid rate, which is common in many North American suburbs. A pedestrian pocket would consist of high-density housing, a mixed-use main street, and a light rail transit station. Pedestrian pockets are more compact because the residential density proposed in them is higher than in typical suburban neighborhood. The size of a pocket remains as no more than 100 acres (40.5 ha) or a walking distance of 1/4 mile (0.4 km) (Kelbaugh 1989) (Fig. 7.10). One pocket often connects to others and to larger urban centers through a public transit system. A pocket intends to provide housing, shopping and employment for 5000 and up to 16,000 jobs within four stops of the train in either direction (Kelbaugh 1989). By providing employment in close proximity to housing, car travel is reduced. Their smaller size compared to other forms of development should lessen the impact that a new development has on the environment.

7.2.2 Transit-Oriented Development Transit-oriented developments (TOD) focus a mix of land uses such as residential, office, retail, civic, and entertainment. Their scale is larger than that of pedestrian pockets, but remains within an easy walking distance of 2000 ft (610 m) from a

128

7 Social Capital and Integrated Communities

Pedestrian path

Lowest density area

Lower density area Dense core area

Higher density dwellings along major arteries

Road

Fig. 7.10 A diagrammatic representation of pedestrian paths connecting neighborhoods with a denser center

transit station a 5–10 minutes’ walk as shown in Fig. 7.11. This mix of uses, combined with thoughtfully designed community spaces and plazas should help it become a vibrant village-like neighborhood where people can live, work, and play. Such a village is compact in size, pedestrian-friendly, and can be customized to offer a wide variety of housing options with convenient access to services and jobs. Unlike pedestrian pockets, TODs can accommodate a wider range of residential densities including low-density single-family homes. Transit oriented neighborhoods can be developed around a local or feeder bus line within a 10 min transit travel time from a transit stop (Calthorpe 1993). Neighborhood TODs consist of commerce and employment in the core to form a center of growth around transit stops. An example of a transit oriented neighborhood plan is the Calvine Specific Area Plan for Sacramento, California. The Calvine design includes two mixed-use developments connected to a planned extension of the region’s light rail system. The plan proposes a major office development on the northern part of the site and an

7.2 Strategies for Mixed-Use Planning

129

Transit corridor

Fig. 7.11 A diagrammatic representation of a neighborhood with a denser center crossed by a transit corridor

Medium density

Higher density

Residential

Mixed-use center

entertainment-oriented retail center within walking distance of 1400 homes and a light rail stop. It also offers mix of housing types.

7.2.3

Commercial Centers

The size of a commercial center depends on the area of the neighborhood. There can be three levels of core commercial area based on population size. A community or village center can serve to about 20,000 people, a neighborhood center can serve up to 8000 people, and a convenience center can serve to a smaller population of 3000 persons (Van der Ryn and Calthorpe 1986). The design approach of mixed-use developments can be applied to communities of various sizes. Civic services such as government offices, recreation centers, post offices, and day care centers can place in close proximity to each other as shown in Fig. 7.12. Placing those amenities in the center will make the area walkable. At the same time, by allowing a mix of housing types in a medium- to high-density

130

7 Social Capital and Integrated Communities

1/4 mile (400m) 5 minute walk

School

D D D

D

B

Park B

E

C

A

A above stores

B Apartments above stores

C Shopping strip

D

E Shops near bus stop

Fig. 7.12 Commercial and civic amenities can be placed in close proximity to each other to foster walkability

development a number of nonresidential facilities as well as a transit stop will be economically sustained (Fig. 7.13). Convenience centers should generate more pedestrian traffic than transit or car activity. Often, small local retailers cannot afford the rent in new construction. Therefore, convenience centers should have a mix of facilities such as a daycare, fitness club, beauty salon, or a grocery store, all integrated with a neighborhood park or open space. A convenience center combined with thoughtfully designed space and retail-service mix can become a node for further growth.

7.2 Strategies for Mixed-Use Planning

131

Fig. 7.13 Dwellings above stores in a commercial center in Alkmaar, the Netherlands

Fig. 7.14 A commercial center in a neighborhood near Amsterdam, the Netherlands

Neighborhood centers should be bigger than convenience centers and can have a mix of shops, drugstores, supermarkets, day care centers, professional offices, and other civic amenities (Fig. 7.14). At densities of around 12 units per acre (30 units per hectare), a neighborhood with a 1/4 mile radius (0.4 km) can accommodate a population of around 3800 assuming an average of 2.5 persons per household. Activities which are not compatible and are auto-dependent such as drivethrough windows, car washes, and car sales lots, should be discouraged. The purpose of having a cluster of services is for residents to meet every day needs through “one stop shopping” rather than the common contemporary pattern of driving to a variety of locations. It will encourage transit use and bring down auto dependency, as these daily destinations are located at one place. A community or village hub occupies a bigger area than a neighborhood center and houses the same facilities and a few more services such as a bank, religious center, central library, bigger office buildings, a theatre, and a market (Fig. 7.15). A community center can be integrated with a central park or amphitheatre that can

132

7 Social Capital and Integrated Communities

Fig. 7.15 A market in the heart of a community’s commercial hub in Deauville, France

host festivals and create a square to attract people. A community center can be successful if the surrounding residential density can be kept at medium or high, about 25–30 units/acre (62–74 units/ha) in the 1/4 mile (0.4 km) radius from the center (Van der Ryn and Calthorpe1986).

7.2.4 Vertical Mixed-Use Along with a horizontal mix of uses, the community or neighborhood center can have a vertical mix of uses. The same buildings can have retail on the ground floor and office or residential on the upper. The buildings in the core need to be taller to provide visual interest and an urban character. The retail can occupy total or part of ground floor. In the latter case, a minimum of 80 % of a structure’s street front façade at street level should be occupied by commerce (Morris 1996). If a building is intended to contain retail, office, and residential then it is advisable and practical to provide retail on ground floor, office on the upper floors, and residential on the rest of the floors to maintain privacy for residents as shown in Fig. 7.16. Also, the retail/office floors and residences should have separate entrances. For the parking, the retail can accommodate its parking on-street and office or residents can have it in the rear or underground. The core commercial areas in a community or neighborhood center can also accommodate bigger retail stores along with smaller ones. The location and the entry of the bigger store should help it to blend with smaller stores. The bigger store can provide two entries, one from the main street for pedestrian shoppers and other from the rear connected to parking area. The small shops can have entries on main streets and they can provide parking either on the street or in rear parking lots. This main street, connected to residential areas and a transit stop, would form a pleasant place to walk and attract foot traffic to local shops. In the larger neighborhoods, it is possible to have one community and a few convenience centers. However, to make the retail areas more successful, it is important

7.2 Strategies for Mixed-Use Planning

133

Fig. 7.16 Most buildings in this Haarlem, Netherland neighborhood have stores on ground floor, offices on the second and apartments above them

that they are connected with transit stops or at least within 5 to 10 minutes’ walk of a transit stop. The different convenience centers should each have distinct features like a community gymnasium or children’s library to draw people from other locations. When providing a second retail center, it is vital that any competing retail center is at a considerable distance to make it economically viable. The same idea applies while creating a new retail center closer to existing core commercial area (Calthorpe 1993).

7.2.5 Locating Civic Institutions and Other Amenities Civic institutions are best integrated with commerce and recreation, to create what is known as “a complete place”. Public squares are places that provide a sense of place in the community. Bigger civic structures like a city hall or library should be placed around the square and have special architectural elements to differentiate one neighborhood from another and to create activity nodes. The architectural quality of community buildings is important as it can also enhance their presence and importance. Landmark buildings can be sited at corners of the plaza to create an urban feel. A civic square that houses small commercial services and amenities like a day care and a post office can be located in a low density neighborhood. They can form a convenience center and will help people meet and develop a sense of communal ownership (Fig. 7.17). When community buildings in them are integrated with parks can provide the social integration necessary for elderly people for example. Schools and daycares can be regarded as a focal point of a neighborhood. They can double as playgrounds, libraries, and meeting places as shown in Fig. 7.18. Elementary schools can operate at a neighborhood level and a junior high school can serve at a town level. Schools should stay connected to or be part of residential area and neighborhood centers yet away from arterial roads.

134 Fig. 7.17 A civic square like this one in Montreal, Quebec, Canada houses small commercial services and amenities in a low density single-family neighborhood

Fig. 7.18 A school above library near Copenhagen, Denmark

7 Social Capital and Integrated Communities

7.2 Strategies for Mixed-Use Planning

135

Fig. 7.19 Citizens sitting on the steps of a church in Positano, Italy

Just like civic or service buildings, the architecture and location of places of worship can also lent a neighborhood identity and form a meeting place (Fig. 7.19). They can be situated near public parks and integrated with a convenience center and linked by public transit to all residential areas. When religious institutions are located near open spaces they have the potential to draw visitors from other neighborhoods as well.

7.2.6 Designing for Live-Work Arrangements Live-work units are homes with a space allocated to work. The advantages of this unit are manifold. One, the homeowner is able to finance both a home and workplace with a single mortgage. Second, it gives parents an opportunity to work at home while taking care of child. Third, it saves the time and fuel consumed while traveling to a place of work. There are a number of ways in which work space can be incorporated when designing homes. The amount of space to be allotted for working area depends on the household size and the nature of work. Apart from encouraging mixed-use activities in designated buildings, they can be accommodated in the dwelling itself. This form of live-work units is currently experiencing resurgence with fundamental employment structure changes. With digital innovation, more people are choosing to work from home either full or parttime. For example, a Canadian Survey of Occupation of Home-Based Workers revealed that 23 % of the respondents were in professional services such as education, engineering, charted accountancy, architecture, or law. The next most cited occupations were business services such as bookkeeping, computer related services, and writing. A majority reported to be living in two-parent household. This indicates that architects and planners will have to bring about change while designing neighborhoods or houses.

136

7 Social Capital and Integrated Communities

A response to this need is to provide facilities that would encourage teleworkers. In Orangeville, Ontario, the 250 acre (101 ha) Montgomery Village development incorporates a grid street layout, compact housing forms, a mixed commercial or residential “main street,” and a pedestrian-friendly layout, with an emphasis on public spaces. Such efforts are a step ahead in designing new neighborhoods to meet the current needs of their occupants. There have also been a number of efforts to make changes in the design of houses and accommodate work space either in the home or in the neighborhood.

7.3 Mixing Commerce and Residences in Peace River Peace River was named after the river that runs through it. The town, population 6000, is located in the northern part of the Province of Alberta, Canada and is also the meeting point of the Smoky and the Heart rivers (Fig. 7.20). Some 302 mile (486 km) separate the town from the capital Edmonton and 123 mile (198 km) from the City of Grande Prairie. With the building of a new commercial center on its edge, Peace River’s core experienced a decline. Several businesses closed and others moved to the new commercial section. Another aspect of concern was the town’s economic dependence on a few key industries. The need to broaden its economic base led to the exploration of tourism that can potentially take advantage of the area’s natural beauty. There was also a strong desire to enhance the town’s “sense of place” and introduce more dwellings in the core (Fig. 7.21). It is with this background that I was asked to offer ideas and prepare a plan for the town’s future that would consider these emerging realities.

7.3.1 Opportunities and Barriers Prior to offering retooling ideas and introducing new neighborhoods, opportunities and the barrier that Peace River poses were examined. At the outset we recognized that currently, the town acts as a well-established regional service drawn to the surrounding communities. Due to its location and easy access, it is an excellent geographic focal point with natural beauty as its greatest assets. A location in a valley, a meeting place of rivers and a breathtaking view of the surrounding forested mountaintops make it unique. Downtown Peace River, a home to hotels, restaurants, government buildings, banks and offices, still acts as a draw. In addition, although not many residents call downtown home, the area is surrounded by several neighborhoods, which offers a patronage base to the businesses. Also, it has a pedestrian-friendly character with wide sidewalks facing storefront. Main Street is the area’s natural center with short walking distances from the place’s edges and plenty of parking nearby. Downtown has a number of centrally located empty lots that offer investment opportunities for residential developers.

7.3 Mixing Commerce and Residences in Peace River

137

Fig. 7.20 The town of Peace River is located in the northern part of the Province of Alberta, Canada and is the meeting point of the Smoky and the Heart rivers

The core is also the location of many annual and sessional cultural activities, which add to its attraction and help turn it into a tourist draw. In mapping existing conditions several barriers to future development were noted, first among them are stagnant population growth. To cover the costs of its renewal, Peace River needed to expand its tax base and generate wealth. Attracting new enterprises will initiate a prosperity cycle, create employment, and bring new residents. The town also needed to review its land use allocation and bylaws. Garages and other industrial types of businesses give the place a poor image, primarily those buildings that face the river. If the area is to be made attractive to homebuyers, current regulations need to be tightened to permit only residential and commercial uses.

138

7 Social Capital and Integrated Communities

Fig. 7.21 Urban plan and images of Peace River, Canada

A vital facet of Peace River’s revitalization is access to the rivers. Currently, the town’s location along a major river and confluence of two others does not benefit the core. The water can be seen from several avenues, but there are no direct pedestrian connections since many of the principal roads are oriented north–south. There is also a lack of human scale. The wide streets, one-story buildings and empty lots do not contribute to narrowing the scale gap. Yet, there are notable heritage buildings that can be distinguished and recognized. The town can also use more intimate public meeting places to celebrate holidays and mount events. Winter’s cold and strong winds make walking in downtown a challenge part of the year. There are many open lots, lack of trees, and low buildings that do not help the situation. As a result, patrons have a disadvantage compared to the comfort they

7.3 Mixing Commerce and Residences in Peace River

139

are offered at the new large stores. Also, a lack of coordination exists between elements that can offer a measure of urban coherence, human scale and sense of place. Many empty lots expose the edges of buildings whose windowless walls are highly visible and create a negative urban image. To be a draw, places need to be active all day long. Downtown Peace River does not have many social venues, “third places” of sorts, which stay open after hours to attract young adults and support other businesses.

7.3.2 A Planning Proposal When renewal strategies were contemplated and the planning process began, a pivotal question was how the town of Peace River, and in particular its core, could be made more welcoming to local and new residents. Several design anchors were therefore established. There needs to be a population increase in downtown by encouraging, through a system of grants and incentives, residential construction, which will target primarily young families. The new housing projects, three- and four-stories tall, will have on-site parking, either on or underground (Fig. 7.22). Also, since downtown is surrounded by neighborhoods, it makes sense to connect them to the core by a safe network of bike paths. Connecting the town to the river was another key feature of developing a new harbor front area in which water-related activities will include a marina. A land strip from the Heart River in the south to the railway bridge in the north along the water will be developed for this purpose. To create a better link with the river, two avenues will become prime corridors facilitating pedestrian and vehicular access. The area facing the river will be designated mixed-use, where four- to six-story apartment buildings will be constructed above businesses (Fig. 7.23). To enliven Main Street and turn it into a meeting place and a draw, a segment will be redesigned to include large-scale awnings and street furniture. To offer a “counterpoint” to the roundabout at the northern edge of the street, a direct access and opening to the Heart River will be made in the south. Public art can also be placed at that point as well as other spots in downtown. To encourage tourism, the area north of the roundabout, one of the main entrances to the core, would be developed as a welcome and heritage site to include a public display of the town’s visual history. In addition, the 12 Foot Davis Ball Park will be turned into the new festival grounds and fitted with seating and a stage. A week-long festival will be initiated and advertised regionally and provincially.

140

7 Social Capital and Integrated Communities

Fig. 7.22 Proposed mixed-land uses for the core of Peace River

7.3 Mixing Commerce and Residences in Peace River Fig. 7.23 A detailed development plan showing new housing that were introduced to increase the population of the core while taking advantage of the existing amenities

141

8

Sustainable Dwellings

A rapidly changing demographic makeup, environmental concerns and the emergence of new lifestyle trends have created demands for housing types that are small, flexible, and resource-efficient. Paramount among those changes is the rise of nontraditional and small households. In addition, the average age of the population in most nations has also constantly been on the rise. The groups involved in these changes have reached a critical mass to validate alternative approaches explored by policy makers, designers and developers. This chapter focuses on the dwelling and begins by listing social transformations and applicable solutions that respond to the newly emerging needs in a sustainable way, list architectural strategies for dense living, describes methods of construction for energy conservation and the design of a multi-unit structure for flexibility and adaptability.

8.1

Societal Transformations

Media reports keep reminding readers about profound economic transformations. Parallel changes have occurred in the demographic realm. Rising divorce and declining birth rates, single parenthood, and couples coming together later in life are some of these changes. The dynamics of a typical household has changed as well, with adult children moving out and in of their parents’ house. Some of these changes are unfortunate, while others are evidence of the remarkable creativity with which people adjust to change. Just as the role of employment has been altered, freer ideas of what relationships can be have led people to find different kinds of residential arrangements. The future may bring more changes, but some aspects of these new realities are already evident. It is likely that many will choose to work from home telecommuting or operating independent home-based businesses. It is also clear that people will be going back to school more frequently, constantly expanding their skills and job options. With regards to family and home life, it seems that household structure is more diverse than it once was and that it will change more frequently than it used to. © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 A. Friedman, Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10747-9_8

143

144

8

Sustainable Dwellings

It is obvious that such transformation will place different demands on our dwellings. These changes may result in reliance on communities beyond our families and the workplace. We are likely to feel an even greater need to be rooted firmly in neighborhoods. The motivation might be financial since a supportive community allows for an informal local economy based on trading space and services. Unfortunately, there are significant hurdles to the ability to customize spaces, both physical—dwelling units that are difficult to reconfigure—and regulatory— zoning codes that forbid modification. The common single-family house is actually a reflection of long-outmoded ideas about gender roles, family structure, and professional accomplishment. In keeping with a need for diversity and flexibility within dwellings and housing types—designers need to examine the state of the art as it pertains to those lines of thought. What is commonly agreed upon is that new dwelling will have to be constructed in denser formations.

8.2 Planning Strategies for Dense Living It seems that in some regions and markets, homebuyers are wary of higher densities (EPA 2001). It is crucial to realize, however, that their fears are more grounded in the perception of density rather than the reality. As noted by Knack (1988), “the perception of density is affected by many variables, including dwelling type, lot size, building size, relation to parking, and the nature of the street.” Knack spoke with architects who found a surprising range of unit densities—between 12 and 60 units per acre (30 and 148 units/ha)—could be easily accommodated in ways that gave a similar impression of low-density (Fig. 8.1). To her list one might add placement of windows, alignment of units on the lot, separation and differential visibility between public and private areas, acoustical insulation, and landscaping. All of these should be carefully considered in order to increase the perception of privacy and lessen the perception of density. Quality design can help ease homebuyer concerns

Fig. 8.1 Proper planning and building design can balance density and privacy as shown in this project in Melbourne, Australia

8.2 Planning Strategies for Dense Living

145

by demonstrating that density does not mean loss of privacy and open spaces for example. In regard to dwelling units, through the efficient use of materials and low-cost finishes, a good-size dwelling can be made affordable to rent or own. Considering the vast budgets, unwieldy bureaucracy, and bland design of much subsidized housing, the possibility of home ownership is attractive indeed. Designing for density makes affordable and sustainable housing even more pleasant to live in. Expanding opportunities for homeownership gives people of moderate incomes unprecedented economic security, which could have measurably beneficial social effects if implemented on a wide enough scale. The focus of development efforts should be on existing neighborhoods, redevelopment, and infill where appropriate. This is essential to conserve outlying areas, energy, and natural resources, and to better utilize existing infrastructure. A completely new development, no matter how sustainable and successful, still consumes valuable land and resources. Designers and planners can first aim to increase dwelling density and diversity within suburban neighborhoods. Dwelling density is closely related to housing form. To achieve various design densities in developments, it is necessary to employ different housing forms and planning strategies which will be described below.

8.2.1

Zero-Lot-Line

One of the simplest ways to increase density and sustainability is to reduce dwelling and lot sizes. Smaller houses on smaller lots can maintain the single-family detached character while increasing the overall density. The affordability of smaller homes will also appeal to first-time homebuyers and non-traditional families. Narrow lots are more economic as a result of land pricing by the dimension fronting the street. A possible variation on the single-family detached home can be the zero-lotline building that makes better use of side yards (Fig. 8.2). Instead of creating two separate small side yards on either side of the house, one wall is placed directly on the lot line and the two separate side yards are merged to form a single, more usable space on an overall smaller lot.

Fig. 8.2 Zero-lot line homes are placed on the lot line to reduce the width of the lot and maximize the area of the side yard

146

8

Sustainable Dwellings

Fig. 8.3 A Z-shaped lot is narrow and exposes more of the house’s facades to the street

8.2.2

Z-Lot Housing

Another possible variation is the Z-lot home. The house faces the street at an angle and is sited on an irregular Z-shaped lot which exposes more of the house’s perimeter to the street. With garages placed at the rear of the lot along a back alley, more livable space of the house faces the street (Fig. 8.3). A planning practice in low-density communities has been to place of the garage at the front of the house. This is even more problematic with small lot housing. Garages are moved forward to be directly adjacent to the street so that land is not dedicated to a long driveway. The results are streetscapes and façades dominated by garage doors. Such streetscapes are not fitting to the human scale but are more in tune with the automobile. Garages should, therefore, be moved to the back of the lot and separated from the main house.

8.2.3

Clustered Housing

Another approach to increase dwelling density is to cluster units. These units can be single-family detached, semiattached or row houses that are shown in Fig. 8.4. The goal of clustering houses is to concentrate homes in one part of the development site while preserving natural areas in another. These areas may be protected or left as land reserve for future growth Cluster housing should be used to concentrate density around shared courtyards or cul-de-sacs be arranged so that they be made public as shown in Fig. 8.5. Houses in the clusters should share the common court and each house should have an individual semiprivate outdoor space. Subdividing land into rectilinear lots becomes problematic when building houses in clusters. Instead, the common land should be owned jointly and the houses individually. All residents should have a stake in their cluster. Each home, however, should be provided with a more private space away from the shared courts and greens.

8.2 Planning Strategies for Dense Living

147

Fig. 8.4 A planning strategy to increase density is to cluster dwelling units

8.2.4

Narrow Houses

With the current realization that large homes are costly to maintain, builders, designers, and consumers are once again exploring other housing prototypes. Furthermore, planners view low-density detached dwellings as an unsustainable approach to land development. This perspective, coupled with the shrinking size of the family and rising energy costs, has led to renewed interest in narrow homes shown in Fig. 8.6. Although the definition of a narrow house is subjective, based on historical precedents one can suggest that it is a dwelling whose width measures up to 25 ft

148

8

Sustainable Dwellings

Fig. 8.5 A cluster of townhouses face a public courtyard in Skipton, UK

Fig. 8.6 Narrow dwellings arranged as a row in a Montreal, Canada project

(7.5 m). Typically, it can be built as detached (stand-alone), semidetached (two attached structures), or as part of a row (Fig. 8.7). Detached narrow houses are most commonly found in rural settings while semidetached and rows houses are frequently built in urban areas. Although each of these arrangements has its own unique characteristics due to their location and occupants, they share design aspects which maximize their efficiency and functionality while minimizing their environmental footprint. One such characteristic has to do with their siting. Proper orientation will allow narrow dwellings to take advantage of passive solar heat gain. In rural areas, this means having one of the longer façades face south or north, depending on latitude. Furthermore, this façade can contain large windows, for ease of solar exposure. In

8.2 Planning Strategies for Dense Living

149

Detached

c

a

b

c

a

b

b

a

a

a

b

a

a

office

Semi-detached c

b

c

b

a

b

b

a

a

a

a

b c

b

a

b

a

a

a

a

a

Rows c c

b

b

b

a

a

b

c

b

b

c

b

office

b

a

a

a

office

Fig. 8.7 Narrow houses can be built as detached (stand-alone), semi-detached (two attached structures) or be part of a row

contrast, the opposite façade should have fewer openings and more insulation to minimize heat loss. The relation of these houses to each other is also significant when it comes to energy management. For example, a semidetached structure with two narrow houses is 36 % more energy efficient than a detached house, while a unit in a row can be

150

8

28

%

R

ed

uc tio

n

36

%

R

ed

uc tio

n

To w

nh ou s

e

S

em i-d et ac he d

S

in gl efa m ily

Fig. 8.8 A semi-detached structure with two narrow houses is 36 % more energy efficient than a detached house, while a unit in a row can be up to 64 % more efficient than a detached house

Sustainable Dwellings

up to 64 % more efficient than a detached house (Fig. 8.8) (Friedman 2005). This energy reduction can also be applied to air-conditioning, which accounts for a large portion of the energy consumed. The economic advantage of building in rows extends to other aspects as well. As density increases, the cost of land and infrastructure decreases. Also, due to the small size of each unit, construction cost, material usage, and waste are greatly reduced, which diminishes the house’s environmental footprint. Additional environmental benefits of higher-density planning include lower need for residents to use cars, since very often the high-density justifies introduction of public transit and nearby commercial amenities, consequently cutting down greenhouse gas emissions. A primary aspect that needs to be considered in narrow house design is interior spatial arrangement. One of the first things a designer does when working with narrow dwellings is to expand their perceived space. Careful placement of openings, for example, is a simple yet efficient method of achieving this. Large windows extend views beyond exterior walls and increase the amount of natural light. Balconies can be effective as well since they allow a physical and visual connection with the outside. They can be placed outside bedrooms or living rooms at the front or the rear. Another method to expand the perception of space in narrow homes is to combine several functions and have an open plan design (Fig. 8.9). Traditional walls confine an area and limit exterior light penetration, making it feel smaller and darker. Partitions can be avoided by making rooms multi-functional. For example, a living room can also serve as a study, media or reading room while the kitchen and dining room can be merged into one area. These rooms’ spaces flow into each other and they share exterior views. When interior partitions are required, designers can use glass panels or blocks that prevents sound passage, but let light pass through (Oliver 2011). Installing sliding, translucent, Japanese-style screens is another way to divide or join spaces. Lastly, movable shelving units can be used as dividers since they can effectively enclose a space while providing valuable storage.

8.2 Planning Strategies for Dense Living

151

Fig. 8.9 To expand the perception of interior space in narrow homes, several functions can be combined to make a single open plan

Along with the spatial arrangement, designers of narrow homes must also consider the placement and organization of rooms and their various functions. It is a delicate process which, unlike with large dwellings, must be approached in a unique way. For example, the areas which are exposed to the greatest amount of light are located near the front and rear façades and when a skylight exists, on the top floor. These spaces should be reserved for bedrooms and living rooms. As a result, the centre spaces—which in a row house are darker—should be reserved for circulation and utilities.

152

8

Central door and stair

Side door and recessed side stair

Sustainable Dwellings

Off center door and side stair

Fig. 8.10 Careful placement of entrances will make the use of space in a narrow home more efficient

Rooms that require more privacy are typically placed on upper floors. For example, in a two-level home, it is best to locate the bedrooms at the edges of the top floor and leave the core for circulation. The living room can be located at the rear of the ground/entrance level where it will receive more natural light and some privacy. The front of the ground floor should house the entrance and stairwell. The middle of the ground floor can be reserved for the kitchen and powder room, which leaves the basement, if there is one, for storage and utilities. It is necessary to note that there are many other variations in a narrow dwelling’s interior arrangement which largely depend on cultural attitude, budget and the occupants’ needs. Due to its large effect on interior spatial arrangement, circulation should occupy as little space as possible. It is, therefore, important that the stairs be located close to the entrance, and they should proceed to the centre of the upper floor, which makes them accessible and avoids taking up valuable space (Fig. 8.10). In general, there are four types of stairs suitable to narrow homes: circular, straight run, L-shaped, and U-shaped stairs. While the circular and straight run stairs tend to be utilitarian in nature, the L-shaped and U-shaped stairs can form an atrium or a void (Fig. 8.11). Such two-storey spaces can make the house seem much larger, since they allow more light to pass through. Designers also have resorted to creating open stairs with cantilevered steps and glass handrails that blend into the walls and, once more, lessen their spatial impact.

8.2.5

Grow Homes

Expandable dwellings, also known as Grow Homes, are purposely designed to let occupants increase their living space either internally or externally. As a result, it allows homeowners to reside longer in the same location rather than move, and to foster a stronger sense of community, where inhabitants know each other and invest in their locale. This idea is applicable to all households, and in particular to young first-time homebuyers and empty nesters who may experience frequent changes during some of their life stages. Its success is largely due to the fact that expandable homes are not only more affordable, but also tie in to the larger do-it-yourself (DIY)

153

U - Shaped

L - Shaped

Straight Run

8.2 Planning Strategies for Dense Living

Fig. 8.11 Variety of stair types can be used in narrow homes

trend. The two main methods of creating expandable dwellings, Add-On and AddIn will be elaborated below. An add-on design is centered on the idea of expansion through addition. These small homes are designed to be added-on to. Decisions made in their initial design are crucial since hallways, interior spaces, and façades must be made to work with future additions. While expanding in a rural setting is generally easy due to larger lots, adding in urban locations must be carefully planned as a result of the limited area. For horizontal expansion through ground level additions, it is important to allocate adequate yard space in the initial designs. It is also necessary to verify that the planned additions will not exceed municipal bylaw limits regarding lot coverage and setbacks (Sullivan 2011). It is also possible to expand vertically by either adding floors on top of an existing structure, or in an extreme case, adding a lower floor by raising the building. In both options it is important to make appropriate structural considerations in the initial design and avoid expensive adaptations (Fig. 8.12). Whether horizontal or vertical, designers of future additions should also consider the larger urban context, the surrounding buildings and their occupants’ views, for example (Friedman 2001). Internally, the initial circulation arrangement becomes a major contributing factor to the success of the expansion. Having the main hallway of an existing structure reach an exterior wall, for example, allows for its extension without creating unwanted secondary movement through rooms (Garnett 2011). Initial plans must also arrange for alternative circulation to minimize disturbance during the construction. In general, having a detailed plan of future, additions will allow designers and

154

8

Sustainable Dwellings

Finishing attic

Finishing basement

Adding floor

Expanding existing home

Adding second floor above existing garage

Converting garage to dwelling unit

Dividing existing home into two dwelling units

Constructing ancillary unit

Connecting ancillary unit to main house

Fig. 8.12 Alternative ways of adding space to a home

homeowners to anticipate and prevent any difficulty with aesthetics, functionality, and circulation. Another advantage of add-on homes is the possibility of having the addition prefabricated and shipped to the site. It negates vandalism, material storage, and weather delays, and ensures less interruption of daily family routines, due to time savings during on-site construction. Lastly, the add-on method prevents the homeowner from paying for heating and maintenance of unused spaces (Sullivan 2011). By only adding spaces when they are required, a homeowner stands to save resources by not having to maintain extra space. The downside to the add-on method, however, is the larger cost associated with adding space and renovating. Rather than simply adding interior walls—as with the add-in method—one must build on site, or prefabricate an addition (Sullivan 2011).

8.2 Planning Strategies for Dense Living

155

The second type of expandable homes are those that follow the add-in method. This involves constructing a larger initial, partially-completed shell for incremental growth. In the first phase, only the primary living spaces are built, leaving vacant, unfinished areas to be completed as per the needs of the owner in subsequent phases. This is advantageous due to the somewhat lower cost associated with finishing rather than building a new and the possibility of self-built work. Much like expandable homes, add-in homes require initial consideration regarding the direction of expansion. For these housing types, vertical expansion tends to be the most common and sensible. This means that the ground level is finished during the initial phase, leaving the second floor, attic or the basement space to be completed later. Designers may choose to put larger windows and standard ceiling heights in these places to facilitate their expansion. Furthermore, locating unfinished areas away from finished ones prevents unsightly interference between them. This separation also allows the owner to finish the house without interrupting daily routines.

8.2.6

Adaptable Houses

With increasing numbers of nontraditional households that include singles and single parents, limited, conventionally-designed layouts can no longer suit the needs of all occupants. In addition, an increased senior population has created a demand for dwellings which can be adapted to the evolving lives of their occupants without requiring costly and intensive alterations (Palmer and Ward 2010). Adaptable units accommodate varying space needs and facilitate the introduction of new building systems without compromising functionality or comfort. For a house to be adaptable, it is important to design layouts which can be flexible to the needs of the household as it changes. This involves macro considerations, such as the design of the overall structure to provide adaptable interiors, as well as micro considerations, like positioning doors and wet functions. One way to have a flexible layout is to design a structure which requires little or no internal bearing support (Friedman 2002). This can be done either by designing a narrow house with floor joists that span between the two exterior longitudinal walls or by using products such as I- or open-web wood joists, which allow greater spanning distances. Creating large, open floor spaces permits maximum adaptability. If the structure does require internal supports, it is important to place them adjacent to permanent functions, such as the bathroom and the kitchen, which are unlikely to be moved. Wet functions, however, which are difficult and expensive to relocate, should be grouped together and placed between zones (Fig. 8.13). Once a large, uninterrupted floor has been constructed, the space itself must also be arranged for maximum adaptability. This can be done by creating an open floor plan with multipurpose uses. A successful multipurpose space can be designed with dimensions and proportions to accommodate a variety of activities such as sleeping, sitting, or working. These spaces need to be as large and as square as possible to expand adaptability options. Room sizes of 12 × 12 ft (3.7 × 3.7 m) up to 15 × 15 ft

156

8

Sustainable Dwellings

Fig. 8.13 Wet functions which are difficult and expensive to relocate, should be grouped together and placed between the dwelling’s zones

(4.6 × 4.6 m) should be sufficient to accommodate any future adaptations (Friedman 2002). In addition, it is important that these multipurpose spaces contain no defining features, like closets, which tend to limit their overall adaptability. For each of these multi-purpose spaces, the placement of doors should be made to allow further adaptability. Doors located near the corners of a room for example, permit future division of the space in two with the addition of another door in the new room when needed. Furthermore, this arrangement increases efficiency by not interrupting circulation. If the door is placed in the corner, it makes more sense to leave a small gap for shallow storage along the wall behind it. Another aspect of adaptable design is to have integrative circulation. Initially, this means avoiding paths that pass through spaces, which tend to designate them as public and prevents their future conversion into private rooms without considerable alterations. Creating an independent path that feeds into the living spaces is the best option. These can be located either along a wall, or in a central place from which other multi-purpose spaces are reached. It is also important that these paths are treated as multi-functional spaces to increase their efficiency and ultimately their potential adaptability. This involves ideas such as offering various storage alternatives, widening halls, and incorporating storage along walls (Fig. 8.14). If a future vertical extension is built, these storage areas can then be removed and replaced with stairs easily and affordably. Placing stairs as a wedge facing the middle of a floor should be avoided since it creates a large central space which cannot be used or adapted easily. After such decisions are made, residual spaces might be left. These consist of areas under the stairs, or the small alcoves in bay windows or corridors, which are good locations for storage and allow for greater adaptability within the larger areas.

8.2 Planning Strategies for Dense Living

157

Fig. 8.14 Adaptable dwellings need to offer variety of innovative storage arrangements

Beyond circulation and flexible layouts, the use of adaptable utilities or service modules is another way to increase adaptability. This involves using items such as moveable kitchen cabinets, or modular furniture components which can easily be

158

8

Sustainable Dwellings

rearranged. For the division of spaces, it is possible to use furniture as well—such as storage shelves—to distinguish functions within a large room.

8.3 Constructing for Energy Conservation One of the first elements to be reckoned with in dwellings design for energy conservation is change in temperature. In some regions seasonal extremes differ by as much as 140 °F (60 °C). This considerable difference requires a well-insulated and sufficiently heated house for the winter in the Northern hemisphere, as well as the versatility to become an aerated, cooled house for the summer. Although mechanical systems can provide this range of comforts, natural systems, and ventilation are generally more cost efficient and reduce energy consumption. Consider winter conditions first, when a fully insulated building envelope is needed the most. Housing projects are commonly built as wood frame constructions. Ecologically, this form of construction is most appropriate, as wood, a renewable resource and a carbon sink that prevents the release of carbon dioxide, is both regionally available and one of the most energy-effective building products available. In comparison to other structural materials, relatively little energy is consumed during the transformation and installation of wood products (Thomas 1996; Thompson and Sorvig 2000). New houses are now being built with 2 × 6 in (5.08 × 15.24 cm) studs, allow for a thicker insulation to be installed in the wall, rather than the 4 in thick insulation previously used. Houses should therefore be properly insulated, such that R-20 insulation should become the required standard for walls and insulation with an R-value of at least 30 should be installed in the roof (Fig. 8.15). These high values insulation, commonly protect the house from differences in temperature and prevent the escape of heat. The roof is an area of considerable heat loss during the winter. As the expression goes, “warm air rises,” yet little is done to tap this heat. Consequently, houses should incorporate a habitable attic space, even if it does not occupy the full floor space when compared to lower levels. This increase in living space will make better use of the heat already in the house, which would be lost otherwise. Further, to reduce heat loss through the roof, the size of the roof should be minimized. To do so, the footprint of the house should be decreased and, if necessary, an additional level may be added. However, the use of the attic space should compensate for any loss of floor space on lower levels when the footprint is reduced. Minimizing the size of the house, footprint also reduces the amount of wall exposed to the exterior. Just as humans cover up exposed skin in the cold, homes should equally reduce the amount of exposed envelop as shown in Fig. 8.16. As such, building shapes should be as regular as possible to avoid extra exterior surfaces. A rectangle, slightly elongated along the east–west axis to increase southern exposure, is ideal as it has less exposed wall area than an L- or U-shaped house of the same floor space. Ideally, a rectangular plan with side proportions of 1:1.6 provides the most substantial energy savings in a temperate climatic zone (Olgyay 1963). The difference in exterior walls amounts to significant savings in terms of

8.3 Constructing for Energy Conservation

159

Fig. 8.15 The design and construction of sustainable dwellings must ensure that they are well insulated

heating. When superfluous shapes are included in a design, the form should nonetheless maximize wall exposure to the south and avoid extra northern exposure. And just as humans huddle together to conserve heat, homes should be clustered to maintain heat. Sharing a common wall decreases the amount of exposed exterior wall surfaces for both houses, so heat loss is reduced. Attached houses are the most energy efficient, followed by semidetached and finally detached single-family houses. Although a neighborhood cannot be exclusively of one dwelling type, maximizing the amount of common walls reduces energy consumption overall.

160

8

1.24

0.87

5.8%

8.5%

12.5%

1.00

1.13

Sustainable Dwellings

1.32

11.3%

1.50

12.1%

Fig. 8.16 A rectangular shape will have a desired floor area to perimeter ratio (represented by the number in parenthesis) contributing to lower energy consumption

The complimentary objective to minimizing heat loss is maximizing heat gain during the winter. To tap and conserve the heat available during the winter, a thermal mass should be provided internally (Thomas 1996). Heavy masonry construction accomplished this objective in the past, yet stonewalls a minimum of 2 ft (60 cm) thick are not feasible as a contemporary solution. However, dense materials, such as brick, stone and concrete, are easily available and the most efficient in terms of heat absorption. These masses moderate daily fluctuations in temperature and serve to raise the indoor temperature throughout the winter (Olgyay 1963). By trapping daytime solar energy as well as absorbing heat from other sources within the house, be it artificially or naturally produced, the thermal mass is able to release the energy, in the form of heat, during the night. The thermal mass should be centrally located and be in sight of south facing windows. This wall can be load-bearing or not, but ideally—for aesthetic reasons—should be constructed of fired brick or stone. Furthermore, a berm of backfill should be built up along the periphery walls of the house. By increasing the volume of soil that is in contact with the building envelope, fluctuations in temperature are better moderated. Soil acts as a thermal mass, keeping the floor cool in the summer while maintaining an ambient temperature during the winter. As for summer a condition, heat gain is to be avoided, yet a thermal mass can still be effective as a temperature moderator. However, the most pressing issue for summers is adequate cooling and ventilation. Shade should be available for the house, from overhangs to manual window shutters. Windows must be of high quality, have superior glazing, and be operable to allow an adequate amount of fresh air to flow into the house (Fig. 8.17). Although winter drafts are to be avoided, so windows must be well sealed, the building envelope able to breathe nonetheless. Adequate ventilation not only provides a natural cooling system during the summer, it also provides a healthier environment to live in year round.

8.4 The Next Home

161

Fig. 8.17 Various glazing types and their effect on thermal performance of a window

Such interventions are the recommended means of responding to the characteristics of the microclimate in terms of planning and architectural design guidelines. If the design of new communities responds to the aforementioned issues, both of the microclimate and of the physical environment, the result will be a more sustainable development that is in harmony with the natural assets of the particular site.

8.4 The Next Home The Next Home was proposed for households with divers’ interior design needs. The primary considerations in the conception were the economic and the demographic changes that have rendered many notions inherent in the traditional design and marketing of housing obsolete (Fig. 8.18). One of the fundamental distinguishing features of the Next Home was the option extended to prospective buyers of purchasing the type and “quantity” of house they presently need and can afford. It was attained by designing a three-story structure which can be built, sold and

162

8

Sustainable Dwellings

Fig. 8.18 A full scale prototype of the Next Home on the campus of McGill University, Montreal, Canada

inhabited as a single-family house, duplex for two households or a triplex for three households (Fig. 8.19). The interior of the units can also be configured according to the wishes of the occupants. The dimensions of the Next Home have been chosen by adhering to modular sizes and by balancing the advantages and critical limitations of various unit widths. In order to reduce waste of materials, the framing dimensions were subsequently adjusted to a 2 ft (0.6 m) module to enable subfloor material which has been cut to

c

a

b

c

b

c

a

b

c

b

b

a

a

a (home office)

b a

a (office) b (office) a

a

Fig. 8.19 The three-story Next Home structure can be built, sold and inhabited as a single-family house, duplex for two households or a triplex for three households

8.4 The Next Home

163

be used elsewhere in the frame. A 20 ft (6.1 m) width produces spaces of comfortable dimensions and compatibility with municipal regulations while liberating the interior of load-bearing partitions. With diligent planning and material selection the same principle was implemented to accommodate interior finishes such as drywall and floor tiles. Furthermore, cost savings were achieved not only through efficient use of materials but also through reduced labor requirements as a result of less onsite cutting and fitting. The Next Home was designed to be subdivided and rearranged in both the preand post-occupancy stages in order to accommodate change with minimal inconvenience and cost. In order to facilitate future transformation of the dwelling units and to maximize the impression of open space, the stairs were placed along the side longitudinal wall in the middle of the unit and adjacent to the front entrance. By positioning the stairs lengthwise against the side wall the available floor space was more efficiently increased. Another characteristic of the dynamic and flexible design was the confining of the mechanical systems to a vertical shaft and horizontal chaser. The vertical shaft enclosed the water supply, drainage, venting (including heat recovery ventilator— HRV), as well as electrical, telephone and cable. The horizontal chaser was installed to run the length of each floor and facilitated future relocation of rooms. Such an arrangement of chasers permits access to the building systems through the floor—not the ceiling or the walls—therefore facilitating all changes without disrupting the neighboring units. Consequently, regardless of the initial configuration of a Next Home design, the household and its evolving nature are accommodated with minimal renovation work and expense.

8.4.1 Components à La Carte In the interest of responding to today’s diverse demographic, lifestyles and the economic capabilities of buyers, the Next Home included a menu of preoccupancy choices. Prospective occupants choose from a catalogue of interior components designed by an architect, determined and made available by the builder. User choice enables occupants to “consume” only the type and quantity of features they currently require or can afford. These options also include a range of components to assist physically-challenged occupants to live independently. The preoccupancy flexibility and the capacity for post-occupancy modification of the Next Home have inspired the design of a variety of kitchen layouts to suit a wide range of household configurations. These kitchen arrangements cater to desires for increased work surfaces, space economy and the inclusion of washer, dryer, and recycling facilities within this area. Moreover, due to the prefabricated nature of kitchen cabinetry, builders can offer a wide selection of layouts without significantly increasing the administrative costs that are incurred by allowing these choices.

164

8

Sustainable Dwellings

Fig. 8.20 Menu of interior components display choices that are offered to buyers of a Next Home unit by the builder

Similarly, bathroom choices also vary according to the occupants and their individual needs. Living in a small home does not mean being restricted to a single bathroom: if the number of occupants and their schedules justify a second bathroom, one can be included. Consequently, the bathroom options offered by Next Home builders will range in size from powder rooms to complete bathrooms with shower, bath, toilet, and sink that are shown in Fig. 8.20. An analysis of the layouts of the three units of the Next Home demonstration house, which was displayed in the prototype, illustrates the manner in which various preoccupancy selections of interior components formed three highly personalized,

8.4 The Next Home

165

versatile living spaces. Household scenarios have been created for the three units in order to account for choices made at the preoccupancy design stage of each unit and to illustrate the potential inherent to such flexibility (Fig. 8.21).

8.4.2 Flexibility of Building Exterior Façades of housing developments where identical units are built are often repeated for reasons of economy. Using the same size of window openings and the same style of windows gets a builder a volume discount from his framing team and manufacturer. The effect of such a streetscape, primarily one with row housing, is frequently unpleasant and sterile. In conversation with builders, the author has found that when a carpenter is alerted in advance (i.e., prior to the construction of the frame), he generally does not mind alterations in façade openings as long as the variations are not radically different from one another. With regard to the opening sizes and to the windows themselves, small numbers can be selected and alternated within the composition. The principles underlying the design of the Next Home façades are the same as those governing the design of the structure and plan: flexibility, individual identity, and affordability. The three basic formal strategies for the location and treatment of windows (the essential component in the articulation of residential façades) are: systematic repetition, random order, and composition. The strategy of systematic repetition accommodates the concept of flexibility by allowing the application of a universal standard of window placement which could accommodate any function but such a strategy eliminates the potential for personal expression and must therefore be considered unsuitable. The second option, of random placement of windows based on user preferences and plan consideration, accommodates a high degree of individual identity but runs the risk of undermining the reading of a single module as a unified whole. The result of absolute random placement of windows would be visual chaos. Some vertical emphasis is required to carry the eye upward and indicate the importance of a single unit over the row. The second strategy has, therefore, been applied to the Next Home façade in combination with the third strategy—that of composition—to obtain a balance between flexibility and unit identity. While compositional concerns impose some measure of constraint on the sizing and placement of windows, they impart a sense of stability and personalization to the façade. The element of personalization in the placement and the specific sizing of windows reduce flexibility in the long term, in the sense that interior modifications could also lead to changes in the façade. While this aspect may be considered as an obstacle to flexibility, the appropriate choice of façade materials (such as stucco) makes such façade changes relatively easy.

8.4.3 A New Urban Perspective The 20 × 40 ft (6.1 × 12.2 m) module also allows for flexibility with regard to a variety of building configurations. The Next Home provides planners and builders with the ability to incorporate three housing types within a single community in order to

166

8

Sustainable Dwellings

Fig. 8.21 Demonstration unit plans. The stairs were placed along the side wall, leaving the floor space open

respond to a diverse range of values, incomes, and households. The increased density which results from building in rows contributes to a livelier public realm and a more structured streetscape, amplifying the viability of commercial and office uses of the ground floor units as well as animated semipublic and public open spaces as demonstrated in Fig. 8.22.

8.4 The Next Home

167

Fig. 8.22 A Next Home typical development includes variations of a module arranged as detached, semidetached, and row housing units

One of the most common drawbacks of row house communities is the homogenous, repetitive nature of the development, a by-product of economies of scale. Consequently, an essential feature of such a community is the necessity to avoid monotony and instead provide a diversity of appearances through the buyer’s participation, in conjunction with the builder. This concept requires a thoughtfully developed design code angled toward the larger urban scale of the street rather than just the individual module. The value of diversity within the boundaries of an established code is twofold: it satisfies the individual user’s personal requirement for

168

8

Sustainable Dwellings

Fig. 8.23 Le Faubourg Du Cerf in Longueuil, Quebec, Canada

identity and self-expression, while counteracting any potential feeling of anonymity resulting from increased density. The notion of flexibility is further extended to the character of the development by introducing neighborhoods of mixed activities. The segregation of uses common to most postwar suburbs (i.e., housing separated from commercial zones) no longer serves the current needs of city dwellers nor contributes to an integrated urban fabric. New communications technologies that have facilitated the growth of home offices and the desire of most people to shop within walking distance of their residences are strong incentives for mixed-use design. The Next Home concept aims to revive such traditional development models while updating them to comply with contemporary and future needs.

8.4.4 Application of the Next Home Concept The Next Home concept was implemented in the design and construction of several communities in the greater Montreal area. The builders’ main objective, although different in each site, was to take advantage of the flexibility that the design offers both in the unit and the urban levels. Attracting a variety of households with a range of socioeconomic backgrounds was meant to expand the builders’ profit opportunities. In collaboration with the author, the builders adopted the principles of the demonstration unit to their site as per their specific marketing needs. Affordability through flexibility remained a key factor in all the built projects. The sites were all infill and the projects benefited from existing infrastructure and access to civic amenities. Descriptions of three of the projects’ main features follow. Le Faubourg du Cerf is a 130-unit project in Longueuil, a suburban town near Montreal. The structures faced a communal green space and were built without a basement. The outdoor parking was designed for a ratio of one parking space per unit (Fig. 8.23).

8.4 The Next Home

169

Fig. 8.24 Plan options of the dwellings in the Le Faubourg Du Cerf project

Units of two dimensions were designed in the three-story structure and mezzanine: 20 × 37 ft (6.1 × 12 m) and 25 × 43 ft. (7.7 × 13.2 m) (Fig. 8.24). It led to the creation of a floor plate with an average footprint of 800 ft2 (80 m2). The developer offered the option to purchase one, two or all three floors as was proposed in the original concept. He subsequently commented in a conversation with the author that buyers like the flexibility offered to them, which became a significant draw for clients with smaller means. This was demonstrated by the large number of singlestory units sold compared to two- or three-story units, which enabled many young households to become homeowners. As part of the marketing process, the developer constructed a temporary sales office near the site. In it, there was a display of drawn floor plans and scale models of possible interior layout options. In addition to preconceived designs, the developer

170

8

Sustainable Dwellings

permitted buyers who were interested to participate in the design of their chosen floor. His firm’s technicians assisted these clients for a modest administrative fee. The offered unit and those designed by the occupants demonstrate a wide variation of interior arrangements. Some of the units have one bedroom and others two. There is also a variety in the interior components (e.g., kitchens, bathrooms) chosen by the occupants and the placement of these components on the floor. The choices made and their location was an outcome of the household’s demographic composition, lifestyle, and affordability level. The assessment of the application of the Next Home principles in building sites demonstrated that they responded to the two underlying objectives: affordability and flexibility. Although the builders had to invest more time in the marketing process, buyers were willing to pay the small administrative cost in return for having their choices built. It is no doubt a change to current approaches to home building and marketing. The flexible, affordable, and sustainable design principles of the Next Home respond sensitively to the urgent need to accommodate a wide diversity of contemporary users and household types and to extend affordability to a wider portion of the population.

Appendix

Project Teams I would like to thank those who contributed to the design of the projects mentioned in the book. I have attempted to recall them all. If I have omitted someone, my sincere apology and I will do my best to correct it in future editions. Chapter 2: The Making of a High-Density Neighborhood Mingcheng Fu Jiangtong Wei Avi Friedman and Louis Pretty, Advisors/Project Leaders Chapter 3: Acitve Mobility in Porvoo Firm Name: Tuomo Siitonen, Architects Principal Designer: Tuomo Siitonen Team Members: Freja Ståhlberg-Aalto and Tommi Lehtonen Firm Address: Veneentekijäntie 12, 00210 Helsinki, Finland Chapter 4: Housing in the Forest Shuangqing Cao Qian Huang Avi Friedman and Louis Pretty, Advisors/Project Leaders Chapter 5: A New Hybrid Community Xifan Chen Avi Friedman and Louis Pretty, Advisors/Project Leaders

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 A. Friedman, Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10747-9

171

172

Appendix

Chapter 6: Shoreline Demonstration Nan Haijun Xiaoliang Zhao Avi Friedman and Louis Pretty, Advisors/Project Leaders Chapter 7: Mixing Commerce and Residences in Peace River Avi Friedman, Architect Renier Silva Cynthia Nei Chapter 8: The Next Home Architect: Avi Friedman Design Team: Jasmin S. Fréchette, Cyrus M. Bilimoria, David Krawitz, Doug Raphael Consultants: R. Kevin Lee, Julia Bourke, Richard Gingras, Vince Cammalleri

Illustration Credits Figures not listed here are in the public domain or have been conceived, drawn or photographed by the author and members of his research and design teams. Their names are listed in the acknowledgments and the Project Teams list. Every effort has been made to list all contributors and sources. In case of omission, the author and the publisher will include appropriate acknowledgment or correction of any subsequent edition of this book. The full citations of the sources indicated below are noted in the Bibliography. Chapter 1: Affixing a Lens Fig. 1.4: Created by the author based on data from the U.S. Department of Energy, 2009 Fig. 1.5: Based on Statistics Canada 2006a Fig. 1.6: Based on Statistics Canada 2006b

Bibliography

Abbott-Chapman, J. and M. Robertson (2009) “Adolescents’ Favourite Places: Redefining the Boundaries between Private and Public Space,” Space and Culture, 12(4), 419–434. American Institute of Architects (AIA) Research Corporation (1979) Climate and Architecture: Designing for the Dynamics of Nature. Washington. Andrews, G. J. and D. R. Phillips (2005) Aging and Place: Perspectives, Policy, Practice. London: Routledge. Appleyard, D. (1987) Forward in Public Streets for Public Use. A. Vernez Moudon, Ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. Baird, R.L. and G. Hall (1998) Beaconsfield and Beaurepaire: A Chronicle of the City of Beaconsfield and the District of Beaurepaire. Beaconsfield, Montreal: Harpell Printing. Barton, H. (2000) Sustainable Communities: The Potential for Eco-Neighbourhoods. London: Earthscan Publications. Baum, F. E., A. M. Ziersch, G. Zhang and K. Osborne (2009) “Do perceived neighbourhood cohesion and safety contribute to neighbourhood differences in health?” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 15, 925–934. Benson, J. F. and M. H. Roe [Ed.] (2000) Landscape and Sustainability. London: E. & F.N. Spon Press. Boyle, G. (1996) Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable Future. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. Breen, A. and D. Rigby (1994) Waterfronts: Cities Reclaim their Edge. New York: McGraw-Hill. Brooks, R. G. (1988) Site Planning: Environment, Process, and Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Brutuisworo, E. “Environmental Management of the Saguling Dam.” (1989) Guidelines of Lake Management, Volume One: Principles of Lake Management. S.E. Jorgensen and R.A. Vollenweider Eds. Shiga, Japan: International Lake Environment Committee Foundation and the United Nations Environment Programme, 171–189. Calthorpe, P. (1993) The Next American Metropolis: Ecology, Community, and the American Dream. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) (1983) Problem Land: Building in a Flood-Risk Area, Ottawa. Castonguay, G. and S. Jutras (2009) “Children’s appreciation of outdoor places in a poor neighbourhood,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29, 101–109. Childs, M. (1999) Parking Spaces. New York: McGraw-Hill. Clawson, R. (1972) Social Needs and the Urban-Marine Environment. Coastal Zone Management: Multiple Use with Conservation. J.F. Peel Brahtz. Ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 85–96. Cohen, N. (1999) Urban Conservation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 A. Friedman, Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10747-9

173

174

Bibliography

Coleman, J.S. (1998) “Social capital in the creation of human capital,” American Journal of Sociology, 94, 95–121. Corbett, J. and M. Corbett (2000) Designing Sustainable Communities: Learning from Village Homes. Washington: Island Press. Edwards, A. M. (1981) The Design of Suburbia: A Critical Study in Environmental History. London: Pembridge Press. Environment Canada (1992) Recycling in Canada. Government of Canada, Ottawa, April. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA] (2001) Our Built and Natural Environments: A Technical Review of the Interactions Between Land Use, Transportation, and Environmental Quality. Chapter 4. EPA: Washington, DC. Evans, G. W. (2003) “The Built Environment and Mental Health,” Journal of Urban Health, 80(4). Florida, R. (2002) The Rise of the Creative Class. New York: Basic Books. Francis, M. (1987) The Making of Democratic Streets. Public Streets for Public Use. A. Vernez Moudon, Ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. Friedman, A. (2001) The Grow Home. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press. Friedman, A. (2002) Adaptable House: Designing Homes for Change. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing. Friedman, A. (2005) Homes Within Reach: A Guide to the Planning, Design, and Construction of Affordable Homes and Communities. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Frost, P.M. (1981) Old Montreal—Vieux Montreal: Geographical Essays. Ed. D.B. Frost. Montreal: Concordia University, 69–91. Garnett, L. (2011) “Expandable Designs” Professional Builder Magazine, March. http://generationhomesusa.com/blog/?p=65 Gehl, J. (1987) Life between Buildings: Using Public Spaces. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Gidlow, C., T. Cochrane, R. C. Davey, G. Smith, and J. Fairburn (2010) “Relative importance of physical and social aspects of perceived neighbourhood environment for self-reported health,” Preventive Medicine, 51, 157–163. Girling, C.L. and K.I. Hepland (1994) Yard, Street, Park: The Design of Suburban Open Space. Toronto: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Gordon, D.L.A. (1996) “Planning, Design, and Managing Change in Urban Waterfront Redevelopment.” The Town Planning Review. 67.3: 261–290. Gravel, D. and V. Bouchard (1999) LaSalle Then and Now. LaSalle, Montreal: Cavelier-de-LaSalle Historical Society. Howley, P. (2010) “‘Sustainability versus Liveability’: An Exploration of Central City Housing Satisfaction”, International Journal of Housing Policy, 10:2, 173–189. Kelbaugh, D. et al. (1989) The Pedestrian Pocket Book: A New Suburban Design Strategy. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Knack, R. E. (1988) “Rules Made to be Broken.” Planning 53(11) 16–21. Knox, P.L. and S.A. Marston. (2001) Places and Regions in Global Context: Human Geography, 2nd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Kono, N. (1998) Planning for Waterfront Development: A Comparison of Approaches in Canada and Japan. [Research Report] Montreal: McGill University. Laporte, N. (1989) The Relationship between Water-Dependent Activities and Public Access within Urban Waterfront Development. [Research Report] Montreal: McGill University. Larson, R. W. (2001) “How U.S. Children and Adolescents Spend Time: What It Does (and Doesn’t) Tell Us About Their Development,” Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(5), October. Lovejoy, K., Handy, S. and Mokhtarian, P. (2010) “Neighbourhood Satisfaction in Suburban Versus Traditional Evaluation of Contributing Characteristics in Eight California Neighborhoods”. Landscape and Urban Planning 97, 37–48. Lynch, K. (1960) The Image of the City. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. Macionis, J. and V. Parrillo. (2001) Cities and Urban Life, 2nd ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hill. Marsh, W. M. (1978) Environmental Analysis: For Land Use and Site Planning. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Bibliography

175

May, M. J. (1993) To Build the Compact Green City: Manifesto and Call to Re-Think Architecture and City Planning. St. Petersburg: Smart. McPherson, E. G. [Ed.]. (1984) Energy-Conserving Site Design. Washington: American Society of Landscape Architects. Morris, M. (1996) “Creating Transit-Supportive Land-Use Regulations”. American Planning Association, Chicago, December. Nakamura, M.H., et al. (1989) “Planning for Sound Management of Lake Environments.” Guidelines of Lake Management, Volume One: Principles of Lake Management. S.E. Jorgensen and R.A. Vollenweider. Eds. Shiga, Japan: International Lake Environment Committee Foundation and the United Nations Environment Programme, 115 − 13. Olgyay, V. (1963) Design with Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architectural Regionalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Oliver, C. (2011) “Create an airy feel with creative techniques.” Global Winnipeg. Accessed June 16, 2011. Palen, J. (1995) The Suburbs. New York, McGraw-Hill. Palmer, J. and S. Ward (2010) “The Adaptable House.” Accessed May 16, 2011. http://www. yourhome.gov.au/technical/fs32.html Puma, J. (1985) The Complete Urban Gardener. New York: Harper and Row. Schumacher, E. F. (1973) Small is Beautiful; Economics as if People Mattered. New York: Harper & Row. Shibu, R. (2010) “Designing a Liveable Compact City: Physical Forms of City and Social Life in Urban Neighbourhoods”. Built Environment, Vol. 36, No. 1, 30 March, pp. 63–80 (18). Singer, N. (2010) “Fixing a World that Fosters Fat” The New York Times, Sunday Edition, August 22, p. 3, Business Section. Southworth, M. and E. Ben-Joseph (1997) Streets and the Shaping of Towns and Cities. New York: McGraw-Hill. Statistics Canada (2006a) From Urban Areas to Population Centres. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/ subjects-sujets/standard-norme/sgc-cgt/notice-avis/sgc-cgt-06-eng.htm Accessed July 2013. Statistics Canada (2006b) CYB Overview 2006: Population and Demography, retrieved 11 August 2009, from . Stitt, F. A. [Ed.]. (1999) Ecological Design Handbook: Sustainable Strategies for Architecture, Landscape Architecture, Interior Design, and Planning. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Storper, M. and A. J. Scott (2009) “Rethinking human capital, creativity and urban growth,” Journal of Economic Geography, 9, 147–167 Sullivan, J. (2011) “Go Expandable: Homes that Grow With You.” Rhode Island Home and Design Magazine. Accessed on May 18, 2011. http://www.rhodeislandhomedesign.com/Feature/goexpandable-homes-that-grow-with-you.html Svendsen, G. L. H. (2010) “Socio-spatial Planning in the Creation of Bridging Social Capital: The Importance of Multifunctional Centers for Intergroup Networks and Integration,” International Journal of Social Inquiry, 3(2), 45–73. Thomas, R. [Ed.] (1996) Environmental Design: An Introduction for Architects and Engineers, Second Edition. London: E. & F.N. Spon Press. Thompson, J. W. and K. Sorvig (2000) Sustainable Landscape Construction: A Guide to Green Building Outdoors. Washington: Island Press. Torre, L.A. (1989) Waterfront Development. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Untermann, R. (1984) Accommodating the Pedestrian: Adapting Towns and Neighborhoods for Walking and Bicycling. New York: Van Nostran Reinhold Company. Untermann, R. (1987) Can We Pedestrianize the Suburbs? Public Streets for Public Use. Anne Vernez Moudon, Ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. US Energy Information Administration (2009) Table 2.2 Residential Sector Energy Consumption. Accessed April 29 2009 . Van Bohemen, H.D. and H.J.N. Meesters (1992) “Ecological Engineering and Coastal Defence.” Coastal Dunes. Geomorphology, Ecology and Management: Proceedings of the Third

176

Bibliography

European Dune Congress. R.W.G. Carter, T.G.F. Curtis, and M.J.A. Sheehy-Skeffington. Eds. Balkema: Rotterdam. Van der Ryn, S. and P. Calthorpe (1986). Sustainable Communities: A New Design Synthesis for Cities, Suburbs and Towns, San Francisco, C.A.: Sierra Club Books. WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development) (1987) Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Whittig, R. (1998) “Urban Development and the Integration of Nature: Reality or Fiction?” Urban Ecology. J. Breuste et al., Eds. New York: Springer, 593–599. Wiles, J. L, R. E. S. Allen, A. J. Palmer, K. J. Hayman, S. Keeling and N. Kerse (2009) “Older people and their social spaces: A study of well-being and attachment to place in Aotearoa New Zealand,” Social Science & Medicine, 68, 664–671 Williams, D. (2006) “Why game studies now? Gamers don’t bowl alone,” Games and Culture, I, 13–16. Wilson, R.W. (1995) “Suburban Parking Requirements.” Journal of the American Planning Association, 61.1. Zhang, J. (2002) “Parking Design Principles for Residential Communities and Project Illustration.” [Research Report]: McGill University. Zucker, P. (1959) Town and Square: From the Agora to the Village Green. New York: Columbia University Press.

Index

A

E

Accessibility, 26, 39, 84, 89, 91, 98, 104, 105, 107, 111 Active mobility, 49 Add-in, 154, 155 Add-on, 153, 154 Amenities, 1, 5, 15, 17, 37, 39, 45, 80, 91, 98, 105, 121, 124, 129, 131, 133, 150, 168 Arterial roads, 33, 48, 78, 133

Ecological patches, 70, 71 Energy conservation, 143, 158 Environmental assessment, 107

B Bicycle freeway, 48

C Carbon dioxide emissions, 5 Circulation networks, 15 City Beautiful Movement, 103, 104 Comfort, 33, 36, 40, 42, 46, 47, 50, 81, 82, 85, 86, 138, 155, 163 Crowding, 121

D Dense living, 143 Design firms, 13 District heating, 15, 24, 25

F Financial institutions, 12 Flood plains, 108, 109 Form, 1, 13, 15, 26, 47, 58, 73, 78, 105, 128, 132, 133, 135, 145, 152, 158–160 Fragmentation, 105, 106, 107

G Garden City, 1 Governments, 11, 19, 123 Greenhouses, 89, 98, 99 Grouped parking, 42

H High traffic volume, 34 Homebuyers, 4, 10, 19, 137, 144, 145, 152 Human capital, 119–121

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 A. Friedman, Fundamentals of Sustainable Neighbourhoods, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-10747-9

177

178

Index

I

R

Impervious surfaces, 106

Roads and parking, 106

L

S

Land use, 6, 17, 35, 38, 45, 119, 125, 127, 137 Least negative impact, 8 Life cycle approach, 10 Live-work, 135 Location, 15, 17, 20, 39, 60, 61, 68, 69, 72, 77, 104, 108, 113, 132, 135–138, 148, 152, 165, 170 Loop streets, 37 Lot size, 20, 21, 82, 87, 91, 144, 145

Seigniorial system, 101 Shared streets, 36, 37 Slope zoning, 110, 114, 115 Social capital, 119–121, 125 Social space, 26, 122 Social transformations, 143 Soil and rock formation, 55 Street furniture, 36, 37, 45, 48, 81, 83, 86, 139 Suburbia, 15

M

T

Microclimate, 40, 62, 161

Topography, 55, 57, 80, 101, 113 Transit-oriented development, 127

N

U

Narrow houses, 148, 149 Narrow streets, 35 Natural green belt, 78

Urban density, 20

O Obesity, 124 Outdoor area, 16, 82, 116

Vegetation, 25, 55, 57–61, 63, 67–71, 75, 77, 80, 83, 88, 89, 95, 98, 108, 113, 115 Visual corridors, 109, 110

P

W

Parking, 17, 20, 21, 26, 28, 30, 33, 37–42, 45, 50, 59, 75, 94, 95, 106, 111, 113, 115, 132, 136, 139, 144, 168 Pedestrian pockets, 127 Pedestrian trails, 80 Porvoo, 49, 50 Public health, 121, 124, 125

Waste management, 15 Waterway, 49, 56 Windbreaks, 67, 72 Wind direction, 55, 66

V

Z Zoning regulations, 33