Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia: International Conference on Science Technology and Social Sciences (ICSTSS 2018) 9811949093, 9789811949098

Table of contents :
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Plantation
Effect of Manure and Bio-Compost Obnoxious Weed Toward Growth Performance of Oil Palm Seedling
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Compost Preparation
2.2 Treatments and Experimental Design
2.3 Data Collection and Statistical Analysis
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Nutrients in Byproduct Waste of Poaceae Family as Source of Organic Compost
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Physicochemical Characteristics of Soil-Less Media Mixture and Their Effects on Brassica Rapa Sp. Growth in Hydroponics System
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
2.1 Plant Materials and Experimental Treatments
2.2 Sample Analysis
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Physical Properties of the Medium
4 Conclusions
References
Material Science
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Dried Leaves Composite Board
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Methods
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Effects of Leaves Forms
3.2 Effects of Resin Content
3.3 Statistical Analysis
4 Conclusion
References
Effect of Wax at Different Resin Content Ratios on the Properties of Particleboard Manufactured from Bambusa vulgaris var. striata
1 Introduction
2 Method
2.1 Preparation of Samples
2.2 Board Manufacture
2.3 Evaluation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Biology
A Preliminary Study on COD Reduction of Real Textile Wastewater Using Consortia of Acinetobacter sp. and Cellulosimicrobium sp.
1 Introduction
2 Methods
2.1 Materials
2.2 Screening for Experimental Conditions
2.3 COD Reduction Using Bacteria Consortium at Different Ratios
2.4 COD Analysis
2.5 Statistical Analysis
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Screening for Experimental Conditions
3.2 COD Reduction Using Bacteria Consortium at Different Ratios
3.3 Paired t-Test Comparison
4 Conclusion
References
Environmental Science
Radon Gas Assessment of Selected Buildings at Universiti Teknologi MARA Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
2.1 Sampling Points
2.2 Preparation of CR-39
2.3 Radiological Risk Assessment
2.4 Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Indoor Radon Concentrations, Ca
3.2 Annual Effective Dose
3.3 Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk (ELCR)
4 Conclusion
References
Engineering
Parking System Using Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) Technology
1 Introduction
2 Materials and Method
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Basic Properties of Granitic Residual Soil on Slope
1 Introduction
2 Geology and Soil Sampling
3 Soil Testing
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Moisture Content
4.2 Specific Gravity
4.3 Atterberg Limits
4.4 Particle Size Distribution
5 Conclusion
References
Information System/Information Technology
College Registration Management System (CoReMS): a Proposed CoReMS Model for UiTM Raub College Management Unit
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
2.1 Developing the CoReMS
2.2 Overview of CoReMS Proposed Model
2.3 CoReMS Features
2.4 Accessibility
2.5 Efficiency
3 Conclusion and Recommendation
References
Sentiment Analysis on Mixed Language Facebook Comments: A Food and Beverages Case Study
1 Introduction
2 Related Work
3 Research Methodology
3.1 Emoji Extraction
3.2 Emphasized Terms
3.3 Punctuations and Stop Words
4 Results and Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
University Event Notification System with SMS Technology
1 Introduction
2 How Does the System Work?
2.1 SMS Integration with SMS API
2.2 SMS Application Programming Interface (API)
2.3 SMS Gateway
3 System Methodology
3.1 Planning
3.2 System Analysis
3.3 System Design
3.4 System Development
3.5 System Evaluation and Documentation
4 Prototype
5 Findings and Discussion
6 Conclusion and Recommendation
References
Remote Monitoring of Elderly via Web-Based Technological Approach to Promote Health and Well-Being Living
1 Introduction
2 Problem Statement
2.1 Case Study I: Indoor Positioning Cars by Infsoft
2.2 Case Study II: Accuware Indoor Navigation
2.3 Case Study III: Senion Mobile Smart Office
2.4 Case Study IV: SmartPTT Indoor Tracking
3 Methodology
4 Proposed Web-Based IETS and System Architecture
5 Results
6 Discussion
7 Conclusion
References
Hadith Text Classification on Sanad Part Using Edge List
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusions
References
Critical Factors Affecting Learning Management Systems (LMS) Success in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Malaysia
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 Davis Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
2.2 DeLone and McLean (2003) is Success Model
3 Methodology
4 The Conceptual Model
4.1 Technology Factor
4.2 System Quality
4.3 Service Quality
4.4 Information Quality
4.5 Human Factors
4.6 Practical Training
4.7 Self-Discipline
4.8 Motivation
4.9 User Satisfaction
4.10 Intention to Use
4.11 Actual Use
5 Significant Contributions
6 Conclusion
References
Mathematics
Solving Queuing Problem at Fast Food Restaurant in Shah Alam Using Simulation
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Comparing the Efficiency of Two Queuing Models for a Fast Food Restaurant Using Analytical Queuing Theory
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
2.1 A Brief Description of the Queuing System’s Component
2.2 Multi-Line with Multi-Server Queuing Model
2.3 Single-Line with Multi-Server Queuing Model
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References
Sinusoidal Curve in Floral Motifs of Malay Woodcarving: A Preliminary Study
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
2.1 Geometry and Symmetry Concept
3 Sinusoidal Curve
4 Results and Discussion
5 Conclusion
References
Kuala Lumpur Female Population Projection by Age Group Using Leslie Model
1 Introduction
2 Methodology
2.1 Development of Leslie Matrix
2.2 Conduct Leslie Model
2.3 Computing Error (Validation)
2.4 Predicting Population for year 2040
3 Results and Discussion
4 Conclusion
References

Citation preview

Nor Azizah Yacob  Duratul Ain Tholibon  Nor Yuziah Mohd Yunus  Zadariana Jamil  Syuhada Mohd Tahir   Editors

Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia International Conference on Science Technology and Social Sciences (ICSTSS 2018)

Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia

Nor Azizah Yacob · Duratul Ain Tholibon · Nor Yuziah Mohd Yunus · Zadariana Jamil · Syuhada Mohd Tahir Editors

Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia International Conference on Science Technology and Social Sciences (ICSTSS 2018)

Editors Nor Azizah Yacob Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang Pahang, Malaysia

Duratul Ain Tholibon Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang Pahang, Malaysia

Nor Yuziah Mohd Yunus Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang Pahang, Malaysia

Zadariana Jamil Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

Syuhada Mohd Tahir Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang Pahang, Malaysia

ISBN 978-981-19-4909-8 ISBN 978-981-19-4910-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

This is the compilation of proceedings from the International Conference on Science Technology and Social Sciences (ICSTSS 2018). The event was organised from 3 to 4 November 2018 at Hotel Vistana, Penang, Malaysia by Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang. This compilation captures shared experiences and invaluable insights into the subject of Plantation, Material Science, Biology, Chemistry, Environmental Sciences, Engineering, Information Systems, Information Technology and Mathematics. This collection of articles presents research and review papers by academicians locally and globally, which have been subjected to rigorous peer review. Articles have also been edited to portray clear illustrations, tables, figures and diagrams. It is the aim of ICSTSS 2018 that this book could contribute as a reference or baseline to future research and development in Malaysia and globally. Pahang, Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia Shah Alam, Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia

Nor Azizah Yacob Duratul Ain Tholibon Nor Yuziah Mohd Yunus Zadariana Jamil Syuhada Mohd Tahir

v

Acknowledgements

In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful. All praises to Allah and His blessings, it is our pleasure to present this book consisting of selected papers based on oral and poster presentations from the International Conference on Science Technology & Social Sciences 2018 (ICSTSS 2018), held from 3rd to 4th November 2018 at Penang Malaysia. ICSTSS 2018 provides a platform for presentations of various disciplines of science, technology and social science research. We would like to take this opportunity to thank all the participants, speakers, presenters and audience at the conference for their contributions and support. We would also like to extend our gratitude to all reviewers of the papers submitted for consideration in this book, who generously shared their time and expertise. We would like to express our thanks to the current Rector of Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang, Prof. Ts. Dr. Mohd Ilham Adenan and former rector Prof. Dr. Nazip Suratman for their moral support and encouragement over the organisation of the ICSTSS and the publication of this book. We also wish to thank Universiti Teknologi MARA, Pahang, Malaysia, for the technical and financial support for making the publication of this book a success. Finally, the unlimited appreciation goes to the Editorial Team and all the committees for their fantastic commitment and contribution to completing this book and for the success of ICSTSS 2018.

vii

Contents

Plantation Effect of Manure and Bio-Compost Obnoxious Weed Toward Growth Performance of Oil Palm Seedling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anisah Mohammed, Mohamad Amir Shah Yusop, and Muhamad Rizuan Borhanuddin

3

Nutrients in Byproduct Waste of Poaceae Family as Source of Organic Compost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mohamad Amir Shah Yusop and Anisah Mohammed

11

Physicochemical Characteristics of Soil-Less Media Mixture and Their Effects on Brassica Rapa Sp. Growth in Hydroponics System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nurul Shahida Osman, Suzana Yusup, Ashri Mohd Hanifah, and Zahari Bahari

19

Material Science Physical and Mechanical Properties of Dried Leaves Composite Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nurul Husna Mohd Hassan, Rose Farahiyan Munawar, Shaari Daud, Siti Noorbaini Sarmin, and Nur Afiqah Israruddin Effect of Wax at Different Resin Content Ratios on the Properties of Particleboard Manufactured from Bambusa vulgaris var. striata . . . . . Siti Zalifah Mahmud, Nurul Zaima Yazmin Mat Yazid, Wan Mohd Nazri Wan Abdul Rahman, Nurrohana Ahmad, and Noorshashillawati Azura Mohammad

33

45

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Contents

Biology A Preliminary Study on COD Reduction of Real Textile Wastewater Using Consortia of Acinetobacter sp. and Cellulosimicrobium sp. . . . . . . . Nor Habibah Mohd Rosli, Wan Siti Atikah Wan Omar, and Wan Azlina Ahmad

57

Environmental Science Radon Gas Assessment of Selected Buildings at Universiti Teknologi MARA Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nur Sha’adah Zainuddin, Wan Nur Adila Wan Deraman, Hisyam Abdul Rahman, Mohd Ruzaini Rosli, Siti Fatimah Saipuddin, Fairuzdzah Ahmad Lothfy, Junaidah Md Sani, and Ahmad Saat

69

Engineering Parking System Using Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Neo Wei Sheng, Wan Mariam Wan Muda, Ahmad Zaki Annuar, and Wan Hafiza Wan Hassan Basic Properties of Granitic Residual Soil on Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Noraida Mohd Saim, Anuar Kasa, Mohd Khairudin Muhamed, and Rohaya Alias

81

91

Information System/Information Technology College Registration Management System (CoReMS): a Proposed CoReMS Model for UiTM Raub College Management Unit . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Mohd Khairul Ikhwan Zolkefley, Muhd Eizan Shafiq Abd Aziz, and Mohd Ikhsan Md Raus Sentiment Analysis on Mixed Language Facebook Comments: A Food and Beverages Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Kong Hua Lim, Tong Ming Lim, Kathleen Swee Neo Tan, and Li Peng Tan University Event Notification System with SMS Technology . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Jiwa Noris Hamid, Hawa Mohd Ekhsan, and Nur Aina Aifa Mohammad Ali Remote Monitoring of Elderly via Web-Based Technological Approach to Promote Health and Well-Being Living . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Suriana Ismail, Khairunnisa Hamzah, and Roslan Ismail

Contents

xi

Hadith Text Classification on Sanad Part Using Edge List . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Nursyahidah Alias, Nurazzah Abdul Rahman, Normaly Kamal Ismail, Zulhimi Mohamed Nor, Muhammad Nazir Alias, and Mohd. Sham Kamis Critical Factors Affecting Learning Management Systems (LMS) Success in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Malaysia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Nor Azlan Ahmad, Nur Fazidah Elias, and Noraidah Sahari Ashaari Mathematics Solving Queuing Problem at Fast Food Restaurant in Shah Alam Using Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Norani Amit, Nurdia Azlin Ghazali, Nur Hidayah Mohd Razali, Noor Aisyah Idris, Noor Hidayah Mohd Zaki, and Busyra Latif Comparing the Efficiency of Two Queuing Models for a Fast Food Restaurant Using Analytical Queuing Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Nurdia Azlin Ghazali and Norani Amit Sinusoidal Curve in Floral Motifs of Malay Woodcarving: A Preliminary Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Marina Mohamed, Syafiza Saila Samsudin, Nazihah Ismail, and Norhuda Mohammed Kuala Lumpur Female Population Projection by Age Group Using Leslie Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Hamidah Ayub, Roselah Osman, Nora Zakaria, Siti Norashidah Sumaryono, and Nurul Syajaratul Aini Mohd Zin

Plantation

Effect of Manure and Bio-Compost Obnoxious Weed Toward Growth Performance of Oil Palm Seedling Anisah Mohammed, Mohamad Amir Shah Yusop, and Muhamad Rizuan Borhanuddin

Abstract Animal manure provides supplementary organic matter in compost production, while the aggressive growth of weeds can also provide an outstanding amount of organic matter. Obnoxious weed, for its aggressive growth, is classified as a type of plant that is harmful to agricultural crops due to its competition for light, space, nutrient, and water. The decline in non-renewable energy sources, the rising cost of operations, and the effort to conserve the environment have forced more appropriate and proper management of obnoxious weed in oil palm estates. This study intended to estimate the combined impact of animal manure and obnoxious weed bio-compost on the growth rate of oil palm seedlings. Randomised Complete Block Design with 12 treatments and one control were administered at a consistent frequency to the oil palm seedlings. Five replications, with 65 experimental units, were considered in this study. Data collection was done over a period of 20 weeks. The effects of Asystasia intrusa bio-compost and goat manure provided substantial variance in the attributes of plant height, number of leaves, and length of leaves. The acidity of the soil was reduced after 20 weeks of study. In conclusion, the combination of animal manure and obnoxious weed bio-compost yielded beneficial effects to crop growth and also helped reduce the level of acidity in the soil. Keywords Compost · Manure · Oil palm · Weed

1 Introduction In previous centuries which preceded the emergence of modern-day technology, available conventional resources such as animal manure, were applied to provide nourishment for soil fertility. The utilisation of animal manure has assisted in sustaining soil condition, aiding to fertilise crop field, as well as providing supplementary organic matter to the soil (Garg et al. 2005). Animal manure aided in the improvement of soil configuration, which would augment root progress for growing crops. A. Mohammed (B) · M. A. S. Yusop · M. R. Borhanuddin Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang, Bandar Tun Abdul Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_1

3

4

A. Mohammed et al.

Moreover, the application of animal manure generates precious assets with relatively reduced cost, and provides necessary quantities of macro and micronutrients, as a catalyser for growing crops (Brandon et al. 2013). Obnoxious weed is categorised as a type of plant considered detrimental to agricultural crops. It causes quality and quantity deterioration in agricultural crops because it competes for light, space, nutrients, and water. Obnoxious weed is not only dangerous and hazardous to humans but is also detrimental to the economy (Priya et al. 2014). In oil palm estates, obnoxious weed is eradicated using herbicides. Massive growth of weeds that emerges at an alarming rate and their distribution in pasture lands, grasslands, and forests can lead to an abundance of organic matter content (Rajiv et al. 2013). Despite obnoxious weed’s harmfulness to agricultural crops, it still has an essential role in supplying high organic matter content owing to its high resistance and tolerance to many unforgiving ecological settings. Composting is the normal decay of biological remains and excess into the soil configuration that has constant and humic materials. Disintegration and breakdown of weed biomass release nutrients and humic acids to supply nutrients to other plants (Chamle 2014). Compost also contributes to the increase of water retention capacity, structure, and water movement within the soil (Keith and Jackie 2009). In oil palm plantations, the nursery stage is considered very important because young oil palm seedlings are very sensitive and must be handled with care. The normal standard in the pre-nursery stage of oil palm seedlings starts from one month to four months prior to being relocated to the main nursery (Halimah et al. 2010). Uwumarongie et al. (2012) stated that oil palm seedlings in the pre-nursery stage have an exceptional growth rate, a high chlorophyll and nitrogen content, and require the soil to be applied with organic fertilisers. The mixture of manure and composted empty fruit bunch provides a healthier progress for the oil palm seedlings to grow during the pre-nursery stage (Adeoluwa and Adeoye 2008). The application of sufficient organic matter can reduce the use of chemical fertilisers by 50% for immature oil palm (Comte et al. 2012). This study aims to assess the effects of combining animal manure and obnoxious weed bio-compost on the growth rate of oil palm seedlings.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Compost Preparation Barrel composting technique was used in this study. 12 barrels were prepared to represent 12 treatments for this study. The ratio of manure, weed, and catalyst was identified to ensure the success of the composting process. The composting procedure started with the placement of raw materials into a barrel. Weed, manure, and effective microorganisms (as a catalyst) were arranged layer by layer in the barrel, as illustrated in Fig. 1. Temperature was monitored to identify when the thermophilic

Effect of Manure and Bio-Compost Obnoxious Weed …

5

Put a net on bottom surface of barrel

Fig. 1 Barrel Composting Technique

stage (55–65 °C) would be reached. This was a crucial stage to eliminate damaging pathogens, establish seed banks, and enhance the rate of decomposition and nutrients’ mineralisation. Compost would begin to mature upon the cessation of microbial activities, which would lead to the release of a reduced amount of heat. A constant temperature of the compost would indicate that it was ready to be used as an organic fertiliser.

2.2 Treatments and Experimental Design A 100-acre farm at Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Pahang (Jengka) was selected as the location of study. Oil palm seeds of the D x P Yamgambi strain were obtained from Pusat Penyelidikan Pertanian Tun Razak to be used as the host plant in this study. Seeds started to germinate for one month in seedling a tray. Seedlings were transferred into 15-inch × 18-inch polybags. The elements of treatments used four types of obnoxious weed and three types of animal manure. The list of treatments is shown in Table 1. Twelve treatments were arranged in a randomised complete block design together with one control. Five replications were considered in this study, with 65 experimental units. Each treatment was tested on the oil palm seedlings at a persistent interval.

6 Table 1 Treatment of study

A. Mohammed et al. Treatment

Description of treatment

W0

Control

W1

Asystasia Intrusa + Cow manure

W2

Asystasia Intrusa + Chicken manure

W3

Asystasia Intrusa + Goat manure

W4

Ageratum Conyzoides + Cow manure

W5

Ageratum Conyzoides + Chicken manure

W6

Ageratum Conyzoides + Goat manure

W7

Mikania Micrantha + Cow manure

W8

Mikania Micrantha + Chicken manure

W9

Mikania Micrantha + Goat manure

W10

Chromolaena Odorata + Cow manure

W11

Chromolaena Odorata + Chicken manure

W12

Chromolaena Odorata + Goat manure

2.3 Data Collection and Statistical Analysis Data collection for this study was done over a period of 20 weeks. Growth data of the oil palm seedlings were recorded in the pre-nursery stage to assess growth performance. Plant height, number of leaves, length of leaves, and width of leaves were recorded once per week. Soil pH was measured before and after the application of treatments. The collected data were analysed using the Minitab Software. Tukey’s Simultaneous Test was used for means comparison, yielding an alpha value of 0.05.

3 Results and Discussion Figure 2 depicts the plant height of oil palm seedlings after 20 weeks. Treatment with W3 (Asystasia Intrusa + goat manure) provided the highest value of the plant height attribute (37.7 cm). Statistical analysis documented a significant difference of p = 0.001. Junedi et al. (2013) explained that the nitrogen and potassium configurations in Asystasia Intrusa are approximately 1.26% and 1.57%, respectively. Suparjo (2008) stated that Asystasia Intrusa has high nutrient and is typically used as animal feed. The low concentration of its fibre compared to that of other tropical weeds, with 25:1 of C: N, contributed to a faster decomposition process. Based on Wuta and Nyamugafata (2012), the nitrogen level in goat manure was higher than that in cattle manure. Goat manure has a higher content of nitrogen, and potassium, which are all indispensable macro rudiments for plant growth in the long run. Asystasia Intrusa + goat manure (W3) showed the highest value for the number of leaves (Fig. 3) and the length of leaves among the oil palm seedlings (Fig. 4). The

Effect of Manure and Bio-Compost Obnoxious Weed …

7

Fig. 2 Plant Height of oil palm seedling

highest value taken for the number of leaves and the length of leaves for oil palm seedling was 7 cm and 30.14 cm, respectively. Analysis from one-way ANOVA showed that the Asystasia Intrusa + goat manure treatment is significantly different, with p = 0.050 for the number of leaves, and p = 0.045 for the length of leaves. Consistent with Suparjo’s (2008) findings, Asystasia intrusa contains approximately 35.2% of acid amino in its leaves. Goat manure has shown promising outcomes in cultivating the growth and progress of plants (Kisetu and Assenga 2013). Adejobi et al. (2011) discovered that the integration of goat manure and kola pod husk ash provided an optimal result for the growth rate of coffee plants instead of other combinations of organic fertilisers. The nitrogen content of goat manure was found at 1.37% (Akhtar et al. 2013). The application of goat manure can assist the nutrient uptake, crop performance, and the yield of produce plants (Wuta and Nyamugafata 2012). The fertilisation capability attained from organic compost increased the length of leaves (Al-Khatani and Ahmed 2012).

Fig. 3 Number of leave of oil palm seedling

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Fig. 4 Length of leaves of oil palm seedling

Figure 5 shows the result of the data analysis of the width of oil palm seedling leaves from week 1 until week 20. From the result, W2 (Asystasia Intrusa + chicken manure) indicated the highest value, with 8.10 cm. Analysis from one-way ANOVA recorded p = 0.12, which was not that significantly different for each treatment. Table 2 compares the soil pH values before and after the application of each treatment. The pH-level measurement was taken before any application of treatment was done in the first week of study, while the pH level after the application of treatments was taken at week 20. Treatment from Mikania Micrantha + goat manure (W9) shows the highest changes in soil pH, before and after. According to Charles (2012) compost fertiliser increased the soil pH due to microbial activities in the soil. The pH level in the soil changed because of the breakdown and volatilisation of organic acids in the compost during the latter stage of composting (Trautmann and Krasny 1997). The increase in the soil pH level after the application of treatments

Fig.5 Width of leaves of oil palm seedling

Effect of Manure and Bio-Compost Obnoxious Weed …

9

Table 2 Soil pH analysis Treatment Control W1

W2

W3

W4

W5

W6

W7

W8

W9

W10 W11 W12

pH before 4.24

4.24 4.24 4.24 4.24 4.24 4.24 4.24 4.24 4.24 4.24 4.24 4.24

pH after

5.33 5.42 5.56 5.43 5.39 5.43 5.36 5.32 5.78 5.48 5.67 5.18

4.88

showed that organic compost aids in reducing soil acidity. A strong acidity in the soil is likely to decrease the amount of indispensable macronutrients for plants to grow, due to the increased soil toxicity for both plants and microorganisms.

4 Conclusion Based on the findings of the study, the usage of the combined Asystasia intrusa and goat manure compost was observed to have provided noteworthy effects on the oil palm seedlings height number of leaves, and length of leaves during the prenursery stage. Variations in the pH level of the soil after being applied the combined compost suggested a suitable soil condition for the ideal growth of oil palm seedlings. The efficiency of the Asystasia intrusa and goat manure mixture will benefit crop producers in replicating the brilliant growth of oil palm seedlings during the prenursery stage, and will simultaneously diminish the reliance and usage of chemicalbased fertilisers.

References Adejobi KB, Adeniyi DO, Famaye AO, Adenuga OO, Ayegboyin KO (2011) Evaluation of the effectiveness of goat dung manure and kola pod husk ash on nutrient composition and growth performance of coffee (Coffea arabica) in Nigeria. J Appli Biosci 44:2987–2993 Adeoluwa OO, Adeoye GO (2008) Potential of Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) as Fertilizer in Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis L. Jacq) Nurseries. IFOM Organic World Congress Modena Italy 8(2) Akhtar S, Shakeel S, Mehmood A, Hamid A, Saif S (2013) Comparative analysis of animal manure for soil conditioning. Int J Agron Plant Prod 4(12):3360–3365 Al-Kahtani SHK, Ahmed MA (2012) Effect of different mixtures of organic fertilizers on vegetative growth, flowering fruiting and leaf mineral content of picual olive trees. Ame-Eurasian J Agric Env Sci 12(8):1105–1112 Brandon MG, Juarez MFD, Dominguez J, Insam H (2013) Animal manures: Recycling and management technologies. In: Biomass now; cultivation and utilization, pp 237–272 Chamle DR (2014) Effect of weed vermicompost on maize. Adv Res Pharm Bio 4(1):622–625 Charles NM (2012) Treating food preparation ‘waste’ by bokashi fermentation vs. composting for crop land application: A feasibility and scoping review. The BHU Future Farming Centre, pp 1–19 Comte I, Colin F, Whalen JK, Grunberger O, Jean PC (2012) Advances in agronomy. Academic Press, Burlington

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Garg WK, Chand S, Chhillar A, Yadav A (2005) Growth and reproduction of Eisenia foetida in various animal wastes during vermicomposting. Appl Ecol Environ Res 3(2):51–59 Halimah M, Zukifli H, Subramaniam V, Tan YA, Wie PC, Let CC, May CY (2010) Life cycle assessment of oil palm seedling production (part 1). J Oil Palm Res 22:878–886 Junedi H, Zurhalena MIA (2013) Effect of China violet compost on soil properties of ultisol and peanut yield. Int J Adv Sci Eng Inf Technol 3(1):2088–5334 Keith RB, Jackie TG (2009) Composting on organic farm. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/composting-on-organic-farms.pdf. Accessed 18 October 2016 Kisetu E, Assenga SP (2013) Effects of poultry and goat manures to cowpea variety Vuli-1 grown on a highly weathered soil in Morogoro Tanzania. Uni Res J Agri Sci 1(3):28–34 Priya HR, Veena, Pavithra AH, Joythi D (2014) Prospects and problems of utilization of weed biomass: J Agric Allied Sci 3(2):1–11 Rajiv P, Rajeshwari S, Yadav RH, Rajendran V (2013) Vermiremediation: Detoxification of parthenin toxin from Parthenium weeds. J Hazard Mater 262:489–495 Suparjo NM (2008) Effects of irradiance and cutting interval on growth, yield, persistence and nutritive value of Asystasia intrusa Trautmann NM, Krasny ME (1997) Composting in the classroom. http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/cha pter1.pdf. Accessed 20 Oct 2016 Uwumarongie-llori EG, Sulaiman-llobu BB, Ederion O, Imogie A, Imoisi BO, Garuba N, Ugbah M (2012) Vegetative growth performance of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) seedlings in response to inorganic and organic fertilizers. Greener J Agric Sci 2(2):026–030 Wuta M, Nyamugafata P (2012) Management of cattle and goat manure in Wedza smallholder farming area. Zimbabwe. Afr J Agric Res 7(26):3853–3859

Nutrients in Byproduct Waste of Poaceae Family as Source of Organic Compost Mohamad Amir Shah Yusop and Anisah Mohammed

Abstract Poaceae family plants have an ecologically important function in primer productivity as well as preserving soil erosion and have the highest organic matter content. A large number of planted crops produces a large number of wastes. The proper way of treating waste will preserve the environment from pollution. Composting is the practical way used in returning organic matter to the soil. This study aims to evaluate the value of organic compost elements from Poaceae family byproduct waste as potential sources of nutrients to the soil. Aerated static pile composting technique was used as a method for producing compost. The initial height pile was six feet in order to sustain the temperature beneath the composting pile. Paddy, sugarcane, and corn byproduct wastes were used as the sample in this study. The composting process was completed after 12 weeks and the resulting organic compost was ready to be used. Corn byproducts compost indicated the highest level of the nutrient in terms of organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and magnesium. Corn had the lowest C/N ratio of 18. Calcium and carbon were highest in sugarcane byproduct compost with an 8.3 pH level. Thus, Poaceae family byproduct compost can be used as organic fertilizer in the nourishment of soil fertility. Keywords Nutrients · Compost · Organic · Poaceae

1 Introduction The main starch sources for humans and animals belong to the Poaceae family. The number one plant species used in agriculture activities come from the family of Poaceae. Poaceae families have an ecologically important function in primer productivity as well as preserving soil erosion and are high in organic matters. The M. A. S. Yusop (B) · A. Mohammed Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang, Bandar Tun Abdul Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. Mohammed e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_2

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constant increase in agriculture activities leads to a large number of waste products introduced to the field. Thus, proper waste management has to be considered as an alternative to avoid pollution and outbreak of pests and diseases. Paddy or scientifically known as Oryza sativa is the staple food for more than half of the world’s population. Paddy is low in fat and provides mainly carbohydrates for energy. Paddy husk is formed from hard materials including silica and lignin as an outermost layer in protecting rice grain, which is yellowish in color and convex in shape. It is removed from grain as a waste product during the milling process (Ghassan and Hilmi 2010). Paddy husk is burned to produce ash and sold as fertilizer but it creates environmental issues due to the release of carbon into the air (Kumar et al. 2013). Paddy husk is rich in carbon content, which makes it slower in the decomposition process, but it is good in stabilizing the decomposition ratio, to prevent too much nitrogen leach into the soil. The nitrogen content in paddy husk was recorded at 0.49% (Mayunar 2010). Paddy husk represented 75–90% of organic matter which leads to a slower decomposition rate. Furthermore, applying paddy husk to the soil helps in enhancing soil pH, increases organic carbon, decreasing soil bulk density, and increasing the availability of nutrients as well as removes heavy metals from the soil (Milla et al. 2013). According to Ajay et al. (2012), organic compost is the best mechanism for utilizing paddy husk as a source of nutrients for the soil. Corn or Zea may is an important crop as a source of cereal for human consumption. Various parts of the corn plant are used as green amendment due to the high content of nutrients that helps in crop growth. Mohamed (2010) stated that farmers in semiarid conditions converted Zea mays plant to organic fertilizer when the objective of producing grain is not achieved. According to Musaida et al. (2012), organic waste of corn contains about 27.68% of moisture content and has lower carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio. Whereby, Kurnani et al. (2013) stated that if the organic waste has a high C/N ratio and low moisture content, it leads to a slower decomposition process in producing organic compost. Sugarcane or known as Saccharum officinarum is a tropical crop that forms lateral shoots at the base with multiple stalks. This stalk is composed of 11–16% fiber, 12– 16% soluble sugar, 2–3% non-sugar, and 63–73% water. Bagasse is known as waste material that has been produced when a sugarcane stalk is crushed and pressed to produce sugarcane juice (Bhavya et al. 2013). According to Anju et al. (2013), composting of bagasse gives beneficial value to crop growth. It increased the availability of nutrients in the soil and maintains good soil moisture due to the high water holding capacity in the bagasse itself. Composting is a method for recycling waste and returning the organic matter to the soil. It is the best technique to treat wastes that involve natural microbial activities. In addition, composting is the process that kills pathogens and stabilizes ammonia to constant organic forms. Temperature, moisture, oxygen content, air circulation, and the presence of microorganisms affect the effectiveness of the composting process. The decomposer subsystem needs soil microbial biomass pools as an essential component to regulate the nutrient cycle, energy flow, and plant ecosystem productivity. Associating beneficial microorganisms with organic matter can lead to more

Nutrients in Byproduct Waste of Poaceae Family …

13

rapid mineralization of organic matter (Raj and Antil 2011). According to Rouhullah et al. (2012) temperature, moisture content, C/N ratio, pH level, nutrient composition, and oxygen needed are considered to determine the success of compost production. This study aims to evaluate the value of organic compost elements from Poaceae family byproduct waste as potential sources of nutrients to the soil.

2 Materials and Methods Treatments and Composting Method This study was carried out at Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Pahang (Jengka) Malaysia. Paddy, sugarcane, and corn byproduct wastes from the Poaceae family were used as samples in this study which are described in Table 1. Aerated static pile composting technique was used in this study. This technique was carried out in an open and well-aerated area. Cow dung, charcoal, rice bran, and effective microorganism (EM) were used as an additional element in the composting procedure. An effective microorganism was used as an accelerator for microbial activities in the composting process. All composting materials were mixed and sprayed with EM solution for every 0.5 feet of the layer until the height reached six feet. This height is recommended for sustaining the temperature under the composting pile. The ideal temperatures in the composting process at an early stage are between 55 and 65 °C which is also known as a thermophilic stage. The composting process requires 12 weeks for maturity. Composting piles were covered with jute gunny sacks to ensure good aeration. The same techniques were used for other samples. The composting technique is shown in Fig. 1. Each compost sample was taken for nutrient analysis. Determination of Nutrients in Poaceae Composts Nutrients of Poaceae compost were analyzed to identify the percentage of macronutrients that are present in the compost. Parameters measured are given in Table 2. Table 1 Sample of byproduct waste of Poaceae family

Sample

Type of waste

Paddy

Paddy husk

Sugarcane

Bagasse

Corn

Corn husk

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M. A. S. Yusop and A. Mohammed

(a) Composting materials

(b) Charcoal

(d) Cover with jute gunny sack

(c) Spray with EM solution

Fig. 1 Aerated static pile composting technique Table 2 Parameters used for the determination of nutrients in compost

No

Parameters

1

Percentage of Nitrogen

2

Percentage of Phosphorous

3

Percentage of Potassium

4

Percentage of Calcium

5

Percentage of Magnesium

6

Percentage of Carbon

7

Percentage of Organic matter

8

Percentage of Moisture Content

9

C/N Ratio

10

pH

Nutrients in Byproduct Waste of Poaceae Family …

15

3 Results and Discussion Figure 2 shows the percentage of macronutrients in all three organic composts. Corn byproducts compost indicates the highest percentage of nitrogen (2.54%), phosphorous (0.718%), potassium (2.652%), and magnesium (0.482%) while sugarcane byproduct compost shows the highest calcium content (1.428%). Adeyeye et al. (2014) recorded that the compost material of corn contains 0.80% of nitrogen content. Gichangi et al. (2006) reported that 0.9% nitrogen, 8.4 g/kg of phosphorous, and 69.1 g/kg of potassium were obtained from maize. According to Mohamed (2010), farmers in the semi-arid condition used organic compost from corn as an alternative way to generate income after corn grain failed to produce. The nutrient contents in the compost are available due to the degradation of organic matter and carbon content. Carbon degradation contributes to a mineralization process that makes the entire nutrient embedded in the compost material (Schuchardt et al. 2002). Corn byproducts compost showed the highest value of organic matter (75.49%) as shown in Fig. 3. Whereby, paddy contains the highest moisture content (56.61%). According to Kurnani et al. (2013), waste with low moisture content contributes to a slower decomposition rate. 50% or more moisture content is required to ensure a complete process of decomposition. Ko et al. (2008) stated that the moisture content of compost must be 50 to 60% to maintain the optimum condition in completing the decomposition process. Figure 4 shows the C/N ratio of Poaceae organic compost. The C/N ratio of corn byproduct compost was recorded as the lowest value at 18. Organic waste of corn was recorded as a lower C/N ratio (Musaida et al. 2012). According to Kurnani et al. (2013), the lowest C/N ratio for organic waste indicates a faster decomposition process of waste material. Whereby for paddy and sugarcane the C/N ratio are 20 and 26. A study by Fong et al. (1999) stated that the C/N ratio plays an important 3.000

Percentage (%)

2.500 2.000 1.500 1.000 0.500 0.000 Paddy Corn Sugarcane

N 1.760 2.540 1.940

P 0.522 0.718 0.513

K 1.078 2.652 1.654

Fig. 2 Content of macronutrients in Poaceae organic compost

Ca 0.758 0.901 1.428

Mg 0.424 0.482 0.450

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M. A. S. Yusop and A. Mohammed 80.00

Percentage (%)

70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 Paddy Corn Sugarcane

Organic matter (%) 59.56 75.49 65.62

Moisture (%) 56.61 55.14 51.20

Fig. 3 Content of organic matter and moisture content in Poaceae organic compost

role in the composting process where the lower the C/N ratio the better the outcome of decomposition materials in producing compost. Whereas, the higher the C/N ratio will lead to a slower decomposition due to the high degradable substrate for microorganisms (Bernal et al. 2009). Corn, paddy, and sugarcane byproduct compost resulted in alkaline pH as shown in Fig. 5. Based on Friis et al. (2001), the main contributor to pH alteration is the temperature change. The changes in mesophilic temperature to thermophilic temperature are due to high microbial activities that took place in the composting pile. Changes in compost pH are due to the breakdown and volatilization of organic acid during the composting process. According to Cornell Waste Management Institute (1996), applying organic compost helps to increase pH from 5.5 to 8. Fig. 4 C/N Ratio of organic Poaceae compost

30 26 25 20

20 18

15 10 5 0 Paddy

Corn

Sugarcane

Nutrients in Byproduct Waste of Poaceae Family … 8.4

17 8.3

8.3 8.3

8.2

8.2 8.2 8.1 8.1

8.0

8.0 8.0 7.9 7.9 Paddy

Corn

Sugarcane

Fig. 5 pH of Poaceae organic compost

4 Conclusion In conclusion, Poaceae by product compost can be considered as an alternative organic fertilizer to nourish poor or average soil that is commonly found in Malaysia. Furthermore, applying this compost can reduce the dependency of using inorganic fertilizer that is considered harmful to the soil in the long run. In addition, the availability of macronutrients that are present in this compost is relatively higher, which helps to trigger the growth of plants. Other benefits obtained from this organic compost are that it acts as slow-release organic fertilizer that enhances the growth performance of the crops. Due to the capabilities of compost in altering pH from acidity to neutral or slight alkaline, uptake performance of nutrients by plant root system becomes better. A local farmer can produce their Poaceae byproduct compost due to the availability and abundance of this waste in Malaysia. Acknowledgements The authors would like to express thanks to the Government of Malaysia for the financial support of this study through the Research Acculturation Grant Scheme (RAGS). Thank you to Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Pahang for its support and encouragement in performing this study.

References Adeyeye AS, Togun AO, Akanbi WB, Adepoju IO, Ibirinde DO (2014) Effect of maize stover compost and nitrogen fertilizer rates on growth and yield of soyabean (Glycine max) variety in South – West Nigeria. J Agric Vet Sci 7(1):68–74 Ajay K, Kalyani M, Kumar D, Parkash OM (2012) Properties and industrial applications of rice husk: a review. Int J Emerg Technol Adv Eng 2:86–90 Anju T, Ashok A, Vipin P (2013) Sugarcane bagasse: A novel substrate for mass multiplication of Funneliformis mosseae with onion as host. J Cent Eur Agric 14(4):1502–1511

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Bernal MP, Alburquerque JA, Moral R (2009) Composting of animal manures and chemical criteria for compost maturity assessment. J Bioresour Technol 100:5444–5453 Bhavya R, Jayeshkumar P, Umrigar FS (2013) Sugar cane bagasse ash for eco-friendly fly ash bricks. In: Proceedings of national conference CRDCE13, SVIT, Vasad Cornell Waste Management Institute (1996) Monitoring compost pH. http://compost.css.cornell. edu/monitor/monitorph.html. Accessed 22 Oct 2016 Fong M, Wong JWC, Wong MH (1999) Review on evaluation of Compost maturity and stability of solid waste. Shanghai Environ Sci 18(2):91 Friis B, Smars S, Jonsson H, Kirchmann H (2001) Gaseous emissions of carbon dioxide, ammonia and nitrous oxide from organic household waste in compost reactor under different temperature regime. J Agric Eng Res 78(4):423–430 Ghassan AH, Hilmi BM (2010) Study on properties of rice husk ash and its use as cement replacement material. Mater Res 13(2):185–190 Gichangi EM, Karanja NK, Wood CW (2006) Composting cattle manure from zero grazing system with agro-organic waste to minimise nitrogen losses in smallholder farms in Kenya. In: Trop Subtrop Agroecosystem, pp 57–64 Ko HJ, Kim KY, Kim HT, Kim CN, Umeda M (2008) Evaluation of maturity parameters and heavy metal contents in composts made from animal manure. J Waste Mana 28:813–820 Kumar S, Sangwan P, Dhankhar R, Mor V, Bidara S (2013) Utilization of rice husk and their ash: a review. Res J Chem Environ Sci 1:126–129 Kurnani TBA, Yuli AH, Deden ZB, Indrani H, Jenal A (2013) The effect of water content and C/N ratio of a mixture of cow dung and Albizzia falcate sawdust of the change of pH and temperature of composting Process and the nutrient content of resulted liquid organic fertilizer. Lucrari Stiintifice, Seria Zootehnie, p 54 Mayunar (2010) Making compost fertilizer. Agricult Technol 5(2) Milla OV, Rivera EB, Huang WJ, Wang YM (2013) Agronomic properties and characterization of rice husk and wood biochars and their effect on the growth of water spinach in field test. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 13(1):251–266 Mohamed EMHA (2010) Effect of organic fertilizer and urea on growth, yield and quality of fodder maize (Zea mays L.) Int J Cur Res 8:035–041 Musaida MMM, Anthony P, Ngoni C, Perkins M, Joseph GTS (2012) Vermicomposting of waste corn pulp blended with cow dung manure using Eisenia fetida. Int J Chem Mol Eng 6(8):753–756 Raj D, Antil RS (2011) Evaluation of maturity and stability parameters of compost from agroindustrial wastes. J Biosourc Technol 102:2868–2873 Rouhullah D, Mohammad AA, Esmail C, Gholamreza M, Mohmoud S, Gholam Abbas M, Mohammad P (2012) Identification of fungal communities in producing compost by windrow method. J Environ Prot 3:61–67 Schuchardt F, Darnoko D, Guritno P (2002) Composting of empty oil palm fruit bunch (EFB) with simultaneous evaporation of oil mill waste water (POME). In: Proceedings of the international oil palm conference. Bali, Indonesia, pp 1–9

Physicochemical Characteristics of Soil-Less Media Mixture and Their Effects on Brassica Rapa Sp. Growth in Hydroponics System Nurul Shahida Osman, Suzana Yusup, Ashri Mohd Hanifah, and Zahari Bahari Abstract The selection of the growing medium is one of the most important decisions in the culture of hydroponic crops. Several studies have investigated the effect of growing media on the yield of vegetables. However, only a few studies have investigated the effects of the growing medium on crop growth. The physical and chemical characteristics of media were analyzed to determine the best medium for Brassica rapa Sp. (Pak Choi) growth. The growing media tested were: 50% perlite: 50% coconut peat (v/v) T1 , 50% perlite: 50% tea (v/v) T2 , 50% vermiculite: 50% coconut peat (v/v) T3 , 50% vermiculite: 50% tea (v/v) T4 . The initial pH of T2 was higher than in other media. The bulk density and electrical conductivity (EC) of T1 media were markedly higher than others (0.008 g cm−3 and 1.4 mS cm−1 ). Incorporation of coconut peat drops the percentage of water holding capacity (WHC) (2.2%). Additional coconut peat also increases air-filled porosity (AFP) (31%). The growth of Pak Choi was greatest in T1. The results of this study indicated that inorganic substrates can influence a growing medium for plants to grow faster. The properties of coconut peat can be improved through the incorporation of coconut peat with other inorganic media and its positive effect was reflected in the growth and development of Pak Choi. Keywords Coconut peat · Nutrient film technique system · Perlite · Tea · Vermiculite

N. S. Osman · S. Yusup (B) Biomass Processing Laboratory, National Higher Center of Excellence, Center for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of Self-Sustainable Building, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610 Perak, Seri Iskandar, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Hanifah · Z. Bahari Agriculture Department of Perak Tengah, 32600 Bota, Perak, Malaysia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_3

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1 Introduction Growing media are materials that are designed and prepared for the purpose of cultivating plants and supporting their growth. Worldwide, a high percentage of the hydroponic industry uses inorganic growing media such as rock wool, sand, perlite, vermiculite, pumice, clays expanded polystyrene, and others (Sawan et al. 1999; San Bautista et al. 2005; Bohme et al. 2008), while only about 12% uses organic growing media (Donnan 1998) such as peat, bark, wood residues (leaf mould, sawdust, barks), coir, bagasse, rice hulls or mixes such as peat and perlite; coir and clay, peat and compost (Nair et al., 2011). Growing media have three main functions: (1) provide aeration and water, (2) allow for maximum root growth, and (3) physically support the plant. The interest in the use of mixtures of organic and inorganic materials as growing media in soil-less culture is increasing in some parts of the world, where the mixtures have not been used in common practice. The addition of inorganic substances to organic has resulted in better plant growth and higher yield. A combination of inorganic and organic mediums such as coconut peat has resulted in good water holding capacity and aeration. Better aeration promotes vigorous root growth, which allows better growth of foliage and therefore increases the whole yield of plants (Abad et al. 2002). Findings from Tüzel et al. (2007), show that a higher total yield of tomatoes was obtained from plants grown in perlite plus peat rather than perlite combined with pumice, volcanic ash, pumice and perlite-based mixtures, which resulted in a higher leaf area and stem diameter of tomato plants. Studies by Nair et al. (2011) involved growing medium of 2 peats: 1 vermiculite: 1 compost (by volume) amended with 0, 0.6, 1.2, 1.8, or 2.4% weight by weight of alfalfa-based organic amendment and incubated for 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks. Relative to growth in a medium with no amendments, plants growing in the amended medium had increased stem diameter, height, leaf chlorophyll content and plant dry weight (90–160% more), provided the amended medium was incubated for at least one week. When perlite is mixed into peat substrates, seedling photosynthesis productivity becomes greater than that of plants grown on peat (Jankauskien˙e et al. 2013). This work aims to characterize the chemical and physical properties of organicand inorganic-based media mixtures on the crop growth of Brassica rapa Sp. (Pak Choi) and to study its suitable growing medium in Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) hydroponics systems.

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21

2 Materials and Method 2.1 Plant Materials and Experimental Treatments This study was carried out at Block P, Biomass Processing Laboratory, HICoE Centre for Biofuel and Biochemical Research, Institute of Sustainable Living, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Seri Iskandar, Perak, over a short period of 8 weeks. The treatments consisted of 4 different organic- and inorganic-based medium mixtures, which are coarse perlite: medium coconut peat (50%: 50% by volume), coarse perlite: medium tea (50:50% by volume), coarse vermiculite: medium coconut peat (50:50% by volume), coarse vermiculite: medium tea (50:50% by volume) in an NFT hydroponic system. Table 1 shows the types of medium mixtures and their grades. As the medium mixture is expected to have a low inherent status of nutrients, 5 ml of fertilizer A and 5 ml of fertilizer B were incorporated in 2 l of distilled water during the seedling process. Brassica rapa Sp. (Pak Choi) was used as an indicator plant. The plants were germinated and raised in a plastic pot and covered with medium mixtures. The pots are placed into 38 cm by 27.5 cm trays. Each tray accommodates 3 pots for each type of medium mixture and its grades. In each pot, randomly 6–9 Brassica rapa Sp. (Pak Choi) seeds were placed on wet medium mixtures and incorporated with 5 ml of fertilizer A and 5 ml of fertilizer B in every 2 l of distilled water. The tray was covered with a 40 cm by 30 cm net to avoid pests. The tray was placed in a shady area for three days to let shoots and roots grow and watered twice daily (1 l/tray). On the 4th day, the tray was placed in areas with adequate sunlight for 6–7 days. After 6 or 7 days, the pots were transferred from the tray to the hydroponic system. The seedling growth was monitored by recording the height of the plant, leaf area, light intensity, pH, and fertilizer conductivity daily for data analysis. Table 1 Types of medium and its grades Types of medium

Grades of medium

Size of particles (mm)

Volume (v/v)

Perlite: coconut peat (T1 )

coarse perlite: medium 0.5–3 coconut peat

50%: 50%

Perlite: tea (T2 )

coarse perlite: medium 0.85–2 tea

50%: 50%

Vermiculite: coconut peat (T3 )

coarse vermiculite: medium coconut peat

0.5–10

50%: 50%

Vermiculite: tea (T4 )

coarse vermiculite: medium tea

0.85–10.0

50%: 50%

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2.2 Sample Analysis 2.2.1

Physical Properties of Growing Media

The properties of growing media were determined for factors known to affect plant growth. These were the pH and electrical conductivity (EC), bulk density, water holding capacity (WHC), and air-filled porosity (AFP). Media mixtures were tested accordingly before and after preparation.

2.2.2

PH and Electrical Conductivity

The pH values for all media before and after planting were determined by mixing 10 g of media with 50 ml distilled water, agitated for 30 min and left standing for 24 h. For determination of EC, 40 g of media mixtures was mixed with 80 ml distilled water, shaken for 15 min, and left for 60 min. The mixtures were filtered before the measurements were made using a portable pH meter (Hanna, model 1,413,816) and a portable EC meter (AquaPro digital water tester). Only initial EC was determined in the study.

2.2.3

Bulk Density

Evaluation of bulk density was done by using the core method (Teh and Jamal 2006). The media in the core ring were saturated by allowing water to diffuse into the media mixtures for two days. After recording their weights, the samples were oven-dried at 105 °C for 24 h. The bulk densities were calculated using Eqs. (1)–(4). Bulk density (g/cm3 ) = dry weight/media volume

(1)

Dry weight (g) = weight/1 + media water content

(2)

Weight of media−Weight of oven−Dried media (3) Weight of oven dried ( ) Volume of media core cm3 = π r2 x height (4)

Media water content (g) =

From the bulk densities data collection, volumetric water content (g/cm3 ), total porosity (%) and media water filled pore space (%) can be calculated by using Eqs. (5)–(7), respectively. Volumetric water content (g) = Media water content x bulk density

(5)

Physicochemical Characteristics of Soil-Less Media Mixture …

Total porosity (%) = 1 − (bulk density/2.65)

23

(6)

Water Holding Capacity (%) = (Volumetric water content/total porosity) × 100 (7)

2.2.4

Air-Filled Porosity

AFP was determined using the saturation and drainage method at 2 h after saturation. The pots, filled with 1 l of the respective medium, were sub-irrigated by immersing them in the water. The medium mixtures were considered saturated when the water appeared on the surface. The saturated medium mixtures were removed quickly to a funnel with a 500 ml graduated cylinder underneath. The volume of water drained from the pot was supposed to be replaced by an equivalent volume of air, and therefore the volume of water collected represents the amount of air diffused into the media. The percentage of AFP was calculated with the volume of the media.

2.2.5

Chemical Properties of the Medium

Chemical characterization of each medium was analyzed by using X-ray Fluoresce (XRF), and CHNO-S (PerkinElmer 2400 Series II) analyzer to determine the elemental composition of each type of medium mixtures.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Physical Properties of the Medium 3.1.1

pH and Electrical Conductivity

The initial pH and EC of the media mixtures are two important properties of any growing media as these parameters directly influenced the inherent status of the media, respectively. Variations in the composition of the media mixtures markedly affected the initial pH and EC values of the media mixtures. Different plants have different optimum pH ranges for optimal growth. Based on Table 2, the pH of T2 was higher than those of the other media. The lowest pH recorded was that of T4 . The range of pH for all the media dropped from an initial pH of 5.5–8.3 to 5.3–5.9 after 8 weeks of cultivation depending on the treatment. Reduction in pH in the organic-based media is a common phenomenon and this is

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N. S. Osman et al.

Table 2 pH, EC values and bulk density of media mixtures pH after cultivation

EC (mS cm1 )

Bulk density (g cm3 )

50 perlite: 50 coconut 6.3 peat (T1 )

5.8

1.41

0.008

50 perlite: 50 tea (T2 ) 8.3

5.9

0.06

0.005

50 vermiculite: 50 coconut peat (T3 )

6.4

5.8

1.02

0.007

50 vermiculite: 50 tea 5.5 (T4 )

5.3

0.59

0.006

Medium (%)

pH before cultivation

mainly associated with a poor buffering capacity of the soil-less substrate to resist change in pH acidification of the medium by plant roots and the use of acid fertilizers (Agro 1998). Overall, the optimum pH of the soil-less media for better availability of essential elements is around 6.0. Observation revealed that the growth of plants was normal and did not show any elemental deficiency or toxicity symptoms. The EC values reflect the total inorganic ion concentration in the media. The EC values of all media mixtures differed between treatments; with T1 possessing the highest EC (1.41 mS cm−1 ) while T4 has the lowest EC (0.06 mS cm−1 ). The EC of other media was in the range of 1.02–0.59 mS cm−1 . The low EC value indicates that the media did not contain excessive salt that could cause salinity injury to the plants, but at the same time contains insufficient amounts of nutrients to supply and support healthy plant growth. Higher EC of T1 reflects that the combination between perlite and coconut peat contains relatively high concentrations of soluble salt, which could be beneficial for plant growth. The acceptable range of initial EC of a good soil-less media should be between 0.4 and 1.5 mS cm−1 , initial ECs of media used should be increased by adding fertilizer to give a quick supply of nutrients for early growth (Yahya et al. 2009). pH and EC collection data revealed that the medium selected did not show any insufficient and excessive salt that may affect the growth of plants.

3.1.2

Bulk Density

Bulk density affects the choices of media in many ways. In this study, bulk densities of media mixtures ranged between 0.005 and 0.008 g cm−3 . These bulk density ranges are considered acceptable for hydroponic seedlings and crops (Kampf et al. 1999). The incorporation of 50% coconut peat into 50% perlite (T1 ) and 50% vermiculite (T3 ) increased the bulk density of the media (0.008 g cm−3 and 0.007 g cm−3 ) and the value is significant. Results in Table 2 also indicated that the addition of tea into perlite and vermiculite decreased the bulk densities of media. Low bulk density media may not provide

Physicochemical Characteristics of Soil-Less Media Mixture …

25

adequate support for the plant and the plant may be top heavy (Holcomb 1994). In this respect, plants grown in media containing coconut peat would be more stable.

3.1.3

Water Holding Capacity

A good growing medium would serve as a reservoir for nutrients and water; allow oxygen diffusion to roots and permits gaseous exchange between the root and atmosphere outside the root substrate. Table 3 shows that the incorporation of 50% tea into 50% perlite (T2 ) and 50% vermiculite (T4 ) increased the percentage WHC of the media (2.7 and 2.5%). A medium with high WHC and low aeration may result in a concentration of roots in the top portion of the container, especially if the medium in the bottom portion of the container remains saturated for extended periods. Roots growing in poorly aerated media are weaker, less succulent, and more susceptible to micronutrient deficiencies and root rot pathogens such as Phythium and Phytophthora than roots growing in well-aerated media (Ingram et al. 2003). Coconut peat is an agricultural byproduct obtained after the extraction of fiber from the coconut husk. Coconut peat is considered a good growing media component with acceptable pH, EC, and other chemical attributes. However, coconut peat has been recognized to have high WHC which causes poor air–water relationship, leading to low aeration within the medium (Abad et al. 2002). The incorporation of perlite (T1 ) and vermiculite (T3 ) into coconut peat could improve the aeration status of the media. Low WHC and better aeration of mixtures T1 and T3 promote vigorous growth, which allows rapid growth of foliage and therefore increases whole plant yield. Table 3 Water holding capacity and air-filled porosity of media mixtures

Media

Water holding capacity (% vol)

Air-filled porosity (%)

50 perlite: 50 coconut peat (T1)

2.2

31

50 perlite: 50 tea (T2 )

2.7

5

50 vermiculite: 50 coconut peat (T3 )

2.4

21

50 vermiculite: 50 tea (T4 )

2.5

14

26

3.1.4

N. S. Osman et al.

Air-Filled Porosity

The percentage of air-filled porosity (AFP) of the four media mixtures is shown in Table 3. In this study, the 50% perlite: 50% coconut peat v/v (T1 ) had the highest AFP compared with other mixtures. In this study, media containing 50% perlite: 50% tea v/v (T2 ), 50% vermiculite: 50% coconut peat v/v (T3 ) and 50% vermiculite: 50% tea v/v (T4 ) had significantly lower AFP. Medium containing lower AFP could be wetted easily due to water in the medium would drain rapidly after irrigation and therefore plants grown on them must be watered more frequently to avoid water deficit. Aeration depends mainly on the size of pores in a medium. Irrigating media to the point of saturation fills the total pore space with water. As the media drain by the force of gravity, smaller pores remain filled with water while larger pores are emptied and filled with air. However, materials with small particles such as tea tend to fill up the pores, thus lowering the AFP (Handreck and Blck 2007).

3.1.5

Plant Growth

Differences in media markedly affected the growth performance of the Pak Choi plant. Based on Table 4, at week 8 after transplanting, the height of plants grown on T3 showed higher plant height compared to T1 and T2. However, the leaf area of plants grown on T1 showed bigger compared to other mixtures. It is supported by Duncan Tzortzakis and Economakis (2005) stating that the incorporation of perlite into coconut peat reduces the plant weight and height but increases the leaf area of Pak Choi. The effects of various combinations of organic–inorganic-based media on dry weights of plant components are shown in Table 5. Overall, plants grown on T1 were the heaviest, and this is mainly associated with their leaf, stem, and root dry weights. However, the stem dry weight of T3 did not significantly differ from the stem dry weight of a plant grown on T1 . Among the treatments, the roots of plants grown on T1 and T3 were significantly heavier than the roots of other plants. Good root growth of plants grown on T1 and T3 could be attributed to the greater water availability and favorable aeration following the incorporation of perlite and vermiculite into coconut peat. Under such conditions, plants were provided with sufficient water and oxygen. Table 4 Plant height and leaf area of media mixtures Media

Plant height (cm)

Leaf area (cm2 )

50 perlite: 50 coconut peat (T1 )

33

16

50 perlite: 50 tea (T2 )

−

−

50 vermiculite: 50 coconut peat (T3 )

38

14

50 vermiculite: 50 tea (T4 )

31

12

Physicochemical Characteristics of Soil-Less Media Mixture …

27

Table 5 Dry weight of plants based on different medium mixtures Dry weight (g)

Media

Leaves

Stem

Roots

Total

50 perlite: 50 coconut peat

268.37

12.46

3002.98

3283.81

50 perlite: 50 tea

−

−

−

−

50 vermiculite: 50 coconut peat

169.62

10.55

37.62

217.79

50 vermiculite: 50 tea

94.55

7.32

98.09

199.96

Table 6 CHNO–S and C: N ratio of media mixtures Concentration (%) Fertilizer

Perlite: coconut peat

Perlite: tea

Vermiculite: coconut peat

Vermiculite: tea

Carbon

9.20

28.95

1.56

9.74

Hydrogen

0.85

1.35

0.51

0.67

Nitrogen

3.57

3.98

3.10

3.13

Oxygen

−

−

−

−

Sulfur

1.08

0.84

0.61

0.61

C:N ratio

2.58

7.27

0.50

3.11

Perlite is a good inorganic medium compared with vermiculite. It is supported by Kacjan Marši´c and Jakše (2010) finding that the growth of the cucumber was better and marketable yield was higher by 30% in perlite than in vermiculite. The use of perlite can also reduce the incidence of physiological disorders such as tomato blossom-end-rot (BER) (Garcia-Gomez. et al. 2002). Based on Table 6, the cause of poor performance in plants grown on 50% perlite: 50% tea powder (T2 ) and 50% vermiculite: 50% tea powder (T4 ) containing media is due to the high number of C:N ratio and different speeds of biological decomposition for these substrates at different composting periods. Enrenfeld et al. (1997) and Bottner et al. (1999) also reported that when uncomposted materials such as tea powder are incorporated into a medium containing inorganic substrates such as perlite and vermiculite, microorganisms will compete with plant roots for supplied nitrogen in a perlite/vermiculite medium during decomposition. This competition for nitrogen can result in nitrogen deficiency and poor plant growth.

3.1.6

Chemical Properties of Media

The composition of nutrients in the medium mixtures recorded in this study was in the normal range in the plant medium. No excessive or insufficient nutrient was recorded in Table 7, the medium mixture of 50% perlite: 50% coconut peat (T1 ) (v/v) shows a high amount of potassium content compared with other medium mixtures.

28

N. S. Osman et al.

Table 7 Element composition in each medium mixture Concentration (%) Fertilizer

Perlite: coconut peat (T1 )

Perlite: tea (T2 )

Vermiculite: coconut peat (T3 )

Vermiculite: tea (T4 )

Copper

0.0306

0.0152

0.0123

0.0234

Iron

3.33

3.62

17.9

16.7

Manganese

0.120

0.239

0.128

–

Magnesium

0.982

–

13.0

0.815

Molybdenum

–

–

0.82

12.4

Phosphorus

1.15

1.38

0.902

1.14

Potassium

53.7

24.8

19.4

22.1

Zinc

0.0666

0.0397

0.0306

0.0430

Each plant requires 19 nutrient elements consisting of 16 macronutrient and micronutrient elements as well as 3 nutrient elements obtained from the air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) and water (hydrogen) (Bohme et al. 2008). Potassium is one of the macronutrients and an important element that acts as an enzyme involved during photosynthesis and also functions as protein and carbohydrate metabolism in plant growth. The high amount of potassium element in the medium increases the number of shoots and size of the plant. This is proven by the result of plant growth in Table 7, T1 showed the highest number of leaf area and size compared with other medium mixtures.

4 Conclusions In conclusion, the results of this study indicated that some mixtures of substrates can influence the growth medium so that plants grow faster but that may depend on the substrates used. Overall data showed that the combination of T1 (v/v) is the best mixtures medium compared with medium containing 50% perlite and 50% tea T2 (v/v), 50% vermiculite, and 50% coconut peat and 50% vermiculite and 50% tea T4 . Improvement in chemical and physical properties following incorporation of coconut peat into perlite was reflected in better plant growth. The positive effects of the combination between coconut peat and perlite were seen in the elevation of nutrient availability (as indicated by higher EC), increased bulk density, AFP, and low WHC. Acknowledgements This is collaboration research between Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS and Agriculture Department of Perak Tengah. The authors would like to thank all those who have contributed for their joint efforts in conducting this research and also to Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS for supporting this work and Elsevier Foundation Green and Sustainable Chemistry Challenge for the grant to undertake the research.

Physicochemical Characteristics of Soil-Less Media Mixture …

29

References Abad M, Noguera P, Puchades R, Maquieira A, Noguera V (2002) Physio-chemical and chemical properties of some coconut dusts for use as a peat substitute for containerized ornamental plants. J Bioresour Tech 82:241–245 Agro WR (1998) Root medium physical properties. J Horttechnology 8:451–485 Bohme M, Schevchenko J, Pinker I, Herfort S (2008) Cucumber grown in sheep wool slabs treated with biostimulator compared to other organic and mineral substrates. http//www.ActaHorticul ture.com. Accessed 21 Dec 2016 Bottner P, Pansu M, Sallih Z (1999) The effect of active roots on soil organic matter turnover. J Plant Soil 216:15–25 Donnan R (1998) Hydroponics around the world. Prac Hydropo Greenh 41:18–25 Duncan Tzortzakis NG, Economakis CD (2005) Shredded maize stems as an alternative substrate medium on tomato yield and fruit quality in soilless cultivation. Hortic Sci 35:83–89 Enrenfeld JG, Parsons WFJ, Han X, Parmelee RW, Zhu W (1997) Live and dead roots in forest soil horizons: contrasting effects on nitrogen dynamics. Eco 78:348–362 Garcia-Gomez A, Bernal MP, Roig A (2002) Growth of ornamental plants in two composts prepared from agro industrial wastes. J Bioresour Tech 83:81–87 Handreck KA, Blck ND (2007) Growing media for ornamental plants and turf, 3rd edn. UNSW Press, Sydney Holcomb EJ (1994) Growing media. Batavia III: 4th edn. Ball Publishing Ingram D, Henley RW, Yeager TH (2003) Growth media for container grown Ornamental Plants. http://www.ActaHorticulture.com. Accessed 21 Dec 2016 Jankauskien˙e J, Brazaityt˙e A, Bobinas C, Duchovskis P (2013) Effect of transplant growth stage on tomato productivity. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum - Hortorum Cultus 12(2):143–152 Kacjan Marši´c N, Jakše M (2010) Growth and yield of granted cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) on different soilness substrate. J Food Agric Environ 8:654–658 Kampf AN, Hammer PA, Krik T (1999) Effect of the packing density on the mechanical Impedance of root media. Acta Hort 481:689–691 Nair A, Ngouajio M, Biernbaum J (2011) Alfalfa-based organic amendment in peat-compost growing medium for organic tomato transplant production. http://www.HortScience.com. Accessed 21 Dec 2016 San Bautista A, Rueda R, Pascual B, Maroto JV, Lopez-Galarza S (2005) Influence of different substrates and nutrient solutions on the yields and the incidence of abiotic disorders of Boroccoli. http://www.ActaHorticulturae.com. Accessed 21 Dec 2016 Sawan OM, Elissa AM, Abou-Hadid AF (1999) The Effect of different growing median on cucumber seedling production, fruit yield and quality under greenhouse conditions. http://www.ActaHorti culturae. Accessed 21 Dec 2016 Teh CBS, Jamal T (2006) Bulk density, water content, porosity and water retention. In: Soil physics analyses, vol 4, pp 11–17. University Putra Malaysia Press, Selangor Tüzel Y, Tüzel IH, Gül Oztekin GB, Ucer F (2007) Tomato production in sub irrigated systems. Acta Horticul 441–445 Yahya A, Safie H, Moklas MS (2009) Growth and flowering responses of potted chrysanthemum in a coir dust-based medium to different rates of slow released-fertilizer. J Trop Agri Food Sci 27:39–46

Material Science

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Dried Leaves Composite Board Nurul Husna Mohd Hassan, Rose Farahiyan Munawar, Shaari Daud, Siti Noorbaini Sarmin, and Nur Afiqah Israruddin

Abstract Dried leaves collected in UiTM Pahang, Jengka Campus were used for composite board production. The leaves were divided into two forms which were the original form and the crushed form with a board density of 450 kg/m3 . The effects of phenol–formaldehyde (PF) resin content at 8%, 10% and 12% on the physical and mechanical properties of the board were evaluated. Higher resin percentage produced greater strength for board mechanical testing such as bending strength modulus of elasticity (MOE) at 62.5, 58.1, 111.5 MPa for original leaves and 65.7, 84.6, 125.2 MPa for crushed leaves. Internal bonding was at 0.002, 0.000, 0.002 MPa for original leaves and 0.002, 0.003, 0.003 MPa for crushed leaves. The composite board physical testing (i.e. thickness swelling (TS) and water absorption (WA)) also showed a positive effect with the increased percentage from 8%, 10% and 12% of PF resin usage, where the TS for the original leaves and crushed leaves were at 53.6%, 47.7%, 28.5% and 34.4%, 30.7%, 26.0%, respectively. Water absorption for original leaves was at 125.6%, 118.8%, 101.6% and 109.1%, 99.4%, 98.8% for crushed leaves. Crushed leaves performed better than original leaves due to more surface contact area derived in smaller particle leaves thus increasing the board internal bonding.

N. H. M. Hassan (B) · S. N. Sarmin · N. A. Israruddin Faculty of Applied Sciences, School of Wood Industry, Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang Branch, Jengka Campus, 26400 Bandar Tun Abdul Razak, Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] S. N. Sarmin e-mail: [email protected] R. F. Munawar Carbon Research Technology Research Group, Advanced Manufacturing Centre, Fakulti Kejuruteraan Pembuatan, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal, Melaka, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] S. Daud Faculty of Applied Sciences, School of Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang Branch, Jengka Campus, 26400 Bandar Tun Abdul Razak, Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_4

33

34

N. H. M. Hassan et al.

Keywords Composite board · Dried leaves · Phenol formaldehyde

1 Introduction Malaysia has been one of the successful tropical countries that served as the main producer and exporter of timber products in the world and thus, became the 10th largest exporter of furniture and the second largest exporter of wood-based products over the 160 destinations in Asia. This ranking also allows Malaysia to be established as a great producer and exporter of sawn timber, panel products such as particleboard, medium density fibreboard (MDF), plywood, doors, flooring and other joinery products (NATIP 2009). The composite sector is one of the fractions of timber industries. In the current scenario, the particleboard industry is facing a problem when it comes to the limitation of raw materials and steadily increases the needs for the consumption of wood-based panels (Pirayesh et al. 2014). Therefore, the usage of agricultural waste products that are renewable and environmentally sustainable guaranteed has attained attention and demands from consumers in the making of wood-based composites. At present, primarily requests from furniture manufacturing and housing construction industries increase globally for the particleboard which is 57% of the volume of wood-based panels (Maloney 1996). Temporarily, solid wood is used for the making of the board, which is a suitable material, however, as the material is a bit costly thus, renewable resources are used to replace the solid wood. According to Campanella et al. (2013), the leaves that fall onto the ground in the forest could be advantageous to many organisms in the soil and are very essential for the forest ecosystem. Unlikely in cities and towns, mostly think of the leaves as waste, so they are collected and burned, and uncommonly being composted (Campanella et al. 2013). In the farming industry, the leaves are used as the ruminant roughage sources for ruminant-type animals such as cows, cattle sheep, goats and deer (Ozkaya et al. 2013). Yearly, in the United States, about 30 million tons of leaves are collected and burnt. They are burnt slowly and as the result, produce a great amount of airborne particulates such as fine bits of dust, soot and other solid materials which can cause health problems to humans and animals when inhaled because they may contain dangerous chemicals such as carbon monoxide (Campanella et al. 2013). Particleboard industry in Malaysia can be categorized into two types, particleboard for panel products and particleboard for furniture components. The particleboard usually acts as a component in the manufacturing of furniture for offices, hospitals, educational institutions, restaurants, and other in-door furniture. These lead to an increased demand for particleboard (Rokiah et al. 2011). Particleboard is the result of compression of the wood particle with roughly about 95% of lignocellulosic material and adhesive at high pressure (Irle and Barbu 2010). The rest consists mainly of seasonal crops such as flax, bagasse and cereal straw. The type of particleboard

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Dried Leaves …

35

depends on the type of particle used in the making of the particleboard. For this reason, particleboard products come in all sizes and shapes. Basically, the core of particleboard is composed of a lower density and coarse particle layer whereas the outer layer typically consists of high density and finer particles. The performance of particleboard depends on the distribution of the particle size and its density. In addition, the bonding between the particle with synthetic adhesive, method of manufacturing, temperature, and pressure are other aspects that need to be considered for the making of the particleboard (Rowell 2005). The properties of particleboard can be classified into two, physical and mechanical. Physical properties can be determined by the board’s moisture content, density and thickness. Meanwhile, mechanical properties were evaluated based on its bending strength, modulus of elasticity and its internal bonding strength. According to Uteko and Lesom (2011), in order to fulfil the requirement, the board can be produced into many varieties of thickness. Amongst the aspects affecting the strength of the particleboard are the thickness, density, layers, adhesive fraction, and pressing period. A leaf is one of the plant’s organs composed of two tissue layers, namely epidermis and mesophyll. The upper and lower surfaces are covered by the epidermis layer which consists of a number of layer of group cells. It also acted as a protective layer as it forms a boundary that protects the inner cells layer from the outside environment. The outer of this layer is covered with waxy cuticles that prevent the leaf from water loss, controlling the exchange of gases, producing metabolic compounds, and the absorption of water. The inner structure of a leaf is made up of mesophyll, a spongy layer that is the main location for the photosynthesis process to take place. In the mesophyll layer, there is an arrangement of veins that is made up of a layer of tissue called vascular tissue. The conclusion is that they are classic examples of fractal-like pattern formation or venation through ramification (Kramer and Kozlowski 1979). According to Campanella et al. (2013), the fibre of a plant is made up of carbohydrate polymers such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and also some impurities. The physical and chemical properties depended on the chemical composition in a fiber. For example, lignin makes a way for chemical reactivity to take place, therefore it will help with the chemical modification reaction such as acetylation. The cellulose contains three hydroxyl groups, which are bonded by a hydrogen bond. The bonding between two hydroxyl groups of a cellulose chain will form intermolecular bonds, while the third hydroxyl group forms intramolecular hydrogen bonds which are the result of bonding within a cellulose chain. These hydrogen bonds give unique stiffness and stability properties at the molecular level. Phenol formaldehyde (PF) is usually used in the manufacturing of oriented strand board (OSB), plywood and particleboard. Products using PF resins may increase their dimensional stability because of lower moisture content. Phenol formaldehyde requires longer press time and higher press energy consumption and slow productivity. It is not suitable for decorative products application because of its dark colour. However, it is very suitable for exterior furniture such as garden furniture because it is water-resistant. There are two types of PF resins produced commercially, namely resoles and novolacs. According to Anonymous (2009), the difference

36

N. H. M. Hassan et al.

between resoles and novolacs is in the phenol to formaldehyde molar ratio, the type and quantity of catalyst used and the time and temperature of the reaction. Hence, the study of the properties of the composite board from dried leaves in UiTM Pahang Campus is to find a new alternative raw material for the making of particleboard dried leaves despite its abundant availability, green and low-cost material properties. Nevertheless, the conversion of dried leaves for high-value applications has not yet been exploited. The usage of leaves may solve the problem by finding another alternative of limitation of raw material in manufacturing composite board as well as to reduce them from being burnt that may cause a bad environmental problem. In this study, dried leaves are chosen as a new replacement to make the composite board. The main objective of the study is to utilize dried leaves as an alternative raw material for the manufacturing of the composite board. The specific objectives are to evaluate the effect of dried leaves form usage and the effect of resin percentage used on the composite board properties.

2 Materials and Methods Any available dried leaves were collected and not specifically specified to one single species in Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Pahang, Jengka Campus. Then, the dried leaves were dried in the oven at a temperature of 80 °C for about 48 h to achieve a moisture content below 5%. After the drying process, the moisture content was determined and all dried leaves were kept in a plastic bag until further process. Composited boards were fabricated at the density level of 450 kg/m3 . The dried leaves (original and crushed leaves form) were put in the particleboard mixer, where they were mixed with resins. The amount of resin used (8, 10, 12%) depends on the board requirement and was calculated before mixing the composite in the board mixer machine. Phenol formaldehyde was used as the resin and it was blended with the dried leaves. After blending, the mixture was formed in a mould box with a dimension of 340 mm × 340 mm. The mould box must be cleared from any foreign substances such as impurities and excess moisture for a better result. The “Mould Release Agent” was sprayed onto the mould box surface to avoid the composite board from sticking to the mould. Pre-pressing process was conducted to reduce the formed mat thickness. This allows the mat to be easily handled during the transfer of the mat to the hot-pressing process. It was then pressed at 150 psi for about one minute so that the composite material would be easily handled before being loaded into the hot-press machine. At the hot-pressing machine, the composite was pressed at 1800 psi, at 165 °C for 6 min. The purpose of the process is to make sure that the resin and dried leaves have cured so that they could achieve the final thickness and required density of the composite board. The composite board was separated from the caul plate after several minutes. Then, it was left at room temperature for 4 to 6 min.

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Dried Leaves … Table 1 Measurement of sample cutting for testing

37

Type of testing

Size (mm) (L x W x H)

Samples of each board

MOR/MOE

340 × 50 × 12

54

IB

50 × 50 × 12

126

TS/WA

50 × 50 × 12

126

After the temperature of the board is cooled down, the boards were cut into the required size for sample testing according to selected sampling. The board was then trimmed down according to the desired length and width and to square the edges. A total of 18 boards were produced with 9 boards for each form of leaves at a different percentage of resin. The board was also cut to the required size based on the testing method as stated in Table 1. The testing for the physical properties of the panels that have been included in this study were thickness swelling (TS) and water absorption (WA) tests, while for the mechanical properties the bending testing such as modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR) were completely carried out. The tests were performed according to the EN 310, EN317 and EN319 (2003) standards. The physical testing was derived into two categories: TS and WA. These tests were performed to evaluate the ability of the board to absorb water and the tests were fully conducted based on the European standard EN 317 (2003) which is the thickness swelling must be less than 16%. An electronic micrometer was used to measure the thickness of the samples. Then, the samples were immersed completely in the water for 24 h. The objective was to show the durability of the board when exposed to water. The thicknesses of the boards were measured after being completely immersed in water. The weight of all samples was measured using the Electronic Weight Machine. Therefore, all the samples were soaked in water for 24 h. For every 2 h, the samples were weighed and recorded until the value was constant for 24 h. The purpose of the water absorption was to know how the sample absorbs water and the durability of the board to water. The bending testing was taken for two measurement tests, modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE), respectively. The boards were tested by using the Instron Universal Testing Machine. The load was then applied at the centre point of the board until it cracked. The samples were cut into 340 mm × 50 mm dimension with a crosshead speed of 10.00 mm/min. MOR is the measurement of the rate rupture of board stiffness. The resistance of the boards toward bending was measured. All measurements were taken before the testing was performed. The weight was weighed by using the Electronic Weight Machine while, the thickness value was obtained using the electronic micrometer, as for length and width, by using the Vernier calliper. The sample size for the internal bonding (IB) test is 50 mm × 50 mm using the Instron Universal Testing Machine with a crosshead speed of 1.50 mm/min. This test

N. H. M. Hassan et al.

Fig.1 Effect of leaves form on TS and WA

Percentage (%)

38 ORI

CRUSHED

153.14a

143.24b

70.47a 42.79b

TS

WA

is to determine the strength of a composite based on the bonding between particles of the board.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Effects of Leaves Forms 3.1.1

Physical Properties

Figure 1 shows the result of the board for both leaves forms, original and crushed on the TS and water WA. Both showed a significant effect in terms of TS and WA. Based on Fig. 1, it is seen that the TS (42.79%) and WA (143.24%) of the crushed leaves form are much lower than in the original form of leaves. The original form of the leaves leads to a higher TS (70.47%) and WA (153.14%), due to the higher number of voids that can be filled compared to the crushed leaves form. The crushed form composite board has a higher compaction ratio and creates a fewer number of voids during the manufacturing of boards compared to the original ones. Hence, the ability to absorb water and swell is reduced. Besides that, more leaf particles are higher in cellulose content than present in the crushed leaves form of dried leaves; thus, contributing to the higher availability of the hydroxyl group. A lignocellulosic material contains an active group, namely hydroxyl group (–OH) that causes easier water uptake (Ashori and Nourbakhsh 2008).

3.1.2

Mechanical Properties

The two different types form of leaf forms (original and crushed) were used to determine the mechanical properties of the composite board derived from dried leaves. There are three types of tests (MOR, MOE and IB) that will be evaluated, respectively. Figure 2 shows that the crushed leaves have higher values for both MOE (107.70 MPa) and IB (0.009 MPa) but lower in MOR (0.267 MPa) than the board

Fig. 2 Effect of leaves form on MOR, MOE and IB

Strength value (MPa)

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Dried Leaves … ORI

39

CRUSHED

107.70a

83.87b 0.353a 0.267b

MOR

0.009a 0.005b MOE

IB

made from the original leaves form. Reciprocally, the original leaves form has the lower MOE (83.87 MPa) and IB (0.005 MPa) but higher in MOR (0.353 MPa). However, the original and crushed leaves form failed in the middle for IB strength. Original and crushed leaf forms did not meet the minimum British Standard EN 312:2003 requirements.

3.2 Effects of Resin Content 3.2.1

Physical Properties

Figure 3 represents the summarization of the average thickness swelling (TS) and water absorption (WA) result of the composite board with a different resin content of 8%, 10% and 12%, respectively. The result shows that the value of TS decreases as the resin content increases from 67.91%, 55.26% and 46.72%, respectively. The same trend occurred in the values of WA that gives the result of 165.16%, 143.55% and 135.86% as the resin percentage content increased. The boards swelled due to excessive water absorption. The increases in resin amount in the boards make a noticeable decrease in their TS and WA values. The ability of the water to absorb into the board was decreased when the amount of resin was increased. As noted by Ayrilmis et al. (2012), the WA values of the boards decreased from 8 to 12% as the content of PF resin was increased and similar results were observed for the TS value. This is because of the low molecular weight of the PF resin in an aqueous solution, which can penetrate the cell walls of the dried leaves. The amount of resin used is one of the crucial factors in determining the amount of adhesive bond formed beside the resin viscosity, flow ability, surface wettability, particle surface roughness, and its compatibility with the resin (Tabarsa et al. 2011).

40

N. H. M. Hassan et al. 165.16a

Fig. 3 TS and WA for each resin content

Percentage (%)

8

10

143.55b 135.86c

67.91a 55.26b 46.72c

TS

3.2.2

12

WA

Mechanical Properties

Figure 4 shows the effect of resin content on the MOR, MOE and IB. The resin contents of 8%, 10% and 12% were significantly different for each type of mechanical testing. The increase of resin content showed an increasing value of the MOR, MOE and IB of the composite board. According to Zheng et al. (2006), higher values of MOR, MOE, and IB were obtained from higher resin content. Based on the British Standard EN 312:2003, all boards did not fulfill the standards even though the result shows increased value when the resin content ratio was increased. The board with 12% of resin content has higher MOR (0.42 MPa), MOE (107.16 MPa) and IB (0.100 MPa) compared to 8% of resin content MOR (0.21 MPa), MOE (86.34 MPa), and IB (0.005 MPa). Generally, good mechanical properties (MOR, MOE and IB) are obtained with higher resin content due to the sufficient surface wetting on the particle surface. Therefore, more bonding sites are available and ultimately would promote better adhesion between leaves. The higher resin content will produce better properties on the board but will increase the production cost as well (Ashori and Nourbakhsh 2008).

3.3 Statistical Analysis Table 2 shows the summary of the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) on the influence of dried leaves form and the percentage of resin content on the composite board properties. The effect of the original and crushed leaves form show significant influences

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Dried Leaves …

41

107.16a 8

10

12

93.86a

Strength value (MPa)

86.34a

0.42a 0.30b 0.21b 0.005b0.007b MOR

MOE

0.100a

IB

Fig. 4 MOR, MOE and IB for different resin content

Table 2 Summary of the (ANOVA) on the influence of leave forms and resin content on composite board properties SOV

df

MOR

MOE

IB

TS

WA

Leave Forms

1

1.408 ns

1.809 ns

7.200*

505.139*

24.027*

Resin Content

2

2.775 ns

0.472 ns

3.800 ns

99.963*

75.430*

Leave Forms * Resin Content

2

1.858 ns

0.012 ns

4.200*

18.081*

0.305 ns

Notes Modulus of Rupture (MOR), Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Internal Bonding (IB), Thickness Swelling (TS), Water Absorption (WA), Source of Variables (SOV), Degree of Freedom (df), Significant at P < 0.05 (*), Not Significant at P > 0.05 (ns)

on IB, TS, WA and non-significant effects on MOR and MOE. All the composite boards with 8%, 10% and 12% show significant influence on TS, and WA but not for MOR, MOE and IB.

4 Conclusion In this study, the results showed that the performance of mechanical and physical characteristics of dried leaves composite boards are highly dependent upon the leaf forms and resin content. The Modulus of Ruptured (MOR), Modulus of Elasticity (MOE), Internal Bonding (IB), Thickness Swelling (TS) and Water Absorption (WA) were positively affected by increasing the resin contents and changes in leaves forms. Both of the variables which are the resin content and the leaf forms have significant effects on the mechanical and physical properties of the composite boards. The study

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has found that the crushed leaf forms with 12% of resin content gave the best mechanical properties of MOE and IB. However, the original leaf forms with 8% of resin content would give the best performance for TS and WA physical properties. It can be concluded that the composite board made from dried leaves could become a solution to the limitation of raw material for the particleboard industry as well as diminishing environmental problems regarding their burning. However, the consideration of dried leaves as raw material for composite board needs to be further studied due to the poor properties of the board at 450 kg/m3 . Possibilities of board properties improvement include increasing densities, change in resin content and variation of crushed leaves forms.

References Anonymous (2009) Phenol formaldehyde. www.ucp.ru/common/img/uploaded. Ashori A, Nourbakhsh A (2008) Effect of press cycle time and resin content on physical and mechanical properties of particleboard panels made from the underutilized low-quality raw materials. Ind Crops Prod 28(2):225–230 Ayrilmis N, Kwon JH, Han TH (2012) Effect of resin type and content on properties of composite particleboard made of a mixture of wood and rice husk. Int J Adhes Adhes 38:79–83 BS EN 310 (2003) Determination of modulus of elasticity in bending and bending strength. The European standard has the status of a British standard BS EN 312 (2003) Particleboards—specifications. The European standard has the status of a British standard BS EN 317 (2003) Determination of swelling in thickness after immersion in water. The European standard has the status of a British standard BS EN 319 (2003) Determination of internal bond. The European standard has the status of a British standard Campanella A, Wool RP, Bah M, Fita S, Abuobaid A (2013) Composites from Northern ed oak (Quercus robur) leaves and plant oil-based resins. J Appl Polym Sci 127(1):18–26 Irle M, Barbu MC (2010) Wood-based panel technology. Wood-based panels-an introduction for specialist Kramer PJ, Kozlowski TT (1979) Physiology of woody plants, pp 13–18 Maloney TM (1996) The family of wood composite materials. Forest Prod J 19–26 NATIP (2009) National Timber Industry Policy 2009–2020 Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities Malaysia, pp 1–128 Ozkaya K, Ayrilmis N, Dizel T, Imirzi HO (2013) Utilization of extract of fresh tree leaves as extender in synthetic adhesives for laminated veneer lumber (LVL). Ind Crops Prod 44:67–70 Pirayesh H, Khanjanzadeh H, Salari A (2014) Effect of using walnut/almond shells on the physical, mechanical properties and formaldehyde emission of particleboard. Compos B Eng 45(1):858– 863 Rokiah H, Wan Noor Aidawati WN, Othman S, Kawamura F, Hiziroglu S, Sato M, Tanaka R (2011) Characterization of raw materials and manufactured binderless particleboard from oil palm biomass. Mater Des 32(1):246–254 Rowell RM (2005) Handbook of wood chemistry and wood composites, vol 284. CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 293 Tabarsa T, Jahanshahi S, Ashori A (2011) Mechanical and physical properties of wheat straw boards bonded with a tannin modified phenol–formaldehyde adhesive. Compos B Eng 42(2):176–180

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Dried Leaves …

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Uteko ZD, Lesom I (2011) Properties of particleboards made by using an adhesive with added liquefied wood. Materiali in Tehnologije 45(3):241–245 Zheng Y, Pan Z, Zhang R, Jenkins BM, Blunk S (2006) Properties of medium-density particleboard from saline Athel wood. Ind Crops Prod 23(3):318–326

Effect of Wax at Different Resin Content Ratios on the Properties of Particleboard Manufactured from Bambusa vulgaris var. striata Siti Zalifah Mahmud, Nurul Zaima Yazmin Mat Yazid, Wan Mohd Nazri Wan Abdul Rahman, Nurrohana Ahmad, and Noorshashillawati Azura Mohammad Abstract Bambusa vulgaris var. striata (ivory bamboo) is a sympodial giant grass plant that can be recognized by the bright yellow with narrow or broad green stripes. The bamboo has been utilized for particleboard manufacture. The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of wax at different resin content ratios on the mechanical and physical properties of the boards. The bamboo culms were obtained from an ornamental area of a school located in Bandar Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia. Two of the culms were used to determine the moisture content and density at different portions. The rest were crushed into particle sizes and later oven dried for 24 h until they reached the suitable moisture content of below 5%. The density of the boards produced was 650 kg/m3 at different resin contents (7, 9, and 11%) and two wax ratios (0 and 1%). The board of 11% resin content without additional wax has resulted in the best properties. All the boards exceeded the minimum requirement for internal bonding while all thickness swelling values did not meet the minimum requirement of Malaysian Standard. There were some improvements in thickness swelling and water absorption for the effect of additional wax, but the comparisons were not significant. It was recommended that future research on B. vulgaris var. striata particleboard would be produced with the high-density variables and increased resin ratio to improve the dimensional stability properties. Keywords Bamboo particleboard · Mechanical properties · Physical properties · Resin ratio · Wax effect S. Z. Mahmud (B) · N. Z. Y. M. Yazid · W. M. N. W. A. Rahman · N. Ahmad · N. A. Mohammad Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang, Bandar Tun Abdul Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] W. M. N. W. A. Rahman e-mail: [email protected] N. Ahmad e-mail: [email protected] N. A. Mohammad e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_5

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1 Introduction Particleboard is a very popular composite board and it is widely used in the manufacture of furniture such as table tops, panels, and cabinets. In Malaysia, Mieco Chipboard Berhad is the pioneer of the particleboard industry, with rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis) being used for wood chips since 1976. Wood chips were the basic ingredient for particleboard production. Nowadays, most manufacturers used rubberwood as the raw material for particleboard manufacturing. At the same time, solid rubberwood has also been highly accepted when it was produced in furniture due to its excellent properties. This has led to its shortage. To lessen the dependency on the continuous use of rubberwood in the production of composite panels by the manufacturers, they have been searching for substitute raw materials by mixing the waste from any suitable species (Amini et al. 2013). A preferential move of most planters today to replant rubberwood plantations with oil palm enhances the shortage issue of available rubberwood. This coupled with the long 20–28 years taken for rubberwood to become available as a wood chip source, aggravates the shortage issue further. The dependence on rubberwood needs to be reduced by switching to new sources that have a shorter duration for growing, re-planting and maturing (Nazmul Alam et al. 2015). Bamboos belong to the family of grass (Poaceae) consisting of 12 subfamilies where they are of the sub-family Bambusoideae and represent the only main grass lineage that grows naturally in the diversity of forests (Clark et al. 2015). Generally, all bamboo growth is very fast but growth variability depends on the species type. As the growth rate of bamboo is rapid, it can become a renewable source with high yields. Accordingly, the rapid growth characteristic of bamboo becomes an important incentive as an alternative material for construction, household products, food, charcoal and composite boards because most of the methods, technology and equipment for wood processing can be applied in bamboo utilization (Chaowana 2013). It is also undeniable that the use of bamboo as a plant in ornamental horticulture and agroforestry can help water conservation and promote carbon cycling in the future. Bambusa vulgaris var. striata is one of the species of bamboos that can be found in Peninsular Malaysia. This species grows everywhere, often to be found on riverbanks or in rural areas. As it is a rapidly growing plant, it could easily be a ready source of lignocellulosic material for particleboard manufacturing. While bamboo could be used in its original (culms) form, it could also be converted into various shapes such as strips, strands, wool or excelsior, particles as well as fibres. Bamboo composite panels have not only been involved in particleboard production, but also it has been successfully converted to oriented strand board (Sumardi et al. 2007), laminate board (Sulastiningsi and Nurwati 2009) and bamboo particle-polylactic acid composites (Wu et al. 2013). The production residues of bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper Backer) or Pai Tong from the conversion of bamboo into strips are used to make single-layer particleboard which showed that with the density of 800 kg/m3 and temperature conditions at 40 °C, it can yield the highest result in acceptable strength properties (Laemlaksakul 2010). On the other hand, a study by Karlinasari et al. (2012) indicated that the particleboard manufactured from D. asper had a higher sound absorption

Effect of Wax at Different Resin Content Ratios on the Properties …

47

coefficient for the low-density board (0.5 g/cm3 ) as compared to the medium-density board (0.8 g/cm3 ), which promised potential for further development as construction material, especially for acoustical purposes. Particleboards manufactured from wood particles showed similar performance to bamboo and wood-bamboo particleboards (Melo et al. 2014). Meanwhile, a study on single-layer particleboards manufactured from the branch and the waste of B. vulgaris with urea–formaldehyde (UF) resin has been done by Nazmul Alam et al. (2015). It showed that the bamboo culm waste had greater density, Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) and Modulus of Rupture (MOR) compared to bamboo branch particleboard. There are many advantages of UF resins such as good heat resistance, low cost, good adhesion to wood and wood-based materials, and also offered light colour which is often used in decorative products. According to Ashori and Nourbakhsh (2008), it is the main factor that influenced the mechanical properties when it is increased with high resin content. The usage of a certain ratio of resin will increase the strength of the particleboard. When the resin content is low, the strength of the particleboard also decreases. It is concluded that the acetylation of bamboo particles results in particleboards with greatly reduced swelling in liquid water and water vapour as compared to non-acetylated bamboo particles. In recent decades, UF and phenol–formaldehyde (PF) were commonly used as a synthetic binder for conventional processes of wood-based composites. Therefore, several researchers have come out with innovative non-hazards particleboard, which is known as a self-bonding particleboard or binderless particleboard by using bamboo biomass (Li et al. 2015) and oil palm biomass including trunks, barks, fronds and leaves (Hashim et al. 2012). Wax is used to produce products with some resistance to liquid in the water absorption process. Two types of wax are utilized in industrial applications which are molten wax and emulsified wax (Xu et al. 2009). As for molten wax, it is comparatively pure but it is different and difficult to spread evenly on the particles. However, emulsified wax brings extra water into the wood particles. The objective of this study is to assess the properties of particleboard made from B. vulgaris var. striata concentrating on the effect of wax at different resin content ratios. Tested boards were produced using commercial industrial parameters. Both mechanical and physical properties of such particleboard made of mixed particle size of 1 and 2 mm were evaluated.

2 Method 2.1 Preparation of Samples The main material for the manufactured particleboard, B. vulgaris var. striata, also known as ivory bamboo was obtained from an ornamental area of Sekolah Kebangsaan Bandar Pusat, Jengka Pahang, Malaysia. As many as ten culms were converted into particles. The bamboo culms were selected based on their maturity by

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Fig. 1 Flow process for manufacturing the bamboo particleboard

looking at their physical appearance. They were then cut at 10 cm above the soil level. Several culms were randomly picked to measure the density and moisture content.

2.2 Board Manufacture The bamboo culms were cut off into four portions, and the length of each portion was 2 m. Each portion was converted into small strips before being chipped into particle size by using a knife ring-flaker. Unscreened bamboo particles were sieved to separate the oversize and undersize particles. In this study, the particle size used ranges between 1.0 and 2.0 mm. The particles were oven-dried at a temperature of 70 °C to maintain the moisture content below 5%. Analysis of particle geometry was performed using micrometre and digital Vernier calliper to determine the characteristics of the particles before they were manufactured into the boards. The particleboard was fabricated at a density level of 650 kg/m3 with the board moulding dimension at 340 mm by 340 mm. The UF resin ratios were 7, 9 and 11%; without wax and with an additional wax ratio of 1%. The boards then were pressed with a pressure of 1000 psi at a temperature of 165 ºC for six min. The process of manufacturing the particleboard is indicated in Fig. 1.

2.3 Evaluation of Mechanical and Physical Properties The bending testing was used to measure the value of MOR and MOE in accordance with MS 1787: Part 10 (2005). These tests were measured by using Universal Testing Machine. Modulus of rupture is the measurement of the rate of rupture pieces of the

Effect of Wax at Different Resin Content Ratios on the Properties …

49

samples. This would happen when the maximum load was applied to the samples and it would break when it reached its limits. Meanwhile, MOE was used to measure the resistance of the samples in bending which is related to the stiffness of a beam. The load was applied to the middle of the samples when it was deflected and then it was recorded after it reached the proportional limits. Internal bonding was used to determine the tensile strength perpendicular to the plane of the board in accordance with MS 1787: Part 11 (2005). The thickness swelling test was to determine the dimensional stability of the board in accordance with MS 1787: Part 6 (2005). The sample measurements were 50 mm by 50 mm. The data of volume and mass of the samples were recorded after 1 h and 24 h when the samples were precisely and properly soaked into water. Finally, the statistical analysis was performed using the Duncan Multiple Range Test of Statistical Package Social Science (SPSS).

3 Results and Discussion The general properties of B. vulgaris var. striata were tested using particle geometry analysis, sieve analysis, and bulk density. The particle geometry analysis shows the minimum width of particles used was 0.66 mm and the maximum width was 2.40 mm. The sieve analysis indicates a percentage recovery of 1 mm particles was 31.70% while recovery of 2 mm particles was 42.76%. It shows almost 75% of the bamboo particles recover from sizes 1–2 mm. Therefore, this study used a mixed particle geometry size of 1–2 mm to manufacture the particleboard. The bulk density of B. vulgaris var. striata particles was 92.47 g/l. The bulk density of the particles from the flaking process for Gigantochloa scortechinii (buluh semantan) of the 3-yearold show a similar trend to B. vulgaris var. striata. This was 93.6 g/l as compared to the 1-year-old and 2-year-old at about 85.1 g/l (Kasim 2006). It was indicated that the high bulk density implied a lesser number of particles would be required to produce particleboard. This would increase the resin spread per unit area than those of 1- and 2-year-old bamboo particles since heavier particles would occupy lower volume at equal weight. Figure 2 shows the green moisture content of B. vulgaris var. striata at different portions of the culm height. The bottom portion has a higher moisture content, which was 93.11% while the lowest density was 59.53% at the top portion of bamboo. According to Li (2004), the moisture content of bamboo in green condition declined from the lower to the upper portion. Figure 3 indicates the green and dry densities of B. vulgaris var. striata at different portions. The mean value of green density was 1.0 g/cm3 meanwhile the mean dry density was 0.89 g/cm3 . The density trend shows that both the green and dry densities decreased as the bamboo culms height increased. The bottom portion retained higher density due to the thicker bamboo culm wall as compared to the upper portion. Table 1 shows the summary result of the mechanical and physical properties of particleboard from B. vulgaris var. striata. The highest MOR (13.11 MPa) and MOE (2446.88 MPa) values were obtained from the board with 11% resin content without additional wax. The lowest values for MOR (6.29 MPa) and MOE (1849.54 MPa)

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Fig. 2 Green moisture content of B. vulgaris var. striata

100.00

93.11

84.30

76.41

80.00 (%)

59.53

60.00 40.00 20.00 0.00

Fig. 3 Density of B. vulgaris var. striata

1.20 1.00

Portion 1

1.04 0.92

Portion 2

1.00

0.90

Portion 3

1.00

0.89

Portion 4

0.99

0.85

g/cm³

0.80 0.60

Green

0.40

Dry

0.20 0.00

Portion 1 Portion 2 Portion 3 Portion 4

were from the board with 7% of resin content without additional wax. For internal bonding (IB), the highest value was 1.21 MPa and the lowest was 0.70 with 11% and 7% without additional wax, respectively. For the water absorption (WA) values, the highest was 92.03% which was the board with 7% without additional wax while the lowest was 71.96% from the board with 11% of resin content with additional wax. The lower percentage represents the better dimensional stability of the board. Therefore, the board with 11% resin content with 1% wax gave the best result of dimensional stability with the thickness swelling (TS) value at 29.09%. Based on Malaysian Standard, the mechanical properties show all boards met the IB strength requirement and met the minimum requirement of MOE, especially for boards of 7% and 11% of resin content for both without and with additional wax. However, all boards did not pass the minimum standard requirement for MOR and TS properties. Figure 4 indicates the effect of resin content on mechanical properties of particleboard from B. vulgaris var. striata. Increasing resin contents presented a significant effect on the entire board properties. The increase in resin amount from 7 to 11% based on percentage changes for MOR, MOE and IB were 53%, 21% and 48%, respectively. This shows that the increase of MOR and IB was about half of their original strength. The urea–formaldehyde resin must be spread uniformly on all the particles in the mixer to help good bonding between particles and also give better strength to the boards. The higher amount of resin is the main factor that influenced the

Effect of Wax at Different Resin Content Ratios on the Properties …

51

Table 1 Mechanical and physical properties of particleboard from B. vulgaris var. striata Additional wax Without wax

With 1% wax

Resin content (%) 7

Density (kg/m3 ) Target

Actual

MOR (MPa)

MOE (MPa)

IB (MPa)

650

648.84

6.29

1849.54

0.70

TS (%)

WA (%)

47.16

92.03

9

650

641.08

9.02

2024.20

0.93

37.44

81.99

11

650

650.02

13.10

2446.88

1.21

35.55

76.37

7

650

643.11

10.43

1984.77

0.77

45.98

89.96

9

650

642.51

12.17

2191.81

0.99

39.80

79.58

11

650

634.97

12.39

2184.65

0.96

29.09

71.96

>14

>2000

0.45

MOR Modulus of Rupture, MOE Modulus of Elasticity, IB Internal Bonding, TS Thickness Swelling, WA Water Absorption, n.a Non-applicable

bonding between adhesive and particles thus giving the high mechanical properties of particleboards (Ashori and Nourbakhsh 2008). With extra resin content existing, more bonding sites are made accordingly, thus upgrading the strength properties and reducing their dimensional stability, significantly. This occurred when the particles were incorporated better by adhesive bonding. Figure 5 indicates the effect of resin content on the physical properties of particleboard from B. vulgaris var. striata. TS and WA were improved when the resin content increased. It is because the inner parts of the particles were mostly covered by a higher amount of resin. Generally, the increase in resin content influences the thickness swelling of the boards. According to Li et al. (2015) bamboo particlepolylactic acid composites indicated that the water in composites could be kept in the cell walls, the cell lumens and the voids between the lignocellulose and polymer matrix, with water placed in the cell wall producing the huge dimensional change. It can be apparent that in the present research, most of the water was located mainly in the cell lumen and the voids. On the other hand, Papadopoulos et al. (2004) has been successful in using bamboo chips (B. vulgaris) as an alternative lignocellulosic 21.08b 23.15c 19.17a

25 20

MPa

Fig. 4 Effect of resin content towards mechanical properties of B. vulgaris var. striata Means with the same letter are not significantly different at α = 0.05

15

10.69ab 8.36a

12.75a

10 0.73a 0.96b 1.08c

5 0

MOR

MOE x 100 7%

9%

11%

IB

52

91.93b 80.95a

100.00

75.15a

80.00 60.00

45.66c

37.83b

%

Fig. 5 Effect of resin content towards physical properties of B. vulgaris var. striata Means with the same letter are not significantly different at α = 0.05

S. Z. Mahmud et al.

31.90a

40.00 20.00 0.00

TS

WA 7%

9%

11%

raw material to manufacture P3 one-layer particleboard using a relatively low resin dosage of 10% UF resin instead of a more stringent American National Standards Institute (ANSI) criteria, which required 14% UF resin and 1% wax to satisfy TS criteria. The effects of additional wax on mechanical and physical properties of particleboard from B. vulgaris var. striata will be discussed. Wax is used to confer a degree of water repellence on the board. It also causes the particleboards to have a smooth surface and which is easy to coat or laminate. The wax was added to produce the boards with some resistance to liquid in the water absorption process and moisture content. Figures 6 and 7 reveal the effects of 1% wax on the mechanical and physical properties of B. vulgaris var. striata particleboards. Additional 1% wax improved the mechanical and physical properties; however, the comparisons were not significantly different. According to Xu et al. (2009), the use of wax did not significantly influence water absorption and thickness swelling. They also had no negative effects on the mechanical properties. 21.06a 21.21a

25 20 MPa

Fig. 6 Effect of wax content towards mechanical properties of B. vulgaris var. striata Means with the same letter are not significantly different at α = 0.05

15

9.47a

11.67a

10 0.91a 0.94a

5 0

MOR

MOE x 100 Without wax

With wax

IB

Effect of Wax at Different Resin Content Ratios on the Properties … 85.46a

%

Fig. 7 Effect of wax content towards physical properties of B. vulgaris var. striata Means with the same letter are not significantly different at α = 0.05

53

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

40.05a

80.51a

38.29a

TS

WA Without wax

With wax

4 Conclusion This study was done to determine the mechanical and physical properties of particleboard made from B. vulgaris var. striata. Generally, it can be concluded that particleboard with 11% resin content without additional wax has resulted in the best properties. Apparently, all the boards exceeded the minimum requirement for IB. Meanwhile, all TS values did not exceed the minimum requirement for the MS standard. Additional resin content percentage has influenced significantly the mechanical and physical properties of the boards. The higher amount of resin increased the bonding force between particles and improved the adhesion performance. The additional 1% wax has improved the mechanical and physical properties of the boards because it helped to slow down the water penetration in particles, but the difference was not significant. In a further study, it is recommended to increase the board density and resin content to improve the mechanical and physical properties of bamboo particleboard. It is because higher density is usually associated with better mechanical and physical properties of the particleboards. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge Mieco Chipboard Berhad for supplying urea-formaldehyde resin and wax. The authors also would like to thank Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang Branch Malaysia for their permission to use equipment during this study.

References Amini MHM, Hashim R, Hiziroglu S, Sulaiman NS, Sulaiman O (2013) Properties of particleboard made from rubberwood using modified starch as binder. Compos B Eng 50:259–264 Ashori A, Nourbakhsh A (2008) Effect of press cycle time and resin content on physical and mechanical properties of particleboard panels made from the underutilized low-quality raw materials. Ind Crops Prod 28(2):225–230 Chaowana P (2013) Bamboo: an alternative raw material for wood and wood-based composites. J Mater Sci Res 2(2):90

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Clark LG, London X, Ruiz-Sanchez E (2015) Bamboo taxonomy and habitat. In: Liese W, Kohl ¨ M (eds) Bamboo: the plant and its uses, pp 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14133-6 Hashim R, Nadhari WNAW, Sulaiman O, Sato M, Hiziroglu S, Kawamura F, Tanaka R (2012) Properties of binderless particleboard panels manufactured from oil palm biomass. BioResources 7(1):1352–1365 Karlinasari L, Hermawan D, Maddu A, Martianto B, Lucky IK, Nugroho N, Hadi YS (2012) Acoustical properties of particleboards made from betung bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper) as building construction material. BioResources 7(4):5700–5709. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores. 7.4.5700-5709 Kasim J (2006) Properties of particleboard and thermoplastic board from buloh semantan (Gigantochloascortechinii). University Publication Centre (UPENA), Universiti Teknologi MARA, pp 46–59 Laemlaksakul V (2010) Physical and mechanical properties of particleboard from bamboo waste. World Acad Sci Eng Technol 64(4):561–565 Li DL, Wu JQ, Peng WX, Xiao WF, Wu JG, Zhuo JY, Sun RC (2015) Effect of lignin on bamboo biomass self-bonding during hot-pressing: lignin structure and characterization. BioResources 10(4):6769–6782. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.10.4.6769-6782 Li X (2004) Physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of bamboo and its utilization potential for fiberboard manufacturing. Master dissertation, Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://sch olar.google.com.my/&httpsredir=1&article=1865&context=gradschool_theses. Assessed 13 Jan 2018 Melo RRD, Stangerlin DM, Santana RRC, Pedrosa TD (2014) Physical and mechanical properties of particleboard manufactured from wood, bamboo and rice husk. Mater Res 17(3):682–686 MS 1787: Part 10 (2005) Wood-Based Panels-Determination of modulus of elasticity in bending and of bending strength. Malaysian Standard MS 1787: Part 11 (2005) Wood-Based Panels-Determination of tensile strength perpendicular to the plane of the panels. Malaysian Standard MS 1787: Part 6 (2005) Wood-Based Panels-Determination of swelling in thickness after immersion in water. Malaysian Standard Nazmul Alam DM, Rahman KS, Ratul SB, Sharmin A, Islam NM (2015) Properties of particleboard manufactured from commonly used bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) wastes in Bangladesh. Adv Res 4(3):203–211 Papadopoulos AN, Hill CAS, Gkaraveli A, Ntalos GA, Karastergiou SP (2004) Bamboo chips (Bambusa vulgaris) as an alternative lignocellulosic raw material for particleboard manufacture. HolzAlsRoh-Und Werkstoff 62(1):36–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-003-0447-9 Sulastiningsi IM, Nurwati, (2009) Physical and mechanical properties of laminated bamboo board. J Trop for Sci 21(3):246–251 Sumardi I, Ono K, Suzuki S (2007) Effect of board density and layer structure on the mechanical properties of bamboo oriented strand board. J Wood Sci 53(6):510–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10086-007-0893-9 Wu TL, Chien Y, Chen TY, Wu JH (2013) The influence of hot-press temperature and cooling rate on thermal and physicomechanical properties of bamboo particle-polylactic acid composites. Holzforschung 67(3):325–331. https://doi.org/10.1515/hf-2012-0087 Xu X, Yao F, Wu Q, Zhou D (2009) The influence of wax-sizing on dimension stability and mechanical properties of bagasse particleboard. Ind Crops Prod 29(1):80–85

Biology

A Preliminary Study on COD Reduction of Real Textile Wastewater Using Consortia of Acinetobacter sp. and Cellulosimicrobium sp. Nor Habibah Mohd Rosli, Wan Siti Atikah Wan Omar, and Wan Azlina Ahmad Abstract This preliminary work investigated the potential of microbial consortia consisting of A. baumannii, A. calcoaceticus and C. cellulans to reduce COD from real textile wastewater. The experiment was conducted using a batch process and under non-sterile conditions. For the screening of the experimental conditions, the effect of the initial pH of textile wastewater on COD reduction was observed at pH between 3 and 11 while the effect of the nutrient load was observed at an increasing concentration of nutrient broth ((v/v) 5%-30%). Then, the COD reduction study using consortia at different ratios was conducted. Results from the experimental screening conditions show that the COD removal was not significant despite different initial pH introduced in the culture and different concentrations of nutrient load. Both consortia, A and B, presented an excellent COD reduction capability with 96% and 98% removal, respectively. These findings supported that the consortia used were promising microbial to be used in the industrial treatment of textile wastewater by offering a low-cost and green treatment process. Keywords COD · Consortia · Reduction · Textile · Wastewater

1 Introduction Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is defined as the amount of oxygen required to oxidise carbon-containing matter immersed in water by harsh chemical conditions (Mahdavianpour et al. 2018). COD can be removed from the wastewater using precipitation process (coagulation) using coagulant and bio-flocculants (Lee and Chang 2018), oxidation process using oxidant agents like chlorine or hydrogen peroxide,

N. H. M. Rosli (B) · W. S. A. W. Omar Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang, Bandar Tun Abdul Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] W. A. Ahmad Faculty of Sciences, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_6

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advanced oxidation process by Fenton reaction (Dulov 2012) and the latest is filtration and adsorption with activated carbon and sludge (Xin et al. 2018) and microbial consumption (Mahdavianpour et al. 2018). The use of mixed microbial culture in the reduction of COD is previously focused on anaerobic digestion (Hwa 2010). The use of microorganisms is considered environment-friendly as it is organic and naturally decompose, thus allowing a balanced ecosystem through wastewater treatment. Nevertheless, screening of mixed bacteria and media usage in the process of treatment is considered costly. Isolation of microorganisms from the wastewater currently showed the characterisation of Acinetobacter baumannii in wastewater treatment plant (Higgins et al. 2018). In another study, the use of bacterium Acinetobacter sp. T1 found the reduction of 30% COD in piggery wastewater (Chen et al., 2019). In a more advanced approach of using a fixed-bed reactor, an immobilised Acinetobacter sp. TX5 with a spent mushroom substrate, the COD reduction was between 54 and 82%. Cellulosimicrobium cellulans was found able to reduce chromium ions at different percentages respect to different concentrations of the chromium (Bharagava and Mishra 2018). In hydrocarbon-degrading treatment capacities using the respective culture of Acinetobacter baumannii and Cellulosimicrobium cellulans, they were found to degrade diesel oil up to 95% (Nkem et al. 2016). Due to limited reports on the ability of Acinetobacter sp. and Cellulosimicrobium sp. as consortia in the treatment of textile wastewater, this preliminary study aims to investigate the potential of both microbial as consortia to reduce COD from textile wastewater at optimum nutrient load and pH. The minimum amount of medium and concentration would be a better solution for similar outcomes of COD reduction.

2 Methods 2.1 Materials In this experiment, the bacteria used were Acinetobacter baumannii (A.baumannii), Acinetobacter calcoaceticus genospecies 3 (A. calcoaceticus), and Cellulosimicrobium cellulans (C. cellulans). The textile wastewater was real wastewater collected from a local textile industry located in Negeri Sembilan. The wastewater was taken from the untreated wastewater pond and then stored at 4°C for further use. All the chemicals used were analytical grades (Merck).

2.2 Screening for Experimental Conditions The screening for experimental conditions was conducted to determine the optimum nutrient load and pH at which the consortia were able to reduce the COD of textile

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wastewater. The method used was adapted from (Krishnan and Valsa 2015) with a slight modification.

2.2.1

Nutrient Load

The mixed culture (10% inoculum) (v/v) was incubated in an Erlenmeyer flask (250 mL) containing textile wastewater without pH adjustment (pH of the wastewater was 9.23) and nutrient broth (NB) at increasing concentrations of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30 (% v/v). The mixture was incubated at room temperature, with constant shaking at 200 rpm for five days. At 24 h intervals, COD analysis was performed. The experiment was conducted under the non-sterile condition, and all samples were complemented with untreated textile wastewater as a control.

2.2.2

pH

The mixed culture (10% inoculum, v/v) was incubated in Erlenmeyer flask (250 mL) containing 5% (v/v) NB and 85% (v/v) textile wastewater at an adjusted pH of 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11. The mixtures were incubated at room temperature, with constant shaking at 200 rpm for 5 days. At 24 h intervals, the COD level was measured. The experiment was conducted under the non-sterile condition, and all samples were complemented with untreated textile wastewater as a control.

2.3 COD Reduction Using Bacteria Consortium at Different Ratios Results obtained in Sect. 2.2 were used to conduct a COD reduction study by bacteria consortium as described by Chaturvedi et al. (2006) with a slight adjustment. Consortia A and consortia B consist of A. baumannii, A. calcoaceticus, and C. cellulans at a ratio of 1:1:1 and 1:1:3, respectively. The consortia (10% inoculum) (v/v) separately were incubated in Erlenmeyer flask (250 mL) containing 85% (v/v) textile wastewater (pH unmodified) and 5% (v/v) nutrient broth at room temperature, with constant shaking at 200 rpm for 30 days. At seven days intervals, COD analysis was performed. All samples were complemented with untreated textile wastewater as control, and the experiments were conducted under non-sterile conditions.

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2.4 COD Analysis The COD analysis was performed using the closed reflux method as described by (Ajao et al. 2011) at 150 °C for two hours. The COD measurements were taken using a spectrophotometer (Hach DR/4000 U) at 400 nm.

2.5 Statistical Analysis All samples were done in duplicate. The data were expressed as means ± standard deviation using Microsoft Excel 2016. The significance of the results was evaluated using a one-way ANOVA test and paired-samples t-test (SPSS Statistic for Window).

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Screening for Experimental Conditions 3.1.1

Nutrient Load

Sufficient organic matter conditions are vital in the biological treatment process (Tang et al. 2018), where nutrients present in the culture medium provide the microbial cell with the ingredients required for the cell to reproduce (Madigan et al. 2000). In this work, NB was selected as the culture medium. The effect of NB concentration was studied for the reduction of COD from textile wastewater using Consortia A as the test culture. The NB concentrations were varied from 5 to 30% (v/v). As presented in Fig. 1, as NB concentration increased from 5 to 15%, the percentage of COD reduction decreased slightly, then at 20% and 30% of NB load, the reduction in COD was almost similar. The plateau might be due to substrate inhibition of microbial cellular enzymes (Chakraborty et al. 2015). A similar pattern was shown in a study done by (Mahdavianpour et al. 2018) where the percentage of COD reduction decreased when the concentration of p-cresol increased due to the increase in biomass concentration. One-way ANOVA test was performed to evaluate the effect of NB load on the level of COD reduction. The p-value obtained was 0.09 where it was higher than the significant level (p = 0.05). Therefore, the differences in the COD removal between the concentrations of the nutrient load were not significant. Due to a cost-effective measure, 5% of NB load was selected in the subsequent study.

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Fig. 1 COD reduction at different concentrations of nutrient broth

3.1.2

pH

In the process of COD reduction, one of the typical setups was the initial pH. The initial pH was considered the main factor for COD removal (Steuernagel et al. 2018). The initial pH of real textile wastewater used in this study was alkaline with a pH value of 9.23. The experiment was carried out by adjusting the pH values between 3 and 11. This stepwise pH inhibits the activities of methanogens and increases the activity of bacteria culture (Atasoy et al. 2018). Figure 2 shows the effect of the initial pH of textile wastewater on COD removal using consortia A as the test culture. As shown in the figure, the COD reduction capacity fluctuate from 39% up to 58% during the treatment. In the acidic condition of pH 5 and alkaline condition of pH 11, higher removal of COD level was observed compared to other pH values. Studies done by Qin et al. (2018) and Irfan et al. (2017) presented that a higher reduction rate of COD is observed under alkaline conditions. The research was reported on the effect of the initial pH in a biodigester using anaerobic microorganisms. In achieving the optimal removal of COD, the setup was suggested under the acidic condition of pH 6 (Dyan et al., 2015). In the treatment of wastewater using isolates of bacteria, yeasts and filamentous fungi, the initial pH should be adjusted according to the type of species (Rozitis and Strade 2015). This approach indicates that the consortia used in this study are capable of treating textile wastewater in a wide range of pH. The significance of the results was evaluated by performing a one-way ANOVA analysis. The p-value obtained was 0.50, which is higher than the significant level (p = 0.05). Therefore, the effect of pH on COD reduction was not noticeable. Due to this and to meet the green treatment strategy, the COD reduction study in the next section was done without pH adjustment.

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Fig. 2 COD reduction at different pH values

3.2 COD Reduction Using Bacteria Consortium at Different Ratios The results obtained in Sect. 3.1 were used to perform this study. Consortia A consisted of A. baumannii, A. calcoaceticus and C. cellulans) at a ratio of 1:1:1 whereas consortia B the ratio of C. cellulans was increased three times. Consortia B was proposed because C. cellulans is a facultative anaerobic bacterium whereby the other two are strictly aerobic bacteria. The different conditions of textile wastewater after certain times may affect the growth of the consortia (dos Santos et al. 2006). Thus, C. cellulans will predominate over the other two bacteria when the three microorganisms were used as a mixed culture in treating textile wastewater. Furthermore, the selection of bacteria in the consortium is vital to achieving a successful pollutant removal because they are competing for substrate (Ordaz-Díaz et al. 2014). As shown in Fig. 3, from day 7 to day 21, consortia B exhibited a slightly higher COD reduction compared to consortia A. It can be observed from day 21 to 30 the COD reduction percentage for both systems was nearly constant. After 30 days of the treatment period, consortia A and consortia B reduced the COD level by up to 96% and 98%, respectively. The result shows both consortia showed a less significant difference in the COD reduction even though consortia B consisted higher ratio of anaerobic bacteria. The reduction might be due to the metabolites released through the degradation of textile wastewater being recalcitrant and thus could not be mineralized under anaerobic conditions (Balapure et al. 2016). A study done by Hwa (2010) also presented that more than 90% of COD is removed by using mixed culture isolated from industrial waste. Bacteria consortium showed higher degradation ability compared to single culture bacteria due to co-metabolic activity within the microbial community complementing each other (Joshi et al. 2015).

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Fig. 3 Percentage of COD reduction by consortia A and consortia B

3.3 Paired t-Test Comparison A paired-samples t-test was conducted to compare the reductions of COD due to pH effect and nutrient load. There was no significant difference in the scores for percentage of COD removal by pH (M = 48.1, SD = 8.59) and percentage of COD removal by nutrient load (M = 50.4, SD = 6.47) conditions; t (9) = −0.648, p = 0.533. However, the other comparison of paired t-test between the COD reduction by pH and nutrient load versus the bacterium consortia ratio (M = 88.62, SD = 9.67); t (7) = −11.584, p = 0.000 has given a significant result. The statistics have proven the most significant factor in given the high percentage of COD removal was using the bacteria consortium, compared to the use of pH and nutrient load. These support that the consortia used in this study were a potential microbial to treat textile wastewater aligned with the aim to achieve an economical treatment process.

4 Conclusion The microbial consortia used in this preliminary study presented an excellent capability to reduce COD from real textile wastewater. The microorganisms, A. baumannii, A. calcoaceticus and C. cellulans can degrade chemicals component in a wide range of pH and nutrient load. Together with the consortia, other factors such as temperature, mixing and aeration are suggested for further study. An advanced experimental design like response surface methodology can recommend the optimum parameter and factors combination in achieving a green and cost-efficient textile wastewater treatment strategy.

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References Ajao AT, Adebayo GB, Yakubu SE (2011) Bioremediation of textile industrial effluent using mixed culture of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis immobilized on agar-agar in a Bioreactor. J Microbiol Biotech Res 1(3):50–56 Atasoy M, Owusu-Agyeman I, Plaza E, Cetecioglu Z (2018) Bio-based volatile fatty acid production and recovery from waste streams: current status and future challenges. Biores Technol 268:773– 786 Balapure K, Jain K, Bhatt N, Madamwar D (2016) International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation Exploring bioremediation strategies to enhance the mineralization of textile industrial wastewater through sequential anaerobic-microaerophilic process. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation 106:97– 105 Bharagava RN, Mishra S (2018) Hexavalent chromium reduction potential of Cellulosimicrobium sp. isolated from common effluent treatment plant of tannery industries. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 147:102–109 Chakraborty B, Ray L, Basu S (2015) Study of phenol biodegradation by an indigenous mixed consortium of bacteria. Indian J Chem Technol 22:227–233 Chaturvedi S, Chandra R, Rai V (2006) Isolation and characterization of Phragmites australis (L.) rhizosphere bacteria from contaminated site for bioremediation of colored distillery effluent. Ecological Eng 27(3):202–207 Chen S, He S, Wu C, Du D (2019) Characteristics of heterotrophic nitrification and aerobic denitrification bacterium Acinetobacter sp. T1 and its application for pig farm wastewater treatment. J Biosci Bioeng 127(2):201–205 dos Santos AB, de Madrid MP, de Bok FAM, Stams AJM, van Lier JB, Cervantes FJ (2006) The contribution of fermentative bacteria and methanogenic archaea to azo dye reduction by a thermophilic anaerobic consortium. Enzyme Microb Technol 39(1):38–46 Dulov A (2012) Advanced oxidation processes for the treatment of water and wastewater contaminated with refractory organic compounds. Dessertation thesis, Tallin University of Technology, TUT Press Dyan MO, Putra GP, Budiyono B, Sumardiono S, Kusworo TD (2015) The effect of pH and operation mode for COD removal of slaughterhouse wastewater with Anaerobic Batch Reactor (ABR). Waste Technol 3(1):7–13 Higgins PG, Hrenovic J, Seifert H, Dekic S (2018) Characterization of Acinetobacter baumannii from water and sludge line of secondary wastewater treatment plant. Water Res 140:261–267 Hwa OK (2010) Study of COD reduction by anaerobic digestion using mixed culture from industrial waste. Undergraduate thesis, University Malaysia Pahang, UMP IR Irfan M, Butt T, Imtiaz N, Abbas N, Khan RA, Shafique A (2017) The removal of COD, TSS and colour of black liquor by coagulation–flocculation process at optimized pH, settling and dosing rate. Arab J Chem 10:S2307–S2318 Joshi PA, Jaybhaye S, Mhatre K (2015) Biodegradation of dyes using consortium of bacterial strains isolated from textile effluent 5(7):36–40 Krishnan N, Valsa AK (2015) Biodegradation of lipid rich dairy effluent by bacterial consortium 9(9):16–20 Lee DJ, Chang YR (2018) Bioflocculants from isolated stains: a research update. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 87:211–215 Madigan MT, Martinko JM, Parker J (2000) Brock, biology of microorganism. Prentice Hall International, Inc., New Jersey Mahdavianpour M, Moussavi G, Farrokhi M (2018) Biodegradation and COD removal of p-Cresol in a denitrification baffled reactor: performance evaluation and microbial community. Process Biochem 69:153–160

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Nkem BM, Halimoon N, Yusoff FM, Johari WLW, Zakaria MP, Medipally SR, Kannan N (2016) Isolation, identification and diesel-oil biodegradation capacities of indigenous hydrocarbondegrading strains of Cellulosimicrobium cellulans and Acinetobacter baumannii from tarball at Terengganu beach, Malaysia. Mar Pollut Bull 107(1):261–268 Ordaz-Díaz LA, Rojas-Contreras JA, Rutiaga-Quiñones OM, Moreno-Jiménez MR, AlatristeMondragón F, Valle-Cervantes S (2014) Microorganism degradation efficiency in BOD analysis formulating a specific microbial consortium in a pulp and paper mill effluent. BioResources 9(4):7189–7197 Qin W, Fan F, Zhu Y, Huang X, Ding A, Liu X, Dou J (2018) Anaerobic biodegradation of benzo(a)pyrene by a novel Cellulosimicrobium cellulans CWS2 isolated from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-contaminated soil. Braz J Microbiol 49(2):258–268 Rozitis D, Strade E (2015) COD reduction ability of microorganisms isolated from highly loaded pharmaceutical wastewater pre-treatment process. J Mater Environ Sci 6(2):507–512 Steuernagel L, de Léon Gallegos EL, Azizan A, Dampmann AK, Azari M, Denecke M (2018) Availability of carbon sources on the ratio of nitrifying microbial biomass in an industrial activated sludge. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 129:133–140 Tang J, Wang XC, Hu Y, Pu Y, Huang J, Hao NH, Li Y (2018) Nitrogen removal enhancement using lactic acid fermentation products from food waste as external carbon sources: performance and microbial communities. Biores Technol 256:259–268 Xin X, He J, Li L, Qiu W (2018) Enzymes catalysing pre-hydrolysis facilitated the anaerobic fermentation of waste activated sludge with acidogenic and microbiological perspectives. Bioresour Technol 250:69–78

Environmental Science

Radon Gas Assessment of Selected Buildings at Universiti Teknologi MARA Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia Nur Sha’adah Zainuddin, Wan Nur Adila Wan Deraman, Hisyam Abdul Rahman, Mohd Ruzaini Rosli, Siti Fatimah Saipuddin, Fairuzdzah Ahmad Lothfy, Junaidah Md Sani, and Ahmad Saat Abstract Radon is a radioactive gas formed in the decay chains of uranium and thorium. Uranium and thorium are natural radionuclides that are ever present in the Earth’s crust, which form the raw materials of the building. Being radioactive, radon and its progenies emit high-energy alpha particles hence becoming the main percentage contributor to natural background radiation to humans. Thus, this research is focused on the background radiation exposures due to indoor irradiation as an effort to record the preliminary data on radiological risk to the population in UiTM Jengka. Assessment of indoor radon concentration and annual effective dose at selected buildings in UiTM Jengka have been recorded since no such data is available, which started the establishment of the campus in 1993. Assessment of indoor radon concentration and annual effective dose at selected buildings UiTM Jengka was carried out by using solid-state nuclear track detector (CR-39). The radon track detectors were left for about a month in selected buildings and places frequented and occupied by students and staff of UiTM Pahang. The track detectors were then etched and analyzed to determine the radon concentration of the selected location. The range of the indoor radon concentration for all places was 7.42–30.12 Bqm−3 with an average of 15.80 ± 8.66 Bqm−3 . The average annual effective dose was found to be 0.40 ± 0.22 mSvy−1 and varies from 0.19 to 0.76 mSvy−1 . Whereas the excess lifetime cancer N. S. Zainuddin (B) · W. N. A. Wan Deraman · H. A. Rahman · M. R. Rosli · S. F. Saipuddin · F. A. Lothfy · J. M. Sani Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang, Bandar Tun Abdul Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] S. F. Saipuddin e-mail: [email protected] F. A. Lothfy e-mail: [email protected] J. M. Sani e-mail: [email protected] A. Saat Institute of Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, Shah Alam, Malaysia Faculty of Applied Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam, Shah Alam, Malaysia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_7

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risk (ELCR) UiTM Jengka was found to vary from 0.07 to 0.29%. A building that represented residential, college, classroom, office, and laboratory being below the permissible limit for average indoor radon concentration is about 48 Bqm−3 , the world’s average annual effective was 3–10 mSvy−1 and ELCR limit is 1.3%, respectively. The results indicated that radiological risk is due to radon in this study area is considered safe. Keywords Cancer risk · CR-39 · Jengka · Radon

1 Introduction Natural background radiations are mostly exposed to humans in daily life from cosmic radiation and terrestrial radiation. Cosmic radiation mostly affects humans depending on the altitude (UNSCEAR 2000a, b). Whereas terrestrial radiation comes from the Naturally Occurring Radionuclides (NORMS) that are mostly present in the earth’s crust. NORMS,238U, 232Th, and 40 K are commonly abundant in the igneous rocks and phosphate rocks (Ramli et al. 2005; Lee et al. 2009). The decay chain of Uranium gives the daughter of 226Ra and then contributes Radon (222Rn) which is present in the environment in the state of gas (Gandolfo et al. 2017; Baeza et al. 2018). One of the contributions to indoor radon concentration comes from the material’s building itself, cracks or space of the building, from the shower as well as from well water (Borgoni et al. 2014). Most of the materials used for the building included sand brick, clay brick, black cement, white cement, and gray cement which also could contribute to the indoor radon concentrations inside the building (Lu et al. 2014; Baeza et al. 2018). It is stated that 80% of daily indoor activity have spent by a human than outdoor which is the urge for assessing the radiological risk, especially for indoor radon concentration (Matiullah and Muhammad 2012; Pillai et al. 2017). Mostly, the public spend most of their daily time in indoor activities, thus assessing the indoor radon level by a certain perimeter is necessary. Radon is the form of radioactive gas that contribute to the largest portion of external exposure to the environment, which is half of the radiation dose receive by the public (Kandari et al. 2015). The knowledge of radon is important for assessing the effects of radiological risks that would be faced by human (UNSCEAR 2000a, b). Radon is a form of inert gas and its decay product of high-energy alpha particles is easily deposited in the respiratory tract especially in the lungs once it is inhaled. The lung is one of the radiosensitive cells that would be a high risk of lung cancer (Rubin and Casarett 1968). Radon is also known as the second cause of lung cancer besides tobacco smoke (WHO 2009; Baeza et al. 2018).

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Fig. 1 Chosen building for radon detector placement

2 Materials and Method 2.1 Sampling Points The placement of CR-39 particularly marked where the location is safe and easy to monitor daily, which is one meter from the surface floor. Selection of sampling point was made based on a geographical basis and randomly of the building as shown in Fig. 1 (Matiullah and Muhammad 2012; Takada et al. 2014). Table 1 shows the description of the placement of CR-39 according to the category of building.

2.2 Preparation of CR-39 A passive method is used for monitoring indoor 222Ra concentration for at least one month for 10 points of the different buildings, respectively. The sealed cup is used to place the CR-39 (1 cm × 1 cm) inside and a hole is made at the lid of the sealed cup. Radon gas was trapped by covering a slightly thin sponge of 0.5 mm thickness from unwanted particulate through the lid. Approximately after a month, CR-39 was then collected and etched using 6 M NaOH solution at about 70 °C for 5 h and then rinsed for 1 h with flowing water (Maged and Ashraf 2005). The tracks of Radon have been observed under a microscope with 40X magnification for further analysis.

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Table 1 Description of the sampling point according to the building category Code

Latitude N

Longitude E

Category

Building year

A1

3°45' 35”

102°33' 27”

Residential

1993–2000

A2

3°45' 42”

102°33' 30”

Residential

1993–2000

KT1

3°45' 23”

102°33' 28”

College

2000–2016

KT2

3°45' 7”

102°33' 59”

College

2000–2016

M1

3°45' 28”

102°33' 46”

Laboratory

1993–2000

M2

3°45' 22”

102°33' 32”

Laboratory

1993–2000

C1

3°45' 24”

102°33' 48”

Classroom

2000–2016

C2

3°45' 23”

102°33' 08”

Classroom

2000–2016

O1

3°45' 24”

102°33' 55”

Office

1993–2000

O2

3°45' 21”

102°33' 58”

Office

1993–2000

2.3 Radiological Risk Assessment From the registration of radon tracks on CR-39, the indoor radon concentration, Ca were then analyzed to the following relations (Khan et al. 2012): track density (ρ) =

average number of total tracks area of field view

(1)

Ca = ρ.F

(2)

where ρ is track density frequency by considering 30 days exposure time (tracks/mm2 ) and F is a standard soil constant per track (Bq/m3 )/tracks/cm2 day). Besides, the annual effective dose is a limitation equivalent dose for the whole body as one of a radiological protection quantity to the induction of stochastic effects of radiation. That limit dose can be related to the following equation (Al- Saleh 2007). E =C×F×H×T×D

(3)

where E is an annual effective dose (mSvy−1 ), C is an indoor radon concentration, F is an equilibrium factor (0.4), H is an occupancy factor (0.8), T is a hours in a year (8760 hy−1 ), and D is a conversion factor (9.0 × 10–6 mSvBqm−3 h−1 ).

2.4 Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk To correlate the standard data of radiological risk of the pollution reported in EPA, the assessment of excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) is reported by using the equation

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as follows: ELCR = E × T × RF

(4)

where E is the annual effective dose, T is the average life expectancy, which is about 75 years in Malaysia and RF is the fatal cancer risk per Sievert, which is about 5.5 × 10–2 Sv−1 as recommended by ICRP (Sherafat et al. 2019).

3 Results and Discussion All the samples were placed in buildings within the vicinity of UiTM Jengka identified as residential, college, classroom, and office building in order to assess the radiological risk based on radon concentration and annual effective dose. Since CR39 is very sensitive to alpha particles and left the track registrations on it, physically the thickness of CR39 probably varies from pristine last until etched (Rana 2012; Sha et al. 2014).

3.1 Indoor Radon Concentrations, Ca The risk of indoor radon exposure is based on the level of radon concentrations accumulated in a certain space of that area. Overall, the indoor radon concentrations at selected buildings are represented in Table 2. The radon concentration varies from 7.42–30.12 Bqm−3 respectively. As compared to the building category (Fig. 2), the highest reading of the indoor radon concentration is mainly from the college category around 30.12 ± 11.35 Bqm−3 at point KT1 with an average of 20.95 ± 12.96 Bqm−3 Whereas, the lowest reading from laboratory category is 7.42 ± 2.07 Bqm−3 at point M1. At point KT1, it is recorded as the highest reading among the other category due to their position nearest to the first floor than KT2 which is around 11.79 ± 11.35 Bqm−3 at the higher level. Thus, it concluded that the floor that is nearest to the ground floor gives significant indoor radon concentration than the higher floors (Borgoni et al. 2014). Other than that, radon itself behave as heavier than air that tends to assimilate to the lowest level as much in a certain area or building (Sherafat et al. 2019). Whereas, categories for residential, college, classroom, office, and laboratory recorded indoor radon concentration with an average of 18.12 ± 8.95 Bqm−3 , 20.95 ± 12.96 Bqm−3 , 19.42 ± 13.89 Bqm−3 , 10.91 ± 3.09 Bqm−3 , and 9.60 ± 3.09 Bqm−3 respectively. It is observed that there is no average indoor radiation concentration above the action levels recommended by ICRP that is about 48 Bqm−3 (ICRP 2010).

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Table 2 Indoor radon concentration, annual effective dose, and excess lifetime cancer risk (%) Category

Code

Indoor Radon concentration (Bqm−3 )

Annual effective dose(mSvy−1 )

ELCR

Residential

A1

24.44 ± 7.47

0.62 ± 0.19

2.37 × 10−3

A2

11.79 ± 2.78

0.30 ± 0.07

1.14 × 10−3

KT1

30.12 ± 11.35

0.76 ± 0.29

2.93 × 10−3

KT2

11.79 ± 4.12

0.29 ± 0.10

1.14 × 10−3

M1

7.42 ± 2.07

0.19 ± 0.05

7.21 × 10−4

M2

11.79 ± 4.97

0.30 ± 0.13

1.14 × 10−3

C1

9.60 ± 2.74

0.24 ± 0.07

9.33 × 10−4

C2

29.25 ± 7.54

0.74 ± 0.19

2.84 × 10−3

O1

13.10 ± 2.47

0.33 ± 0.06

1.27 × 10−3

O2

8.73 ± 2.66

0.22 ± 0.07

8.48 × 10−4

Average

15.80 ± 8.66

0.40 ± 0.22

1.53 × 10−3

Range

7.42–30.12

0.19–0.76

7.21 × 10−4 -

College Laboratory Classroom Office

2.93 × 10−3 World’s average

48

3–10

0.15% (USEPA Action Limit)

3.2 Annual Effective Dose The annual effective dose is known as the average of the equivalent absorbed dose received by a human. The annual effective dose for all selected buildings is represented in Table 2 varying from 0.19 to 0.76 mSvy−1 with an average of 0.40 ± 0.22 mSvy−1 . Based on a comparison among the categories, the college category recorded the highest reading about 0.76 ± 0.29 mSvy−1 at point KT1. Whereas the laboratory category recorded the lowest reading of annual effective dose at about 0.19 ± 0.05 mSvy−1 at point M1. Overall, the average of annual effective dose for other categories such as residential, college, classroom, office, and laboratory were recorded as 0.46 ± 0.23 mSvy−1 , 0.53 ± 0.33 mSvy−1 , 0.49 ± 0.35 mSvy−1 , 0.28 ± 0.08 mSvy−1 , and 0.24 ± 0.08 mSvy−1 , respectively. The risk will be faced by the public surrounding, which is still below the lower range value for action level of 3–10 mSvy−1 as recommended by the International Commission on Radiation Protection ICRP (UNSCEAR 2000a, b; ICRP 2010). Thus, all the places that have been monitored in the perimeter of UiTM Pahang are still the safe area to stay but make sure to consider the good air ventilation and free from radium-rich materials of the building (Pillai et al. 2017).

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3.3 Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk (ELCR) Basically, the long-term effect of the radiation is assumed to have some risk of cancer. Excess lifetime cancer risk is an additional risk that could all people to have the risk of getting cancer-causing materials for a long-time exposure (Qureshi et al. 2014). Based upon the calculated values of the annual effective doses and using Eq. 4, excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) for indoor radon exposure varies as shown in Fig. 2. ELCR for indoor radon exposure among the category building ranged from 7.21 × 10−4 to 2.93 × 10−3 with an average value of 1.53 × 10−3 . The building category which tends to the excessive lifetime cancer risk is located at point KT1. However, the ELCR in the selected building at UiTM Jengka was found to be 0.153/100 people which is small as compared to the action level of USEPA with the estimated risk of 1.3% with exposure to radon of 148 Bqm−3 for the entire population (Sherafat et al. 2019). Variations of these buildings mostly have been established and built in the year 1993 until 2016. As shown in Fig. 2, the trend of the indoor radon concentration and annual effective dose varies with the category of buildings that were built from the year 2000 until 2016. The trend for this variation shows that the latest building settlement has higher trends for the radon concentrations and annual effective dose. According to Tawfiq et al. (2015), most of the materials that are commonly used in the new building are made up of ceramic which is a high potential source of radon that emerged from the decay of thorium and uranium in materials. Based on Table 3, a comparison has been reported for the other locations of the world. A comparison with data recorded stated that UiTM Jengka is still in the range

Fig. 2 Variations of the radiological assessment based on the building category

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Table 3 Summary of mean Radon Concentration, Annual Effective Dose, and excess lifetime cancer risk (%) in different places. Places

Mean indoor Radon concentration (Bqm−3 )

Annual effective dose (mSvy−1 )

ELCR (%)

References

Iraq

89

2.11

–

Battawy et al. (2016)

Egypt

33.69

0.16

–

Harb (2015)

Saudi Arabia

30.80

0.79

0.44

Amin (2015)

Permissible limit EPA

148

20

1.3

USEPA Action Limit

UiTM Jengka

15.80

0.40

0.15

Present study

of the safe limit for mean indoor radon concentration which is the lowest reading as compared to Iraq (89 Bqm−3 ), Egypt (33.69 Bqm−3 ), and Saudi Arabia (30.80 Bqm−3 ). Whereas, for the average annual effective dose, UiTM Jengka is still at safe level which is in the range of 0.27 mSvy−1 as compared to Iraq (2.11 mSvy−1 ), Egypt (0.16 mSvy−1 ), and Saudi Arabia (0.79 mSvy−1 ). Excess lifetime cancer risk in UiTM Jengka is in the range of 0.07% to 0.29%. The mean excess lifetime cancer risk is considered low as compared to the permissible limit of around 1.3% and in Saudi Arabia (0.44%).

4 Conclusion Indoor radon concentration has been monitored in the perimeter of UiTM Pahang Campus Jengka for one month. Overall, all the samples were monitored and categorized according to residential, college, classroom, office, and laboratory. The indoor radon concentration is on average 15.80 ± 8.66 Bqm−3 which varies from 7.42 to 30.12 Bqm−3 . Whereas the annual effective dose varies from 0.19 to 0.76 mSvy−1 with an average of 0.40 ± 0.22 mSvy−1 . The excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) UiTM Jengka is recorded with a mean reading of 0.15%. Based on a comparison between the categories, college category recorded the highest reading of radiological risk as compared to the laboratory category which is the lowest. This radon behavior is attributed mostly to geological condition of the buildings. Acknowledgements The author acknowledged the support provided by the residents of the study area during the fieldwork at Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Pahang and providing facilities for analysis at Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam.

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References Al- Saleh FS (2007) Measurements of indoor gamma radiation and radon concentrations in dwellings of Riyah city, Saudi Arabia. Appl Radiat Isotopes 65(7):843–848 Amin RM (2015) Asessesment of concentration and exposure doses due to radon by using CR-39 plastic track detectors in the dwellings of Saudi Arabia. Adv Appl Sci Res 6(7):42–48 Baeza A, Garcia-Paniagua J, Guillen J, Montalban B (2018) Influence of architectural style on indoor radon concentration in a radon prone area: a case study. Sci Total Environ 610:258–266 Battawy AA, Tawfiq NF, Najam LA, Jaafar MS, Mustafa IS (2016). Indoor radom concentration measurement in different iraq radiation locations, IX (1):1–7 Borgoni R, De Francesco D, De Bartolo D, Tzavidis N (2014) Hierarchical modelling of indoor radon concentration: how much do geology and building factors matter? J Environ Radioact 138:227–237 Gandolfo G, Lepore L, Pepperosa A, Remetti R, Franci D (2017) Radiation protection considerations on radon and building materials radioactivity in Near Zero Energy Buildings. Energy Procedia 140:13–22 Harb S (2015) Measurements level of Radon-222 in some houses by using SSNTDs in Qena city. Egypt 1:19–23 ICRP (2010) International Commission on Radiological Protection. Lung cancer risk from radon and progeny and statement on radon. Annals of ICRP (ICRP Publication 114): 23–24 Kandari T, Aswal S, Prakash M, Bouri AA, Ramola R (2015) Estimation of annual effective dose from radon concentration along Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in Garhwal Himalaya. J Radiat Res Appl Sci 9(3):228–233 Khan MSA, Tariq M, Rawat RBS (2012) Preliminary measurements of radon radiations in ‘Bare Mode’ in Rampur District of Western UP (India). IOSR J Appl Phys 1(4):4 Lee SK, Wagiran H, Ramli AT, Apriantoro NH, Wood (2009) Radiological monitoring: terrestrial natural radionuclides in Kinta District, Perak, Malaysia. J Environ Radioact 100(5):368–374 Lu X, Chao S, Yang F (2014) Determination of natural radioactivity and associated radiation hazard in building materials used in Weinan, China. Radiat Phys Chem 99:62–67 Maged AF, Ashraf FA (2005) Radon exhalation rate of some building materials used in Egypt. Environ Geochem Health 27(5–6):485–489 Matiullah FM, Muhammad R (2012) Indoor radon monitoring near an in situ leach mining site in D G Khan, Pakistan. J Radiol Prot 32:427–437 Pillai GS, Hameed PS, Chandrasekaran S, Sivasubramanian K, Baskaran R, Venkatraman B (2017) Indoor radon (222Rn) and thoron (220Rn) measurements and assessment of human risk in the dwellings of Tiruchirappalli city (Tamil Nadu, India). Chem Data Collect 9:197–207 Qureshi AA, Tariq S, Din K, Manzoor S, Calligaris C, Waheed A (2014) Evaluation of excessive lifetime cancer risk due to natural radioactivity in the rivers sediments of Northern Pakistan. J Radiarion Res Appl Sci 7(4):438–447 Ramli AT, Hussien AWM, Wood AK (2005) Environmental 238U and 232Th concentration measurements in an area of high level natural background radiation at Palong, Johor, Malaysia. J Environ Radioact 80(3):287–304 Rana MA (2012) Swelling and structure of radiation induced near-surface damage in CR-39 and its chemical etching. Radiaton Meas 47(1):50–56 Rubin P, Casarett GW (1968) Clinical radiation pathology as applied to curative radiotheraphy. Cancer 22(4):767–778 Sha Z, Iskandar SM, Azhar AR, Suhaimi M, Lina R, Halimah M (2014) UV-VIS Spectral evaluation of CR-39 detector exposed with diagnostic dosage. Sains Malaysiana 43(6):953–958 Sherafat S, Mansour SN, Mosaferi M, Aminisani N, Yousefi Z, Maleki S (2019) First indoor radon mapping and assessment excess lifetime cancer risk in Iran. MethodsX 6:2205–2216 Takada M, Kamada S, Yajima K, Iwaoka K, Enomoto H, Tabe H, Sugiura N (2014) Measurement of radiation environment inside residential houses in radioactive contaminated areas due to the Fukhushima nuclear accident. Prog Nuclear Sci Technol 4:43–46

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Tawfiq NFR, Noora OA, Asmaa A (2015) Measurement of indoor Radon Concentration in various dwellings of Baghdad. Iraq 3(5):202–207 UNSCEAR (2000a) Radiation sources and Effects of ionizing radiation (New York: USA: United Nations. Report of the United Scientific Committee on the Effect of Atomic Radiation to General Assembly), pp 84–85 UNSCEAR (2000b) United nations scientific committee on the effects of atomic radiations. Report to the general assembly. Sources and effects of ionizing radiation, United nations, New York, 2000b, vol I, pp 92–93 WHO (2009) World health organization. A public health perspective, WHO Press, Geneva, WHO handbook on indoor radon

Engineering

Parking System Using Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) Technology Neo Wei Sheng, Wan Mariam Wan Muda, Ahmad Zaki Annuar, and Wan Hafiza Wan Hassan

Abstract The fast pace development of the national economy and living standards have triggered the rapid growth of vehicles in recent years. Thus, searching for available parking spaces becomes a daily challenge for most drivers. The problem is getting worse in the open space parking area in public places such as hospitals and university; when unauthorized vehicles (patients and students) dominate the spaces that are initially allocated for their staff (doctors and lecturers). Consequently, this unwanted scenario may affect productivity, as the doctors will be late for their appointment with the patients while the lecturers are late for their lectures. The aim of the proposed work is to develop the prototype of a smart parking management system, which is capable to identify the number of available spaces and detect any attempt of illegal parking. The system used radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology to identify the authorized driver. A barrier gate (motor) remains closed and the buzzer is activated if the RFID reader unable to identify the identity of the incoming vehicle. In addition, light-dependent resistors (LDR) are used to detect the presence of a vehicle in parking spaces. As a result, the number of available parking spaces is continuously updated and displayed on 7-segment display at the main parking entrance. Thus, the proposed parking system using RFID technology is an effective system to control illegal parking users as well as to reduce the searching time for available parking spaces. In the future, the system can be upgraded with the

N. W. Sheng · W. M. Wan Muda · A. Z. Annuar · W. H. Wan Hassan (B) Faculty of Ocean Engineering Technology and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. W. Sheng e-mail: [email protected] W. M. Wan Muda e-mail: [email protected] A. Z. Annuar e-mail: [email protected] N. W. Sheng Icontrol Solutions Pte Ltd, Primz Bizhub, Singapore © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_8

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internet of things (IoT) features that enable the users to get information on a parking slot through their mobile devices. Keywords Arduino · Parking system · RFID · Security feature · Tracking

1 Introduction Parking problem has been identified as one of the key causes of traffic congestion, driver frustration, wasting fuel and time, and air pollution (Hassoune et al. 2016; Qamas et al. 2018; Diya and Binsu 2018). Most of the time people spend their precious time searching for parking lots to park their vehicles due to insufficient parking spaces, particularly during peak hours. Vehicle congestion in urban areas causes drivers to illegally park their vehicles in reserved parking spaces (Basavaraju 2015). The same problem happens in Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, where the students illegally park in the parking spaces allocated for staff. Although some precautionary steps have been taken to prevent students from parking illegally, such as penalty, the problem is still unsolved. Numerous works have been proposed in the literature to find potential solutions to efficiently manage the parking system. The survey in Faheem et al. (2013) has grouped them into six categories: (i) GPS-based system as worked by Chon et al. (2002), (ii) expert system as proposed by Krzysztof (2018), (iii) fuzzy logic based system as suggested in Diya and Binsu (2018), (iv) vehicular communication systems as in Rongxing et al. (2010), and (v) wireless sensor based system which includes Global System for Mobile communication (GSM), ZigBee, Bluetooth, and radiofrequency identification (RFID) technology. Among those six groups, wireless sensor based system is very suitable for small parking spaces on campus and inside a building as it is cheap and has low power consumption. Rahayu and Mustapa (2013) used GSM technology to secure a parking space. A password is provided and sent through the GSM network to the driver who makes the parking reservation in order to enter and exit the parking. However, the password receiving process may incur some delay if the GSM network is congested. Further, Priyangka et al. (2015) also used GSM together with GPRS technology to provide text messaging based Parking Reservation System. The aim of the study is to produce a cheap and simple methodology framework for vehicle reservation for car parking slots. A parking management system developed using GSM/GPRS technology makes use of a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). However, due to the error inputs produced by its wireless sensors that cause by environmental factors such as an outside temperature, the controller within the system tends to put error into the system. The work of Yee and Rahayu (2014) proposed an infrared sensor to detect the presence of a vehicle and ZigBee technology to communicate with the user. In comparison to the earlier work by Priyangka et al. (2015), the system reduces the searching time but the user cannot make any parking reservation. Patil and Bhonge (2013) also

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used ZigBee in their proposed system together with RFID to monitor and manage the parking system. On contrary, Singh et al. (2014) proposed an automated parking system with Bluetooth access. The automation is performed with the help of a microcontroller which controls the mechanical motor to park the vehicle at an appropriate parking location without the intervention of the driver. Bluetooth technology is used as a communication medium to eliminate the use of tokens or paper bills for parking payments. Despite the fact that the system is fully automated, a deadlock situation may occur if several vehicles arrive simultaneously due to a single entry and exit point. Recent advancements in parking systems employed internet of things (IoT) to enable users to find the nearest and available parking slot (Basavaraju 2015; Gandhi and Rao 2016). IoT maintains a database of parked vehicles through a shared server to store information about the availability of parking slots. An innovative electronic parking payment system has been proposed by Pala and Nihat (2008) and Dorjee et al. (2016) using the RFID approach. An RFID tag is used as a parking ticket, which provides an efficient alternative to coin-operated meters, which reduces ticket-jamming problems. Despite numerous researches on wireless sensor based system, a minimum of them focuses on illegal parking space. As such, Christina and Constantinos (2012) analyzed illegal parking behavior in Greece. They suggested the authorities establish certain regulations for controlled illegal parking. Another research on illegal parking has been done in Hanoi, Vietnam, by Truong and Hanno (2017). They proposed a new concept of para-parking which involve developing a new parking space. This concept is suitable for a city but not on campus. In addition, Kumar et al. (2017) proposed a conventional parking system using RFID and GSM technologies that provide safety for the vehicles from theft. It is operated by informing an authorized member if there is a suspicious activity nearby the vehicles through SMS. This work had clearly shown that the simple but reliable car parking system can be developed using a flexible secure framework. In summary, the presented previous studies had shown several technologies implemented in the parking system. It is concluded that the RFID is preferred for its simplicity and can play important role in a tracking system for security purposes. The review also promotes the development robust, efficient, and reliable parking system that is able to manage the traffic in the parking area with a much simpler operating system. Therefore, this paper proposed a smart parking management system, which is capable to identify the number of available spaces and detect any attempt of illegal parking. Relative to similar works done (Shaobo and Shibao 2012; Archika et al. 2018; Asmita et al. 2015), our proposed system has a security feature that allows only vehicles with a valid RFID tag to enter the parking area by incorporating RFID technology with Arduino Uno as the controller. Besides, the system is expected to have high accuracy and a fast operating algorithm that is able to quickly identify the number of available parking spaces.

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Fig. 1 Framework of the proposed system

2 Materials and Method This section explains the design of the proposed system and its operation. Figure 1 shows the framework of the proposed system. Arduino Uno is used as a processor to control the whole system (Arduino 2017). Relative to other controllers, Arduino is less complex and yet flexible to be used in any kind of environment for human-tomachine and machine-to-machine interaction. RFID technology is employed in this work because it allows auto-identification using radio frequencies from a distance without requiring a line of sight and is often small in size. It consists of a reader and a tag by which the reader contains an integrated chip and antenna. The antenna detects the information from the tag and sends the information to the host computer in a fast and easy way (Want 2006; Dorjee et al. 2016). In this work, the RFID tag is required to be installed in the authorized vehicle as the security feature of the parking system, and an RFID reader is used to identify the valid RFID tag. A 7-segment display is used as a digital counter to display the number of available parking lots. Servo motor is used as a miniature barrier gate to control the flow of vehicles. Buzzer resembles the alarm which is activated when any illegal user tries to access the parking area.

3 Results and Discussion The proposed parking system can be divided into two subsystems, namely vehicle identification system and vehicle detection system. Figure 2 shows the flowchart of the identification system, which is designed to identify the legal and illegal drivers. The RFID reader is activated if there is any presence of a vehicle with an RFID tag. The gate is automatically opened if the identification of the RFID tag matched the number stored in the system. In contrast, the buzzer is triggered and the gate remains

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Fig. 2 Flowchart for vehicle identification system

closed if the presence of an invalid RFID tag is detected. In addition, the gate remains closed when there is no available parking space. Figure 3 shows the flowchart of the detection system for vehicles. This system is designed to automatically count the number of available parking spaces. The number of parking spaces is detected by the LDR sensor, and the number of available parking spaces is displayed at the 7-segment display at the entry of the parking system. When the presence of a vehicle is detected by the LDR sensor, then the amount of available parking space is decreased by 1. When the vehicle leaves the parking space detected by the LDR sensor, then the amount of available parking space is increased by 1. Figure 4 shows the overall system of a smart parking system using RFID technology. It is realized by integrating all the subsystems including the identification system, parking system, and vehicle detection system using Arduino as a controller to ensure all the subsystems can function simultaneously. The system is then evaluated by using a miniature car embedded with an RFID tag to resemble the real prototype of the proposed system. A servo motor was set up as a barrier gate in the circuit. If any valid RFID tag was read by the RFID reader, then the barrier gate is opened. Figure 4 shows the barrier gate opened when there is the presence of a valid RFID tag. If an invalid RFID tag was read by the RFID reader, then the buzzer is triggered and the gate remains closed. This function allows the parking system to remain secure from illegal drivers. Figure 5 shows the valid RFID tag is detected by the prototype parking system. Figure 6 shows the LED was used to indicate the buzzer was triggered. Servo motor was programmed to function as a barrier gate that rotates 90 degrees clockwise when open and 90 degrees anticlockwise when closed.

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Fig. 3 Flowchart for the vehicle detection system

Further, an LDR sensor is used to detect the presence of a vehicle in the parking space and a 7-segment display is used to display the number of parking spaces available at the entry of the parking area. Figure 7 shows the number of available parking spaces displayed in the 7-segment display. When there is any presence of a vehicle detected by the LDR sensor on the parking space, the number of available parking spaces on the 7-segment display will decrease by 1. Figure 8 shows the decrease in the number of available parking spaces when there is any presence of a vehicle. The number display at the 7-segment display was programmed by using Arduino to display the number of available parking spaces.

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Fig. 4 Completed Smart Parking System with RFID technology

Fig. 5 Barrier gate opened when there is the presence of a valid RFID tag

4 Conclusion Parking system using Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) technology is proposed to solve the problem of illegal parking and limited information on the amount of available parking space. The proposed prototype’s controller successfully manages several Arduino’s general-purpose input–output (GPIO) pins that control the external circuitry through integrated electrical connectors, which function to carry the tasks of the effective vehicle parking system. The system possesses a security feature involving an RFID tag reader that is connected to the Arduino RFID module which only allows authorized users to enter the parking area. The number of available parking spaces is shown at the entrance of the parking lot using a 7-segment display

88 Fig. 6 LED was used to indicate the buzzer triggered

Fig. 7 Number of available parking spaces display at the 7-segment display

Fig. 8 Decrease in number of available parking spaces when there is any presence of vehicle

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and the presence of the vehicles is detected by an LDR sensor installed in each parking lot. This information is very important for vehicle users in order to find a free parking space. The system can be further improved by introducing the internet of things (IoT) module, which is capable to maintain the database of the authorized users and the availability of the parking lots through a shared server that can be accessed by users from any location by means of an internet connection. Acknowledgements This work is completed with the support of the School of Ocean Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu and financially supported by UMT/TPM/68007/2016/76.

References Arduino, Access the Online IDE (2017), https://www.arduino.cc/en/Main/Software. 15 January 2019 Archika S, Mumin SS, Shikha B, Nidhi G, Anupama M (2018) RFID and HDL based pre-paid car parking system, second international conference on electronics, communication and aerospace technology (ICECA), pp 1117–1120 Asmita J, Gautami D, Samadhan S (2015) OCR and RFID enabled vehicle identification and parking allocation system. In: International conference on pervasive computing (ICPC), pp 1–4. Basavaraju SR (2015) Automatic parking system using internet of things (IOT). Int J Sci Res Publ 5(12):629–632 Chon HD, Agrawal D, Abbadi AE (2002) APA: Nearest available parking lot application. In: 18th International conference on data engineering, pp 496–497 Christina S, Constantinos A (2012) Analysis of illegal parking behaviour in Greece. Transp Res Arena 48:1622–1631 Diya T, Binsu C (2018) A genetic algorithm approach to autonomous smart vehicle parking system. Proced Comput Sci 125:68–76 Dorjee K, Rasaily D, Cintury B (2016) RFID-based automatic vehicle parking system using microcontroller. Int J Eng Trends Technol 32(4):191–194 Faheem MSA, Khan GM, Rahman M, Zafar H (2013) A survey of intelligent car parking system. J Appl Res Technol 11(5):714–726 Gandhi BMK, Rao MK (2016) A prototype for iOT based car parking management system for smart cities. Indian J Sci Technol 9(17):1–6 Hassoune K, Dachry W, Moutaouakkil F, Medromi H (2016) Smart parking systems: a survey. In: 11th International conference on in intelligent systems: theories and applications (SITA), pp 1–6 Krzysztof M (2018) A computer simulation of traffic flow with on-street parking and drivers’ behaviour based on cellular automata and a multi-agent system. J Comput Sci 28:32–42 Kumar L, Khan MH, Umar MS (2017) Smart parking system using RFID and GSM technology. In: International conference on multimedia, signal processing and communication technologies (IMPACT), pp 180–184 Pala Z, Nihat I (2008) Smart parking applications using RFID technology. 2007 1st Annual RFID Eurasia. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4285055_Smart_Parking_App lications_Using_RFID_Technology Patil M, Bhonge V (2013) Wireless sensor network and RFID for smart parking system, international journal of emerging technology and advanced. Engineering 3(4):188–192 Qamas GKS, Senlin L, Limin P, Wangtong L, Rasheed H, Safdar HB (2018) SVPS: cloud-based smart vehicle parking system over ubiquitous VANETs. Comput Netw 138:18–30 Rahayu Y, Mustapa FN (2013) A secure parking reservation system using gsm technology. Int J Comput Commun Eng 2(4):518

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Rongxing L, Xiaodong L, Haojin Z, Xuemin S (2010) An intelligent secure and privay-preserving parking scheme through vehicular communication. IEEE Trans Vehicular Technol 59(6):2772– 2785 Shaobo D, Shibao S (2012) The research and design of intellectual parking system based on RFID. In: 9th International conference on fuzzy systems and knowledge discovery, pp 2427–2430 Singh H, Anand C, Kumar V, Sharma A (2014) Automated parking system with bluetooth access. Int J Eng Comput Sci 3(5):5773–5775 Truong T, Hanno F (2017) Legalizing the illegal parking, a solution for parking scarcity in developing countries. Transp Res Proced 25:4950–4965 Varuna Priyangka JG, Hashim M, Kumara WGCW (2015) A text messaging based parking reservation system. In: 8th international conference on Ubi-Media computing (UMEDIA), pp 121–123 Want R (2006) An introduction to RFID technology. Pervasive Comput 5(1):25–33 Yee HC, Rahayu Y (2014) Monitoring parking space availability via ZigBee technology. Int J Future Comput Commun 3(6):377–380

Basic Properties of Granitic Residual Soil on Slope Noraida Mohd Saim, Anuar Kasa, Mohd Khairudin Muhamed, and Rohaya Alias

Abstract Knowledge of the physical and engineering properties of soil is important for the proper analysis of hill slope stability. The information on soil strength and its behaviour is very useful for safe and economic slope remedial work or slope improvement design. This paper presents the basic properties of the granitic residual soil of Taman Bukit Utama located in Ampang Selangor, Malaysia. The study area generally consists of manmade and natural slopes. The representative soil samples were collected from eight boreholes (BH1, BH2, BH3, BH4, BH5, BH6, BH7 and BH8) within the study area. A laboratory test has been performed on samples from each borehole to assess the moisture content, specific gravity, particle size distribution and Atterberg limit of the soil mass. All the tests of soil samples were performed as per British Standard (BS1377); method of test for soils for civil engineering purposes. The granitic residual basic properties are shown and the residual soil consists of silty SAND, gravelly SAND and gravelly SILT. Then, the output was compared with the findings by other researchers for Malaysian residual soils. Keywords Basic properties · Granitic residual soil · Physical properties · Slope stability

N. M. Saim (B) School of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. M. Saim · A. Kasa Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. K. Muhamed Jabatan Kejuruteraan, Bahagian Cerun, Majlis Perbandaran Ampang Jaya, Menara MPAJ, Jalan Pandan Utama, 51000 Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] R. Alias Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Pahang, 26400 Bandar Tun Abdul Razak Jengka, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_9

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1 Introduction The residual soil is defined as a soil-like material derived from the in situ weathering process and decomposition of rocks over a period, which has not been transported from its original location (Blight 1997; Bujang et al. 2004). The formation developments of residual soils are controlled by three natural factors; the chemical composition of the rock, environmental condition and time. Tropical residual soils are widespread in Malaysia, due to their location in a hot and humid tropical region, with a high annual average rainfall intensity. The extensive weathering process on granitic rock can be found alongside the main Peninsular of Malaysia from the north to the south region since granites underlie many of the hills and mountain ranges in the Peninsular (Kepli 1994; Taha et al. 1997; Marto et al. 2002). The feature of tropical residual soil is prominent in engineering construction work such as highway cut-slopes, urban developments, dam site excavations and is also widely used as construction fill materials for highway embankments, earth dams, and fill-platforms for housing development. The main difficulty of the residual soils is associated with the rainfall distribution and the effect of infiltration of the surface run-off on the earth (Rahardjo et al. 2005). This factor has created many unwanted occurrences in Malaysia, especially slope failures and erosions, on both natural slopes or cut and fill slopes. Generally, the slope failure cases on the residual soil in the tropics are triggered by the infiltration of the surface run-off that occurs during heavy rainstorms (Rahardjo et al. 2005). This has resulted in both damage and death. Since there have been many uses of tropical residual soils in engineering construction, the properties and the behaviour of these residual soils need to be investigated. The basic characteristics of residual soils are the most important elements that need analyses in many cases. The knowledge of the properties of Malaysian residual soil is very useful for safe and economic slope design remedial work or slope stabilization work design. The objective of this study is to determine the basic properties of granitic residual soil taken from the slope located at Taman Bukit Utama, Ampang, Selangor, and to compare the results with others researches findings for residual soil in other locations in Malaysia. This study is part of the overall research to determine the stability of the slope that stabilized using the bored piles and caisson piles.

2 Geology and Soil Sampling More than 75% of the land area in Peninsular Malaysia is occupied by residual soil that is formed by the weathering process of granitic, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks and 50% of that is covered by granitic (Todo and Pauzi 1989). Granitic soils are generally sandy (high sand content) and have lower water content and lower liquid limit in comparison to basaltic or gabbroic soils. The mineralogy of granitic is quartz (30%), feldspar (60–65%) and biotite and hornblende (Zhao 1994). Figure 1 shows the distribution of granitic residual soils in Peninsular Malaysia.

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Fig. 1 The distribution of granitic residual soils in Peninsular Malaysia (Komoo and Mogana 1988)

Figure 2 shows the location of the study area and the sampling points where the soil samples were collected from eight boreholes (BH1, BH2, BH3, BH4, BH5, BH6, BH7 and BH8) during the site exploration work. Based on the Geological Map of Peninsular Malaysia published by the Department of Mineral and Geoscience Malaysia in 1985, the entire study area is underlain by granite rock Triassic Age. The formed granite consists predominantly of light grey, coarse to medium-grained biotite granite. This granite which is part of the main range granite has intruded into folded and regionally metamorphosed clastic and calcareous Palaeozoic rock. Most of the granites are porphyritic in texture. The disturbed samples were generally taken

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Fig. 2 Location of soil sampling points within the study area (Site Investigation Report)

at 1.5 m intervals in all types of soil and at any point where materials changed in character. The disturbed samples were obtained by the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) split spoon and the samples were placed in two layers of plastic bags to ensure that the samples were representative and unchanged in the constituents.

3 Soil Testing The basic properties of the soil were determined by conducting the laboratory test based on the procedure as stated in British Standard Institute (BSI 1990). The procedure that was referred to is the Method of Test for Soils for civil engineering purposes– –Part 2: Classification tests to determine: (i) moisture content (ii) specific gravity (iii) Atterberg limit and (iv) particle size distribution.

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4 Results and Discussion 4.1 Moisture Content Figure 3 shows the distribution of the moisture content within the location of the study area. The moisture content was calculated as per British Standard (BS1377: Part 2: 1990: Method 3.1). It varies from 13.8% to 20%. This is probably because of the arrangement of the solid particle and the existence of the voids in the soil body element. The soil at BH1 and BH7 contains higher moisture content, whereas BH4, BH5, BH6 and BH8 are slightly higher than the soil at BH2 and BH3 which shows lower moisture content. This indicates soils at BH1, BH4, BH5, BH6, BH7 and BH8 are denser and have fewer voids because the soil has the composition of silt and clay particles compared with the other soils samples at BH2 and BH3 that only contains sand and gravel. Higher moisture content indicates the possibility of greater compaction before the construction takes place in the future. Based on the data from Marto and Kasim (2003), Salih (2012) and Jamalluddin et al. (2014), the range of moisture content for Malaysian granitic residual soil is between 10%–46%, 5%–50% and between 1.1%–41.3%, respectively. Therefore, the range of the moisture content in this study is within the range of moisture content found in the previous study.

4.2 Specific Gravity The specific gravity of the soil was determined by conducting the density bottle method as per standard (BS1377, Part 2: 1990: Method 8.3). Figure 4 shows the distribution of the specific gravity at slope taken from BH 1 to BH 8 within the study area. The specific gravity of all locations is almost uniform and consistent with the value is 2.64 and 2.65. It indicates the soil particles have the same nature in terms of weight. The value of specific gravity found in this study is close to the range that was found by Marto and Kasim (2003) that stated the range of specific gravity of residual granitic soil was between 2.50 and 2.74 and also within the range presented Fig. 3 Variation of the moisture content of soils from eight locations within the study area

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Fig. 4 Variation of the specific gravity of soils from eight locations within the study area

by Salih (2012) with the ranges of specific gravity for Malaysian granitic residual soils was between 2.42 and 2.77. Determination of specific gravity is important for the calculation of porosity, compaction, consolidation and also permeability.

4.3 Atterberg Limits Figure 5 shows the relationship between penetrations versus water content from the result of the cone penetration method (BS1377, Part 2: 1990: Method 4.3) to determine the liquid limit of the soil within the study area. The value of water content on the abscissa corresponding to 20 mm penetration on ordinate gives the Liquid Limit (LL). Furthermore, the Plastic Limit (PL) was determined using 3 mm rod formation by the rolling and crumbles method (BS1377, Part 2: 1990: Method 5.3). The variation of LL and PL were illustrated in Fig. 6. The value of LL and PL varies from 31 to 42% and 25% to 30%, respectively. According to Marto and Kasim (2003), the ranges of LL and PL for Malaysian residual soils are between 30%–119% and 18%–46% respectively. Salih (2012) reported that the granitic residual soil in Malaysia has an LL and PL, respectively ranging between 25%–110% and 18%– 50%. Hence, the ranges of LL and PL found in this study are within the ranges found by Marto and Kasim (2003) and Salih (2012). Besides, the results from the previous study found that the PL of granitic residual mostly does not exceed 50% and it depends on the composition of clay content in the soil (Marto and Kasim 2003). Liquid limit is the water content when the soil changes from a plastic phase to a liquid phase. When the water content exceeds the limit of the LL, the soil liquefies and is unable to bear stress. Therefore, partially saturated residual soil that has high LL indicates that the soil is able to tolerate the stress of high water content rather than the soil having a low LL value. This is a necessary factor to be considered in designing the slope since Malaysia experiences high rainfall intensity annually. Based on Whitlow (1990), soil that has LL of less than 35% is categorized as low plasticity, and soil that has LL within 35 to 50% is categorized as intermediate plasticity of the soil. Thus, the result of LL and PL found in this study indicates the soil at BH2 and BH3 are low plasticity whereas BH1, BH4, BH5, BH6, BH7 and BH8 are intermediate plasticity

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behaviour. The soils have low and intermediate plasticity probably due to the granitic residual soil that generally has fewer fines particles as compared to the sedimentary residual soil (Jamalluddin et al. 2014). Moreover, according to Amadi et al. (2015), soil with low plasticity (LL < 50%) does not swell with water conditions compared to the high plasticity (LL > 50%) soil that will tend to swell with water. Then, the Plasticity Index (PI) was calculated by taking the difference between LL and PL. Figure 7 refers to the LL versus PI of a soil sample taken from BH1 to BH8 within the study area that is plotted on the plasticity chart to identify the plasticity state

Fig. 5 Relationship between penetrations and water content of soils from eight locations within the study area

Fig. 6 Variation of LL and PL of soils from eight locations within the study area

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Fig. 7 Variation of PI at all sampling locations on the simplified plasticity chart

of the soil. The range of PI from all sampling locations is between 7%–14%. The term plasticity describes the behaviour of the soil when an increase in applied stress will usually cause an irrecoverable deformation, while the volume remains constant or is reduced and without any signs of cracking or disruption (Whitlow 2004). According to Marto and Kasim (2003), the ranges of PI for Malaysian residual soils are between 18%–46%, while Salih (2012) and Jamalludin et.al (2014) mentioned that the granitic residual soil has a PI ranging between 1%–74% and 0.2%–46.5%, respectively. So, the range of PI found in this study is within that was found by earlier researchers. Furthermore, it shows that the value of PI in this study is lower due to the type of soil that is generally dominated by the coarse grain size which means that the portion of the finest particles is small. In general, soil with high plasticity has low permeability and is very compressible due to the content of the clay in the soil. Thus, the plasticity index increases with the increase of clay content.

4.4 Particle Size Distribution Figure 8 shows the typical grains distributions curve within the study area. The particle size distribution analysis was carried out by performing wet sieving (BS1377: Part 2: 1990: Method 9.2) for the part of the coarse soil, while for the fines fraction used the hydrometer test (BS1377: Part 2: 1990: Method 9.5). The combination of sieving and sedimentation (hydrometer method) enables a continuous plot to distribute the coarsest particles down to the clay size. Table 1 shows the distribution of the percentages of gravel, sand, silt and clay at all sampling locations within the study area. Sand is the highest composition with a range from 26 to 47% followed by silt and gravel with the range between 21%–39% and 10%–35%, respectively. The clay portion is the smallest throughout the sample locations with a range between 8–16%.

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Meanwhile, Table 2 presents the composition of granitic residual soil according to the different locations found throughout Malaysia. The previous and current findings show that the percentage of gravel, sand, silt and clay are varied for the different samples and it is not homogenous based on the depth and the location at which the soil samples were collected. This is due to the different levels of weathering for each location and depth. Factors that affect the weathering process such as temperature, rainfall intensity and the earth terrain contribute to the difference in particle size distribution in the ground (Salih 2012), (Jenny 1941) in Marto and Kasim (2003). The soil types found in this study are mainly silty sand, gravelly sand and gravelly silt. It was close to the soil type stated by Jamalludin et al. (2014) in his research that the Malaysian granitic residual was dominated by coarse-grained soils.

Fig. 8 Grains size distribution curve within the study area

Table 1 Distribution of the % of gravel, sand, silt and clay at slope within the study area Sampling location

Grain size (%) gravel

Sand

Silt

Clay

BH 1

24

42

21

13

BH 2

26

45

29

0

BH 3

34

43

23

0

BH 4

35

26

39

0

BH 5

31

34

25

10

BH 6

18

46

28

8

BH 7

10

47

27

16

BH 8

31

33

26

10

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Table 2 Distribution of the % of gravel, sand, silt and clay of granitic residual from other locations in Malaysia Researchers

Location

Grain Size (%) Gravel

Marto and Kasim (2003)

Peninsular Malaysia 0–37 (all states)

Sand

Silt

Clay

22–71

7–57

3–66 0–55

Salih (2012)

UTM, Johor

0–65

11–96

0.3–50

Jamalludin et al. (2014)

Penang and Baling (kedah)

0.1–76.9

5.7–67.8

15.5–81.9

0–1.8

5 Conclusion The objective of this study is to determine the basic properties of granitic residual soil for designing the ideal solution of the slope stabilization method and suitable construction technique. Based on the data found in this study, the natural moisture content increased with the content of clay in the soil because clay is low permeability material that can retain the water content in the soil. The specific gravity is almost consistent from all sampling points. The LL and PI are influenced by the composition of clay in the soils, samples that have high clay content produced LL limit and PI. Sand is the most common soil type in the study area. The variety of plots curve of the particle size distribution indicates that soil is not uniform and is influenced by the level of the weathering process. In general, all the basic properties found in this study are near or within the range that was found by previous researchers for Malaysian granitic residual soils. Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the cooperation of Bahagian Cerun, Majlis Perbandaran Ampang Jaya Selangor for the great collaboration in conducting the study.

References Amadi AN, Okunlola IA, Eze CJ, Jimoh MO, Unuevho CI, Fahad A (2015) Geotechnical assessment of clay deposits in minna, north-central nigeria for use as liners in sanitary landfill design and construction. Am J Environ Prot 3(3):67–75 Blight GE (1997) Origin and formation of residual soils. Mechanics of residual soils. Balkema, Rotterdam. British Standard Institute (1990) BS 1377. Methods of test for Soil for civil engineering purposes. Part 2: classification tests Bujang BK, Huat GSS, Faisal HA (2004) Tropical residual soils engineering. Balkema Publishers, London, AA Jamalludin D, Ahmad F, Abidin RZ (2014) Characteristics of soil taken from slope failures in sedimentary and granitic residual soils. Int J Civ Environ Eng IJCEE-IJENS 14(06):31–37 Jenny H (1941) Factors of soil formation. Mc Graw- Hill, New York, p 281

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Kepli MI (1994) Properties of granite derived residual soils. Mara institute of technology: final year project Komoo I, Mogana SN (1988) Physical characterization of weathering profile of clastic meta sediments in Peninsular Malaysia. Proceeding of the Second International Conference on Geomechanics in Tropical Soils, Singapore. 1:37–42 Marto A, Kasim F, Yusof KNM (2002) Mineralogi, mikrostruktur dan komposisi kimia tanah baki granit Semenanjung Malaysia. Malays J Civ Eng 14(1):1–17 Marto A, Kasim F (2003) Characterisation of Malaysian residual soils for geotechnical and construction engineering. Project report, Vote 72256 Rahardjo H, Lee TT, Leong EC, Rezaur RB (2005) Response of a residual soil slope to rainfall. Can Geotech J 42(2):340–351 Salih AG (2012) Review on granitic residual soils’ geotechnical properties. Electron J Geotech Eng 17:2645–2658 Site Investigation Report for Project Cadangan Kerja Geoteknikal dan Rekabentuk Penstabilan Cerun Serta kerje-kerja Penyeliaan Pembinaan Penstabilan Cerun di Sebahagian Kawasan Taman Bukit Utama, Daerah Gombak, Selangor Taha MR, Sarac D, Chik Z, Nayan KAM (1997) Geotechnical and geoenvironmental aspects of residual soils. In: Proceeding of 4th Regional Conference in Geotechnical Engineering (GEOTROPIKA 97). Johor, Malaysia, pp 331–341 Todo H, Pauzi MM (1989). Geotechnical engineering properties of residual soils originated from granite in Malaysia and Singapore. Proceedings of the International Conference in Tropical Terrains, UKM, Bangi, 160–169. Whitlow R (2004) Basic soil mechanics. Fourth edition. Prentice Hall, Pearson education South Asia Pte Ltd Whitlow R (1990) Basic soil mechanics. Prentice Hall, Pearson education south Asia pte ltd Zhao J (1994). Engineering properties of the weathered Bukit Timah granite and residual soils. In: Proceedings of the regional conference in geotechnical engineering. Melaka, Malaysia, pp 94

Information System/Information Technology

College Registration Management System (CoReMS): a Proposed CoReMS Model for UiTM Raub College Management Unit Mohd Khairul Ikhwan Zolkefley, Muhd Eizan Shafiq Abd Aziz, and Mohd Ikhsan Md Raus Abstract Generally, for students to stay in college, every new semester student needs to register themselves in college management unit (UPK). Registration is necessary or else the student will not be eligible to stay in college. In Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Pahang, Raub Campus, the UPK needs to identify the students who are eligible for the college placement once the student completed the registration manually. This study is focused on the development of the college registration system (CoReMS). The system development was initiated due to the difficulties faced by the UPK in placing the students in college and the fact that the procedure is being done manually. By using System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) method, it is hoped that CoReMS can help the UPK staff ease up the college placement process. This paper will discuss the development of CoReMS and the proposed framework for CoReMS from planning until the design phase. Keywords College management · CoReMS · College registration · Online application

1 Introduction Each university in Malaysia provides accommodation to some of its students. For time being, each existing student who is interested in staying at a hostel for the coming semester should apply to the college management unit (UPK) by filling up the registration form before their previous semester ends and submit the application to UPK. UPK staff needs to review the application form manually before assigning M. K. I. Zolkefley (B) · M. E. S. A. Aziz Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang, 27600 Raub, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. E. S. A. Aziz e-mail: [email protected] M. I. M. Raus Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang, Tun Razak Jengka, 26400 BandarPahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_10

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the students to the college. The UPK staff also needs to ensure the college is fully utilized. This process is tedious and inefficient because they need to check it manually since there is no record of room availability. The students will be informed when the college registration result is ready. Even though nowadays many organizations are going paperless, the manual college registration process is still using papers. Therefore, it is important to develop a web-based system to improve the process of college registration in the UPK Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Pahang Raub Campus. Web-based system has become one of the preferred technologies used by the organization, mainly because of its ability to manage the information efficiently, and storing the information securely and support multiple users simultaneously, saving lots of time and energy (Othman et al. 2009). To manage the college registration smoothly and for efficient college placement, information technology can be an essential role in achieving the target. This paper focuses on designing and developing an information system called CoReMS to help the UPK staff manage their college registration process smoothly. CoReMS was initiated to minimize the difficulties that occurred in using the manual college registration process and also to ease up the process. CoReMS can support the management of UPK in doing the process more effectively (Watson et al. 2008). The first objective is to analyse the process of existing college registration in UiTM Raub Campus in order to find out what are the advantages and disadvantages of having the web-based college registration system implemented. The second objective is to design a proposed college registration system model to assist the College Management Unit (UPK) of UiTM Raub Campus for a better college registration process. Hopefully, the proposed model can improve the overall performance and registration of college in UiTM Raub Campus specifically.

2 Methodology 2.1 Developing the CoReMS There are many methods that can be used in developing an information system. Planning, analysis, design, implementation, and maintenance are phases in System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) (Kay 2002). Those are the process that are being used in developing an information system (Kaur 2015). Figure 1 shows the phases that will be used in developing the CoReMS. For the planning phase, the study aims to obtain information regarding the college registration process, the current procedure in college registration, and the experienced people involved in the college registration process. The researchers first need to understand the business rules (O’Brien 2003). A series of interviews have been done with the UPK staff of the UiTM Raub campus in order to understand the process involved. Interviews have been used as a main fact-finding technique because it is the best technique for getting accurate information directly from the person involved

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Fig. 1 System Development Life Cycle (Shelly et al. 2001)

in the college registration process. Figure 2 shows the current process by UPK for college registration. In the second phase, based on the information gathered in the first phase previously, the researchers analysed the information on existing college registration and collected necessary requirement in order to fulfil the functional requirement of the CoReMS that will meet the systems and user’s priority, which is UPK. The development of CoReMS will be done in the design phase. The design must be done carefully as a bad design is harmful to society and environment (Stegall 2006). Based on the analysis done, a logical view design will be constructed. As CoReMS is still in early

Fig. 2 Manual college registration process

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development, the other two phases which are implementation and maintenance will be kept in view for further study.

2.2 Overview of CoReMS Proposed Model CoReMS architecture is shown in Fig. 3, it has three major components which are the end user, application program and server. End user consists of the UPK staff, which manages the CoReMS. Next, CoReMS can be accessed by desktop and also mobile. The CoReMS can be accessed anywhere, anytime as long as there is an internet connection. And also server, which contains CoReMS modules and also the database for storing college information and student information. UPK staff information were retrieved from UiTM I-Staff Portal. The proposed CoReMS is shown in Fig. 4. It uses a general client–server architecture. UPK staff needs to log in using their I-Staff portal registered account. CoReMS can be accessed through mobile and also desktop. Once login, UPK staff will insert a list of student numbers eligible for the college. CoReMS will automatically search for available college rooms. UPK staff then will assign the desired college room to specific college registration. Once all the students have been assigned to a college, UPK staff will submit the registration to the system. Based on findings, as stated earlier in the present paper, the UPK staff had a difficulty in managing the college registration process efficiently. Hundreds of registrations need to be reviewed and those registrations were submitted using hardcopy form. Moreover, the UPK staffs have to manually ensure only eight students are placed per college room. Then, UPK staff will assign the available college room to students. All these processes are done manually, thus much paper was being wasted. Also, there were no statistical reports or analysis done by UPK staff, thus it will affect UPK staff in assigning college to the students in the future.

Fig. 3 CoReMS architecture

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Fig. 4 Process model of the proposed CoReMS

The present paper shows how information technology could bring a huge impact on college registration process. Introducing CoReMS in college registration will benefit the UPK staff to manage college registration in a systematic and efficient approach.

2.3 CoReMS Features CoReMS can be a very useful information system for UPK staff. The main function is its ability to do automated searching for college availability. The system will intelligently search for the availability of the college for students. Once the search is done, the user will be able to choose a suitable college to be applied. UPK staff can see a list of students and college rooms easily without manually searching for it. Once the information is in the system, it can be used over and over again for every semester of college registration. CoReMS is able to provide that information as shown in Figs. 5, 6 and 7. The three figures above are information provided by CoReMS in order to solve the problems that arise as discussed above on college registration issues.

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Fig. 5 Interface showing total students registered for college

Fig. 6 Interface showing assigning students to college

Fig. 7 Interface showing college details within the building

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2.4 Accessibility Information technology can be beneficial in college registration. CoReMS works on an extranet that can be accessed anytime and anywhere within the UiTM campus. CoReMS can be accessed through mobile and also desktop. CoReMS make use of existing technology effectively and efficiently.

2.5 Efficiency Since CoReMS is using an extranet connection and can be accessed online, CoReMS can be used instantly when needed. The information entered into the system will be updated instantly and the college registration process can be done efficiently almost every time.

3 Conclusion and Recommendation It is highly recommended that the UPK staff use a web-based information system in their college registration process. CoReMS can be used to speed up the UPK staff operation. The problem explicit on the college registration issues as discussed can be solved by performing the deployment of CoReMS. A few upgrades can be considered in CoReMS in the future such as adding a module for a guest instead of students only. Acknowledgements We thank Hanisah Abdul Halim (Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Pahang, Raub Campus) for assisting and providing necessary information and materials in developing the CoReMS.

References Kaur S (2015) A review of software development life cycle models. Int J Adv Res Comput Sci Softw Eng 5(11):354–361 Kay R (2002) Quick study: system development life cycle. Computer world. Othman M, Ismail SN, Raus MIM (2009) The development of the web-based attendance register system (ARS) for higher academic institution: from feasibility study to the design phase. Int J Comput Sci Netw Secur (IJCSNS) 9(10):203–208 O’Brien JA (2003) Introduction to information systems: Essentials for the e-business enterprise. Mc Graw Hill, New York Shelly GB, Cashman TJ, Rosenblatt HJ (2001) System analysis and design, 4th edn. Thompson course technology, New York

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Stegall N (2006) Designing for sustainability: a philosophy for ecologically intentional design. Des Issues 22(2):56–63 Watson RT, Boudreau MC, Chen A, Huber MH (2008) Green IS: building sustainable practices. In: Watson RT (Ed) Information systems. Athens, GA, USA: Global text project

Sentiment Analysis on Mixed Language Facebook Comments: A Food and Beverages Case Study Kong Hua Lim, Tong Ming Lim, Kathleen Swee Neo Tan, and Li Peng Tan

Abstract Millions of people in the world shared their thoughts on products and services in different mediums. Social media is one of the avenues through which people express their opinions. Digital marketers extract and analyze content from social media sites so that they can best promote and package their products or services to potential buyers. Our work involved analyzing emotions on the opinionated comments posted on the Food and Beverages Facebook fan pages. This research investigated emotion-carried words and slang as well as emoticons expressed in Chinese, English, and Bahasa Malaysia posts and comments that cannot be found in the lexicons made available in the West and China where only locals can understand them. Since a high percentage of the comments are typically not written and structured well, we use the lexicon approach in this research to provide a word-level sentiment score. We applied the concept of sentic computing in the sentiment analysis. This research computes emotional labels and sentiment scores for Chinese, English, and Bahasa Malaysia for mixed-language posts and comments. The outcomes of the mixed language sentiment analysis are a set of emotion tags: pleasantness, attention, sensitivity, and aptitude. This research highlights many interesting challenges for future works. Keywords Lexicon · Mixed language · Sentic computing · Sentiment analysis

1 Introduction Social media allows people to share their opinions through posts and comments targeted at products, services, policy, or people. Understanding emotions expressed through the unstructured text can provide invaluable information for businesses or governments to gain more insights into people’s attitude toward products, services, policy and people so that better understanding and strategy can be put in place to attain more market share or better support from consumers. However, it is very K. H. Lim (B) · T. M. Lim · K. S. N. Tan · L. P. Tan Tunku Abdul Rahman University College, Jalan Genting Kelang, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_11

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challenging to mine sentiment from unstructured text gathered from social media sites. The unstructured text is usually huge in volume and dynamic in nature. People responded to posts and comments on social media sites by providing their opinions that carried emotions in the text. Hosseini (2017) found that emotions provide a better understanding of how humans interact with each other. Interactions expressed in texts provide invaluable insights so that more suitable policies can be formulated and well-designed goods and services can be produced. This paper studied the uses of Sentic Computing by Cambria et al. (2010) to compute the emotion labels for words extracted from texts crawled from social media sites. It uses a lexicon-based method. The data are crawled from Food and Beverages Facebook fan pages where posts and comments are written in Chinese, English, and Malay languages. After the data have been processed, Sentic API is invoked to obtain the emotion labels of the words in the posts and comments. The relationship between emotion labels and sentiment analysis is based on the intensity level in terms of pleasantness, attention, sensitivity, and aptitude. There are challenges in automatic emotion recognition from the text in the posts and comments because they are very short. In addition, some of the words can only be interpreted in the local context in order to make sense. These words include ‘Jom’ and ‘Tarik’ by Bahasa Malaysia and ‘Kaw’ and ‘Kiasi’ by Chinese-speaking social media users. Not to mention shorthand and internet slang such as ‘dgn’, ‘dll’, and ‘LoL’ that are used widely in the posts and comments. More research works are needed to improve sentiment analysis on mixed language comments considering the context and domains of the comments.

2 Related Work Feldman (2013) mentioned that sentiment analysis or opinion mining is about finding out people’s thoughts on a certain target (aspect, reasons, etc.) which is a very important area of research. Krcadinac et al. (2013) described three approaches to emotion tagging in their paper. These approaches include building and using lexical resources with emotional keywords, emotional keyword spotting approach, and statistical approach to find a keyword. Goel et al. (2016) used lexicon-based approach (using SentiWordNet) and statistical or machine learning approach (using Naive Bayes) to classify emotions in Twitter microblogging. Jianqiang and Xiaolin (2017) emphasised the importance of pre-processing before classification for sentiment analysis. Wang et al. (2017) discussed using the Joint Factor Graph Model to do sentiment analysis from different sources (including micro-blog websites). The authors mentioned that texts crawled or streamed from the sources are often found in code-switching text. In addition, it can be more than one emotion can be expressed. Hence, the authors proposed JFGM to do sentiment analysis. Pravalika et al. (2017) recognized performing sentiment analysis on social networking site data is an important research area. Customer preference, options and experiences can be mined from the data. The authors proposed a sentiment analysis solution in code-mixed text. Putra

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et al. (2018) mentioned that Indonesian text on social media is unstructured text data and informal languages. These pose challenges to perform sentiment analysis. The authors used a hybrid approach which consists of lexicon approach and statistical approach (maximum entropy methods) to classify sentiments of opinion from social media sites. Vilares et al. (2017) investigated a few approaches to supervised sentiment analysis. The more robust approach is one which uses a multilingual model trained using a multilingual dataset. The available resources from existing monolingual resources are combined. Cambria et al. (2010) come up with an Hourglass of Emotions which has four dimensions in emotions. Each dimension has positive or negative polarity split into three positive levels and three negative levels. Each level has a mood tag associated with it.

3 Research Methodology The method used in this study can be summarized as follows: (a) Crawl posts and comments from Facebook using API. (b) Pre-process mixed languages posts and comments from selected Food and Beverages fan pages to remove noises such as white spaces, stop words, punctuation, unwanted symbols, numbers and unrecognizable characters (c) Extraction of important words or terms. For example, these can be misspelled words, local terms, internet slang, emphasized terms, and acronyms (or shorthand) which will be kept for later analysis. i. Extraction of emoji. ii. Extraction of emphasis terms. (d) If raw text inputs are Chinese language, Jie Ba is used to split the sentence into words or terms. (e) Perform mixed language sentiment analysis. Figure 1 illustrates the research framework discussed earlier. The sentiment of short messages at the word level is identified based on SenticNet (Cambria et al. 2010), where both the emotion labels and sentiment scores will be provided. The following few sections describe the activities taken in the research methodology used in the research.

3.1 Emoji Extraction Emoji stickers are commonly used in comments appearing in all three languages. Emojis are used to show emotions expressed by social users. Hence, opinions about products and services could be expressed in a few sentences with emoji(s). Sometimes multiple repeated emojis are used to emphasize specific emotion.

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Remove noise

Provide emotion labels and sentiment score

Extraction of important words.

For sentence in Chinese, split it into words or terms

Fig. 1 Research framework for sentiment analysis

Although the emotions that emojis carry are obvious and self-explanatory, our works used Python emoji to convert emoji stickers into a short code that represents the emoji. These descriptions are used as parameters to invoke methods in the Sentic to return both mood tags and sentiment score.

3.2 Emphasized Terms Providing opinions with an adjective followed by one or more punctuations is a way to intensify the emotion expressed by an adjective. For example, the intensity of happiness is higher in the sentence ‘I’m happy!!’ compare to ‘I’m happy’. There are works that increase emotional weightage by 20% for every repeated exclamation mark used. This research does not cover the emotional measurement of emphasized terms. The emphasized terms using regular expressions will be investigated in future works.

3.3 Punctuations and Stop Words Punctuations in comments such as full stops show that one sentence is terminated. As for stop words, it does not carry meaning and is usually ignored by search engines. Neither of these tokens carry any semantic and sentiment values in sentiment analysis. Hence, they are removed based on the lexicon approach which also removes punctuations.

4 Results and Discussion This section reports and discusses the results of the works carried out in the research. The secondary data source is crawled from Facebook on a set of selected commercial fan pages across four (4) industries, where this paper discusses solely on Food and

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Beverages (F&B) for a period of about two months. The data from these domains include cosmetics, fashion, and F&B consisting of posts and comments in Chinese, English, and Bahasa Malaysia languages. Table 1 illustrates the word-level mixed languages sentiment analysis results that were carried out on posts and comments collected. Empty curly braces will be returned for those words which do not carry any sentiment or emotions. The sentiment score highlighted in the {‘pleasantness’: ‘0.99’, ‘attention’: ‘0.99’, ‘sensitivity’: ‘−0.99’, ‘aptitude’: ‘0.99’} does not always reflect the mood and sentiment score of the entire message. This is because this research only focuses on word-level sentiment whereas future research will examine sentence and messagelevel sentiment with code-mixed scripts (or messages). There are challenges with posts and comments with a mix of Bahasa Malaysia and English languages. In this research, the lexicon resource, Sentic, can only analyze one language at a time. This forms one of the key challenges in future research. Another challenge is the slang used in the comments that is closely related to the local context where lexicon resources are not able to accurately extract semantic and sentiment values. In order not to miss the semantic with respect to the context of the words in the sentence, choosing the right words to replace the internet slang need to be carefully investigated. Table 1 Results of sentiment analysis Language

Comment

Bahasa Malaysia Taiping saya bole mohon x bos

Emotional labels

Sentiment score

[{}, {}, [‘#marah’, ‘#menjijikkan’], {}, {}]

[{}, {}, {‘pleasantness’: 0, ‘attention’: 0, ‘sensitivity’: 0.705, ‘aptitude’: -0.987}, {}, {}]

Chinese

这位先生是在讲火箭 党员

{}, [‘#快乐’, ‘#有趣’], {}, {}, {}, [‘#难过’, ‘# 恶心’], {}

{}, {‘pleasantness’: 0.072, ‘attention’: 0.098, ‘sensitivity’: 0, ‘aptitude’: 0}, {}, {}, {}, {‘pleasantness’: -0.026, ‘attention’: -0.02, ‘sensitivity’: 0, ‘aptitude’: -0.122}, {}

English

not up to standard to earn the title of educators note: The grey highlights are stop words which has been removed from Sentiments Analysis

[[‘#interest’, ‘#admiration’], [‘#interest’, ‘#interest’], [‘#interest’, ‘#admiration’], {}]

[{‘pleasantness’: ‘0.026’, ‘attention’: ‘0.299’, ‘sensitivity’: ‘-0.11’, ‘aptitude’: ‘0.257’}, {‘pleasantness’: ‘0’, ‘attention’: ‘0.893’, ‘sensitivity’: ‘0’, ‘aptitude’: ‘0’}, {‘pleasantness’: ‘0.07’, ‘attention’: ‘0.134’, ‘sensitivity’: ‘-0.07’, ‘aptitude’: ‘0.155’}, {}]

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For posts and comments expressed in the English language, the word-level analysis can perform better than the Bahasa Malaysia language even though there are mixed terms from different languages. For example, sentiment analysis of the word ‘earn’ resulted in a mood tag of ‘interest’. The four dimensions of pleasantness, attention, sensitivity, and aptitude reports with values ‘0’, ‘0.893’, ‘0’, and ‘0’ respectively. This shows the word has a concept related to attention. There are no concepts in pleasantness, sensitivity, or aptitude. Translating the Chinese language in Table 1 to English is that a man is from a Malaysian political party called Democratic Action Party (DAP). DAP in Chinese is called Rocket Party. For example, the Chinese word for ‘rocket’ (in red highlight) is categorized with a mood tag of sadness and disgust. It only has negative polarity for pleasantness, attention, and aptitude. This is not an accurate reflection of sentiment analysis since the works are in word based. Context of the sentence is not taken into account.

5 Conclusion In this research, we presented the research outputs of our preliminary investigations based on sentiment analysis from data crawled from Facebook’s F&B industry. This research is a word-level analysis utilizing lexicon method approach. Through the conceptual approach of sentiment analysis to analyze emotions, there are some emotions found to be correct and some not. One of the key problems is because word-level mixed language sentiment analysis does not take into account sentiment analysis at the sentence or message-level that the social media users intend to bring forward. This research surfaces a number of potential research areas that need more investigation. The challenges from the output of this research highlight many key research problems. Among them include mixed languages sentiment analysis, mainly Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, and English, with respect to the Malaysian context, in a few key domains on net sentiment effect from messages that comprise multiple sentences, replacing terms with respect to the key language used in the comments considering the context and domains, and, lastly sentiment at the phrase level as the anchor concept to determine the sentence and message-level sentiment outcome. In addition, sentence-level sentiment analysis can provide better results compared to word level as shown in Krcadinac et al. (2013). With more in-depth and extensive research work and more reliable mixed languages domain-dependent lexicon, coupled with sentiment analysis on sentence and message level in a mixed language multiple domains context, a better sentiment analysis algorithm is required to reflect accurate sentiment score and emotion tags. Acknowledgements The success of the works is joint efforts of Kathleen Tan Swee Neo and Tan Li Peng under the guidance of Prof. Lim Tong Ming.

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References Cambria E, Speer R, Havasi C, Hussain A (2010) Senticnet: a publicly available semantic resource for opinion mining. In: Proceedings of the AAAI fall symposium: commonsense knowledge. Feldman R (2013) Techniques and applications for sentiment analysis. Commun ACM 56(4):82–89 Goel A, Gautam J, Kumar S (2016). Real time sentiment analysis of tweets using Naive Bayes. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on next generation computing technologies (NGCT). IEEE, pp 257–261 Hosseini AS (2017) Sentence-level emotion mining based on combination of adaptive meta-level features and sentence syntactic features. Eng Appl Artif Intell. 65:361–374 Jianqiang Z, Xiaolin G (2017) Comparison research on text pre-processing methods on twitter sentiment analysis. IEEE Access 5:2870–2879 Krcadinac U, Pasquier P, Jovanovic J, Devedzic V (2013) Synesketch: an open source library for sentence-based emotion recognition. IEEE Trans. Affective Computing 4(3):312–325 Pravalika A, Oza V, Meghana NP, Kamath SS (2017) Domain-specific sentiment analysis approaches for code-mixed social network data. In: Proceedings of the 8th international conference on computing, communication and networking technologies (ICCCNT). IEEE, pp 1–6 Putra SJ, Khalil I, Gunawan MN, Amin RI, Sutabri T (2018) A hybrid model for social media sentiment analysis for Indonesian text. In: Proceedings of the 20th international conference on information integration and web-based applications and services. ACM, pp 297–301 Vilares D, Alonso MA, Gómez-Rodríguez C (2017) Supervised sentiment analysis in multilingual environments. Inf Process Manage 53(3):595–607 Wang Z, Lee SYM, Li S, Zhou G (2017) Emotion analysis in code-switching text with joint factor graph model. IEEE/ACM Trans Audio Speech Lang Process (TASLP) 25(3): 469–480

University Event Notification System with SMS Technology Jiwa Noris Hamid, Hawa Mohd Ekhsan, and Nur Aina Aifa Mohammad Ali

Abstract University event announcements are normally disseminated by flyers, posters, bulletin boards and social media channels such as Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp and Telegram. However, last minute changes in date, time, and venue of the events make it difficult for the university to inform the students and staff. Consequently, this situation can affect student attendance at the events. Thus, in order to avoid fake news and false information, the university needs a systematic and reliable notification system to ensure that the information is received by the students. This paper presents a web-based notification system that is integrated with Short Message Service (SMS) technology known as the e-Activity Notification System. It is used to disseminate information, promote, and improve students’ attendance at the university events. The system has been developed using System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) method and tested through a usability test on 30 respondents. The results of the test show that the system is accepted by and satisfied the users since the announcements are delivered effectively to the targeted recipients. Keywords Notification system · SMS technology · Web-based system

1 Introduction University events refer to any academic or non-academic activities happening on and around campuses such as motivational talks, seminars, sports activities, and workshops. Student involvement in these kinds of events can impact their university experience positively and improve their soft skills prior to be competitive in the future. The existing methods of announcing upcoming university events are done through flyers, posters, bulletin boards, and social media channels such as Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, and Telegram. However, last minute changes in date, time, and venue of the events make it difficult for the university to inform the students (Ismail and J. N. Hamid (B) · H. M. Ekhsan · N. A. A. M. Ali Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA Perlis Branch, Arau, Perlis, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_12

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Husen 2013). This situation will lead to poor student attendance and dissatisfaction among the students. Currently, university students are notified about the details of the events through posters or memos posted on notice boards around the campus. Unfortunately, sometimes they tend to miss the information as they just walk past the boards without reading the posters or memos that have been displayed. Consequently, students always miss university events. Undoubtedly, use of social media channels to disseminate information is widely used these days. However, in some cases, the validity of the information can be questioned due to misinformation (Jaho et al. 2014; Fernandez and Alani 2018) and untrusted sources (Chen and Sin 2013). Therefore, to avoid fake news and false information, the university needs a systematic and reliable notification system to ensure that the information is effectively received by the students. Nowadays, communication technology is constantly changing, and it has brought wide-ranging benefits, especially in university students’ daily lives. The use of mobile phones is essential for them to communicate with each other by calling and texting. Besides, it can be used for other purposes such as for music and video player, digital camera, mobile internet, and games. The tremendous growth of mobile phones’ availability in the community has shown the biggest opportunity for researchers to explore how these devices can be used effectively in assisting daily life activities (Ziden et al. 2017). Thus, this paper presents the development of a web-based university notification system and the integration of the system with SMS technology. Then, the usability of the system is tested using a usability test. The web-based notification system is developed particularly to ease user tasks. The students and events details are stored in the database associated with the system. This system is accessible anytime and anywhere via any devices that have internet connectivity across all platforms. Furthermore, a web-based system can support multi-users at the same time with a massive number of accesses to the available resources. The short message service (SMS) is convenient, cheap, and suitable for all types of mobile phones and has shown its own significant in many purposes such as education (Lumauag 2016), document management (Jane et al. 2018), library services (Khanim and Ahmed 2018), health (Brown and Brown 2013) and government services (Lanza et al. 2017; Lanza 2016; Lanza and Cunha 2013). Moreover, it still plays a vital role in connecting most current technologies. The scenario where most people carry their mobile phones everywhere shows a good sign that people are attentive to incoming notifications. The use of SMS notification will allow students to get better acquainted with all upcoming events in the university, particularly regarding the cancellation of events or the changes of the event date, time, and venue.

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2 How Does the System Work? The web-based system will broadcast the notification to the targeted recipients through SMS. The system will be administered by the university staff. The advantages of the system are. . The notification will be disseminated to the targeted recipient(s). . All sent messages will be stored in the database and can be viewed for future references. . Message can be sent to individuals or a group of students. The following subsections explain the important elements in the system.

2.1 SMS Integration with SMS API The system uses an SMS Application Programming Interface (API) provided by Mobitek System to integrate bulk SMS and the notification system. The use of SMS API enables the system to send messages to many recipients via SMS.

2.2 SMS Application Programming Interface (API) The Application Programming Interface (API) is a set of programming instructions that is used to access a web-based software application. The SMS API is used to integrate the notification system with the SMS website to send SMS to individuals or a targeted group of mobile phone users. The API allows the developer to embed the API in (within) the program without knowing the details of the internal process. Figure 1 illustrates the services of Application Programming Interface (API).

2.3 SMS Gateway As shown in Fig. 1, the SMS gateway acts as a relay that allows SMS to be transmitted from other media to mobile phones such as to and from web browsers to mobiles. It works with mobile service providers to send and receive messages to and from the recipients.

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Fig. 1 How services of API work. Source from iSMS website (2018)

3 System Methodology Event Notification System was developed using System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) methodology. In SDLC methodology, each activity is divided into different stages and each stage must be completed before proceeding to a new stage. It is a systematic approach that breaks down into five stages which are planning, analysis, design, development, and evaluation (Fig. 2).

3.1 Planning During this phase, all information, data, and problems were gathered through observations of the current notification process, discussion with the university staff, lecturers, and students, and reading articles and journals from previous research. Through feasibility study, the aims of this phase are to identify problem statements, objectives, scope, and significance of the project.

Planning

Fig. 2 SDLC phases

Analysis

Design

Development

Evaluation and Documentation

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3.2 System Analysis From the feasibility report obtained during the planning phase, the system was properly analyzed, and all requirements were recognized. During this phase, hardware and software requirements, scope of project, schedule of project, and application logic were identified. A few tools had been defined during this phase and would be used during the system design development such as Sublime Text, MySQL, Adobe Photoshop, Visio, PHP Scripting language, and SMS gateway.

3.3 System Design Among the activities involved during this phase were to create the system workflow and design the database and interface of the system. The workflow and interface were created during this phase to help the developer understand the workflow of the new system. The proposed system must be better and more efficient than the old system. Dreamweaver and Microsoft Visio were among the tools used to design the workflow and interface of the proposed system.

3.4 System Development During this phase, the system was developed based on the system requirements and business needs. The layouts interface of the web-based was developed using Sublime Text. Program MySQL and Apache were written in PHP scripting language. Meanwhile, the system database was created using MySQL. Apache was used as the platform to run the system. Then SMS gateway script was integrated with the web-based to make the system able to send the message to the students’ mobile phones.

3.5 System Evaluation and Documentation In this phase, the usability test was conducted to make sure that the proposed system can handle required tasks in the real environment. Documentation also took place in this phase where all information was documented and delivered into a project report.

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4 Prototype The prototype for this research is called the e-Activity Notification System. The system will display the list of upcoming events based on faculty and college. The different login accounts for staff and students will differentiate the access level to the system (Fig. 3). The SMS sending feature as shown in Fig. 4 indicates that the user can choose the group of students, who are involved in a particular event. Then, the SMS will be sent simultaneously and directly to all recipients.

Fig. 3 Some of the system interfaces

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Fig. 4 SMS sending feature

5 Findings and Discussion Survey on usability testing was carried out to test if the system will be easy to use by the end user. 30 respondents comprise UiTM Perlis students, lecturers and staff have been selected to answer all questions listed in the questionnaires. The feedback from the users can be used to enhance and improve the system. Table 1 tabulated the results of usability testing for the criteria tested on the notification system. The mean scores for all criteria involved in the testing are in the range of 4.0–5.0. The “Content of the System” is evaluated in terms of the information provided in the system, how well the content helps students to find out activities and how staff manages the activities information. The “Interaction and Navigation” focuses on how well the user interacts with the system and how consistent the navigation is provided in the system. The “Font and Interface Design” purposely looks at the use of text font and color, the use of words and instructions are understandable, and the attractiveness of the interface design. The “SMS Notification” obtained the highest score 4.6 for the mean score which indicates that the use of SMS notification to Table 1 Mean score for each criteria of the e-Activity notification system

Criteria

Mean

Content of the system

4.5

Interaction and navigation of the system

4.4

Font and interface design of the system

4.3

SMS notification

4.6

Ease of use

4.4

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disseminate information in university is effective and preferable. Users also agreed that the system is easy to use and only needs minimal guidance. The mean scores for all criteria as shown in Table 1 demonstrate that users are satisfied with the eActivity Notification System and they believe that the system can be used to replace the current system.

6 Conclusion and Recommendation In conclusion, the notification system has successfully achieved its objectives since it can help the university to send information via SMS technology, which is more reliable than the use of other channels. Other than that the system reduces administrative work to disseminate event notifications to the students. The use of web-based and SMS technology enables the system to send SMS directly to the targeted students. From the findings, the system is a very effective tool and can be utilized to its full extent. For future works, the system can be expanded to give notification to the university staff as well and provide a dual-language system in Malay and English.

References Brown S, Brown TX (2013) Value of mobile monitoring for diabetes in developing countries. In: Proceedings of the sixth international conference on information and communication technologies and development full papers–ICTD’ 13, vol 1. Cape Town. South Africa, pp 267–273 Chen X, Sin SCJ (2013) ‘Misinformation? What of it?’: motivations and individual differences in misinformation sharing on social media. In: Proceedings of the ASIST annual meeting, vol 50. Quebec Canada, pp 1–4 Fernandez M, Alani H (2018) Online misinformation: challenges and future directions. In: Companion of the web conference 2018 on WWW’ 18. Geneva, Switzerland, pp 595–602 Ismail S, Husen MN (2013) Adoption of SMS and web based system to measure usability and effectiveness of text alert system as broadcast communication for managing and disseminating information. Int J Comp Commun Eng 2(1):33–35. https://doi.org/10.7763/IJCCE.2013.V2.130 iSMS Malaysia (2018) How services of API works. Retrieved January 20, 2018, from http://isms. com.my/bulksms.php Jaho E, Tzoannos E, Papadopoulos A, Sarris N (2014) Alethiometer: a framework for accessing trustworthiness and content validity in social media. In: Proceedings of the 23rd international conference on world wide web–WWW’ 14 Companion. Seoul Korea, pp 749–752 Jane MCS, Casey RDM, Carmela SMBE, Camille PTH (2018) Development of online hospital document management with SMS notification system. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International conference on E-society, E-education and E-technology (ICSET 2018). Taipei, Taiwan, pp 150– 154 Khanim SG, Ahmed FYH (2018) Utilization of short message services (SMS) for library notification system. Int J Appl Eng Res 13(9):6503–6513 Lanza BBB, Cunha MA (2013) Relations among actors in governmental projects. Int J E-Services Mobile Appl 5(3):25–42 https://doi.org/10.4018/jesma.2013070102

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Lanza BBB, Gil-Garcia JR, Gimenez FAP (2017) Understanding the potential of mobile government in developing countries. In: Proceedings of the 18th annual international conference on digital government research Dg o.’ 17. New York, USA, pp 436–445 Lanza BBB (2016) Business model for SMS based government services: an analysis from configuration theory. In: Proceedings of the 9th International conference on theory and practice of electronic governance (ICEGOV. 15–16). Montevideo Uruguay, pp 420–423 Lumauag RG (2016) SENT SMS: school event notification through SMS. Asia Pacific J Multidiscipl Res 4(44):61–68 https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3520.6001 Ziden AA, Rosli M, Gunasegaran T, Azizan SN (2017) Perceptions and experience in mobile learning via SMS: a case study of distance education students in a Malaysian Public University. Int J Interact Mobile Technol 11:116–132. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v11i1.6332

Remote Monitoring of Elderly via Web-Based Technological Approach to Promote Health and Well-Being Living Suriana Ismail, Khairunnisa Hamzah, and Roslan Ismail

Abstract Developing health-supported applications to facilitate elderly living alone is one of the challenges nowadays. An increased number of elderly choose to live alone or are sent by the family to stay at an elderly center, which makes it vital to provide a complete monitoring system especially to take care of their well-being. This study developed a web-based monitoring system for the elderly, as Indoor Elderly Tracking System which has used the acronyms of IETS to monitor and improve the ability of any care center services toward their elderly customers. Health-supported application has been a growing interest, especially for the elderly group of users. It is becoming a trend nowadays for the elderly to stay home alone. Thus, it is vital to provide a health monitoring application to cater to these needs. In this paper, the adaptability of web-based and RFID technology is discussed and used as the main platform for the initial prototype of IETS. The prototype is intended to serve as a monitoring point to provide easy access to locating the elderly within the designated area. The paper proposes the possible objective of IETS, describing the features and interface of the prototype. The results from the analysis of testing and evaluation of IETS shows a positive result of 80% passed the test case intended for the system. Keywords Elderly · Health monitoring aid · Web-based

S. Ismail (B) · R. Ismail Software Engineering Section, Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Information Technology, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] R. Ismail e-mail: [email protected] K. Hamzah Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Information Technology, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_13

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1 Introduction In recent years, the number of elderly people living alone has increased drastically. Thus, there is an urgency to prioritise the need for indoor healthcare services in order to improve the well-being of elderly residents to live a safe and independent life. There has been increasing interest in indoor ubiquitous healthcare applications that monitor the elderly via sensors and enable the first alert or warning sign to them or healthcare providers of any abnormal conditions. Special attention needs to be given to the elderly group of people due to the fact of the aging factor. They need close monitoring of their daily basis activities to reduce unexpected tragedies (Karmen and Poi 2014). The most common diseases often associated with the elderly group of people are Alzheimer’s and dementia. The patient tends to lose their memory as such the patient might lose his or her way back to their home. Thus, this specific group of elderly need to be always in sight of their guardian. A system that enables the detection of changes in behavior during normal indoor activities is important to provide safe, secure and systematic monitoring for elderly people especially those who are living on their own (Barsocchi et al. 2015). To mitigate this problem, a remote monitoring system named as Indoor Elderly Tracking System (IETS) was developed. IETS aimed to provide a monitoring system for the caregiver of an elderly group to improve the health and well-being of the group. The system enables the caregiver to easily locate the registered elderly in an indoor environment. The system is also able to view the elderly health condition and alert the caregiver if undesirable conditions occur immediately. This would be a first and fast action towards providing monitoring of the health condition of the elderly. The prototype of the IETS system uses radio-frequency identification technology to accurately locate and track the elderly. The proposed system provides real-time monitoring of elderly people’s whereabouts. In addition, it analyses their locations in association with time slots and the length of time they stay in the same place. This information is used to determine elderly people’s well-being and to warn family or healthcare workers of any potential problems. The proposed IETS system improves the quality and convenience of care delivered to elderly people. As the number of elderly registered and a permanent resident increased yearly, the existing system of manual form registration, record and filling create a cumbersome and time-consuming issue for the care center. Thus, IETS is developed to provide a monitoring tool for the elderly care center to assist the caregiver in taking care of these groups of residents especially those who really need close monitoring of their daily routine. With the usage of the system in place, it will lift up the burden of the caregiver in ensuring the smooth daily operations of the care center with effortless. The system enables location detection of the resident, managing of health record and alert function for the caregiver. IETS leverages most on the RFID technology for its main functionality of location detection of the residents. The RFID reader is located at various strategic locations within the premise of the care center, while the RFID tags are mounted on the wrist of the residents to enable easy detection of the actual position of the specific residents. This will speed up the location detection especially

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when there is an emergency case of falling or abnormal casualties’ occurrences (Liu et al. 2007). In order to promote better measurement and security for the elderly group, a remote monitoring system with embedded web-based technology is one of the possible solutions (Ni et al. 2003). By utilizing this emerging integrated system prototype of remote monitoring through a web-based application, the caregiver has more control over the well-being of the elderly resident at the care center (Finkenzeller and Muller 2010). Since the rapidly aging population has become a global phenomenon, and modern society is now getting busier with their career, the traditional way of caring for the elders in a family just cannot fit in the modern way of life. Therefore, how to utilise modern information technology for the elderly care issue becomes an important and meaningful research focus. The objectives of this study are to implement remote accessibility for the elderly user by using the RFI reader and tag and to provide an alert function in response to the detection of abnormal movement of the elderly residents. Whenever new resident registers, an RFID tag will be simply pasted onto their wrist tag and register their details into the system. Once a user wants to look for the elderly, the user can simply search for the web application and the user will know the current location of the elderly in the building.

2 Problem Statement Following are comparisons of the existing applications and techniques that contributed to the development of the IETS application:

2.1 Case Study I: Indoor Positioning Cars by Infsoft Indoor positioning cars, particularly for car showroom usage, involves two stakeholders, namely operator and customer. These two different stakeholders have different needs to be catered to by the application. Simultaneous input information on technical details and also an overall real-time location of the actual vehicle in the current showroom are projected via a web interface to the operator, making it very helpful to instantly locate the car (Gaudlitz 2017). This application provides an efficient process of maintenance workflow, which enables the tracking status of the vehicle under maintenance. It also enables the facilities of measurement of the service life of each car. The navigation and filter functions provided by the application really help the customers to locate the desired car location easily. With this application, the process of car selection can start at home without going to the actual showroom. The car models can be viewed and saved in a watch list for

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Fig. 1 View of car location within the showroom of car vendor

later viewing. Efficient time management is in place as the customer can save time by using the application to direct them to the specific route to reach the location of the pre-viewed selected car once they reach at the actual showroom destination. The technical implementation is illustrated in Fig. 1. Each vehicle in the showroom of the Used Car Center is attached with BLE beacons that enable the transmission of the signals to the nearest LoRa/BLE tags that are located on the walls/lamps. The LoRa/BLE tags will send the data packets received from the beacons to the main infsoft LocAware platform®. By the complete transmission from both the beacons and tags, the actual location or map of the searched vehicle or any other requested information by the employees and customers can be viewed through an application or web interface.

2.2 Case Study II: Accuware Indoor Navigation Utilizing the Wi-Fi with data incorporated from devices internal sensors to provide the devices accurate location within sub-meter accuracy is the method used in Accuware Indoor Navigation mobile system. The mobile applications assist the users with turnby-turn accurate instructions to their final location. The application runs on both iOS and Android-enabled devices which provide easy usage for most the users. This mobile application provides real-time positioning assistance within 2 m or less, which is a good feature of the location detection system. The site management feature enables a user to manage indoor floor plans and inspect the fingerprints database. Accuware Indoor Navigation requires fingerprinting the site to build a database of ambient Wi-Fi signals. Since the application is highly dependent on Wi-Fi connectivity, the system needs to be in a place where the infrastructure for Wi-Fi assess is very strong. Location

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Fig. 2 Accuware indoor navigation interface training

accuracy is dependent on the density of available signals and the quality of the training (Accuware 2017). The training interface of the Accuware Indoor Navigation system is depicted in Fig. 2 below.

2.3 Case Study III: Senion Mobile Smart Office Another application of location detection but focuses on locating a colleague at various locations of the building was developed by Senion Smart Office. The application helps any organization not only in locating their team members but also in searching for an available conference room for ad hoc team meetings or with the technical and facilities required. With the usage of smart offices in place, it increases the productivity and satisfaction. Figure 3 illustrates the searching interface features within the application. Realtime searching for teammate, specific colleague, and empty room to be booked for meeting are easily found in the application. With the ability to search in real time and to locate the available room within their mobile phone, making it very hassle-free to provide a solution for their searching. As a result, the productivity of the whole company can be increased and with this real-time indoor positioning, you’ll instantly see where your next meeting is and the quickest way to get there (Senion 2017).

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Fig. 3 Main interface of Senion smart office

2.4 Case Study IV: SmartPTT Indoor Tracking SmartPTT Indoor Tracking utilises GPS technology to monitor the position of employees. The system is to be used with Motorola MOTOTRBO radios and enable to locate employees in both indoor and outdoor environment. Figure 4 illustrates the SmartPTT Indoor Tracking interface indoor environment. Utilizing this system provides the features of real-time indoor positioning system for MOTOTRBO users. Among the functionality of the systems include, displaying user movements in 2D or 3D plans, located on various floors and for multiple levels of buildings, updated guard patrol route, geo-fencing with configurable alarms, and lone worker support. During an emergency case, these features surely benefit the employer as they can locate the precise location of the employees in danger. Thus, the time taken for the actual rescue team can be reduced with the help of this system as an early prevention system. A proper procedure and lifesaving action can be executed better as the system provide the latest update of the current situation or any deviations from the actual route within the environment (Smartptt 2017). Based on all of the discussed related case studies, the following features as in Table 1 are implemented for the prototype which covers all features in order to provide better coverage of remote monitoring.

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Fig. 4 SmartPTT indoor tracking

Table 1 Technical features analysis between all cases

3 Methodology As to develop the proposed prototype, six main phases are followed development of the IETS prototype to ensure the completeness of the overall system. The first phase starts with the planning phase which comprises the identification of problem scope, and determine the proposed solution with consideration of available resources, cost, and time. The second phase is system analysis and requirements in which functional requirements are developed. The third phase is the system design of suitable architecture for the system. Followed by the fourth phase of the development of the prototype. Phase five is the integration and testing of the prototype. The last phase six is the maintenance of the completed system. Figure 5 illustrates the methodology of the IETS prototype.

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Fig. 5 IETS methodology

Requirements are gathered to address the actual needs of both users and residents. The following use cases are developed and refined to capture the actual features of the system required. Table 2 illustrates the use case for the caregiver and admin for the main function as an id-based use case. Table 2 shows that for each user of caregiver and admin, there are eight main use cases developed. Since the caregiver is a person who will be responsible for the care center or at the actual location, a login test case must be provided to test the authentication and also authorization of the caregiver. Similar case for admin, a responsible administrative must be validated in order to give access to the right person to have access to the data. Admin will have the accessibility to manage users, readers, and residents. The use cases for all management of users, reader, and residents must be managed carefully to provide correct accessibility for each type of user. The use case of get location and view details is only developed for the caregiver as they are the one who is monitoring the situation. Thus, the caregiver should be able to receive the actual location and view the details of the current location in order to assist if any

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Table 2 Use case descriptions for both caregiver and admin

Use case Caregiver Admin Login Authentication UC1 UC2 Manage User UC3 Manage Reader UC4 Manage Resident UC5 Get Location UC6 View details Get Notification Alert UC7 UC8 Generate Report

problem arises. Both the caregiver and admin shall be able to get notification alerts from the system so that help can be sent right away. After the session completes, the admin shall be able to generate a report as required for further analysis and action that need to be improved. Two main users of caregiver and admin interactions with the main function of the system are shown in Fig. 6. Here a caregiver is responsible for four use cases such as login authentication, get location, view residents’ details, and get notification alert. While for admin, it is focused more on managing the data of the user and the actual process flow of the system. The use cases of login authentication, manage user, manage reader, manage resident, view resident details, get notification alert and also generate the report are under admin responsibility. All of the use cases shall be referred to as to ensure the functionality of both the admin and caregiver of the care center. The use cases need to provide a smooth process flow to enable a complete system.

4 Proposed Web-Based IETS and System Architecture Development of the IETS system mainly utilises the technology of web-based through Microsoft Visual Studio 2017 for the main development tools for coding, testing, and debugging. MS SQL is heavily used to cater to the database management part. To be specific, ASP .NET web form with C# language through Visual Studio 2017 is used to develop this prototype. The .NET Framework 4.6 web application will allow the admin and end-user to interact with the system for locating and viewing the resident’s details. A set of RFID readers shall be placed in the designated area as identified by the admin within the care center premise. All of the information regarding the main activities of the residents within the care center premise will be collected including the time-stamped readings of a specific RFID tag. The RFID tag

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Fig. 6 Related use cases in IETS

is carried by an elderly with the reader’s IP address and feed this data to a cloud Web API service hosted on Microsoft Azure. As for the background application for hardware, Microsoft 10 IoT Core shall be used and as for the storage, Microsoft Azure cloud storage shall be utilised. Figure 7 illustrates the IETS prototype integration of both software and hardware component as proposed. The IETS will receive signals from the tag that is attached to the users in the care center. The data transmitted shall be saved on the database that is stored in the cloud storage of Azure to enable easy accessibility to the system. The system shall send alerts to the caregiver and admin through the IETS system. As illustrated in Fig. 8, the reader shall send energy to tag for power. The tag shall send ID or data back to the reader. The RFID reader shall decode and send it Fig. 7 Integration of software and hardware in IETS

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Fig. 8 Overall system architecture of IETS

to the computer for the system to detect any abnormal activity and send the alert notification if required. To provide a platform for the caregiver and admin of the system to remotely track their residents seamlessly, the IETS was developed based on Figs. 7 and 8 architectures.

5 Results According to the use cases discussed earlier in Sect. 4, Fig. 9 depicts the main interface developed for the IETS system. The main page includes welcoming information to the users, add reader, add tag, and also locate residents. With this simple yet easily managed by the users, the system enables caregivers and admin to keep track of their users at their fingertips. Figures 10 and 11 show the user interface to locate residents and locate logs for the system. A few options are available to enable the caregiver to locate the residents and also check the log of the residents from the system. Figure 12 listed the use case developed and tested based on each user of caregiver and admin. There are four use cases, namely UC1, UC5, UC6, and UC7 for user caregiver. The results demonstrate 100% passes of all use cases tested. While for the admin user, six use cases are tested including UC1, UC2, UC3, UC4, UC7, and UC8. The results also yield 100% passes for all six use cases. Figure 13 is the results of the actual cases based on the alert detection test scenario. There are ten cases extracted for the alert detection. Eight out of ten cases yield a true result while only two yield a false result, giving 80% of the case can be detected by the alert detection and only 20% of cases cannot be detected.

6 Discussion The result as in the previous section depicts a positive outcome based on the percentage of the number of use cases passed as referred to the requirement specified

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Fig. 9 Welcoming homepage Fig. 10 Locate resident

Fig. 11 Log page

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Fig. 12 Use case based on user

Fig. 13 Case based on alert detection

for caregiver and admin. Of ten cases tested for the alert detection system, eight out of ten cases are able to detect the abnormal activity and send instant alert notification to the system and directly to the caregiver and admin in charge. The alert system is able to warn the caregiver of the current abnormal condition of the elderly in the designated location in the care center in real time. Thus, providing early detection of abnormal conditions and helping the caregiver to monitor the elderly in order to ensure that they are in good care at anytime and anywhere. A further investigation on the accuracy and sensitivity test is yet to be executed with an improved prototype version intended to improve the well-being of the elderly.

7 Conclusion In this study, a web-based technology application is developed to provide a remote monitoring system for the elderly within a care center. With the development of

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the system, any emergency or abnormal activities can be addressed immediately and reduce the casualties within the care center. A prototype IETS is proposed and developed based on the requirements gathered and use cases designed. The IETS is aimed to provide and assist these targeted group to improve their well-being and health. Based on the result, all use cases are tested and results show that the requirements gathered adhere to the suitability of the prototype proposed. It is believed that the results of this study could be enhanced if better quality and increased number of RFIDs are in place. It is suggested in the future that a rigorous test and evaluation can be executed to test the robustness and efficiency of the system. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, for supporting and funding this study. Also, special thanks to everyone involved in this work.

References Accuware (2017) Indoor GPS on iOS and Android. Retrieved June 2017, from https://www.acc uware.com/products/indoor-navigation-wifi-ibeacons Barsocchi P, Cimino MGCA, Ferro E, Lazzeri A, Palumbo F, Vaglini G (2015) Monitoring elderly behavior via indoor position-based stigmergy. Pervasive Mob Comput 23:26–42 Finkenzeller K, Muller D (2010) RFID handbook: fundamentals and applications in contactless smart cards, radio frequency identification and near-field communication. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Gaudlitz (2017) Indoor positioning of cars in a car showroom. Retrieved September 2021, from https://www.infsoft.com/Portals/0/Images/use-cases/2017/infsoft-Use-Case-Car-Localizat ion-Showroom.pdf Karmen L, Poi P (2014) Taking care of the elderly in Malaysia. The Star Online. https://www.the star.com.my/lifestyle/family/features/2014/12/18/taking-care-of-our-old-ones/ Liu H, Darabi H, Banerjee P, Liu J (2007) Survey of wireless indoor positioning techniques and systems. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cybernet Part C (Applications and Reviews) 37(6):1067–1078 Ni LM, Liu Y, Lau YC, Patil AP (2003). LANDMARC: Indoor location sensing using active RFID. In: Proceedings of the First IEEE International conference on pervasive computing and communications (PerCom 2003). https://doi.org/10.1109/percom.2003.1192765 Senion (2017) Indoor Positioning for Offices. Retrieved May 2017, from https://senion.com/ind oor-positioning-for-office Smartptt (2017) Indoor tracking. Retrieved June 2017, from https://smartptt.com/solutions/indoortracking

Hadith Text Classification on Sanad Part Using Edge List Nursyahidah Alias, Nurazzah Abdul Rahman, Normaly Kamal Ismail, Zulhimi Mohamed Nor, Muhammad Nazir Alias, and Mohd. Sham Kamis

Abstract Hadith has two components consisting of sanad and the content parts. Most of the studies in hadith text classification focus on the content part named topical classification area. The sanad part, on the contrary, gains less attention in the text classification area. In this study, we design classification rules to classify hadith text based on the sanad part using the edge list concept. The rule-based classification is designed by using 700 hadith texts as a training data set and 300 hadith texts for the testing data set. We evaluate the results by using precision and recall measurement. The precision value is 1.00 by developing the rule-based classification on knowledge from experts. In our study, the recall value was 0.11 because the chronological lists for hadith text in the training set did not represent all chronological lists in Shahih Bukhari hadith, which is more than 7000. In the future, this study can be extended to analyse the overall text classification from Shahih Bukhari. N. Alias (B) Computing Sciences Studies, College of Computing, Informatics and Media, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch Tapah Campus, Perak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. Abdul Rahman · N. K. Ismail Computing Sciences Studies, College of Computing, Informatics and Media, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. K. Ismail e-mail: [email protected] Z. Mohamed Nor Fakulti Pengajian Quran Dan Sunnah, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bandar Baru Nilai, Nilai, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] M. N. Alias Fakulti Pengajian Islam, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Mohd. S. Kamis Fakulti Sains Kognitif dan Pembangunan Manusia, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_14

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Keywords Edge list · Hadith classification · Hadith text · Sanad · Text classification

1 Introduction Text classification has an important role in classifying a document in the digital age. Presently, text classification is widely applied in many areas such as the web (Gupta 2018), medical (Wang et al. 2019; Hughes et al. 2017; Rajni and Shweta 2015), news (Umid and Samir 2018), and social media (Jotikabukkana et al. 2016). It allows academia, law practitioners, social researchers, government, and non-profit organizations to classify thousands of documents automatically by using machine learning or rule-based classification. This study implements the text classification of hadith text. Most of the text classification using machine learning is based on a term frequency scheme to classify the texts. The term frequency scheme is suitable for topical hadith text classification which focuses on the content part. This results in a bigger pool of research done in the area of content-based hadith classification (Nurul et al. 2018; Shaiful et al. 2018; Rahman et al. 2017a, b; Najeeb et al. 2015; Zainudin and Rias 2012; Amirah et al. 2016; Hanum et al. 2014; Al-Kabi et al. 2015; Rahman et al. 2010) in comparison to other areas like sanad-based classification. Najib et al. (2017) studied hadith text classification on the sanad part but only for the individual narrator itself using machine learning based on the term frequency scheme. Ahsan et al. (2018) analysed the dataset repository of the hadith content while Sunnah.com and Saltanera Teknologi 2010–2011 work on hadith translation. The former translated the hadiths into languages such as English and Urdu and the latter, Malay. With respect to the choice of hadith text studied, the previous studies by Jbara (2010), Faidi et al. (2015), Azmi (2014), Siddiqui et al. (2014), Dalloul (2013), Saeed and Jaffry (2013), Harrag et al. (2013) and Harrag et al. (2011) used the hadith texts from Shahih Bukhari because the classification of the hadiths was validated manually by Muhammad bin Ismail, a renowned hadith scientist known as Al-Bukhari. There are more than 7000 hadith texts of Shahih Bukhari (Lidwa Pusaka 2010–2011) published and repeatedly used in a different chapter in the book with different numbering. In the absence of standard numbering, it thus solely depends on the publishers of the hadith. In the research community, there is no standard total number of hadiths texts currently used for research purposes (Saloot et al. 2016; Rahman et al. 2017a, b). This paper explains how to design the rule-based hadith text classification focusing on the sanad part in Sect. 2. In Sect. 3, we discuss the results, and the conclusion of the study is stated in Sect. 4.

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2 Methodology This section explains the process of hadith text classification based on the sanad part. The overall process for hadith text classification involves four phases as shown in Fig. 1. These processes are the pre-processing phase, training phase for building training database activity, classification phase, and evaluation phase. This study used 1000 Shahih Bukhari hadith texts in the Malay Language (Lidwa Pusaka 2010- 2011) for the development process and only focused on the sanad part, placed at the beginning of hadith texts. Hadith has two parts, comprising the sanad part and the content part (Saloot et al. 2016), as shown in Fig. 2. Nine is the numbering for the hadith given by the publisher. This particular hadith has two sanad parts, which are at the beginning and the end of the hadith. The sanad part placed at the beginning of the hadith is “Telah menceritakan kepada kami Adam bin Abu Iyas berkata, Telah menceritakan kepada kami Syu’bah dari Abdullah bin Abu As Safar dan Isma’il bin Abu Khalid dari Asy Sya’bi dari Abdullah bin ‘Amru dari Nabi shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam bersabda:”. The sanad placed at the end is “Abu Abdullah berkata; dan Abu Mu’awiyyah berkata; Telah menceritakan kepada kami Daud, dia adalah anak Ibnu Hind, dari ‘Amir berkata; aku mendengar Abdullah, maksudnya ibnu ‘Amru, dari Nabi shallallahu ‘alaihi wasallam Dan berkata Abdul A’laa dari Daud dari ‘Amir dari Abdullah dari Nabi shallallahu’alaihi wasallam”. The content part is “Seorang muslim adalah orang yang Kaum Muslimin selamat dari lisan dan tangannya, dan seorang Muhajir adalah orang yang meninggalkan apa yang dilarang oleh Allah”. The hadith texts used in this study were validated by a group of hadith experts from Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia, led by one of our research members Dr. Zulhilmi Mohamed Noor. Seven hundred hadith texts were used for the pre-processing and training phase, whereas three hundred hadith texts were used for testing in the classification phase. The detailed steps for the pre-processing stage are shown in Fig. 3.

Pre-processing

700 hadith texts (The corpus)

Training Phase (Building Training Database)

Hadith Text Class

Classification Phase (Classification Algorithm)

300 hadith texts to be classified

Evaluation

Fig. 1 Classification process for hadith text classification based on sanad part (Jbara 2010)

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Shahih Bukhari 9: Telah menceritakan kepada kami Adam bin Abu Iyas berkata, Telah menceritakan kepada kami Syu'bah dari Abdullah bin Abu As Safar dan Isma'il bin Abu Khalid dari Asy Sya'bi dari Abdullah bin 'Amru dari Nabi shallallahu 'alaihi wasallam, bersabda: "Seorang muslim adalah orang yang Kaum Muslimin selamat dari lisan dan tangannya, dan seorang Muhajir adalah orang yang meninggalkan apa yang dilarang oleh Allah " Abu Abdullah berkata; dan Abu Mu'awiyyah berkata; Telah menceritakan kepada kami Daud,dia adalah anak Ibnu Hind, dari 'Amir berkata; aku mendengar Abdullah, maksudnya ibnu 'Amru, dari Nabi shallallahu 'alaihi wasallam Dan berkata Abdul A'laa dari Daud dari 'Amir dari Abdullah dari Nabi shallallahu'alaihi wasallam

Fig. 2 Malay Translated Hadith Text (Saltanera Teknologi 2010- 2011) Begin

A Sanad Part in Malay Translated Hadith Texts

Word tokenizing

Tagging process

Chunk Rules

Sanad Part Rules

Make Chunks

Detect Narrator’s Names Entity and Sanad Structure in Sanad Part

Extract Narrator’s Names Entity and Sanad Type

Restructuring Narrator’s Names Entity in Sanad Part

Original Chronological List in Sanad Part

End

Fig. 3 Pre-processing phase

Narrator’s Name and Sanad Type POS Tag

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Table 1 Python statements No

Python statements

1

perPerkataan = re.findall(r"\w + (?:[-’]\w + )*|’|[-.(] + |\S\w*”, hadis)

2

grammer = r""” POPeriwayatan: { + < PADD > * < NPW > + } { *} { < DUA > } { < PECAHAN > } { < SAME > }

Figure 3 shows the pre-processing phase, which consists of six processes. We designed a rule-based classification for the pre-processing stage except for the Restructuring Narrator’s Names Entity in the Sanad Type process, as shown in Table 1. Input for the pre-processing phase is the sanad part as an input for the tokenization process. Then, we tagged the tokenized sanad part using the Narrator’s Names and Sanad-Type POS Tag. Table 2 explains the POS Tag. After that, we chunked the sanad part using Chunks Rules in the Make Chunks process. We then detected the narrator’s names and sanad type. Next, we extracted those two aspects. Table 1 shows the rule-based classification for pre-processing. We used regular expressions in Python statement. Number one is to tokenize the narrator’s chain part into words. Next, the narrator’s name recognition process uses Python statement number two to identify the names and the patterns of the narrator’s chain that exist in the hadith text. Finally, the last process is Restructuring Narrator’s Names Entity in the sanad part which requires expertise in some hadith texts that have two or three sanads. So, the process was manually implemented by the authors and validated by the experts. The output for the pre-processing phase is an original chronological list in the sanad part. Table 2 shows the POS Tags developed in this study. < NPW > tag narrator’s name per word. < PADD > tag the additional information, which the narrator used to differentiate between narrators that have the same name but different person. < NPRW > tag narrator’s name using family relationship. < DUA > tag the keywords “jalur lain” and < PECAHAN > tag the keywords “dan” which means the hadith has two chronological list. < SAME > tag the keywords “Masih dari jalur periwayatan yang sama dengan hadits sebelumnya” which means the hadith has the same sanad part as previous hadith. Figure 4 shows the training phase which consists of two processes: generating synonyms in chronological list and edge list representation. Synonymous names appeared in these two occurrences – when one name shared by different narrators and when multiple names refer to a single narrator. The synonymous names for the narrator provided by the experts and the original chronological list from the preprocessing stage were the input to generate synonyms chronological list. The original and synonyms chronological list were stored in a database. Then, we designed representation for the classification phase in the edge list representation form. The edge

Narrrator’ name using Family Relation such as bapaknya

Indicates the hadith text has the keywords “jalur lain” which means the hadith has two chronological list

< PADD >

< NPRW >

< DUA >

< SAME >

Indicates the hadith text has keywords “Masih dari jalur periwayatan yang sama dengan hadits sebelumnya” which means the hadith has the same sanad part as previous hadith

< PECAHAN > Indicates the hadith text has the keyword “dan” which means the hadith has two chronological list

Narrator’s name per word such as Abu Hurairah tagged as Abu < NPW > Hurairah < NPW >

Additional Information for narrator’s name such as Sa’id dia adalah anak Abu Sa’id and the tagged Sa’id < NPW > dia < PADD > adalah < PADD > anak < PADD > Abu < NPW > Sa’id < NPW >

< NPW >

Explanation

POS tags

Table 2 POS tags

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Original Chronological List

Generate Synonym Chronological List

Original and Synonym Chronological List

Edge List Representation

Training Database

Synonyms Narrator’s Name Database (expert)

Fig. 4 Training phase

list for every chronological list consists of begin node and end node. Begin nodes were assigned to the current narrator, and the end node was assigned to the narrator coming after the current narrator. The number of the hadith was an attribute for the edge list. The order of each narrator in the chronological list would be an index of the narrator. Table 3 shows the design of the rule-based for the classification phase, and we used Python 3.3.2 (Shaw 2014) to design the rule. The rules consider the matching of six attributes, which are the narrator’s name, narrator’s index in the chronological list, edge list, an attribute for the edge list, attributes for all edge lists in the complete chronological list, and chronological list in the sanad part. The hadith text must satisfy all the six attributes in order to have a complete original chronological list as in Shahih Bukhari.

3 Results and Discussion This section discusses the results after the implementation of hadith text classification. For example, Fig. 5 shows the sanad part of a Malay translated hadith text number 87 as an input for the pre-processing process. Figure 6 shows an output after executing the rule-based in the pre-processing. The hadith has two chronological lists that are indicated in the sentence “jalur yang lainnya” and the lists are the output from the pre-processing. We used a → symbol to show the transmission of hadith between narrators. The first chronological list is Az Zuhri → Syu’aib → Abu Al Yaman, and the second chronological list is Umar →

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Table 3 Rule-based for classification phase Edge Narrator’s Narrator’s index in the list name chronological list

Attribute Attributes for Chronological Class to the all edges list list in sanad edge list in the part complete chronological list

Match

Match

Match Match

Match

Hadith text matches the complete original chronological list in Shahih Bukhari

Hadith text has a complete original chronological list as in Shahih Bukhari

Match

Match

Match Match

Match

Hadith text matches derived chronological list in Shahih Bukhari

Match

Match

Match Match

None

Hadith text partially matches the chronological list in Shahih Bukhari

Hadith text does not have a complete original chronological list as in Shahih Bukhari

None

None

None

None

Hadith text does not match any edge list in Shahih Bukhari

None

Shahih Bukhari 87: Telah menceritakan kepada kami Abu Al Yaman telah mengabarkan kepada kami Syu'aib dari Az Zuhri. Menurut jalur yang lainnya; Abu Abdullah berkata; dan berkata Ibnu Wahb; telah mengabarkan kepada kami Yunus dari Ibnu Syihab dari 'Ubaidullah bin Abdullah bin Abu Tsaur dari Abdullah bin 'Abbas dari Umar”.

Fig. 5 Sanad Part of a Malay Translated Hadith Text numbered 87 (Saltanera Teknologi 20102011)

Abdullah bin Abbas → Ubaidullah bin Abdullah bin Abu Tsaur → Ibnu Syihab → Yunus → Ibnu Wahb → Abu Abdullah. There were 2447 narrator’s names repeated and extracted from 700 hadith texts. After removing the repeated names, there were only 997 narrator’s names with synonymous names still not removed.

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Fig. 6 Output after performing the rule-based in the pre-processing

The chronological list added Rasulullah S.A.W as a narrator root at the beginning of the list. Al-Bukhari was also added to the last narrator in the chronological list. According to the experts, we must add these two narrators because Rasulullah S.A.W is the source of the hadith and Al Bukhari is the one who collected and validated all the hadith texts in the Shahih Bukhari Book. Then, the training phase process developed a training database using 700 hadith texts. However, we had 745 original chronological lists because some hadith texts have two or three sanad. Then, the original sanad and synonym sanad were automatically generated by using synonymous names provided by the experts and this produced 21,099 edge lists for representation. For example, according to hadith experts, Ibnu Syihab, Muhammad bin Muslim bin Syihab, Muhammad bin Syihab, Muhammad bin Syihab Az Zuhri, Ibnu Syihab Az Zuhri, Ibn Syihab, Muhammad bin Muslim, Az Zuhry, Pamannya Anak Saudara Ibnu Syihab, and Syihab are synonymous names for an individual narrator, Az Zuhri. Therefore, from the first chronological list, (Rasulullah S.A.W → Az Zuhri → Syu’aib → Abu Al Yaman → Al Bukhari) the four edge list representing the list were (Rasulullah S.A.W, Az Zuhri, 87), (Az Zuhri, Syu’aib, 87), (Syu’aib, Abu Al Yaman, 87) and (Abu Al Yaman, Al Bukhari, 87). 87, was an attribute of the edge list. Other than that, an order of Rasulullah S.A.W represents the index 0, Az Zuhri for index 1, and successive index numbers respectively. Accuracy evaluation of the classification rules using 700 hadith texts resulted from a value of 100%. Rules for the hadith text classification developed are shown in Table 3. We evaluated the precision and recall parameters of the classification, as shown in Table 6 (Jbara 2010). Tables 4 and 5 shows parameters for hadith text classification on the sanad part. Further, Table 6 shows the evaluation formula and result for precision and recall. We tested the classification rules using 300 hadith texts from the Shahih Bukhari, but a different set from the training set resulted from 317 chronological lists because one existing hadith text has two chronological lists. The testing evaluation resulted in 34 hadith texts classified as hadith texts that had a complete original chronological list as in Shahih Bukhari. 19 texts derived chronological lists in Shahih

154 Table 4 Recall and precision parameters (Jbara 2010)

Table 5 Recall and precision parameters for hadith text classification on sanad part

Table 6 Precision and recall

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In reality, the document is Relevant

Irrelevant

document is relevant

A

B

document is irrelevant

C

D

System says

In reality, the document is Relevant

Irrelevant

document is relevant

34

0

document is irrelevant

283

0

Precision (P)

= A/ (A + B)

= 34/(34 + 0)

1.00

Recall(R)

= A/ (A + C)

= 34(34 + 283)

0.11

Bukhari. 272 hadith texts had partial chronological lists in Shahih Bukhari. 47 hadith texts did not match any edge list in Shahih Bukhari. In total, 283 hadith texts were classified as not having a complete original chronological list as in Shahih Bukhari which indicated 1351 edge list input for the classification, but only 737 edge list was classified. Precision was 1.00 and recalls 0.11. The recall was low because the chronological lists for hadith text in training did not represent all chronological lists in Shahih Bukhari hadith, which is more than 7000. For the development of hadith text classification, we used 1000 hadith texts from Shahih Bukhari, focusing only on the sanad part and divided into 700 for training and 300 for testing. The recall value shows that 34 out of 300 hadith texts in the testing set had chronological lists matching the hadith text in the training dataset compared to manual classification. Manual classification consumes hadith experts’ time and effort to group hadith with the same chronological lists (Lisa 2014).

4 Conclusions In summary, we have designed the classification rules to classify hadith text on the sanad part. This study only designed and tested 30% of total hadith in Shahih Bukhari. We designed the rule-based hadith text classification from 700 hadith texts. We used another 300 hadith texts to test the rules and obtained a result of 1.00 for precision and 0.11 for recall value respectively. This study shows an automatic hadith text classification, but further research needs to be carried out to design a rule that meets the objective of hadith text classification. More researchers should explore the hadith text classification area because it will benefit hadith experts and 3.45 million Muslim communities. This area of research requires the cooperation of researchers from

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information extraction, text classification, natural language processing, information retrieval, and hadith scientists. For future research, we will develop and test all hadith texts in Shahih Bukhari for sanad-based hadith text. Acknowledgements This research was funded by the Malaysian Government under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) (FRGS/1/2015/ICT01/UITM/03/1) and Universiti Teknologi MARA Selangor Malaysia.

References Ahsan M, Fawaz KA, Hikmat UK, Muhammad R, Mahwish I (2018) A multilingual datasets repository of the Hadith content. Int J Adv Comp Sci Appl 9(2) Al-Kabi MN, Wahsheh HA, Alsmadi IM, Al-Akhras AMA (2015) Extended topical classification of Hadith arabic text. Int J Islamic Appl Comp Sci Technol 3(3):13–23 Amirah NN, Rahim TM, Mabni Z, Hanum HM, Rahman NA (2016) A Malay Hadith translated document retrieval using parallel Latent Semantic Indexing. In: Third International conference on information retrieval and knowledge management. IEEE Azmi AM (2014) A novel method to automatically pass hukm on Hadith. In: 5th International conference on Arabic language processing. pp 118–124 Dalloul YM (2013) An ontology-based approach to support the process of judging Hadith Isnad. Master Thesis, Islamic University of Gaza Faidi K, Ayed R, Bounhas I, Elayeb B (2015) Comparing Arabic NLP tools for Hadith classification. Int J Islamic Appl Comp Sci Technol 3(3):1–12 Gupta S (2018) Automated text classification using machine learning. https://towardsdatascience. com/automated-text-classification-using-machine-learning-3df4f4f9570b Hanum HM, Bakar ZA, Rahman NA, Rosli MM, Musa N (2014) Using topic analysis for querying Halal information on Malay documents. J Procedia Soc Behav Sci 21:214–222. Harrag F, Alothaim A, Abanmy A (2013) Ontology extraction approach for prophetic narration (Hadith) using association rules. Int J Islamic Appl Comp Sci Technol 1(2):17–26 Harrag F, El-Qawasmeh E, Al-Salman AMS (2011) Extracting named entities from prophetic narration texts (Hadith). Commun Comp Inform Sci 180:289–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-64222191-0_26 Hughes M, Li I, Kotoulas S, Suzumura T (2017) Medical text classification using convolutional neural networks. In Stud Health Technol Inform. 235:246–250 Jbara K (2010) Knowledge discovery in Al-Hadith using text classification algorithm. J Am Sci 6(11):409–419 Jotikabukkana P, Sornlertlamvanich V, Manabu O, Haruechaiyasak C (2016) Social media text classification by enhancing well-formed text trained model. J ICT Res Appl 10 Lisa P (2014) Enriching ontologies with encyclopedic background knowledge for document indexing in lecture notes in computer science, vol 8797. Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, pp 537–544. Najeeb M, Abdelkader A, Al-Zghoul M, Osman A (2015) A Lexicon for Hadith science based on a corpus. Int J Comp Sci Inform Technol 6(2):1336–1340 Najib SRM, Rahman NA, Ismail NK, Alias N, Nor ZM, Alias MN (2017) Comparative study of machine learning approach on Malay translated hadith text classification based on sanad. In: MATEC Web of Conferences, 135, [00066] Nurul SSBZ, Nurazzah BAR, Mazidah BP, Zainab BAB (2018) Effectiveness of latent Dirichlet allocation model for semantic information retrieval on Malay document. In: Fourth International conference on information retrieval and knowledge management. IEEE

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Rahman NA, Ismail NK, Bakar ZA, Sembok TMT (2007) Mutiara Hadis: a web based retrieval system for Malay Hadith text. http://sigir.uitm.edu.my/webhadis/ Rahman NA, Ismail NK, Nor ZM, Alias MN, Kamis MS, Alias N (2017a) Tagging narrator’s names in hadith text. J Fund Appl Sci 9(5S):295–309 Rahman NA, Soom ABM, Ismail NK (2017b) Enhancing latent semantic analysis by embedding tagging algorithm in retrieving Malay text documents. In: Advanced topics in intelligent information and database systems. Springer International Publishing, pp 309–319 Rahman NA, Bakar ZA, Sembok TMT (2010) Query expansion using thesaurus in improving Malay Hadith retrieval system. In: Proceedings 2010 international symposium on information technology–system development and application and knowledge society, vol 3. pp 1404–1409. https://doi.org/10.1109/ITSIM.2010.5561518 Rajni J, Shweta T (2015) A lexical approach for text categorization of medical documents. Proc Comp Sci 46:314–320 Saeed AR, Jaffry SW (2013) Information mining from muslim scriptures. In: The 4th Workshop on South and Southeast Asian NLP, international joint conference on natural language processing. pp 66–71 Saloot MA, Idris N, Mahmud R, Ja’afar S, Thorleuchter D, Gani A (2016) Hadith data mining and classification: a comparative analysis. Artif Intell Rev 46:113–128 Saltanera Teknologi (2010–2011) Lidwa Pusaka. Ensiklopedia Hadits Kitab 9 Imam. Indonesia Umid S, Samir R (2018) Automated news categorization using machine learning methods. In: IOP conference series materials science and engineering 459: 12006 Shaiful BR, Mohamad FIAR, Normaly KI, Nurazzah AR, Fatimah A, Zulhilmi MN (2018) Analyzing Malay stemmer performance towards fuzzy logic ranking function on Malay text corpus. In: Fourth International Conference on Information Retrieval and Knowledge Management. IEEE Shaw ZA (2014) Learn python the hard way: a very simple introduction to the terrifyingly beautiful world of computers and code, 3rd edn. Addison-Wesley, United States of America Siddiqui MA, Saleh ME, Bagais AA (2014) Extraction and visualization of the chain of narrators from Hadiths using named entity recognition and classification. Int J Comp Linguist Res 5(1):14– 25 Sunnah.com. The Hadith of the Prophet Muhammad at your fingertips. https://sunnah.com/ Wang Y, Sohn S, Liu S (2019) A clinical text classification paradigm using weak supervision and deep representation. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak 19(1) Zainudin MKAB, Rias RM (2012) M-Hadith: retrieving Malay Hadith text in a mobile application. In: 2012 International symposium on computer applications and industrial electronics. IEEE, pp 60–63 Zulhilmi MN (2020) Curriculum vitae. https://istaff.usim.edu.my/akademik/index.php?page= page_wrapper&menuID=253&nopkj=441

Critical Factors Affecting Learning Management Systems (LMS) Success in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Malaysia Nor Azlan Ahmad, Nur Fazidah Elias, and Noraidah Sahari Ashaari

Abstract This study aims to identify the critical success factors that influence the effective use of Learning Management Systems (LMS) at technical and vocational institutions in Malaysia. From the literature review, we have identified two groups of factors which are human and technology factors. The human factor is a latent factor that will be measured by three subfactors which are motivation, self-discipline and practical training. Meanwhile, the technology factor is another latent factor that will be measured by three subfactors which are information quality, system quality and service quality. It is believed that these two latent factors can accelerate learning and teaching processes at technical and vocational institutions. A conceptual model based on the combination of De Lone and McLean Information System Success Model (IS Success) and Davis Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is used as the theoretical model in this work. Several factors from the IS Success and TAM models together with the human and technology factors in combination will create an extensive model for much better use of LMS in technical and vocational institutions. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to discuss the critical success factors of the model. This study employs an expert review method to verify the factors. A total of six experts are involved in the study. From this study, we can gain insight into better and effective use of the Learning Management System (LMS) in technical and vocational institutions. Keywords Critical success factors · LMS · TVET · Technical and vocational

N. A. Ahmad (B) Universiti Islam Malaysia, Blok I, Bangunan MKN Embassy Techzone, Jalan Teknokrat, 263000 Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. F. Elias · N. S. Ashaari Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_15

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1 Introduction Technical and vocational education is critical in supplying the country with the skilled workers it requires. After several years, the internet brought technology to the educational sector; e-learning has become a phenomenon. (Sandjojo and Wahyuningrum 2016). The priority of future technical and vocational learning growth is stated in the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013–2025. One of the blueprint’s primary goals is to alter the community’s attitude toward technical and vocational education (Yunos et al. 2016). Furthermore, shortages of highly skilled and experienced instructors have become an issue in technical and vocational education in Malaysia (Yasak and Alias 2015). Learning Management System (LMS) was developed so it can be used by students and lecturers to get more knowledge everywhere and available every day (Alshammari and Ali 2016). Implementation of LMSs at a technical and vocational institution is different from other conventional educational institutions, as the technical institution does not only emphasize on cognitive skills but also on technical skills (psychomotor) and self-help factors (Azlim et al. 2015). Users who use the Learning Management System have a variety of specific needs and characteristics such as diverse knowledge, cognitive ability, learning styles and motivation that are not treated well in a uniform way (Klašnja-Mili´cevi´c et al. 2018). Good experience or bad experience using technology may influence students and lecturers to continue or avoid using technology in educational contexts (Popovici and Mironov 2015). Although it has been proven that LMS provides benefits to the user (Dlalisa 2017), a survey conducted at Politeknik Seberang Perai of Penang, Malaysia, has shown evidence of decreasing the use of LMSs from the year 2015 to 2017 (Table 1). Therefore, this finding has motivated this study to assess the effectiveness and acceptance of Learning Management Systems (LMS). However, there is still a lack of understanding of how to assess the effectiveness and acceptance of LMS in the context of technical and vocational education. Because the implementation of LMS in technical and vocational education is different from the conventional education institutions, therefore a suitable model should be proposed. This study adopts Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis 1989) and De Lone & McLean Information System Success Model (Delone and McLean 2003) as the theoretical model. Several factors from these two models would be considered as the initial factors for the proposed model. This study would also identify factors from the literature reviews and expert reviews. Table 1 Students using learning management systems (LMSs) in Politeknik Seberang Perai, Penang (2015–2017)

Year

Total accessed by user

2017

182,275

2016

199,243

2015

231,033

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2 Literature Review Critical success factors could be translated from various angles and need to be fulfilled to enable success for the organization (Rockart et al. 1982). It refers to the element of the success of an organization over another (Spekman 1994). Many previous studies were conducted to monitor the success of the information system (Bunker 2015), some of the researchers say the quality of the e-learning information system is one of the key elements in evaluating the success of an information system (Rosario Cacao 2012). Although many studies have been conducted on the use of Learning Management Systems (LMS), only a few have listed essential elements. They are somewhat underdeveloped, involving institutions’ technical and vocational education (Abdelhak et al. 2015; Aydin et al. 2015; Yasak and Alias 2015). The high degree of user satisfaction will ensure that the systems are fully utilised and continue to promote overall advantages (Ramírez-correa et al. 2017). According to Muhammad and Cavus (2017), when evaluating effective learning management systems to meet the needs of users, accessibility, appropriateness, evaluation tools, learning, multilateral support, mobile, reliability, safety, support, sustainability, usability, and user satisfaction should all be taken into account (i.e., students, lecturers, or educational institutions). In assessing successful Learning Management Systems (LMS), learning, dependability, usability, and user happiness should be given the greatest importance. Furthermore, current LMSs must be upgraded from time to time as user demands evolve in parallel with technological advancements (Ibrahim Almarashdesh et al. 2013). Challenges such as low self-esteem, lack of control over lecturers, ineffective relationships, and feelings of isolation, according to Markova et al. (2017), reduce consumer happiness with online learning experiences. There are also studies that use Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to examine the factors influencing users’desire to use LMS among 286 students who said users who are dissatisfied with their LMS experience tend not to use it anymore (Al-gahtani 2016). According to research, system quality and information quality components are the main factors influencing the willingness of users to use LMS (Mohammadi 2015). The most challenging aspects of implementing e-learning in technical and vocational education are technology, human resources, and infrastructure. According to some research, the multimedia framework element, learning management theory, should prioritize instructional design for technical and vocational teaching and learning (Yasak and Alias 2015). E-learning researchers in education suggest various research models for assessing, anticipating and improving the use of information systems on e-learning platforms. This study will discuss several factors from De Lone and McLean Information Systems Success Model and Davis Technology Acceptance Model (TAM).

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2.1 Davis Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is a theory developed by Davis (1989) and was derived from the Theory of Reasoned (TRA) founded in 1975 by Fishbein and Azjen. The TAM model describes the user’s interest based on three important factors: Perceived Usefulness (U), Perceived Easy of Use (E) and Attitude Toward Using (A). Perceived Usefulness (U) and Perceived Easy of Use (E) are the main variables that influence a system to be used. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is the most popular model used in the study of technology acceptance (Fabito 2017). However, TAM has its own limitations as it does not suppress social influence in the use of technology. Besides, some external variables need to be used with this model to obtain consistent predictions for the use of information systems. Emotional requirement factors such as motivation that are not placed within the TAM limit the ability of this model to be applied in the context of acceptance and use of information technology by users. In short, in this theory, the user needs, attitude and convenience affect the user in using technology.

2.2 DeLone and McLean (2003) is Success Model DeLone and McLean (2003) model is a popular model that was first introduced in 1992 that relates to information systems success. This model was developed by Delone and Mclean (1992) and has been used by many researchers to identify, draw, and explain the relationship between the six dimensions of information system success. These are system quality, information quality, service quality, intention to use/use, user satisfaction and net benefits that will be used to evaluate the effectiveness and success of an information system (Hagos et al. 2016).

3 Methodology In this paper, the relevant factors were identified by conducting a literature review using terms that are relevant in the area of interest of this study such as TVET, LMS, information system, system quality, practical education, training information system and vocational learning management system. The searching process was conducted in a wide range of online databases such as IEEE Xplore digital library, Wiley Online Library, Science Direct, Google scholar, Citeseerx, ResearchGate, and Springer link. Several factors from De Lone and McLean IS Success Model and Davis Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) will be considered as the initial factors for the proposed model. Possible factors will be identified from relevant literature. After that, an expert evaluation will be done to confirm the factors. The experts are lecturers or instructors who are currently using LMS at Malaysian technical and vocational institute. The

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Fig. 1 Conceptual model to assess the effectiveness and acceptance of the Learning Management Systems (LMS)

first phase’s outcome is a list of factors that are the hypothesis for increasing the successful usage of LMS in TVET. The conceptual model is presented in Fig. 1.

4 The Conceptual Model The outcome of the literature and expert review has produced a conceptual model that can be used to assess the effectiveness and acceptance of the Learning Management Systems (LMS) among students and lecturers in technical and vocational institutions in Malaysia. In Fig. 1, it is proposed that the model has antecedents and consequence factors. The antecedent factors are Technology factor that consists of Service Quality, System Quality and Information Quality. Human factors that consist of Practical Training, Self-Discipline and Motivation and two other factors are Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease of Use. These antecedents’ factors will affect user satisfaction and user intention to use LMS. It is assumed that if the user satisfaction and user intention to use increase, this will also increase the actual use. The explanation of the factors will be discussed in the following sections:

4.1 Technology Factor Technology Factor consists of Service Quality, System Quality and Information Quality subsectors. The definition for each subfactor is as follows:

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4.2 System Quality System quality is evaluated based on the performance of a system rather than individual observation (Jafari et al. 2015). The quality of the system is also evaluated based on functionality, easy to use, reliability, data quality, mobile, integration, adaptation availability and time to response (Findik Co¸skunçay and Özkan, 2013; Review et al. 2017; Wu et al. 2010). The study by Mohammadi (2015), on the user’s elearning system in Iran found that system quality is an important element that affects consumers rather than the quality of service and information quality.

4.3 Service Quality Among the items identified in service quality were the provision of guidance and support services, time to respond, user feedback in design and development, content management and service provision. The quality of service can also determine user satisfaction and determine the intention to continue using the system (Wang et al. 2016).

4.4 Information Quality The study by Dorobat (2014), reported that information quality refers to accurate information and content, types of information and options, easy to understand, upto-date and information in a good structure.

4.5 Human Factors Human factor consists of Practical Training, Self-Discipline and Motivation subsectors. The definition for each subfactors are as follows:

4.6 Practical Training According to Bloom’s Taxonomy Theory, there are three domains that need to be achieved by students in the learning process which include cognitive domain, affective domain and psychomotor domain. According to Yasak and Alias (2015) the previous researcher focused on the cognitive domain aspect and less emphasis on

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psychomotor domains. The study by Olivos et al. (2016) stated that the practical activities and facilities provided at educational institutions are the best aspects of training to identify how the students understand theoretical explanations. The previous study noted that for those involved in more complex technical fields such as aviation and surgery will also affect the development of their psychomotor domain (Kim et al. 2018). Knowledge of technical skills is also necessary for TVET lecturers, especially those with training and skills capable of teaching well. Among the critical challenges faced by TVET lecturers are the lack of exposure to teaching, lack of experience and workload that cause lecturers to be less interested in teaching and learning. A study by Yusof et al. (2015) suggests that lecturers need to play an active role and strategy in teaching methods. According to another research, TVET lecturers must have cognitive, pedagogical, and psychomotor competence (Cakrawati et al. 2016). This view is also supported by Yasak and Alias (2015), which states that using ICT in TVET education will stimulate students to use cognitive and psychomotor domains actively.

4.7 Self-Discipline Two essential factors that affect success are motivation and self-discipline (Copriady 2014; Gorbunovs et al. 2016; Mohamad et al. 2015). Self-discipline refers to the capacity to manage emotions and overcome flaws. Self-control, or the capacity to avoid any unpleasant aspects of therapy, is another definition of self-discipline (Gorbunovs et al. 2016). Self-discipline refers to the ability to achieve learning objectives while increasing efficiency. Those with a higher level of self-discipline are better able to control their daily activities, avoid problems, and overcome obstacles in tasks. They’re attempting to find solutions and the skill to self-control. According to Ogrizek et al. (2015), there is a decline in interest and motivation in online teaching and learning; Therefore, this research aims to examine the motivation and self-discipline of lecturers and students who use LMS in technical and vocational education.

4.8 Motivation According to Mobarhan et al. (2014) there is a lack of research on understanding the role of motivation in systems usage although there are researchers who state the importance of motivation in the use of LMS (Ogrizek et al. 2015). Intrinsic and extrinsic are two types of motivation where intrinsic refers to motivation that comes internally and without expecting rewards and interests, meanwhile, extrinsic motivation refers to external factors affecting users such as grades and rewards that provide satisfaction and enjoyment to the user even though the information technology element itself does not give satisfaction as expected (Fabito 2017; Mohamad et al. 2015). The effectiveness of using computer systems is one of the key factors in achieving sustainable ICT learning (Kuo et al. 2013). Motivation,

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computer systems, internet, and online communication is an important predictor of student satisfaction (Yilmaz 2017). According to Harandi (2015), even though users are satisfied and agree that ICT training meets their needs, users’ satisfaction sometimes does not motivate them to continue using ICT. Other factors in the model are defined as follows:

4.9 User Satisfaction Among the items identified, are perceptions of the system use, user’s satisfaction with system performance, high level of maintenance to user satisfaction, providing training to users and gaining user trusts.

4.10 Intention to Use Among the items identified is the user’s confidence in the benefits of system use, the tendency of system use, the system’s duration of use and the frequency of system use. . Perceived Usefulness (PU): PU refers to the degree to which a person believes that using e-learning tools is useful and easy to use. . Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) PEOU refers to the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free to effort. PEOU positively and significantly affects attitude towards intention and PU to use systems

4.11 Actual Use Among the things identified were performance efficiency improvements, training, acquiring new knowledge, system autonomy to users and costs. These specified elements affect the actual use of the system by the user as a whole. A quantitative review will validate this conceptual model and discuss this action in our future paper.

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5 Significant Contributions The expected outcome will focus on the acceptance of the implementation of the learning management system (LMSs) in the teaching and learning of TVET in technical and vocational institutions involving lecturers and students. This study is important to obtain feedback on the use of the Learning Management System (LMS) in technical and vocational education in Malaysia. The study will explore new factors that can influence users in using LMS applications, especially those involved in technical and vocational fields.

6 Conclusion In this paper, a conceptual model was introduced. This model is hoped to help us and other researchers in increasing the use of LMS in TVET. Although this study has adapted De Lone and Mc Lean IS Success and Davis TAM models, other factors such as practical training, self-discipline and motivation that were found to be relevant were also added. Technical and Vocational learning is a field that is central to the progress of each country and6 the implementation of this Learning Management System (LMS) will ensure that Malaysia’s target of becoming an industrialized nation will be achieved. Acknowledgements This study was supported by Universiti Islam Malaysia, Cyberjaya, Selangor. My special thanks to Dr. Nur Fazidah Elias and also Dr. Noraidah Sahari for contributing to this research.

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Mohammadi H (2015) Computers in human behavior investigating users’ perspectives on e-learning: an integration of TAM and IS success model. Comput Hum Behav 45:359–374. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.chb.2014.07.044 Muhammad MN, Cavus N (2017) Fuzzy DEMATEL method for identifying LMS evaluation criteria. Procedia Comp Sci 120:742–749 Ogrizek I, Lackovi S, Jurina K (2015) Successful and proactive e-learning environment fostered by teachers’ motivation in technology use. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 174:3656–3662 Olivos P, Santos A, Martín S, Ca M, Gómez-lázaro E, Maya Y (2016) The relationship between learning styles and motivation to transfer of learning in a vocational training programme. Suma Psicol 23:25–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sumpsi.2016.02.001 Popovici A, Mironov C (2015) Students’ perception on using elearning technologies. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 180:1514–1519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.300 Ramírez-correa PE, Rondan-cataluña FJ, Arenas-gaitán J, Alfaro-perez JL (2017) Telematics and informatics moderating effect of learning styles on a learning management system’s success. 34 272 286 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2016.04.006 Review ASL, Asalla LK, Putri MR, Pradipto YD (2017) The critical success factor of E-Learning in higher education. In : International conference on information management and technology (ICIMTech), November. pp 192–197 Rockart JF, Ball L, Bullen CV (1982) Future role of the information systems executive. MIS Q 6:1–14. https://doi.org/10.2307/248989 Sandjojo N, Wahyuningrum T (2016) Measuring e-learning systems success: implementing D and M is success model. In: Proceedings of the 2015 4th International Conference on Interactive Digital Media, ICIDM 2015, Icidm. pp 4–9. https://doi.org/10.1109/IDM.2015.7516343 Spekman JMR (1994) Characteristics of partnership success: partnership attributes, communication behavior, and conflict resolution techniques. 15(2):135–152 Wang Y, Li C, Yeh C, Cheng S, Chiou C, Tang Y, Tang T (2016) A conceptual model for assessing blog-based learning system success in the context of business education. Int J Manag Educ 14(3):379–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2016.09.002 Wu JH, Tennyson RD, Hsia TL (2010) A study of student satisfaction in a blended e-learning system environment. Comput Educ 55(1):155–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.12.012 Yasak Z, Alias M (2015) ICT integrations in TVET: is it up to expectations? Procedia Soc Behav Sci 204:88–97 Yilmaz R (2017) Exploring the role of e-learning readiness on student satisfaction and motivation in flipped classroom. Comput Hum Behav 70:251–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.085 Yunos JM, Sern LC, Hamdan NH (2016) Changes and challenges in sustainability of technical and vocational education and training—teacher education programme : a case study. In: IEEE 8th International Conference on Engineering Education (ICEED). pp 80–85. https://doi.org/10.1109/ ICEED.2016.7856099 Yusof Y, Roddin R, Awang H (2015) What students need, and what teacher did: the impact of teacher’s teaching approaches to the development of students’ generic competences. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 204:36–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.107

Mathematics

Solving Queuing Problem at Fast Food Restaurant in Shah Alam Using Simulation Norani Amit, Nurdia Azlin Ghazali, Nur Hidayah Mohd Razali, Noor Aisyah Idris, Noor Hidayah Mohd Zaki, and Busyra Latif

Abstract This paper focuses on the system operation of a fast food restaurant in Shah Alam with the intention to study the underlying concepts of a queue model: arrival and service time distributions, queue disciplines and queue behaviour. Data were collected and analysed based on the arrival time of customers and service time spent by customers to receive service in the system. The data were collected during peak hours, from 11 am to 2 pm. The main aim of this study is to describe the behaviour of a queuing system at a fast food restaurant in Shah Alam using the ARENA simulation software and to determine the queue length, queue time and system time. Based on the observation, it was found that during peak hours, the average waiting time and queue length for customers at the pickup counter are 11.381 min and 3.90 customers, respectively. It shows that customers were waiting in queue at the pickup counter for a long period of time. The results show that the average queuing time at the restaurant exceeded the restaurant’s policy. Keywords Fast food restaurant · Service time · Waiting time

N. Amit (B) · N. A. Ghazali · N. H. M. Razali · N. A. Idris · N. H. M. Zaki · B. Latif Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Negeri Sembilan, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. A. Ghazali e-mail: [email protected] N. H. M. Razali e-mail: [email protected] N. A. Idris e-mail: [email protected] N. H. M. Zaki e-mail: [email protected] B. Latif e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_16

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1 Introduction Queuing is an everyday experience in Malaysia, especially at restaurants, banks, petrol stations and hospitals. Queuing happens when the number of customers who require services exceeds the number of servers. This may be due to the fact that the servers take more time than necessary to serve customers (Sharma 2013). Customers can be described as human beings or physical entities waiting to receive service providers due to long waiting lines. Generally, the waiting time for services can be reduced by increasing the number of servers, however, at the same time, this increases the operating cost. Queuing theory is an effective method, employed in a variety of situations to determine the level of services in order to effectively make use of time for both the customers and service operators (Reid and Sanders 2012). A useful queuing model should represent an actual system of life with sufficient accuracy and can be processed analytically. The queue model is based on the Poisson process and the distribution of the probability of exponential often meets both requirements. The Poisson model processes random events such as customer arrivals, as generated from memory-impaired processes. That is, the length of the time interval from the present to the next occurrence does not depend on the time of the last event. In the Poisson probability distribution, observers record the number of occurrences occurring in fixed long-term intervals. In the negative exponential probability distribution, observers record the length of the time interval between successive events (Koh et al. 2014). Many studies have been done on queue systems in different areas. For instance, Ezeliora et al. (2014) studied the queuing system management at Shoprite Plaza, Enugu, using a single-line multiple server analysis. They recommended a decrease in the number of attendants/servers to reduce the operating cost of the system and reduce the idle time of the servers. Oladejo et al. (2015) helped fast food restaurant owners in terms of optimizing the queuing system using the Poisson distribution and the Exponential distribution. Amit and Ghazali (2018) studied a fast food restaurant in Seremban 2 by simulating a single-line multi-server system. It was noted that the restaurant needed to turn on a multi-teller in the multi-server system to reduce the overall waiting time faced by customers. Most of the work in the literature adopted a single line multiple arrival rate of customers with different arrivals and service rates of the system. Based on a study done by Seow (2000), queuing time refers to the time a customer spends while queuing up in the waiting line before receiving service. Service time refers to the time between a customer receiving the service at a service counter and having the service completed by leaving the counter after getting the food. This current study focuses on the single-line multi-server system of a fast food restaurant in Shah Alam, taking into account customer’s average arrival rates and also counter-server’s service rates. According to Suhadak et al. (2015), simulation is a quick and easy method to test all data and ideas by instantly evaluating the changes that occur to the model. Therefore, this research was conducted with the intention to study the underlying concepts of a queue model in order to determine the average waiting time and average queue length by using the ARENA software simulation.

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2 Methodology Simulation is an experimental problem-solving technique that is used to imitate a real and complex system such as a queuing system. A fast food restaurant has a queuing system with different types of staff, customers and equipment. In this queuing problem, a simulation method is an alternative form of analysis because the queuing system is too complex to be represented by the analytical technique. Moreover, this method allows great flexibility in modeling complex systems. Besides that, the ultimate goal of the simulation is to focus on how the system works and it can provide insight into what can be done to improve a queuing system (Kelton et al. 2015). This research refers to the simulation modeling process and there are several steps involved in this process. According to Maria (1997), the first step is to understand the problem to be modeled while the next stage is to formulate the problem in the model. The following stage is the data collection method, whereby using the primary data, observation was carried out throughout the day. Thus, in order to ensure that the collected data are meaningful, it is important to explain the variable at the earlier stage of data collection. The subsequent step is to formulate and develop a conceptual model based on the real system and this model must be verified so that it represents the real system. At this stage, ARENA software is used to create a model of the restaurant’s system and all the modelling assumptions must be met. This process is to ensure that a conceptual model behaves as a real system. After that, the model must be validated by comparing the model’s performance with the performance of the real system. This is to ensure that the input data matches the data of the actual system. A statistical test is carried out to validate the model. The next stage of the simulation process is to select an appropriate experimental design such as to measure the performance of the system by looking at the customer’s waiting time and length of the queue. Then, experimental conditions for runs are established such as the number of replications to provide performance on the system and the last stage is to perform simulation runs and summarize the results based on the analysis of output. A fast food restaurant in Shah Alam was selected as the study location as it is convenient and easily accessible for the researchers. The primary data were collected on Saturday during the peak lunch hour period from 11.00 am to 2.00 pm. According to Koh et al. (2014), peak hours can be considered during promotions, lunch and dinner time. The data are obtained by observing and recording customer’s arrival time and departure time. Fast food restaurants employ many operation characteristics, however, in this study, the specific characteristic was considered as a single-line multiserver model. Figure 1 shows the layout of the restaurant. From the observation, this fast food restaurant has two servers, namely the order counter and pickup counter. The system starts exactly after customers arrive at the fast food restaurant and queue in front of the order service of choice. There are two options in the ordering process; they can place an order at the counter (order counter) or self-ordered machines (three machines are provided) whenever the counter or machines are available. If the counter or machines are busy, the customer needs to queue until the counter or a machine

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Fig. 1 Layout of fast food restaurant in Shah Alam

is available. After the ordering process is done, customers need to wait until their number is called at the pickup counter to get their food. After they receive their food, the customers will directly leave the system.

3 Results and Discussion The simulation model for the chosen fast food restaurant was developed using the ARENA software. ARENA is a Visio compatible and flowcharting tool. In the ARENA model, entities continue to process flowcharts and take control of resource capacity as they are processed (Amit et al. 2012). The different modules such as create, process, decide and dispose of were placed on the ARENA canvas to illustrate the flow of customers as shown in Fig. 2. The data were analyzed using an input analyzer to identify the allocations regarding waiting and service times that took place in the fast food restaurant. The results are summarized in Table 1. Performance assessments of each counter available at the restaurant were obtained from SIMAN reports as summarized in Table 2. Based on the simulation results, customers on average waited at the order and pickup counters for 0.562 min and

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Fig. 2 Fast food restaurant’s simulation model

Table 1 System’s process distribution Process

Distribution

Expression

Customer arrival

Lognormal

−0.5 + LOGN(3.04, 3.61)

Waiting time at counter

Beta

−0.5 + 5 * BETA(0.986, 2.36)

Counter service

Erla

−0.5 + ERLA(0.346, 5)

Machine 1

Lognormal

0.5 + LOGN(2.31, 1.71)

Machine 2

Beta

0.5 + 6 * BETA(0.361, 0.994)

Machine 3

Lognormal

0.5 + LOGN(2.08, 1.63)

Pickup counter

Lognormal

−0.5 + LOGN(2.91, 1.96)

11.381 min, respectively. Meanwhile, the average queue length at the order counter was 0.17 customers, whereas the average queue length at the pickup counter was 3.90 customers. Based on the analysis, the utilization rate at the order counter was about 39.23%, while for the pickup counter it was around 88.68%. Therefore, the utilization of the pickup counter almost reached 90%. If the utilization for every process reached 90%, the number of customers entering the fast food restaurant increases from the current situation (Nor Aziati and Hamdan 2018). Table 3 shows the performance measures of three self-ordered machines available at the fast food restaurant, namely order machine 1, order machine 2, and order machine 3. Based on the result of the SIMAN Report, order machine 2 produced Table 2 Performance of order and pick up counters Performance measures Average waiting time Average queue length Utilization rate

Order counter 0.562

Pick up counter 11.381

0.17

3.90

39.23%

88.68%

176 Table 3 Performance measures of self-ordered machines

Table 4 System’s performance measures

N. Amit et al. Performance measures

Machine 1

Machine 2

Machine 3

Average waiting time

0.000

0.054

0.000

Average queue length

0.000

0.001

0.000

Utilization rate

1.98%

5.32%

7.03%

Performance measures

Average

Total time of system

16.850

Queue time of system

11.755

Number of customers

89

the longest waiting time during the observation with an average waiting time of 0.054 min and an average queue length of 0.001 customers. Table 4 explains the overall performance measure of the system employed at the restaurant. The results indicate that the average total time per customer, spent in the system was 16.850 min; from ordering until leaving the system. Thus, the average queue time was 11.755 min and the total number of customers in the system was 89. Through observation of the results, this also means that 77 customers completed the service and the rest remained in the system until the end of the observation.

4 Conclusion In this research, the performance of the order counter, pickup counter, self-ordered machines (machine 1, machine 2 and machine 3), and performance of the system had been measured. The key characteristics in this research were rate of utilization, waiting time on average in the system and also in the queue as well as the queue length on average in the system and also in the queue. An employed simulation model was developed using the ARENA software and the data were successfully analysed through the SIMAN report. From the findings, it can be observed that the pickup counter was the busiest counter, with an average of 11.381 min. This is because there is only one counter available for customers to pick up their food, one counter for ordering and three self-ordered machines. Meanwhile, the average waiting time at the order counter is 0.562 min. Apart from that, order machine 2 showed an average waiting time of 0.054 min compared with other order machines. As a recommendation, the fast food restaurant needs to add more counters at the pickup counter to reduce the waiting time. The order machines are probably not fully utilized, since the utilization rate of the order machines is low. The fast food restaurant is recommended to reduce the number of order machines in order to reduce operation costs.

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References Amit N, Ghazali NA (2018) Using simulation to model queuing problem at a fast-food restaurant. In: Proceedings of the regional conference on science, technology and social sciences (RCSTSS). Springer, Singapore, pp 1055–1062 Amit N, Suhadak N, Johari N, Kassim I (2012) Using simulation to solve facility layout for food industry at XYZ company. In: Proceedings of the IEEE symposium on humanities, science and engineering research Ezeliora CD, Ogunoh AV, Umeh MN, Mbeledeogu NN (2014) Analysis of queue system using single-line multiple servers system: a case study of Shoprite Plaza Enugu State, Nigeria. Int J Sci Eng Res 3(3):364–373 Kelton WD, Sadowski RP, Zupick NB (2015) Simulation with arena. McGraw-Hill, Boston Koh HL, Teh SY, Wong CK, Lim HK, Migin MW (2014) Improving queuing service at McDonald’s. In: AIC conference proceedings. American institute of physics, pp 1073–1078 Maria A (1997). Introduction to modelling and simulation. In: Proceedings of the 29th conference on winter simulation. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, DC, USA, pp 7–13 Nor Aziati AH, Hamdan NS (2018) Application of queuing theory model and simulation to patient flow at the outpatient department. In: Proceedings of the international conference on industrial engineering and operations management Oladejo MO, Agashua NU, Tamber JA (2015) Optimizing the queuing system of a fast food restaurant: a case study of Ostrich Bakery. Int J Recent Dev Eng Technol Reid RD, Sanders NR (2012) Operation management: an integrated approach, 5th edn. Wiley, Hoboken Seow HV (2000) Decisions on additional counters in the banking industry and applications of the 220 queuing theory. Doctoral dissertation, Universiti Putra Malaysia Sharma JK (2013) Operations research: theory and applications. Macmillan Publishers LTD, India Suhadak N, Amit N, Ali MN (2015) Facility layout for SME food industry via value stream mapping and simulation. In: Proceedings of the international accounting and business conference, pp 797–802

Comparing the Efficiency of Two Queuing Models for a Fast Food Restaurant Using Analytical Queuing Theory Nurdia Azlin Ghazali and Norani Amit

Abstract Long queuing lines are a common scene in fast food restaurants, especially during peak hours. Due to a change in lifestyle, most people rely heavily on fast food to save time. Long queuing lines indicate that fast food restaurants work under an inefficient service system. This paper describes the analysis of a restaurant queuing system for multi-line with a multi-server model (2*M/M/1). This paper compares the efficiency of the restaurant queuing system between multi-line with multi-server model and single-line with multi-server model (M/M/ 2). The data for analysis were arrival time and service time which were collected at a fast food restaurant in Seremban, Negeri Sembilan. In this paper, the average service time, average idle time, average queue time and average queue length at counters were measured and compared. The results show that the single-line with multi-server model is more efficient than the multi-line with multi-server model. Keywords Fast food restaurant · Multi-line · Queuing time · Single-line

1 Introduction Restaurants and fast food services are some of the global businesses that grow rapidly in the world as well as in Malaysia, especially in urban areas. As lifestyles keep on changing, eating out becomes more preferable for most people to save time and they rely on fast food restaurants. Fast food restaurants can be spotted in many places such as shopping malls, airports, universities, petrol stations, and even hospitals. People do not want to spend a lot of time queuing for food because they will lose their valuable time. Long queuing lines at restaurants are unavoidable, especially during peak hours such as lunch and dinner. Long queuing lines indicate that the service N. A. Ghazali (B) · N. Amit Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Negeri Sembilan, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. Amit e-mail: [email protected]

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system provides low service quality or is simply inefficient. The improvement of waiting time and providing quick service is very important in the service industry (Taylor 2016). Waiting lines or queues are closely related to the queuing theory. This theory was developed to determine the measures of performance of queuing lines which can then be used to design service installation (Taha 2007). A queuing system is one of the good ways to determine the structure of physical entities or customers arriving and joining queues to wait for service and how much waiting takes place. In a real-life situation, customers arrive at the system, wait in line to get the service, and will exit the system once they get the service. Therefore, the queuing theory is appropriate to be applied in a restaurant setting because, in a real-life situation, customers should wait for their turn if they cannot be served immediately once they arrive at the system. Many studies have been conducted to examine queue times at different fast food restaurants in different countries using different methods. Patel et al. (2012) and Molla (2017) applied the queuing theory and Little’s theorem to study the waiting time at restaurants. Many researchers have also applied the simulation method to the model system of restaurants. Curin et al. (2005) and Amit and Ghazali (2018) analysed fast food restaurants’ performance using a simulation study and reducing customers’ waiting time. Dharmawirya and Adi (2011) utilized the queuing theory to analyse the waiting system at a restaurant in Jakarta. They stated that customers’ queuing time affected the performance of the restaurant, especially during lunch and dinner times. Researchers also compared the characteristics of waiting lines to measure the service system performance. Mustafa and Nisa (2015) carried out a queuing analysis and compared the performance of a health care system using single-line with single-server and single-line with multiple-server models. They found that the waiting time of customers could be reduced using a single-line with multiple-server model rather than a single-line with single-server model. Sharma and Barua (2015) modeled a grocery store operation using a single model and proposed an M/M/2 model. The two models were then compared for their efficiencies. In the paper by Vijay et al. (2015), they used a mathematical model and generalized the relations of the performance measures of both queuing models. As a result, the single-line with multi-server model was proven to be better than the multi-line with multi-server model. Saleh and Ahmad (2017) compared the efficiency of two queuing systems at a fast food restaurant by computing the performance measure and they found that the single-line with multi-server model is an efficient model than the multi-line with multi-server model. This paper utilized the queuing theory to model the waiting line system at a popular fast food restaurant in Seremban, Negeri Sembilan. The aims of this paper are to analyze the elements of the restaurant’s performance, reduce waiting time as well as to improve the system efficiency by comparing the current system performance and the proposed system performance using the analytical method.

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2 Methodology This study was carried out at a fast food restaurant in Negeri Sembilan. The method employed in this study is an analytical study. The data on the restaurant system configuration such as number of servers and type of service provided were collected through an interview with the restaurant manager. The data of arrival of customers and service times were collected for three hours during peak hours through observations at the restaurant. Collection of data is from the time customers arrive at the counter to place an order, pay for the food and wait for their food until they leave the counter. The data were tested using the Chi-Square Goodness of fit test to determine the arrival time according to Poisson distribution and the service time was in accordance with exponential distribution. Based on the data collected, the queue’s operating characteristics were used to compute the queuing time and number of customers in the system. This study also proposed a new queuing model for the restaurant as implemented by Vijay et al. (2015). The queue’s operating characteristics for the proposed queuing model were computed and compared.

2.1 A Brief Description of the Queuing System’s Component A queuing system of a restaurant is described by the units being served, the nature of arrival, the service mechanism, the server, the queuing line and the queuing discipline. These basic components of a queuing system are briefly described in Table 1. When it comes to queuing systems, researchers may refer to Kendall’s notation that identifies critical matters regarding the basic components of a queuing system which are the distribution of arrival, M; distribution of service time, M; number of servers, s. The notation is described as M/M/s model. This model can be used to analyze the average waiting time and queue length given the distribution of arrival, distribution of service time, and number of servers. Prior to collecting data for analyzing the restaurant’s queuing system, it is necessary to describe the restaurant’s queuing system based on a queuing system’s basic components. Figure 1 summarizes the flow of the queuing model at the restaurant. It is seen that the restaurant has two counters manned by one server at each counter. It is also seen that customers form a queue at each counter. In this research, the best queuing model for the restaurant is called multi-line with multi-server model (2*M/M/1). This means that the arrival comes from an infinite population and is distributed by the Poisson distribution, first-come and first-served queue discipline, and multi-line and multi-server queue system. In this case, the queuing system has two servers with two queues and the servers provide the same service to customers. The service time follows the exponential distribution. Customers arrive, place their order and pay for the food. Customers wait for their food while the food is prepared. Figure 2 describes the flow of the proposed queuing model based on the single-line with multi-servers (M/M/2) queuing system.

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Table 1 Components of a queuing system Component

Description

Units being served

A customer or called the arrival. The arrival is represented by the time between successive arrivals. The arrivals are defined by the probability distribution of the time between arrivals and frequently described by a Poisson distribution with the rate, λ

Nature of arrival

The arrival size can be either infinite or finite. An infinite arrival size means that there is no limit on the capacity of customers that can enter the restaurant

Service mechanism The service is described by the time to serve customers and frequently described by an exponential distribution with the rate, μ. Service mechanism is also described by the number of services provided in a queuing system; single-phase system or multi-phase system Server

Server is a person that serves customers. In a queuing system, a server can serve one customer at a time. A queuing system may consist of only one server called a single-server system or more than one server called a multi-server system In a multi-server queuing system, there are two or more parallel independent servers that serve a single waiting line. The differences between single-server and multi-server systems are shown in Fig. 1

Queue line

Queue is a line of customers waiting for their turn to be served. The most common queue line that can be observed at a restaurant is either single-line or multi-line Fast food restaurants use a single-line system because servers provide the same service to customers. The differences between single-line and multi-line systems are shown in Fig. 1

Queuing discipline Queuing line is a rule of the way customers in the line are given service. The first-in and first-out basis is highly practiced by restaurants

Fig. 1 Flow of the current queuing model (2*M/M/ 1)

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Fig. 2 Flow of the proposed queuing model (M/M/ 2)

2.2 Multi-Line with Multi-Server Queuing Model The formula of the queue’s operating characteristics was used to analyze the effectiveness of the restaurant queuing system. The formulations of performance measures of the current queuing model, M/M/ 1 are as follows. The probability of no customers in the system. Po = 1 −

λ μ

(1)

The probability of n customers in the system. ( )n λ .Po Pn = μ

(2)

The average number of customers in the system. L=

λ μ−λ

(3)

The average number of customers who are waiting in line for service. Lq =

λ2 μ(μ − λ)

(4)

The average time spent by customers in the system. W =

1 μ−λ

(5)

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The average time spent by customers while waiting in line for service. Wq =

λ μ(μ − λ)

(6)

2.3 Single-Line with Multi-Server Queuing Model The queuing formulas for a multi-server queuing system have been developed on the assumptions that arrivals come from an infinite population and are distributed by the Poisson distribution, first-come and first-served queue basis, and exponential service time. The formulations of the performance measure of the proposed queuing model, M/M/ 2 are as follows. The probability of no customers in the system. Po = [Σ

s−1 1 n=0 n!

( )n ]

1

λ μ

+

1 s!

( )s ( λ μ

sμ sμ−λ

)

(7)

The probability of n customers in the system. Pn =

1 s!s n−s

( )n ( ) λ 1 λ n Po , for n > s : Pn = Po , for n ≤ s μ n μ

(8)

The average number of customers in the system.

L=

( )s λμ μλ (s − 1)!(sμ − λ)

2

Po +

λ μ

(9)

The average number of customers who are waiting in line for servicing, Lq = L −

λ μ

(10)

The average time a customer spends in the system, W =

L λ

(11)

The average time spent by customers while waiting in line for servicing, Wq =

Lq λ

(12)

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3 Results and Discussion In a three-hour period of data collection at a fast food restaurant in Negeri Sembilan, 52 customers were spotted and observed. Data of the customer arrival time based on the current queuing model were tabulated as in Table 2 for an analysis. Based on Table 2, the value of λ, the mean of a Poisson distribution is calculated by using the mean formula where λ = 118/52 = 2.26. The arrival times were tested using the Chi-Square Goodness of fit test and they followed the Poisson distribution. Similarly, the service times based on the current queuing model were calculated where μ = 2.4. The service times were validated and also followed the exponential distribution. Thus, the queuing theory analysis can be applied to this data set. Then, the performances for the current and proposed queuing models were analyzed by computing the queue’s operating characteristics formula as presented in Table 3. When the waiting time of customers in the queuing line, Wq, was compared, the proposed single-line with a multi-server model reduced the waiting time from 6.73 min to 3.26 min. Moreover, the waiting time of customers in the system, W, for the proposed model improved the waiting time in the system for the current model from 7.14 min to 3.68 min. Furthermore, it can be noticed that the queue length, L, for the proposed model of single-line with multi-server is better than the queue length for the current model, with a reduction from 15.2 customers to 14.74 customers. This explains that there is a reduction in terms of the number of customer’s waiting time in the system. Hence, based on the performance measures of the two models, it can be Table 2 Frequency distribution of arrival time

Arrival time, x

Actual frequency, f

fx

0

7

0

1

11

11

2

12

24

3

10

30

4

8

32

5

3

15

6

1

6

Total

52

118

Table 3 Summary of performance measures for the queuing models Queue model

λ

μ

Wq

W

Lq

L

2*M/M/1

2.26

2.4

6.73

7.14

15.2

16.14

2.26

2.4

6.73

7.14

15.2

16.14

4.52

2.4

3.26

3.68

14.74

16.63

M/M/2

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concluded that the proposed model; single-line with multi-server (M/M/2), is more efficient than the current model which is multi-line with multi-server (2*M/M/1).

4 Conclusion The proposed system which is the single-line with a multi-server model reduces the waiting time of customers in the queue compared to the existing system, which is multi-line with a multi-server model. This confirms that in the existing system, customers need to wait for a longer time compared to the proposed system. Hence, this study has proved that the single-line with multi-server model will shorten the waiting time of service in this fast food restaurant and later on will increase customer satisfaction. The results from this study shall be used to improve customer service and optimize business efficiency. However, the data were collected at one fast food restaurant only. Therefore, for further research, it is suggested to consider longer data collection periods at numerous fast food restaurants.

References Amit N, Ghazali NA (2018) Using simulation to model queuing problem at a fast-food restaurant. In: Proceedings of the regional conference on science, technology and social sciences (RCSTSS). Springer, Singapore, pp 1055–1062 Ali N, Abdullah MA (2012) The food consumption and eating behavior of malaysian urbanites: Issues and concerns. Malays J of Soc and Space 8:157–165 Curin SA, Vosko JS, Chan EW, Tsimhoni O (2005) Reducing service time at a busy fast food restaurant on campus. In: Proceedings of the 2005 winter simulation conference, IEEE Press Dharmawirya M, Adi E (2011) Case study for restaurant queuing model. Conference on Management and Artificial Intelligence, Bali Indonesia 6:52–55 Molla MA (2017) Case study for shuruchi restaurant queuing model. IOSR J Bus Manag 19(2):93– 98 Mustafa S, Nisa S (2015) A comparison of single server and multiple server queuing models in different departments of hospitals. J Math 47(1):73–80 Patel JJ, Chaudhary RM, Patel PA, Makwana P (2012) Minimize the waiting time of customer and gain more profit in restaurant using queuing model. Int J Eng Res Appl (IJERA) 2(3):1422–1425 Saleh N, Ahmad R (2017) Efficient system for queues: a case study on a fast-food restaurant in Pahang. In: Proceedings chemistry 2, 291–296 Sharma A, Barua PB (2015) Application of queuing theory in a small enterprise. Int J Eng Trends Technol 27(2):105–110 Taha HA (2007) Operations research: an introduction. Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River Taylor BT III (2016) Introduction to management science. England: pearson education limited Vijay PS, BadshahVH and Tariq AK, (2015) Mathematical analysis of single queue multi server and multi queue multi server queuing model: comparison study. Glob J Math Anal 3(3):97–104

Sinusoidal Curve in Floral Motifs of Malay Woodcarving: A Preliminary Study Marina Mohamed, Syafiza Saila Samsudin, Nazihah Ismail, and Norhuda Mohammed

Abstract Woodcarving is the art and science of ornamenting wood, which plays an important element in traditional Malay structure. Generally, the construction of traditional Malay woodcarving motifs has its own principles, which distinguish it from other woodcarving traditions. Basically, traditional Malay woodcarving motifs have been inspired by early ancient Malay motifs and the imagination of early carvers such as the design pattern with floral motifs, stalks of leaves and geometrics. Most Malay ornamental designs will definitely fall into a repeated pattern that has symmetric characteristics. These symmetric groups are classified under seven types of frieze patterns; translation, vertical reflection, horizontal reflection, vertical and horizontal reflection, half turn, two half turn, glide reflection. This paper aims to explore symmetrical characteristics in traditional Malay woodcarving, which also categorized as a mathematical pattern group. In every symmetrical element, there will be a specific pattern found. This study verified the existence of sinusoidal curve in floral motifs of traditional Malay woodcarving. Keywords Malay woodcarving · Pattern · Sinusoidal curve · Symmetry

1 Introduction Malay woodcarving has been recognized as one of the most significant ornamental arts in Malay traditional architecture. The construction of Malay woodcarving art M. Mohamed (B) · N. Ismail · N. Mohammed Universiti Teknologi MARA Pahang, Bandar Tun Abdul Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] N. Ismail e-mail: [email protected] N. Mohammed e-mail: [email protected] S. S. Samsudin Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Kedah, Merbok, Kedah, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_18

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generally highlights the characteristics of Malay traditional architecture and the uniqueness of the cultural heritage of the Malays. According to Said and Abdullah (2001), Malay woodcarving is part of the Malay ethnicity which is influenced by the three important aspects of Malay ethical life values and norms namely status, belief and culture. These three aspects are described in each woodcarving through its different philosophies, value and functionality. A person’s status is illustrated by the application of Malay woodcarving into Malay architecture such as palaces, houses and mosques as well as tools and ornaments. This statement was acknowledged by Selat (2001), which stated that the numerous of woodcarving shows the higher status in the community. Basically, traditional Malay woodcarving motifs are very much motivated by the early ancient Malay motifs and the principles of harmony that existed between the craftsmen and their environment. In general, the motifs of Malay woodcarving can be classified into fauna, floral, calligraphy, geometric and cosmos motifs. The fauna motif was very well known before the presence of Islam in the region. With the arrival of Hinduism, there were characters and images of deities as well as animals introduced into the designs. Islam has from its very beginning prohibited the carving of living beings. With that result, the Malay woodcarving shifted the direction to the selection of fauna motifs and geometric motifs, in which nature was the main source of inspiration and primarily from the plant world. Floral motifs, specifically of flowers and leaves, have appropriately been taken as motifs in various sorts of Malay woodcarving because they simply symbolize the beauty of the natural world, which just does not emphasize the aspects of beauty and norms of Malay culture, but additionally do not offend the sensibilities in Islam. The motifs portray the characteristics of repetition, that establish the Malay concept of beauty considering the idea of flexibility, refinement, balance, unity, functionality, and symbolism (Basaree et al. 2012). Malay craftsmen usually, without realizing it, make use of the practical applications of Mathematical elements to crave a wide range of patterns that they use in their work. Some of the examples are the existence of the golden section, geometry and symmetry property in their architecture and their ornament (Basaree et al. 2012; Basaree and Silah 2013; Mohamed et al. 2014 and Nasir 2016). Most Malay woodcarving designs which primarily refer to floral motifs will certainly fall into a repeated pattern that has symmetrical features. Symmetry concept allows the pattern to stay unchanged and at the same time form a mathematical structure that acts as the symmetry group of patterns and is classified as a mathematical pattern group. Therefore, in this preliminary work, we try to explore the specific patterns found in symmetrical elements of traditional Malay woodcarving, particularly the floral motifs.

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2 Methodology 2.1 Geometry and Symmetry Concept Geometry is a branch of mathematics that involved shape, size, the relative position of figures and the properties of space. In geometry, symmetry is the property of which the sides of a figure or object reflect each other across a line or axis. The most common types of symmetry are reflection, rotation, translation and combination of these operations as shown in Fig. 1. The repetition of the symmetrical or transformation concept formed a pattern. Based on the literature studies, the frieze pattern involves four types of transformation which are translations, rotations, reflections and glide reflection. Based on the symmetry properties, these symmetry groups are classified under seven types of frieze patterns; translation, vertical reflection, horizontal reflection, vertical and horizontal reflection, half-turn, two half-turn, glide reflection (Basaree et al. 2012; Basaree and Silah 2013; Zainal Abiddin and Md. Nawawi 2015). Figure 2 shows the classification of the seven frieze patterns. Basaree et al. (2012) found the seven frieze patterns namely mm, 1 g, 1 m, mg, 12, m1 and 11 types occur in the design of the Malay woodcarving as shown in Table 1 and Fig. 3. These patterns are formed from four types of repetition in the transformations which are translations, rotations, reflections and glide reflections. Their study also stated that the combination of these transformations can only result in just seven distinct patterns. Most of the line symmetry groups can be classified as border patterns also known as frieze or band patterns. Based on their symmetry properties, these symmetry groups are classified under seven types of frieze patterns. The abbreviation form of the result is summarized as follows.

Fig. 1 Symmetry Reflection

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Fig. 2 Classification of the Seven Frieze Patterns (Zainal Abiddin and Nawawi 2015)

Table 1 Abbreviation form and full terms of the seven frieze patterns

Abbreviation form

Full terms

mm

Vertical and horizontal reflections

1g

Glide reflection

1m

Horizontal reflection

mg

Half turn

12

Two half turns

m1

Vertical reflection

11

Translation

3 Sinusoidal Curve In geometry, the sinusoidal curve is a mathematical curve that describes a smooth periodic oscillation. It is referred to as the sine function as shown in Eq. (1). y = A sin(ωx + φ)

(1)

where A = the amplitude, the peak deviation of the function from zero. f = the ordinary frequency, the number of oscillations (cycles) that occur each second of time. ω=2πf , the angular frequency, the rate of change of the function argument in units of radians per second.ω φ= the phase.

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Fig. 3 Classification of Frieze Patterns in Woodcarving (Basaree et al. 2012)

4 Results and Discussion Based on the observation and if seen by the naked eye, we can see the symmetrical of the woodcarving motifs and Basaree et al. (2012) has proven it. However, not all the woodcarving motifs have a symmetry property. The interesting part is that if the

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symmetrical exists then there is a high possibility that the sinusoidal curve exists. Most of the floral motif in Malay woodcarving has symmetrical properties. This study found that floral motifs of Malay woodcarvings use a complete pattern, whose motifs are repeatedly carved into the sinus curves. The carver used either one, two or three sinus curves in their woodcarving. The illustration of these interesting visuals can be found in Figs. 4, 5 and 6. The pattern at each of the sine cycles will be repeated as a reflection of the symmetry of the vertical axis. Figure 4 shows a sinus curve on woodcarvings derived from the translation process which is then reflected, and finally forms a pattern of a glide reflection. Figure 5 shows the presence of two cycles of sinus curves in traditional Malay woodcarvings. The floral motifs are carved in between of two cycles sinusoidal curves. These motifs used rotation as one of their symmetrical properties. Each of these motifs is carved with two figures only and the reflections on the vertical axis are applied to each part of the sinus curve. It is repeated to meet the ventilation panel. The carving in Fig. 6 shows three cycles of sinusoidal curves. The space formed between

Fig. 4 One Cycle of Sinusoidal Curve

Fig. 5 Two Cycles of Sinusoidal Curve

Fig. 6 Three Cycles of Sinusoidal Curve

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these three curves is carved with a floral motif and repeated by a rotation of 120°. The carvings containing sinusoidal curves indirectly used reflection, translation and rotation. It is compatible with the glide reflection type. Figure 7 shows one cycle of a sinusoidal curve with one pattern but two floral motifs inside the sine curve. One cycle of the sine curve consists of two floral motifs called “Keladi Biak” or “Keladi Bunting”. Reflection is used for another cycle for the ventilation panel. In addition, two cycles of the sinusoidal curve are also used with one pattern floral motif named “Bunga Cina” as shown in Fig. 8. This pattern is different compared to Fig. 5, where there are two florals motifs in between two sinusoidal curves. From observation, we can see that Fig. 5 is more attractive compared to Fig. 8. Therefore, for this kind of pattern, the carver used a repeated pattern to form and attract the kepala tingkap as shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 7 One cycle of sinusoidal curve with one pattern and two floral motifs (Nasir 2016)

Fig. 8 Two Cycles of Sinusoidal Curve with One Pattern Floral Motifs (Nasir 2016)

Fig. 9 Two Cycles of Sinusoidal Curve with One Pattern Floral Motifs in Repeated Form (Nasir 2016)

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Fig. 10 Two Cycles of Sinusoidal Curve with Two Pattern Floral Motifs (Nasir 2016)

Figure 10 shows two cycles of sinusoidal curves with two patterns of floral motifs that are carved in between two cycles of sinusoidal curves. These motifs used horizontal reflection as one of their symmetrical properties. It is repeated to form the ventilation panel.

5 Conclusion In conclusion, Malay carver has their own creativity to influence fantastic woodcarving. Their work is inclusive to make sure the object has stability, beauty and fulfill the owner’s needs. They unintentionally used some mathematical concepts to express their creativity. Apparently, symmetry and geometric properties are existing in some of the ornament Malay woodcarvings. The geometry knowledge can be used in forming the space and symmetry knowledge is applied in forming symmetrical form. Most of these carvings are carved in a symmetrical layout. It is demonstration that woodcarving has stability, balance and harmony. In addition, the repetition patterns that occurred in Malay woodcarving are parts of the sinusoidal curve. The floral motifs have transformed in terms of reflection and translation elements inside the sinusoidal curve producing an attractive pattern and high aesthetic value. This study found that if a sinusoidal curve exists in Malay woodcarving, then there are symmetrical properties in the floral motifs inside the sinusoidal curve. However, if the floral motif shows some symmetrical elements, not necessarily the sinusoidal curve would exit. This study can be considered a preliminary study because it focused only on floral motifs and thus should not be generalized to all Malay woodcarving. Therefore, for future research, it is suggested to extend the subject to several traditional Malay woodcarving.

References Basaree RO, Nawai NM, Khalid MFM, Khalid M H, Ahmad MY (2012) Glimpses of geometrical principles in malay ornaments. In: Proceedings of the regional symposium of the malay archipelago 2012 (Simposium Nusantara 9 2012) pp 24–34 Basaree RO, Silah S (2013) Aesthetics and geometrical principles of malay woodcarving. Int J Arts Cult Herit (iJACH) 4:77–100

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Mohamed M, Dzulkifli NF, Ramli N (2014). The existence of golden section in the traditional malay architecture. In: Proceedings of the international conference on science, technology and social sciences (ICSTSS) Nasir AH (2016). Ukiran kayu Melayu tradisi. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Said I, Abdullah AS (2001). Spesies-spesies kayu dalam seni ukiran Melayu. Skudai, Johor Bahru: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). Selat N (2001) Rumah sebagai manifestasi jati diri Melayu. Koleksi kertas kerja seminar sehari: Seni Bina dan Seni Ukiran Melayu. Fakulti Alam Bina. University Malaya (UM). Zainal Abiddin NIS, Md. Nawawi N (2015) Decorative elements of traditional wood carving in frieze pattern on Terengganu boats. In: Proceedings of the international symposium on research of arts, design and humanities (ISRADH 2014) pp 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287530-3

Kuala Lumpur Female Population Projection by Age Group Using Leslie Model Hamidah Ayub, Roselah Osman, Nora Zakaria, Siti Norashidah Sumaryono, and Nurul Syajaratul Aini Mohd Zin

Abstract Population studies play an important role in planning purposes of country development. Women play an important role not only in family development but also in the development of the country. Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia with a high population density. Leslie model is one of the methods that is widely used to project the present state of a population by age distribution. The model is a simple matrix algebra with specific fertility and survival rates. The objective of this study is to project the female population by age group in Kuala Lumpur using Leslie’s Model. Generally, the female population in Kuala Lumpur is predicted to increase gradually and later become an aging population. The result of this study is hoped to help the government improve the facilities for females, especially in Kuala Lumpur. Keywords Female · Leslie Model · Population · Predicted · Projection

1 Introduction Population study has become really important in every field mainly for planning purposes in a country or sometimes in a certain region that directly requires improvements or for overcoming the possibility of foreseeable difficulties. Population size and growth are important for a country’s planning to allocate resources, improve facilities, increase the employment rate, and improve the economic sector and health expenditures (Kodiko 2014). Population projection is an estimation of a future population that gives a picture of what the future population may look like. It also shows the calculations about future patterns in birth, death and migration based on knowledge of past and present conditions. H. Ayub (B) · R. Osman · N. Zakaria · S. N. Sumaryono · N. S. A. M. Zin Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] R. Osman e-mail: [email protected] N. Zakaria e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 N. A. Yacob et al. (eds.), Fundamental and Applied Sciences in Asia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4910-4_19

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Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia that has a high density of population, with a capacity of 6890 per square kilometre. The population of Kuala Lumpur is estimated at 7.2 million in 2016 (Kuala Lumpur Population in 2018, n.d.). With the increasing rate of population growth in Kuala Lumpur, the facilities might not be able to support the whole population. Rapidly increasing population growth rate can badly affect the economy, environment, as well as health and education of the population itself. This study is to set up the Leslie model for the female population in Kuala Lumpur. Furthermore, this model is used to project the present state of the female population within an interval of five years. Accurate assumptions of a population are derived from an accurate forecast of population projection (Shryock 1976). Difficulty in evaluating age-sex structure is also a limitation of the population projection. The population projections might be incorrect throughout the stage of demographic transition because of the difficulty such as inaccurate estimation of the population of age-sex structure. Leslie model is usually used to project the population of animals rather than of humans by most researchers until now (Yusuf et al. 2014). This study applies the Leslie model to predict the future population of Malaysia by using data on the population in 2000 of different age groups. The model has been introduced by Leslie to calculate the specific rates such as fecundity and mortality rates of a population. Leslie model is widely used to project the present state of a population by age distribution in which the model itself is a simple matrix algebra with specific mortality and fertility rates (Li 1994). Furthermore, there is a lack of research done on population projection using the Leslie model in Malaysia, especially by the state. Leslie model is easy to develop as it only uses fertility and mortality rates. Yusuf et al. (2014) stated that the main factors of population growth are fertility and mortality rates. There are various factors that can be affected by these rates. The researchers used Leslie model to predict the population growth of Malaysia in 2010 which was classified by different age classes. This study was analysed by using the actual data of the population of Malaysia in mid-year 2000 to forecast the future population growth by 2010. Thus, this study concludes that the result slightly varies from the actual data of the population in 2010 for each age group as stated in the Department of Statistic Malaysia (2010, 2011). The Leslie matrix model has become a useful method for population projection because it is easily understood and analysed by most researchers using simple matrix algebra. Li (1994), in her research, uses the Leslie model to predict the population growth of Iowa wild turkeys. From the Leslie model, the researcher uses the model to study the population size of the wild turkeys in Iowa and the age structure of the turkeys in the future. The researcher also stated that the Leslie matrix model is a popular method to predict the future population by age distribution. This study seeks to discover the most proper hunting seasons for the turkeys. The result of the study shows that after a long time, the turkey population leads to extinction. According to Velez-Marulanda (2013), the Leslie matrix consists of three different classifications of statistics per age group which are survival rates, fertility rates and the initial population of women in each age class. This study was carried out to test the accuracy of the Leslie matrix on the population of women in the United States

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of America by comparing it with the actual data of the women population obtained from the 2010 U.S Census. The result is then concluded that by using Leslie matrix, the early age group of 0 until 10 years old and the age group of over 85 years old are not reliable because of the huge gap in the percent error calculation while the rest of the age group is reliable. This paper focuses more on the female population because it plays an important role in the development planning of a country. A lot of benefits can be achieved for women in this projection population such as improved facilities like public transportation, improved maternity facilities in hospitals and increment in the number of female gynaecologists. The objectives of this paper are to set up Leslie model and to project the female population in Kuala Lumpur.

2 Methodology The data on the number of domestic unemployed people is obtained from the Department of Statistics Malaysia (2010, 2011). Data contains the female population, the number of female births and also the number of female deaths for each age group with an interval of 5 years are taken from the Department of Malaysian Statistic (2010, 2011). Table 1 shows that the female population in Kuala Lumpur for the year 2010 was 818,800.

2.1 Development of Leslie Matrix The fertility rates and survival rates of the female population in Kuala Lumpur will be calculated for different age groups using the following formula: ai =

Number of daughters born to female in ith age × Number of age interval Number of female population in ith age class

bi = 1 −

Number of deaths of female in the ith age class × Number of age interval Number of female population in ith age class

where ai defined as fertility rate in the ith age class (ai for i = 1, 2, 3,... n) and bi , is the fraction of females in the ith age class that can be expected to survive (0 < bi < 1 for i = 1, 2,3,…, n−1).

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Table 1 Female component of the population in Kuala Lumpur Age class, i

Age interval

Number of female population

Number of live births in ith age class of mother

Number of female deaths

1

0–4

61300

0

76

2

5–9

62900

0

12

3

10–14

55600

7

10

4

15–19

70200

493

12

5

20–24

93200

3133

25

6

25–29

97400

8359

22

7

30–34

73900

7795

26

8

35–39

59700

3706

44

9

40–44

63900

842

60

10

45–49

48500

71

107

11

50–54

40100

4

141

12

55–59

30900

0

162

13

60–64

23100

0

238

14

65–69

15300

0

248

15

70–74

10200

0

327

16

75–79

6000

0

335

17

80–84

3900

0

345

18

85 +

2700

0

449

818800

24410

2639

TOTAL

2.2 Conduct Leslie Model The Leslie matrix relates to the past population distribution. Therefore, the age distribution u at time t= tk can then be written as X (k) = L X (k−1) , k = 1, 2, 3,... where L = Leslie matrix. X (k) =the number of individuals (n) of each age class x. ⎡ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ L=⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎣

⎡ (k) ⎤ ⎡ (k−1) ⎤ ⎤ x1 x1 a1 a2 a3 ... an−1 an ⎢ (k) ⎥ ⎢ (k−1) ⎥ ⎥ ⎢x ⎥ ⎢x ⎥ b1 0 0 ... 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ (k) (k) ⎥ , X (k−1) = ⎢ (k−1) ⎥ 0 b2 0 ... 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎥. x x ⎥, X =⎢ ⎢ 3 ⎥ ⎢ 3 ⎥ ⎥ ⎢: ⎥ ⎢: ⎥ : ⎦ : : : : : ⎣ ⎣ ⎦ ⎦ (k) (k−1) 0 0 0 ... bn−1 0 xn xn

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L is the Leslie matrix, where ai is the average number of daughters born to a single female during the time she is in the ith age class (ai for i = 1, 2, 3,... n) and b, is the fraction of females in the i-th age class that can be expected to survive (0 < b < 1 for i = 1, 2,3,…).

2.3 Computing Error (Validation) The female population in the year 2015 has to be obtained to validate the current data with the actual data. Validation is done to verify the result by using the following formula. Per centage Err or =

actual (DOSM) − Leslie matrix model × 100% actual (DOSM)

2.4 Predicting Population for year 2040 In order to calculate the population projection, the values of ai and bi will be used to set up matrices and the matrices will be multiplied by the current population of females in 2010 in order to predict the population in 2015. Moreover, by assuming the fertility rates and mortality rates in the year 2010 are constant, the Leslie model will be constructed to predict the population in the year 2040 using the population in the year 2010. Here is the general formula to calculate the population projection N1 = L ∗ N0

(1)

N2 = L ∗ L ∗ N0

(2)

N2 = L 2 ∗ N0

(3)

N50 = L 50 ∗ N0

(4)

Therefore, we can conclude that Ni = L i ∗ N 0

(5)

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where L = the Leslie matrix; n × n matrix; N0 = the population in first year; Ni = the population in ith year.

3 Results and Discussion In the Leslie model, the number of female population, the number of live births and the number of female deaths are the important elements to construct the Leslie matrix. The table below is the fertility and survival rates for the female population in Kuala Lumpur by age group in the year 2010. Table 2 shows that the fertility rates start at age of 10–14 years old in a very small percentage, but it starts increasing slowly. The highest percentage of fertility rate is 25.44% at ages 30–34. However, as age increases, the fertility rates start to decrease from age 35 and above. The result from Table 1, also shows about 90% of the female in age interval 60–69 survived, while more than 70% of the female from age 70 to 79 also survived. We can conclude that in the year 2010 the fertility rates are low, yet, the survival rates are high even though in the age interval of 60 and above. This can result in more elderly female population and fewer young people in the future. This following figure shows the comparison between the actual and projected female population in the year 2015 in Kuala Lumpur. Based on Fig. 1, the result of the data manipulated is closer to the actual value. Besides, it can be seen clearly that there have been slight differences between the actual data and the projected female population for the year 2015. However, there is a significant difference for the age group 20–24, which caused the percentage error to be higher than the other age groups. Table 3 shows the number of projected female population in Kuala Lumpur from 2010 until 2040. The total female population is increasing slowly by 22% from the year 2010 to 2040. Figure 2 shows the percentage of female population in five different age groups. From the figure, it shows that the percentage in the age group 45–59 and 60–85 + are increasing. On the other hand, the percentage of the female population is decreasing as compared to other groups. Figure 3 shows the comparison of the female population between the year 2010 and the projected female population in the year 2040 in Kuala Lumpur. As shown clearly in Fig. 3, for age groups 0–4 until 40–44, the estimation of the number of the population decreased steeply compared to other age groups. Conversely, the populations in age groups 45–49 and above rise dramatically compared to that in the year 2010. This might be due to the country’s improved health equipment in most hospitals which increases the percentage of healthy senior citizens.

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Table 2 Fertility and survival rates for female population in Kuala Lumpur Age class, i

Age interval

Kuala Lumpur Number of female population

Fertility rate, ai

Survival rate, bi

1

0–4

61300

0.0000

0.9938

2

5–9

62900

0.0000

0.9990

3

10–14

55600

0.0003

0.9991

4

15–19

70200

0.0169

0.9991

5

20–24

93200

0.0811

0.9987

6

25–29

97400

0.2070

0.9989

7

30–34

73900

0.2544

0.9982

8

35–39

59700

0.1497

0.9963

9

40–44

63900

0.0318

0.9953

10

45–49

48500

0.0035

0.9890

11

50–54

40100

0.0002

0.9824

12

55–59

30900

0.0000

0.9738

13

60–64

23100

0.0000

0.9485

14

65–69

15300

0.0000

0.9190

15

70–74

10200

0.0000

0.8397

16

75–79

6000

0.0000

0.7208

17

80–84

3900

0.0000

0.5577

18

85 +

2700

0.0000

0.1685

TOTAL

818800

Number of Population

120000

Actual and projection female population by age group in Kuala Lumpur

100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0

0 - 4 5 - 9 10 - 15 - 20 - 25 - 30 - 35 - 40 - 45 - 50 - 55 - 60 - 65 - 70 - 75 - 80 - 85+ 14 19 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 64 69 74 79 84

Age group projection 2015

actual 2015

Fig. 1 Graph of comparison between actual and projected values for Kuala Lumpur

70–74

15

864020

818800

Total Female Population

2175

2700

85 +

18

8565 4325

3900

75–79

80–84

14060

21910

30090

39395

47965

63600

59480

73770

97290

93075

70140

55550

62840

16

6000

58870 60920

17

10200

23100

15300

60–64

65–69

13

30900

40100

14

55–59

12

48500

45–49

50–54

10

11

63900

40–44

9

73900

59700

30–34

35–39

97400

7

25–29

6

70200

93200

8

15–19

20–24

4

5

55600

10–14

3

61300

62900

0–4

5–9

2

63831

911766

2412

6174

11806

20134

28540

38362

47122

62898

59201

73498

97119

92970

70046

55503

62783

60862

58505

952066

3443

8510

16907

26227

36386

45886

61793

58548

73153

96761

92806

69967

55428

62730

60807

58449

63435

60830

2025

2015

2010

2020

Projection female population

Actual population

1

Age interval

Age class, i

Table 3 Projection of female population for Kuala Lumpur

978205

4746

12187

22023

33437

43523

60173

57518

72346

96307

92464

69844

55365

62646

60755

58397

63375

60453

52646

2030

991396

6797

15875

28077

39995

57073

56011

71074

95244

92030

69586

55268

62575

60674

58347

63318

60395

52320

46737

2035

995159

8853

20239

33584

52447

53125

69211

93570

91015

69260

55064

62465

60605

58269

63263

60341

52270

46447

45131

2040

867400

3200

4100

8300

13900

21700

29600

37600

45800

61600

60400

73100

94500

94100

81700

57000

59900

58000

62900

2015

Actual population

204 H. Ayub et al.

Kuala Lumpur Female Population Projection by Age Group …

205

Percentage of Female Population by Five Different Age group 0-14 2040

14.5

2035

2020

14.1

2015

15.4

2010

15.6 0%

10%

23.9

26.1

30%

15.8

38.9 40%

50% 60% Percentage

12.7

18.7

40.2 21.6

14.4

20.0

39.3

15.6

18.0

20.3

33.1

13.9

20.6

23.1

28.7

13.0

20%

60-85+

25.5

25.0

12.2

19.2

45-59

23.8

12.3

18.0

2025

25-44

12.4

16.1

2030 Year

15-24

70%

80%

90%

10.1 8.1 100%

Fig. 2 Percentage of Female Population by Five Different Age Groups

Comparison between year 2010 and 2040 in Kuala Lumpur

Number of population

120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0

0 - 4 5 - 9 10 - 15 - 20 - 25 - 30 - 35 - 40 - 45 - 50 - 55 - 60 - 65 - 70 - 75 - 80 - 85+ 14 19 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 64 69 74 79 84

Age group 2010

2040

Fig. 3 Comparison of the female population between the year 2010 and the projected female population in the year 2040 in Kuala Lumpur

4 Conclusion The Leslie model is very useful to project the female population in Kuala Lumpur, even though the fertility rates and survival rates are assumed constant. Female population in Kuala Lumpur is estimated to decrease steeply for age groups 0–4 and 40–44. Conversely, the female population is projected to increase dramatically in age groups 45–49 and above compared to the year 2010. Kuala Lumpur is predicted to have more ageing female population by the year 2040. From the result, it is highly recommended that the government is to enhance the development of facilities to accommodate the female population by the year 2040. More facilities for ageing people should be developed such as centres or clubhouses for senior ladies that

206

H. Ayub et al.

provide exclusive activities suited for them. Moreover, a hospital only for women is encouraged to be built so that it will benefit the female population. The government should also increase job opportunities for women as it is important for the development of this country. In addition, the government should concentrate on educating the public on the importance of family planning and its effect on population growth by including it in the school curriculum.

References Department of Statistics Malaysia (2010). Population by age Kuala Lumpur 2010. Labour force and social statistics. http://www.dosm.gov.myLast Accessed March 19, 2018 Department of Statistics Malaysia. (2011) Vital statistics Malaysia 2011. Labour force and social statistics. http://www.dosm.gov.myLast Accessed March 19, 2018 Kodiko HO (2014) Sub-national projection methods: application to the counties in the former nyanza province. Population studies and research institute (PSRI), University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya Kuala Lumpur Population in (2018) In World population review. http://worldpopulationreview.com/ world-cities/kuala-lumpur-population/Last Accessed October 20, 2018 Li WC (1994) Application of leslie matrix models to wild turkey populations. North Carolina State University, Department of statistics Shryock HS (1976) The Methods and Materials of Demography. Academic Press Velez-Marulanda JA (2013) Leslie matrices and women population in the United States of America. Georg J Sci 71. https://digitalcommons.gaacademy.org/gjs/vol71/iss2/6 Last Accessed March 19, 2018 Yusuf N, Ismail R, Ismail S (2007) Development of leslie matrix model for malaysian population. In: Proceedings of the simposium Kebangsaan Sains Matematik ke-15, Shah Alam, Malaysia. pp 250–260. Universiti Teknologi MARA