Frontiers: Southern African Archaeology Today 9780860542681, 9781407336145

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Illustration
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
CAMBRIDGE MONOGRAPHS IN AFRICAN ARCHAEOLOGY
1. FRONTIERS IN SOUTHERN AFRICAN ARCHAEOLOGY
PART ONE PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE CONFERENCE
2. EARLY FRONTIERS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA
3. COWS AND KINGS: A SPATIAL AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF A HIERARCHICAL EARLY IRON AGE SETTLEMENT SYSTEM IN EASTERN BOTSWANA
4. SAN LAND-USE PATTERNS, PAST AND PRESENT: IMPLICATIONS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICAN PREHISTORY
5. THE INTEGRATION OF HERDING INTO PREHISTORIC HUNTING AND GATHERING ECONOMIES
6. PREHISTORIC STONE STRUCTURES AND RECENT HIMBA SETTLEMENTS IN NORTHERN NAMIBIA AND SOUTHERN ANGOLA
APPENDIX: RADIOCARBON DATING OF THE BERORUE SITE 10/75, ANGOLA
7. HUNTING VERSUS GATHERING IN AN ARID ECOSYSTEM: THE EVIDENCE FROM THE NAMIB DESERT
8. SPATIAL PATTERNING OF THE CERAMIC LATER STONE AGE IN THE NORTHERN CAPE PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA
9. A PREHISTORIC PASTORALIST FRONTIER IN THE UPPER ZEEKOE VALLEY, SOUTH AFRICA
10. STONE TOOLS AND SANDVELD SETTLEMENT
11. SHELLFISH, SUBSISTENCE AND SETTLEMENT: SOME WESTERN CAPE HOLOCENE OBSERVATIONS
12. ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES OF PREHISTORIC PASTORALISM IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN
CAPE
13. MAPPING AND INTERPRETING WEAR TRACES ON STONE IMPLEMENTS: A CASE STUDY FROM BOOMPLAAS CAVE
14. PATTERNING ON A TALUS SLOPE
15. A MODEL FOR TERMINAL LATER STONE AGE SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES IN SOUTHERN NATAL
16. THROUGH THE KEYHOLE: A PRELIMINARY PEEP AT THE LITHIC COMPOSITION OF LATER STONE AGE SITES IN THE CENTRAL AND UPPER TUGELA RIVER BASIN, NATAL
17. IRON AGE SETTLEMENT AND SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS IN THE TUGELA RIVER BASIN, NATAL
18. SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES IN THE TRANSVAAL STONE AGE: A PRELIMINARY MODEL
19. A PROFILE OF THE IRON AGE IN THE KRUGER NATIONAL PARK, SOUTH AFRICA
20. MAN, ANIMALS AND SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS DURING THE IRON AGE IN THE KRUGER NATIONAL PARK
21. SOTHO-TSWANA AND MOLOKO SETTLEMENT PATTERNS AND THE BANTU CATTLE PATTERN
22. SOUTHERN TRANSVAAL STONE WALLED SITES - A SPATIAL CONSIDERATION
23. WHERE YOU ARE THE GIRLS GATHER TO PLAY: THE GREAT ENCLOSURE AT GREAT ZIMBABWE
24. A CULTURAL INTERPRETATION OF THE FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGE FROM KHAMI HILL RUIN
25. A SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES FROM ZIMBABWE
26. MOBILITY AND MIGRATION IN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN FARMING AND IRON AGE MODELS
27. THE USE OF SITE STRUCTURE TO INFER SOCIAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION FROM THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD
PART TWO LITHIC TYPOLOGY AND ROCK ART: SUMMARIES OF WORKSHOP DISCUSSIONS
28. Numerical coding scheme for southern African Stone Age artefacts with special reference to the Later Stone Age
29. TYPOLOGIES FOR THE STONE AGE: COMMENTS BY PANEL MEMBERS
30. THE ROCK ART WORKSHOP: NARRATIVE OR METAPHOR?
PART THREE THE FAUNAL WORKSHOP
31. AGENCIES AND NUMBERS: THE FAUNAL WORKSHOP
32. IDENTIFYING BONE-ACCUMULATING AGENTS
33. PROBLEMS IN UNRAVELLING MULTI-AGENT INVOLVEMENT IN BONE ACCUMULATIONS
34. SACRED COWS OR JACKAL KITCHENS, HYAENA MIDDENS AND BIRD NESTS: SOME IMPLICATIONS OF MULTI-AGENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO ARCHAEOLOGICAL ACCUMULATIONS
35. A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK IN FAUNAL ANALYSIS
36. IRON AGE FAUNAL ANALYSIS - PROBLEMS AND POSSIBILITIES
37. MNI COUNTS, PITS AND FEATURES
38. BEHAVIOURAL INFERENCES BASED ON FREQUENCIES IN BONE ASSEMBLAGES FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
39. THE DETERMINATION OF MINIMUM NUMBERS OF INDIVIDUAL FISH FROM COASTAL SITES IN SOUTH AFRICA
40. QUESTIONS CONCERNING FAUNAL SAMPLING
41. SAMPLING PROCEDURES AND CAUTIONARY TALES

Citation preview

Frontiers: Southern African Archaeology Today

edited by

M. Hall, G. Avery, D. M. Avery, M. L. Wilson and A. J. B. Humphreys

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 10 BAR .International Series 207

1984

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

BAH -S207, 19EV1.: 'Frontier:=:. :South0.rn African Archr.1.Polo�y Today'.

©

The Individual Aui..hors,1

E

•4 -, O

•

0

N

S . ( 1 )

0

N t r ) O

. •

6 9

d e F erreira

0 P

b 0 CM •

7 0 B erorue M ountains.

KEY °0 0 K id goats 0 000

* • •

Mode s t p o le h u t no e n lranc• t unne l F u l ly

% so "

e g

p las te red

e n trance

t unne l

S torage

T ree

h u t

S tock•Oe

1 .4e t l j4 " :

shade

le S kul

F ig.

4

1 9 75

tm e

Goat

s kull

o n P o lo

H imba v illage

7 1

( Cambeno W est,

I ona).

F ig.

5

1 958 H imba s acrifice a t E pupa F alls,

7 2

N amibia.

F ig.

6

1 9 75

H imba h ut

B ase

( B)

( A)

a t C ambeno c ompared w ith I ron Age h ut

a t A lvares d e F erreira.

7 3

A PPENDIX :

RADIOCARBON D ATING O F T HE B ERORUE S ITE J .

R

J

C .

1 0/75, A NGOLA

V ogel

M ason c ollected a s ample f or r adiocarbon d ating a t t he 1 0/75

0'S; 1 2° s ettlement s ite a t t he e ast f oot o f t he B erorue H ill ( 16 ° 4 2 0'E) i n t he I ona N ational P ark, s outhern A ngola. I t w as o btained f rom a c oncentration ( hearth)

j ust b elow t he s urface d ust

t he c entre o f a r ing o f s tone h ut f oundations.

( 0-5 c m)

i n

T he m aterial c onsisted

o f a m ixture o f c harcoal a nd c harred b one f ragments.

S ince n ot e nough

b urnt w ood w as p resent t he c omposite s ample w as t reated a s a w hole. A fter p reliminary w ashing w ith h ot d ilute h ydrochloric a cid i t w as b oiled i n 2 0% h ydrochloric a cid t o d ecompose t he b one. T he p owdery r esidue w as w ashed w ith d istilled w ater a nd t he a lkali s olubles e xtracted w ith d ilute s odium h ydroxide. w ashed w ith d istilled

w ater

a nd

F inally t he r esidue w as a gain

h ydrochloric

a cid.

T he

p urified

c arbonaceous m aterial t hus o btained w as b arely e nough f or a nalysis. T he r esult o f t he m easurement w as a s f ollows: P ta-1399 B erorue

1 0/75

1 30 + 4 0 B P.

T he r elative C -13 c ontent o f t he

P DB

s tandard,

a nd

t he s ample w as 24,9% w ith r espect

t o

t he c arbon-14 d ate i s c orrected f or i sotopic

f ractionation u sing t his v alue. I n v iew o f r eliable.

t he e xtensive p re-treatment

T he

known

f luctuations

i n

t he

d ating

i s

c onsidered

t he c arbon-14 c ontent o f t he

a tmosphere d uring t he p ast f ew h undred y ears, h owever, p reclude t he u nique a ssignment o f a h istorical d ate t o t he s ample. T he b est e stimate o btained b y m eans o f t he c alibration c urve i s AD 1 690 + 3 0 o r AD 1 840 + 3 0. ge. t ime-range o f t he L ate I ron— A o ccupied

a fter

1 970,

1 971)

t he H erero-speaking p eople f irst s ettled i n t he a rea,

b ut b efore t he r e-entry o f a bout AD 1 870

( Vogel

B oth t hese e stimates f all w ithin t he T he d ates s uggest t hat t he s ite w as

t he H imba g roups i nto

s outhern

A ngola

a t

( Malan 1 974).

R EFERENCES M ALAN,

J .

S .

1 974.

C imbabasia. V OGEL,

J .

C .

( B)

1 970.

T he 2 :

H erero-speaking

D iscussion.

I n :

O LSSON,

v ariations a nd a bsolute c hronology : V OGEL, J . C . 1 971. R adiocarbon s outhern T ransvaal. I n : M ASON, J ohannesburg.

T he

a rchaeology

K oppies N ature R eserve, A rchaeol.

o cc.

P ap.

p eoples

o f

K aokoland.

1 13-129.

6 :

1 25.

I .

7 4

R adiocarbon

d ating o f I ron A ge S ites i n t he R .J., e d. P rehistoric m an i n a nd

h uman

J ohannesburg. U niv. 5 9-63.

e d.

S tockholm .

e cology o f M elville W itwatersrand

D ept.

7 .

H UNTING V ERSUS G ATHERING I N A N A RID E COSYSTEM : T HE E VIDENCE F ROM T HE N AMIB D ESERT L .

A r ecent p aper b y

F oley

J acobson

( 1982)

h as

r econsidered

t he

h unting o f l arge m ammals b y t ropical h unter-gatherers. r egions

t hat r eceive l ess

e conomies

t hat

a re

t han 5 00 m m

m ean

a nnual

r ole

H e a rgues

r ainfall

o f t hat

s upport

m ore d ependent o n g athering t han o n l arge-mammal

h unting. T his p aper w ill c onsider t he r elevance o f F oley's m odel u nderstanding h unter-gatherer a daptations i n t he N amib D esert. I n

h is

p aper,

F oley

( 1982)

l ooks

a t

c urrent

f or

m odels

o f

h unter-gatherer a daptations w hich p redict t hat t ropical l atitudes a re m ore s uited t o g athering t han h unting. H e r efers m ost f requently t o L ee's

( 1968) r eport o f h is w ork a mong t he K alahari S an w hich s uggested

t hat

t he

i mportance

t he a vailability l atitude.

o f h unting r elative t o g athering w as r elated t o

o f

r esources

a nd

t his

i n

t urn

w as

r elated

a s ituation w hich i s r eversed a t h igh l atitudes w here f ew a vailable.

L ee

s howed

( 1968)

t hat

p redictable a nd w as m ore e conomical m ore

u npredictable,

b oth

i n

( 1976)

f or

t he

d irect

e xamination

t o h arvest

t he

s trong

l arge-mammal b iomass.

w as

p lants

a re

a bundant a nd

t han a nimals w hich w ere

a nd

( 1972)

t ime. f or

T his

t he

w ork

G /wi,

b y

f eels

r epresentative o f S an p opulations a nd

t hat

o f

e cological

p ositive

F oley,

w as

a nd

h owever,

m odelling h unter-gatherer a daptations. s hows

f ood

C entral K alahari S an.

t hat t hese s amples a re n ot a

p lant

s pace

s ubsequently c onfirmed b y S ilberbauer T anaka

t o

T he t ropics w ere m ore s uited t o g athering t han t o h unting,

c onditions F or t he

c orrelation

i s

n ecessary

A frican b etween

T hree p oints a re m ade.

f or

t ropics, r ainfall

F irstly,

h e a nd

l arge-mammal

b iomass p eaks a t b etween 1 2 00 a nd 1 4 00 mm p recipitation ( reading m f rom t he g raph i n h is F ig. 6 ). S econdly, b etween 5 00 a nd 1 5 00 m r ainfall p lant c ommunities s pecies a vailable f or h umans. c ommunities

w ith

a re d ominated b y g rasses w ith f ew e dible B elow 5 00 m m o ne f inds x erophytic p lant

m any e dible s pecies;

c ommunities w ith m any e dible s pecies. d ata

h e

o btains a g raph o f

a bove

1 5 00 mm a re f ound w oody

T hirdly,

b y

c ombining

" percent d ependence o n h unting"

t hese

( PDH),

a n

i ndex o f t he r elative i mportance o f h unting t o g athering, b y w hich i t i s p redicted t hat t he P DH r ises t o a s m uch a s 8 0 % b etween 5 00 a nd 1 5 00 m m m ean a nnual r ainfall b ut d rops t o l ess t han 4 0% f or t hose a reas m b elow 5 00 m o r g reater t han 1 5 00 mm. T he s hortcomings o f L ee's ( 1968) m odel w ere d ue t o t he f act t hat h unter-gatherers a re n o l onger t o b e f ound i n s avanna a reas. R ather, t hese a reas a re i nhabited b y p astoralists s ubsistence,

w ho

a re

d ependent

a nd n ot o n p lant

u pon

l arge

m ammals

f or

t heir

f oods.

T here a re, I t hink, t wo i mportant p oints t hat n eed c onsidered i n c onnection w ith F oley's m odel. F irstly, I d o n ot t hat t he m odel c an b e d ivorced f rom t opography. m ountainous a rea r eceiving 1 2 00 m m r ain w ill n ot

t o b e t hink

F or e xample, a h ave t he s ame

c arrying c apacity o f l arge-mammal b iomass a s a s avanna g rassland. I rregular t opography l eads t o f ragmentation o f g razing r esources, a nd r ough

t errain

s everely

i nhibits

7 5

t he

m ovements o f l arge n umbers o f

c ursorial u ngulates.

T here i s a lso t he p roblem o f s ubstrate.

A s andy

s ubstrate s uch a s t hat o f t he K alahari r esults i n r apid d raining o f s urface w ater w hereas t he s tony s ubstrate o f t he N amib g ravel p lains, p articularly i n g ranite a reas, t ends t o t rap s urface w ater, t hereby m aking i t a vailable f or a c onsiderable p eriod o f t ime. T his g ives w ater-dependent s pecies s uch a s z ebra

( Equus z ebra h artmannae)

l onger

t erm a ccess t o s uch a reas. S econdly, w e m ust c onsider h ow w ell t he m odel h as s tood u p t o t he a rchaeological e vidence. M uch r esearch, u ndertaken b y P arkington ( 1972) i n t he w estern C ape a nd b y D eacon ( 1976) i n t he s outhern C ape, h as s hown t he i mportance a nd v ariety o f p lants i n t he s ubsistence s trategies o f L ater S tone A ge ( LSA) p eoples. K lein's ( 1977) f aunal a nalyses h ave s hown a r eliance o n s naring s mall g ame r ather t han o n h unting b ig g ame d uring t he L SA. M ost o f t hese s ites a re w ithin t he 5 00 m i sohyet, w ith t he e xception o f m M elkhoutboom w hich a ppears t o b e c loser t o 7 00 m b ut p erhaps m t opography i s t he d eciding f actor h ere. A t t he s ame t ime, a rchaeological a ssemblages f rom t hese s ites, a s w ell a s o thers i n t he n orthern C ape, h ave s hown a v ery h igh r atio o f s crapers t o b acked e lements s uch a s s egments a nd b acked b lades. I f w e m ake t he n ot u nreasonable a ssumption t hat s egments a nd b acked b lades m ay h ave b een u sed a s p rojectile p oints o n a rrows ( Clark e t a l. 1 976), t hen t heir l ow r elative f requencies ( Fig. 1 ) a dd c onfirmation t hat g athering w as r elatively m ore i mportant t han l arge-mammal h unting. T he f requencies f or t he Z ambian a ssemblages a re r eversed; t he s ites o ccur i n a reas f ormerly r ich i n w ildlife, w ith r ainfall v arying f rom 6 50 m m t o g reater t han 1 0 00 m m. A lthough a bundant p lant r emains w ere a lso f ound, i t i s c lear t hat l arge-mammal i mportant h ere t han f urther s outh.

h unting w as r elatively m ore

Iw ill n ow t urn t o a d escription o f t he N amib i n o rder t o t est i ts " goodness o f f it" t o F oley's m odel. T he N amib D esert e xtends f rom t he n orthern C ape P rovince t hrough N amibia i nto s outhern A ngola. I t i s a c oastal d esert s ome 7 5-150 km w ide a nd c onsists o f t wo m ain p hysical u nits, n amely s and d unes p lains t o t he n orth.

t o t he s outh o f t he K uiseb R iver a nd g ravel I t g radually g rades i nto t he s emi-desert

t ransition s avanna t o t he e ast a nd t hence t o t he h igher r ainfall a reas. T he m ost i mportant l imiting f actor f or p rimary p roductivity i n a ny a rid s ystem i s w ater. P recipitation i n t he d esert p roper i s, o n a verage, l ess t han 5 0 m m p er a nnum. I n t he t ransition z one i t i s l ess t han 2 00 m m. R ainfall i s a lso h ighly v ariable w ith r egard t o b oth s pace a nd t ime. R ainfall t ypically t o 5 k m a cross t hat s weep a cross t he p rovide t he t otal w ater f or t he h owever, t hat i t r equires o nly 2 1 m m c rop o f g rass. I t i s p ossible f or a

o ccurs i n t hunderstorm " cells" u p c ountry. A s ingle f all c ould s eason. S eely ( 1978) h as s hown, o f r ain t o p roduce a s tanding s ingle t hunderstorm t o p roduce u p

t o 6 0 m m o f r ain i n a s ingle 2 4 h our p eriod ( 60 m f ell a t m P oint o n 3 0/3/76 o ut o f a t otal o f 7 1,4 m m f or t hat y ear).

P elican P rimary

p roductivity r esulting f rom t his t ype o f r ainfall i s p atchily d istributed o ver t he l andscape. T hese g reen p atches i n t urn a ttract h erds o f g razers f rom i nland ( Simoes 1 971). C onsisting p rimarily o f z ebra, g emsbok a nd s pringbok, t hese h erds c oalesce a nd c an n umber s everal h undred a nimals. E ven i n m odern t imes, h erds o f u p t o 6 00 g emsbok ( Oryx g azella) h ave b een s een i n t he s outhern N amib ( C.G. C oetzee, p ers. c omm.). h ave

b een

a

T hese s easonal c oncentrations w ere u nlikely t o

r egular a nnual e vent a t a ny o ne p lace b ut p robably o nly

o ccurred w hen c onditions w ere f avourable ( Jacobson 1 981). T here w ould a lso b e a t ime l ag t o a llow g rowth t o t ake p lace b etween t he r ainfall

7 6

a nd t he e xploitation o f a g reen p atch.

O ne

p oint

n eeds

s tressing:

h owever e phemeral, i nfrequent o r e ven l uxuriant t he p lant g rowth o f t he p lains, i t h as a ll t he c haracteristics o f a s avanna g rassland. F rom

t he

p oint

o f

v iew

o f

t he

h unter-gatherer,

p lant

f oods a re

e xtremely s parse, w ith o ne e xception ( W. G iess, p ers. c omm.). V ast q uantities o f g rass s eeds a re c ollected a nd s tored i n u nderground c hambers b y t he h arvester a nt a re

( Messor b arbarus c apensis);

t hese

t hen t aken f rom t he n ests b y p resent-day p astoralists.

c an b e u sed i n a v ariety o f w ays e ither w hole N ests a re c ollected.

a bundant,

T he d esert b asis,

e asily

s potted

c orresponds v ery

c losely,

t o t he z one d efined b y F oley

1 5 00 m m a nd p redicted h unting". F or a f ew c arrying c apacity o ver

a nd

o r

g round

t he

o n

( 1982)

i nto

g ame

a n

i rregular

s easonal

a s l ying b etween 5 00 mm a nd

a s h aving a h igh " percent d ependence w eeks o r m onths a fter m inimal r ainfall s mall a reas r ises

c oncentrations

c onsequently

t hus

s teeply ( Fig.

p robably

p rovided

r esulting

i n

s pecific, h ighly m obile h unting t echnique. t hat

t hose

s ites

2 )

w ith

t hat

n ot

e very

s ite

h unting

d evelopment

O ne c an p redict

o f

t o s crapers.

I

s hould

i n

t he

u se

o f

a rtefacts

o r

r aw

c ould p ossibly b e e xpected a s a r esult o f c ontact w ith,

a ctivities

n ot

F igure 3 s hows

n ecessarily

E rongo

r elated

M irabib

o n

t he

f or

t o i mmediate s ubsistence n eeds.

t he f requencies o f s crapers r elative t o

a nd

f or

S ites c ould h ave a lso b een u sed

a nd s egments f or f our r estricted a reas: a pproximately

a

f rom t his

o r a ssemblage s hould b e e xpected t o

e xample, h erders o r m etal u sers.

t he

o r

T he l arge

a c atchment f ocused o n t he g ravel p lains a re

c onform t o t his m odel a s c hanges m aterials

o n t he

m atching

e xcellent t he

l ikely t o h ave h igher r atios o f b acked p ieces e mphasize

m eal.

s eeds c an b e r apidly

e ven e xceeding t he a verage a nnual c arrying c apacity i nland. o pportunities,

s eeds

T he s eeds

( Jacobson

1 978).

1 00 mm i sohyet,

b acked

b lades

t he B randberg, T wyfelfontein, T he

f irst

t he E rongo c lose t o

t wo l ie t he 2 00 m m

mm i sohyet a nd t he l ast i s i n t he l ess t han 5 0 i sohyet. T he a ssemblages s how a q uite d ifferent p attern f rom t hose f rom S outh A frica a nd Z ambia. c omplex t hat

T he i nterpretation o f F igs 1 a nd

a nd c annot b e d ealt w ith i n d etail h ere.

s hould b e p ointed o ut

r elatively

i s t hat

t hose

s how

t hat

S outh

s craper-dominated r esult

i s

o bviously

N amibian

h owever,

a ssemblages

w ith

h igher s craper r atios a re f rom s ites w hose c atchments

t o b e m ountain-orientated. T hey a lso t hat a re a lso m ore r ecent i n a ge. w ill

3

O ne t hing,

o ver

A frican

a ssemblages

t ime.

t end

t end t o r epresent a ssemblages A c areful e xamination o f F ig. 1

T hese

a lso

s imilar

t end

t o

b ecome

t endencies c ould t hus

f rom c ontact w ith i mmigrant E uropeans a nd t he

i ntroduction

o f

n ew t echnologies a nd r aw m aterial s uch a s m etal. F aunal

r emains

a re

u nfortunately

n ot

v ery i nformative b ecause

s ample s izes a re s mall a nd t he b ones h ighly f ragmented. A nalysis d oes, h owever, s how t hat, i n a ddition t o s mall g ame, l arge b ovids a nd e quids w ere b eing t aken

( R.G. K lein,

p ers.

c omm.),

p articularly

i n

t hose s ites w ith a p lains c atchment. I n

c onclusion,

o ne

f inal

p oint

m ay

f urther e vidence t o s upport h is h ypothesis h unting

i n

s avanna

g rasslands,

t he f act

i nhabited b y p astoralists w ho a re d ependent s ustenance.

T here i s a lso e vidence

t hat

F oley c ites,

a s

t hat u pon

t hese a reas a re t heir

a nimals

t oday f or

t he N amib g ravel p lains w ere

u sed b y p astoralists o n a s easonal b asis i n

7 7

b e m ade.

f or a g reater d ependence o n

t he

p ast

( Carr

e t

a l.

0 Zamb ia 1 3 Northern

C ape

A Southern

C ope

A

1 00

F ig.

1

T ripolar g raph s howing a ssemblages f rom Z ambia a nd t he n orthern a nd s outhern C ape P rovince, J acobson

S outh Africa.

(After

1 978.) 8 0 P ERCENT D EPENDE 2 9CE

O N H U NT =

6 0

-r II

• •

r

4 0

,

20

-

. ' .

-%% .

•%

.

. #

• •

•• ••••

. / 0 ' . ,

•

0 50 i 0

1 00

M EAN A NNUAL R Al teALL ( in u r n )

F ig.

2

F oley's s easonal

( 1982) m odel r evised t o t ake

i nto a ccount t he

o ccupation o f s emi—desert g rasslands.

F ig.

3

T ripolar g raph s howing a ssemblages f rom S WA/Namibia. ( Data f rom J acobson 1 978.)

7 8

1 978)

a s

t hey a re

t oday

( Honey 1 982).

W e a re i n f act l ooking a t

t wo

s imilar s ystems, o ne s hort-term, t he o ther l ong-term. B oth t he h unters a nd t heir l arge-mammal p rey a nd t he h erders w ith t heir f locks w ould h ave b een r esponding t o a s imilar F oley's

m odel,

s uitably

a mended,

s ignal,

w ould

r ain

t hus

i n

t he

d esert.

s erve t o e xplain s ome

a spects o f i nter-assemblage v ariability i n t he a rchaeological

r ecord.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I

t hank

t he

D irector o f

t he S tate M useum, M r C .

d iscussions a nd i nformation c oncerning N amib e cology. f or

N ational

t his p aper.

E ducation h as

G .

C oetzee,

T he

f or

S ecretary

g ranted p ermission f or t he p ublication o f

M s S .

P rice k indly d rew t he f igures.

C ARR,

A .

R EFERENCES C ARR, M .

J .,

f eatures

C .

& J ACOBSON, L .

t ypology a nd e cology. C LARK,

J . D ., P HILLIPS,

o f

p rehistoric

s ources: D EACON, H .

P art

J .

R .

C imbebasia

J . L .

1 .

2 :

P .

S .

f rom

P aleorient 2 : W here

( B)

& S TALEY,

t echnology

1 976.

A rchaeol. F OLEY,

1 978.

H ut r emains a nd

f rom t he Z errissene M ountain a rea:

2 35-259. 1 976.

a ncient

I nterpretations

E gyptian

o ther

h unters

g athered.

C laremont:

S .

A fr.

S oc. M onograph 1 .

1 982.

P .

a nd

3 23-388.

A r econsideration o f

t he r ole o f p redation o n l arge

m ammals i n t ropical h unter-gatherer a daptation. H ONEY,

o ther

t heir d istribution,

1 982.

T he S tar,

F orbidden N amib

n ow

J ohannesburg 2 9/10/82:

p rovides

M an

1 7:

f armers

3 93-402

s alvation.

1 4.

J ACOBSON, L . 1 978. A s tudy o f f unctional v ariability i n t he L ater S tone A ge o f w estern D amaraland, N amibia. U npubl. B .A. H ons. T hesis: J ACOBSON,

U niversity o f C ape T own.

L .

a nd i ts

1 981.

R ainfall p rediction i n t he C entral N amib D esert

i mportance

m obility.

f or h unter-gatherer a nd

U npubl.

p ap.

S .

A fr.

S oc.

p astoralist Q uat. R es.

s easonal

C onference,

P retoria 1 981. K LEIN, R .

G .

1 977.

L EE,

R .

B .

T he e cology

1 968.

P ARKINGTON, A fr.

J .

E . 3 1:

N amib. S EELY,

C hicago:

S tud.

S ANDELOWSKY, M .

c urve.

B .H.

P roteccao

1 976. R . B .

C ambridge:

J .

i n

L EE, R .

G .

s outhern o r,

& D EVORE,

A frica.

I .

h ow t o m ake o ut e ds.

M an

t he

S easonal m obility i n t he L ater S tone A ge.

M irabib:

a n

a rchaeological

s tudy

i n

t he

2 21-284. G rassland p roductivity: S ci.

7 4:

t he d esert

C onsideracoes

F auna,

e nd o f

t he

2 95-297.

1 972. T he G /wi B ushmen. I n: G atherers t oday. N ew Y ork:

1 971. d a

I nstituto d e T ANAKA, J . L EE,

1 0:

1 978.

S . A fr.

W inston. S IMOES, A . P .

m an

A ldine.

1 977.

S ILBERBAUER, G . B . H unters a nd

I n:

1 972. 2 23-242.

M adoqua K .

e arly

W hat h unters d o f or a l iving,

o n s carce r esources. H unter.

o f

1 15-126.

S cience 1 97:

F lora

e

a cerca S olo

B ICCHIERI, M ., e d. H olt, R inehart a nd

d e

a lgumas

d e A ngola.

Z onas

d e

S a d a B andeira :

I nvestigacao C ientifica d e A ngola. S ubsistence e cology o f C entral K alahari S an. I n: & D EVORE, I ., e ds. K alahari h unter-gatherers.

H arvard U niversity P ress.

7 9

8 .

S PATIAL P ATTERNING O F T HE C ERAMIC L ATER S TONE A GE I N T HE N ORTHERN C APE P ROVINCE, P eter B .

B eaumont

& J .

S OUTH A FRICA

C .

V ogel

I NTRODUCTION I n

1 980 t he M cGregor M useum r esumed r esearch d irected a t r efining

a nd amplifying t he a vailable d ata b earing o n l ate H olocene a ssemblages w ith

p ottery

i n

t he

n orthern C ape

( Fig.

1 )

. R eliable r adiocarbon

d eterminations h ave b een c orrected t o t he m ost p robable c alendar d ates ( Vogel 1 970) ( Appendices g roupings ( Sections A -F).

1 -6)

a nd

a re

d iscussed

i n t erms o f

s ix

r elate

t he

S ECTION A T he d ates i ncluded i n t his f irst

a ppearance

o f

t he L ater S tone A ge t emporal

s ection

( Appendix

p ottery a nd/or c aprines

( LSA)

r esolution i s

o f

t he n orthern C ape.

c eramics a nd c aprines

i s c learly i n b est 2 43).

B P

( Pta-2447)

a

b asal

a ge

1 979:

A t

L imerock

a ccord

w ith

t he

1

i n

&

2

a vailable

O ur e xtrapolation f rom d ates o f

a nd 1 830 + 5 0 B P

( Pta-3418)

1 490 + 4 0

a t K lein W itkrans

-5 0 B P f or S pit 6 w ith f our s herds c a 2-6

o f

t o

l ow b ut a ssociation o f t he d ated m aterial w ith

d ata

( Humphreys

1 )

( Ovis s p./Capra s p.)

i ndicates

( 27% o f

s ite

t otal) a nd ? Ovis/Capra ( Thackeray 1 981: 4 38). I f t here h ad b een a n i ntrusion o f s heep d own t he H arts R iver v alley, a s c laimed b y W uras ( 1929) o r E lphick ( 1977),

i t

i s l ikely t hat

b een r ecovered f rom t he b rown h yaena

s heep

b ones

w ould

h ave

( Hyaena b runnea) m aternity d en a t

n earby E quus C ave. T he 1 4 c aprine t eeth t hat K lein ( pers. c omm.) i dentified f rom S tratum l a a t t his s ite, a re d istributed t hroughout t his 4 5 c m d eep u nit w hich h as a m id-level d ate o f 2 390 B P

( Pta-2452).

T he e vidence s uggests t herefore t hat L SA p astoralists f irst e ntered t he n orthern C ape b efore c a 2 050 B P ( Beaumont 1 980; T hackeray 1 981). A

l owest

p ossible

l imit

i s

p rovided

b y

a

d ate

o f

3 090 + 6 0 B y

979; ( Pta-1065) f or S pit I I i n A rea A a t D ikbosch 1 ( Humphreys 1 974:- 1 K lein 1 979). P ottery s amples a t t he s ites c ited a bove a re s mall a nd f ragmentation i s ( Humphreys

1 979;

t oo

s evere

t o p ermit r econstruction o f

T hackeray

v essel

1 981) b ut m ean w all t hickness

f orms

( 6-7 mm)

a nd

g rit t emper s uggest a l ink w ith K hoi c eramics ( Schofield 1 948; S ydow 1 967; Rudner 1 968). A ssociation w ith l ow s tone s tructures i s n ot y et f irmly e stablished b ut s heep

e nclosure

a t

s eems

l ikely,

L imerock

r ecent d iscovery b y P .B.B.

g iven

t he

d escribed

b ase

o f

b y H umphreys

o f a ceramic a nd c eramic L SA

c ircles a t H alfway H ouse K oppie

( Wilman 1 933;

a

p ossible

( 1979) i n

t he

a nd

t he

s tone

C lark 1 959).

S ECTION B T he d ates

i ncluded i n t his

C ape w ares f alling w ithin t he p ottery

a s d efined b y R udner

s ection ( Appendix 2 ) r ange ( 1968;

t his c onnection c ome f rom t wo p igment

8 0

o f

r elate t o n orthern

v ariation

n .d.).

o f

C ape

c oastal

T he m ost c omplete d ata i n

w orkings

n ear

P ostmasburg

a t

( 1 ) P

> 1 a )

9 0

E

• H

H c d 5

E

c l ) + . c d E

• H

H o

R z

,

• H r T 1

4 0

8 1 o f v arious L SA c eramic t raditions i n t he n orthern a nd w estern C ape

a nd l ocation o f s ites m entioned i n t he t ext.

P

. a )

• H > o

0

w hich

t here

i s e vidence f or c ontinuous o ccupation b etween A D 7 90 a nd

A D 1 830 b y K hoisan t enders o f a nd

c eramic

v essels

T hackeray e t a l. d ominated

b y

w ith

1 983).

s heep a nd c attle, l ugs a nd s pouts

A t b oth s ites

i rregular

f lakes

a nd

a n

w ho m ade L SA a rtefacts

( Beaumont & B oshier amorphous

s tone

1 974;

i ndustry

w ith c rude s crapers a s

t he o nly

f ormal t ool c lass p ersisted u nchanged f or a m illennium. A t t he s ame t ime t he m ain d ifference i n t he a ssociated p ottery i s t hat a t b oth s ites i t b ecame c oarser i n l evels p ostdating c a A D B oshier

1 974;

T hackeray

1 981).

T his

1 630

i nstance

( Beaumont o f

&

l ong-term

t echnological s tasis m ay b e s ignificant i n v iew o f t he e vidence o f B orcherds a nd S omerville w hich c learly l inks t he 1 801 m ining a t B linkklipkop w ith t he K ora e vidence

f rom

t his

s ite

( Bradlow

A D 1 120 a nd a w et p hase a bout A D a ccord

w ith

r eadings

t he

f rom

t emporally

N atal

P ostmasburg e vidence

&

( Avery 1 981)

( Hall

B radlow

1 979).

1 630

( Pta-2833)

t hat

o verlapping y ellowwood 1 976;

M icrofaunal

i ndicates a d ry i nterlude a t

B eaumont

e t

i s

i n

( Podocarpus

a l.,

c a

f air s p.)

n .d.).

T he

s lightly e xtends t he k nown d istribution o f c limax

C ape c oastal p ottery ( Rudner 1 979, n .d.). T his i s l argely c onfined t o a z one b ordering t he l ower O range R iver w ith a n a pproximate u pstream l imit a t B uccleugh n ear t he c onfluence w ith t he V aal w here a s tone b owl h as a lso b een r ecovered ( H. P rinsloo, p ers. c omm.). D ates f or B itterputs a nd S uurwater r efer t o s ites, f rom

t he

p ottery,

O range

R iver,

t hat

h ave

u sually

o n

r ed

d unes

away

y ielded c omparable C ape c oastal

a lthough u sually a ssociated w ith W ilton t ool-kits

( Rudner

&

R udner 1 959, 1 968; R udner 1 979). T his l ithic s hift g oes w ell b eyond n ormal v ariability w ithin a n i ndustry l ike t hat a t B linkklipkop a nd s eems

t o r eflect l ong-term S an-Khoi c lientship a long t he l ower O range

R iver a fter A D 8 40 a t

t he l atest.

U ndated l ow s tone c ircles h ave b een

r ecorded f rom n orthern B ushmanland a nd N amaqualand,

r egions w hich f all

w ithin t he k nown d istribution o f C ape c oastal w are s outh o f t he O range R iver

( Rudner

&

R udner

1 968;

R udner 1 979;

G .J. F ock,

T here i s a lso a f airly e xtensive s ettlement u nit, B orcherds

i n

1 801,

o n

t he

u pper s lopes

p ers.

f irst

c omm.).

r ecorded

b y

a t B linkklipkop ( Bradlow &

B radlow 1 979).

S ECTION C T he d ates i ncluded i n t his s ection p resence i n t he n orthern C ape a nd d ifferent c eramic t radition t hat w as S ampson ( 1967a, b , 1 970, 1 972, 1 974). O RS

e xcavations t o

L SA

m ixing.

B ut

t he f act

S ampson

P hase

1 967a)

6

C lass

A

w hile m isfits w ere c onsidered t o i ndicate

t hat C lass B s herds m ay o r

t o t he a q uite

f irst d escribed i n d etail b y H e g rouped t he p ottery f rom h is

i nto a C lass B a scribed t o L SA P hase 5 a nd a

a scribed ( e.g.

( Appendix 3 ) r elate a djacent r egions o f

t hat

h ave

g rass

a dmixture

s tamped c eramics m ay h ave g rit

t emper

( Humphreys 1 979: 3 21) b lurs t wo k ey d istinctions. H umphreys ( 1979), i n a r e-analysis o f t he G len E lliott c eramics h as f urther s hown t hat w ithin-spit s herd

s amples o f C lass A & B w ares d o n ot d iffer

t hickness

o r

g rass

t emper

i ncidence,

s ystematic l ong-term t rend t oward p ottery t hat t o

8 ,0

mm)

a nd m ore f requently d ecorated

e vidence c an b e c onstrued a s

i ndicating a

a nd

i s c oarser

( for

v essel

o n t he i nland p lateau w ith a m ost n ortherly

8 2

m ean

( from c a 5 ,5

( from 3 %

t o 6 0%).

t ypological

t he s ame s ize

c ategories s ee R udner 1 979).

i n

t here i s a

g radual

f rom p lain s mall T ype A g p rototype b owls w ith g rit s tamp-decorated T ype A d b owls o f

m uch t hat

T his n ew s hift

t emper t o p rofusely

w ith

g rass

a dmixture

T he l atter w are i s c entred c onfirmed

o ccurrence

o n

t he

V aal R iver a t R iverton

d elineated b y R udner d irectly

o n

( MMK 1 844) a nd a d istribution e lsewhere a s

( 1979,

s herds,

n .d.).

i ndicate

ntes,

i ts

b ased w ith

a fter A D 1 520 o r A D 1 620 ( cf. H umphreys 1 979; K lein h ow t he C lass A s herds, o n w hich P ta-3393 i s b ased, P hase 5 c ontext

( Pta-291)

a t

e xceptions

1 979). P recisely r elate t o t he O RS

i n w hich t hey w ere f ound a t Z aayfontein S helter i s n ot

y et c lear, b ut a l ower r egion w ould s eem t o b e

l imit f or t he i ntroduction o f c eramics i n t his s et b y t he L ayer 2 d ate o f 1 590 + 5 5 B P

B elleview ( Carter & V ogel

1 980 + 1 20 B P

t wo

p roduction f rom b efore A D 7 30 t o

( SR-132)

f or B lydefontein

1 974)

o r t he S pit

II d ate o f I

( Sampson 1 970).

T he l ithic a ssemblages a ssociated w ith C lass A w ares a re

t ypified

b y a l ow i ncidence o f b acked i tems a nd a d ominance o f f ormal s crapers w hich t end t o b ecome l arger w ith t ime ( e.g. S ampson & S ampson 1 967) a nd h ave b een a ssigned t o t he S mithfield C omplex ( Sampson 1 972, 1 974; D eacon 1 972,

1 976) o r

t he I nland W ilton

( Humphreys

1 979:

3 85).

O ur

v iew i s t hat w hat a re c laimed t o b e d istinctions i n f act r eflect g raded s hifts i n t echnical n orms. H owever, o ccurrences t hat p ostdate t he

p erhaps

1 969,

1 979;

r epresent

c oncordant a dvent o f r are b ifacial a rrowheads C arter & V ogel

a

v iable

p reviously d efined

1 974)

i ndustry

a nd C lass A & B w ithin

( Beaumont & V ogel

a

c eramics

' Ceramic

1 972).

e arlier s tone t ool-kits ( Humphreys h istorical o bservations ( Kannemeyer 1 890;

L SA

C lear

1 972a) B leek

( Humphreys a ppear

t o

c omplex

a s

c ontinuity

w ith

a nd w ell-separated & L loyd 1 911) a re

t aken t o i ndicate t hat s uch s ites r elate t o t he S an, a v iew p erhaps f urther s upported b y t he m arked c ontrast w ith t he c oeval a ssemblages a t D oornfontein a nd B linkklipkop d iscussed i n S ection B . l ow s tone c ircles a nd a rcs a re u biquitous ( Rudner & R udner F ock,

p ers.

c omm.)

m ost i nstances c ircles

a nd c learly r epresent

( Sampson 1 981).

C rude

A

( Rudner & R udner 1 968;

n oted b y B reutz

( 1956)

i n

g rids,

S ampson

1 967a,

i s n ot p recluded

( cf. M orris

d iscovery i n 1 974 o f

H owever,

( Goodwin 1 956) 1 981).

s uggest

r ecorded

i nstances

t hat a K hoi

P ertinent i n t his r egard

s ource i s

t he

t uyere f ragments w ith c opper s lag a dhesions a nd a

s mall p artly e xposed f urnace q uarry

9 00 B P ( see P ta-3393) a nd m ay I ron A ge w orkings i n t he D warsberg

a nd M ason ( 1982).

N ama m ining a nd s melting

g ravel

b y

f ragment o f b eaten c opper f rom S pit V a t Z aayfontein c ould

d ate b y e xtrapolation t o a bout u ltimately d erive f rom p resumed o f

w indbreaks

t ypified

a nd r ows o f d ots c an o ften a lso b e l inked t o t he d istribution

o f O RS P hase 5 a nd 6 a ssemblages 1 972).

t he b ases o f

p aintings

A ssociated 1 968; G .J.

( since d estroyed)

n ear C arnarvon

( I. M cLachlan,

a rea k nown t o h ave b een o ccupied b y t he K ora

o n t he m argin o f a r oad p ers. c omm .) u ntil

w hich i s a n

r ecently

( Rudner

1 979). T he n ature o f t he i nterface b etween s uch h erder e nclaves a nd a djacent h unter-gatherers i s c urrently b eing i nvestigated b y S ampson ( 1984).

S ECTION D T he

d ates

i ncluded

i n

t his

p resence i n a c onfined p ortion o f S tate

o f

a

p ottery

s tyle

s ection

( Appendix

t he n orthern C ape

a ssociated

w ith

T ype

4 )

a nd R

c oncern t he O range

F ree

s tone-walled

s ettlements a s d efined b y M aggs ( 1971, 1 976b) a nd H umphreys ( 1972b, 1 973). S uch s ites a re t ypified b y a l arge c entral e nclosure s ome 2 0-40 m i n d iameter w ith a s catter o f s maller c ircles, a rcs a nd s tone m ounds s urrounding i t ( Maggs 1 971). T hey a re c onfined t o t he R iet R iver b elow t he K alkfontein D am ( Humphreys

8 3

1 972b).

A ssociated

p ots

a nd

b owls

1 0-13 mm,

a re e ssentially u ndecorated, a nd s ometimes

i nclude s mall

h ave a w ean w all t hickness o f

a mounts o f g rass

t emper.

T he

s tone-tool a ssemblages a re o f O RS P hase 6 t ype, a nd o ccasional i ron a nd c opper t rade g oods a lso o ccur ( Humphreys & M aggs 1 979; M aggs 1 971; H umphreys

1 972b).

F aunal

r emains

r ecovered f rom t he c entral

s tock

p ens i ndicate a n e conomy b ased o n h unting a s w ell a s s heep a nd c attle ( Maggs 1 971; K lein 1 979). S keletons f rom n earby, s eemingly a ssociated b urial g rounds, l arge K hoisan, 1 970;

s how t hat t he b uilders w ere p redominantly K orana, i .e. a ccording t o B room ( Humphreys 1 970; H umphreys & M aggs

M aggs

1 976b).

c onstructed

b etween

D ates

i ndicate

a bout

A D

t hat

1 380

a nd

t hese 1 620,

s ettlements w hile

S keleton 1 f rom n ear O FD 1 w ould e xtend t he r ange t o A D 1 690, s uggesting t hat

t hose s ites

f or

e ast/west l imited

W eltevreden

1

a nd

t emporal g radient

1 971;

D eterminations

( Humphreys g rass

s uch a s

H umphreys

1 972b,

K hartoum 1 d o n ot

e vidence f rom K hartoum 1 i t

h ave a h igher i ncidence o f

t hereby

f all e ntirely b eyond t he b ounds o f w ritten

h istory i n t his r egion ( cf. M aggs d ates

w ere

i nclusion o f

1 973).

T he

s upport a p otential

1 972b) b ut o n t he b asis o f

i s p ossible

t emper

1 70 + 5 0 B P

t he

t hat e arlier c eramics

( Humphreys ( Pta-717)

1 972b,

1 973).

( Humphreys

1 972b)

o r

' too y oung t o d ate ( SR-234) ( Maggs 1 976b) a re c onsidered t o r eflect i nclusion o f c harcoal f rom p ost-occupational v eld f ires i n t he s hallow d eposits

t hat

t ypify

t hese

l ifespan o f s ettlement u nits b est

b e

d educed

f rom

R iet R iver s keletons 5 5

B P

( Pta-248) a t

M aggs 1 970; b e

p rovide. -

t he

AD 1 475 o r

1 971).

c ontemporary

w ith

t hat

O FD

I ron

5 05 + 9 5 B P

, b).

+ w as t o

A ge s ettlements i n t he

( GX-1014)

1 976a

1

T ype R s ettlements a re n ow s een v arious

o f w hich t he e arliest

t o

3 80

1 590 a nd A D 1 690 ( Humphreys &

n orthern a nd e astern O range F ree S tate, ( Maggs 1 972,

t he

e vidence i n t his

N tsuanatsatsi s ite d ated 1 410

t hat

s ometimes

( Pta-247) a nd o nly

t entatively t aken t o i ndicate b etween

V ogel & M arais

l argely

d ated t o 1 10 + 5 0 B P

r espectively,

l east

T his i n t urn s uggests

t he r emains i n a ssociated g raveyards. A s y et,

1 & 2 ,

c onnection a nd m ay b e o ccupied

s ites.

i n w hich p ottery i s a bsent m ay

i s

a nd c alibrated

T he p ersistence o f

t he

s ame

t he t o A D

r ange

o f

t ypes o f s tructure m entioned i n S ections A -C w ould s uggest t hat T ype R w alling w as e ssentially a l ate e laboration o f a L SA h erder-linked t radition w ith a ceramic W ilton r oots. T his d evelopment w as p erhaps i nduced b y a m ore s ettled s ubsistence p attern i n a n e nvironment r ock

i s

t he

m ost

a bundant

b uilding

m aterial.

H owever,

w here f urther

r esearch i s n eeded t o d ate p recisely t his m ore i ntensive u se o f a nd

i ts

s ites

r elation

f urther e ast

D ates

c ited

t o

i n s outhern A frica

s uggest

t hat

G rootdrink b y A D 1 520 o r K hartoum

1

a ntiquity p erhaps

b y

f or

( Vogel

b arrel-shaped

1 620,

A D 1 380,

a t

G len

1 971;

H all & V ogel

1 980).

s tone p ipes w ere i n u se a t

E lliot

b y

A D

1 400

a nd

a t

t hereby i ndicating t he p ossibility o f a f air

b hang-smoking

c ultivation

s tone

t he o nset o f s imilar p ractices a t L ate I ron A ge

( Elphick

( Cannabis 1 977)

b y

s ativa)

( Walton

1 953)

a nd

t he K hoisan i n t he n orthern

C ape.

S ECTION E T he d ates t entative

i ncluded i n t his

c eramic

s ection

( Appendix

5 )

p ertain

t o

a

g rouping a ssociated w ith s tone w alling i n a reas o f

t he C ape n orth o f t he V aal R iver a nd e ast o f t he A sbestos/Kuruman H ills b ut p erhaps e xtending i nto t he w estern T ransvaal, a s v ariously r ecorded b y B reutz '

( 1955,

1 956,

8 4

1 959,

1 963,

1 968).

R adiocarbon

s amples r etrieved d uring p reliminary f ieldwork i nitiated i n 1 982 b y P .B.B. a t B uxton 5 , H euningvlei 1 & 2 , P omfret 1 /Mahakane a nd D ithakong 1 690.

1

s how

t hat

t hese s ettlements d ate

M aximum h eights o f

t o b etween A D 1 470 a nd

t he r ubble-core w alls r ange f rom c a 0 ,5 m a t

B uxton 1 a nd H euningvlei 1 t o c a 1 ,8 m a t D ithakong 1 a nd m ay t hus i ndicate a t emporal p rogression, w hile t he l ayout o f s tone c airns, l inear

a lignments,

o pposed) S ites

f ull

c ircles

a nd

d oes n ot s eem t o f ollow a ny

a re

i nvariably

s ituated

c ircle

o verall

o n

s egments p attern

h illcrests,

o n

a

y ear-round

c onsistent w hen t he n umber

o f

u nits

b asis

s ettlements i n

a

b ut

w ere

s ettlement

w hich

t hat

1

s q

km a t D ithakong 1 ,

h ave

( Avery

m arkedly

i ndividual s tructures a t B uxton 1 a nd H euningvlei n early

t hat a re p resently

m ay

o ccupied v aries

o r

1 972).

w here s uitable r ocks

o ccur n aturally a nd a ll a re a lso n ear w ater s ources u nreliable

( single

( Maggs

2 t o

b een m ore

1 981).

T he

1 0 -s

f rom 1 00's

o f

c overing

a ccording t o B orcherds w ho e stimated

t he s tone r uins r epresented a s ettlement

l arger

t han

t he

1 801

t own w hich h ad a bout 1 5 00 h uts a nd b etween 7 0 0C a nd 8 0 00 p eople ( Bradlow & B radlow 1 979). T he t wo t renches a t H euningvlei 1 p roduced n o

a rtefactual

d ebris b ut a ll t he o ther l ocalities r evealed a d irect

a ssociation o f

t he w alling w ith a bundant

T hese

c omprised

m ainly

s crapers a nd c eramics

i rregular

a morphous

f lakes,

L SA

a ssemblages.

w ith o ccasional i nformal

t hat a re v ery s imilar t o

t hose a t T ype

R

s ites

e xcept t hat o ccasional i ncised s herds r eplace r are s tamped s herds. N orlim 5 t he m ajor c oncentration o f f laked s tone

a nd

f aunal

A t

r emains

w as a r ubble-free s urface s ome 1 0 m a way f rom t he c losest w alling. D ates f or t his o ccupation p roved t o b e s imilar t o t hose f or a n earby s tone

a rc

t hereby

t hat

c ontained

s uggesting

t he

a ctivity p atterning a t E xotic b eads

t rade

t his

g oods

f rom H euningvlei

p revious

MMK

s herds a nd e vidence f or b ead-making o nly,

e xistence

o f

s ome

d egree

o f

s ex-related

s ite.

c omprise o ne i ron a nd t wo i vory o r p orcelain

2 a nd t wo g lass c ane b eads f rom P omfret

c ollection

f rom

a

c eramic

L SA

1 .

A

s ite a t M ahakane P an

i ncludes a n i ron a dze ( Fock 1 969). T hree s catters o f c eramic L SA s kirting t he P omfret 1 h ills c ontained p roportions o f s herds t o s tone a rtefacts r anging f rom 1 :2 i ndicate

a

w ith i mmigrant T swana, a t

t o

1 4:1.

T his

i s

t entatively

t aken

t o

p rogressive d egeneration i n s tone f laking t hrough c ontact

M ahakane

P an

a s

t hat

s uggested b y t he t rade g oods a nd

e ngravings

i nclude d epictions o f p ossible i ron s pearheads

a nd b ilobial d wellings ( Maggs 1 976b). T wo e ngraved m arabaraba b oards o n s tone a nd a s ingle p artly p erforated c eramic s pindle w horl f ound o n t he s urface a t D ithakong 1 c ould r elate e ither t o t he s tone w alling o r t o n earby a nd l ater T lhaping o r R olong h ut b ases. N orlim 5

c omprise

q uagga),

b lue

i nclude

w ildebeest

a

z ebra,

F aunal r emains

p ossibly

( Connochaetes

t he

t aurinus)

q uagga, a nd

a

f rom

( Equus p ossible

d omesticated c ow ( Bos t aurus) b ut b ovine a nd c aprine f ragments f rom t he s urface s pit o f E quus C ave w hich i s i mmediately d ownslope m ay a lso r elate t o N orlim 5 .

R emains

f rom

d omesticated

( Canis

s p.),

d og,

( Antidorcas m arsupialis), ( ?cow)

a nd

c aprines

s teenbok

( R.G.

K lein,

D ithakong

1

p ossibly ( Raphicerus p ers.

i nclude

a

j ackal

q uagga,

c ampestris),

c omm.).

o r

s pringbok b ovines

P ossible g raves

a t

t hese s ites r emain t o b e e xcavated b ut t he o verall c orrespondence w ith T ype R m aterial c ulture s upports

t he v iew t hat

w ill a lso b e f ound t o b e ' large

K hoisan'.

f urther

s uggests

t hat

t hese

t he h uman p hysical

T he

P omfret

1

t ype

e vidence

p eople w ere r esponsible f or t he p ecked

a bstract e ngravings a t M ahakane P an ( Breutz 1 956, 1 959; F ock 1 969). A s imilar c lose ä ssociation o f r ock a rt a nd s ettlement w ould s eem t o

8 5

e xist a t N ooitgedacht w here a n earby c eramic L SA s ite h as a d ate o f 1 30 + 4 5 B .P. ( Pta-3423) w hich c orresponds t o a c alendar a ge o f A D 1 690 o r

1 820.

T he d istribution i n t he n orthern C ape

o f

s uch

M iddle

P eriod c urvilinear e ngravings i s o ften l inked t o w ater s ources a nd i s m ainly n orth o f t he V aal -lower O range r ivers ( Fock 1 969). I t d oes n ot

t herefore

o verlap

s ignificantly

S an-associated O RS C lass B p ottery a s c ould

t hus

p rovide

f urther

w ith

s upport

o riginally s uggested b y M ason

t hat o f

d iscussed

t he c ontemporary

i n

S ection

C ,

a nd

f or a L SA h erder a scription a s

( 1962).

S ECTION F

t hat

N o d ates a re a s y et a vailable f or a n on-LSA p ottery g roup o f s ites c an b e a scribed t o t he T swana a nd t hat i s c onfined t o t he

n orthern C ape e ast o f U pington a nd n orth o f t he V aal a nd l ower O range R ivers ( Maggs 1 972; H umphreys 1 976). T hese w ares a re t ypified b y s pherical

p ots

w ith

u pright

o r

d ecorated w ith r ed o chre w hich i s ( Maggs

1 972,

1 976b).

F uture

e verted

r ims;

t hese

a re

o ften

s ometimes a pplied i n p atterned l ines

r esearch w ill

c oncentrate

i nitially

o n

t he r etrieval o f s amples f rom h istorical l ocalities s uch a s t he 1 801 s ite o f D ithakong a nd w ill t hen b e e xtended t o r ecorded p ainted p ottery o ccurrences l ike R eids D rift, K heis a nd B attlemound ( Schofield 1 938,

1 948).

T he a dvent o f

t he

I ron A ge

i n

t he

n orthern

C ape,

i f

t aken t o b e n o e arlier t han t he f irst a ppearance o f g lass t rade-beads, i s s et a t A D 1 500 o r 1 620 a t P omfret 1 . T he l atter i s m ore p robable i n v iew o f t he m ost l ikely d ate o f A D 1 690 a t D oornfontein 1 a nd t he f irm d ate o f A D 1 630 a t B linkklipkop i ndications

n eed

d irect

( Thackeray e t a l.

c orroboration

l ate b ut w ould s eem t o b e i n r easonable

a ccord

e vidence f or R olong/Tlhaping m ovements a cross S aunders

1 966;

M aggs 1 976b).

k nown I ron A ge i mports 5 C a t B linkklipkop a re

o f

o paque

H owever,

1 983).

T hese

a nd a re p erhaps u nexpectedly w ith

t he

t he M olopo

h istorical

( Breutz

1 955;

b eads t hat a re q uite u nlike a ny

f rom t he e ast c oast w ere f ound i n l evels 5 B a nd

( Thackeray e t a l.

m ultifacetted

1 983).

T hese u nique i tems

p ale o range r esin,

w hich

p ossibly amber,

a re

d ated t o A D 1 520 o r 1 620 ( Thackeray e t a l. 1 983) a nd a re h ere t hought p ossibly t o h ave c ome f rom t he B enguella s ettlement f ounded i n A ngola i n A D 1 617 c ontact

( Bradlow & B radlow 1 979).

i s

A dditional e vidence f or E uropean

p rovided b y t he c arved h ead f rom T ransvaal R oad,

d ated t o

t he m id-17th c entury b ut w ith a o ne s tandard d eviation m inimum a ge A D 1 800. T his d epicts a n i ndividual w ith l ong h air a nd i nordinately t hin C aucasoid n ose a nd l ips p lastic a rt r epresentations ( Blackburn 1 979).

t ypical

o f

o f t he

i ndigenous

C ONCLUDING R EMARKS F urther t emporal

f ieldwork

l imits o f

p articular

e mphasis

E vidence w ill

w ill

b e

d irected a t r efining t he s patial a nd

t he v arious p ottery i ndustries d iscussed a bove w ith o n

l ocalities

t hat r elate t o S ections A a nd F .

t hen b e e valuated i n t erms o f e nvironmental

d ata

b ased

o n a d etailed m icrofaunal s tratigraphy f or t he p ast m illennium o r m ore ( Beaumont 1 982) a nd a p ollen r ecord f or t he e ntire H olocene ( Beaumont e t

a l.

1 983).

I t

w ould

' nomadic K hoi p astoralist n ot a pplicable t o o ptimal

a ppear f rom o ur e vidence m odel b ased o n h istorical

s weetveld g razing s ituations

p revailed i n t he e astern p ortions

o f

8 6

t he

n orthern

t hat t he c urrent o bservations

i s

t hat p reviously C ape

( Humphreys

1 979). T he L SA h erders t here f ollowed a m ore s edentary w ay o f l ife t hat p ermitted t he c onstruction o f s tone w alled s ettlements, w hich w ere

o ccasionally

a ssumption t hat

v ery

e xtensive.

s uch s tructures

( e.g. M ason 1 965;

T hackeray

T his

i nvalidates

a re e xclusive

t o

t he

t he

L ate

c ommon

I ron

Age

1 981).

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS C .G.

S ampson

i s

t hanked

f or p ermission t o c ite t he

t hree d ates

f rom V inkelfontein a nd M iddle M ount.

R EFERENCES A VERY,

D .M.

C ape B EAUMONT,

P .B.

C ave. B EAUMONT, S .

1 981.

P rovince, S .

B EAUMONT,

f rom

S outh A frica.

7: 7

1 963.

A fr.

P .B.

A fr.

H olocene m icromammalian f aunas

1 973.

J .

P .

S ci. B .

S ci.

i nteresting a rtefacts B ull.

1 8:

T he a ncient 6 9:

P .B.

O n

S .

1 982.

p roject. B EAUMONT,

f rom R ose C ottage

6 0-61.

p igment m ines o f

t he

A fr.

o rigins

a rchaeol.

A spects

P alaeoecol.

P .B.

& B OSHIER,

o f

a fr.

1 5:

s outhern

A fr.

a rchaeol. B ull.

B EAUMONT,

o f

H ottentot c ulture

P .B.,

A frica.

A .K.

V AN

2 9:

t he

n orthern

1 974.

Z INDEREN

P aper

1 983. B EAUMONT,

P .B.

& V OGEL,

B LACKBURN,

J .

1 979.

W .H.I.

o f

E .M.

n orthern &

J .C.

V OGEL,

1 972.

T he w hite m en.

B RADLOW, o f

P -L.

C ape T own:

1 955.

h emisphere,

P -L.

P t.

1 . A fr.

S tud.

P -L.

S pecimens

1 959.

P -L. P -L.

S .

A fr.

T he

D ev.

1 963. 1 968. D ept.

t ribes

e thnol.

o f

Mafeking

B ushman 2 nd.

f olklore. e d.,

1 963.

d istrict.

S .

A fr.

i n S outh A frica.

A fr.

3 2.

s ettlements

T he D ept

o f V ryburg P ubls.

t ribes

d istrict.

T he t ribes

o f

B antu A dmin.

S .

o f

t he

d istricts o f K uruman a nd e thnol.

P ubls.

e thnol.

P ubls.

4 9.

5 1.

1 974. T he d ating o f s ites i n e astern L esotho.

8 7

D ept

t he d istricts o f T aung a nd H erberg.

D ev.

57-570. 5

A fr.

4 6.

B antu A dmin. D ev.

C ARTER, P .L. & V OGEL, J .C. a ssemblages f rom s tratified 9 :

t he

P ubls.

S tone k raal

P ostmasburg S . A fr. B REUTZ,

6 5-89.

1 57-175.

B antu A dmin. B REUTZ,

3 1:

O ribis.

V an R iebeeck S oc.

T he t ribes o f

1 956.

1 5:

S waziland,

1 979. W illiam S omerville's n arrative e astern C ape f rontier a nd t o L ittako

D ept n ative A ffairs e thnol. S tud.

1 983. S outh

P ress.

E . & B RADLOW , F ., e ds. h is j ourneys t o t he

1 799-1802.

S .

O n a n ew r adiocarbon c hronology L ondon:

1 911.

C onnoisseurs

J .C.

n orthern C ape,

L ondon: G eorge A llen. B ORCHERDS, P .B. 1 861. An a uto-biographical m emoir. C ape T own:

i n a

C ape.

t he I nternational S ymposium o n l ate

t he s outhern

t he e quator.

& L LOYD, L .C.

P leistocene

R eport o n t est e xcavations

P ostmasburg,

B AKKER,

d elivered a t

f or A frica s outh o f

C ape

4 1-59.

C ainozoic p alaeoclimates

B REUTZ,

i n

S oc. N ewsletter

H olocene e nvironmental c hanges a t K athu P an,

B REUTZ,

A frica.

4 1-44.

p rehistoric p igment m ine n ear

B REUTZ,

n orthern

2 -3.

B EAUMONT,

B LEEK,

t he

2 65-273.

1 40-146.

1 980.

s outhern A frica. 3 :

Two

a rchaeol.

S . A fr. J .

i ndustrial M an ( NS)

C LARK,

J .D.

1 959.

T he p rehistory o f s outhern A frica.

H armondsworth:

P enguin B ooks. D EACON, H .J. S . A fr.

1 972. A r eview o f t he p ost-Pleistocene i n S outh A frica. a rchaeol. S oc. G oodwin S er. 1 : 2 4-26.

D EACON, H .J. 1 976. W here h unters g athered. A rchaeological S ociety M onograph 1 . E LLENBURGER,

D .F.

& M ACGREGOR,

a ncient a nd m odern. E LPHICK,

R .

1 977.

S .C.

L ondon: K raal

1 912.

C laremont:

S outh A frican

T he h istory o f

t he B asuto:

C axton.

a nd c astle.

N ew H aven:

Y ale U niversity

P ress. F OCK,

G .J. A nn.

1 969.

N on-representational r ock a rt

C ape P rov.

G OODWIN,

A .J.H.

A fr.

M us.

1 956.

a rchaeol.

( nat.

H ist.)

1 1:

B ull.

1 976.

D endroclimatology,

L ater

I ron

o f

A .,

J .C.

1 980. J .

S AMPSON,

3 3:

B ull.

S ome

A fr.

C .G.,

t he V oigtspost s ite,

H UMPHREYS,

r ainfall a nd h uman

A ge o f N atal a nd Z ululand.

s outhern A frica.

S .

4 6-51.

t he

H OROWITZ,

1 03-127.

M etal w orking a mong t he e arly H ottentots.

H ALL, M .

6 93-703. H ALL, M . & V OGEL,

6 :

i n t he n orthern C ape.

r ecent

H ist.

2 1:

S COTT,

L .

0 .F.S.,

a daptation

i n

A nn. N atal M us.

2 2:

r adiocarbon

d ates

f rom

4 31-455. & V OGEL,

J .C.

S outh A frica.

1 978.

A nalysis

S . A fr.

a rchaeol.

1 52-159.

A .J.B.

1 969.

f rom V osberg. HUMPHREYS, A .J.B. e xcavated

b y

K imberley.

F our b ifacial t anged a nd b arbed a rrowheads

S . A fr.

a rchaeol.

1 970.

T he

W .

F owler

S . A fr.

B ull.

r emains a nd

a rchaeol.

2 4:

f rom

7 3-74. K offiefontein

b urials

p reserved i n t he M cGregor Museum, B ull.

2 5:

1 04-115.

H UMPHREYS, A .J.B. 1 972a. C omments o n a spects o f r aw m aterial u sage i n t he L ater S tone A ge o f t he m iddle O range R iver a rea. S . A fr. a rchaeol. S oc. G oodwin S er. 1 : 4 6-53. HUMPHREYS, A .J.B. 1 972b. T he T ype R s ettlements i n t he c ontext o f t he l ater p rehistory a nd e arly h istory o f t he R iet R iver v alley. U npubl. M A T hesis: H UMPHREYS, A .J.B. 1 973. T ype

R

U niversity o f C ape T own. A r eport o n e xcavations

s ettlement

O .F.S. A nn. H UMPHREYS, A .J.B. D ikbosch

u nit

c arried

o ut

o n

1 ,

a rchaeol. B ull. 2 9: H UMPHREYS, A .J.B. 1 976. i n

H erbert

d istrict, n orthern C ape.

1 15-119. N ote o n t he

t he

n orthern

s outhern

C ape.

a

i n t he J acobsdal d istrict,

C ape P rov. M us. ( nat. H ist.) 9 : 1 23-157. 1 974. A p reliminary r eport o n t est e xcavations

S helter

s ettlement

( Khartoum 1 )

l imits

S . A fr.

o f

a rchaeol.

a t

S .

A fr.

I ron

A ge

B ull.

3 1:

5 4-57. HUMPHREYS,

A .J.B.

U npubl. H UMPHREYS, S t.

1 979.

T he H olocene s equence

P h.D.

T hesis:

A .J.B.

1 982.

n orthern C ape.

3 7: 6 8-70. . H UMPHREYS, A .J.B. & M AGGS, T .M.0 -C c ultural m aterial f rom t he b anks o f a rchaeol.

B ull.

D .R.

2 5: 1 890.

C ape.

C ultural m aterial f rom b urials o n t he

C lair, D ouglas a rea,

K ANNEMEYER,

i n t he n orthern

U niversity o f C ape T own. S .

A fr.

a rchaeol.

f arm B ull.

1 970. F urther g raves a nd t he R iet R iver. S . A fr.

16-126. 1 S tone

i mplements:

w ith

a d escription o f

B ushman s tone i mplements a nd r elics; t heir n ames, u ses, m ode m anufacture a nd o ccurrence. C ape i llus. M ag. 1 : 1 20-130.

o f

K LEIN, R .G. 1 979. P alaeoenvironmental a nd c ultural i mplications o f l ate H olocene a rchaeological f aunas f rom t he O range F ree S tate a nd B ull.

n orth-central 1 9:

C ape

P rovince,

3 4-49.

8 8

S . A frica.

S . A fr. a rchaeol.

M AGGS, T .M.O'C. 1 971. P astoral s ettlements o n t he A fr. a rchaeol. B ull. 2 6: 3 7-63. M AGGS,

T .M.O'C.

1 972.

B iblobial d wellings:

s outhern T swana s ettlements. 1 : 5 4-64.

S . A fr.

R iet

R iver.

a p ersistent

a rchaeol.

S oc.

S .

f eature o f

G oodwin S er.

M AGGS, T .M.O'C. 1 976a. I ron A ge p atterns a nd S otho h istory i n t he s outhern H ighveld, S outh A frica. W ld A rchaeol. 7 : 3 18-322. M AGGS, T .M.O'C. 1 976b. I ron A ge c ommunities H ighveld. O cc. P ubis N atal M us. 2 . M AGGS,

T .M.O'C.

1 977.

S ome r ecent r adiocarbon d ates

s outhern A frica. M ASON,

R .J.

J . A fr.

1 962.

H ist.

P rehistory

W itwatersrand U niv.

1 8:

o f

1 965. T he o rigin o f 6 1: 2 55-267.

M ASON, R .J.

s outhern

f rom e astern a nd

1 61-191.

t he

T ransvaal.

J ohannesburg:

1 982.

s outhern A frican s ociety.

P rehistoric m ining i n S outh A frica

c opper m ines i n t he S warsberg, M etall. M ay 1 982: 1 34-142. o f

t he

P ress.

M ASON, R .J. J . S ci.

M ORRIS,

o f

T ransvaal,

S . A fr.

a nd

I ron

A ge

J l S . A fr.

I nst.

m in.

A .G.

1 981. C opper d iscolouration o f b one a nd t he i ncidence c opper a rtefacts w ith h uman b urials i n S outh A frica. S . A fr.

a rchaeol.

B ull.

P EABODY, F .E.

3 6:

1 954.

E scarpment

3 6-42.

T ravertines

o f

S outh

A ustralopithecus

a nd

A frica,

a fricanus

D art.

c ave

d eposits

a nd

t he

B ull.

o f

t ype

g eol.

t he

K aap

l ocality

S oc.

o f

Am.

6 5:

6 71-705. P ERINGUEY,

L .

1 909.

T he r ock e ngravings o f S outh A frica.

A fr. p hil. S oc. 1 8: P OWER, J .H. 1 951. T wo K imberley.

4 01-419. s culptured

S . A fr. a rchaeol.

R UDNER, I . & R UDNER, n orth-western C ape a nd

J . 1 959. S outh W est

B ull. 1 4: 1 42-145. R UDNER, J . 1 968. S trandloper A frica. R UDNER,

J .

t he

S . A fr.

1 971a.

M us.

4 9:

i n

t he

M cGregor

W ilton A frica.

p ottery

s and-dune S . A fr.

s ites i n a rchaeol.

f rom S outh a nd

S outh W est

4 41-663.

d istrict,

n orth-western

7 9-81. J . 1 979.

T he u se o f

C ape.

S . A fr.

S . A fr.

J .

B ull.

n .d.

3 4:

J .

& RUDNER,

1 25-209. S AMPSON, C .G.

t imes.

S .

A fr.

3 -17.

I .

U npubl. 1 968.

R ock-art

i n t he t hirstland a reas.

A fr. a rchaeol. B ull. 2 3: 7 5-89. S AMPSON, C .G. 1 967a. E xcavations a t N orvalspont, n orthern C ape. N avors. n as. 4 1-124. S AMPSON, C .G. d istrict,

a rchaeol. B ull.

N on-Bantu p ottery f rom t he i nland a reas o f S outh a nd

S outh W est A frica. R UDNER,

a rchaeol.

s tone a rtefacts a nd p ottery a mong t he

K hoisan p eoples i n p rehistoric a nd p rotohistoric R UDNER,

M useum,

5 5-56.

6 :

2 6: 1 39-142. 1 971b. T hree c arved s tone h eads.

a rchaeol.

S .

O strich e ggshell f lasks a nd s oapstone o bjects f rom

G ordonia

B ull. R UDNER, J . 2 6: R UDNER,

Ann.

h eads B ull.

T rans.

S .

Z aayfontein S helter, M us. B loemfontein 2 :

1 967b. E xcavations a t G len E lliott S helter, C olesberg n orthern C ape. N avors. n as. M us. B loemfontein 2 : 1 970.

f ield r esults.

T he

M em. n at.

S mithfield M us.

I ndustrial C omplex :

B loemfontein 5 :

f urther

1 -172.

S AMPSON, C .G. 1 972. T he s tone a ge i ndustries o f t he O range R iver S cheme a nd S outh A frica. M em. n at. M us. B loemfontein 6 : 1 -288. S AMPSON,

C .G.

1 974.

T he S tone Age a rchaeology o f s outhern A frica.

8 9

N ew Y ork: S AMPSON, C .G. B ushmen. S AMPSON,

A cademic P ress. 1 981. A rchaeological d istribution o f G rant

C .G.

P roposal,

National

1 984. A p rehistoric p astoralist

Z eekoe v alley,

S outh A frica.

t he Z eekoe V alley

S cience F oundation,

I n :

U .S.A.

f rontier i n t he u pper

H ALL, M .J.,

A VERY,

G .,

A VERY,

D .M., W ILSON, M .L. & H UMPHREYS, A .J.B., e ds. F rontiers: s outhern A frican a rchaeology t oday. P roceedings o f t he c onference o f t he S outhern O xford: S AMPSON,

A frican

C .G.

& S AMPSON, M .

a nd a nalysis. S AUNDERS,

A ssociation

o f A rchaeologists,

C .C.

M em.

1 966.

1 967.

n at.

R iversmead

M us.

2 0:

S CHOFIELD,

t he T swana.

e xcavations

s eventeenth a nd

Q uart.

B ull.

S .

A fr.

6 0-70.

J .F.

1 938.

D .F.

P ottery f rom N atal,

G .W.

S .

1 948.

H andbook S er. S TOW ,

1 983.

1 -111.

E arly k nowledge o f t he S otho:

S outh W est A frica. S CHOFIELD,

S helter:

B loemfontein 3 :

e ighteenth c entury a ccounts o f L ib.

G aborone

B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

A fr.

J .

S ci.

Z ululand,

3 5:

B echuanaland a nd

3 82-395.

P rimitive p ottery.

S .

A fr.

a rchaeol.

S oc.

L ondon:

S wann

3 .

1 905.

T he n ative r aces o f S outh A frica.

S onnenschein. S YDOW,

W .

1 967.

T he

p re-European

C imbebasia M em. T HACKERAY, C ape

A .I.

1 :

1 981.

P rovince,

p ottery

o f

S outh

W est

A frica.

7 -74. T He H olocene c ultural s equence

S outh

A frica.

U npubl.

i n t he n orthern

P h.D.

T hesis:

Y ale

U niversity. T HACKERAY, a t

C ape. V OGEL,

A .I.,

T HACKERAY,

J .C.

S .

A fr.

a rchaeol.

1 970.

Radiocarbon 1 3: J .

1 953.

P .B.

B echuanaland, C .F.

1 929.

B ull.

M .

3 8:

E xcavations n orthern

1 7-25.

r adiocarbon

1 971.

1 983.

P ostmasburg, d ates

P retoria

I X.

R adiocarbon

r adiocarbon

d ates

1 .

3 78-394.

T he d agga p ipes o f S outh A frica.

B loemfontein 1 : W ILMAN, M . 1 933. W URAS,

& B EAUMONT,

G roningen

1 2:444-471. V OGEL, J .C. & MARAIS, W ALTON,

J .F.

t he B linkklipkop s pecularite m ine n ear

8 5-113. T he r ock-engravings

S outh A frica. A n a ccount

o f

N avors. n as.

G riqualand

C ambridge:

D eighton B ell.

t he K ora.

B antu S tud.

o f

9 0

3 :

W est

M us. a nd

2 87-297.

A PPENDIX 1 .

D ates r elevant t o S ection A

L imerock 1 S helter, H erbert, C ape P rovince. P ta-1621. 1 620 + 5 0 B P; A D 3 30. i n S quare C . W ilton, p ottery a nd 1 979;

2 8° 3 3 -S ,

2 4° 0 1 -E .

C harcoal f rom S pit I II t ooth o f O vis/Capra

( 25-45 c m) ( Humphreys

K lein 1 979).

L imerock 2 S helter, H erbert, C ape P rovince. P ta-2095.

1 720 + 4 0 B P;

i n S quare A .

W ilton,

A D 2 30.

2 8° 3 3 -S ;

2 4° 0 1 -E .

C harcoal f rom S pit I V ( 38-50 c m)

p ottery a nd t ooth o f

?

O vis/Capra

( Humphreys

1 979). K lein W itkrans S helter, B ophuthatswana. 2 7° 3 9 -S ; 2 4° 3 7 -E . P ta-2447. 1 490 + 4 0 B P; AD 4 60. C harcoal f rom S pit 3 ( 10-15 c m) i n S quare P ta-3418. i n S quare 1 954;

1 3B.

T hackeray

E quus C ave,

W ilton a nd p ottery.

1 830 + 5 0 B P; AD 1 20. C harcoal f rom S pit 5 ( 20-25 c m) W ilton, p ottery a nd t ooth o f Ovis/Capra ( Peabody 1 3B:1 981;

R .G. K lein,

B ophuthatswana.

7 2 7° 3

-S ;

4 P ta-2452. 2 390 + 5 5 B P; 40 B .C. f S quare 2 1K. i n s tratum 1 A -o O vis/Capra

( R.G. K lein,

p ers.

p ers.

2 4° 3 8 -E . C harcoal f rom S pit 4 ( 23-30 c m) L SA b one p oints a nd t eeth o f

c omm.).

9 1

c omm.).

A PPENDIX 2 .

B linklipkop

1 ,

P ta-2841. p ottery.

2 60

+

r elevant t o S ection B .

C ape P rovince.

A D 1 830-1930.

4 5 B P;

2 8°

1 8'S;

G rass f rom

A D 1 630.

2 3° 0 7 E.

S tratum

3 h.

L SA,

C harcoal f rom S tratum 4 a b ase.

p ottery a nd g lass b eads.

P ta-2839. L SA,

P ostmasburg,

8 0 + 3 5 B P;

P ta-2833. L SA,

D ates

2 80 + 5 0 B P;

A D 1 520 o r

1 620.

C harcoal f rom S tratum

5 c.

p ottery a nd r esin b eads.

P ta-3419.

8 30

S quare M 6.

ttery. L SA, 3-o

4 5

B P;

1 160 + 5 0 B P;

P ta-2840. p ottery

( including

( Beaumont e t a l.

+

1 973;

1 120.

A D

A D 7 90.

p ossible

C harcoal f rom S tratum 5 j i n

C harcoal f rom

l ug),

S tratum

Ovis/Capra

B eaumont & B oshier 1 974;

a nd

T hackeray

5 p.

L SA,

B os/Syncerus

1 981;

T hackeray

1 983).

D oornfontein 1 , P ta-3089. B os t ooth S tratum

P ostmasburg,

1 30

+ 8 0 B P;

( R.G. K lein, 2

p ers.

1 690 o r 1 820. c omm.)

i n S pit

b ase i n S quare 6 J o f Exc.

( including r einforced l ug)

2'S; 2 8° 1

C ape P rovince. A D

2 3° 0 2 E.

C ollagen f rom u ncharred 3

( 15-22

1 f rom C hamber 3 .

c m)

m arking

L SA,

p ottery

a nd g lass/copper b eads.

1 P ta-186. 120 + 4 0 B P; A D 8 30. C harcoal f rom S pits 1 0-13 ( 67-97 c m) o f S quares 7 k-m & 8L in Stratum 1 of Exc. 1 f rom C hamber 3 . L SA, p ottery, Ovis/Capra, B os/Syncerus a nd H . s apiens ( Khoisan) ( Vogel & M arais a l.

1 971;

B eaumont

1 973;

B eaumont & B oshier 1 974;

T hackeray e t

1 983).

G rootdrink,

G ordonia,

C ape P rovince.

P ta-360. 2 95 + 3 2 B P; g oods. Another pot s tone s moking p ipes B itterputs P ta-3359.

1 ,

( Rudner

N amaqualand, 4 90 + 4 0

s urface. L SA,

s urface.

1 971a;

3 4'S;

1 979, n .d.;

C ape P rovince.

B P;

2 1°

4 5 E.

A D

M aggs

2 9° 4 8'S;

1 420.

O strich

C ape P rovince.

1 S, 2 9° 5

1 977).

1 8° 5 9 E.

e ggshell

f rom

d une

an( 1 p ottery.

S uurwater, N amaqualand, P ta-3357.

2 8 °

A D 1 520 o r 1 620. S oot f rom a p ot. G rave w ith r einforced l ugs, s hallow s tone b owl a nd

1 10

+

4 5

B P;

A D

8 40.

W ater c ontainer, L SA a nd p ottery.

9 2

1 9°

O strich

0 0 E. e ggshell f rom d une

A PPENDIX 3 .

V inkelfontein 4 ,

D ates r elevant t o S ection C .

C olesburg,

C ape P rovince.

P ta-2843. 3 20 ± 4 0 B P; A D 1 500 o r 1 620. P ot 1 O RS C lass A c eramic s herds f rom s urface. L SA P hase 6 ( C.G. S ampson, p ers. c omm.). B iesiesfontein, V ictoria W est, 4 40

P ta-3417.

+ 4 0 B P;

5 3 S pit 1 o f S quare p ottery.

M iddle M ount

1 00.

P ta-2844.

i n

P ta-2846.

C olesberg,

5 80 + ? B P;

3 1°

2 8 -S ;

2 3°

1 3 -E .

O strich e ggshell f ragments f rom

C ircle

1 .

L SA

a nd

O RS

C lass

A

C ape P rovince.

A D 1 440.

D ecorated,

f rom s urface. D ecorated, p ers.

S tone

40 + 4 5 B P; 4

f rom s urface.

C ape P rovince.

A D 1 440.

g rass

P ot 2

t emper.

A D 1 370. g rass

P ot

t emper.

O RS C lass A c eramic s herds L SA P hase 6 .

1O RS C lass A

c eramic

L SA P hase 6 .

( C.G.

s herds S ampson,

c omm.).

R ose C ottage C ave, L adybrand, O range F ree S tate. P ta-350.

6 10 + 5 0 B P;

S pit 5 ( 30-37 & M arais

c m)

i n S quare F h.

P ta-3437.

2 9°

A

1 3 -S ;

2 7° 2 9 -E .

p ottery

s herd

f rom

( Beaumont

1 963;

V ogel

O RS C lass A p ottery s herds

f rom

P hase 3 W ilton

C ape P rovince.

9 30 + 1 10 B P;

2 8°

A D 1 020.

3 1 -S ,

2 4°

4 2 -E .

( MMK 1 844).

Z aayfontein S helter, V enterstad, P ta-3392.

3 00

+

5 0

s herds f rom S pit I I. P ta-3393. S pit V I.

O RS C lass

1 971).

R iverton, K imberley, o pen s ite

AD 1 340.

a t

B P;

3 0°

1 520 o r 1 620.

; 3 8 -S

2 5°

2 9 E.

O RS C lass A p ottery

1 0 c m. L SA P hase 6 a nd g lass b eads.

1 040 + 6 0 B P; a t 4 0 c m.

C ape P rovince. AD

AD 9 10.

L SA P hase 5

O RS C lass A p ottery ( Sampson 1 967a,

1 970,

s herds

f rom

1 972).

7'S; 2 5° 3 8 -E . G len E lliott S helter, V enterstad, C ape P rovince 3 0° 4 P ta-3401. 5 20 + 9 0 B P; A D 1 400. O RS C lass A p ottery s herds f rom S pit I I.

se 6 a nd s tone p ipe. L SA P h-;

P ta-3402/75. f rom

S pits

120 + 7 0 B P; 1 V

&

VI ( 40-70

A D 8 30. c m).

O RS

C lass

A

p ottery

L SA P hase 5 ( Sampson 1 967b,

s herds 1 970,

1 972). V oigtspost 0 , P ta-1483. L ayer

5 .

F auresmith, O range F ree S tate. 1 220 + 5 0 B P; S mithfield

( Horowitz e t a l.

A .D. ?

a nd

7 30.

s herds

1 978).

9 3

2 0° 4 1 -S ;

2 5° 0 3 -E .

O strich e ggshell f ragments w ith

g rit

a nd g rass

f rom t emper

A PPENDIX 4 .

O .F.D.

D ates

r elevant t o S ection D .

8'S; 2 9° 1

1 , K offiefontein, O range F ree S tate.

P ta-964.

2 90

+

4 5 B .P;

A D 1 520 o r 1 620.

ench 1 a t S ettlement U nit l ower 1 2 cm o f T-i H umphreys

1 972b;

W aterval W est 3 ,

2 4

°

5 7 E.

C ollagen f rom b ones A

( Maggs

1 971,

i n

1 976b;

K lein 1 979).

J acobsdal,

O range F ree S tate.

2 9' 1 8'S;

2 4

°

4 5 E.

P ta-3109. 3 50 + 4 5 B P; A D 1 480 o r 1 590. O strich e ggshell f ragments f rom u nder s tone- ihat w as p art o f e nclosure w all ( Humphreys 1 972, 1 973). D ouglas, H erbert, C ape P rovince. P ta-3088. ( MMK

4 10

2 44).

+

5 0

G rooved

s pecularite t races

B P;

s tone

i nside

2 9° 0 3'S;

A D 1 460.

2 3

4 6 E.

°

C ollagen f rom ' Korana

p lus

s mall

( MMK 1 838)

p ot

( Humphreys

( 7

c m

s keleton

h igh)

W eltevreden 1 , H erbert, C ape P rovince. 2 9° 0 2'S; 2 4° 1 0 E. P ta-3409. 5 00 + 3 5 B P; A D 1 410. R im s herds ( MMK 6 243) s urface n ear s ettlement K hartoum 1 , P ta-3093. s and a t ( Humphreys

( Humphreys

1 972b,

J acobsdal, O range F ree S tate. 5 70 + 6 0 B P; -3 i n Exc. - 1 1 972b,

w ith

1 982).

f rom

1 973). 2 9°

1 6'S;

2 4° 4 5 E.

A D 1 380. S herds f rom 1 5 c m d epth i n r ed S tructure L . L SA, p ottery a nd s tone p ipe

1 973).

9 4

A PPENDIX 5 .

D ithakong 1 ,

D ates r elevant t o s ection E .

5 -S , 2 7° 0

B ophuthatswana.

2 3° 5 6 E.

P ta-3444. 1 10 + 6 0 B P; A D 1 690 o r 1 820. C harcoal f rom S tratum 1 i n S quare B 12 o f- hxc. 2 i n s tone c ircle. L SA, p ottery, Ovis/Capra a nd B os/Syncerus. P ta-3462.

2 30 + 4 0 B P;

l ower

S quare

o f

A 3

A D 1 640. a t

E xc.

C ollagen f rom b one i n 1

i n

s tone c ircle.

S tratum

L SA,

1

p ottery,

O vis/Capra a nd B os/Syncerus. P ta-3466. l ower

20 + 4 0 B P; 2

( 15-23

p ottery,

E m)

o f

A D 1 640. S quare

C ollagen f rom b one i n

A 2

a t Exc.

O vis/Capra a nd B os/Syncerus

P eringuey

1 909;

M aggs 1 972,

E llenberger

1 976b;

&

B radlow

S tratum

1 i n s tone c ircle.

( Borcherds

M acGregor 1 912;

&

B radlow

1 979;

2 6°

1'S; 1

2 3° l l'E.

1 861;

S tow

B reutz

1 956,

R .G.

K lein,

2

L SA, 1 905; 1 959; p ers.

c omm.). H euningvlei 2 , P ta-3458.

B ophuthatswana.

20 + 4 5 B P; 2

3 ( 1015 c m)

A D 1 640.

uares E l a nd 2 i n -§-q

C ollagen i n b ones o f

E xc.

1

i n

f rom b asal S pit

s tone

a rc.

L SA,

p ottery a nd u nidentified f aunal r emains. P omfret 1 ,

V ryburg,

C ape P rovince.

2 5°

5 0'S;

2 3° 3 0 E.

P ta-3488. 3 20 + 5 0 B .P; A D 1 500 o r 1 620. C harcoal f rom b asal S pit 5 ( 20-25 c m) i n S quares B i a nd B 2 o f Exc. 1 . L SA, p ottery a nd t wo g lass

b eads

( Peringuey

1 909;

B reutz

1 956,

1 959;

F ock 1 969;

M aggs

1 976b). N orlim 5 ,

B ophuthatswana.

2 7

°

3 7'S;

2 4

°

3 8 E.

P ta-3421. 3 90 + 4 0 B P; A D 1 470. C harcoal f rom s mall h earth a t 3- 5 c m d epth i n -b one p ile E xc. 4 i n A reas B a nd F . L SA, p ottery a nd b ovine r emains. P ta-3367. 4 00 + 4 0 B P; A D 1 460. O strich e ggshell f rom S pit 1 ( 0- 5 16 o f Exc. 3 i n s tone s emicircle. P ottery b ut n o c m) i n S quare- G s tone a rtefacts

( R.G. K lein,

APPENDIX 6 .

p ers.

D ates r elevant t o S ection F .

K imberley, K imberley, C ape P rovince. P ta-3094. 2 10 + 4 5 B P; A D 1 650. 2 88).

N egro/?Khoisan

f ragments a nd s culptured

c omm.).

w ith

4'S; 2 4° 4 6 -E . 2 80 4 C ollagen f rom h uman s keleton ( MMK

s even

d iabase

i ron

h ead

b racelets,

w ith

t rade

e xaggerated

f eatures 1 971b; F .

i n a g rave n ear t he T ransvaal R oad ( Power 1 951; B arbour, p ers. c omm.; E . C rowfoot, p ers. c omm.;

V illiers,

p ers.

c omm.).

9 5

c loth

E uropean R udner H . d e

9 .

A P REHISTORIC P ASTORALIST F RONTIER I N T HE U PPER Z EEKOE V ALLEY, C .

S OUTH A FRICA.

G arth S ampson

I NTRODUCTION W hen R obert J acob G ordon p assed t hrough t he p lains o f C amdebo ( Fig. 1 ) i nto t he h eadwaters o f t he S undays R iver i n 1 777, h e r eported t hat

t he

K hoi p astoralists w ho h ad f ormerly d ominated

v irtually r eplaced b y i ndigenous

h erders

t rekboer s till

s ettlers.

t hrived a t

c omplex m ountain r ange r ising s ome p art

o f

t he G reat E scarpment.

F arther

1 916),

1 0 00 m f rom

t he

p lains

T his r ange h e d escribed a s

w hom

h owever,

t hat t ime i n t he S neeubergen,

H ottentotsland" o ccupied b y C hinese H ottentots a lso ( Godee-Molsbergen

t his a rea w ere

n orth,

N ewton-King

t o

" het r egte

c alled

& M alherbe

a

f orm

O esjwanas

( 1981) e quate

w ith t he n on-Khoi-speaking p astoralists c alled d 'Gauas b y t he K hoi. S till f arther n orth, o nce t he h igh p asses o f t he S neeubergen h ad b een t raversed,

w hite e xplorers

s eem

t o

h ave

e ncountered

o nly

B ushman

h unter-foragers o n t he h igh p lateau b eyond. P ublished a ccounts o f e arly t ravels i n t he u pper Z eekoe v alley t herefore l ack a ny m ention o f p astoralists. T his p aper p astoralists i n

r eports t he h itherto u nsuspected p resence o f t he s outh-western c orner o f t he Z eekoe v alley

h eadwaters. A s t his a rea s eems t o h ave b een h unter-foragers a t t he t ime o f f irst w hite c ontact, o ccupation

m ust

i n t he h ands o f t he p astoralist

h ave t aken p lace s ome t ime e arlier.

E xact d ates a re

n ot y et a vailable, b ut t here i s r eason t o b elieve ( see b elow) t hat o nly a f ew c enturies a t m ost h ad e lapsed b etween t he a bandonment o f t he p astoralist

s ettlements a nd

t he a rrival o f t he w hites.

A P ASTORALIST F RONTIER H erder s ettlements w ere d etected d uring t he c ourse o f s ystematic m apping o f s urface a rchaeological s ites i n t he c entral a nd u pper Z eekoe v alley ( Fig.

2 a).

A n a rchaeological b oundary

a nd h erders h as b een m apped p roviding f or t he f irst t ime a s patial f ront. a s

a rchaeology

o f

h erder/hunter

A w orking d efinition o f

b etween

h unters

a long a 5 0 km l ine ( Fig. 2 b), u nique o pportunity t o e xamine i nteractions

t hus t he

a long a c ontact

t he a ctual f ront i s g iven i n

F ig.

2 b

t he o uter l imit o f t he p resently k nown d istribution o f s tone-built

s tock e nclosures

( kraals),

w ith t he e xpectation t hat f urther

a nalysis

w ill b lur t he s eemingly h ard-edged n ature o f t he f ront. F urthermore,

t here a re g rounds f or b elieving t hat

o f t his k raal-boundary i s n ot a s a ccurately s ector;

i t

s hould b e n oted t hat

p recisely w ith t he

s outhernmost

d efined

t he w estern h alf a s

t he

e astern

t he w estern e nd o f t he l ine c oincides t ermination

o f

t he

1 979-80

m apping

s eason ( Figs 2 a & 2 b). D uring t he 1 981 s eason, m apping p roceeded f rom t he s outh u p t o t his l ine a nd k raals w ere d iscovered a lmost u p t o i t. I t i s l ikely, t herefore, t hat a f ew i solated s pecimens w ere o verlooked

9 6

T. -

9 7

s urvey a rea.

L ocation

1 979-80 and

s howing a rea m apped

Z eekoe R iver d rainage basin b oundary w ithin t he

› , a ) > F 1 w

i n t he f irst s eason. T his w as c ertainly t he c ase i n t he e astern s ector a lso, w here t hree o f t he s urvey t eam's m ost e xperienced m embers d ouble-checked p laces t hat w ere m apped i n t he f irst s eason a nd w here k raals w ere l ikely t o o ccur. I ndeed, a f ew k raals w ere f ound b y t his a pproach i n 1 982, b ut t here w as i nsufficient t ime t o d ouble-check t he w estern e nd a lso. N o d oubt t he n ext s eason's w ork w ill l ead t o t his l ine b eing s hifted s lightly n orth o f t hat s hown i n F ig. 2 b. T his s aid,

t he d iscussion o f

t he s ettlement c an p roceed.

T he l andscape s outh o f o f

t he S neeubergen r ange

b arrier

t o

l ine i s d etailed i n F ig. m

a .s.1.)

3 .

f orms

T he c rest a

h uman p assage u p t he e scarpment f rom t he s outh,

t hree n arrow g aps. j ust e ast o f d rainage-basin. t he

t his

( average 2 0 00

O nly o ne o f

t he p asses h as b een

m assive

e xcept a t

m apped,

t he

g ap

t he M eiringsberg f orming t he h ead o f t he E landskloof A lthough t here i s a s teep c limb o n t he s outh s ide o f

e scarpment

t o

r each

t his

g ap,

i t i s f ar m ore a ccessible t han

e ither o f t he t wo o ther m apped p asses

f arther

W est o f t he M eiringsberg a re t wo l ow p asses

e ast

( see

F ig.

( not y et m apped)

2 b).

w hich c an

b e r eached f rom t he s outh w ith r elative e ase a nd l ead d own t he d rainage-basins o f t he Z eekoe R iver i tself a nd t he Z oetvlei t ributary. A lthough a ll t hree d rainages a re

s easonal,

r ainfall

t he c ountry i s n evertheless v ery w ell

b eing

w atered, c aused

t hanks

o nly t o

t he

mm,

e xcellent

N ot

a verage

n ear

t he

a nnual s urface

s hales a nd t heir i ntrusive d olerite a rea

m apped

i ncluded o n t he m ap a re m any s cores o f s easonal s eeps.

T he K aroo s crub o f u plands

t he

T here a re 1 10 p ermanent s prings i n t he

d ykes a nd s ills. 3 .

w ith

w ater-retention

b y t he u nderlying B eaufort

i n F ig. t he

3 05

t he f lats a nd b asins a nd t he

o riginally

m ontane

s ourveld

o f

s upported e normous h erds o f g ame, w ith l arge

n umbers o f a ttendant c arnivores. A lthough t he p resent v egetation i s n o d oubt s omewhat d isrupted, w e a re a ble t o r ecognize a t l east s ix e dible p lant t herefore,

s pecies

t his

h ave b een l ions, o f

w hich

F rom t he p astoralist

v iewpoint,

T he m ajor h azards w ould

w inter b lizzards a nd p erhaps m arauding B ushmen,

w ould

a lready a dapted

s till i n p lace.

i s a r elatively r ich h abitat. h ave t o

b een

b eyond

n one

t he c oping s trategies o f h erders

t he c entral v alleys o f t he S neeuberg r ange i tself.

S TONE KRAAL D ISTRIBUTIONS T he l ocations o f i nterest

t o n ote

2 99 s tone k raals a re g iven i n F ig.

t hat o nly o ne o f

s tandard T rigonometrical S urvey l ocations

4 .

I t

i s

o f

t hese c ould b e d istinguished o n t he

a ir-photos,

h ave g round-truth s tatus.

s o

t hat

a ll

o f

t hese

K raals a re l inear c onfigurations

o f r oughly s tacked d olerite c obbles a nd/or s iltstone s labs w ithout a ny t race o f m anual d ressing. F ragments o f u ncollapsed s tacking a re e xtremely r are a nd a re n ever h igher o f

c ollapsed

r ubble,

t han 1 m .

J udging f rom t he v olume

k raal s ides p robably n ever r eached h igher t han

t his a nd c ould o nly h ave c ontained

s heep a nd/or g oats,

t oo l ow t o e ffectively c onstrain c attle.

t he w alls b eing

A lthough t hese m ay h ave b een

h eightened w ith c ut b rush, t he l atter i s e xtremely s carce i n t he a rea w here, m oreover, t here o ccur n o A cacia s pecies, t he t horns o f w hich m ake t he m ost e ffective b arriers.

F uture e xcavations

r eveal

t he r ange o f l ivestock i nvolved,

t ibia

h as

a lready

b een

r ecovered

w ill

n o

d oubt

b ut o ne m ature i ndigenous

f rom

a mateur

d iggings

i n

g oat a

r ockshelter n ear a c luster o f k raals. K raal

l ayout

t akes

t wo b asic

9 8

f orms,

o ne o f w hich c onsists o f t wo

c r)

4 0 • H r T 1 -

9 9

r oughly p arallel w alls j utting o ut f rom a l ow r idge o r l edge w hich f orms t he b ack o f t he k raal. T he w alling m ay c urve r ound i n f ront t o f orm a n arrow e ntrance a t t his i s n ot

t he f oot o f

i nvariably t he c ase.

t he s lope b elow t he

T hus

t he f loor o f

r idge,

t he k raal

b ut

t ends t o

b e q uite s teeply s loped f rom b ack t o f ront, w ith o nly a s ingle c ourse o f s tones m arking t he u pslope s ide. O pen-fronted k raals w ere p resumably s hielded b y

c ut

b rushwood.

T he

s econd

f orm

c omprises

s ubcircular o r o val k raals b uilt o n m ore l evel s urfaces, e ntrance f ormed b y a n arrow g ap i n t he w alling. D iameters t ypes

w ith t he o f b oth

v ary b etween 1 5-25 m a nd e ither t ype m ay c ontain a s maller

( 3x3

m ) c ircle o f w alling o n o ne o r o ther s ide o f t he e ntrance. T his h as a n e xact a nalogue i n t he l ammerhok o f N ama k raals i n w hich t he l ambs a nd/or k ids a re k ept s eparated f rom t he e wes i n o rder t o c onserve m ilk f or h uman c onsumption ( Webley 1 982). I t s hould b e n oted t hat t here a re a lso s everal v ariations o f t hese b asic t ypes a nd t his s ample w ould n o

d oubt

r epay

c loser

s tudy

i n c ase

t here a re s patial c lusters o f

s ubtypes w hich t his p reliminary s urvey c ould n ot d etect. i s

s tressed t hat

F inally,

i t

t hese k raals c an b e r eadily d istinguished f rom t hose

o f e arly w hite s tock f armers a s

t he

l atter a re i nvariably r ectangular,

h igher, w ith o uter c oursing o f d ressed s tone a nd a r ubble-filled c ore, a nd u sually a ssociated w ith g lass, m etal,

p orcelain,

a nd/or

s toneware

f ragments. T he a nd

d istribution

w estern

p attern

p ortion

i tself f alls n aturally i nto a n e astern

( Fig.

4 )

s eparated

b y

t he

n orth-trending

p romontory o f t he M eiringsberg w hich a lso d ivides t he E landskloof a nd Z oetvlei d rainages. K raal d ensity i s f ar l ower i n t he E landskloof d rainage, n o d oubt r eflecting a l ess i ntensive u se o f t his c ountry f or g razing. A lthough w ater-points a nd v egetation a re n o l ess a bundant t han

i n

t he

i ncluding

Z eekoe-Zoetvlei

m ore

d ifficult

m ountainous t errain, w inter. A lthough t he

p ortion,

a ccess

t o

t here a re s ome d isadvantages, a nd

f rom

t he

s outh,

m ore

a nd m ore n umerous a nd h eavier s nowstorms i n l atter c annot b e d ocumented, i t i s w idely

a cknowledged b y l ocal f armers a nd, i ndeed, t he f arm a t t he f oot o f t he M eiringsberg i s n amed S neeukuil w hich m eans " Snow P ool". T he Z eekoe-Zoetvlei

p ortion

o f

t he

s ettlement

c lusters o f k raals o n s elected d ykes,

r idges,

p attern a nd

r eveals

h ills

d ense

o verlooking

p ermanent s prings a nd s eep-fed p ools i n t he r iverbeds. T he m ountains w ere c learly avoided, t here b eing n o k raals a t h igher e levations. A f our-part h ierarchy o f k raal c lusters c an b e r eadily r ecognized. T here a re t wo v ery l arge p rimary c lusters a long t he Z eekoe c hannel a nd b etween t hese a re t he

p rimary

s econdary c lusters o f a bout 7 -15 k raals,

c lusters

a nd

a nother

t wo b etween

t hree a long t he l eft b ank o f

t he

Z oetvlei o n a p arallel d yke. T ertiary c lusters o f 3 -5 k raals s urround s ome o f t hese, b ut t hey a lso f orm t he o nly c lusters p resent i n t he E landskloof p attern. s cattered

L owest

i n t he h ierarchy a re t he i solated

t hroughout e ach d rainage-basin.

a t l east s ome o f t hese c lusters m ay e xist a mong t he N ama r ecently a nalysed b y W ebley ( 1982). I t s eems l ikely t hat c lusters c ould b e s ome

o f

t he

c ategory. w hile

t he l ocal e quivalent o f

l arger

s econdary

c ould

a lso

i solated

k raals

w aystations b etween p osts. n eeded t o t est

t hese

c ould

O bviously,

r eflect a

s uggested c omparisons.

1 00

g reat

d eal

a lthough

f all i nto t his

N ama

l one

f or

s ettlements t he p rimary

t he N ama s tations,

c lusters

T he s maller c lusters m ay e quate w ith t he

t he

k raals

E thnographic a nalogues

s tockposts,

s tockposts m ore

w ork

a nd i s

• f

s z t

e

1 01 w ith d ense

s catters ( camp—kraals).

K RAALS O N S URFACE S ITES A lthough 1 06 k raals w ere r ecorded a s l oosely a ssociated w ith s mall s catters o f f laked l ithics, a nother 5 1 s tructures h ave d ense e nough s catters i n a nd a round t he k raal t o s uggest a f irm a ssociation. S ince t he d ense s catters c ontain p otsherds a nd g rinding e quipment t ogether w ith t he l ithics t hey c ould b e i nterpreted a s h erder c amps i n w hich t he h umans h ave o ccupied t he k raal a long w ith t he l ivestock, o r h ave c amped u p a gainst t he o utside w all, p resumably t o g ive m aximum p rotection t o t he h erd a t n ight. H owever, t his s eems n ot t o h ave b een a s tandard p ractice a s o nly 1 7% o f a ll t he k raals a re t hus a ssociated. W hen t he d istribution o f t hese c amp-kraals i s e xamined ( Fig. 4 ) t hey b ecome e ven m ore d ifficult t o i nterpret. A lthough t here a re s ome c amp-kraals i n e ach o f t he f our l evels o f t he c luster h ierarchy o utlined a bove, t here a re f ar m ore c amp-kraals i n t he " isolated k raal" c ategory. T his m ight b e t aken t o i ndicate t hat l one h erders h ad f ar g reater

n eed t o p rotect t heir f locks c losely f rom n octurnal p redators

t han w as n ecessary a t t he l arger s tations a nd s tockposts, w here t he m ain c amp c ould b e s ome d istance f rom t he k raals w hich w ere g uarded b y i ndividual h erdboys w ho c ould r aise a w arning w hen n ecessary. H owever, t his f ails t o e xplain t he c amp-kraals w ithin t he l arger c lusters. A n a dditional p oint i s t hat t he l argest n umber o f c amp-kraals o ccurs a long t he n orthern f ringe o f t he E landskloof d rainage-basin a nd i t w as t hese s pecimens w hich w ere r evealed d uring t he 1 982 d ouble-checking o peration. A s imilar f ringe i s e xpected t o e merge a round t he n orth o f t he Z eekoe-Zoetvlei p attern w hen t his a rea i s c hecked f or s tray k raals i n a f uture s eason. I f c amp-kraals a re c oncentrated a round t he i nside e dge o f t he k raal b oundary, t hat i s, t he f ront a s d efined i n F ig. 2 b, t hey m ay r eflect a n e ntirely d ifferent a spect o f h erder o rganization f rom t hose a ssociated w ith t he k raal c lusters. T wo p ossible e xplanations m ay b e m ooted a t t his s tage o f t he a nalysis: c amp-kraals a long t he c ontact z one o f t he h erder/hunter f rontier r eflect t he s ettlement p attern o f h unters-turned-client h erders; o r i solated k raals a long t he f rontier w ere a bandoned b y t heir h erder t enants, p ossibly u nder p ressure f rom m arauding B ushmen h unters, a nd t hese s ame k raals w ere s ubsequently u sed b y B ushmen a s c onvenient w indbreaks f or t heir o wn c amps. N either o ption

c an

b e

t ested

u nless

t he

h unters a nd h erders c an b e c learly

a rchaeological d istinguished.

r esidues o f b oth F ortunately,

t he

c eramic t raditions o f t he t wo g roups w ere s o r adically d ifferent t hat a s tart c an b e m ade o n s eparating t he t wo i n a n a rchaeological c ontext.

T WO C ERAMIC T RADITIONS T he Z eekoe v alley B ushmen b elonged t o a c eramic t radition f ound i n m any p arts o f t he c entral p lateau o f S outh A frica. I t i s i nvariably a ssociated w ith t he S mithfield I ndustry ( Sampson 1 974). A lthough n ever t horoughly s tudied, t he t radition h as b een g iven v arious l abels ( Schofield 1 948; R udner 1 979). I t i s c entred o n t he m anufacture o f s lab-built,

t hick-walled,

g rass-tempered b owls,

t he s ides o f w hich a re

d ecorated w ith p oorly c ontrolled l ines a nd/or n etworks o f s tamp i mpressions e xecuted w ith a s ingle-point s tylus. T he r emains o f t hese b owls

w ill b e r eferred t o i n t his p aper a s S mithfield s herds.

1 02

I n t he

c entral Z eekoe v alley t hey a re t he o nly t ype p resent, b ut a s o ne c omes s outhwards t oward t he k raal b oundary s mall a mounts o f s herds f rom a v ery d ifferent t radition b egin t o a ppear among t he o n B ushman c amps. T he

p rehistoric

b ased

t hin-walled, s and-tempered, s houlders, n ecks, e verted

o n

t he

p roduction

p unctate

o f

c oil-built,

h ighly-fired p ots w ith c haracteristic l ips, s lightly p ointed b ases a nd,

o ccasionally, s pouts a nd s uspension l ugs a t w as m inimal, u sually r estricted t o t he n eck, r ound

s herds

h erders u nder d iscussion p articipated i n a nother

v ery w idespread t radition

c hannels,

S mithfield

t he s houlder. D ecoration a nd c omprising s hallow

i mpressions o r f ine s cored l ines.

t his w are i s i n t he o range-red

r ange

o f

h ues

d ue

t o

M uch o f

h igh

f iring

t emperatures i n a r educing a tmosphere a nd t he u se o f a r eddish s lip o n t he o uter s urface.

A lthough t his

a scribed t o t he H ottentots 1 968,

1 979)

( e.g.,

t radition L aidler

h as

1 929;

b een

t he a bsence o f a ny c onvincing H ottentot

h as c onsistently m uddled t he i ssue.

T hus

t his p aper s hould b e t aken a s a l abel

c onventionally

S chofield

t he t erm K hoi

o f

1 948;

( Khoi)

c onvenience

R udner

a rchaeology

s herds u sed i n a nd

d oes

n ot

n ecessarily i mply t hat t he Z eekoe v alley h erders s poke a K hoi d ialect. W hen

t heir

d escribed

a rchaeological a n

r emains

a ppropriate

l ocal

h ave

b een

f ully

s tudied

a nd

n ame c an b e c hosen a s a m ore p roper

l abel.

C ERAMICS A T C AMP-KRAALS T he p roportions o f K hoi s herds f ound a t c amp-kraals a re m apped F ig.

5 .

I n

t he

E landskloof

K hoi-dominated c amp-kraals, t o

t he

n orth o f i t.

s o t he r atio

o f

S mithfield

s herds,

c amp-kraals s ituation a bove

f ar

a re

o ne n ear

s herds u ntil

d eclines,

t he

e ntirely

c ould

o uter

d ominated

w ith

c onsequent

p erimeter b y

i s

S mithfield

h ave a risen u nder e ither o f

i ncreases, g ains

r eached

i n

w here

s herds.

T his

t he t wo s cenarios m ooted

( client h erders o r h unter r eoccupants a t p eripheral k raals).

T he p attern o n t he Z eekoe-Zoetvlei s ide o f t he m ap i n F ig. 5 i s m ore c omplex. K hoi-dominated c amp-kraals a re c oncentrated i n t he

n orthernmost p rimary c luster, b ut n ot

t he m outh o f t he p ass a nd a nother

A s d istance a way f rom t hese t wo l oci

K hoi

i n

s ettlement p attern t here a re o nly t wo

y et

b een f ully a nalysed.

t he o ther v ast p rimary

c luster

h as

K hoi-dominated s ites a lso o ccur i n t he

s econdary a nd t ertiary c lusters t hought

t o

b e

s tockposts.

H owever,

t here a re a lso s ome S mithfield-dominated s ites i n t hese c lusters. M ost o f t he S mithfield-dominated c amp-kraals a re i solated k raals b etween t he c lusters. T here i s c learly a t endency f or K hoi-dominated c amp-kraals t o o ccur i n c lusters, w hile i solated k raals a re m ore l ikely

t o

b e

S mithfield-dominated.

T he c lose

j uxtaposition o f b oth

k inds o f c amp-kraal i n s ome c lusters r equires a n e xplanation, h owever. O ne p ossibility i s t hat t his p attern i s t he r esult o f r eoccupation b y B ushman h unters j ust p rior t o E uropean s ettlement. A t est o f s uch a n h ypothesis s econdary

s hould

r ockshelter w alling.

p rove

c lusters d eposits I n

e ach

p ossible

b ecause

t hey

w hich

h ave

c ase

t he

i n

a t

h ave a lso s urface

l east b ecome

b uilt

u p

s ample

t wo c amp-kraals i n i ncorporated i nside o f

i n

t he k raal s herds

i s

S mithfield-dominated. I f t he h unter-reoccupant s cenario i s c orrect t hen t he d eposits a t t he b ase o f t he k raal w alling w ill y ield a K hoi-dominated s herd

s ample.

T his h as y et

1 03

t o b e t ested.

L r %

1 04

H ERDER C AMPS W here,

t hen,

o ther k raals?

w ere t he c amps o f

I t

i s

t he h erders r esponsible f or a ll t he

r easonable t o e xpect

t hem t o

b e

s omewhere

n ear

t he k raals, b ut t here a re s o m any S mithfield s urface s ites i n t he s ame g eneral l ocalities ( see b elow) t hat t he c amps o f h erders a re n ot a lways

e asy

t o

d istinguish

a ssume t hat s urface s ites p robably

h erder

c amps,

c lusters,

a nd i ndeed

f rom

w ith t hese

t hey d o

t hose

6 0%

o r

s hould

( Fig.

6 ),

o f B ushman h unters. m ore

o f

K hoi

I f w e

s herds

w ere

o ccur m ainly i nside t he k raal s uggesting t hat t his a ssumption

i s p robably a s afe o ne. H owever, t his p rocedure l eaves s ome s econdary a nd t ertiary c lusters w ithout a ny a ttendant c amps, w hich w ould s eem u nlikely.

G iven t hat c amp-kraals c an h ave v ery l ow K hoi

t here i s n o r eason t o

s uppose t hat m any h erder c amps

s herd r atios,

c ould

n ot

h ave

h ad s imilarly l ow r atios. H owever, d istinguishing t hese f rom n ormal S mithfield h unters c amps w ill r equire t ypological s tudies o f t he s tone a rtefacts f rom t he m ore d efinite h erder c amps w ith h igh K hoi s herd

r atios.

a ssemblages

S uperficial

s uggests

t hat

i nspection t hey

a re

i n

t he

i ndeed

f ield

r ather

o f

t hese

d ifferent

f rom

S mithfield a ssemblages.

C LIENT-HERDERS F igure 7 s hows T ree

o f

t he m ain h erder c amps f itted t o a M inimum

d eclining K hoi s herd r atios.

M ST's,

S panning

a lthough w idely u sed i n

l ocational s tudies ( Haggett e t a l. 1 977) h ave n ot f ound a ny a pplications i n s patial a rchaeology f or w ant o f a n a dequate d ata b ase. U sed t o a nalyse t he f low o f g oods i n u rban-rural n etworks t hrough h ierarchies o f c ity-town-village-hamlet u nits, t hey h ave o bvious u se f or c larifying t he f low o f K hoi v essels f rom t his

s tudy

a rea.

h erders

t o

h unters

i n

A " tree" i s s imply c onstructed b y s eeking t he c amp

w ith t he h ighest K hoi s herd r atio a nd d rawing a l ine t o t he n ext n earest c amp w ith t he n ext h ighest K hoi s herd p ercentage ( trunk) t hen p roceeding f rom t his s ites

( limbs)

s econd s ite i n t he

a nd s o o n ( branches,

o f S mithfield s ites

w ith

o nly

s ame

m anner

t wigs,

e tc.)

f ew

p ercent

a

t o

s urrounding

u ntil t he o uter f ringe o f

K hoi

s herds

i s

r eached. T his

g oes

s ome

w ay

t o

s ynthesizing

t he

c omplexity

Z eekoe-Zoetvlei p attern t o t he w est, b ut, m ore i mportantly, t o i solate c ertain b ranches w here K hoi v essels w ere c irculating w ith s ome v igour among

S mithfield

f rom t he m ain h erder c entres. p atterns r eflect t he p resence

I t

p eriodically

g razed

l ivestock

o f

c amps

t he

r elatively

f ar

m ay w ell b e t hat s ome o f t hese c lient-herders, h unters w ho

o n t heir o wn t erritories a nd r eturned

t hem t o t heir h erder owners a t r egular i ntervals. t heir s ervices,

o f

i t h elps o bviously

t hey r eceived g ifts

I f,

i n e xchange f or

i ncluding K hoi v essels t hese w ould

h ave f lowed i nto t heir r egular h unter-forager m obility p attern a nd e nded u p a s r esidues i n t heir s easonal f oraging c amps w ell away f rom t he h erder c entres.

A gain,

s tudies o f

t he l ithic

s ites w ill d o m uch t o c larify t heir e xact

1 05

i dentity.

t ypology

o f

t hese

1 06

• H • o a ) t k 0 a 3 p

•

c z

E c d

r d

E c ) c f t

• H

a )

•

P ( 1 ) 9-I

• r d

r d

•

+ ' H •

. H

O C / 2 C a

a ) • E 1 e d ) • H •

( 1 ) P -1

E

C 1 3 0

r d • H

•

P • H

•

P

5 • r t

r d

• •

• H •

1 07

•

e U ) c d C f2

C I)

H UNTER C AMPS S mithfield

s urface

s ites

w ith

t he s tandard t ool r epertoire a nd

1 00% S mithfield s herds a lso a bound i n t he a rea ( Fig. 8 ), b ut i t i s o f c ourse n ot p ossible t o t ell w hich o f t hese w as c ontemporary w ith t he h erder c amps. T he E landskloof p attern i s o f i nterest i n t his r espect, h owever, i n t hat t he " pure" S mithfield s ites t end t o c oncentrate a round t he m ore m ountainous f ringes s urrounding t he h erder s ettlements i n t he v alley b elow . T his h ints a t s ome s ort o f s pace s haring b etween h unters a nd h erders, e ven b ehind t he k raal b oundary. T his p icture i s f urther r einforced b y t he p attern o f S mithfield s ites w ith r elatively l ow r atios o f K hoi s herds, w ith i rregular s catters a round t he h erder c amps s uggesting t hat p eriodic s haring o f s pace a t w aterholes l ed t o e xchanges o f p ersonnel a nd m aterials.

C ONCLUSIONS T he m uch-vaunted " invisible p astoralists" o f S outh A frican p rehistory t urn o ut t o b e v isible a fter a ll, h ighly v isible i n f act. T he k ey t o t heir r ecognition i s t he p resence o f l ow ,

e phemeral

s tone

w alling i n a ssociation w ith K hoi c eramics a nd a l ithic a ssemblage t hat d iffers f rom t he S mithfield b ut h as n ot y et b een s tudied i n d etail. E xperience h as s hown t hat r eliance c annot b e p laced o n a ir-photographs o r o n q uestionnaires t o d etect s uch s ites a nd t hat e xpertise i n g round-recognition g rows a s m ore k raals, i n v arious s tages o f d isintegration, a re e xamined. S ystematic e xploration o n f oot i n t he m ost l ikely p laces w ill y ield t he b est r esults. A lthough t he p astoralists d iscussed i n t his p aper w ere p robably t he f orebears o f t he S neeuberg d 'Gauas o f p rotohistory, t he p ossibility t hat t hey w ere t rue K hoi c annot b e r uled o ut a t t his s tage. C omparable s tudies a t t he f oot o f t he G reat E scarpment m ight s hed s ome l ight o n t his p roblem, p articularly i n t hose a reas w here a K hoi p resence h as b een w ell d ocumented. H ere, a s i n o ther p arts o f S outh A frica w here e arly p astoralist o ccupations a re e ither d ocumented o r s uspected, t he f ortuitous " frontier" s etting o f t he p resent s tudy i s

l ess

l ikely

t o e merge, p articularly i n t hose a reas w here c eramic

t raditions a re n ot s o w ell c ontrasted. T his p reliminary s tudy c an d o l ittle m ore t han e stablish t he f acts o f a h erder p resence, t hen p resent t estable h ypotheses a round w hich f uture w ork c an b e f ormulated. A t p resent i t s eems l ikely t hat h erder-hunter i nteractions s pace-sharing, e xchanges o f u ltimately, t he r emoval o f u nknown.

C ontrasts

p ortions

o f

t he

i n f ront

i nteractions w as n ot

t he h int

a long t he c ontact f ront i nvolved g oods, p ossible c lient-herding, a nd, t he h erders a ltogether b y f orces a s y et p atterns t hat

o f t he

t he s ame a long t he

t he

e astern

i ntensity w hole

l ength

a nd

w estern

o f t hese v arious o f

t he

f ront

u nder s tudy.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he s urvey w as f unded b y N ational S cience F oundation G rant N os. B NS-79141 a nd A01, a nd t he c eramic s tudies a re p resently f unded b y N SF

G rant

N o.

B NS-8210085.

I a m d eeply g rateful t o M r a nd M rs F red

1 08

CO

1 09

MST n etworks

R ubidge a nd t o M r a nd M rs P eter W atermeyer w ho g enerously a ccommodated t he e ntire p roject d uring t he t wo s easons o f w ork i n t his a rea, p rovided s torage o f s tudy c ollections a nd p roject e quipment. M r M rs

G lanton

M askell

p rovided s torage o f t he f ield v ehicles.

a re a lso d ue t o t he f ollowing f armers f or t heir p ermission a nd

c ollect

o n

c o-operation: M eiring, S .

t heir

M essrs

F .

P .

p roperty

P . D .

N aude,

F .

N eveling, F . R ubidge,

W atermeyer.

T he

a s

d e K lerk, N aude, F .

B .

w ell

a s

P . F . N aude

d e

K lerk,

t he e ntire

K .

v an d er

h is

a dvice o n t he i nterpretation o f

t o

v Z.

M erwe,

R .

N aude, a nd

P .

f unction w ithout m y

l ogistical b ackup.

I t hank

t eam m embers D . A rter, B . B ousman, T . D albey, E . L ovick, S . P eters, a nd J . S aunders. A lso, I w ish t o t hank P rof. H . J . m odern N ama s ettlement a nalogues.

s urvey

K roon,

S . N aude,

Z eekoe V alley P roject c ould n ot

w ife B eatrix w ho m aintains

T hanks

t o

t heir h ospitality a nd

( Jr.),

v an d er M erwe, K .

a nd a nd

t he

L ovick, L . D eacon f or

i ndividual s tone s tructures u sing

F inally,

I o we a d ebt o f

g ratitude

t he l ate M rs S tella R ubidge w ho f irst a lerted m e t o t he p resence o f

s tone k raals i n t he a rea. f ondly d edicated.

I t i s

t o h er

m emory

t hat

t his

p aper

i s

R EFERENCES G ODEE-MOLSBERGEN, t ijd 3 .

E .

C .

1 916.

s 'Gravenhage:

R eizen i n Z uid-Afrika i n d e H ollandse

M artinus N ijhoff.

H AGGETT, P ., L ondon:

C LIFF, A . D . & F REY, E dward A rnold.

A .

1 977.

L AIDLER, P . S . A fr.

W . J .

1 929. H ottentot a nd B ushman p ottery o f S outh A frica. S ci. 2 6: 7 58-786.

N EWTON-KING,

S .

& M ALHERBE V . C .

1 981.

L ocational

m odels

1 .

T he K hoikhoi r ebellion i n t he

E astern C ape. University o f C ape T own C entre f or A frican S tudies C ommunication 5 . RUDNER,

J .

1 968.

A frica. RUDNER,

J .

Ann.

S trandloper

P ottery

S .

1 979.

M us.

4 9:

4 41-663.

T he

u se

o f

s tone

K hoisan p eoples

i n h istoric a nd

a rchaeol.

3 4:

S AMPSON,

C .

B ull. G .

1 974.

N ew Y ork a nd L ondon: S CHOFIELD,

J . F .

A frican

f rom

A fr.

1 948.

c eramics,

S outh

a nd

S outh

W est

a rtefacts a nd p ottery a mong

p rotohistoric

t imes.

S .

A fr.

3 -17. T he S tone Age a rchaeology o f s outhern A frica. A cademic P ress. P rimitive P ottery :

a n i ntroduction

t o

S outh

p rehistoric a nd p rotohistoric. C ape T own:

S outh A frican A rchaeological

T he

S ociety H andbook 3 .

W EBLEY, L . E . 1 982. S ettlement s tudies among h erders: a n e thno-archaeological a pproach.

1 10

d escendants o f N ama K hoisis 3 : 1 -26.

1 0.

S TONE T OOLS A ND S ANDVELD S ETTLEMENT

A . H . M anhire,

J .

E .

P arkington & T .

S . R obey

I NTRODUCTION I n

p revious

P arkington 1 980) a ssemblages

p ublications w as

a rgued

a cross

t he

l andscape

p atterned u se a nd i mplication

( Mazel

i t

d iscard

w as

c learly

t hat

f rom

h abits t hat

&

P arkington

t he

o f

p atterns c oast

a rgument w as

t he r elative l ack o f c hronological c ontrol a s m any o f

a ssemblages

w ere

n umerous v isits. c ontemporary

T he

a ssumption

a ctivities

h as

m ajor

p roblem

i n

t he t he

p erhaps u ndatable p alimpsests o f

t hat

b een

A

a ssemblage

r eflected

s catters,

t he T he

a ctivities w ould h ave b een

d ifferences

s urface

s chedules.

t ool

t oolmakers.

t imed f or d ifferent s egments o f m ovement p atterns a nd t hat t hose

1 981;

s tone

t o K aroo r eflect

p rehistoric

d ifferent

1 978,

o f

e ach

a ssemblage

c hallenged

r epresented

( Deacon 1 980;

S ampson

1 980).

I n o rder t o p ursue t his d ebate w e h ave i nitiated a n e xhaustive

s urvey

o f

t he s andveld,

a k ey s egment o f o ur r esearch l andscape

l ies b etween t he p resent c oastline a nd t he w estern b orders o f F old

B elt

s ites,

( Fig.

1 ).

s hell m iddens,

c ontaining M any o f

W e a re s ystematically r ecording r ock p ainting s urface s catters o f

d eposits,

t he s ites,

t hat

t he C ape

i n

s tone

t ools

a nd

o rder t o u nderstand s ettlement

m ost o f

t he n on-rock-art s ites i n

s helters

i n t he a rea.

f act,

o ccur

a s

s tone t ool s catters i n d eflated a reas a nd o ffer l ittle o ther t han s tone t ool d ata. O thers a re t alus o ccurrences, u sually i n f ront o f v ery

s mall

r ock

s helters.

W e h ave r ecorded t hese s ites b y g ridding

t hem a nd c ounting t he f requencies o f

a ll

t ypes

o f

s tone

a rtefacts

o ccurring o n t hem. F lake m easurements a re t aken a nd a ny a ssociated m aterial i s n oted, t he w hole a ssemblage b eing r eplaced a nd e ffectively r etained f or f uture, m ore d etailed s tudy. a rguments t hat f ollow.

T hese d ata a re u sed i n t he

T he p roblem o f c hronological c ontrol m ay w ell b e s oluble b y d etailed s tudies o f i solated a nd u ntouched d eflation h ollows, b ut a s y et t he o nly o bservations s andveld s helters. l ocalities; km

o f

D iepkloof,

o nly

5

km

i nland

a t

l ow

b ut

p robably

v ery s hort H olocene

s equence,

P leistocene

a re

t hose

w hich l ies o n a r ocky k opje

i nland o n t he s outhern b ank o f

U nfortunately, o n

r elevance

t he

M iddle

s helter,

t aken p lace. s ubstantial

s tratified

( outcrop)

t he V erlorevlei,

a ltitude

o n

t he

s ome

1 8

a nd T ortoise C ave,

s ame

r iver

c ourse.

s ignificantly, D iepkloof o ffered o nly a d ating f rom a bout

S tone

A ge

( MSA)

1 700 B P,

h orizons.

w hich w ould n ot b e o ut o f p lace i n M SA a ssemblages o f

f rom

T wo h ave b een e xcavated i n p otentially i nformative

s uggesting

t hat

s uperimposed

S ome s tone t ools

l ay o n t he

s urface

s ome m ixing o f a rtefacts m ay h ave

A t T ortoise C ave, o n t he o ther d eposit o f s hell m idden o f l ate

h and, t here i s a H olocene a ge m ainly

d istributed i n f ront o f t he s mall c ave a nd o ffering n early 1 ,5 m o f s tratified o ccupation a nd a g ood r esolution o f p rehistoric e vents. T his

s ite i s o ne o f

c lose

t o

t he

t he k eys

s hore

a s

t o s andveld

s ome

t ypical

s ettlement

c orrelation o f b ehavioural c orrelates s uch a s p lant,

a nimal a nd s hell r emains,

a s

s tone

t ools

w ithin a c hronological

1 11

i t

l ies

a s

d eflation h ollows a nd a llows w ith

f ramework.

t he

W e u se t hese d ata t o m odify p revious r econstructions o f s andveld s ettlement a nd t o p ropose s ome w ays i n w hich u se o f s andveld r esources w as i ntegrated i nto w ider s ubsistence a rrangements. M ore s pecifically w e s uggest t hat t his s andy c oastal p lain w as a t o ne t ime c onsiderably m ore a rid t han i t i s a t p resent, l eading t o i ts r elative n eglect b y h unter-gatherers;

a t

a

l ater

t ime

i t

b ecame

a

m uch-frequented

c omponent o f s easonally m obile h unter-gatherer s ettlement s ystems a nd, s till l ater, a t a t hird t ime i t r epresented t he f ocus o f r ecent p astoralist l and-use p atterns a nd w as t hus p artly d enied t o r emaining h unter-gatherer c ommunities.

S TONE T OOL P ATTERNS I t h as b een s hown b efore

( Mazel & P arkington 1 978,

1 981)

t hat

t he

m ost v isually s triking a ssemblages i n t he d eflation a reas o f t he s andveld h ave s ubstantial n umbers o f b acked-pieces a nd v ery f ew a dzes. I n t he m uch i ncreased d ata b ase n ow a vailable t his p attern i s s till v ery c lear a nd r emains o ne i n n eed o f s ome e xplanation. F igure 2 s hows t his p attern b ut a lso i llustrates s ome r ather d ifferent d eflation h ollow a ssemblages w hich w e f eel w ill u ltimately a dd t o t he d etails o f s andveld s ettlement.

O ur m ore r ecent w ork s hows, a s i ndeed

w e s uspected e arlier, t hat t here a re o ther p atterns o f s tone t ool a ssemblages j ust a s c oherent b ut, p erhaps b ecause t hey a re r arer o r l ess d ensely s cattered, m ore d ifficult t o d efine a nd u nderstand. I t i s n ow b eyond q uestion t hat a ssemblages r ich i n a dzes d o e xist i n t he s andveld, a s f ar a s t he p resent c oast i n f act, b ut t hese a re s mall b y c omparison w ith t hose o f t he d eflation h ollow p attern a nd a lmost e ntirely r estricted t o t he d ripline a nd t alus z ones o f s mall r ock s helters. I t i s q uite l ikely t hat t he D iepkloof a ssemblage i s o ne o f t hese, a s i s a s mall c ollection m ade f rom t he s urface o f t he t alus c one i n f ront o f T ortoise C ave. T hese a ssemblages r esemble t hose r ecorded f rom t he C ape F old B elt m ountains t o t he e ast b ut n ever s eem t o h ave g rown t o t he s ame s ize o r d ensity, h ence t heir e arlier r elative i nvisibility. A t hird p attern, o r p erhaps a lso e xists. T his i s m arked b y r etouched s tone t ools a nd b y u tilized o r m inimally r etouched

a s et o f c losely r elated p atterns, a n a lmost c omplete a bsence o f f ormally t he r elatively h igh f requencies o f f lakes, f airly l arge i n s ize a nd o ften

b roken. T hese a ssemblages d o n ot o ccur i n d eflation h ollows b ut o ften c over v ery l arge a reas o f s everal t housands o f s quare m etres i n e xtent o n t he s lopes a nd p lateaux o f r ocky h ills s cattered a cross t he s andveld. R aw m aterial f requencies v ary i n t hese s ites b ut u sually t here i s a t endency f or e ither q uartz o r s ilcrete t o b e v isually d ominant. M SA-like c haracteristics a re r are b ut d o o ccasionally o ccur a nd i t h as p roved c hallenging t o u s

t o

i nterpret

t he

r elationships

b etween t his a ssemblage s et a nd t he o thers n earby. A lthough a d egree o f o versimplification i s p robably i nevitable, w e s uggest t hat a s eries o f e xplanations i s n eeded f or t hese c ontrasting p atterns a nd w e d o n ot f avour t he m odel o f s eparate c ultural e ntities. I t i s a t t his p oint t hat s tratified a nd d ated a ssemblages c an b e o f h elp,

w ith t he p roviso t hat n o i nflexible r elationship b etween a ge a nd

s imilarity s hould b e a ssumed. T ortoise C ave h as m uch p romise i n t his c ontext a nd i t i s q uite o bvious t hat o n t he s urface o utside t he c ave

12 1

1 13 • = d eflation h ollows;

t o s ites l isted i n T able

D istribution o f s ites.

•

t • 1 < 4

4

i

•

5 0

• c n

In • • f •

• 4 . 41

Numbers r efer t o

MP CC

C orrespondence a nalysis p lot.

•( ) .

` I L l t u

( \ J

T able 1

L ist o f

s ites r eferred

t o i n F igures

1 a nd 2 .

D eflation h ollows

T alus

N o.

S ite n ame

N o.

S ite n ame

2 6. 2 7.

B redevlei C ave

1 .

V erlore

2 .

U ithoek

3 . 4 .

V ensterklip K ookfontein

5 .

R ietfontein

6 .

K oopmanskraal

1 0. 1. 1

B rakvlei

ardouwskloof 2 8. N 2 9. D e H angen O pen lipfonteinrand 2 o pen 3 0. K

7 . 8 . 9 .

s lopes

B ontheuwel

1

3 1.

2

algashoek 3 2. M 3. A ndriesgrond o pen 3

1

D e N eus

3 4. R enbaan o pen riehoek 3 5. D lanwilliam D am E ast 3 6. C

2

„

S evilla

3

1 2.

4

3 7.

W armhoek

1 3.

5

3 8.

K eurbos

1 4.

R ietvlei

ndkop 3 9. A

1 5.

H et K ruis

1 6.

K oopmansdrif F

angvleiberg 4 0. L lipheuwel 4 1. K angberg 4 2. L

2 09/A

3 5

1 7.

P oint

1 8.

L eipoldtville E

ondeberg 4 3. R

1 0

1 9.

K lein K lipheuwel H

4. 4

1 5

2 0. 2 1. 2. 2

K ruisfontein

2 3.

P epper T ree H ill

6

2 4.

G rootberg

2 5.

W adrifsoutpan

C

E xcavated a ssemblages N o.

S ite n ame

4 5.

E lands B ay C ave P ost 3 500

4 6.

T ortoise C ave

4 7. 4 8.

O f

4 9.

I l •

1

"

2 3

"

4

5 0.

D e H angen C ave

5 1.

K lipfonteinrand 0

5 2.

1 2

5 3. 5 4. 5. 5

t •

A ndriesgrond

3 2 4

5 6. 5 7.

R enbaan C ave

5 8.

P aternoster

I l e

a nd i n t he l ate p ost-pottery l evels i nside t here i s a n a ssemblage q uite u nlike t hose s tratified l ower d own. A dzes a re c ommon i n t he u pper

l evels

a nd

o n

t he

s urface

a nd

a

c orrespondence

( Underhill e t a l. i n p rep) s hows t he p ost-pottery s amples f rom t he C ape F old B elt d ates

i llustrate

e lsewhere,

t hat

t his

p attern

a ssemblage ( Fig. 2 ).

p ostdates

1 700

a t D e H angen a nd A ndriesgrond f or e xample.

a nalysis

t o r esemble R adiocarbon B P a s

i t d oes

P reviously

w e

a rgued t hat a dze-rich a ssemblages r eflected a w oodworking s chedule i n t he m ountains c omplementary t o t he b acked-piece-rich a ssemblages o f t he s andveld. W e n ow s uggest t hat h igh a dze f requencies a re l ate a nd r epresent a p attern o f c hange n ot e venly d istributed a cross t he l andscape. e ssentially

W hat w e n oted w as s ome s patial c hronological c hange a nd w e h ave

m anifestation w hich c ross

r epresented,

t he s andveld.

f urther e vidence f ar e xamined.

t hat

a lbeit

w eakly,

D iepkloof a dds

i n

t o

t he s trings o f h ills

t his p attern a nd p resents

i t d oes n ot p recede a bout

D eflation s ites a lso c ontain a dzes,

p atterning i n a n n ow f ound t hat

b ut

1 700 B P i n a ny s ite s o

i n

c ircumstances

t heir f requency i s o verwhelmed b y t hose o f s crapers,

w here

b acked-pieces a nd

i n s ome c ases d rills.

T he r ather i nsubstantial p resence o f p ottery i n

s ome,

d eflation h ollows p oints t o

b ut

n ot

a ll,

t hey w ere v isited a fter 1 7 00 y ears a go a nd s tone

t ools

w ere

l eft

t hen.

t he c onclusion t hat

p resumably

s ome

h owever, p rovide e vidence o f t he s orts o f a ssemblages b eing d iscarded p rior t o t he a ppearance o f p ottery i n t he a rea. p art o f

t he s equence c omes a s et o f

b acked-pieces

a nd

w e c an a lso r eport a ssemblage s lope, T his

l ie

w ithout

a ssemblages

t he

s urface

o f

s andveld

d oes

o f

e vidence

r ich

t his

s ort

m akes

t hey w ere d iscarded m ostly b etween a bout 4 0 00 a nd t he

e arlier

e xamples o f a re

n ot

t hat

y et

o ccupations

s et.

a t

T ortoise

s uch s amples. t he t hat

1 7 00 y ears a go a nd

C ave

a re

T he b eginnings o f o ccupation a t

s ecurely

o f

i t u nlikely t hat b oth t ypes o f

a ssemblage w ere a ccumulating a t t he s ame t ime. W e s uggest t hat m ost e conomical e xplanation f or d eflation h ollow a ssemblages i s t hat

i n

C onversely,

a s helter d eposit o r o n a t alus

a p attern w e t hink a rgues a gainst a l ate d ate f or c ombination

t he

m ade a nd F rom t his

r elatively

s ubstantial n umbers o f a dzes.

t hat n owhere i n t he

o n

o f

T he e arlier l evels a t T ortoise C ave d o,

n ear-coastal T ortoise

C ave

d ated b ut o ur p rediction i s t hat t he s equence

h ere w ill p arallel t he p ost-hiatus l evels a t E lands B ay C ave a nd b egin a bout 3 800 o r p erhaps m ore l ikely b y 3 000 B P. W e h ave t ried t o s how e lsewhere

( Buchanan e t a l.,

t o

t ime

t his

w ould

t his v olume)

h ave m ade

t hat h igher s ea-levels

q uite l ikely h ave d issuaded p rehistoric g roups T he t hird a ssemblage t ype, p attern,

i s m ore d ifficult

f rom r egular

w hich w e r efer t o

a s

s amples.

u nited b y a s eries o f n egative c haracteristics;

i n d eflation h ollows o r o n r ock s helter t alus f ew o f

o pen

k opje

s lopes,

T he

g roup

t hey d o n ot o ccur t hey

h ave

v ery

t he f ormally r etouched t ools s o c ommon o n t hose o ther s ites a nd

t hey a re

n ot

a ssemblages

y et f rom

e asily c ave

c ompared

s equences.

w ith W e

r epresent a n a ctivity p attern r elated t o w here

t he

v isits.

t o a ssociate w ith t he o thers, a nd m ay e ven

b e a h eterogeneous c ollection o f q uite d ifferent i s

p rior

t he s horeline f ar l ess p roductive a nd

w e

f ind t hem a nd

f ormal t ools a nd

t hat

a ny

s tratified

o r

d ated

a re c onvinced t hat t hey m ust t he

r ocky

k opje

t he l arge s ize o f f lakes,

t he v ery e xtensive a rea o f

l ocations

t he a bsence o f

t he s catters a re t he

k eys

t o i nterpretation. O ne s uggestion, w hich w e f avour, i s t hat t he o pen k opje p attern m ay r eflect t he p reliminary r oughing-out o f f lakes f or

1 16

t ransportation

t o

l iving

s ites e lsewhere.

T he a mount o f q uartz

a nd

s ilcrete o n t hese l arge s catters s eems t o i mply l ocal s ources a nd a bsence

o f

f ormally

r etouched

t ools m ay a rgue

t aken a way a nd l ost o r d iscarded i n o ther h owever,

o bviously

q uarry

p reparation t ook p lace h ere; s uch a s

t he c ores u ntil

r eliably b e u sed.

T hey

a re

F or l arger

W e

p ropose

t hat

t wo

n ot,

s orts

i n t he m anufacture o f m icrolithic s mall

t hose o n b ladelets o r o ut

s uch t ools w ere

c ontexts.

s ites a nd t he p recise c onnection w ith r aw

m aterial o utcrops r emains u nclear.

r oughed

t hat

t he

f lakes,

t he

s uch t ime a s a ll t ools,

s uch a s

w orkers

s ubsequent

o f

t ools,

m ay

h ave

f lakes

c ould

l arge f lakes d estined

t o

b e m ounted a s a dzes, t he p rocedure m ay h ave b een n ot t o t ake a way a l arge h eavy c ore b ut t o s trike o ff a s eries o f f lakes a nd s elect t hose m ost s uitable. f lakes, c hunks, m aterial

b y

T hese h abits w ould l eave b ehind l arge s catters c hips a nd " utilized" p ieces r esulting f rom t esting

s tone

w orkers.

S mall c ores a nd

l arge f lakes w ere

o f o f

t hen

t aken t o o ther l ocalities a nd u sed. W e f eel t hat a nalysing

o pen

t his s uggestion c an

a nd s earching f or b ehavioural m easurement

b e

t ested

f airly

r eliably

b y

k opje s catters a nd o ther s ites o f d ifferent c haracter

o f

l inkages.

t he s izes o f f lakes

W e p redict,

f or e xample,

t hat

f rom d eflation h ollows w ill r eveal

a l ack o f u nretouched f lakes o f a s ize s uitable f or m aking i nto a dzes. T here a re, h owever, a bundant s mall c ores a nd f lakes o r b lades w hich c ould p rovide b lanks f or

s mall c onvex s crapers,

o ther

T he i mplications o f

b acked

p ieces.

d rills,

s egments

a nd

t hese k inds o f p oints

t he s tudy o f s ite i nter-relationships a nd c onnections n eed

f or

h ardly

b e

u nderlined. C learly

w e a re a l ong w ay f rom u nderstanding t he ' life h istories'

o f s tone t ools i n t he r efitting p rogrammes, n ot s earch,

a re i n o rder.

s upportable w e o utlined a bove. h ollows

a nd

S hould,

h owever,

t his

s uggestion

b ecome

m ore

c an s ee p ossible r elations b etween t he t hree p atterns T wo o f t hem, t hat c losely t ied t o t he d eflation

t hat

d ominated

e xtracted p oints i n t he a ssemblages

s andveld a nd s ome d etailed p lotting a nd t o m ention a m ore s ophisticated r aw m aterial

f rom

w hat

b y

a dzes,

t rajectory w ere

o f

b ecome s omewhat a rtificially

c hange

i n

s andveld

a rtefact

a pparently l iving s ite l ocalities.

T he

t ransition b etween t he t wo m ay h ave b een q uite a brupt a nd, i f s o, w e p oint t o t he c eramic a ssociations o f t he l atter a s a p ossible k ey f actor. T he o pen k opje p attern m ay s tand i n a q uite d ifferent r elationship t o t he o ther t wo, i n t hat t hese a ssemblages r eflect a l ogistical ' part o f t he t ool-making s ystem o ffering u s q uite s pecific b ehavioural i nformation. I t i s p ossible t hat t oolmakers r esponsible f or t he s catters

f irst

n otably a bsent s upport

t wo

p atterns

c umulatively

i n v isits o ver m any m illennia. f rom

t he

o pen

f ormed

t he

I nterestingly,

s catters,

a n

l arge,

o pen

p otsherds a re

o bservation

w hich

m ay

t he n otion o f o rganizational d ifferences b etween t he p atterns,

b ut w hich c ould a lso a rgue

f or a n e arly d ate.

S ETTLEMENT P ATTERNS S ome o f

t he

c ontent b ut t o

c haracteristics

o f

s urely s ome v aluable i nformation o n W e

h ave

t he

a ssemblages

t he c ontext i n w hich t ools a re f ound.

f ound,

p rehistoric

b ut o n o nly t wo o ccasions,

d ominated b y a dzes.

B ut d espite

t his

1 17

r efer I n t his

s ettlement

n ot

t o

t here i s c hanges.

s andveld d eflation h ollows

t he c ontrast

i s

q uite

s triking

b etween

t he

o pen

s andy l ocation o f t he h ollows

( with f ew a dzes)

t he b roken c ountry w here s mall s helters ( and m any a dzes) a re I f t hese a ssemblages d o i n f act r eflect p oints i n a t ime s eries s ettlement

s hift

f rom a p reference

f or o pen g round c amps

o rientated t oward t he r ougher c omplex t opography o f h as t o b e e xplained. I t s eems t o u s t hat t his w hich h as a n umber o f i mportant c orrelates. P erhaps c hange

t he m ost

i s

f undamental o f

c oincident

s tratified c ontexts, t o r eflect a s

w ith

t hese i s

o ne

m ore

t he m ountain a reas

i s a n

e xciting

c hange

t he p ossibility t hat

a ppearance

o f

p otsherds

t his

a nd,

i n

w ith d omestic a nimal b ones, b oth n ormally a ssumed

t he l ocal a rrival o f p astoralists.

t hough

I t l ooks n ow v ery

m uch

t he r ather s mall a dze-dominated a ssemblages m irror f aintly

t he C ape F old B elt r esponse t akes

t he

t o

a nd

f ound. t hen a

t he

t o

t he

a ppearance

o f

p astoralism

w hich

f orm o f a n i ncrease i n a dzes a nd a m ore s trongly-expressed

i nterest i n s mall c aves a nd r ock s helters.

N ot a s ingle

t alus

s lope

o r d ripline a ssemblage p reserves t ool c omposition o f d eflation h ollows a nd a ll s eem t o r eflect v ery l ate, r ather e phemeral s helter v isits. O ne o f t hese i s D iepkloof w here o ur e xcavations s how t he t ypical C ape F old B elt d ebris p attern o f q uantities o f w ell-preserved u nderground p lant

f ood

w aste.

i llustrates o r

i n

A nother,

t hat n earer

p reference

a ssumption,

t o,

p lant

t he

b ased b oth o n t hese o bservations a nd o n t he s imilarity

o f

g roups

f airly

p ositions.

c hose

l ocate t heir s andveld c ampsites s ubsequent

c hange

f or g reater s ecurity,

t he k opjes o r w ith

d iaries o f

s ubsistence f ound i n t he

t o

t he p lains.

s ee

i n

t hese

o bservations

s eventeenth a nd

e ighteenth

c entury

t he

o f

-B osjemans -

t ravellers

o f

t o

t he

m akes

i t

,a t erm u sed t hen t o r efer t o a h eterogeneous

g rouping o f r unaway s laves,

d estitute h erders a nd

h unter-gatherers. I f i ndeed t he p opulation i ncursion, t hen a n umber h ave i ncreased,

a ppearance o f p oints

g enuinely

n ew k inds o f c onflict

a risen a nd n on-pastoralists m ay h ave b een f orced,

s ituations a s

s uggest

t hat

t he

s tone

s orts o f

t ools o f

m ay

t he w eaker

t o m ove d own t heir l ist o f p referred f oods t oward t ime-consuming t o g ather o r l ess p roductive t o h unt.

c hanges n ot o nly i n t he

r esidual

o f p astoralism w as a f ollow. P opulations

w ild a nimals w ould h ave b een p artly r eplaced b y

p rotected d omestic s tock,

W e

i mpact

R eference

t hat a t l east b y t hen p astoralist g roups w ere u sing t he s andy f or g razing t heir s tock a nd t hat t he m ountains w ere t he

h ideouts

w ould

i n h ad

a rguably p rovided

s hift

p astoralists o n r esidual h unter-gatherer l ifestyles. c lear p lains

h ave

i n

t empting

a

m ay

w hich r equired a g reater u se o f t hose r esources

k opjes r ather t han t hose o f I t i s

t o T he

t o d o w ith t he n eed

b y t he b roken t errain o f e mphases

I t

C ave a ssemblages t o t he b ulk o f t he d eflation p rior t o t he a ppearance o f p astoralists,

h unter-gatherer e xposed

f oods.

w ith,

i s d ifficult t o a void

t he e arlier T ortoise h ollow s amples, t hat,

s omething

i n t he s urface l evels a t T ortoise C ave,

t he c oast s hellfish w ere g athered a long

h ave g roup,

t hose

m ore

t he S andveld r eflect

t ools m anufactured b ut

i n t he

t hese c hoice

o f s ites o ccupied. W e f eel t hat c hanges w hich r esulted i n t he m anufacture o f m ore a dzes a nd f ewer b acked-pieces p robably r eflect a s hift

i n e mphasis f rom h unting s mall o r m edium-sized g ame ( at

p art w ith t he b ow a nd s tone-tipped a rrow) g athering

( with w ooden d igging s ticks,

W e a rgue f urther t hat i n t he h yraxes ( Procavia c apensis)

l east

t o m ore e xtensive p lant

i n

f ood

r equiring i ncreased a dze u se).

a rid S andveld s mall a nimals s uch a s a nd s ome o f t he u nderground p lant f oods

18 1

a re m ore d ensely l ocated i n t he v aried t opography o f i slands o f r ock i n t he p redominantly s andy l andscape a nd t hus t hat s uch l ocations b ecame m ore f requently u sed. s ize

o f

I t

i s n ot

i mpossible

b ands d ecreased d uring t his p eriod,

i ncorporated i nto p astoralist

t hat

t he m ean g roup

a s m embers e ither b ecame

s ociety o r w ere e liminated

i n

c onflict

s ituations. E ither w ay t he s trongly e merging p attern o f s ite u se, s ite c ontext a nd a ssemblage c omposition i n t he w estern C ape, f ound f rom t he c oast t o t he K aroo m argins, s eems i nterpreted a s a r efuge s ituation q uite u nlike t hat m illennia.

T he

a lternative,

l eft b y t he p astoralists e conomic

v iew.

I t

i s

t o

l ook a t

t hemselves,

i s

i t a s

i ncreasingly b est o f t he p revious

t he p attern o f d ebris

i n o ur o pinion

i nconsistent w ith t he e nd o f

n ot

t he

m ost

t he t rajectory o f

c hange f airly c learly r eported b y e arly c olonists. W hat C ape

i s b ecoming i ncreasingly c lear f rom s ite d istributions i n t he

F old

B elt,

i n

t he

i ncrease i n s ites a fter

S andveld

a nd a t

t here m any m ore s ites b ut m any o f i s

t o

i s

O ne w ay

B inford - s

e mploy

l ogistical s ystems, u sed b y c ollectors, t he a vailability o f r esources,

t he e normous N ot o nly

a re

t he n ew o nes a re v ery s mall a nd m ust

r epresent s hort a nd i nfrequent v isits. p atterning

t he c oast

t he a ppearance o f p astoralists. o f

( 1980)

l ooking

a t

d istinction

t his

b etween

a nd s cheduling i n r esponse

a s h e a rgues g eneral f oragers d o.

t o S uch

a c hange c ould w ell b e t he r esult o f a s hift i n s ubsistence e mphasis f rom l arger, m ore m obile f ood r esources, s uch a s e land ( Taurotragus o ryx),

h artebeest,

( Alcelaphus b uselaphus)

a nd z ebra ( Equus

z ebra)

t o

s maller, m ore s edentary o nes s uch a s g rysbok ( Raphicerus m elanotis), h yraxes ( Procavia c apensis), t ortoises, I ridaceae c orms a nd s hellfish. I f t he e xact l ocation o f a p redictable r esource i s k nown ( mussel b ed, s wathe o f c orm-producing p lants, r ocky k opje w ith l arge h yrax c olony) t here

i s

l ittle

p oint

i n

c amping v ery f ar away,

w hereas,

w hen t he

p osition o f m obile g ame i s k nown o nly v ery a pproximately, t he s ite m ost a ppropriate t o a b ase c amp m ay b e c hosen f or q uite d ifferent r easons.

S hifts

r esidential

t oward

m obility

t he f ormer w ould r esult i n m ore s ites, a nd,

u nder-used s egments o f

p erhaps,

t he l andscape.

T hese s peculations a re i ntentionally s pelt o ut a t a n i n

t he

r esearch.

T hey

r elated t o t he h istory o f f uture

e xcavations,

1 .

W e s uggest b y

b e

r e-phrased

s andveld s ettlement w hich c an b e s catter

r ecordings

7 800 t o 3 800 B P b ecause w e f eel

g reater n ot

l ocal t o

p reviously o r s ubsequently.

a nd

t ested

b y

m ore d etailed

a ridity e xploit

t urn t hat

p ersuading t he

a rea

o ut

t o

t his

t ime w as

e arly a s

d ate

H olocene

i ntensively

F urther r esearch d esigned

p alaeoenvironmental a nd c hronological d ata w ill t est

3 .

s tage

F or e xample:

h unter-gatherers

2 .

e arly

a s a s et o f h ypotheses

t hat f ew s andveld a ssemblages w ill

f rom t he p eriod m arked

c an

s urface

a ssemblage a nalyses.

g reater

i ncreased a ttention t o p reviously

t o

a s

g ather

t his.

W e a rgue t hat t he b ulk o f t he s andveld d eflation h ollow a ssemblages w ill b e s een a s l ong-term a ccumulations, m ost o f w hich w ere d iscarded b etween a bout 3 8 00 a nd 1 7 00 y ears a go. W e s uggest t hat a fter t he a ppearance o f p astoralists y ears a go

t he f ocus o f h unter-gatherer s ettlement

p artially u p i nto

t he s andveld k opjes.

s ome

1 7 00

s hifted a t

l east

W e t hink t hat

t here w ere a

n umber o f r easons f or t his d ecision, i ncluding p ossible c hanges g roup s ize, f ood t argets a nd d omestic c amp l ayouts.

19 1

i n

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS W e t hank t he U niversity R esearch C ommittee a nd O ppenheimer I nstitute a t t he U niversity o f C ape T own, S ciences

R esearch

C ouncil a nd

t he t he

H arry H uman

t he S wan F und f or c ontinuing f inancial

s upport.

R EFERENCES B INFORD,

L .

R .

1 980.

s ettlement 4 5: 4 -20. B UCHANAN,

W .

W illow s moke a nd d ogs

t ails:

F .,

P ARKINGTON,

S hellfish,

J .

E ., R OBEY,

s ubsistence

H olocene o bservations.

a nd I n:

T .

S .

& V OGEL,

s ettlement:

HALL, M .

s ome

J ., A VERY,

W ILSON, M . L . & H UMPHREYS, A . J . B ., e ds. A frican a rchaeology t oday. P roceedings o f S outhern O xford: D EACON,

J .

A frican

A ssociation

1 980.

C omment o n

a nd

J .

C .

1 984.

w estern

G .,

A VERY,

C ape D .

M .

F rontiers: s outhern t he C onference o f

o f A rchaeologists,

G aborone

1 983.

T ime a nd P lace:

s ome

o bservations

o n

t emporal p atterning i n t he L ater S tone A ge s equence

i n s outhern A frica' b y J .E. M AZEL,

Am. Antiq.

B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

s patial 3 5:

h unter-gatherer

s ystems a nd a rchaeological s ite f ormation.

P arkington.

S .

A fr.

a rchaeol.

B ull.

8 9-93. A .

D .

&

P ARKINGTON,

J .

E .

1 978.

v ariability among L ate S tone Age t ools.

S andy S .

B ay

A fr.

r evisited:

J .

S ci.

7 4:

3 81-382. M AZEL,

A .

c ase

D .

P ARKINGTON, a nd

& PARKINGTON,

J .

E .

1 980.

t emporal

o n

E .

C .

G .

1 980.

s patial a nd

S . A fr.

i n

S tone t ools a nd r esources: W ld A rchaeol.

t he

a rchaeol.

C omments o n

1 3:

a

1 6-30.

s ome o bservations o n s patial L ater B ull.

S tone 3 5:

T ime a nd P lace:

A ge s equence i n

7 3-83. s ome

o bservations

t emporal p atterns i n t he L ater S tone A ge s equence

i n s outhern A frica' b y J .E. 3 5:

1 981.

T ime a nd p lace:

p atterning

s outhern A frica. S AMPSON,

J .

s tudy f rom s outhern A frica.

P arkington.

1 03.

1 20

S . A fr.

a rchaeol.

B ull.

1 1.

S HELLFISH,

S UBSISTENCE A ND S ETTLEMENT:

S OME W ESTERN C APE H OLOCENE O BSERVATIONS W .F.

B uchanan, J .E.

P arkington,

T .S. R obey & J .C.

V ogel

I NTRODUCTION I t h as o ften b een a ssumed u sed

b y

H olocene

a lternative, s ites

p erhaps s easonally,

n ear

t he

s tratigraphic o nly t hat

( Parkington 1 972)

h unter-gatherers m outh

s equence a t

o f

t he

t o p lant

o f

t he

f oods.

s ubsistence

p atterns

w as

r ole

n eeded.

e xtending

t he m outh o f t he s hore a re

t his

s urvey

t hese

n orthwards

i n

a ddition

t o

t he

c ontent a nd s ize o f s ites. t est

p its

s q m q uadrat, s ites h ave

t o

f rom t he

b elieve

b ut a lso i n

n ot

t hat s ome

p rehistoric

a nd o ther r easons w e a ccumulations

t he V erlorevlei. k nown ( Fig. 1 ).

n orth

S o f ar 6 7 l ocalities W e a re c urrently

t o t he m ouths o f

W e w ere i nterested i n q uantifying

s mall

l ed u s

s hell m idden

J akkals r ivers w here s imilar b road p atterns

w ere a s a n

p articularly

s hellfish

F or

e mbarked o n a n e xhaustive s urvey o f a nd s outh o f w ithin 6 k m o f

o f

B elt

O bservations

t his m ight n ot a lways h ave b een t he c ase, t he

s hellfish F old

V erlorevlei,

t he E lands B ay C ave,

m ore d etailed d iscussion o f

n eeded,

t hat C ape

t he L angevlei a nd

s eem t o b e e merging.

s ubsistence

s ite d istribution,

c hoices

a nd

t hus

t o k now m ore o f

t he

W e s ampled 3 3 m iddens e ither b y e xcavating

i n t hem o r b y s craping o ff

t he s urface m aterial i n a

i n m any c ases m aking t wo s amples p er s ite. b een m ore e xtensively s ampled d uring

S ome o f t he l arge s cale

e xcavations ( Parkington 1 976; H orwitz 1 979; R obey 1 984). S ite v olumes w ere e stimated b y r unning a l ine o f p robes a cross s hell s catters a nd r ecording t he d epth o f d eposit a nd t he

e xtent

o f

s hell.

W e

a rgue

b elow t hat t hese p rocedures, w hilst p reliminary a nd c ursory, d o g ive u s u sable i nformation o n t he r elative s izes o f s hell m iddens a nd t he r elative

i mportance i n t hem o f

t he s pecies o f s hellfish m ost c ommonly

e aten. O n t he p rinciple t hat w e c an o nly b egin t o u nderstand r eferring

t o m odern o bservations,

s hellfish p opulations a long t he s hores a djacent a ssumption

w as,

a nd i s,

t he p ast

b y

w e f elt i t u seful t o s urvey c urrent

t hat m uch o f

t o

t he

m iddens.

O ur

t he p atterning i n m odern s pecies

a nd b iomass d istributions r esults f rom r elatively s table i nfluences s uch a s c oastal m orphology a nd e xposure. I n l onger t erm p rojections b ack i nto m odern

t he p ast t hese

s hellfish

t oo c an b e a llowed t o v ary.

c ommunities

w as

u ndertaken

H abitat W orking G roup f rom t he D epartment c ontinued

b y u s.

S amples

o f

b y

w eighed

a re

r egularly

o f

Z oology

a nd

i s

b eing

a ll

m olluscs

w ere

a nd t ranslated i nto k ilojoules p er s q m b y s pecies,

f aunal z one a nd c oastal s ector i n o ther s easons

s urvey

f rom r andomly c hosen t ransects a nd q uadrats

i n t hree s ectors o f r ocky c oast w ere a nalysed a nd c ounted,

T he

c olleagues i n t he

( Fig.

1 ).

S imilar s urveys a re

p lanned

t o c heck f or b iomass f luctuations a nd m arked q uadrats m onitored

t o

o btain

i nformation

o n

p opulation

s tructure. I n

t his p aper w e o utline t he r esults o f

1 21

t hese s urveys,

i llustrate

V--

1 22 v arious

s ites.

s ome c lear p atterning i n t ime a nd s pace, a nd o ffer s ome i nterpretations o f v ariations i n s hellfish p redation d uring t he l ast 1 1 0 00 y ears. M ore s pecifically w e a rgue t hat t here h as b een s ignificant c hange i n t he w ay p rehistoric h unter-gatherer c ommunities h ave

i ntegrated

s trategies.

s hellfish

F or

s ome

o f

e nvironmental c ircumstances,

c ollection

i nto

t heir

t hese

c hanges

w hilst

f or o thers w e l ook t o

s ubsistence

w e s uggest a lterations

i n

d emographic

d isturbances.

P ATTERNS I N M ODERN S HELLFISH C OMMUNITIES R ebelo

( 1982)

i llustrates

t hat

t here a re e normous d ifferences

i n

t he m olluscan f ood b iomass a long d ifferent s ectors o f t he s horeline ( Table 1 ). M ost p rominent a mong t hese i s t he c ontrast b etween t he b iomass o f b lack m ussel

( Choromytilus m eridionalis)

c olonies a t M ussel

P oint a nd a ll o ther r ocky s hore c ommunities. T his p artly r eflects t he e xposed n ature o f M ussel P oint, w hich f avours f ilter-feeding m ussels, a s

o pposed t o t he m ore s heltered c onditions i n t he b ay,

l impets i s

( Patella s pp.) m ake u p t he b ulk o f

t he b iomass.

w here g razing B aboon

i ntermediate i n b oth s pecies c omposition a nd b iomass,

n o d oubt o f c ompared

t o

i ts

l ocation

a nd

i ts

s teeply

t hat o f t he o ther s ectors.

i mportance t o s hellfish g atherers,

i s

s helving

P oint

a r eflection p rofile

A s econd p attern,

w hen

o f o bvious

t hat r elating t o t he p osition o f

d ifferent c ommunities o n t he s hore ( Avery 1 976). S ome r ocky s hores e xhibit g reat d ifferences b etween w hat w ould b e a vailable a lmost e very d ay

i n

t he U pper B alanoid z one a nd w hat w ould b e l ess e asily o r l ess

f requently c ollected a t t he i nfra-tidal f ringe. I n t he s heltered b ay, t he r ibbed m ussel ( Aulacomya a ter) f or e xample, i s a bundant o nly o n t he l ower s hore,

w here i t c ontributes m uch o f t he a vailable b iomass.

W hat i s c learly i llustrated h ere i s t he f act t hat t here a re b iologically a nd g eomorphologically d etermined p atterns i n s hellfish b iomass

t hat w ould h ave p ertained i n t he i mmediate

D ifferent s pecies c haracterize r egular a nd s tepped s horelines. p opulations

h as

d emonstrated

r adical

c omparative s tability i n s pecies l onger t erm ( G. M . B ranch, p ers.

c hanges

t hat

t he r elative v alues w ill b e m aintained. o f

a

m agnitude

p ast.

f rom y ear t o y ear b ut

f requencies a nd a bundance i n t he c omm.). I t s eems l ikely, t herefore,

a re

s uch

p rehistoric

t he z ones o f e xposed a nd s heltered, P eriodic m onitoring o f s hellfish

t hat

i t

T he o bserved d ifferences

s eems r easonable t o a ssume t hat

p rehistoric p eople r ecognized a nd r esponded t o t hem.

P ATTERNS I N P REHISTORIC M IDDENS F rom t he r esults o f

t he m idden s urvey ( Table 2 )

i t

i s

c lear

t hat

t he s ite i mmediately a djacent t o M ussel P oint ( ES1) i s b y f ar t he l argest m idden i n t he a rea. I t i s t he o nly m idden o f i ts k ind i n t he s urvey

a rea,

but

c oast a nd w e f eel

t here a re s imilar v ast a ccumulations f urther u p t he t hat

i t

r epresents

s ubsistence s trategy f rom t he r est o f T he p attern.

l impet

t o

m ussel

r atio

i n

a

d ifferent

a spect

o f

t he

t he s ites i n t he a rea. t he

m iddens

d isplays a nother

T he s ite a t Mussel P oint c ontains a v ery l arge p roportion o f

m ussels, h igher t han t hat a t a ny o ther s ite. I n c ontrast, t he o nly l impet-dominated a ccumulations i n t he s eries o ccur a long t he s hores o f

1 23

T able 1

R elative e ngergy v alues o f m olluscan s pecies a t E lands B ay b y c oastal s ector ( values i n m egajoules).

S PECIES

S ECTOR 1 M J

S ECTOR 2 M J

S ECTOR 3 M J %

T OTAL M J %

P ATELLA P . g ranatina

2 2932

5 0,7

1 21

1 ,9

1 831

4 3,6

2 4884

4 4,6

P . g ranularis

1 8280

4 0,4

8 58

1 3,5

2 369

5 6,4

2 1507

3 8,6

5 315

8 3,4

5 315

9 ,5

3 999

7 ,2

7 7

0 ,1

P . a rgenvillei P . b arbara

3 999

8 ,9

P . c ochlear

T otal

7 7

1 ,2

4 5211

1 00,0

6 371

1 00,0

4 200

1 00,0

4 5211

6 5,7

6 371

2 0,4

4 200

2 ,6

1 205

1 ,8

5 387

1 6167

2 3,5

1 8164

6 204

9 ,0

1 290

5 5782 1 00,0

A LL M AIN S PP. P atella s pp. C horomytilus m eridionalis A ulacomya a ter B urnupena s pp. V enerupis c orrugatis

T otal

6 8787

1 00,0

3 1212

1 24

5 5782

2 1,5

1 7,3 1 32628

8 3,0 1 39220

5 3,6

5 8,2

5 5

- 34386

1 3,2

4 ,1

2 1158

1 3,2

2 8652

1 1,0

1 840

1 ,2

1 840

0 ,7

1 00,0 1 59881

1 00,0 2 59880 1 00,0

T able 2

V olumes a nd e nergy y ields o f s ite ( yields i n t housands o f m egajoules).

A REA

V iel/Inland

S ITE ( * = e xcavated)

V OLUME O F D EPOSIT ( cu m )

B K4. B obbejaanskop

16,7

B K10. Dl. D am C ave D D2. D T1. T * T T2. T ortoise C ave V1. S kietkop V V4. V S C1. P R1/2 D P1. D u P lessis M idden O thers ( 18)

S ector 1

*E V2. C onnie's L impet B ar B R1. B R5. S pring C ave B R6. B R7.

Y IELD M Jx 1 0 0 00

1 ,9

4 8 4 5 3 12 1 3 3 81

4,8 12,5 47,8 2,4 170,0

1 41 6 0 4 7 1 30 1 69

35,1 12,1 7,3 21,8 79,5

4 4

4,0

4

1 ,6

9 5 1 15 5 1 1 4

75,6 86,3 23,7 7,4

B R8.

1 70

3 3,8

J T1.

16

1 1,3

274

28,9

* J T2. H ailstone M idden O thers

( 14)

4 5,2

7,6

S ector 2

* E C3. E lands B ay O pen * E C4. E lands B ay C ave O thers ( 4)

1 0 4 0 2 1,3

1 ,9 10,3 8,0

S ector 3

* E S1. M ike T aylor's m idden O thers ( 8)

1 1 3 60 4 2,5

1 25

8 0 00,0 5 ,2

t he s heltered E lands B ay, P oint h ave i ntermediate

a nd t hose s ites w hich c luster a round B aboon v alues. I n a f urther d istinct s et o f

s hell-midden

k m

s ites,

2 -6

c ommon t han l impets.

u p

T he k ey t o

t he

v iel, m ussels a re c learly m ore

t his p attern l ies i n t he r elationship

b etween d istance f rom t he s hore a nd s pecies c omposition o f t he m idden. I n a lmost a ll c ases s ites t hat a re c lose t o t he s hore a re c omposed o f s hells t hat r ocky s hore. i s

t his

r eflect t he m odern s pecies c omposition o f T he f urther t he s ite i s f rom t he s hore t he

t o b e t he c ase,

t he a djoining l ess l ikely

a c ontrast w ell i llustrated b y s ites s uch a s

t hose n ear B aboon a nd M ussel P oints c ompared w ith t hose u p A l ess o bvious f act s pecies,

P atella

i s

t he

p reponderance

g ranatina,

o ver

t he

o f

t he

s maller

a rchaeological s ites w hile t he r everse w as

l arger

P .

t rue o f

t he v lei. l impet

g ranularis

i n

t he m odern s amples.

I n S ector 1 , w here t he l impet-dominated a rchaeological s ites a re f ound, P . g ranularis i s m ore n umerous a nd c ontributes m ore t o t he b iomass

t otal

i n t he U pper B alanoid Z one b ut

t he r everse i s

t he c ase

i n t he l ower z ones. T he r elative a ge o f

t he m iddens

i n t he s ample i s c ritical i n

t his

c ontext. P ottery h as b een f ound o n 2 1 o f t he 3 2 s ampled m idden s ites a nd a ll s ix o f t he e xcavated s ites, w hich, g iven c urrent k nowledge o n t he

d ate

o f

t he

i ntroduction o f p ottery, m ust i mply t hat

w ere v isited d uring t he p eriod a fter f urther s ites.

s ampling

w e

w ill

f ind

W e b elieve t hat m any o f

i ntroduction

o f

p ottery,

T T2,

s ites

( EV2,

h ave

d eposits

E C3). t hat

1 600 B P.

p otsherds o n a lmost a ll s ubstantial

t he s maller s ites d o n ot

a n o bservation s upported a t

f ar

w e

C ave

( TT2)

c ontain

p re-pottery

d eposits.

h ave t hree r adiocarbon d ates f rom t he b ases o f v ery l arge

a ccumulations

i n

s imilar

c ontexts:

E C1

K reefbaai,

1 0 km n orth o f t he V erlorevlei,

t he n orth.

A ll

n o

t hree d ates

i n

t he

r esearch

a nd L amberts B ay,

f all a round 2 700 B P.

A t E lands

a rea, 3 0 km t o

B ay

d eposits h ave b een f ound f rom t he p eriod 3 800 t o 7 800 B P, 1 1 0 00 B P

( Parkington 1 976). 7 700 B P

C ave f rom 4 300 t o t his

i s

a

f our

8 000

T his h iatus a lso o ccurs a t T ortoise

( Robey 1 984).

s tage

C ave

a lthough

t here a re v ery c onsiderable s hell-midden l evels d ated t o b etween a nd

t he

p ottery a nd w e t hink t hat a nother t hree

s uperficially s ampled s ites w ill a lso S o

p redate

t hree e xcavated

E lands B ay C ave, E S1 a nd T ortoise p redate

t he s ites

W e a nticipate t hat w ith

s equence.

T he p attern t hat e merges f rom

Two

s ites

c ontain m iddens

t hat

p re-date 8 000 B P, a fter w hich t here i s n o e vidence o f s hellfish u tilization u ntil a bout 4 000 B P. D uring t he n ext 2 0 00 y ears a gain o nly a s mall n umber o f a lthough

f rom

a ccumulate n ear i ncreased

m idden

a bout

3 000

t he

s hore.

d ramatically,

o ften i nsubstantial.

s ites

B P

a ppear

l arge A fter

a lthough

o pen 1 600

t he

I ndications a re

t o

h ave

b een

f ormed,

s tation m iddens b egan t o B P

t he

n umber

a ccumulations

o f

s ites

t hemselves w ere

t hat t his p attern i s

w idespread

a nd r eflects s ignificant c hanges i n s ettlement. I n

t his

t ime p eriods e vidence

l ight,

t he

b ecomes

f rom

s pecies c omposition i n m iddens o f d ifferent

r elevant

E lands

B ay

P leistocene g athering w as c hanging

b efore

8 000

s hellfish g athering. b etween

4 000

a nd

A t a ll

a nd

E S2).

A fter

s tudy

o f

t hat

e xclusively

t o a m ixed

p atterning.

T he

d uring t he t erminal

c onfined

t o

l impets,

s trategy b efore a l ong b reak i n

t hree s ites k nown t o h ave d eposits d ating

B P

s ituation t hat p revailed a fter C ave

t he

s uggests

a lmost

B P

1 600

t o

C ave

m ussels w ere o verwhelmingly p referred, t hat

t ime a t s ome s ites

t he i ntroduction o f p ottery,

1 26

( e.g.

a

T ortoise

l impet-dominated

s ites b ecame c ommon b ut

o nly

a t

l ocations

l impets a re p resently m ore a bundant

c lose

t o

s hores

w here

t han o ther s pecies.

P UTTING T HE P ATTERNS T OGETHER P erhaps

t he

m ost

o bvious

c onnection

p atterns l ies i n t he l ocation o f t o

t he m ost p roductive r esource a t

l ittle

d oubt

t hat

M ussel

s hellfish-gathering s ites a ppear t o b e c oastal

t he

t wo s ets o f ( ES1)

i ts r ichest l ocality.

P oint

s tation

b etween

t he l argest s hell m idden w as

a nd

r egularly

t hat

s hell-consumption

n ext

T here s eems

s elected

a s

a

t his m idden a nd o ther s imilar a reas

s ettlement a long t he w est c oast.

t hat

h old

t he

k ey

t o

S ome l arge a ccumulations o f

s hells o pposite r elatively p roductive r ocky p oints c ontain b etween

5 0

a nd 1 0 00 t imes a s m uch f ood w aste a s n earby c aves a nd r ock s helters a nd d iffer f rom t hem a lso i n t he d earth o f n on-molluscan d ebris. T here

i s,

f actors,

h owever,

s ufficient

c ultural m aterial,

t ogether w ith o ther

t o c onfirm a h uman o rigin f or t hese s ites w hich a ppear t o

p reparation

o r c onsumption a reas,

b e

t he i dea b eing t o m inimize t he m ass

o f s hell t aken i nland. I n v iew o f t he p redominance o f m ussels a t s ites l ocated s ome d istance u pstream, w e s uggest t hat p rehistoric c ollectors p referred m ussels a nd r ecognized t heir h igh b iomass v alue

c ompared

w ith

o ther

s ites 2 t o 6 km i nland t o M ussel s horeline,

b ut

c oncentrations

m olluscs. P oint

m uch m ore p roductive.

a nd

e nergy

I t i s a s e asy t o t ravel a s

t o

a ny

f rom

l impet-dominated

I n f act t he f igures o n s pecies

c omposition s eem t o i ndicate t hat l impets o nly f ormed a ppreciable p roportions o f t he p rehistoric d iet w ithin a bout 5 00 m o r s o o f s heltered s horelines w here a s earch f or s parsely w ould b e t ime-consuming a nd i nefficient. f ound m ussel-dominated m iddens o pposite

d istributed

l impet-dominated m iddens o pposite e xposed p oints. W e a rgue t hat t his m ay a lso i mply a n i nterest t he s hore b ecause a n umber o f ( Avery

1 976).

T his

m ore

s uggestion

p roductive i s

m ussels

O n t hree o ccasions w e h ave s heltered b ays b ut n ever i n t he l ower p art o f s pecies

s upported

o ccur

b y t he

t here

f act t hat

t he

p eople a pparently p referred P atella g ranatina t o t he m ore r eadily a vailable b ut s maller P . g ranularis, p erhaps b ecause o f i ts g reater s ize a nd t hus t otal

t he g reater k ilojoule

a bsence o f

r eflects

t he

y ield

p er

f act

t hat

t he

l arge

i ndividuals

i nfra-tidally a nd a re, t herefore, m ostly i ntertidal p opulations o f s mall i ndividuals e ffort

f or

t he

l arge

n umbers

l impet-collecting w as c onsidered p erhaps

o n

c alm

d ays

c ollected h igher u p o f

T he

a lmost

l impet

t end

W e

t hink

a ttention

s pecies

l ive

t hat

w as

e ither s ide o f l ow s pring t ides,

t he s hore.

t o

i naccessible, w hilst w ould n ot j ustify

r equired.

n ecessary

s horeline c lose t o t he i nfra-tidal s eas w ere s tormy, o r w hen t he p attern

a nimal.

t he r ibbed m ussel f rom a rchaeological s ites p robably t he t he w hen

d irected,

t o t he

l ower

f ringe. A s t he w ater r ose, w hen t ides w ere n ot l ow e nough, p eople

S uch a s trategy w ould a ccount f or f requencies

e ncountered

i n

t he

o ur m idden

s urvey. O ne i mportant c ollecting

w as

c hronological

i s

e merging:

b een

b efore.

T his

i s

s till

w ith t he q uantity o f m ussels g athered a fter

m ust h ave b een i n

t hat

l impet

r elatively m uch m ore f requent a fter t he a ppearance o f

p ottery t han i t h ad e ver c omparison

p attern

t he

o rder

o f

t wo

1 27

t housand

m inimal

1 600 B P,

m illion

b y

w hich

k ilojoules.

N evertheless,

e xamination

i ncrease o f w ell

o ver

o f

o ne

t he

o rder

f igures o f

( Table 2 )

m agnitude

i n

i llustrates a n t he

p ercentage

c ontribution o f l impets a fter t he a ppearance o f p ottery. S uch a s hift m ay r eflect a c hange f rom t he c asual, a lmost c hance c ollection o f l impets p art.

t o

a s trategy i n w hich l impet c ollection f ormed a d eliberate

W e b elieve t hat t he d ramatic i ncrease i n s ite i ncreased a ttention p aid t o l impets a fter a bout p henomena. r ange

n umbers a nd t he 1 600 B P a re l inked

O ne r eason f or t his c ould b e t he d esire t o u tilize a w ider

o f r esources,

s ince i t c an b e a ssumed t hat e ach s ite i s t o s ome

e xtent u niquely s ituated r elative t o t he d istribution o f p lant a nd a nimal f oods. A s econd p ossibility t o h elp e xplain t he h igh n umbers o f l ate s ites i s t he s uggestion t hat t here w as a m arked c hange i n t he o ther

t ypes

o f

f oods

s ought.

A ny s hift w hich l ed t o p eople p aying

i ncreasing a ttention t o i mmobile a nd w idely d istributed s mall f oods a t t he

e xpense

o f

l arger a nd m ore m obile r esources w ould h ave p rofound

e ffects u pon t he c hoice o f s ite.

S HELLFISH A ND P REHISTORIC S ETTLEMENT I t i s c lear f rom

s table

t hat p atterns o f

d uring

e mphasis o n l impets e mphasis

o n

i n l impets T hese,

t he i n

s hellfish

H olocene. t he

g athering

T he

t erminal

h ave

b een

p attern c hanges

P leistocene,

t o

f ar

f rom t otal

o verwhelming

m ussels b y a bout 4 000 B P a nd t o a r esurgence o f i nterest s eemingly

a long

w ith

c oincident c hanges

s imply t o e xtend t he p rehistoric p ast. s hellfish-gathering s ettlement c hange

w ith

t he

a ppearance

o f

p ottery.

i n s ite d istribution, m ake i t i mpossible

f ragmentary h istoric p icture b ack i nto t he W hat i s n eeded a re h ypotheses r elating t o g eneral t hat c an

a rchaeological o bservations.

r econstructions o f s ettlement a nd b e t ested a gainst a ccumulating

W e s uggest t hat o ver

t he

l ast

1 0

0 00

y ears e nvironmental a nd d emographic c hanges h ave r egularly a ltered t he e quation b etween p eople a nd r esources, f orcing g roups t o r ethink s ettlement d ecisions i ncluding t hose o f h ow a nd t o w hat e xtent t o e xploit s hellfish. S o f ar t here s eems

t o b e s ome e vidence f or a n a pparent c hange f rom

a p attern i n w hich l arge g ame a nimals w ere h unted o ver a w ide a rea f rom a f ew s trategically c hosen l ocations t o o ne i n w hich t he e ntirely p redictable

l ocations

a nimals w ere b est f ood.

O ne

o f

o f

p lant,

s hellfish

e xploited b y c amping n ear

s mall

f or c hoosing a s ite f rom w hich t o h unt

t hat

c omfort.

s hellfish, l ocalities.

O ther

a

s trategy

W e

s uggest 1 600 B P.

s ites

C ave.

e mphasized

i n

t he

i n

t he

f rom w hich t o t o m atters o f

p lant

f oods o r

t he

r esource

t hat s uch a c hange i n p ositioning s trategy i s M ore s pecifically w e p ropose t hat:

T erminal P leistocene c hanges c hanges

t hat

t he b est p lan m ight w ell b e t o c amp r ight a t

e vident a t a bout 1 .

I n

o f

t he r easons

s ites m ay h ave b een c hosen f or

r easons.

v icinity m ay h ave b een a s g ood, i f n ot b etter, a s p laces h unt l arge g ame b ut t he u ltimate c hoice m ay h ave r elated g eneral

s ources

l arge g ame m ay n ot b e r eflected

t here;

t han s imply e conomic

t errestrial

v arious

t he m ore i nteresting i mplications i s

i n t he d ominant f ood w aste f ound d omestic r ather

a nd t he

i n

e nvironments

s hellfish f requencies

I t i s n oticeable i n t he

l evels

1 28

a re

r eflected

i n

t hrough t ime a t E lands B ay t hat

a ccumulated

b etween

1 1000 a nd 7 800 B P t hat m ussels r eplaced l impets a s t he d ominant s pecies. D uring t he p eriod t he s horeline b ecame c loser t o t he s ite a s

t he s ea-level r ose a nd s ome c omparison w ith s ites n ow 2 t o

6 km u p t he v lei i s i n o rder. d ominance

o f

s earch f or p ossibility

m ussels

a t

T he s urvey

t hese

c learly

s ites,

i ndicates

t he

a nd t hus r equires u s

t o

s ome c ontrast i n t he t erminal P leistocene. O ne i s t hat m ussel c olonies w ere r are o r e ven a bsent f rom

t he t erminal P leistocene s horeline,

n ecessitating t he e xploitation

o f l impets. A s m odern o ceanographic c onditions w ere a pproached g atherers w ere a ble t o m ove t o m ore p roductive m ussel b anks. A lternatively,

t his

r e-scheduling

o f

f ilter-feeders, c atenella),

c hange

c ould

s hellfish

m ay

i ngest

b e

t he

t he

t hat i s p resent i n s ome

b eing g razers,

M ussels,

t oxic d inoflagellate " red

p aralytic s hellfish p oisoning i n h umans L impets,

r esult o f a s easonal

e xploitation. t ides"

b eing

( Gonyaulax

a nd

c an

c ause

( Grindley & S apeika 1 969).

d o n ot a nd t hus c ould s afely

b e

c onsumed

a t t imes w hen m ussel c olonies w ere d angerous. 2 .

T his

p art

o f

t he

w est c oast w as n ot r egularly v isited b etween

a bout 8 0 00 a nd 4 0 00 y ears a go. ( 1977)

s uggests

t hat d uring

E vidence s ummarised b y

m ost o f

3 m h igher t han i t d oes t oday. e limination o f t he p resent

F lemming

t his t ime t he s ea s tood 2 o r

S uch a r ise w ould r esult i n t he r ock-shelf a t Mussel P oint f rom t he

i nter-tidal

z one,

t he g eneration o f a s andy b each i n i ts p lace a nd

t hus

l oss

o f

t he

e asily

r esources.

Q uite a part f rom

c onditions

a t

i nterior

t his

l atitude

( Deacon 1 974),

( Parkington

t he

1 980).

r ichest

t his

i t

o f

h as

t oday's

b een

a long t he c oast,

w ere c onsiderably

m ore

s hellfish

s uggested

t hat

a s i n t he k arroid a rid

t han

t oday

W e s uggest t hat p rehistoric p eople r esponded

t o t hese c ircumstances b y i ntensifying t heir e xploitation o f F old B elt p lants a nd a nimals. 3 .

W hen

p rehistoric

p eople

a gain

b egan

t o

v isit

C ape

t he c oast m ore

r egularly s uch v isits w ere s cheduled f or w inter m onths a nd e xploitation w as g eared a lmost e xclusively t o m ussel c ollection ( Parkington 1 976). 4 . T he

a ppearance

r emaining r esources

o f

p astoralists,

h unter-gatherer e xploited a t

p referred

t he

a fter

c ommunities

t he c oast.

s andveld p lains a s

W e

a bout t o

1 600

e xtend

s uggest

g razing a reas

B P, t he

c aused r ange o f

t hat

p astoralists

f or

t heir a nimals

b ut o ffered l ittle c ompetition t o h unting a nd g athering g roups t he

m ountains

o r

a long

t he

s horeline

w here

g razing

i s

i n l ess

a ttractive. T hese h ypotheses a re c onsistent w ith t he r esults o utlined

a bove

d istributions,

a nd

i nclude

i mplications

c ontents a nd c hronologies w hich

f uture o bservations. n orth i s d esigned

o f

i n

t he

t erms

w ill

b e

s urveys o f

s ite

t estable

b y

C ontinuing r esearch i n t his a rea a nd t hat t o t he

t o g ather d ata n eeded f or t his.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS W e t hank A . R ebelo a nd h is H .

R uther

a nd

t eam f rom t he H abitat W orking G roup a nd

h is c olleagues f rom t he D ept o f S urvey,

C ape T own f or h elp w ith t he s hellfish a nd m idden a ssistance

f rom

t he

U niversity

O ppenheimer I nstitute a t

t he

R esearch

U niversity

C ommittee o f

U niversity o f

s urveys.

C ape

a nd

T own,

S ciences R esearch C ouncil a nd t he S wan F und i s a cknowledged.

1 29

F inancial t he H arry t he

H uman

R EFERENCES A VERY,

G .

1 976.

A s ystematic i nvestigation

m idden

s ites

a long

t he

T hesis:

U niversity o f C ape T own.

o f

o pen

s tation

s outhwestern C ape c oast.

s hell

U npubl. M .A.

D EACON, J . 1 974. P atterning i n t he r adiocarbon d ates f or t he W ilton/Smithfield c omplex i n s outhern A frica. S . A fr. a rchaeol. B ull. F LEMMING,

2 9:

3 -18.

B .W.

1 977.

D istribution o f r ecent

B ay a nd L angebaan L agoon. G RINDLEY,

J .R.

& S APEIKA,

S outh A frica. H ORWITZ, L . T hesis: P ARKINGTON, A fr.

1 979.

N .

1 969.

A fr. m ed.

J .

E xcavations a t

S oc.

s ediments S . A fr.

i n

4 2:

S aldanha

3 17-340.

T he c ause o f m ussel p oisoning i n 4 3:

2 75-279.

E lands

B ay.

U npubl.

B .A

( Hons)

U niversity o f C ape T own. J .E.

S tud.

P ARKINGTON,

S .

T rans. R .

1 972.

3 1:

J .E.

S easonal

m obility

i n t he L ate S tone A ge.

2 23-243. 1 976.

F ollow

U niversity o f C ambridge. P ARKINGTON, J .E. 1 980. L ate

t he

S an.

U npubl.

P h.D.

T hesis:

P leistocene a nd H olocene c limates a s

v iewed f rom V erlorevlei. P alaeontol. a fr. 2 3: 7 1 R EBELO, A .G. 1 982. B iomass d istribution o f s hellfish a t E lands

B ay.

U npubl. R ep. A rchaeol. D ept. U niversity o f C ape T own. R OBEY,

T .S.

M .A.

1 984

T hesis:

B urrows a nd b edding:

U se o f s pace a t T ortoise C ave.

U niversity o f C ape T own.

1 30

1 2.

A DAPTIVE S TRATEGIES O F P REHISTORIC PASTORALISM I N T HE S OUTH-WESTERN C APE A ndrew B .

P astoralism, t he

w ith b oth c attle a nd s heep,

C ape b y t he t ime o f

i n t he 1 5th c entury. m ain

a ttraction

t he a rrival o f

s etting

I nteraction T hom

e stablished

a t

t hese d omestic h erds w as

t he

t he D utch c olony a t T able B ay a s a

t he s hips

t ravelling t o

a nd

f rom

t he

E ast

1 7th c entury. b etween

t he

e arly

l ocal h erdsmen h as b een w ell ( see

u p

w as w ell

t he f irst P ortuguese e xplorers

T he a vailability o f

f or

p rovisioning s tation f or I ndies i n t he

S mith

1 952,

1 954,

t ravellers

d ocumented

1 958;

i n

a nd s ettlers a nd

c ontemporary

R aven-Hart

1 967).

t he

l iterature

Among

t he e arly

o bservations w as t he r ecognition t hat t he K hoi w ere n omadic a nd m oved t heir c amps a nd h erds c onstantly i n s earch o f p asture. W hat w as n ot r ecognized

w as

t hat

t here

i s

a vailability o f p asture a nd t hat t he r esulting v ariability o f

a

d egree

o f

s easonality

t o

t he

t hese m ovements w ere c losely t uned

t o

t his r esource.

I n o rder t o u nderstand t he h uman a daptive

r esponses

w e

n eed

t o

l ook a t t he r esource a vailability a nd s easonal c hanges t hat e xisted. T he g eographical z one u nder c onsideration i s t he a rea f rom S t H elena B ay s outh t o C ape T own a nd l and t o t he e ast a s f ar a s t he C ape F old B elt.

T his z one c omprises

t he m ountains o f

s everal s ub-units b ased

u pon

t he u nderlying g eology a nd r esults i n a n umber o f d ifferent s oil t ypes ( Fig. 1 ). S wartland,

T he a rea d irectly w est o f t he m ountains i s k nown a s a n ame d erived f rom t he g rey-black a ppearance o f

o riginal b ush e xisted

-k apokbossie',

c over,

p rior t o

t he w heatlands o f

i s k nown a s c oastal r enosterveld u ncultivated

p astures

e xist t he

c oastal

1 975,

( Acocks

( Acocks

w inter

B etween t he S wartland a nd m acchia t o

t he

h erds

o f

v ariability h erders

t hat

n ecessitated

t ype

t he

4 7) t he

t hese a

1 975,

l ies

t ype

c onditioned b y r ainfall a nd s oils,

umbellatus,

T he v eld t ype o f 4 6)

g rasses t hrive

c oast

f ound o n t he s andy s oils p aralleling a vailable

E riocephalus

t oday.

t hat

t his a rea a nd

( Brock

S andveld

w here

1 959: w here

o r c oastal f ynbos i s c oast

( Fig.

p rehistoric

b oth o f

w hich

t ranshumant

1 ). a

6 ). t he

t o b e

P asture

p astoralists h ave

t he t he

d egree

l ife-style

w as o f

among t he

( Avery 1 976).

R AINFALL I N T HE S OUTH-WESTERN C APE A s

t he s outh-western C ape i s a w inter r ainfall

p roportion

o f

t he

r ain

r ains a re n ot u niform o ver t he e ntire a rea t end

o nly

t o

a rea

o ccurs f rom M ay t o S eptember.

t ouch t he s outhern t ip o f

b ecause

t he

t he

l argest

H owever, c old

t he A frican c ontinent.

t he

f ronts T his

m eans t hat t he C ape P eninsula a nd p oints e ast h ave a h igher a nd m ore c onsistent s easonal r ainfall t han p oints a s l ittle a s 1 50 km t o t he n orth.

F igure 2 s hows

p eninsula

t he v ariation i n r ains b etween

a nd t he a rea o f D urbanville,

T he l ow r ainfall i n t he s ummer m onths w ould

1 31

t he

V redenburg

2 0 km n orth-east o f C ape T own. h ave

m eant

c onsiderably

MU . . 1 .

s and

1

s ands tone

• .• • granite s ha le

F ig.

1

G eology o f t he w estern C ape P rovince.

1 32

d iminished p asture a round V redenburg.

S OIL V ARIABILITY I N T HE S OUTH-WESTERN C APE S oil f ormation i s d ependent u pon t he u nderlying g eological s trata. T here a re f our m ain s tructural f ormations c ontrolling s oil d evelopment i n t he s outh-western C ape, n amely, i ntrusive g ranites, M almesbury s hales, T able M ountain s andstones,

a nd R ecent s ands

S oil n utrients v ary w ith e ach s oil p astoral l and u se.

t ype

a nd

( Fig. t hus

1 ) w ould

a ffect

T hree s oil t ypes a re o f i mportance t o p astoralists

b ecause o f t he m ore g regarious g rass s pecies t hat g row o n t hem.

T hese

a re

t hose

t hose

b ased o n t he u nderlying g ranites

b ased o n t he M almesbury s hales t he

S andveld

( soil

d istribution o f c an

t ypes

( soil t ypes

2 7

&

2 8)

( soil t ypes

1 6 & 1 7)

a nd t hose b ased o n

( Table 1 ).

F igure 3 s hows

t hese s oil t ypes i n t he s outh-western

b e c ompared w ith t he v egetation t ypes

s hows h ow c learly t he A nalysis o f

i n F ig.

1 & 5 ),

C ape

4 .

a nd

t he t his

T his c omparison

s oils c orrelate w ith t he v egetation.

t he n utrient

s tatus o f t he

n atural

p astures

o f

t he

s outh-western C ape b y B rock ( 1959) a llows u s t o m ake s ome p redictions a bout t he o ptimal u se o f l and b y p rehistoric p astoralists s ince t he s oils o f t he a rea a re n ot v ery r ich a nd i n m ost c ases a re e ither d eficient o r b arely s ufficient i n s ome t race e lements. O f i mportance i s

t he d ifference b etween s oils w hich c an s upport a p asture o f h igher

n utritive s tatus, w hich w ould b e e xploited b y p astoralists, a s o pposed t o n utrient-deficient p asture, w hich w ould b e avoided b y t he p astoralists. T able 1 g ives a ny

s oil

a nd

t he r ecommended l evels o f t he v arious c omponents

t he

m inimum

f or

l actating

c ows.

c ompared w ith t he l evels d etermined f or t he t hree c ategories o f w ith

a vailable

p asture.

s eason t o s eason. l ate

s ummer

J uly i s r elatively r ainy c ompared

c onditions.

A ctual A s

w ith

e arly

n utrient i mportance c omes

t he y ear p rogresses

t he

p lants

a nd

f rom t he b ecome

f ibrous a nd t heir n utrient s tatus d rops w ith t he p rotein l evels,

a s d oes m ilk p roduction. w ell-being

o f

T race e lements a re e qually i mportant

t he s tock.

C opper

a nd

m olybdenum

h ave

l iver

o f

c attle

e specially i n l ate

t o b e c onsidered t ogether,

r atio o f t he t wo e lements w hich i s t he

f or t he

I n t he s outh-western C ape p hosphorus l evels

b order o n t he d eficient i n a ll s oil t ypes,

i n

s oils

I t c an b e s een t hat t he p asture v aries f rom

r atio o f f ibre t o p rotein. m ore

o f

T hese l evels a re

a nd

i mportant.

s ummer.

a s i t i s t he

T he s torage

o f

c opper

s heep c an b e s ignificantly r educed b y

i ncreasing t he m olybdenum i ntake. A h ealthy b alance a ppears t o b e m aintained w ith a c opper t o m olybdenum r atio o f 3 0:1 ( Brock 1 959: 2 3-24).

T his b eing t he c ase,

r enosterveld

o n

s oil

o nly t he w inter p astures o f

t ypes

1 6

&

1 7

t he

c oastal

i n t his s ample a re a dequate.

B asically, h owever, t he s ummer p astures o f t he g ranite ( soil t ypes 1 & 5 ) v egetation a nd S andveld o n s oil t ypes 2 7 & 2 8 s how l ow c opper l evels

w hich

S imilarly,

s uggest

c obalt

p articularly i n s ummer. n utritional

s erious

l evels

o f

T hus,

m etabolic t he t he

d isorders

S andveld g ranite

p lants v egetation

s tatus w ould p reclude a y ear-round u se o f

c an a re a nd

d evelop. d eficient, S andveld

t hese p astures.

O nly i n w inter d o t he g ranite-based s oils p roduce t he a dequate b alance o f n utrients. O ne m ust r emember, h owever, t hat a t race-element d eficiency d oes n ot p reclude s hort-term u se o f

1 33

a

p asture

z one,

b ut

8 0 7 0 6 0 50 7 1 C

4 0 3 0 2 0

Sme .• •• •••.,

1 0 •

r --1 -„ F

M

A

I PA

J

J

A

S

O

N

D

1 1 1

D

Vredenburg 10 1 00 9 0 8 0 7 0 6 0

. 1 1 1 1 1 1 •••• ••• 1 1 1. 1"

SO

1, 1« 1 1• 1• 1 M.

4 0 3 0 3 0

A la m mammy

1 0

F

IN I

A

AA

J

J

A

S

0

Durbanville

F ig.

2

Average m onthly r ainfall a t Durbanville c ompared w ith t hat a t V redenburg.

1 34

SO IL

TYPES

1, 5

1 4 -19

2 7, 2 8

F ig.

3

S oil t ypes o f t he w estern C ape P rovince.

1 35

F ig.

4

P attern o f y early t ranshumance by p astoralists i n t he w estern C ape P rovince.

( Vegetation a fter B oucher

1 36

1 982.)

T able 1

C omposition o f n atural p astures ( moisture-free b asis) -m eans o n s oils i n t he s outh-western C ape ( after B rock 1 959) c ompared t o l evels r ecommended f or c attle a nd t he m inimum f or l actating c ows ( after N ational R esearch C ouncil 1 978; S tindt e t a l.

1 965).

C rudelCrude 1 Ca F ibrelProtein l %

1 P 1

1 Cu 1

1 Mo 1

1 %

1 ppm 1ppm

1 Co 1

1 Mn 1

1 Fe 1

' Soil 1

1 ppm

1 ppm

1 ppm

1 pH

%

1%

9 ,03 6 ,83 5 ,61

0 ,35 0 ,33 0 ,34

0 ,24 0 ,11 0 ,08

5 ,0 0 ,32 3 ,9 0 ,45 3 ,6 0 ,48

0 ,19 0 ,18 0 ,17

6 3,2 6 0,0 5 3,7

,0 5 23, 1 7 ,0 5 88, 5 7 ,0 1 159,0 7

( n=5) 3 0,07

1 1,34 8 ,13 5 ,35

0 ,40 0 ,41 0 ,39

0 ,15 0 ,17 0 ,09

9 ,5 0 ,33 ,41 5 ,2 0 8 ,4 0 ,45

0 ,28 0 ,13 0 ,25

6 2,6 6 9,1 5 9,1

4 57,

N ovember 3 4,05 M arch 3 7,14

8 ,86 6 ,79 5 ,42

0 ,58 0 ,47 0 ,48

0 ,20

5 ,0 0 ,29 0 3 ,7 ,64

0 ,09 0,06

4 0,1 3 9,3

3 23,0 3 37,8

7 ,5 7 ,5

4 ,1 0 ,64

0,06

2 8,6

2 81,6

7 ,5

S oil T ype 1 ,5 ( n=8) J uly 3 2,20 N ovember 36,04 M arch 36,97 S oil T ype 1 6,17 J uly

2 6 ,8 8 29, 5 6 ,8 1 072,1 6 ,8

S oil T ype 2 7,28 ( n=7) J uly 2 9,82 N ovember 3 1,65 M arch 3 4,05

R ecom0 ,43 m ended 1 7,0 1 3,0 M inimum ( lactating 8 ,0-11,0 0 ,20 c ows)

0 ,13 0 ,09

0 ,31

R atio o f C:Mo 0 ,10

4 0,0

5 0,0

0 ,16

1 1 3 0:1 1

4 0,0

5 0,0

1 37

1 I 0 ,07-0,1

p rolonged d isorders.

p asturing i n a d eficient a rea w ill s oon p roduce m etabolic T hese c onditions w ould h ave q uickly b een o bserved

empirically a nd a dequately t aken c are o f b y p rehistoric p astoralists.

H ISTORIC D ATA A ND P REHISTORIC L AND-USE I N T HE S OUTH-WESTERN C APE T he

t ranshumant p attern t hat h ad d eveloped a mong t he C ape K hoi b y

t he 1 7th c entury w as b ased u pon t raditional g razing a reas o n

a

s easonal b asis.

T hus w e f ind t he a rrival o f

( Caepmen/Goringhaiqua a nd T obacco T hieves/Gorachoqua) p asture

a round

T able

B ay

i n

O ctober

p astoralists s tayed o n a round T able b urned

t he

p asture

1 652

B ay

o n 8 D ecember o f

b eing

u sed

t he P eninsula K hoi f or

t he

s pring

( Thom 1 952:71).

a nd

a re

t hat y ear.

r eported

T hese

t o

h ave

T he m ain g roup l eft

a round 2 3 D ecember 1 652 t o b e r eplaced b y t he W atermen ( Goringhaicona) o n 2 6 D ecember, a lthough s ome o f t he o thers s tayed o n u ntil 2 2 F ebruary 1 653. H ere t ranshumant p attern

w e s ee s ome h as a lready

d isruption o f t he o ccurred p rior t o

t raditional t he f ormal

i nstallation o f t he D utch s ettlement, a s t he g roup t hat s tayed b ehind p robably d id s o t o t rade w ith v isiting s hips a t t he C ape. T his p attern w as r epeated w hen a nother g roup c ame m onths l ater t o b arter s tock f or c opper. G oringhaicona w e l earn o f w ith

t he

t he h ostilities b etween t he

v arious

B y

t he

m iddle

t wo t he

g roups

k illing b y p astoralists o f f our o f t he G oringhaicona.

u nderlines t he s trained r elationships g roups.

d own t o t he B ay W ith t he a rrival o f

T his

t hat e xisted a mong v arious

K hoi

o f J anuary.1653 t he P eninsula w as b asically

d eserted o f K hoi p eoples o ther t han t he G oringhaicona w ho h ad n o d omestic a nimals. T he p astoralists w ere a way u sing t he s ummer p asture w hich G oodwin ( 1952:11)

s uggests w as b eyond H ottentots H olland.

C onflict among t he v arious K hoi ( 1952:13)

a s

t he

r eason

P eninsula i n N ovember

w hy

1 653 a s

g roups

t he

i s

s uggested

b y

G oodwin

p astoralists d id n ot c ome t o t he

t hey u sually d id.

T his p attern

a ppears

t o b e r epeated t he n ext y ear, 1 654, a lthough i n N ovember 1 655 t he K hoi w ere o nce m ore a t t he P eninsula i n l arge n umbers: " We e stimated t heir n umber, o ld a nd y oung t o b e f ully 5 0 00 o r 6 0 00 p eople, a nd t he e rected h uts a bout 4 00 o r 5 00. T hese w ere q uite l arge a nd p laced c lose

t o o ne a nother i n c ircles, w ithin w hich t he c attle w ere k ept a t

n ight.

O ne w ould w ith d ifficulty g o a round t he e ncampment i n h alf

h our" ( Thom 1 952:369). T hese K hoi w ere S aldanhars" a rriving t o t rade w ith t he D utch. m id-December

1 655,

a nd r epeated

t his

a n

t he C ochoqua o r " real T hey m oved o n a gain i n

s chedule a gain i n 1 656,

a lthough

t heir a rrival d id n ot o ccur u ntil 6 D ecember. T he g eneral p attern t hat e merges ( Fig.

4 )

b y

t he

p astoralists.

p astures w ere p robably a round n orth

i s

a

y early

t ranshumant

Among t he P eninsula K hoi

t he h eadwaters o f

t owards P aarl a nd W ellington.

t he

B erg

D uring t he s ummer

o rbit

t he w inter R iver

t he a rea o f t he T ygerberg, T able B ay/Sea P oint, t he S teenbergen, B ay a nd l ater a cross t he C ape F lats t o t he H ottentots H olland. C ochoqua p rior C ape

u sed

t o t heir a ttempts

t o

t rade w ith t he s ettlement

S t H elena B ay a nd t he V redenburg P eninsula a s

p asture a rea.

T hey m oved a cross

e xistence

t his

o f

l atter

t o

p attern

a t

s upported

b y

H out T he t he

t heir w inter

t he S wartland d uring s ummer. i s

a nd

t hey w ould u se

T he

s everal e arly

t ravellers w riting a bout t he C ape; J ohn D avys ( 17 N ovember 1 598) w ent a shore a t S t H elena B ay b ut, i n s pite o f g oing a c onsiderable d istance i nland,

f ailed

t o f ind a ny

c attle.

1 38

O n

r eaching

T able

B ay

o n

2 1

N ovember t hey w ere a ble t o b arter f or c attle ( Raven-Hart 1 967:21). A nother w riter, J oris v an S pilbergen ( 18 N ovember 1 601), a lso w ent a shore

a t

S t

( Raven-Hart a s

E tienne

c attle l ike

H elena

d e

b ut

E qually,

F lacourt

( Raven-Hart S amuel

c attle

B ay,

1 967:25).

( 14

1 967:173),

C astleton

( Raven-Hart

n othing

O ctober

e xcept

w ild

a nimals s uch

1 648) w ere u nable t o f ind a ny

w hile t hose

( 18 A pril

1 967:62).

s aw

s ummer v isitors t o S aldanha B ay, w ho

a rrived

a fter

A pril,

1 612), w ere a ble t o o btain s heep a nd

S imilarly,

D avid P ieterz

d e

V ries

( 31

J uly 1 627) r eported t hat a n u nsuccessful r aid o n h erds a t S aldanha B ay h ad t aken p lace ( Raven-Hart 1 967:124). T he m ovement o f t he S aldanhars s outh a llowed p eople s uch a s t he S onqua w ho h ad n o d omestic a nimals t o m ove

i nto

S aldanha

P eninsula.

B y

B ay

a nd

w ere b ack o nce m ore a round ( Thom

a long

t he b eginning o f

1 952:176)

r eports

a nd c attle o n t he

t he t hat

p lains"

t he

s hore

o f

t he

V redenburg

t he n ext r ainy s eason t he S aldanhars V redenburg

P eninsula.

O ne

a ccount

" the S aldanhars w ith t housands o f s heep

w ere

a round

S t

H elena

B ay

f rom

A pril

o nwards. I f w e r eturn o nce m ore t o t he e nvironmental d ata w e c an s ee t hat s uch a t ranshumant o rbit w ould h ave m ade s ense. T he ' home b ase o f t he

C ochoqua

w as

s even m onths o f

t he V redenburg P eninsula w here t hey s tayed f or o ver

t he y ear.

W ith t he o nset o f t he d rier

s ummer

m onths

p asture w ould h ave b ecome m uch s carcer a nd a s outhward m ovement t o t he m ore p erennial p astures o f t he S uartland n orth o f M almesbury w as n ecessary. T he B erg R iver i s a n o k _ ' ous a venue a long w hich t hey c ould t ravel a t l eisure t o S t H elena B ay o n t heir r eturn a t t he b eginning o f t he w inter r ainfall s eason. T he p astures a round T ygerberg a ppear t o h ave b een h eavily u sed b y t he P eninsula K hoi. T he a ttraction o f t rade w ith t he D utch s ettlement m ay w ell h ave b een t he r eason f or s uch l arge g roups c oming t ogether i n D ecember.

C ertainly t here w as

p ressure

o n

t he p asture a t t his t ime o f y ear. T his i s u nderlined b y t he e ntry f or 1 7 J anuary 1 656 ( Thom 1 954:5): " We l earned t hat H erry m oved h is c amp a nd

a nimals t o t he l ittle H out B ay,

l onger s ufficient f or h is

t he p asturage h ereabouts b eing n o

s tock a s w ell a s t he C ompany's."

E FFECT O F C OCHOQUA T RANSHUMANCE O N O THER S OUTH-WESTERN C APE P EOPLES W ith t he e stablishment o f r elationships b etween t he t he

D utch

a fter

A pril

C ochoqua

1 655 t he m ovement o f t his p owerful K hoi

a nd g roup

t owards T able B ay p recipitated a r ipple e ffect a mong o ther h erders, w ell

a s

t he

a rrival o f

h unting/foraging

p opulations.

Among

a s

t he h erders

t he

t he C ochoqua f orced t he G oringhaiqua a nd t he G orachoqua

t o

m ove a round t o S ea P oint o r s outhwards a long t he P eninsula t owards t he S teenbergen o r o ver t o H out B ay. p eriod

o f

t ime a nd

b y t he T able B ay K hoi i nconvenience

a nd

a boriginal 1 967:3).

f act

t hey

s pent

t hat

o nly

f or

a

s hort

o ther t han

t rade w ith t he D utch s ettlement w as

t he v acant s pace t hat w as c reated b y t he C ochoqua i n O ctober/November w as f illed b y

A s e arly a s N ovember

i nhabitant T hat

w as

t here w as p robably n o g reat h ardship,

t he

i nterrupted. T hereafter, s outhward t rek o f t he f oraging g roups.

S ince t his

t hese a reas w ere p art o f a t erritory n ormally u sed

c ollecting

1 497 V asco d e G ama c ontacted a n

h oney a t S t H elena B ay

( Raven-Hart

t here i s n o m ention o f a ny c attle i s s ignificant,

s ince

e ight d ays c areening t heir s hip t here a nd w ould h ave b een

d elighted t o e xchange f or f resh b eef h ad i t b een a vailable, a s i t w as w hen t hey a rrived a t M ossel B ay l ater t hat s ame m onth ( Raven-Hart 1 967:6).

T o s upport t his h ypothesis,

1 39

t he o nly s ingle e ntry i n t he V an

0 eSOUrC41 1

3

a reas v acated by t hem.

0

I-

01 I n

0 en 0 1 Q. z

o ther g roups

0 0

• H C D 0

0 P

L C\

R iebeeck

j ournal

d escribing

b eginning o f M arch

h unters

1 659 a nd a round

d escribes

-s trandlopers

( see Avery

1 976:89-91 f or t abulation o f

e ntry

t here

h erders, o ver.

i s

a

t here

a round S t H elena B ay i s a t t he

S aldanha B ay o nly o ne e ntry i n n ine i n t he w inter m onths

P redictable s outh-western

r esource

-S trandlopers'

a nd

s easonality

u nderlines

f or t ranshumance among f oraging

C ape. o f

t his t aking

P arkington's

p opulations

i n

t he

T hese i nclude a vailability o f u nderground p lant

f oods i n s ummer a nd w inter c ulling o f i ntroduction

I n

s pecific r eference t o t he v acation o f t he a rea b y

i n t his c ase n amed C hariguriquas,

( 1976:203) m odel

( Thom 1 958:243)

t hese o bservations).

h erding,

a t

s eals a long t he c oast.

l east

t o

t he

W ith t he

S wartland a nd a djacent

c oastline, d ifferent m obility p atterns a re s uggested. T he p asture r equirements o f t he h erders w ould h ave b een p aramount a nd t he a rea a round t he V redenburg P eninsula w ould h ave b een a w inter p asture z one. I n

s ummer

t he

p asture d iminishes

s ignificantly a nd m ovement

t owards

t he b etter-watered g rasses a nd r iparian v egetation o f t he S wartland w ould h ave b een n ecessary t o m aintain s ome d egree o f m ilk p roduction. F igure 5 i llustrates

t he p robable m ovement o f t he d ominant h erders w ho

w ould h ave f orced t he f oraging g roups t o o ccupy p eripheral a reas, o r t o b ecome s erially t ranshumant, f illing i n t he s paces l eft v acant b y p astoralists.

R EFERENCES A COCKS,

J .

P . H .

S . A fr. A VERY,

G .

1 976.

m idden B .

V eld t ypes o f S outh A frica.

A s ystematic

s ites

T hesis: B EST, P .

1 975.

M em. b ot.

S urv.

s tation

s hell

4 0 a long

i nvestigation

t he

o f

o pen

s outhwestern C ape c oast.

U npubl. M .A.

U niversity o f C ape T own. 1 982.

W hales:

w hy d o

t hey

s trand?

A fr.

W ildlife

3 6:

9 6-99. B OUCHER,

C .

1 982.

f oreland

F loristic a nd s tructural f eatures o f t he c oastal

v egetation

P rovince. c oastal

I n:

s outh

M OLL,

l owlands

o f

o f

E .,

t he

e d.

t he

B erg

R iver,

P roceedings

w estern

C ape:

w estern

C ape

o f a s ymposium o n

2 1-26.

B ellville:

U niversity o f t he W estern C ape. B ROCK,

E .

1 959.

T he n utritive s tatus o f

m ost i mportant T hesis: G OODWIN,

s oil

t ypes

o f

t he

t he n atural p astures o n t he S wartland.

U npubl.

M .Sc.

U niversity o f S tellenbosch.

A .

J .

1 652-1662.

H .

N ATIONAL R ESEARCH c attle,

1 952.

S . A fr.

C OUNCIL

( 5th

J an

v an

a rchaeol. 1 978.

e d.)

R iebeeck

B ull.

7 :

N utrient

W ashington,

a nd

t he H ottentots,

2 -54. r equirements

D .C.:

N ational

o f

d airy

A cademy

o f

S ciences. P ARKINGTON, J . E . 1 976. F ollow t he S an. U npubl. U niversity o f C ambridge. R AVEN-HART, R . 1 967. B efore v an R iebeeck. C ape T own : S TINDT,

H .

W .,

1 965. a rea

C ELLIERS,

P .

G .,

J OUBERT, J .

G . V .

P h.D. S truik.

& P EROLD,

T he n utritive v alue o f n atural p astures i n t he i n

A frica.

t he

S outh-East

D ept A gric.

T ech.

T hesis:

I .

S .

H umansdorp

C ape P rovince o f t he R epublic o f S outh S tud.,

T ech. C omm .

4 5.

T HOM, H .B. 1 952. J ournal o f J an v an R iebeeck. I : 1 651-1655. T own, Amsterdam : B alkema f or t he V an R iebeeck S ociety. T HOM, H .B. 1 954. J ournal o f J an v an R iebeeck. I I: 1 656-1658.

1 41

C ape C ape

T own, Amsterdam : T HOM, H .B.

1 958.

B alkema f or

t he V an R iebeeck S ociety.

J ournal o f J an v an R iebeeck.

T own, Amsterdam :

B alkema f or

I II:

1 659-1662.

t he V an R iebeeck S ociety.

1 42

C ape

1 3.

M APPING A ND I NTERPRETING W EAR T RACES O N S TONE I MPLEMENTS: A C ASE S TUDY F ROM B OOMPLAAS C AVE. J ohan B inneman

I NTRODUCTION A rchaeologists f rameworks R iet

i n

S outh

A frica

h ave

b een

t o c lassify s tone i mplements e ver

L owe's

( 1929)

p ioneering

u sing

s ince

e fforts.

h ierarchical

G oodwin

M ost

L ater

a nd

V an

S tone

A ge

c lassification f rameworks p rior t o t he m id-1960s c an b e r egarded a s d escriptive a nd h ad l ittle o r n o l asting i mpact o n s tone i mplement s tudies. S ince a ssemblages t hat

t he m id-1960s, a rchaeologists w ho c lassified e mployed s tatistical t echniques a imed a t e xplaining

a ssemblage c omposition 1 969,

1 972,

1 982;

( Sampson & S ampson 1 967; D eacon

c lassification f ramework o f

1 976).

( Deacon

1 982).

c ertain

t hese

f or t he L ater

c hange

i n

h ierarchical

a rchaeologists

t echnological

D eacon

h ave a f airly c omplete S tone

a ge

a nd a p ackage o f s tatistical t ests

m acro-technological W ith

s tatistical a ids,

S ampson 1 974;

w e

s tone i mplements

b ased o n m orphological f eatures, r esearch m icro- a nd

N ow

h ave

s pace

c lassifications

e stablished

c haracteristics,

a nd

s uch a s

t he

p resence

t o

t ime a nd o f

t ool s ets w hich o ccur

r egularly a t s ites, r epeated p atterns o f w ear o n c ertain t ools, s elected r aw m aterials f or c ertain f ormal t ools a nd s o o n. B ut h ow d o w e r elate t hese d ata t o e xplanations o f t ool f unction, p ast e conomies a nd b ehaviour? W e c annot t urn t o p resent-day h unter-gatherer g roups i n s outhern A frica, f or t hey n o l onger w ork w ith s tone, a nd e arly t ravellers a ccounts o f s tone t ool m anufacture a re e quivocal a t b est. A r esult o f t he

t his

l ack o f

e stablishment

o f

i nformation o n s tone t ool f unction

h as

i mplicit

f unction.

a ssumptions

a bout

E xperimental w ork a nd w ear s tudies p rovide a m eans o f a ssumptions a bout t ool f unction a nd p ast b ehaviour. u ntil r ecently s uch m ethods o f a rtefact a nalysis h ave

t ool

b een

t esting t hese U nfortunately, b een

n eglected

i n s outhern A frica. T his

p aper

a nalysis o f g uidelines,

p rovides

s tone

t ools

p roblems a nd

a

s ummary

f rom

o f

B oomplaas

r esults C ave,

o btained f rom w ear a nd

t he p otential o f w ear s tudies

o utlines

s ome

i n t he s outhern

A frican c ontext.

S UMMARY O F R ESULTS F ROM B OOMPLAAS C AVE A t otal o f

1 36 s tone i mplements

f rom B oomplaas C ave

w as

a nalysed

( Table 1 ). T he t ools w ere s elected f rom l ayers D GL t o C L, c overing t he l ast 1 4 0 00 y ears a t t he s ite ( Deacon 1 979). M ost o f t he f ormal t ools t hat w ere a nalysed w ere a dzes a nd s crapers, o ther f ormal t ool t ypes b eing f ewer i n n umber, o f u nsuitable r aw m aterial o r d amaged. U tilized

a nd

w aste

m aterial

w as a lso e xamined.

p rocedures w ere f ollowed,

b ut

f rom

m aterials

f ine-grained

r aw

t he b ulk o f

h ornfels.

1 43

s uch

N o s trict s ampling

t he t ools a nalysed w ere m ade a s

c halcedony,

c hert

a nd

T able

1

N umber o f t ools t he s tudy

f rom B oomplaas C ave l evels D GL t o C L,

T otal N o. T ools *

A dzes S crapers B orers

N o. t ools s tudied

1 70 9 13 1 6

5 1 4 1 5

S egments 4 7 B acked b ladelets 2 4 M isc. r etouched f lakes 4 1 U tilized f lakes 1 049 C ores 5 67 B attered p ieces 4 53 W aste f lakes 2 9 5 59

2 1 2 2 1 3 4 6

T otal

* A fter D eacon, J .

3 2 8 39

1 36

1 982.

1 44

u sed i n

% o f t otal

3 0,00 4 ,49 3 1,25 4 ,25 4 ,16 4 ,87 2 , 0 0 ,56 0 ,88 0 ,02

0 ,41

I t w as i mpossible t o e stablish a c omplete p icture o f t he r ange o f a ctivities i n w hich p rehistoric m an w as i nvolved, o r t o r econstruct c omplete b ehaviour a nd e conomic p atterns. o f t he s tudy w as s mall a nd l imited, f unctions f or m ost o f t he t ools s tudied.

H owever,

a lthough t he s cale

i t w as p ossible t o e stablish F rom t his, s ome p atterns o f

b ehaviour e merged w hich w ill b e b riefly d iscussed. I t

i s

c lear

f rom

t he

s tudy t hat a w ide r ange o f m aterials w as

w orked i n t he L ater S tone A ge. T hese i ncluded w ood ( dried a nd f resh), c harcoal, b one, h ides a nd m eat w hich w ere w orked b y s craping, c utting, c hiselling,

p laning a nd b oring.

d istinguish

c losely

I n s ome c ases i t

w as

i mpossible

r elated m icrowear p atterns f rom e ach o ther,

d ifferent p olishes c aused b y w orking r eeds,

w ood,

t o i .e.

h ide a nd m eat,

e ven

t hough t hese d ifferent p olishes a re d iagnostic u nder e xperimental c onditions ( Binneman 1 982). U nsatisfactory e xperimental r esults, h owever,

m ade

i t

i mpossible

p rehistoric c ontext. i n

o rder

t o d etect o strich e ggshell p olish i n t he

M ore r esearch a nd e xperimental w ork i s

t o k ey i n m icrowear t races

r equired

f rom o ther r aw m aterials v isible

i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. A s s crapers a nd ( Binneman,

i n

A dzes a nd s crapers t asks,

a dzes

p rep.),

i .e.

w ere

a nd p lane. s uch

m aintained

a nd

i t

i s

a dzes. w ork

p ermitted

a s

d etail

e lsewhere

t o

p erform

p reparing

h ides

s pecialized r espectively.

e nd-hafted

a nd

u sed

t o

l ogical

I t

w as

t o

p egs,

a ssume

t hat

e very-day

b ows a nd c lubs w ere m ade a nd

p ossible

t o

r econstruct

t hrough

t he f laking w ear a s w ell a s d iscard p atterns w hich ( Binneman 1 982).

i nsights

w oodworking t echnology s uch a s w ell

d esigned

d igging s ticks,

c haracterize m ost a dzes a nalysis,

i n

A lthough i t i s n ot p ossible t o d etect w hich w ooden

a s

b y

e xperimental

d iscussed

s hown t hat a dzes w ere

t ools w ere m anufactured, u tensils

b e

f ormally

w oodworking

E xperimental w ork h as c hisel

w ill

c omments r egarding t hese t ools w ill b e b rief.

c harcoal.

T he

i nto

T his,

c ertain

c oupled w ith m icrowear p atterns o f p rehistoric

t he w orking o f d ried a nd f resh w ood

c ombination o f f ire a nd s tone t ools

a s

t o m ake

w ooden a rtefacts h as n ever b een c onsidered a p art o f t he t echnological r epertoire

i n

o bservations

s uggest a s ensitive e quilibrium

m ethods

u sed

t he

i n

S tone

Age

o f

s outhern

t he

a nd t his c an b e o bserved

K alahari

( Steyn

1 971;

c hisels

w ood

a nd

p lanes,

m orphological f eatures

b ut

l ent

a lso

f or

t hemselves

a mong

T hese

t ype

r emnant

D ornan 1 975;

N haro i nformant, Aminius R eserve, N amibia). a s

A frica.

b etween

p ers.

B ushman

c omm.

A dzes w ere u sed n ot

c utting a nd b oring w hen t he

S crapers w ere f ormally d esigned f or s craping

r evealed

w ear

t races

o n

p ercussion w hich i ndicate t hat

t hey

t echnological

t hat

o bservation

i s

s napped b y m eans o f a s mall p unch.

f rom o nly

t o s uch a ctivities. h ides.

T he

n ature

a nd l ocation o f t he m icrowear t races s uggest t hat m ost o f t hese w ere s ide h afted ( Deacon & D eacon 1 980), b ut s everal r elatively s crapers

a nd

i n t he m anufacture o f d ifferent w ooden a rtefacts d uring

t he L ater S tone A ge, g roups

L ater

t he

p roximal

e nd

a nd A n

t ools l arge

b ulb o f

w ere

h and-held.

i mportant

s ome

s crapers w ere d eliberately

T his a ction w as p robably p erformed

i n c ases w here a s craper d id n ot f it a s pecific h aft b ecause i t w as t oo l ong, o r h ad a n i rregular p roximal e nd o r t he amount o f m astic a vailable w as A lthough

t oo s mall. a dzes

s everal o ther t ools

w ere

t he

f ormally

s uch a s c ores,

d esigned

u tilized

1 45

f lakes,

w oodworking b attered

t ool, p ieces

( reduced

c ore

p ieces),

w ere a lso u sed o n w ood.

' waste

f lakes a nd a b roken b acked b ladelet

T he l imited s ample e xamined w as t oo s mall

t o

e stablish w hether t his w as r egular o r r andom u se. I t i s p ossible t hat t ools s uch a s c ores a nd b attered p ieces w ere i ncidentally u sed w hen s uitable, o r a t h and, a nd m ay t herefore b e s een a s ' occasional' t ools. A lthough i t i s s till h ighly s peculative, t he f act c annot b e o verlooked t hat b attered p ieces m ay s ometimes h ave b een u sed a s w oodworking t ools a fter t hey h ad b ecome u nsuitable a s b ladelet c ores. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat a t B oomplaas C ave ( Deacon 1 982: t able 1 7) a nd a t M elkhoutboom C ave ( Deacon 1 976: t ables 7 a nd 1 0) t he f requencies o f b attered p ieces d ecrease w hen t he f requencies o f a dzes i ncrease a nd v ice v ersa. T his m ay b e d ue t o s ampling o r i t m ay e xample o f e fficient u se o f a vailable r aw m aterial. T he

u tilized

f lakes

s tudied

b e

a n

e xcellent

w ere u sed i n e ither w oodworking o r

h ide w orking. M ost u tilized f lakes t hat e xhibit w ood p olish w ere u sed f or c hiselling a nd p laning a nd m ay b e r ecognized a s e arly a dzes. S ome o f t hese p otential a dzes s how m astic t races, a nd w ere m ost p robably h afted i n t he s ame m anner a s f ormal a dzes. T he u tilized f lakes t hat s how h ide p olish w ere m ostly u sed f or s craping, a lthough n o f ormal s craper

r etouch

w as

o bserved.

T his

m ay

i mply t hat i n s ome c ases

s crapers w ere o riginally u nretouched f lakes t hat g radually b ecame f ormal s crapers a s a r esult o f r esharpening o f t he w orking e dge. I t w as e vident f rom e xperimental w ork t hat f ormal s crapers h ad v ery l ittle e ffect w hen f reshly s kinned h ides w ere w orked ( Brink 1 978; B inneman 1 982), b ut t hat u nretouched f lakes w ere m ore e ffective f or r emoving s mall p ieces o f f at a nd f lesh. O nce h ides h ad d ried, h owever,

s crapers w ere m ore e ffective i n r emoving f at a nd f lesh.

T he n umber o f b acked t ools a nalysed w as t oo l ow t o a llow a ny f irm c onclusions a bout f unction. T he t wo s egments a nalysed r evealed p recisely t he s ame w ear t races, d emonstrating t hat b oth w ere u sed t o c ut h ides a nd p ossibly m eat. T he l ocation o f t he w ear t races s uggest t hat t hese t wo s egments w ere h afted a nd u sed i n t he s ame w ay a s a s mall p enknife. T he s ame s ituation a lso a pplies t o b orers. T hree o f t he f ive b orers t hat w ere s tudied e xhibited h ide p olish, t he l ocation o f w hich s uggests

t hat t hey w ere u sed f or p iercing h ides.

T his

i s i nteresting

i n t he l ight o f t heir a ssumed f unction i n t he m anufacture o f o strich e ggshell b eads a nd t he f act t hat t hey a ppear t oo b lunt f or s kin w orking. M ore w ork i s h owever r equired t o c onfirm t his. M icrowear t races a long t he p roximal e nds o f t hese b orers a lso s uggest t hat t hey w ere n ot h afted b ut u sed i n t he h and o r h eld i n a p iece o f s kin. O ne o f t he m ost r ewarding a nd e xciting a spects o f t his p ilot s tudy w as t he d iscovery o f w ear t races o n a n umber o f ' waste' f lakes. S ix o f t he t he ' waste' f lakes s elected s howed w ell-developed w ear t races w ithout a ny v isible d amage a long t he w orking e dges. W ood, c harcoal, h ide a nd, p ossibly,

m eat p olish w as n oted o n t hese t ools.

T he m ain p oints t o e merge f rom t his p ilot s tudy a re: 1 . 2 .

i t i s p ossible t o a ssign

f unctions

t o

s tone

t ools

a nd

t hereby

r econstruct s ome o f t he a ctivities t hat t ook p lace a t a s ite; t ool f unction a nd a ctivities p erformed w ere r elatively s table o ver t he l ast 1 4 0 00 y ears o n t he e vidence o f t he l imited n umber o f

1 46

3 .

t ools s tudied; a lthough s ome t ools w ere f ormally d esigned, w ere a lso u sed t o p erform w henever t hey w ere s uitable.

s imilar

o ther n on-formal t ools

t asks,

a nd

w ere

p robably

T HE P OTENTIAL O F U SE W EAR S TUDIES I N S OUTHERN A FRICA T he p otential o f u se w ear s tudies

i n S outh A frica i s e normous,

e xperimental w ork a nd r eplication s tudies b efore w ear p atterns c an b e i nterpreted.

m ust

f irst

b e

R econstruction o f

m anufacture c an a lso p rovide i nformation a bout m ethods a nd w hich c an h elp t he t he

s triking

v entral s urface

s tone t ool t echniques

t ypologist t o u nderstand a nd i nterpret a ssemblages.

I n t his r egard i mportant i nformation f or t he t ypologist i s o n

b ut

u ndertaken

t o b e f ound

p latform ( point o f c ontact), b ulb o f p ercussion a nd

( main f lake s urface).

I n m ost c ases f lakes a nd

f lake

s cars h ave d iagnostic f eatures w hich r eveal t echniques o f m anufacture, s uch a s t ypes o f h ammers u sed

( hard o r s oft)

( direct

o r

i ndirect

p ercussion

1 975).

I n

g eneral,

a n

t hrough

r eplication

a nd m anner o f

a nd p ressure)

u nderstanding

o f

d etachment

( Crabtree

1 968,

t echnological

s tudies w ill h elp i nterpret

1 970,

p rocesses

t echnological t rends

i n t he p ast. T here a re t wo m ain t echniques a vailable f or w ear a nalysis. T he .chnique, f f irst i s t he h igh m agnification ' or w hich i t i s n ecessary t o h ave a s pecial i ncident-ligh t , m icroscope w ith m agnifying c apabilities u p t o 4 00x, a s w ell a s o ther s pecial e ffects s uch a s b right a nd d ark f ield i llumination ( Keeley 1 977, 1 980). T his t echnique

i s

b ased

o n

t he f act t hat p olishes a nd o ther w ear t races

t hat d evelop o n s tone t ools d uring u se, o n w hich t he t ools w ere u sed.

a re d iagnostic o f

t he m aterial

T he m ain d isadvantage o f t his t echnique

i s t hat i t c annot b e a pplied t o a ll t he r aw m aterials e ncountered i n t he a rchaeological r ecord ( Binneman 1 982). T he s econd m ethod i s t he l ow m agnifying t echnique, m agnification f racturing i s

f or w hich a r eflected-light m icroscope

c apabilities

u p t o 6 0 x i s r equired.

t he b asis f or e stablishing t ool f unction

w ith

I dentifying e dge ( Odell

1 977).

T he d isadvantage o f t his t echnique i s t hat i t l argely f ails t o i dentify t he p recise m aterials o n w hich t ools w ere u sed, e specially w hen t hese w ere s oft. T his t echnique c an h owever b e a pplied o n a ll t ypes o f r aw m aterials u sed i n S outh A frica. A t hird p ossibility i s t he s canning e lectron m icroscope ( SEM). O ne p roblem w ith t he S EM i s mm),

o r

a lternatively c arbon r eplicas o f t he t ool s urfaces m ust b e m ade, t hese a re n ot a lways r eliable. T his t echnique i s a lso e xpensive

t hat t ools m ust b e b roken t o f it

t he

s tages

( 9

mm

- 25

a nd a nd

t ime-consuming. B oth t he l ow a nd h igh m agnification t echniques h ave a dvantages a nd d isadvantages o ver e ach o ther i n t erms o f d epth o f f ield, r esolution, t ime t aken t o i dentify u se t races, & O dell-Vereecken 1 980; m ust d ecide w hich b oth t echniques a re t ogether.

A s

O dell

a nd s o o n ( Keeley 1 977,

1 982).

a rtefact

i nitially

m entioned e arlier, r epertoire.

t owards

e ach

m ethod i s m ost a ppropriate. c omplementary a nd c an b e v irtually

R esearch

e stablishing

b ladelets, b attered p ieces,

c ase

t he

1 980;

O dell

r esearcher

I w ould s uggest t hat p rofitably e mployed

t he f ield o f w ear s tudies h as g reat

p otential a nd r esearch i s n eeded o n s tone

I n

t he

s hould f unction

a nd u tilized p ieces.

1 47

every

a spect

o f

t he

h owever b e o rientated o f

b acked

t ools,

W ear a nalysts e lsewhere h ave s een t he f ollowing a s m ain o bjectives i n w ear s tudies. T he m ain g oal m ust b e t o d iscover h ow s tone t ools w ere u sed b y p rehistoric m an. T hereafter s uch a n u nderstanding o f s tone t ool f unctions m ay h elp o ne t o r econstruct c ultural a nd e conomic c hange, a nd l astly t o i dentify a ctivity a reas w ithin s ites o r a ssign c ertain a ctivities t o d ifferent s ites ( Odell 1 975; K eeley 1 977). T hese g oals, a ttainable a t

t ranslated i nto t he s outhern A frican c ontext, m ay n ot b e t his s tage b ecause o f a m ismatch b etween t he g oals a nd

t he q uality o f t he d ata r equired t o a chieve t hem. S everal p roblems a re a pparent f or w ear s tudies i n s outhern A frica, d ue t o t he t ypes o f r aw m aterial f ound a t a rchaeological s ites, t he m orphology o f t he a rtefacts a nd s ampling o f t he s ites. T he i nability o f c ertain m icrowear t echniques t o s how u p w ear t races o n c ertain t ypes o f s tone h as a lready b een m entioned. A s a g eneral r ule, m icrowear i s m ore e asily d istinguished o n f iner-grained s tone s uch a s h ornfels a nd c halcedony, b ut l ess e asily o n c oarser o r t ranslucent m aterial s uch a s q uartzite o r q uartz. T his c onsequently l imits t he e xtent t o w hich t he a ctivities r epresented b y a n a rtefact a ssemblage c an b e i nterpreted a nd a lso a ppears t o b e a l imiting f actor i n t he r ealization o f o ther g oals. T o c ompound t he p roblem, a reas r equires: 1 . 2 . 3 .

a ny a ttempt t o d efine i ntra-site a ctivity

a s ite w ith s uitable s tratification t hat c an b e a ssumed t o r epresent d iscrete p eriods o f o ccupation; a s patial a nalysis o f o ccupation t hrough h orizontally l arge-scale e xcavation ; a nd d etailed m apping o f a rtefact d istributions. I f t hese a nd o ther c onditions a re m et, g ood s patial a nalysis c an p roceed, b oth a t t he l evel o f g ross t ool-type d istributions a nd a t t he c omplementary l evel o f m icrowear a nalysis.

M ost e xcavations h ave b een s mall s cale, g eared t o s ampling t ime r ather t han s pace; a nd w here s patial a nalysis o f t ool t ypes h as b een a ttempted o n t ools f rom t hese s mall a reas t he r esults h ave b een t antalizing b ut i nconclusive ( Deacon 1 972:31). B eyond t his i s t he f act t hat c ertain a ctivities w ere u ndertaken o utside t he c ave e nvironment. T he l ocalized d istribution o f a dzes i n f ront o f s ome w estern C ape s ites i llustrates t his p oint ( Parkington 1 980) s ampling s trategies w ith m icrowear a nalysis i n m ind m ust t ake c ases i nto a ccount. L arger-scale,

a nd s uch

s patially-orientated e xcavations w ill g enerate l arge

a mounts o f m apped s tone t ools,

a nd i t i s p robably u nrealistic i n t erms

o f t ime a nd l abour t o e xamine i n t oto s uch a ssemblages f or m icrowear t races a nd f unction. C learly, a f urther l evel o f s ampling m ust b e i ntroduced a t t his s tage. T his m ust b e d one t o c reate a m anageable w ork l oad, b ut m ust n ot c ompromise t he o bjective o f m aking a s emi-quantitative a ssessment o f t he a ssemblage. T he a mount o f t ime n eeded f or m icrowear a nalysis o f t he f ormal t ool c omponent s hould d ecrease i n t ime a s c onfidence a llows m ore p recise e quation o f t ool-type w ith f unction. I nformal t ool c ategories w ill h owever a lways n eed t o b e e xamined a t t he m icrowear l evel b ecause i t w ill n ot b e p ossible t o p redict t heir u se. S ampling s trategies m ust a lso b e w ell d efined i n o rder t o f acilitate f unctional c omparisons b etween s ites.

1 48

A f inal c onsideration f or m icrowear s tudies r evolves a round h andling o f s tone t ools, f rom t he e xcavation t hrough t o l aboratory. t he

E ven i f n o m icrowear a nalysis

a dequate

c uration

o f

t ools

t he t he

i s i mmediately a nticipated,

s hould

b e b uilt i nto a ny r esearch

p rogram s o a s t o p rotect w ear t races f or a ny m icro-analysis t hat m ay b e d one i n t he f uture. R eckless t reatment o f s tone t ools c an r ender t hem w orthless f or m icrowear s tudies o r i ncrease t he t ime s pent i n t rying t o s ort o ut p re- from p ost-excavation w ear. E xcavators s hould k eep t he f ollowing i n m ind: 1 . s econdary d amage s tarts t he m oment t ools a re r emoved d uring e xcavation. T he p opular p ractice o f w rapping f ormal t ools i n a luminium f oil s hould b e a voided. T he m etal a brades t ools a nd c reates w ear t races o f i ts o wn, m aking t hem t otally u nsuitable f or m icrowear a nalysis. C are s hould b e t aken t o p revent s tone t ools f rom

c oming

i nto

c ontact

w ith

m etal

o bjects s uch a s t rowels,

s ieves a nd p ens. T ools m ust b e r emoved f rom t he e xcavation a nd n ot b e a llowed t o r each t he s ieves, s ince p rolonged c ontact w ith o ther t ools a nd t he m esh c an d amage t hem s everely. T o p revent t heir c oming i nto c ontact w ith o ther o bjects, t ools s hould b e 2 .

w rapped i n p lastic o r t issue p aper; w riting o n s tone t ools w ith p ens o r p encils m ay d amage o r d estroy m icrowear t races. D rawing a round t ools w ith a p encil m ust a lso b e a voided, f or g raphite h as t he s ame e ffect o n s tone t ools a s a luminium f oil. Cr a e sou h A aken we o ls ae easured - be t h n to r m w ith c alipers. G raph p aper o r p lastic c alipers s hould b e u sed

3 .

b ecause m etal c alipers w ill d amage t ools; s tone t ools s hould n ot b e w ashed b efore t hey h ave b een m icroscopically s tudied; t here m ay b e o rganic r emains o n t he t ools t hat m ay p rovide i nformation o n h afting o r f unction ( Briuer 1 976; D eacon 1 976; S hafer & H olloway 1 979). T he a scending-paper c hromatographic t echnique t hat m akes u se o f a mino a cids t o d etect t he m aterial o n w hich t ools w ere u sed o n, r equires u nwashed t ools ( Broderick 1 979). R ubbing a nd s crubbing o f t ools s hould b e a voided a s t his m ay c reate c onfusing w ear t races;

4 .

c are s hould b e t aken t hat s tone t ools a re n ot c rushed b ags o r d amaged w hen t aken o ut o r r eplaced i nto b ags.

i n

p aper

C ONCLUSION I t

i s

a pparent

t hat

w ear

s tudies c an c omplement m orphological

s tudies o f s tone t ools a nd t hat t hey c an p rovide i nformation

o n

t ool

f unction w hich c an l ead t o r econstruction o f p ast b ehavioural p atterns. T here i s h owever s till a g reat d eal o f e xperimental w ork a nd i dentification o f w ear p atterns t o b e d one b efore s uch a s tage c an b e r eached. t hat e xist

T he p otential o f w ear s tudies i s g reat a nd t he p roblems c an b e o vercome t hrough w ell-planned p roblem-orientated

r esearch. I n t he m eantime a rchaeologists m ust r ecognize t he n eed t o c urate a ssemblages p roperly i n o rder t o a void s econdary d amage a nd t o p reserve t ools f or w ear s tudies i n t he f uture.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I a m i ndebted t o P rofessor H . J . D eacon, U niversity o f S tellenbosch, f or a ssistance d uring t he s tudy a nd f or a ccess t o t he

1 49

B oomplaas m aterial. T hanks a re d ue t o J une M cDougall t yping a t s hort n otice.

f or

d oing

t he

R EFERENCES B INNEMAN,

J .

N .

F .

1 982.

M ikrogebruikstekens

e ksperimentele w aarnemings e n v an

B oomplaasgrot.

-n

s tudie

U npubl.

o p

v an

M .A.

s teenwerktuie:

w erktuie

T hesis:

a fkomstig

U niversity

o f

f ormation

o n

S tellenbosch. B RINK,

J .

W .

1 978.

A n e xperimental s tudy o f

e ndscrapers. N at. B RIUER, F . L . 1 976.

m icrowear

M us. C anada a rchaeol. S urv . 8 3. N ew c lues t o s tone t ool f unction:

a nimal r esidues. Am. Antiq. 4 1: 4 78-484. B RODERICK, M . 1 979. A scending p aper c hromatographic a rchaeology.

I n:

H AYDEN,

B .,

e d.

p lant a nd

t echnique

3 75-383. N ew Y ork : A cademic P ress. C RABTREE, D . E . 1 968. M esoamerican p olyhedral

c ores

a nd

p rismatic

b lades. Am. Antiq. 3 3: 4 46-478. C RABTREE, D . E . 1 970. F laking s tone w ith w ooden i mplements. 1 69:

i n

L ithic u se-wear a nalysis:

S cience

1 46-153.

C RABTREE, D . E . 1 975. C omments o n l ithic t echnology a nd e xperimental a rchaeology. I n : S WANSON, E . e d. L ithic t echnology : 1 04-114. T he H ague: M outon. D EACON, H . J . 1 976. W here h unte n , S tone

Age

p eople

A rchaeological D EACON, H .

J .

t he

g athered: e astern

a

s tudy

C ape.

o f

H olocene

C laremont:

S . A fr.

S ociety M onograph 1 .

1 979.

t hrough

i n

Excavations

a t

B oomplaas

C ave:

a

s equence

t he U pper P leistocene a nd H olocene i n S outh A frica.

A rchaeol. 1 0: 2 4-257. D EACON, H . J . & D EACON, d istribution

o f

J .

s mall

B oomplaas C ave.

1 980.

c onvex

S . A fr.

T he

h afting,

s crapers

a rchaeol.

B ull.

w ith 3 5:

f unction a n

3 1-37.

A fr.

D EACON, J . A frica. D ORNAN, S .S.

1 982. T he L ater S tone A ge i n t he s outhern C ape, U npubl. P h.D. T hesis: U niversity o f C ape T own. 1 975. P ygmies a nd B ushmen o f t he K alahari. C ape

S outh

B ull.

2 7:

K EELEY,

L . H .

Ann.

1 977.

5 0

y ears.

1 0-45.

S truik. R eprint e dition. G OODWIN, A .J.H. & V AN R IET L OWE, S outh A frica.

a fter

W ilton T hesis: S .

a rchaeol.

a ssessment

a nd

e xample f rom

D EACON, J . 1 969. R e-excavation a nd d escription o f t he t ype-site, A lbany D istrict, e astern C ape. U npubl. M .A. U niversity o f C ape T own. D EACON, J . 1 972. W ilton: a n

W ld

C .

1 929.

S . A fr. M us.

T he

2 7:

f unctions

o f

T own :

T he S tone A ge c ultures o f

1 -289. P alaeolithic

f lint

t ools.

S cient. Am. 2 37: 1 08-126. K EELEY, L . H . 1 980. Experimental d etermination o f s tone t ool u ses m icrowear a nalysis.

C hicago:

O DELL, G . H . 1 975. M icrowear i n p erspective: a s ympathetic t o L awrence H . K eeley. W ld A rchaeol. 7 : 2 27-240. O DELL,

G .

H .

1 977.

l ithic c omponent. U niversity. O DELL, G . H . 1 982.

T he

a pplication

P art

1 & 1 1.

Emerging d irections

u se-wear

a ssessment

b y

1 50

r esponse

o f m icrowear a nalysis t o t he

U npubl.

P h.D

T hesis:

H arvard

i n t he a nalysis o f p rehistoric

s tone t ool u se. Ann. R ev. A nthrop. O DELL, G . H . & O DELL-VEREECKEN, F . 1 980. l ithic

:a

C hicago U niversity P ress.

1 7-33. V erifying t he r eliability o f

-b lind

t est':

t he

l ow p ower

a pproach.

J .

P ARKINGTON, J . E .

f ield A rchaeol. 1 980.

7 :

8 7-120.

T ime a nd p lace:

s ome o bservations o n s patial

a nd t emporal p atterning i n t he L ate s outhern A frica. S . A fr. a rchaeol. B ull. S AMPSON,

C .

G .

1 974.

N ew Y ork: S AMPSON,

C .G.

S tone A ge 3 5: 7 3-83.

T he S tone Age a rchaeology

&

d etermining

S AMPSON, M .

s tone

u se-wear a nalysis: P .

s outhern

i n

A frica.

A cademic P ress. 1 967.

R iversmead s helter:

a nd a nalysis. M em. n at. M us. B loemfontein. S HAFER, H . J . & H OLLOWAY, R . G . 1 979. O rganic

S TEYN, H .

o f

s equence

1 971.

B ushman g roups.

t ool

f unction.

3 85-400.

A spects o f A nn.

I n:

N ew Y ork :

H AYDEN,

1 51

5 6:

B .,

e d.

i n

L ithic

A cademic P ress:-

t he e conomic l ife o f

S . A fr. M us.

e xcavations

3 : 1 -111. r esidue a nalysis

2 75-322.

s ome n omadic N haro

1 4. H . J .

J obling,

J .

P ATTERNING O N A T ALUS S LOPE

E .

P arkington,

C . A .

P oggenpoel & A .

D . M azel.

I NTRODUCTION

o r

M any a rchaeologists f ind t hemselves i n t he p osition w here m ost, a t l east a s ubstantial p roportion, o f t he s tone t ool a ssemblages

t hey e ncounter a re s urface s catters ( Sampson 1 984). P articularly i n a rid o r s parsely v egetated r egions a nd i n a reas w here r ock s helters a re r are o f

t hese k inds o f o pen s ites a re c ritical

p rehistoric

b ehaviour.

t ypes o f o ccurrence f all o f s tone t ools l ying i n

f ront

s urface

n ature o f

u nderlying

o f

o ften b e q uite d ensely

c aves

d istributed.

o f

a nd

T he

t here

p roblems

a re

p atterning

o f

s loping

r elated

m aterial m ay h ave b een

a rchaeologists.

c urrent r esearchers i s w hether s patial

s and;

t hese s ites a re c ompounded b y t he f act

g enerations

t wo

o r r ock s helters w here s tone t ools m ay

t hey a re u sually h ighly v isible, p revious

r econstruction

i nto t his p attern. T here a re m any s catters i n d eflated a reas w here t hey o ften a ct a s a

s tabilizing c rust o n t he s urfaces

t o a ny

I n o ur e xperience i n t he w estern C ape

T hus,

t o

t he

t hat b ecause c ollected

b y

t he p roblem f acing

t hLi , i s r ecoverable i nformation i n t he

a rtefacts

o n s uch s ites a nd w hether

t hey a re

w orthy o f c areful c ollection. D uring a n e arlier p hase o f c ollections i n t he w estern C ape i t w as r ealized

t hat

d eflation

h ollows

s pecifically d esigned s o a s a nd

i ts

r elation

t o

r equire

r esearch

p rojects

t o p romote u nderstanding o f s and

a rtefact

d ispersal

( Mazel

1 978;

t o b e

m ovement M azel

&

P arkington 1 978, 1 981). W e h ave, t herefore, b een l aying a g rid o ver s catters a nd r ecording s tone t ool f requencies i n t hese s ites w ithout p lotting o r r emoving a ny t ools

( Manhire e t a l.

a pproach

a ny

d oes

n ot

s how

u p

s patial

p ropose t o p lot a l arge d eflation h ollow, g rid

r ather t han b y p lotting e very s tone,

a ssemblage

( estimated a t a bout

1 984).

H owever,

p atterning.

t his

I n f uture w e

p robably u sing a 2 5 x 2 5 a nd h ope t hat

2 50 0 00 p ieces)

w ill

b e

c m

t he r esultant u seful

a s

a

d ata s et f or e xperimenting w ith a v ariety o f s patial t echniques. T alus

s lopes p resent

r elated b ut

s lightly d ifferent p roblems a nd

w e h ave a dopted a m arginally d ifferent t actic i n r ecording t hem. W e t ransect t he s ite d own t he s lope, r ecording t he a ssemblage c omposition a long t he g radient o n t he a ssumption t hat d ownslope m ovement m ust b e r esponsible f or a t l east s ome o f a ny p atterning o bserved. H opefully, o ther f actors

s uch a s p rehistoric h uman b ehaviour w ill b e i solated

b y

a s ystematic s tudy o f a rtefact d istributions. W e r ecently h ad t he o pportunity o f i nitiating a n a nalysis o f k ind a t a s ite c alled B olahla i n s outhern L esotho. p reliminary r eport o n t he f ieldwork a nd s pecifically a s

t he e arly s tages o f o ur

i t a ffects a rtefact d istributions.

s hallow s helter a bout

o f

t he B olahla

S tream a nd

t he S enqu

T he

b etween Q uthing a nd G achas N ek i s s cheduled f or i mprovement

r oad

w est

s tudy,

B olahla i s a s mall

5 0 m u pstream f rom t he c onfluence o f ( Orange) R iver s ome 5 5 k m

t his

T he f ollowing i s a

G achas

a nd a ny r ealignment w ill u ndoubtedly r esult i n e ncroachment

1 52

o nto

N ek. t he

t alus

i n

f ront o f

t he r ock s helter.

T he t alus a nd a ssociated s tream

b ank a re l ittered w ith a rtefacts a nd w e w ere c ontracted t o r escue w hat w e c ould o f t he s ite b efore c onstruction b egan. t hat t he s patial d istribution o f t ools i n t he

W e w ere o ptimistic e xtensive s urface

s catters w ould y ield i nformation a nd d ecided t o d evote a ttention t o r ecording t his i nformation.

M ETHOD A ND R ESULTS I t w as o bviously v ery i mportant a rtefacts.

W e

f irst

s urveyed

p roduced a d etailed c ontour m ap a nd

l ikely

d irections

o f

t o m ap t he

d istribution

t he s lope i n f ront o f ( Fig.

1 ).

d ownslope

T his

s hows

m ovements

o f

t he

t he s helter a nd t he

g radients

a nd t he l ocation o f

o bstacles t o t he d ispersal o f i tems o n t he t alus. T his p Lan c onstitutes t he b asic f ramework f or t he p lotting o f d ifferent k inds o f a rtefacts w hole

( Figs 2 -10).

s ite.

i ndentified, S ubsequently,

W e e stablished a m etre s quare

Every a rtefact o ver a n a rea o f

s ome

o ver

t he

1 3 75 s q m w as

g rid

t hen

p lotted o n g raph p aper, m arked w ith a n umber a nd b ecause

w e

r ecognized

t hat

w hat

w as

c ertainly n ot e verything l ying o n t he l oose s urface o f t he s craped c lean a nd s ieved a ll s urface d eposit e xcavated t he t op 1 5 c m o r s o o ver 6 0 s q m o f

b agged.

v isible

w as

s lope,

w e

1 o ver 14 s q m a nd t he g rid. T hese

o bservations, t ogether w ith t hosü f rom o ur e xcavations i n a nd j ust i n f ront o f t he s helter, c omprise t he ( t a a vailable f or s tudy. T his f ramework a llows b oth s tratigraphic a nd s patial d imensions t o b e i ncluded i n t he a nalysis. F igures 2 -10 i llustrate o nly t he s urface p lotted d istributions o f v arious c omponents o f t he c hipped s tone t ool a ssemblage, t he g round s tone t ools, g lass b eads, m etal a nd g lass a rtefacts a nd p ottery. B efore

d iscussing

t he d istributions i t i s w orthwhile t o o utline

s ome e xpectations a s t o w hat m ight r esult f rom t he d ifferent m echanisms t hought t o o perate i n t his k ind o f s ituation. T hese c ould p erhaps b e r efined a s h ypotheses

f or

t esting

a gainst

d istribution p atterns. T hese a re a s f ollows: 1 . W hether a ll a rtefacts w ill h ave e roded

o ut o f

t he

e ventual

t he s helter o r

w hether s ome a rtefacts m ay h ave b een d iscarded o n t he s lope, p articularly n ear t he s tream b ank w here t he g radient i s q uite g entle.

T here i s s ome e vidence

t o s uggest

t hat

t he l atter i s

t he

c ase i n t hat t here a re s ome i tems, s uch a s b roken p anes o f g lass a nd s ome o f t he m etal o bjects, w hich w ere c learly n ot d iscarded i n t he

s helter

b ut

r esulted

f rom

r ectangular h ouses o r p refabricated

t he m ore r ecent c onstruction o f h uts

o n

t he

f latter

a reas

n earer t he S enqu R iver. A ny S tone A ge m aterial i ntroduced h ere s hould s hare t heir d istributional c haracteristics, o ther t hings 2 .

b eing e qual. T he l ength

o f

t ime

i tems

h ave b een o n t he s lope.

I t c ould b e

a rgued t hat t hose a rtefacts t hat h ave b een o n t he s lope f or t he l ongest t ime w ill h ave t ravelled f urthest, w hilst l ater i ntroductions s hould l ie h igher u pslope. l ines

o f e vidence t hat c ould b e u seful.

o bservations i n t he

s helter

i nformation o n t he s equence o nto t he s ite. s ome

k nowledge,

a nd

o n

t he

W e

h ave

t wo

p ossible

F irst, o ur s tratigraphic u pper

s lope

p rovided

i n w hich v arious i tems w ere i ntroduced

A s econd i nsight c omes f rom t he f act t hat w e a nd

c an g et m ore b y f urther r esearch, a bout

t imes a t w hich a rtefacts

s uch a s e arthenware p ottery,

1 53

h ave t he

g lass b eads,

o strich e ggshell b eads a nd m etal l re l ikely t o h ave f iltered i nto t he a rea, a t l east i n r elative t erms. F rom t his p erspective, r ecent i tems b ecome n ot a n uisance o r a h indrance t o t he c ollection o f p rehistoric m aterial, b ut a v aluable c omponent o f t he e xperiment. 3 .

T he r ole o f t he s lope i tself i n e ncouraging m ovement, a lbeit a t d ifferent r ates f or d ifferent s ized o r s haped o bjects. H ere t he g radient a nd s et o f o bstacles a t t he t ime o f c ollection c an b e f ully r ecorded a nd u sed t o m odel o r p redict t he d irection o f a ny g ravity—derived m ovement. H ypotheses a s t o d ifferent m ovement r ates c an b e g enerated i n t erms o f b oth s ize ( heavier m oves f aster, l ighter m oves f urther) a nd s hape ( flatter m ove l ess, r ound m ove m ore e asily) a nd t hen a pplied t o t he c haracteristics o f t he a ssemblages r ecovered. T he u nderlying s ediment a nd t he v egetation c over a re f actors o f a m ore c onstant n ature. T wo k inds o f e xperiment a re t herefore p ossible, b oth d esigned

t o

p rovide o bservations a gainst w hich t he B olahla d ata, o r a ny c omparable s et, c an b e e valuated. I n a p hysical e xperiment a rtefacts o f v arious s orts w ould b e p laced o n s lopes w ith d ifferent g radients, e ither s imultaneously o r i n s equence, a nd t hen m onitored o ver a p eriod o f t ime. A lternatively, a m odel c ould b e d eveloped t o e stablish h euristically e quations r elating s hape c haracteristics t o m ovement r ates o r d istance t ravelled t o t i me o n s lope a nd t hese c ould t hen b e u sed t o p redict a nd t est o utcomes J . :0m d ifferent i nputs. P roblems a rise f rom t he f act t hat a n a rtefact c ould b e l ower o n t he s lope t han a nother b ecause i t w as i ntroduced t here r ather t han h igher u p, b ecause i t h as b een t ravelling l onger o r b ecause i t m oves f aster.

D ISCUSSION T he B olahla d istributions s how c lear d ifferences, a nd p reliminary a nalysis r eveals f urther d ifferences t hat a re n ot i mmediately a pparent. Among t he m ore o bvious c ontrasts a re t hose b etween a ll s tone ( a c ategory h eavily d ominated b y t he c hipped s tone) ( Fig. 2 ) o n t he o ne h and a nd, o n t he o ther h and, t he c ategories o f g round s tone ( Fig. 6 ), p ottery ( Fig. 7 ), g lass b eads ( Fig. 8 ), o ther g lass ( Fig. 9 ) a nd m etal ( Fig. 1 0) i tems a nd, a lthough n ot p resented h ere, o strich e ggshell b eads. E ach o f d istribution f rom w hich

t hese s ix s ets h as a r ather d ifferent i nformation c an b e d erived. F or e xample, a

s eries o f s quare s tructures, a pparently b uilt d uring c onstruction o f t he B olahla b ridge i n 1 973, h ave h ad a n o bvious i nfluence o n t he d istribution o f b oth m etal a nd g lass f ragments. A mong t he m etal i tems a re a s eries o f s quashed s ardine a nd c ondensed m ilk t ins, w hich i t m ay w ell b e w orthwhile p lotting s eparately f rom t he i ron b eads a nd s mall m etal i tems t hat p ossibly d ate f rom t he t erminal S tone A ge. T hese l atter c ould b e e xpected t o h ave a d istribution s imilar t o t hat o f t he g lass b eads ( Fig. 8 ) t hat a re h igh o n t he s lope c lose t o t he s helter f rom w hich t hey a ppear t o o riginate. T his p attern m ay r eflect a l ate i ntroduction a nd t hus r elatively r ecent m ovement d ownslope. E xperiments s hould s how t hat v ery s mall r ound b eads w ill t ravel w ell w ith e ven m inimal m obilization, b ut t his r emains t o b e i nvestigated. A lmost t he m irror i mage o f t his i s t he d istribution o f p re—colonial e arthenware p ottery, w hich i s r are o n t he u pper s lope b ut m ore c ommon eramics o f t his k ind a re f lat a nd q uite c ommon l ower d own ( Fig. 7 ) -. C i n s ub—surface d eposits, s uggesting e ither t hat t hey h ave b een

1 54

t ravelling l onger t han t he g lass b eads o r w ere i ntroduced l ower d ownslope. A s t he s lope i s q uite s teep e xcept n ear t he b ank o f t he s tream h uman a ctivities o n t he s lope a re u nlikely t o h ave t aken p lace. I t m ay a lso b e p ostulated t hat c eramics w ere r eplaced b y m etal o r p lastic c ontainers b y t he t ime g lass b eads b ecame c ommon. O nly o ne o strich e ggshell b ead h as b een r ecorded f rom t he s urface b ut t hey a re r elatively a bundant i n t he s crapings a nd e xcavated m aterial. W hilst t his m ay i n p art r eflect t he i ncidence o f s ieving, a nd t hus r ecovery o f s mall i tems, i t s eems t o s how s uch a s trong p attern t hat w e p refer t o s uggest t he r eplacement o f o strich e ggshell b eads b y i mported g lass b eads. C ertainly m any g lass b eads, a s s mall a s t hose o f o strich e ggshell b ut p erhaps m ore c olourful, w ere f ound o n t he s urface p rior t o s ieving. V ery s trongly r eflected, b ut m ore d ifficult t o

e xplain,

i s

t he

c ontrast b etween t he d istribution o f g round s tone ( Fig. 6 ) a nd c hipped s tone a rtefacts ( Figs 3 -5). T his m ay b e e xaggerated b y t he f act t hat i n t he f ield g round s tone i s m ore d ifficult t o i dentify t han c hipped s tone s o t hat s ome ' ground s tone a rtefacts m ay b e r ejected a fter m ore d etailed l aboratory s tudy. T his s hould b e u niform o ver t he s lope, h owever, a nd t he c ontrast s hould, t herefore, h ave a nother e xplanation. I t m ay b e t hat y oung b oys h erding c attle o n t he s ite a re m ore l ikely t o t hrow a s mall g rindstone o r b asalt h ammerstone t han a c hert s craper a t a w ayward a nimal a nd t hus t hat s ome a lteration o f p atterning m ay d erive f rom t his b ehaviour. S o f ar, h owever, t his d oes n ot s eem t o e xplain s atisfactorily w hy t he g round s tone a ssemblage i s s o c onspicuous o n t hat p art o f t he s lope n ot d irectly b elow t he s helter. T he f act i s t hat s ome c onsiderable p roportion o f t he g round s tone c ould n ot h ave b een i ntroduced t hrough u se o f t he s helter a nd m oved b y g ravity a lone t o t he p osition w here i t w as f ound. A t t he m oment a p ersuasive i nterpretation o f t his e ludes u s a nd m ust a wait a m ore r igorous

a nalysis

a nd

s ubdivision

i nto t ools o f d ifferent u ses,

a s

w ell a s t he i nclusion o f t he s ub-surface a ssemblage. T he s ubtle d ifference b etween d ifferent s ubsets

o f

t he

c hipped

s tone t ool a ssemblage d oes n ot a ppear s o c learly i n t he f igures. I t h ad s eemed t hat a dzes a nd s crapers ( Figs 3 a nd 4 ) w ere n ot s imilarly d istributed, p articularly o n t he l ower s lope. A t f irst w e t hought t hat t here m ight h ave b een a d istinct f lat g round, i mmediately a djacent t o t he d iscarding o f s ome t ools n ear t he t he t op. W e f elt t hat a dzes w ere

w orking a rea o n t he r elatively t he s tream , w hich h ad e ncouraged b ase o f t he s lope r ather t han a t m ore c ommon t han s crapers a t t he

b ase b ut n ot h igher u p. T his p roved d ifficult t o d educe f rom t he f igures o n t he r ecording s heets b ecause t he r eversed p attern i s o nly r eflected a long t he f ringe o f

t he B olahla s tream.

O n t he s lope

a s

a

w hole s crapers o utnumber a dzes b y 3 :2 b ut a long a 5 m s trip a t t he b ase o f t he s lope t here a re m ore a dzes t han s crapers. H ere, u nfortunately, o ur c ontrols w ere n ot a dequate f or c lear i nterpretation, a lthough w e b elieve o ne o f t he f ollowing a lternatives t o

b e

s trongly

s upported.

I t

c ould

b e

t hat

m ore

a dzes

h ave

a ccumulated d ownslope b ecause t hey w ere i ntroduced e arlier o n a nd t hus c an b e e xpected t o o utnumber s crapers u ntil t he l atter r each t he s ame p osition. W e d o n ot, h owever, f avour t his a lternative b ecause t he s tratigraphic

s equence

a t t he s ite d oes n ot i llustrate s uch a c hange

i n t he s uperimposed l evels h igher u pslope. c hipped s tone r ethinking o f

M ore e xperimentation

w ith

t oöls o f d ifferent c haracteristics m ay f orce s ome t his a ssumption. M ore l ikely, p erhaps, i s t he

1 55

s uggestion t hat a dzes p redominate o n t he d ownslope f ringe b ecause s ome o f t hem w ere i ntroduced n ear t he s tream a nd d id n ot m igrate d ownslope. T his

i n

t urn

m ight i mply t hat

t he r atio o f s craper-related t asks

t o

t hat o f a dze-related t asks d iffered b etween t he s helter a nd t he s tream b ank. T here

i s

n o

d oubt

t hat

o ther

p atterns

w ill e merge w hen t he

a ssemblage h as b een f ully a nalysed a nd w hen s tratigraphic a nd s patial o bservations c an b e m ore c omprehensively c ompared. W hat w e s hould l ike t o s tress a t t his p oint i s t he i mportance o f d ealing w ith r eal s pace

r ather

s ites

t han i deal s pace.

W hether a t t he l evel o f r ock p ainting

i n a l andscape o r a dzes o n a t alus s lope t here i s

i n p retending t hat l ocations a re s et

l ittle

p oint

i n u ndifferentiated s pace.

I t i s

o ur c ontention t hat i t i s p lace r ather t han s pace t hat i s o f r elevance a nd t hat i t i s t he c ontextual c haracteristics o f e ach l ocation w hich s hould e ngage o ur a ttention r ather t han a m ere p air o f s patial c o-ordinates.

O ne

m ay a sk w hy a p lace b ecome a p ainted s ite, o r w hy

a dzes o ccurred o n t he s lope i n s uch n umbers. c o-ordinates

p rovide

a

u seful a nswer.

e xplain i ntra-site p atterning o f o f

t he

c haracteristics

o f

I n

n either

T here i s,

c ase

i nstead,

w ill

a n eed t o

s tone a rtefact d istributions i n t erms

t he

s ite,

a s w e a re a ttempting i n t his

c ase.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS W e t hank a ll w ho h elped a nd a re h elping i n t he B olahla T he

M inistry

o f

W orks

P reservation C ommission,

i n

L esotho,

t hrough

t he

a nalysis.

P rotection

a nd

f inanced t he f ieldwork.

R EFERENCES M ANHIRE, A . H ., P ARKINGTON, J . a nd s andveld s ettlement. W ILSON, M .L. A frican

&

E . & R OBEY, T . S . 1 984. S tone t ools I n: H ALL, M .J., A VERY, G ., A VERY, D .M.,

H UMPHREYS,

A .J.B.,

a rchaeology t oday.

S outhern A frican A ssociation o f O xford: MAZEL,

A .

e ds.

F rontiers:

s outhern

P roceedings o f t he C onference o f t he A rchaeologists,

G aborone

1 983.

B ritish A rchaeological R eports. D .

1 978.

S tories

i n s tones.

U npubl.

B .A.

( Hons)

T hesis:

U niversity o f C ape T own. M AZEL, A . D . & P ARKINGTON, J . E . v ariability among L ate S tone 3 81-382. M AZEL, A . D . & P ARKINGTON,

J .

E .

1 981.

c ase s tudy f rom s outhern A frica. S AMPSON,

C .G.

1 984.

Z eekoe V alley, D .M.,

1 978. S andy B ay r evisited : A ge t ools. S . A fr. J . S ci. 7 4: S tone t ools a nd W ld A rchaeol.

1 3:

r esources:

a

1 6-30.

A p rehistoric p astoralist f rontier i n t he u pper

S outh A frica.

W ILSON, M .L.

I n:

H ALL, M .J., A VERY,

& H UMPHREYS, A .J.B.,

e ds.

G .,

F rontiers:

A VERY, s outhern

A frican a rchaeology t oday. P roceedings o f t he C onference o f t he S outhern A frican A ssociation o f A rchaeologists, G aborone 1 983. O xford:

B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

1 56

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. . , :

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•› _ • , o •

r i n e d i l lMal la i ll1 l el1 1 11 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1N 1 3 1 1 r a m u m i um e r . , 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 11 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 0 10 11 11 11 . 1 1 1 1 1 11 11 1 1 1 11 1 1 11 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 11 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 k i ,

4

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un iä r i aw

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I1 I1 11 1 11 1133 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 11 1 1 1 T 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1Z 1 , 1 1 1 11 I II II II III I FIZ I I W W1 ' 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 111 111 1

g a p! a l

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c l

c d

6 E

r 4 .

c o

0

•.•.

Base m ap

4 1 0

— J b d .} • H •K .

0

1 58

1 59 D istribution o f a dzes a t B olahla .

1 60

T

—

L C\

I

1 61

1 62

C--

1 63 D istribution o f p ottery a t B olahla .

4

1 64

D istribution o f g lass a rtefacts

a 3

" g 0

• H g r . +

1 65

C ' aV .,

r ‘r ..• • • • •

•

2 •• -• ' " -

•

7: 7 • 1W .• C .

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c ) . . .

,

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SURFACE: METAL

BOLAHLA

K .'

C

-H r T 1

1 66

1 5.

A M ODEL F OR T ERMINAL LATER S TONE AGE S UBSISTENCE S TRATEGIES I N S OUTHERN N ATAL C harles C able

I NTRODUCTION T his

p aper

p roposes

a

p redictive

e xploitation p atterns i n s outhern N atal, 3 0 00 y ears. ( 1983),

f or

h unter-gatherer

T he p aper i s b ased o n w ork p resented m ore f ully i n C able

a nd i mportant e lements o f

n otably

m odel

S outh A frica, d uring t he l ast

t he

r elationships

t he o verall m odel p ut f orward t here,

b etween

e xploitation

v ariability i n t ool a ssemblage c omposition,

a nd

a re n ot d ealt

o bserved

w ith

h ere.

T his p aper a ttempts a n e xplicitly e cological a pproach t o t he m odelling o f p rehistoric s ubsistence s trategies, r ecognition

o f

d istribution. r epresent

s easonal

a nd

I t i s s uggested t hat

t he

o nly

e ffective

a pproach

o f

f ounded

r egularities

w hilst

m eans

i nitial d evelopment m ay b e b ased e nvironmental d ata ( Carter 1 970). A ny

a n

r egional

i n

i n

a rchaeological

d ata

t esting s uch m odels,

m ore

o r

l ess

t he

r esource m ay t heir

e ntirely

o n

s uch a pproach c learly i nvolves a n umber o f b asic a ssumptions,

f ull d iscussion o f w hich i s b eyond t he H owever,

p aramount a mong t hese i s

s cope

o f

t his

t he a ssumption t hat

p resentation. t he p rehistoric

S an o ccupants o f s outhern N atal w ere f ully a ware o f a nd

s ensitive

t o

f luctuations i n t he a vailability a nd a bundance o f i mportant n atural r esources. G iven s uch a wareness, i t i s f urther a ssumed t hat t he k nown a vailability o f r esources, p articularly s taple f oods o f p redictable o ccurrence, w as t he m ajor d eterminant o f s easonal m ovement a nd s ite l ocation ( Parkington 1 981:341). t he

b asis

o f

o bserved

T hese a ssumptions a re m ade l argely o n

g eneralities

i n

h unter-gatherer

b ehaviour

w orld-wide ( e.g. L ee & D evore 1 968; B icchieri 1 972). T hus, h unter-gatherers p ossess d etailed k nowledge o f t heir e nvironments a nd u se

i t

S uch

t o

e xploit

a ssumptions,

t hem

i n a n on-random f ashion ( Gamble

e xplicitly

c ontemporary a rchaeological e conomic o rganization.

o r w ork

n ot,

c haracterize

t he

1 978:154). b ulk

o f

o n h unter-gatherer s ubsistence a nd

T HE S TUDY A REA T he r egion u nder d iscussion i s d efined a s o f

t hat p art o f N atal s outh

a l ine b etween D urban a nd G iant's C astle ( Fig.

1 ),

1 5 0 00 s q km i n

e xtent a nd r anging f rom 1 50 km w ide a t t he c oast t o 7 0 L esotho

b order,

1 60 k m f rom t he s ea.

i n a djacent p arts o f e nvironmental

c hange

c hiefly t o a ltitude, N atal

r uns

e astern i n

a nd t hus

n orth-south,

L esotho

t his

p art t he

( Carter o f

1 969,

s outhern

e cological

p arallel t o

km

a long

t he

R eference i s a lso m ade t o s ites 1 978).

M ajor

A frica i s r elated

z onation

o f

s outhern

t he D rakensberg e scarpment i n a

s eries o f b road i rregular ' steps d own t o t he I ndian O cean, a nd c ut t hrough b y a n umber o f d eep r iver v alleys r unning w est-east t o t he s ea.

T he s tudy a rea,

t herefore,

s erves a s a t ransect t hrough a ll

m ajor e cological z ones o f s outhern N atal.

1 67

t he

F ig.

1

L ocation o f r esearch a rea a nd s ites m entioned i n t he t ext. P = P ietermaritzburg; M oshebi's S helter; B orchers

1= S ehonghong;

4 = Good Hope;

S helter.

1 68

2 = B elleview;

5 = Umbeli Belli;

3 6=

C ombined w ith t he e ffects o n e nvironment o f a ltitudinal c hange i n s outhern N atal i s t he h ighly s easonal c limatic r egime ( Schulze & M cGee 1 978). B oth t emperature a nd r ainfall c urves i llustrate t he d egree o f s easonality ( Fig. 2 ). F urthermore c limate v aries s ignificantly w ithin t he s tudy a rea: t he c oastal b elt b elow a bout 3 00 m i s l argely f rost-free, t he i nterior b etween 3 00 a nd 1 0 00 m a bove s ea l evel e xperiences m oderate f rosts, w hile a bove 1 0 00 m f rosts a re s evere. A nnual r ainfall r anges i n t he s tudy a rea f rom 6 00 -1 2 00 m m , w ith t he c oastal b elt a nd t he e scarpment r eceiving t he m ost, t he l arger i nterior r iver v alleys t he l east. T hus t he c limate o f s outhern N atal m ay b e s ummarized i n t hree b road d ivisions: t he c oastal b elt w ith a w arm , w et a nd h umid c limate; t he i nterior r iver v alleys, w arm a nd d ry,

w ith

d ry ;

a nd t he h ighlands,

t heir

i ntervening r idges w hich a re b oth l ess h ot a nd l ess w ith a c ool, m oist r egime.

T hese g eneral s ubdivisions i n c limate a re r eflected i n t he v egetation o f t he a rea. W hilst t he m odern v egetation o f N atal i s l argely s econdary, i t i s p ossible t o m ake a r easonably a ccurate a ssessment o f t he n atural v egetation t hat p revailed d uring t he p eriod p rior t o E uropean s ettlement ( Edwards 1 967; A cocks 1 975; M oll 1 976). T he c lassification o f A cocks i s f ollowed h ere a nd F ig. 3 i llustrates t he d istribution o f v egetation t ypes i n s outhern N atal a nd e astern L esotho. D etailed d escriptions o f t hese t ypes m ay b e f ound i n A cocks ( 1975) a nd C able ( 1983). e cological z ones: 1 . T he c oastal b elt 2 .

T his d iscussion w ill c entre o n

t hree

m ajor

T he m idlands

3 . T he h ighlands A mong t hese t hree e cological z ones c lear c ontrasts i n t he d istribution a nd s easonal a vailability o f s ets o f n atural

r esources

o f

k nown

o r

p otential i mportance t o h unter-gatherers a re e vident.

R ESOURCES E dible p lants C able ( 1983: a ppendix 1 ) l ists s easonality a nd u se b y p ast a nd p resent s pecies a rea.

o f

e dible

d ata o n t he d istribution, i ndigenous p eoples o f 1 20

p lants a nd p lant p roducts t hat o ccur i n t he s tudy

T he i nformation i s l imited a bove a ll

b y

t he

a vailability

o f

d etailed b otanical d ata, b ut t he l ist p rovides a w orking s ample o f p lant r esources. I t i s n ot, h owever, s uggested t hat a ll, o r e ven v ery m any, o f t hese s pecies w ere i n f act i mportant, o r e ven p resent, i n t he d iet o f t he S an i n s outhern N atal. L ee ( 1979), f or e xample, r ecords 1 05 s pecies o f e dible p lants u sed b y t he D obe ! Kung o f w hich 1 4 p rovide n early 7 5% o f t he v egetable c alories i n t heir d iet. H owever, t he s ample d oes p rovide a n i ndication n ot o nly o f t he g reat v ariety a nd a bundance o f e dible p lants i n t he s tudy a rea, b ut a lso o f g eneral t rends i n t heir d istribution a nd s easonality. G iven t he a ssumption t hat i t i s p redictable r esources s uch a s p lants t hat a re p aramount i n t he s tructuring o f e xploitation s trategies ( Parkington 1 976), i t i s f elt t hat p atterns i n t heir d istribution a nd a vailability i mportant

p rovide

a n

i ndication o f p otential s ubsistence s trategies.

D ata o n s easonality o f s pecies p roved m ost r eadily a vailable f or t he c oastal b elt a nd t he h ighlands, a nd i t i s e vident f rom F ig. 4 t hat

1 69

5001

CM I lk in Peak —

o

4.

P ie terma r i tzbu rg

0 P o r t S heps tone S hongwen i

2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0. . 0. .

J an

F eb

Ma r

A l>

May

J un

J u l

A ug

S ep

Oc t

N ov

D ec

Mean t empera ture x r a in fal 1 0 MD .

F ig.

2

C ombined g raph o f m ean m onthly r ainfall a nd t emperature f or f our N atal r ecording s tations. l ocations.)

1 70

( See F ig.

1 f or

D u rban 3 0e

Mkhomaz iR .

0,

M z imku lu R .

C oas ta l F o res t

V a ley B ushv e ld l

' Ngongon iV e ld

' Ngongon i V e ld

S ou the rn T a l G rassv e ld l

H i gh land S ou rve ld

A lp ine V e ld

C ymbopogon — T hemed a V e ld

M is t B e l t

1

F ig.

3

0

T he v egetation o f t he r esearch a rea.

1 71

6 0

km

( After A cocks 1 975.)

F ig.

4

S easonal a vailability o f a s ample o f e dible p lants f rom t he H ighlands ( A)

a nd t he C oastal B elt

1 72

( B).

m arked

d ifferences

t hese z ones.

e xist

i n t he s easonal p lant f ood p roductivity o f

A vailable d ata f or

t he M idlands s uggest t hat p lant f oods

w ere l ess a bundant t han i n t he c oastal r estricted t han i n t he h ighlands. F igure 4 a

b elt a nd l ess s easonally s hows t he c ontrast i n

e dible p lant a vailability i n t he h ighlands b etween t he w inter m onths M ay t o S eptember a nd t he s pring a nd s ummer. O ne p lant r esource o f t he D rakensberg z one t hat i s u nder-represented i n t he s ample p lotted i n F ig. 4 a a re t he v ery a bundant g eophytes w ith e dible c orms a nd b ulbs, n otably s pecies o f t he g enera C yperus, W atsonia a nd G ladiolus. T hese g enera a re c onsiderably m ore c ommon i n t he h ighland g rasslands t han i n l ower-lying v egetation t ypes ( Moll 1 976) a nd a ppear t o b e a t t heir m ost p alatable a nd n utritious a fter t he p lant h as f lowered i n t he e arly s pring, t he c orms b eing r elatively i nedible w hile p roviding n ourishment f or t he p lant d uring t he d ry ( winter) s eason. A n e xpansion o f t he d ata o n t he w ide v ariety o f I ridaceae a nd o ther g eophytes i n t he h ighland g rasslands w ould p robably r einforce t he p attern o f s easonality i llustrated i n F ig. 4 a. I t i s o f i nterest t hat W atsonia s p. a nd C yperus s p. a re r epresented a t b oth t he h ighlands s ites t hat f eature s ome b otanical p reservation, G ood H ope ( Vinnicombe 1 976; C able e t a l. 1 980) a nd S ehonghong ( Carter 1 978), a nd t he b ulk o f t he 1 9 s pecies i dentified a t t he l atter s ite w ere d efinitely c ollected d uring s pring a nd s ummer. T he i mportance o f v arious g enera o f I ridaceae a t m ost C ape s ites w ith g ood b otanical p reservation h as b een e mphasized b y D eacon ( 1972:37). A c lear c ontrast i s a pparent i n t he d ata f rom t he c oastal b elt i llustrated i n F ig. 4 b. T he z one i s c haracterized b y t he a vailability o f a w ide v ariety o f s pecies, p articularly o f f ruiting t rees a nd s hrubs. M any o f t hese s pecies a re o f t ropical a ffinity a nd d o n ot e xtend f ar i nland b eyond t he C oastal F orest v egetation. T he e dible c orms c haracteristic o f t he h ighland g rasslands w ould n ot h ave b een a vailable

i n

t he

c oastal

b elt,

a nd

t he

e mphasis

h ere

i s

o n

a bove-ground r esources s uch a s f ruits a nd n uts. B otanical p reservation a t c oastal b elt s ites e xcavated t o d ate h as b een p oor, b ut a t S hongweni ( Davies 1 975), o n t he i nland e dge o f t he z one, t he i dentified w ild e dible p lants ( including r emains o f t he m arula, S clerocarya b irrea c affra, d ated t o 4 060 + 5 5 B P) s uggest a w inter e mphasis o n g athering. A lthough p lant f oods w ould h ave b een a vailable a ll y ear i n t he c oastal b elt, i t i s i mportant t o v iew u tilization o f t he r esource p otential o f a n a rea i n t he c ontext o f a ll t he a lternatives a vailable ( Parkington 1 976:49). T hus t he y ear-round p roductivity o f t he c oastal b elt c an b e s een a s a ttaining a p eak i n r elative r esource p otential i n w inter, a p eriod o f s carcity i nland. A lthough d ata a re l imited a nd a s ingle, a lbeit i mportant c omponent o f p rehistoric s ubsistence i s e xamined, i t i s p ossible t o s uggest a p attern o f s easonal m ovement i n s outhern N atal. T his w ould i nvolve e xploitation o f t he s pring a nd s ummer p eak i n h ighland p lant f ood a vailability a nd o f t he r elative a bundance o f p lants i n t he c oastal b elt d uring w inter. A lthough l ittle a rchaeological e vidence f or p lant e xploitation i n t he s tudy a rea i s a vailable t his m odel p redicts t hat a ) b otanical a ssemblages f rom h ighland s ites s hould b e d ominated b y s pecies c ollected d uring s pring a nd s ummer, p articularly t he c orms o f v arious I ridaceae a nd b ) c oastal b elt s ites s hould f eature r emains f ruits a nd n uts p rimarily c ollected d uring a utumn a nd w inter.

1 73

o f

M ammalian f auna T able 1 l ists t he m ammalian s pecies i dentified a t a n umber o f s outhern N atal a nd e astern L esotho s ites ( Carter 1 969, 1 978; C able e t a l. 1 980; C able 1 983). G enerally f aunal a ssemblages f rom L ater S tone A ge s ites i n N atal, a s e lsewhere i n s outhern A frica, a re d ominated b y v arious s pecies o f a ntelope, a nd i t w ill b e t he a vailability o f t hese a nimals t hat w ill b e c hiefly d iscussed i n t his s ection. J arman ( 1974) d efines f ive c lasses o f s ocial g rouping a nd f eeding s tyle a mong A frican a ntelope, a ll o f w hich a re r epresented i n t he s tudy a rea. S pecies o f t he f orest a nd t hick b ush o f t he c oastal b elt a re m ainly s mall, s olitary b rowsers s uch a s b lue d uiker ( Cephalophus m onticola) a nd b ushbuck ( Tragelaphus s criptus). T hey a re h ighly s elective f eeders a nd t hus n eed r elatively l arge, e xclusive h ome a reas i n r elation t o t heir s ize. I n c ontrast, g rasses i n g rassland a nd s avanna e nvironments a re a ble t o s upport a h igher b iomass o f g razers a nd m ixed f eeders.

G rasslands a re g rouped i n t hree m ajor c ategories i n s outhern

A frica -s weet, s our a nd m ixed v eld ( Scott 1 959). S weet v eld t ypes a re c haracterized b y r elatively l ow r ainfall a nd t he m ajority o f t he c onstituent g rass s pecies a re p alatable a ll y ear r ound. S our v eld t ypes, i n c ontrast, b ecome u npalatable t o g razers a t a c omparatively e arly s tage i n g rowth, p roviding h igh-quality g razing o nly i n t he s pring a nd s ummer. M ixed v eld, a s t he n ame i mplies, c ontains g rass s pecies f rom b oth t he o ther t ypes a nd c an b e u seful f or g razing f or f rom s ix t o n ine m onths o f t he y ear d epending o n t he m ix. T he h ighland S ourveld, t hen, i s s easonal i n i ts a ttraction f or g razing, m igratory a ntelope. T his i s r einforced b y t he e ffects o f t he n atural f ires t hat a re m ost a re c ommon i n t he D rakensberg i n s pring ( Tyson a l.

1 976),

c learing

e t

o ld g rowth a nd e ncouraging t he e mergence o f n ew

s hoots. T his s easonal p eak i s l ikely t o h ave b een e specially i mportant f or t he l arger s pecies, a nd t he s pring a nd e arly s ummer i n t he D rakensberg w ere p robably c haracterized b y l arger a ggregations o f g regarious s pecies s uch a s e land ( Taurotragus o ryx) a nd w ildebeest ( Connochaetes g nou) t han i n a ny o ther p art o f s outhern N atal t hroughout t he y ear. I n w inter, m igration t ook p lace f rom t he s our h ighveld t o t he s weeter m iddleveld w here t he v egetation w as m ore s ustaining ( Vinnicombe 1 976:5). A lthough s weet a nd m ixed v eld t ypes i n t he m idlands w ould h ave b een r elatively m ore p alatable a nd n utritious t han s our v eld i n w inter, t hey a lso s how a d ecline i n n utritional v alue d uring w inter ( Mentis & D uke 1 976). T hey w ould n ot h ave h ad a s h igh a c arrying c apacity a s t he h ighland S ourveld d uring t he s pring a nd s ummer, w hile t he b roken t errain o f t he s outhern N atal m idlands m ay a lso h ave i nhibited f ormation o f l arge h erds. S ocial o rganization, f eeding s tyle a nd s easonal m ovement among a ntelope h ave o bvious i mplications f or h uman g roups e xploiting t hem. T he c oastal f orest a nd b ush, i nhabited c hiefly b y s mall s olitary b rowsers, w ould h ave f eatured m uch t he s ame l ow

d ensity

o f

a ntelope

t hroughout t he y ear. T hese s pecies t end t o h ave f ixed h ome t erritories a nd t o u tilize r egular r uns t hrough t he b ush r epeatedly ( Dorst & D andelot 1 970), m aking s naring a nd t rapping a n e ffective o ption f or h unters. A w ide r ange o f e xploited m ammalian s pecies m ight b e p redicted i n s uch a n e nvironment, b y v irtue o f b oth r elatively u nselective h unting t echniques a nd t he g enerally s mall s ize a nd l ow f requency o f t he a vailable a ntelope s pecies.

I n t he m ore o pen s avanna

w oodland o f t he m idlands a n e ven w ider v ariety o f a ntelope s pecies w ould h ave b een a vailable, i ncluding k udu ( Tragelaphus s trepsiceros), s teenbok ( Raphicerus c ampestris)

a nd o ribi

1 74

( Ourebia o urebia),

w ith t he

T able 1

P resence/absence o f m ammalian s pecies a t a rchaeological i n v arious p arts o f s outhern N atal a nd L esotho

S pecies

S ite A

B

C

D

E

C ercopithecus p ygerythrus, v ervet m onkey

F x

G

H

I

x

x

x

x

x

x

P apio u rsinus, c hacma b aboon

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

L epus c apensis, C ape h are

x

H ystrix a fricaeaustralis, p orcupine

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

T hryonomys s winderianus, c ane r at C anis m esomelas, b lack-backed

x

j ackal

L ycaon p ictus, h unting d og H elogale p arvula, d warf m ongoose

?

?

?

?

x

?

?

x

x

?

?

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

H erpestes I chneumon, E gyptian m ongoose

x

x

x

M ungos m ungo, b anded m ongoose

x

C rocuta c rocuta, s potted h yaena F ells l ibyca, w ildcat

x

F ells s erval/caracal, s erval l ynx P anthera p ardus, l eopard P rocavia c apensis, r ock h yrax

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

P otamochoerus p orcus, b ushpig A lcelaphus b uselaphus, artebeest r ed h C onnochaetes g nou, b lack w ildebeest

x

x

x

O reotragus o reotragus, k lipspringer O urebia o urebia,

x

x

o ribi Raphicerus c ampestris, s teenbok Raphicerus m elanotis, g rysbok S yncerus c affer/Bos

x

x

t aurus

b uffalo/cattle

x

x

?

?

T aurotragus o ryx, e land

x

x

x

x

T ragelaphus a ngasi, n yala

1 75

s ites

T able

1

c ontinued

S pecies T ragelaphus s criptus, b ushbuck T ragelaphus s trepsiceros, g reater k udu B os

t aurus,

c attle C ephalophus m onticola, b lue d uiker S ylvicapra g rimmia, c ommon d uiker P elea c apreolus, g rey r hebuck R edunca f ulvorufula, m ountain r eedbuck

A = G ood H ope 1

F = Umbeli B elli 1 +2BE

B = G ood H ope 2 helter C = M oshebi - s S

G = Umbeli B elli 2 AL H = B orchers S helter 2

D = S ehonghong

I = B orchers S helter 3

E = B elleview

a ddition o f t he l arger m igratory g razers i n w inter. T he

m ost

p roductive s eason a nd r egion f or a ntelope h unting w ould

h ave b een s pring a nd s ummer i n t he h ighlands, w hen m eat w ould h ave b een a t i ts m ost p redictable a s a r esource a nd s maller s pecies s uch a s t he m ountain r eedbuck ( Redunca f ulvorufula) a nd g rey r hebuck ( Pelea c apreolus) w ould h ave b een r eadily a vailable i n a ddition t o t he l arge g razers. I t i s n ot w ithout i nterest t o n ote t hat t he e vidence o f r ock a rt f or t he s ocial i mportance o f v arious s pecies o f a ntelope t o S an p opulations i n N atal i s o verwhelmingly c oncentrated i n t he D rakensberg ; i t h as o ften b een s uggested t hat h ere t he r ich s easonal r esource b ase a llowed l arger h uman g roups t o c ongregate, e ncouraging a nd e nabling s ocial i nteraction a nd a n u psurge i n r itual a nd r eligious b ehaviour

m anifested

i n

t he

a rt

( Vinnicombe

1 976;

C arter

1 978;

L ewis-Williams 1 981; M azel 1 981). I n v iew o f t he d ominance o f g athered r esources i n t he d iet o f m ost n on-Arctic h unter-gatherers, i t i s n ot s uggested t hat s uch s ocial i mportance r eflects a bsolute e conomic i mportance. L ee ( 1968:40) s tates t hat l ess p redictable f ood s ources w ould a ttract a g reater a ccretion o f m yth a nd r itual t han t he r outine s taples o f l ife, w hich r arely i f e ver f ail. O n t he b asis o f t he a rchaeological e vidence f or f aunal e xploitation s ummarized i n T able 1 , t he a ssemblages c an b e d ivided i nto t wo m ain g roups, t he c oastal b elt s ites o f U mbeli B elli a nd B orchers S helter ( Cable 1 983) a Ld t he h ighland s ites o f G ood H ope ( Cable e t a l. 1 980), M oshebi's S helter, B elleview a nd S ehonghong ( Carter 1 969, 1 978). I n g eneral, a s m ight b e e xpected, t he f aunal a ssemblages s trongly r eflect t he l ocal e nvironments o f t he s ites. W ith t he e xception o f s pecies t ypical o f t he r ocky s urroundings o f a ll t hese r ock s helters, s uch a s t he h yrax ( Procavia c apensis) a nd t he b aboon ( Papio u rsinus), a c lear p atterning i s e vident, b oth i n t erms o f s pecies r epresented a nd a lso i n r elation t o t he i mportance o f a ntelope a s a w hole i n t he a ssemblages. W hilst a ntelope a re c learly t he f avoured p rey a t a ll s ites, t heir d ominance i s m ore c learly m arked i n t he h ighlands t han i n t he c oastal b elt, w here t he i nclusion o f s uch s pecies a s b ushpig ( Potomachoerus p orcus), c ane r at ( Thryonomys s winderianus) a nd v ervet m onkey ( Cercopithecus p ygerythrus) i llustrates t he g reater v ariety t hat c haracterises t hese a ssemblages. I t i s o f s ome i nterest t o n ote t hat t he f ocus o f h unting a ctivity f rom U mbeli B elli

( 7 k m i nland) a nd B orchers S helter ( 17 k m)

i s c learly t he

f orest a nd t hick b ush r ather t han t he m ore o pen s avanna w oodland o f t he i nterior. T he o nly s pecies o f r egular o ccurrence i n t hese s amples t hat w as u nlikely t o h ave i nhabited t he c oastal f orests i s t he m ountain r eedbuck ( Redunca f ulvorufula), w hich a ppears t o h ave b een f avoured

b y t he S an i n s outhern N atal,

b ecause i t i s w ell r epresented

a t a ll s ites w ith i dentified f aunal a ssemblages. T he a ntelope s pecies t hat m ake u p t he b ulk o f t he m ammalian f auna a t a ll t he h ighland s ites f all i nto t wo g roups. T here a re l arge g razers s uch a s e land, w ildebeest a nd h artebeest ( Alcelaphus b uselaphus), a nd s maller g razers a nd m ixed f eeders o f s teep s lopes a nd h illtops d ominated b y m ountain r eedbuck a nd k lipspringer ( Oreotragus o reotragus) a nd g rimmia).

i ncluding g rey r hebuck, c ommon d uiker ( Sylvicapra

A lthough t he f aunal a ssemblage f rom G ood H ope i s n ot

l arge

a w ider v ariety o f t hese s maller, h igh-relief s pecies a re p resent a t t his s ite t han i s e vident i n t he e astern L esotho s ites. A n i mportant p oint t o c onsider, h owever, w hen t rying t o e stimate t he r elative

1 77

i mportance o f v arious a ntelope s pecies i s t hat n umbers o f i ndividuals p resent m ay b e a m isleading s tatistic. T he e land, f or e xample, h as a n a verage w eight o f 6 00-700 k g, w hile t he o ther m ost f requently r epresented s pecies, t he m ountain r eedbuck, w eighs o nly a bout 2 5 k g. O n t he b asis o f m eat w eight e land d ominates a ll t he h ighland f aunal a ssemblages, i ncluding d efinitely i dentified.

G ood

H ope w here o nly a s ingle i ndividual w as

I n c onclusion s ample s izes a re i nsufficent t o p rovide d ata o n a ge-structure t hat m ight h elp t o s ubstantiate t he p atterns o f s easonality s uggested a bove. H owever, a nalysis o f e piphyseal f usion f rom e astern L esotho s ites l ed C arter ( 1978) t o s uggest a s ummer o ccupation o f S ehonghong, w hich a ccords w ith t he e vidence f or b oth f aunal a vailability a nd p lant s easonality r eferred t o a bove. I n g eneral t he r epresentation o f t he l arger m igratory g razers i n t he h ighland f aunal a ssemblages s uggests t hat t his s easonal a bundance o f a ntelope w as i ndeed i mportant t o t he S an. W hile t he f aunal a ssemblages f rom t he c oastal b elt a re n ot l arge, t he v ariety o f m ammalian s pecies p redicted o n t he b asis o f p oor a vailability o f a ntelope i s e vident, a lthough d efinite s easonal i ndicators a re a s y et l acking. O ther r esources R emains o f f resh-water f ish o ccur a t a n umber o f L SA s ites i n

t he

s tudy a rea, b oth i n t he h ighlands a nd t he c oastal b elt, a s w ell a s a rtefacts i nterpreted a s b one f ish-hooks ( Carter 1 978; C able e t a l. 1 980; C able 1 983). B arbus n atalensis a nd L abeo r ubromaculatus a re t he d ominant s pecies. E vidence f or t he e xploitation o f t hese s pecies, a gain a ssociated w ith b one f ish-hooks, a lso o ccurs a t D riel S helter i n t he T ugela B asin n orth o f t he s tudy a rea ( Maggs & W ard 1 980). E xploitation o f f ish i n t he M zimvubu R iver, o n t he N atal s ide o f t he D rakensberg, i s a ttested a t t he s ite o f B elleview ( Carter 1 978) b y t he p resence o f B arbus a noplus. T his i s t he o nly m ajor s pecies a vailable i n t hat r iver ( Bowmaker e t a l. 1 978), t he d istribution o f B . n atalensis b eing l imited t o r ivers n orth o f t he M zimvubu a nd b eyond t he e scarpment. o f B arbus s p.

V ariations i n t he s easonal d istribution a nd a bundance a re m ost a pparent i n t he r ivers o f t he h ighlands. L ow

w ater l evels i n w inter d rive t he l arger i ndividuals d ownstream, i n

l ate

s ummer

w hen

t he

r ivers

w hile

a re i n s pate f ishing i s m ade v ery

d ifficult b y t he s peed, o pacity a nd t urbulence o f t he w ater. S pawning r uns o f B arbus s p. t ake p lace i n s pring a nd e arly s ummer, a nd C arter ( 1978) h as s uggested t hat t he r elatively l arge q uantity o f f ish b one f rom t he u pper l evels a t S ehonghong r eflects e xploitation o f t his f act. I n g eneral, h owever, i t s hould b e e mphasized t hat f ishing d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave r epresented m ore t han a s upplement t o t he d iet a t t hose s ites w here e vidence f or i t i s p reserved. O ther d ietary r esources a re k nown f rom h istorical a nd e thnographic o bservations a nd a re l ikely t o h ave b een u tilized b y t he S an i n s outhern N atal, a gain p erhaps c hiefly i n a s upplementary r ole. T hese i nclude

h oney,

i nsects,

t ermite l arvae,

r eptiles a nd b irds.

T he t wo

l atter a re r epresented i n s mall q uantities i n a n umber o f a ssemblages, w hile t he f ormer a re l ikely t o r emain a rchaeologically i nvisible, a lthough t he e xploitation o f h oney f eatures i n t he r ock a rt r ecord, p articularly o f t he n orthern D rakensberg ( Mazel 1 982). E dible m olluscs a re a bundant a long t he N atal c oast a nd a re a vailable t here a t a ll

s easons.

T he

b rown

m ussel

1 78

( Perna

p erna)

i s t he m ost c ommon

s pecies, a nd t he o ne t hat d ominates a rchaeological s hell c ounts. T he e xploitation o f m arine s hellfish w ould n aturally h ave b een r estricted t o i t

t he c oastal b elt, a nd p robably m ainly t o t he s eashore i tself, s ince w ould h ave b een u neconomic t o c arry s hellfish l ong d istances

( Bailey

1 976:

c urated

f or

8 ).

( Carter 1 978), 1 980),

I nedible m arine s hells,

d ecorative c a

p urposes,

p resumably

o ccur a s

1 90 km f rom t he s ea,

c ollected

f ar i nland a s

a nd a t G ood H ope

a nd

S ehonghong

( Cable e t

a l.

c a 1 20 k m i nland.

I n g eneral n on-dietary r esources i n t he s tudy a rea a re r egarded a s u nlikely t o h ave e xerted a s ignificant i nfluence o n s easonal m ovement a nd e xploitation p atterns. W ater i s a vailable m ore o r l ess u biquitously, w hile w ood i s a vailable i n a ll e cological z ones, e xcept t he

A lpine

g rasslands

r esources a bove a bout

w hich

a re

2 0 00 m .

s ignificantly

T here

i s,

d eficient

h owever,

o ne

i n w oody

r esource

t hat

m ay h ave b een r estricted i n i ts d istribution a nd s easonal a vailability t o w hich V innicombe h unting

( 1971)

d rew a ttention i n h er d escription o f a

k it f ound i n t he D rakensberg.

a ccordance w ith r ecorded S an p ractice;

b oth

H ow

L esotho

( 1962)

s tate

t hat

c ollected f rom a t ree a rrow

p oisons

A cokanthera r estricted

t he

t hat

( Shaw

&

t he

i n

g rew i n N atal. W oolley

o blongifolia t o

S an

a nd

c oastal

1 963)

A .

E llenberger

i n

( 1953)

i n a nd

u sed a p oison i n p art

A mong t he w idely w ere

u sed

p roducts o f

o ppositifolia.

f orest

S an

T he a rrowtips c arry p oison,

N atal,

T he

S an

t he p lants f ormer

w hile

i s

t he l atter i s

g enerally f ound i n t he a djoining V alley B ushveld ( Acocks 1 975). W att & B reyer-Brandwijk ( 1962:73) s tate t hat A cokanthera i s u ndoubtedly m ost

t oxic

d uring

t he

d ry

s eason

w hich

s uggests

t hat

a

m ajor

i ngredient o f a rrow p oison c ould h ave b een m ost p rofitably a cquired i n t he c oastal b elt a nd V alley B ushveld d uring w inter.

C ONCLUSION P atterns o f r esource a vailability a bove

c learly s upport a m odel o f

s pring/summer o ccupation o f

t he

t hrough

e xploit

t he

m idlands

c oastal b elt. g roups

t o

i n

t he

s tudy

a rea

s ubsistence s trategies h ighlands,

I n s uch a m odel i t

f ollowed

d escribed

t hat p redicts

b y

a

m ovement

t he v aried w inter r esources o f t he i s

n ot

p roposed

t hat

a ll

h uman

m ust n eccessarily h ave m oved i n t his w ay a t a ll t imes;

m erely

t hat s uch a s trategy w ould h ave p rovided a n o ptimum l ong-term r esource s upply

f or t he s ociety a s a w hole.

o ver-wintered i n t he D rakensberg,

I t i s p ossible f or g roups

a s i t w ould h ave b een

f or

t o h ave t hem

t o

s pend s ummer i n t he c oastal b elt. T hat s uch a s trategy w ould h ave b een, i n t he l ong r un, e ither d esirable o r s uccessful s eems, h owever, d ebatable.

A t a ny r ate i t

i s c onsidered t hat

t he s easonal p atterns o f

r esource a vailability d escribed h ere

p rovide

p redicting

p rehistoric

s trategies.

p redictions

t hat a re r eadily t estable,

s ubsistence

g iven

a

c redible

b asis

T hey a re,

s uitable

f or

m oreover,

a rchaeological

d ata.

R EFERENCES A COCKS,

J .

S . A fr. B AILEY,

G .

P . 4 0. N .

e conomies.

H .

1 975.

V eld t ypes o f S outh A frica.

P retoria: 1 976. U npubl.

T he

D ept. r ole

M em.

b ot.

S urv.

o f A griculture. o f

P h.D. T hesis:

1 79

s hell

m iddens

i n

p rehistoric

U niversity o f C ambridge.

B ICCHIERI, M . G ., e d. 1 972. H olt, R inehart & W inston. B OWMAKER, A . f ishes.

P .

J ACKSON, P . I n : W ERGER,

H unters a nd g atherers t oday.

B . N . & M . J .

1 181-1230.

s outhern A frica:

N ew Y ork :

J UBB, R . A . 1 978. F reshwater e d. B iogeography a nd e cology o f

T he H ague:

W .

J unk.

C ABLE, J . H . C . 1 983. A spects o f L ate S tone A ge e conomic o rganization i n s outhern N atal. U npubl. P h.D. T hesis: U niversity o f C ambridge. C ABLE, J . H . C ., S COTT, K . & C ARTER, P . L . 1 980. H ope S helter, U nderberg D istrict, N atal. 1 -34. C ARTER,

P . L .

1 969.

M oshebi's S helter:

e astern L esotho.

E xcavations a t G ood A nn. N atal M us. 2 4:

e xploitation a nd e xcavation i n

L esotho N otes a nd R ecords 8 :

1 -11.

C ARTER, P . L . 1 970. L ate S tone A ge e xploitation p atterns N atal. S . A fr. a rchaeol. B ull. 2 5: 5 5-58. C ARTER,

P . L .

1 978.

T he p rehistory o f e astern L esotho.

i n s outhern

U npubl.

P h.D.

T hesis, U niversity o f C ambridge. DAVIES,

O .

1 975.

E xcavations

a t

S hongweni S outh C ave:

e vidence t o d ate f or c ultigens i n s outhern 2 2:

M us. D EACON, H . D ORST,

1 972.

J & D ANDELOT,

E LLENBERGER,

V .

2 6-45. o f

e cological s urvey o f t he T ugela B asin.

3 6. t ragique

d es

B ushmen.

P aris:

Amiot

R esource e xploitation a nd t he s patial p atterning o f

M .,

a c ase s tudy. e ds.

c ontributions 1 53-85.

A fr. L e f in

h unter-gatherers: S PRIGGS,

1 :

A f ield g uide t o t he l arger m ammals

p lant

S .

1 953.

D umont. G AMBLE, C . 1 978.

1 970.

A

S urv.

G oodwin S er.

C ollins.

1 967.

b ot.

S oc.

P .

L ondon:

D .

M em.

N atal

A r eview o f t he p ost-Pleistocene i n S outh A frica.

a rchaeol.

A frica. E DWARDS,

t he o ldest A nn.

6 27-662.

J .

S . A fr.

A frica.

f rom

O xford:

I n:

S ocial

a nthropology,

B ritish

G REEN D ., H ASELGROVE,

o rganization

a nd

a rchaeology

A rchaeological

G .

&

s ettlement:

a nd

g eography :

R eports I nternational

S eries. H OW, M .

W .

1 962.

T he M ountain B ushmen o f B asutoland.

P retoria:

V an

S chaik. J ARMAN,

P . J .

1 974.

t o e cology. L EE, R .

B .

1 968.

s carce B .

3 0-48.

1 979.

s ociety. L EE, R .

B .

2 15-67.

W hat h unters d o f or a l iving,

r esources.

h unter: L EE, R .

T he s ocial o rganization o f a ntelope i n r elation

B ehaviour 4 8: I n:

C hicago:

T he

I .,

R .

B .

o r h ow t o m ake o ut

& D EVORE,

I .,

o n

e ds. M an t he

A ldine.

! Kung S an :

C ambridge:

& D EVORE,

L EE, m en,

w omen a nd

w ork

i n

a

f oraging

C ambridge U niversity P ress. e ds.

1 968.

M an t he h unter

C hicago:

A ldine.

L EWIS-WILLIAMS, J . D . 1 981. B elieving a nd s eeing : s ymbolic m eanings i n s outhern S an r ock p aintings. L ondon: A cademic P ress. MAGGS,

T .

& W ARD,

s ite MAZEL.

V .

1 980.

A .

D .

1 981.

U p

r esource m anagement T hesis: MAZEL,

A .

M ENTIS, M .

a nd i n

r escue a t a L ate S tone

Ann. N atal M us.

2 4:

d own t he L ittle B erg :

t he

N atal

A ge

3 5-70.

D rakensberg.

a rchaeological U npubl.

M .A.

U niversity o f C ape T own. D .

1 982.

D rakensberg. i n

D riel S helter:

o n t he T ugela R iver.

T .

N atal

D istribution

A nn. N atal M us.

& D UKE, R . R . f or

1 976.

o f

2 5:

p ainting t hemes i n t he N atal

6 7-82.

C arrying c apacities o f n atural v eld

l arge w ild h erbivores.

S . A fr. J . w ildl. R es.

6 :

6 5-74. M OLL,

E .

J .

1 976.

' The v egetation o f

1 80

t he T hree R ivers

R egion,

N atal.

N atal T own a nd R egional P lanning R eport 3 3. P ARKINGTON,

J .

E .

1 976.

t he p rehistory o f

F ollow t he S an:

a n a nalysis o f

t he S outh W estern C ape.

U npubl.

s easonality i n P h.D.

T hesis:

U niversity o f C ambridge. P ARKINGTON.

J .

E .

1 981.

s cheduling o f v isits A frica. o f

I n:

t he

S CHULZE,

H ODDER,

P ast:

C ambridge: R .

t he E lands B ay C ave, I .,

s tudies

I SAAC,

i n

G .

h onour

C ape P rovince,

& HAMMOND, N ., o f

D avid

E .

&

I n :

M CGEE,

i n

O .

S .

r elation

W ERGER,

s outhern A frica:

1 9-54.

M .

1 978.

t o

J .

A .,

t he e d.

T he H ague:

W .

C limatic

o f

a nd

s outhern

B iogeography a nd e cology o f J unk.

J . D .

1 957.

V egetation.

J .

1 959.

P rinciples o f p asture m anagement.

e d.

3 41-362.

i ndices

b iogeography

S COTT,

D .,

S outh

P attern

C larke:

S COTT,

D .

e ds.

C ambridge U niversity P ress.

c lassifications A frica.

T he e ffects o f e nvironmental c hange o n t he t o

N atal R egional S urvey 1 3: I n :

T he g rasses a nd p astures o f S outh A frica.

2 5-42. M EREDITH,

J ohannesburg :

C NA. — S HAW,

E . M . 7 :

T YSON,

P .

o f

& W OOLLEY,

P .

L .

1 963.

P RESTONWHITE,

R . A .

B ushman a rrow p oisons.

C imbebasia

2 -41. D .,

t he D rakensberg.

V INNICOMBE,

P .

1 971.

D rakensberg. Ann. V INNICOMBE, P . 1 976.

& S CHULZE, R .

E .

1 976.

T he c limate

N atal T own a nd Regional P lanning R eport A

B ushman

h unting

k it

f rom

t he

N atal M us. 2 0: 6 11-625. P eople o f t he e land. P ietermaritzburg:

3 1. N atal N atal

U niversity P ress. W ATT,

J . M .

&

p oisonous

B REYER-BRANDWIJK, p lants

o f

M .

s outhern

L ivingstone.

1 81

G . a nd

1 962.

T he

m edicinal

e astern A frica.

a nd

E dinburgh :

1 6.

T HROUGH T HE K EYHOLE:

A P RELIMINARY P EEP A T T HE L ITHIC

C OMPOSITION O F LATER S TONE AGE S ITES I N T HE C ENTRAL A ND U PPER T UGELA R IVER B ASIN, N ATAL. A ron D . M azel

I NTRODUCTION T he

T ugela

s ome 2 7 w est

B asin i s

0 00 s q km. t o

t he

I t

t he l argest

s tretches

T ugela

R iver

r iver s ystem i n N atal a nd c overs

f rom t he N atal

D rakensberg

m outh

e ast

i n

t he

N atal-Transvaal b oundary i n t he n orth a lmost t he

s outh ( Fig.

b y E dwards c oastal

1 ).

( 1967)

z ones

t o

a nd

i n

t he

f rom

t he

P ietermaritzburg

i n

F our m ajor e cological z ones h ave b een r ecognized

i n t his a rea:

( Fig.

2 ).

t he

m ontane,

u plands,

s avanna

E ach o f t he z ones o ffers a d ifferent

e xploitable f ood r esources,

a s h as b een s hown f or

s outhern

a nd

s et o f

N atal

b y

C arter ( 1970) a nd C able ( 1982). B oth a uthors h ave o ffered s easonal m igratory m odels f or t he r ecent L ater S tone A ge ( LSA) e xploitation o f t he e cological z ones o f

s outhern N atal.

A t p resent i t i s n ot

f easible

t o c omment o n t he a pplicability o f t heir m odels t o t he T ugela B asin, a lthough t he s easonal m obility h ypothesis i s a p rimary c oncern o f c urrent r esearch i n t hat a rea. A c omplementary r esearch g oal i n t he T ugela

B asin

i s

t he i nvestigation o f a rtefact d istribution p atterns.

T he b asic p remise d irecting t his s tudy i s f ood

a nd

v aried. f rom

o ther

r esources

i n

t he

t hat t he m ix o f

c ontrasting

e xploitable

e cological z ones

i s

F ollowing t he a ssumption t hat s tone t ools c ommmonly r ecovered

H olocene

L SA

s ites w ere f unction-specific,

i t w as h ypothesized

t hat, d ue t o v arying r esource e xploitation s trategies i n t he d ifferent z ones,

c ontrasting f ormal

S o

f ar

s even

t ool a ssemblages w ould b e r ecovered.

s ites h ave b een e xcavated i n t he c entral a nd u pper

T ugela B asin a nd t hey a re l ocated i n

t hree

o f

t he

f our

e cological

z ones ( Fig. 2 ). T hese a re C larke's S helter a nd D iamond 1 i n t he m ontane z one, G ehle S helter a nd M gede S helter i n t he u plands z one, N kupe S helter o n t he e dge o f a t ongue o f i nto

t he

S helter

i nterior a nd

b asin's

v egetation,

e Sinhlonhlweni

S helter

t he u plands z one t hat e xtends a nd

f inally

S ikhanyisweni

i n t he v alley v egetation o f

t he

s avanna z one. M aggs ( pers. c omm.) h as s uggested t hat t he i nterior b asin's v egetation p laced b y E dwards ( 1967) i n t he s avanna z one i s n ot s avanna. s avanna

F ollowing E dwards h eading

i n

F ig.

( 1967) 2 ,

i t

i s

s till

i ncluded

u nder

t he

b ut i n t he t ext i t w ill b e r eferred t o

p lainly a s i nterior b asin v egetation. S tone i nformation i s a vailable f or a ll t hese s ites e xcept t he l ast t wo. S upplementary i nformation i s a lso a vailable f rom p revious r esearch i n t he T ugela B asin, t he m ost u seful f or t his r eport b eing t hat f rom D riel S helter ( Maggs & W ard 1 980)

a nd M ain C ave

( Willcox 1 957).

T his r eport p resents a p reliminary s ummary o f c ertain a rtefact s crapers, r esults

d istributions

f ocusing

o n

a dzes a nd b acked p ieces. p resented

o r f urther a field,

f ormal

t ools,

a spects

o f

a nd p articularly

N o a ttempt w ill b e m ade t o c ompare

i n t his p aper w ith t hose f rom o ther a reas o f N atal a lthough

o bvious

c ould b e f ound.

1 82

p arallels

a nd

d issimilarities

TR ANSVAAL

L

0

F ig.

1

600km

L ocation o f t he s tudy a rea ( marked i n b lack).

1 83

3 .

i

2 9°

i t

ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S ITES

ECOLOG ICAL ZONES UPLANDS

COASTAL

0

13

Coasta l H in ter land

F i l

Coas ta l L ow land

H igh lands

I D

M id lands M is t B e lt

1 D iamond 1

2C larke 's S h . 3 Ma in C ave 4 Die l S h .

MONTANE

9

5 G eh l. S h .

Moun t i t en

6 N kupe SW

SAVANNA

D

7 S ikhany iswen i S h .

I n ter ior B as in

8 Mgede S h .

0 v i o l . y

8 E s in monh lwen i S h .

F ig.

2

L ocation o f e cological z ones a nd a rchaeological s ites.

1 84

F ORMAL T OOL T RENDS M ontane B oth

s ites

e xcavated

C larke's S helter) t han 4 0 c m.

i n t his

M ain C ave,

o n t he o ther h and,

t han 1 m t hick ( Willcox 1 957). p roduced

r easonably-sized

3 00 p ieces. d ated

( Diamond

1 a nd

1 ).

T he

h ad a d eposit s lightly l ess

N evertheless

a ll

t hree

s ites

h ave

f ormal t ool a ssemblages o f b etween 2 70 a nd

T he D iamond 1 a nd

( Table

z one b y t he a uthor

h ad s hallow c ulturally-productive d eposits n o d eeper

C lark's

M ain

C ave

S helter

d eposits

h ave

b een

d eposits h ave n ot b een d ated b ut

c omment o n t heir p ossible a ge f ollows l ater i n t his s ection. T he d ate o f 4 900 + 6 0 B P f rom D iamond 1 c omes f rom a s ample t aken i mmediately a bove b edrock a nd i t i s f elt t hat t he m ain b ody o f t he D iamond 1 d eposit u nder r eview d ates

f rom r oughly 3 500 B P t o 2 500 B P.

T hus,

t he

c ombined C larke's S helter a nd D iamond 1 d eposits h ave a n a rtefact s equence s panning a pproximately 2 0 00 y ears f rom 3 500 B P t o a fter 1 500 B P.

T able

1

R adiocarbon d ates f rom D iamond 1 a nd C larke's S helter ‚C LARKE'S

D IAMOND 1 P ta-2977

2 810 + 6 0 B P

P ta-2974 P ta-3246

3 020 4 900

S HELTER

P ta-2973

0 B P 6 71 7 6 0 B P

1 580 + 5 0 B P

ta-2971 P P ta-3247

77 1

2 160 2 380

77 1

5 0 B P B P

T 50

T his t ime p eriod w itnessed s everal c hanges i n t he a rtefact o f

t he

m ontane

z one.

S craper

f requencies

i n

t he

C larke's S helter a ssemblages v aried b etween 5 0% a nd p articular 3 0% a nd

p attern.

B acked p ieces,

r ecord

D iamond

6 5%,

b ut

1 a nd i n

i n t he l ower l ayer a t D iamond 1 t o u nder 1 0% i n t he s urface r emain

n o

i n c ontrast, d ecrease f rom n early

u nder 1 0% i n t he C larke's S helter a ssemblages.

i n a dze f requencies c ontrasts d irectly w ith

t hose

o f

l ayer

T he

b acked

t rend p ieces

a nd, e xcept f or t he t op l ayer a t C larke's S helter, t here i s a s teady i ncrease f rom u nder 1 0% a t t he b ottom o f t he D iamond 1 s equence t o o ver

3 0%

i n t he l ayer s econd t o t he t op a t C larke's S helter.

t op l ayer a t C larke's S helter a dzes d ecline t o l ess C larke's S helter f ollows r elationship a ppears t o b e a ssemblages. O n

t he

b asis

o f

C larke's S helter f ormal C ave

a rtefact

t he

D iamond 1 r eflected

t emporal

t han

I n t he

2 5%.

T hus

c hronologically a nd i n t heir f ormal

t his t ool

p atterning o f t he D iamond

1 a nd

t ool a ssemblages,

a nd a ssuming t hat

s equence p aralleled t hose a t

t he

M ain

t he a forementioned s ites,

i t i s p roposed t hat t he 6 0-90 cm d eposits a t M ain C ave p redate 3 000 B P a nd

t he

u pper

d eposits

c omprise o ver 8 0% o f b etween

4 5%

t he

2 0% i n t he l ower d eposits a nd

s equence.

( These f igures o f

3 000 B P

t ools

i n

b acked

a nd

p ieces a re

t he a ssemblage.)

b etween

( Willcox 1 957). t he

a nd 6 0% i n t he u pper d eposits,

d eposits, a nalysis

p ostdate f ormal

l ower

S crapers

d eposits

a nd

a dzes v ary b etween 5 % a nd

2 5%

a nd

3 5%

i n

t he

u pper

c onstitute l ess t han 5 % t hroughout

t he

b ased

o wn

o n

t he

p resent

a uthor's

T he l ow p ercentages o f b acked p ieces

i n

t he l ower d eposits r epresent a p otential f law i n t his t emporal s cheme.

1 85

A n

e xplanation

f or

t his a nomaly m ay l ie i n t he f act

t hat

t ools c onstitute a pproximately 3 0% o f t he t otal M ain C ave T his

i s

a n

u nacceptably

h igh

p ercentage,

t he f ormal a ssemblage.

p articularly a s

t he n ext

h ighest c orresponding f igure i n t he m ontane z one w as 8 % f rom t he l ower d eposits

a t

C larke's

w ere c ollected. s maller

I f

p ieces,

o verlooked,

S helter,

t his

w as

a nd s uggests

t he

c ase

t hat n ot a ll

t hen

a lmost

t he p ieces

c ertainly

t he

i ncluding m icrolithic b acked p ieces, m ight h ave b een

a lthough I w ould h ave e xpected t his t o a pply t o

b oth

t he

u pper a nd l ower a ssemblages. H owever, i t i s c lear t hat i f t he b acked p ieces a re r emoved f rom t he l ower D iamond 1 l ayer t he f ormal t ool a ssemblage c losely r esembles

t he l ower M ain C ave a ssemblages.

G rindstones, b oth u pper a nd l ower, a re g enerally m ost a bundant i n t he a dze-rich h orizons i n t hese t hree s ites. T hus, 1 1 w ere r ecovered f rom C larke's S helter,

1 0 f rom t he u pper M ain C ave d eposits b ut o nly 2

f rom t he l ower M ain C ave d eposits a nd

2

f rom

t he

l ower

D iamond

1

s equence. U plands T hree e xcavated s ites, G ehle S helter, S helter, a re l ocated i n t his e cological z one.

M gede S helter a nd N kupe N kupe S helter, w hose

c atchment w ould h ave p rimarily b een i n t he i nterior b asins r egion, b een i ncluded i n t hat r egion. e xcavated

i n

A s w ith t he s ites

t he m ontane z one,

t he

p resent

h as

a uthor

t he c ulturally p roductive d eposits a t

G ehle S helter a nd M gede S helter d u n ot e xceed

6 0 c m i n

d epth.

G ehle

S helter p roduced a l arge f ormal t ool a ssemblage o f o ver 6 00 p ieces a nd M gede S helter a s maller S helter h as b een d ated

o ne o f a pproximately 1 50 p ieces. G ehle ( Table 2 ), a nd t wo s amples f rom M gede S helter

a re s till b eing p rocessed.

A m oderately-sized p ottery a ssemblage

w as

r ecovered f rom t he u pper t wo l ayers a t M gede S helter b ut o nly t hree s herds h ave s o f ar b een r ecovered f rom b eneath t hem. T he L ayer 3 d eposits a t

t his s ite a re a shy a nd s oft,

l ayer i s t hought t o b e d erived d istribution

s uggests

t hat

f rom

t he

a nd

t he p ottery f ound i n t his

o verlying

d eposits.

T his

t he u pper t wo l ayers p ostdate t he l ast

1

5 00 t o 2 0 00 y ears a nd t he u nderlying d eposits p redate t hem.

T able 2

R adiocarbon d ates f rom G ehle S helter

G EHLE S HELTER P ta-3243

7 50 + 5 0 B P

P ta-3242

1 280

T 50

P ta-3245

4 330

71 :

B P

5 0 B P

S crapers a nd b acked p ieces d ominate t he G ehle S helter f ormal a ssemblages

w ith

r elatively

f ew a dzes p resent.

a ssemblages, s crapers v ary b etween p articular t rend. T hese a semblages

t ool

A s w ith t he m ontane

5 0% a nd 6 5% a nd f ollow n o a re a lso c haracterized b y a

g eneral d ecrease i n b acked p ieces a nd a c oncomitant i ncrease i n

a dzes

t hrough t ime, t hough i n d issimilar f requencies f rom t hose a t D iamond 1 a nd C larke's S helter. B acked p ieces a t G ehle S helter r each a m aximum o f

4 0%

i n

t he

l ower

h alf

o f

t he

s equence

a nd

t hen

d ecrease

p rogressively t o r oughly 2 0% i n t he u ppermost l ayers w hilst a dzes, w hich a re a bsent.in t he b asal l ayer, i ncrease g radually t o a m aximum o f

2 0%

i n t he t op l ayer.

C oupled w ith t he d ecrease

1 86

i n

b acked-pieces

i s

a n

a djustment i n t he c omposition o f

t he b acked p iece a ssemblages,

s egments b eing r eplaced b y b acked p oints a nd b acked b lades a s c ommon o f t he f ormal b acked p ieces. E xcept

i n s craper f requencies

f ormal t ool a ssemblages d isplay n umerous

i n

t he

M gede

t he M gede S helter a nd G ehle S helter

f ew

S helter,

s imilarities.

A dzes

o f

t he f ormal t ools.

t he

G ehle

d eposits,

m ore

l ess

t han

A s w ith C larke's S helter t here i s a d rop i n

a dze f requencies i n t he u pper d eposits. f rom

a re

v arying b etween 1 5% a nd 3 5% w hilst

b acked p ieces w ere o nly r ecovered f rom t wo l ayers a nd w ere 1 0%

t he m ost

N o g rindstones w ere r ecovered

S helter d eposits a nd o nly o ne f rom t he M gede S helter

a nd n o g rindstones w ere f ound o n t he s urface

o f

e ither

o f

t hese r ock s helters. I nterior b asin S o w orked

f ar i n

t wo s ites ( Nkupe S helter t he i nterior b asin r egion

( Sikhanyisweni v egetation

S helter

r egion.

e Sinhlonhlweni t herefore e xcavated

a nd

e Sinhlonhlweni

S tudy

S helter

a nd D riel S helter) h ave b een a nd a nother t wo s ites

o f

t he

S helter)

S ikhanyisweni

i n

t he v alley

S helter

a nd

a ssemblages i s s till i n p rogress a nd t hey a re

o mitted f rom t he d iscussion. N kupe S helter h as b een t o a d epth o f 1 70 c m w ithout r eaching b edrock a nd t he D riel

S helter d eposits r eached a m aximum d epth o f a lmost 6 0 c m ( Maggs & W ard 1 980).

N kupe

S helter h as a l arge f ormal t ool a ssemblage o f o ver 8 00

p ieces a nd D riel S helter a s maller , ut a dequate o ne o f p ieces.

B oth s ites h ave b een d ated

T able 3

j ust

o ver

2 00

( Table 3 ).

R adiocarbon d ates f rom N kupe S helter a nd D riel S helter

NKUPE S HELTER

D RIEL S HELTER

P ta-3443

2 480 + 6 0 B P

P ta-3269 P ta-3275

3 190 3 950

P ta-3276

4 590

P ta-3460

5 760

P ta-3455

6 650

P ta-1381

1 775 + 4 0 B P

T 60

B P 11 70 B P

T 70 T - 70 T 80

B P B P B P

S crapers a nd b acked p ieces d ominate t he f ormal t ool a ssemblage i n t he l ower d eposits a t N kupe S helter. I n t hese t hree l ayers s craper f requencies

a re

e xtremely

v ariable r anging f rom r oughly 3 0%

w ith b acked p iece p roportions a lso v arying b etween a dzes

r anging

f rom

3 5%

a nd

t o

5 0%,

6 0%

a nd

a bsence i n t he l owest l ayer t o 3 0% o f t he f ormal

t ools i n t he t hird l owest l ayer. S egments a re t he m ost c ommon b acked p ieces i n t he l owest l evel b ut t hereafter a re r eplaced b y b acked p oints a nd b acked b lades. A s ignificant c hange i n t he c omposition o f a bove

t he

l ower

l ayers

a s

t he a ssemblages

o ccurs

b acked p ieces d ecrease d ramatically a nd

a dzes b ecome t he p redominant t ool t ype. B acked p ieces a re a bsent i n t wo l ayers a nd i n t he o thers a re l ess t han 1 0% o f t he t ools. M ore v ariability i s v isible

i n t he s craper a nd a dze f requencies w hich

b e g rouped r oughly a s f ollows:

1 87

c an

L ayers 5 -7 L ayers 3 -4 L ayers 1 a nd 2

% a dzes 4 0 -60 7 0 a nd 8 0 6 0 a nd 7 0

% s crapers 3 0 -40 1 0 2 0 a nd 2 5

U nlike t hose o f N kupe S helter, t he D riel S helter f ormal t ool a ssemblages ( Maggs & W ard 1 980) a re d ominated b y s crapers a nd h ave c onsiderably f ewer a dzes. S ome s imilarity d oes e xist, h owever, i n t hat b acked p ieces a re p resent a t b oth s ites, o ver t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears i n n egligible q uantities. T here i s a n i ncrease i n s craper f requencies f rom 5 0-60% i n t he l ower t wo l ayers t o 7 0-80% i n t he u pper t wo l ayers a nd a c oncomitant d ecrease i n a dze f requencies f rom r oughly 3 0% t o 1 0%. T hus a t b oth D riel S helter p roportions d ecrease i n t he u pper d eposits.

a nd

N kupe

S helter

a dze

A t otal o f 1 6 g rindstones, b oth u pper a nd l ower, w ere r ecovered f rom t he u pper f our l ayers a t N kupe S helter a nd f our w ere n oticed l ying o n t he s urface. F our g rindstones w ere r ecovered f rom t he l ower t wo l ayers a t D riel S helter ( Maggs & W ard 1 980).

D ISCUSSION W hen t his r esearch p rogramme w as f ormulated,

i t w as p redicted t hat

d istinct a rtefact d istribution p atterns, c orresponding w ith t he e cological z ones, w ould b e r ecovered. A fter s even e xcavations a nd w ith g reater w isdom, t his i s k nown n ot t o b e t rue. V ariations t o h ypothesized i dealized p atterns e xist o n b oth t he t emporal a nd s patial p lanes. F igure 3 i s a t ri-polar g raph g rouping t he a ssemblages, u sing b acked p ieces, s crapers a nd a dzes a s t he v ariables a nd, i n a s ense, s ummarizing s ome o f t he t rends a lready o utlined. c oncerning d istribution p atterns a re i llustrated

T hree m ain t hemes b y t his f igure.

T hese a re: ( 1) t he c hronological d evelopment o f a ssemblages i n t he u pper a nd c entral T ugela B asin, ( 2) t he c omparison o f c ontemporary a ssemblages i n t he e cological z ones a nd, ( 3) t he v ariability b etween c ontemporary a ssemblages i n t he s ame z ones. E xamination a bbreviations),

o f F igure 3 s hows t hat N 10 ( see F igure w hich i s t he o ldest a ssemblage u nder r eview ,

a part f rom t he o ther a ssemblages.

T his i s a lmost e xclusively

3 f or i s s et d ue

t o

i ts h igh b acked p iece c omponent. T he a ssemblages t hat f ollow N 10 c hronologically a re t ightly g rouped, w ith t he e xception o f N 8 w hich i s c haracterized b y m ore a dzes a nd f ewer s crapers t han t he o thers. N 8, h owever, d oes f all w ithin t he b roader f ramework o f t his g rouping, p articularly w hen c onsidering b acked p iece f requencies. T he a ssemblages i ncluded h ere a re N 9, G 3, G 4, D i 2 a nd N 8. A ll t hese a ssemblages, e xcept p ossibly D i 2 , p redate 4 000 B P a nd m ost p robably p ostdate 6 000 B P. A s m entioned e arlier, a d ate o f 4 900 + 6 0 B P w as o btained f rom a s ample l ying i mmediately a bove b edrock i n D i 2 a nd a nother d ate i n t he s ame l ayer o f 3 020 + 6 0 B P. I t w as s uggested t hat t he D i 2 d eposits d ate r oughly t o 3 500 B P. T hus, e ven i f D i 2 d oes n ot p redate 4 000 B P, i t p robably f ollows s hortly a fterwards. C omparison o f t he c omposition o f t he b acked p iece a ssemblages f rom N 8,

N 9, N 10, G 3, G 4 a nd D i 2 d oes n ot r eflect

t he s ame t ight g rouping

o btained a bove. F rom F igure 4 i t i s c lear t hat t he b acked p iece a ssemblages a re d ivided i nto t wo d istinct g roups, e ssentially t hose

1 88

N 10,

G3t , „NB

NBA D i2e

S.

G2 z,

GS A

G4

h .G1 5.

DM. C l D iS. • C2. •C3 .N2

N 7

N6

MC3.

N5,

D4 B acked •I n ter ior B as in

Fig .

3

Up lands

D 3 A•MC2 N IC1

M3

MI

e .M2 MC5

M a• D I

D 2

P ieces

• Montane

Tripolar g raph s howing a ssemblages f rom d ifferent

e cological

z ones i n t he s tudy a rea .

D -D riel

S helter;

C -C larke 's S helter;

D i -D iamond S helter;

Mgede S helter;

M C -M ain Cave;

1 89

G -G ehle S helter; N -N kupe S helter .

M -

w hich a re d ominated b y s egments a nd t hose d ominated b y a nd

b acked b lades.

b acked

p oints

A t b oth N kupe S helter a nd G ehle S helter t he t rend

i s f rom s egments t o b acked b lades a nd b acked p oints. O ne l ayer p ostdating 4 000 B P a t G ehle S helter ( GS2) h as b een i ncluded i n F igure 4 t o

s how t he p rogression a t

t his

s ite.

I t w ould b e p remature a t

t his

s tage t o c omment o n t he t emporal p atterning o f t hese c hanges. N evertheless, a n i nteresting o bservation c an b e d rawn f rom t hese d ata; d uring t his p eriod b acked p iece f requencies r emained c onstant i n r elation t o a dzes a nd s crapers w hile b acked p iece a ssemblages u nderwent s ignificant c ompositional c hanges. T hus, d espite t hese c ompositional a djustments, q uantitative

f unctional

t empting t o

s uggest

e xclusively

w ith

t here a ppears

t entatively

s egments

n ow

b acked b lades a nd s egments, i n

t he

u se

o f

A fter

4 000

B P

t hat

a dvance

i s

t he

S egments

i s a lso p ossible

t o

t he

m ere

o f

t he a bove,

f act o f

a nd,

s econdly,

s pecialization p ersist

t heir

i n

t he

u ses

w ere

i ncreases d ramatically r ise

f rom

6

t o

2 6.

h owever,

i s

n ot

W ben t hese p atterns a re

t wo t hemes e merge: t he

r andom

t here b eing m ore a ssemblages,

v ariability e xists b etween t he m ontane s ites, S helter,

i s

b y a g reater v ariety o f a ssemblages.

d isplays a d efinite p atterning. c ontext

d o

t hat

t he n umber o f o bservations

T he d istribution o f t hese a ssemblages, a ttributable

i t

p erformed

u se o f b acked p oints,

i ndicating g reater

p ieces.

c haracterized

O n t his b asis p reviously

e xcluding t he l ower M ain C ave a ssemblages,

T his

t he

t asks

i nvolved

p erhaps

b acked

a rchaeological r ecord a nd i t m ore s pecific.

a nd,

t o h ave b een n o c hange i n t he

i nput o f b acked p ieces.

p osition

c ompared

f irstly,

i n

c onsiderable

G ehle S helter a nd

o f

a nd b ut

N kupe

D riel S helter a nd M gede

S helter i n t his s cheme i s s omewhat e nigmatic. B oth t he D riel S helter a nd M gede S helter a ssemblages v ary f rom t he o thers i n t heir z ones ( Nkupe S helter a nd G ehle S helter r espectively) w ith t he c ontemporary m ontane a ssemblages. t he p roject w as i nitiated, t here a re

a nd a re c losely a ligned T hus, a s p redicted w hen a ssemblage c omposition

d ifferences b etween t he z ones; h owever, t hese p atterns a re c omplicated b y t he p resence o f a ssemblage v ariability i n t he u pland a nd i nterior b asin z ones. N o a bove,

a ttempt t he

i s m ade t o e xplain t he d istribution p atterns o utlined

p rimary

c omplementary

i nhibiting

e conomic

f actor

i nformation.

p aucity

o f

A ny e xplanation o ffered a t

b eing

t he

t his

s tage w ould h ave t o b e s peculative a nd s uperficial.

O nce t he r esearch

o n t he r esource e xploitation o f t hese s ites h as b een c ompleted e xtra l ight w ill b e s hed o n t he p atterns a nd a nomalies i n t he p atterns, a nd o nly

t hen

w ill

a ttempts

F aunal s amples h ave b een

t o

i nterpret

r ecovered

f rom

t hem a ll

b ecome m ore f easible. t he

s ites

a nd

Nkupe

S helter a nd Mgede S helter h ave p roduced s ubstantial b otanical a ssemblages. D espite a n i nability a nd g eneral r eluctance t o i nterpret t hese o bservations a t t his j uncture s everal i nteresting q uestions a re r aised: ( 1) w hat p recipitated t he p ost-4000 B P v ariability i n a ssemblage d istribution? ( 2) c an N kupe S helter a nd G ehle S helter b e r egarded a s r epresentative o f t he z ones i n w hich t hey a re s ituated, w ith ( 3)

D riel i f

S helter

t his

v ariability?

i s

t he

a nd

M gede S helter b eing d eviants f rom t he n orm?

c ase,

A nswering

w hat t hese

a re

e xplanations

q uestions

u nderstanding o f a rtefact v ariability i n t he f orm

t he

t hrust

f or

i s

c entral

T ugela

B asin

o f c ontinuing L SA a rtefact r esearch.

h as b een a lluded t o t hroughout

t o a nd

t he w ill

A t rend w hich

t he p aper b ut n ot y et f ully

1 90

i ntra-zone

d eveloped,

F ig .

4

T ripolar g raph s howing d ivision o f b acked p iece a ssemblages i nto t hose d ominated b y s egments a nd t hose d ominated b y b acked b lades .and b acked p oints . a bbreviations .

1 91

S ee F ig .

3f or k ey t o

i s t he d ecrease i n a dze f requencies i n t he u ppermost a ssemblages a t N kupe S helter, D riel S helter, C larke's S helter a nd M gede S helter. A lthough o verall a dze f requencies a t t hese s ites v ary c onsiderably a nd d ecreases a re n ot c onsistent, t hat t ime.

t he

i ndisputable

l inking

f actors

a re

a dze f requencies n ot o nly d ecrease b ut d o s o a t r oughly t he s ame T hese a ssemblages e ither d ate t o t he l ast 2 0 00 y ears o r a re

u ndated b ut h ave p ottery a ssociated w ith t hem. O f f urther n ote i s t he f act t hat t his c hange t ranscends e cological b oundaries. I t i s a rgued h ere

t hat

t hese

a djustments a re r elated t o t he i ntroduction o f i ron

i nto t he T ugela B asin. A ccording t o T . M . O 'C. M aggs ( pers. c omm.) t here i s e vidence f or i ron w orking i n t he c entral T ugela B asin a s e arly a s AD 5 00.

M azel & P arkington

( 1981),

among m any

o thers,

h ave

c ontended t hat a dzes w ere w oodworking t ools. I ron i s a h ard a nd d urable m aterial t hat i s e xtremely w ell-suited t o w oodworking. T hus, i f

i ron

w ere

o btained

b y

l ikely t o h ave b een u sed,

t he

e ven

L SA i nhabitants o f t his a rea,

i f

o nly

p artially,

f or

i t i s

w oodworking

a ctivities a nd t his w ould h ave p roduced t he p attern d escribed a bove. T he f inal i tem t o w hich a ttention w ill b e d rawn i n t his d iscussion i s t he g eneral t endency f or g rindstones t o b e m ost a bundant w here a dze f requencies a re h ighest. I n a ll l ikelihood g rindstones w ere e mployed i n t he p rocessing o f u nderground p lant f oods.

A ssuming t his

a nd

i f,

a s M azel & P arkington ( 1978, 1 981) a rgued f or t he s outh-west C ape, a dzes w ere i ntegrally r elated t o t he e xploitation o f u nderground p lantfoods i n t he T ugela B asin, o f t his n ature e xists

i t s tands t o r eason t hat a c orrelation

i n t his a rea.

C ONCLUSION An i mportant f actor c oncerns a ssemblages.

I nsight

g ained

t he

t emporal

d uring

t hat, w hen o ne i s d ealing w ith a ssemblages w ell-dated

s equences

a re i mperative.

p atterning

T ugela B asin.

i n

a

s patial

C larke's S helter l ithic

d ifferences d istribution

D rakensberg ( Mazel 1 981). a bove,

a s i s

I t w as p reviously s uggested t hat

n orth/south-orientated

l ithic

f ramework,

T hese a re e specially n ecessary

w hen a ssemblage c omposition i s f requently c hanging, t he

o f

t his p roject h as a lready s hown

w ere o f

d ue

t o

t he

r esources

T his i s n ow r etracted.

t he c ase

i n

t he D iamond 1 a nd h ypothesized i n

t he

A s h as b een

N atal a rgued

C larke's S helter f ollows o n c hronologically f rom D iamond 1 a nd

t his i s m ore p robably r esponsible f or t heir d ifferences. I mplications o f t his i nitial m isinterpretation a re n umerous a nd s elf-evident, a nd s hould s erve a s a n ote o f

c aution

t o

o thers

e ngaged

i n

s imilarly

o rientated r esearch p rogrammes.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am i ndebted t o D r J . C . V ogel o f t he C ouncil f or S cientific a nd I ndustrial R esearch C ouncil f or p roviding t he d ates c ited i n t his r eport. F inally,

T he

H uman S ciences R esearch C ouncil i s f unding t he p roject.

I w ould l ike t o t hank a ll

t hose p eople a nd i nstitutions

t hat

h ave a ssisted i n t he f ield, g iven p ermission t o e xcavate a nd c amp o n t heir l and a nd h ave h elped w ith t he l aboratory a nalyses.

1 92

R EFERENCES C ABLE,

H .H.C.

1 982.

s outhern N atal. C ARTER,

P .L.

N atal. E DWARDS, D . B asin. M AGGS,

T .

1 970.

A spects U npubl.

B ull.

1 967. A p lant M em. b ot. S urv. S . 1 980.

A .D.

1 981.

D riel

&

S helter:

1 978.

P ARKINGTON,

J .E.

1 957.

a rchaeol.

B ull.

i n

1 981.

r escue a t a L ate S tone A ge 2 4:

3 5-70.

U npubl. M .A.

S ci.

7 4:

8 7-97.

1 93

T hesis:

v ariability

3 81-382.

S tone t ools a nd r esources: W ld A rchaeol.

1 3:

a

1 6-30

A c ave a t G iant's C astle G ame R eserve. 1 2:

s outhern

s urvey o f t he T ugela R iver

S andy B ay r evisited:

S . A fr. J .

c ase s tudy f rom s outhern A frica. W ILLCOX, A . R .

A ge o rganization i n

5-58. 5

Ann. N atal M us.

among L ate S tone A ge t ools. A .D.

S tone

U niversity o f C ambridge.

U p a nd d own t he L ittle B erg.

U niversity o f C ape T own. M AZEL, A .D. & P ARKINGTON, J .E. M AZEL,

2 5:

e cological A fr. 3 6.

S ite o n t he T ugela R iver. M AZEL,

L ate T hesis:

L ate S tone A ge e xploitation p atterns

S . A fr. a rchaeol.

& W ARD, V .

o f

P h.D.

S .

A fr.

1 7.

I RON A GE S ETTLEMENT A ND S UBSISTENCE I N T HE T UGELA R IVER B ASIN,

P ATTERNS

N ATAL

T im M aggs

I NTRODUCTION T he p roject w ith t he s ame t itle a s t his p aper w as c onceived i n 1 972. H aving j ust c ompleted t he f ieldwork f or a b road s urvey o f t he I ron A ge i n t he O range F ree S tate, I f elt t hat a s imilar b road a pproach p riority.

t o e stablishing t he o utlines o f t he I ron A ge i n N atal w as a A lthough s mall-scale a nd s poradic w ork h ad b een d one

p reviously,

n othing a pproaching a n a cceptable c hronological o r s patial

f ramework w as

t hen a vailable.

T he

d etailed

s urveys

o f

t he

T ugela

B asin b y n atural s cientists s ingled o ut t his r egion a s a n a ttractive o ne i n w hich t o d o a rchaeological r esearch, a lthough s ome n eighbouring a reas s uch a s T he

t he c oast h ave a lso b een i ncluded.

i nitial

w ork

c oncentrated

o n

t he m ore v isible o ccurrences,

p articularly s tone s tructures i n t he g rassland 1 979;

M aggs 1 980a,

1 980b).

w ith t he a lmost s imultaneous T ransvaal

a nd

N atal

t hat

a reas

( Hall

S hortage

o f

r ealization i n 1 973 b y r esearchers i n t he

( Mason e t a l.

f unds

a nd

o ther

p arts

o f

1 973).

o ther

f ieldwork h ad t o b e r estricted, n ine

M aggs

S outh A frica d id i ndeed c ontain E arly I ron

A ge m aterial c omparable w ith t hat a lready k nown f rom s ub-equatorial A frica

&

A ttention t hen s witched t o e arlier s ites

r esources m eant

t hat t he s cale o f

b ut e xcavations w ere

s ites v arying i n a ge f rom t he 3 rd t o t he

c arried

o ut

1 8th c entury A D.

o n

T his,

t ogether w ith t he w ork o f

s everal c olleagues, h as n ow p rovided u s w ith

a

v iew

f airly

H owever,

c omprehensive s ince

t his

w as

o f

t he

e ssentially

I ron A ge o ccupation o f N atal. b ase-line

r esearch,

i t

h as

i nevitably r aised n ew q uestions.

T HE E ARLY I RON A GE T ables l ocation, i nto

t he

1

( EIA)

a nd

2

r eflect

c haracteristics o f E IA s ites a nd t heir

d ivided i nto c oastal a nd i nland. d ifferent c eramic s tyles,

E ach i n

t urn

n amely, M atola o f

i s

d ivided

t he 3 rd a nd 4 th

c enturies, M suluzi o f t he 6 th t o m id-8th a nd N tshekane o f t he 9 th

a nd

1 0th ( Fig.1). M atola s ites W hile

a ll

M atola

s mall p roportion

s ites

( 4 o ut

o f

a re w ithin 8 km o f 3 2)

a re

a ctually

t he s ea-shore o nly a b each-front

m iddens,

u nlike t he l ater s ites w here a bout h alf a re s uch m iddens. T his s uggests t hat a l arger p roportion o f M atola s ites w ere s ufficiently c lose

t o

t he

s ea

a s

t o

m ake

c ollecting s hellfish u nnecessary. r ecorded

a s

h aving

s hell,

p rolonged

s ites

a rgues

o vernight)

s tops

t his m ay b e d ue t o p oor p reservation,

b one i s a lmost i nvariably l acking t oo. M atola

( ?

A lthough r elatively f ew s ites T he

l ocational

p attern

f or w ere f or f or

f or a c onsiderable r eliance o n m arine s hellfish

1 94

•• ENK WAZ IN I

MFOLOZ I

MSULUZ I • • MAGOG

NTSHE

NDONDOND WANA

ANE

MHLOPEN I

TUGELA

EMBERTON W AY • MZ

N JAN IP

MG EN I

CER A MIC

STYLES

MATOL A •

MSULUZ I

•

NTSHEKANE

MKO MAZ I

UNCERTA IN 1 00KM

F ig.

1

D istribution o f E arly I ron Age s ites i n N atal.

1 95

a nd i t i s s till u ncertain w hether l ivestock w ere y et p resent. C ertainly, M atola s ites a re s trongly c oncentrated o n d une

c ordon

T his p attern c learance 1 980a,

t he

c oastal

a nd o n i ts i nland m argin, o ften c lose t o w ater o r s wamp. h as

o f

b een

t he

i n p ress;

i nterpreted

c oastal

H all

f orest

1 981),

a s

r eflecting

f or

p enetration

a gricultural p urposes

a nd

( Maggs

t he i nitially h igh f ertility o f a c leared

p atch o f f orest f loor b eing r educed r apidly b y l eaching o f t he a cid s andy s oil. I n t erms o f s ubsistence t he M atola o ccupation o f N atal s eems t o r epresent

t he s outhernmost p art o f a r apid e xpansion d own t he

e astern s eaboard b y g roups o f p eople w ho s lash-and-burn

a griculture

n atural r esources o f

i n

t he

t he f orest a nd

w ere

h eavily

d ependent

o n

c oastal f orest a s w ell a s o n t he s ea-shore.

V illage

s ites

w ere

g enerally s mall, p erhaps o nly o ne o r t wo h ectares. I ron s melting w as r estricted t o a f ew s ites a nd w as s mall i n s cale j udging b y t he a mount o f

s lag t hat s urvives.

t he m ain l imit

t o

T he l ack o f o rganic m aterial o n m ost s ites

i s

f urther u nderstanding o f t his p eriod.

C oastal M suluzi s ites S outh o f

t he T ugela R iver t he m uch g reater n umber o f M suluzi s ites

s uggests a d enser p opulation a t t his t ime. T he l arger p roportion o f b each m iddens, t ogether w ith t he k nown i nland d istribution o f v illage s ites ( Fig. 1 ), s uggests t hat r epresentatives f rom c ommunities d istance i nland m ay h ave p aid m ore p rolonged v isits t o t he s hore.

s ome T he

t wo

b oth

d eepest

m iddens

w e

k now, Emberton W ay a nd M hlanga L agoon,

h ave a m ajor M suluzi c omponent w ith q uantities

o f

p ottery

a nd

a shy

l enses among t he s hell. P reliminary r esults s uggest a v ery n arrow r ange o f a ctivities a t t he b each m iddens c ompared w ith t he i nland s ites,

s upporting t he h ypothesis

o f a s ingle e conomic s ystem. t o d etermine t he s patial

t hat t he t wo k inds o f s ites a re p arts

H owever, m ore f ield-work w ill b e n eeded p atterning a nd t he p eriodicity o f c oastal

v isits. T he l esser e mphasis o n t he c oastal d une c ordon a nd e specially i nland

m argin

m ay

f orest c learance, s ufficiently

u p

S econdly,

s andy

s everal

t hings.

F irstly,

c oastal

t he

f orested c ordon t o a llow m ore d ispersed

t here m ay h ave b een a s hift

s oils

i n p reference i nland

t he c oastal p lain t o l ink t he c oastal a nd i nland s ites. t his

z one

i s

f rom

t o i nherently r icher s oils f urther i nland.

F urther l ocational w ork n eeds t o c oncentrate o n t he o f

i ts

t he e arlier

p resumably s tarting f rom t he i nland m argin, m ay h ave

o pened

s ettlement. t he

i ndicate

b lanketed

b y

s ugar-cane

a nd

p arts

o f

H owever, m uch

o ther

i ntensive

a griculture. T he l ow i ncidence o f i nland s ample a nd r aises

i ron s melting c ontrasts w ith t he c ontemporary t he q uestion

o f

t rading

p atterns.

M arine

s hell o n i nland s ites r epresents a c omplementary r esource t hat w as c arried i nland, a nd t here w ere v ery l ikely o ther i tems a s w ell. C oastal N tshekane s ites T he s mall s ample s eems t han

M atola.

A

t o i ndicate a

n oticeable

d ifference

u sually o ccurred o n t op o f e arlier o nes t his

w as

s eldom

t he

c ase

w ith

t he

p attern i s

c loser

t hat

( 6 o ut

o f

M suluzi

t o

M suluzi

t hese o ccupations 8

s ites

s ites)

w hereas

( 6 o ut o f 3 4).

R eoccupation o f e arlier s ites i s a lso r eflected i n t he i nland s ample ( 8 o ut o f 1 0). T he n umbers s uggest t hat t his w as a d eliberate a ction e ven t hough t here i l ight h ave b een a n

1 96

i nterval

o f

s everal

c enturies

T able 1

C haracteristics o f c oastal E arly I ron A ge s ites

C ERAMIC T YPE M atola

M suluzi

N tshekane

U ncertain

L ocation : B each f ront D une c ordon F oot o f c ordon n ear w ater O ther c oastal p lain D istance f rom s ea: < 3 00 m

4 1 6 1 1 1

2 1

2 5

2 1 1 0

1 -

1 -

2 3

1 8

3

2 2 5 1

1 3 3 -

5

1 1 1 7 3

1 8 1 4 2

3 5

2 5 7

S andy s oil C oastal f orest R ainfall > 1 000 m m

3 2 3 2 3 2

3 4 3 4 3 4

8 8 8

3 2 3 2 3 2

I ron s melting S hell

2 1 3

3 2 9

1 6

1 2 8

3 1

3 4

8

3 2

3 00m -3 3k m -6 > 6 km A ltitude:

k m km

0 -15 m 1 5 -100 m 1 00 -500 m

4

1 8 1 2

_

8 -

V arious:

T otal n o. o f s ites

T able 2

C haracteristics o f i nland E arly I ron A ge s ites

T UGELA B ASIN C ERAMIC T YPE

O THER V ALLEYS

T OTALS

A

B

C

A

B

C

A

B

C

2 4 2 1

7

1

1 2 5

2 1

1

3 6 7 1

9 1

2

2 3 3

7

1

1 4 4

2 1

1

3 7 7

9 1

2

7 2 1

4 3

5 5

1 1

L ocation : V alley b ottom L ower s lopes U pland D istance f rom r iver: o n r iver b ank 3 00 m A ltitude: 1 5 -100 m

3

1 00 -500 m 5 00 -100 m

V egetation ( Acocks): V alley B ushveld 2 8

7

8 7

1

1

1 2

L owveld

3 1 2

1

3

5

1 5 2 8

4 0 1

1 0

5

1 1

R ainfall: 6 00 -750 m m 8 00 -950 m m 10 00 m m +

1 7 1 1

5 2

I RON S MELTING

2 2

6

T otal n o. o f s ites

2 8

7

C eramic t ype

1

1

4 1 3 1

3

9

2

1 8

A = M SULUZI B = N TSHEKANE C = U NCERTAIN

1 98

1

2 1 2 4

5 5

1

1

3

3 1

1

4 6

8

1 0

2

b etween

o ccupations.

p reference

T his

r aises

t he p ossibility o f a t raditional

f or p reviously o ccupied s ites

o f s ufficient c enturies.

t ime-depth

t o

t ogether w ith a

r emember

f olk

m emory

s ites u noccupied f or s everal

I nland M suluzi a nd N tshekane s ites. I n t he a bsence o f M atola s ites

i t

s eems

t he f irst p hase o f E IA o ccupation i nland. t he T ugela B asin, a dditional

t he

s ettlement

i nformation

f rom

t hat

p attern

o ther

h ere

i nland

r eoccupation c haracteristic o f N tshekane,

M suluzi

r epresents

M ost d ata a re a vailable f or b eing

v alleys.

c onfirmed A part

t hese s ites a re

b y

f rom t he

s imilar

t o

M suluzi. T he v ery d istinct l ocational p attern w as d iscussed i n s ome d etail a t t he l ast S AAA c onference a nd w ill t herefore o nly b e m entioned i n o utline h ere. o n d eep s oil i s

T he p reference f or v alley b ottom, r iverside l ocations v ery p ronounced ( Table 2 ). A ll s ites a re b elow a n

a ltitude o f 1 0 00 m a nd o ccur i n s avanna v egetation, n amely A cocks - s V alley B ushveld ( 50 s ites) o r L owveld ( six s ites). T he p redominantly l ow

r ainfall,

p articularly

r ainshadow e ffect o f

f or

t he T ugela B asin s ites,

t he d eeply i ncised v alleys

w hich

r eflects

h ave

t he

a lkaline

s oils. T hese t wo c haracteristics a re p articularly s uitable f or k nown I ron A ge c rop p lants b ut t he r ainfall i s i n m any c ases t oo l ow f or m ost m odern c rops. I ron

w orking

i s

c haracteristic

o f m ost s ites.

O f t he t otal

s ites,

s ome o f w hich w ere r ecorded m any y ears a go a nd h ave

d ata,

a t

l east

3 9

h ave

e vidence

o f

s melting.

5 6

i nadequate

W ith t he g enerally

b etter d ata f rom t he T ugela B asin t he f igure g oes u p t o

a t

l east

2 8

o ut o f 3 5. S chofield ( 1935) c ommented o n t his m any y ears a go a nd i t s eems t o b e a c haracteristic o f E IA s ites i n m any r egions. T he s elf-sufficiency o f a lso

s ettlements

i n t erms o f

i ron

w orking

m ay

r eflect a m ore f undamental s elf-sufficiency i n b oth e conomic a nd

p olitical t erms. a nd

e lsewhere,

T he l ittle e vidence y et a vailable, b oth s uggests

i n f avourable e nvironments, a part.

T here

d oes

n ot

l ocated a d istance o f

t he 9 th c entury

a reas

T he

1 982).

N atal

s everal

e ven

k ilometres

s eem t o b e a ny s uggestion o f a h ierarchy o f

s ites e arlier t han a bout ( Denbow

f rom

t hat E IA v illages w ere f airly l arge a nd,

o nly

i n

t he

T outswe

a nd

Z hizo

e xception m ay b e t he o ccurrence o f

c oncentrations o f p resumably r itualistic i tems, p articularly i n t he f orm o f c eramic s culpture, a t s ites s uch a s L ydenburg i n t he T ransvaal a nd

N dondondwana

s ocio-religious

o n

t he

c entres

T ugela. f or

a

S uch

s ites

s till t oo e arly t o a ffirm s uch p ossibilities. s ettlement

p attern,

m ight

h ave

b een

w ider c luster o f v illages, b ut i t C ertainly

t he

w hen c ompared w ith t he L ate I ron A ge,

i s

g eneral

s uggests a

l ow l evel o f s pecialized p roduction a nd a h igh d egree o f s elf-sufficiency. A lmost e very v illage w as a m odel f or t he l ocational p attern a s a w hole, f or c rops, M suluzi l east,

p roviding g ood a rable l and,

a nd

N tshekane

s ites

h ave

s ummer r ain

t hat,

a t

t he i nland s ites a t b y

s mall

w hich o n p resent e vidence a ppear t o b e s heep r ather t han g oat.

S uch a c oncentration o f g razers t hat

s how

c attle w ere a lready t he m ain s ource o f m eat f ollowed

s tock, t o

s ufficient

g ood y ear-round g razing a nd t imber f or b uilding a nd f uel.

h ad

a

i n a s weetveld e nvironment

d etrimental e ffect o n t he g rass c over,

i s

l ikely

a nd i t m ay b e

t he r elatively s mall n umber o f N tshekane s ites r eflects a s maller

1 99

p opulation t owards t he e nd o f t he E IA b ecause o f e nvironmental d egradation. H unting a nd f ishing s upplemented t he m eat s upply b ut a pparently n ot t o a ny g reat e xtent.

T HE LATE I RON AGE T here c enturies, M ichael

( LIA)

w as a r adical c eramic c hange b etween t he 9 th a nd t he 1 1th a s c an b e s een w hen c omparing N tshekane c eramics ( Maggs &

1 976)

M pambanyoni

w ith t hose f rom t he s ites o f B lackburn ( Robey

1 980).

B ut

o f

g reater

d isappearance o f a n umber o f o ther i ncluding t he d istinctive s ite-location b urnt

d aga

w ith

g rindstones, c eramic

p ole

a nd

t hatch

c haracteristics p attern, p its,

i mpressions,

t he b one a rrowheads a nd l inkshafts,

s culpture.

T hese h int a t

( Davies

1 971)

s ignificance

a nd

i s

t he

o f E IA s ites t he t ypical

t he l ower a nd u pper

s hell d isc b eads

s ignificant c hanges

a nd

i n a v ariety o f

e conomic, c ultural a nd e ven r eligious a spects o f l ife. H owever, m uch m ore w ork w ill b e n eeded t o e lucidate t hese c hanges. M ore w ork i s a lso n eeded o n b oth t erminal E IA s ites a nd i n p articular o n e arly s ites.

A t p resent

t he o nly t wo e xcavated s ites o f

L IA

t he l atter c ategory

a re f rom a c oastal e nvironment a nd p robably d o n ot r epresent t he p eriod a s a w hole, a lthough t he p icture t hey p resent i s a n i nteresting o ne. B oth B lackburn a nd M pambanyoni a re r elatively s mall, w ithin

a

f ew k ilometres o f

t he s ea.

f orest a nd t he e conomy r eflects h unted

a nimals,

M pambanyoni

f ish

p robably

h illtop s ites

T hey w ould h ave b een i n c oastal

t his.

F ood i ncluded a w ide

a nd

s hellfish.

l acks

d omestic

T he

i dentified

s tock

e ntirely

r ange

o f

s ample f rom a nd

s hows

a

d ependence o n f orest m ammals a s w ell a s m arine r esources.

T he a bsence

o f s tock c an p robably

t he

v egetation, b ut

b e

e xplained

b y

t he

n ature

o f

f orest

t his d raws a ttention t o a s erious g ap i n o ur k nowledge

o f w hat w as h appening i n t he i nland r egions i n t he f irst f ew c enturies o f

t he

p resent

m illennium.

T he

m ain

r eason

f or t his i s

t he l ow

v isibility o f m ost L IA s ites, o ther t han t hose w ith s tone w alling, w hen c ompared w ith t he E IA. T hey a re u sually m uch s maller a nd c ontain m uch

l ess

c oncentrated

e xplanation p attern,

i s

a rchaeological

m aterial.

A

p erhaps

N guni-speaking

d irectly

p eoples.

a ncestral H owever,

t o

t hat

o f

t he

h istorical

a s y et w e d o n ot k now o f s ites o f

t his p eriod w ith a dequate p reservation o f g round p lan, c ould b e

p ossible

t hat w e a re d ealing w ith a d ispersed f amily h omestead

w here t his

i dea

t ested.

M oor P ark a nd r elated h illtop s ites A l ittle l ater i n t ime, c a A D 1 300, i s t he w alled h illtop s ite o f M oor P ark ( Davies 1 974) w hich i s t he e arliest i nland L IA s ite y et d ated.

T he a cid s oil h as c aused p oor p reservation o f o rganic m aterial

b ut c learly c attle w ere a n i mportant e lement i n t he e conomy. s imilar b elong t o a

h illtop

s ettlements

t he s ame p eriod.

r elatively

s mall

a rea

e nclosed

b y

l ong w alls a re

T heir d istribution ( Fig.

2 )

S everal t hought

i s l imited

t o t o

b etween B ergville a nd E stcourt a nd a ll a re

s ituated i n t he T hemeda-Hyparrhenia t all g rassland,

a

z one

o f

m ixed

p alatability.

P erhaps o f s ignificance f or o ur i nterpretation o f t hese

s ites i s

a part

t hat,

f rom t he

g roup

a round

E stcourt,

t hey

t end

t o

o ccur t oward t he h igher a ltitude l imits o f t his v egetation t ype i n t he M oist T ransitional z one ( Edwards 1 967) w here t he g razing i s m ore s our. I ndeed, s ome a re r ight o n t he u pper l imit o f I ron A ge s ettlement

2 00

• H

2 01

d rier f orm i n t he n orth a nd e ast.

tone—walled h illtop D istribution o f s

THE MEDA-HYPARRHEN IA GRASSLAND

VEGETATI ON

r elated t o M oor P ark.

s outh a nd w est

V egetation a fter E dwards

H ILLTOP S ITES

A . KARROO-A ,NILOT ICA THORNVELD

DRAKENSBERG

THE MEDA-TRACHYPOGON H IGHLANDS GRASSLAND

c d 0 g 1

( compare s ummer

F igs 2 a nd 4 ). g razing

c amps

S uch l ocations s uggest r ather

e xposed p ositions w ould m ake

t han

t hese s ites w ere

s ettlements.

t hem v ery u ncomfortable w inter

a nd l ocal f armers h ave c ommented

t hat i t w ould b e

c attle o n t hem i n w inter w hen t heir n atural s eek l ower p astures.

n eed

t hat

y ear-round

T heir

r esidences

d ifficult

t o

k eep

i nclination w ould b e

T o e xamine t his p roblem a t wofold a pproach m ight b e n eeded. t o k now m ore a bout t he s ites t hemselves, i ncluding,

p reservation p ermits, t he o ccupation. T he s econd s ites,

w hich

w ould

W e i f

e conomy p ractised a nd t heir s easons o f a pproach w ould b e t o l ook f or c omplementary

a lmost

l ower-lying a reas t o

t o

c ertainly

t he n orth-east.

h unter-gatherers i s a nother s ites a re o n t he m argins o f

b e

o f

l ower

v isibility,

i n

I nteraction w ith L ater S tone A ge

f actor n eeding c onsideration, f or t he t he a rea t hat w as s till o ccupied b y S an i n

t he 1 9th c entury. I ron s melting W ith o ne e xception c lose s melting b asin.

s ites

a re

t o t he D rakensberg ( Wells

w ithin

t he

T his p attern c an i n t he

a vailability

o f

l ower-lying f irst

t rees f or c harcoal,

i nstance

b e

i s

k nown

h istorically

a lthough i t h as y et p attern

t o

a s

T he

emerge

i s

t hat

t end

M abhija

S imilarly t he N kandla

i mportant

-c oal

1 982b),

i ron-working B ut

a rea

t he m ain

m easures -

h ave

p rovided

t he

l imited l ateral e xtent.

u sed f or t he c harcoal a t M abhija. h umid m argins o f

-

A .

t he

s eem t o b e u biquitous.

C harcoal i dentification b y t he D epartment o f

k arroo

O nly o ne

h as b een e xamined i n a ny d etail, b ut

U niversity o f S tellenbosch s uggests

s eems

t he

s hown o n F ig. 3 w here s avanna t rees h ave

t o b e t hin a nd o f

( Maggs

t ypical p airs o f f urnaces

A cacia

t o

l atter i s s edimentary i n o rigin a nd o ften o f h igh q uality,

t hough l enses s ite,

a n

t o b e i nvestigated a rchaeologically.

p rovided f uel a nd t he m iddle E cca o re.

r elated

t he D rakensberg s ite h aving b een

c lose t o p atches o f M ountain P odocarpus F orest. F orest

1 933) a ll k nown

s avanna p ortion o f t he

A rchaeology

t he w as

T his t ree o ccurs f requently i n

n ilotica T hornveld a s w ell a s

t he b ushveld.

o f

t hat k atdoring ( Acacia c affra)

T he d istribution o f s ites

t o s how s uch a p attern a nd w e a re

f rom a n umber o f o ther s melting s ites

t he

i n t he u pper, i n

m ore

F ig.

3

t herefore c ollecting c harcoal

t o t est f or a p reference f or

A .

c affra. A nother

a spect

d istribution o f

o f

i ronworking

t hat

t he f inished p roduct.

n eeds

f urther w ork i s

I f w e c ompare F igs

3 a nd

t he

4

i t

i s c lear t hat i n n umerous L IA s ettlements t he p eople w ere u nable t o m ake t heir own t ools a nd w eapons f or l ack o f f uel, l et a lone i ron o re. T here

m ust

t herefore h ave b een c onsiderable t rade m oving i n a r adial

d irection f rom t he c entral s avanna r egion o f t he T ugela B asin o utward t o t he g rasslands. O ral t radition r ecords t hat t his t rade e xtended o ver t he

D rakensberg

l ivestock

i nto

a nd g rain w ere

t he

t raded

1 982b).

O ccasional h oards o f

f ringes

o f

O range

F ree

i n e xchange

i ron

t ools

h ave

t he s avanna a nd i n t he g rasslands,

t his

t rade,

a nd

m etallurgical

b ut

d ifferentiate i t

S tate

a nd

b een

f ound

t o

i dentify

f rom t hat o f o ther r egions.

2 02

b oth M aggs

o n

t he

w hich p robably r eflect

f urther w ork i s n eeded t o i dentify b oth t ool c haracteristics

t hat

( Ellenberger 1 912;

t ypology

t his p roduction a nd

r y-)

2 03 V egetation a fter E dwards

S tone a nd e arthwork s tructures A s i s t he c ase o n t he H ighveld, g rassland a reas t hat a re n ot e xcessively s our s upported a d ense L IA p opulation i n t he l ast f ew c enturies p rior t o w hite

c olonization.

C learly

t he

s avanna

a reas

c ontinued t o b e o ccupied a nd w ere e ven p referred b y t hese p eoples, b ut p erhaps

t he g reatest c ontrast b etween E IA a nd

L IA

i s

t he

e xpansion

i nto t he g rasslands. W e a re s till u nsure o f t he r easons f or t his b ut a daptation t o e nvironment m ust h ave p layed s ome p art. T he h igh v isibility o f t he s tone-built s ites h as m eant t hat t hey h ave r eceived a d isproportionate s hare o f a rchaeological a ttention. C ertainly F ig. 4 g reatly u nder-estimates t he n umber o f L IA s ites i n t he s avanna z one, m ost o f w hich w ould h ave b een m ade o f p erishable m aterials s uch a s w ood a nd t hatch. S ome s tone s ites s avanna a reas b ut f or t wo r easons t his i nformation i s t han i t i s f or

t he g rassland p lots.

F irstly,

t he

d o o ccur i n l ess r eliable

b ush

c over

m akes

r ecognition a nd c lassification f rom a ir p hotographs m ore d ifficult a nd l ess r eliable.

S econdly,

a ppearance a nd,

p ending c loser e xamination,

q uite a n umber o f s ites h ave a r ather r ecent t hey c annot b e a ccepted a s

p re-colonial. F uture w ork i s p lanned t o e xamine t he m argins o f

t he

d uring t he p ast c entury t he m argins,

t he q uestion

t hornveld a nd b ushveld.

o f

s ettlement

t hornveld h as e xpanded i nto

t he

a s c an c learly b e s een o n e arly p hotographs o f

E stcourt a nd L adysmith. -i nvasion -

f arming.

r esulting

g razing

T he d ensity o f L IA s ites

a lternative e xplanation, t o i ts

f ormer

g rassland

s uch a reas a s

S ome b otanists h ave s een t his a s a f rom

n amely t hat

b oundaries

r egimes ( Fig.

o n

I t i s g enerally k nown t hat

a ssociated

4 ),

t hornveld

w ith

h owever,

w hite

s uggests

a n

t he t hornveld i s m erely r eturning

a fter

h aving

b een

c leared

M goduyanuka

( Maggs

1 982a)

b y

t he

L IA

o ccupation. O nly

o ne

s ite,

h as b een e xamined i n

d etail b ut t his h as p roduced s ome i nteresting e vidence o n s ubsistence. T here s eems t o h ave b een v ery l ittle u se o f n atural f ood r esources a part f rom a l ittle h unting.

Even t his s upplied l ittle

m eat

a nd

i t

m ay b e t hat t he d ensity o f s ettlement m eant t hat l ittle i n t he w ay o f l arger w ild f auna r emained i n t he a rea. C attle w ere t he p redominant m eat s ource,

f ollowed b y s heep.

S ince

t his w as a 1 7th t o

1 8th c entury

o ccupation, m aize w as a lready a s taple a nd p robably m ore i mportant t han A frican g rains. I n f act, t he s uitability o f t he a rea f or g rowing m aize r ather t han s orghum p opulation d uring t he

m ay

h ave

b een

a

r eason

f or

t he

l arge

t erminal I ron A ge i n t he g rasslands.

T he u pper l imits o f s tone-built s ettlement w ithin t he T ugela B asin c oincide r emarkably c losely w ith g rassland

( Fig.

4 ).

a cidity o f b oth a rable l and a nd i ntensive r esearch m ay r esolve A nother

a spect

p reliminary w ork i s ( 1980)

t he l imit o f t he

P resumably

o f

t he

T hemeda-Hyparrhenia

c onstraining

g razing.

H ere

a gain

f actor h ere w as f uture,

m ore

t his q uestion.

t hese

s ites

t hat

h as

a s

t heir s patial p atterning o n a f iner

y et

s een

s cale.

o nly H all

h as d one m ore d etailed l ocational a nalysis o n a g roup o f s ites

o verlapping t he e astern b oundary o f p otential

o f

t he b asin,

p resent p lanning w ork a long s imilar l ines i n a ssociation

a nd t his h as s hown

f ieldwork e ven w ith l ittle o r n o e xcavation. w ith

t he

S patial

A rchaeology

2 04

t he

B ergville

R esearch

U nit

t he

W e a re a t a rea o f

i n t he

A D o

r d c l )

p lotted f rom a erial

E1

THORNVELD I S BUSHVELD

SOUR GRASSLANDS

( 1 )

z

I '

c l ) r d

• H > 3 P • H r — I • H c d c d r — i C P . 4

L c d • H

c i )

c d

• H

c l )

C l ) rd

CO Q)

c d • H

0 E

N( 3

h p C I )

r d c d

( 1 ) ( Z 3

C H c d

r d

r d c l ) • H

c d A -)

• C 1 )

0

0

L I I

' e a

2 05

D istribution

C H 0

• H • H

• H r 1

• H

0 , I

( i 3 • H g 1

0 • H P c ' d ( 1 ) ( 1 )

; 1

Hyparrhenia a nd T ristach

o

r d

U niversity o f C ape T own.

R EFERENCES D AVIES, O . 1 971. 2 6: 1 65-178.

E xcavations a t B lackburn.

D AVIES, O . 1 974. E xcavations a t M oor P ark n ear E stcourt, N atal. D ENBOW,

J . R .

1 982.

c hange. H einemann. E DWARDS,

D .

S ymp.

E LLENBERGER, L ondon: H ALL, M .

J .

P h.D. H ALL,

1 980.

i n

s urvey

B otswana. o f

t he

L ondon:

T ugela

B asin.

N atal T own a nd R egional P lanning C ommission.

D . F . 1 912. C axton.

H istory o f t he B asuto:

T he e cology o f

T hesis:

B ull.

a s tudy i n s ocio-economic

S ettlement

A p lant e cological

P ietermaritzburg:

a rchaeol.

t he w alled e arly I ron A ge s ite i n A nn. N atal M us. 2 2: 2 89-323.

T he T outswe T radition:

P roc.

1 967.

S . A fr.

a ncient a nd m odern.

t he I ron A ge i n

Z ululand.

U npubl.

U niversity o f C ambridge.

M . J . 1 981. S ettlement p atterns i n t he I ron Age o f Z ululand. O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

H ALL, M .

& M AGGS,

S . A fr. M AGGS,

T .

1 979.

a rchaeol.

T . M .

O 'C.

i n N atal.

N qabeni,

S oc.

1 980a.

a L ate I ron A ge s ite i n Z ululand.

G oodwin S er.3:

1 59-176.

M zonjani a nd t he b eginnings o f

A nn. N atal M us.

2 4:

t he I ron A ge

7 1-96.

M AGGS, T . M . O 'C. 1 980b. M suluzi C onfluence: E arly I ron A ge s ite o n t he T ugela R iver.

a s eventh c entury A nn. N atal M us. 2 4:

1 11-146. M AGGS, T . M . O 'C. 1 982a. M goduyanuka: t erminal I ron A ge j nsberg. A nn. N atal M us. 2 5: 8 3-113. i n t he N atal D rakM AGGS,

T .

M .

O 'C.

d evelopment M AGGS,

T . M .

O 'C.

K LEIN,

i n p ress.

R .

G .,

p aleoenvironments. M AGGS,

T . M .

A ge

O 'C.

s ite

1 982b.

M abhija:

i n t he T ugela B asin.

T he I ron A ge s outh o f t he e d.

S outhern

R otterdam :

& M ICHAEL, M . A .

i n

t he

p re-colonial

A nn. N atal M us.

T ugela

A frican

2 5:

s ettlement i ndustrial 1 23-141.

Z ambezi.

I n :

p rehistory

a nd

B alkema. 1 976.

B asin,

N tshekane: N atal.

a n

A nn.

E arly

I ron

N atal M us.

2: 2

7 05-740. M ASON, R . B .H.

J .,

K LAPWIJK, M .,

& M AGGS, T .M.O'C. A frica. S . A fr. J .

R OBEY,

T .

1 980.

c oast. S CHOFIELD,

d istrict: W ELLS, L . H .

M pambanyoni:

A nn. N atal M us. J .

E VERS,

F .

1 935.

T .M.,

1 933.

S ANDELOWSKY, s outhern

a L ate I ron A ge s ite o n t he N atal s outh 2 4

: 1 47-164.

N atal

c oastal

a p reliminary s urvey.

C athkin P ark.

W ELBOURNE, R .G.,

1 973. E arly I ron A ge s ettlement o f S ci. 6 9: 3 24-326.

A ncient m etal w orking, B antu S tud.

7 :

1 83-194.

2 06

p ottery

S . A fr. J .

f rom

S ci.

c eramics

3 2: a nd

t he

D urban

5 08-527. b eads

f rom

1 8.

S UBSISTENCE S TRATEGIES I N T HE T RANSVAAL S TONE A GE: A P RELIMINARY M ODEL L yn W adley

I NTRODUCTION I n t his p aper m ay h ave o perated

I d escribe a h ypothetical s ubsistence i n t he T ransvaal d uring p rehistoric

s trategy w hich

t imes.

I

h ave

c onstructed t he s ubsistence s trategy m odel e ntirely f rom e nvironmental d ata a nd I r egard i nvestigating

t his m odel a s

S tone

t he b ushveld v egetation z one M ountains,

m ay

g athering h ighveld),

h ave

b een

a daptation s outh o f p resence

f irst s tage o f a p roject a imed

( Fig. t he

i n t he T ransvaal. 1 ),

M agaliesberg

I p lan t o u se t his m odel t o p redict d uring t he c ourse o f

I a lso c an i nvestigate p atterns o f

i ndicating f ission a nd f usion o f d escription o f t he p roposed

t he

J ubilee

t esting t he s ettlement

t he f oraging b ands. I b egin w ith a b ushveld a nd h ighveld s ubsistence

s trategies a nd c onclude w ith a n o utline o f a t

t he

o f a rchaeological s ites a nd t he e xpected r emains

h ypothesis,

u ndertaken

o f

f ocus o f a n a utumn/winter h unting a nd

t o b e f ound t here a nd I b elieve t hat, s easonality

n orth

a t

I p ropose t hat

w hile t he g rassland v egetation z one ( the t he M agaliesberg, w as s uited t o a s pring a nd

s ummer s ubsistence s trategy. g eographic

t he

A ge s trategies

S helter,

a

t he f ield r esearch

s ite

a lready

i n t he b ushveld v egetation

z one. A lthough i t

i s n ot

i mpossible t hat

t he b ushveld r egion,

w ith

i ts

v aried e dible r esources, c ould h ave b een e xploited y ear-round, i t s eems l ikely t hat f oraging b ands m ay h ave s cheduled t heir b ehaviour t o i nclude t he h ighveld f ood r esources w hich a re o ptimal i n s pring a nd s ummer. ( Lee

M any e thnographic a ccounts,

1 979)

s uggest

t hat

a

i ncluding t hat o f

v aried

d iet

t he

i s v alued a nd

e xercise a g reat d eal o f c hoice i n t he s election o f

! Kung

S an

t hat p eople

t he f ood a vailable

i n a ny e nvironment. B y m oving s easonally f rom t he n orthern b ushveld t o t he a djacent s outhern g rassland r egions i n t he T ransvaal, a h unter-gatherer o ptimal u se e nvironments a ddition,

g roup

w ould

o btain

a

v aried

d iet

a nd w ould m ake

o f t he t wo d istinct e nvironments. T hese d istinct h ave s ome a nimal a nd p lant s pecies i n c ommon b ut, i n

e ach z one h as

s ome

e xclusive

s pecies

n ot

f ound

i n

t he

o thers.

A UTUMN/WINTER S TRATEGY I N T HE B USHVELD T here s uggest s eason

a re

t hat

s everal

e nvironmental

t he b ushveld n orth o f

o ccupation.

T hese

f actors w hich,

i n c ombination,

t he M agaliesberg i s o ptimal f or d ry

e nvironmental

f actors

i nclude

w ater

s upplies, m inimum t emperatures, a utumn/winter a vailability o f e dible p arts o f d esirable p lants a nd s easonally c hanging h abits o f

t he t he

a nimal p opulation. Owing t o t he g eomorphology o f t he r egion, a f airly r eliable a nd e xtensive d ry s eason w ater s upply i s p resent n orth o f t he M agaliesberg

2 07

V eld t ypes n orth a nd s outh o f t he Magaliesberg.

I5 00 000

( d f t f l i S i e r a e m p

• Johannesburg

A ND S OURISH)

( SOUR G RASSVELD)

S OUR B USHVELD

B USHVELD

M ountains 1 979:43).

i n t he f orm o f f lowing s teams, s prings a nd w aterholes ( Hugo S outh o f t he m ountains, t he w ater s upplies a re n ot a s

n umerous b ut a f ew p erennial r ivers b oth

g rassveld

w aterholes

s uch a s

t he C rocodile

a nd b ushveld z ones w ith t he r esult

m ay

n ot

n ecessarily

p lace

o ccupation i n t he g rassveld z one.

a

s easonal

M ore c ritical i s

f oothills

o f

t he

M agaliesberg

c onstraint g rasslands;

a r esult,

f rosts a re m ild o r a bsent

t he

h ave a m inimum t emperature

w hich i s 3 .0 h igher t han t he s outhern m ountain s lopes A s

o n

t he m inimum w inter

t emperature w hich i s h igher i n t he b ushveld t han t he n orthern

f low t hrough

t hat a s carcity o f

( Hugo

1 979:37).

i n t he b ushveld w hereas o n t he

h ighveld s evere f rosts m ay o ccur i n w inter. T he a bsence o f s pecies

w hich

f rost w ill

f rost-sensitive p lants

i n t he b ushveld a llows g rowth t here o f

p lant

n ot

t hese

i s

g row

o n

t he

h ighveld.

t he b ushveld m arula t ree

Among

( Sclerocarya b irrea

c affra) w hich I b elieve m ay h ave p layed a r ole i n t he b ushveld s imilar t o t hat

o f

t he

m ongongo

t ree

( Ricinodendron

r autanenii)

i n

t he

K alahari. T he m ongongo f ruit i s t he p rimary v egetable f ood r esource o f t he ! Kung S an o f t he K alahari a nd, d uring t he d ry s eason, m ongongo h arvesting

i s o ne o f t he m ajor s ubsistence a ctivities o f b oth m en a nd

w omen ( Lee 1 979:188). T he m ongongo f ruit i s s uitable a s a p rimary p lant f ood f or i t i s s uperabundant, h ighly n utritious a nd a vailable y ear-round. e stimate

T he s uperabundance o f

t hat

t he f ruits i s i llustrated b y

e ach t ree c an p roduce a bout

o f t hese f ruits

i s a m ongongo n ut

r hich

1 0 00 f ruits.

c ontains

L ee's

W ithin e ach

2 8,8%

p rotein

a nd

5 7,3% f at ( Lee 1 979:202). A lthough t he ! Kung u se m ongongo f lesh a nd n ut a s t heir p rimary p lant f ood, t hey n evertheless r egard t he m arula a s a m ajor r esource ( Lee 1 979:169) a nd t herefore i t i s l ikely t hat m arula w ould b e m ost e steemed i n a reas w here m ongongos a re a bsent. K rige

( 1937),

f or

e xample,

c omments

l argely o n m arula d uring w inter. f ruit

I n

t hat

F ebruary

t he o r

P halaborwa s ubsist M arch

t he

m arula

r ipens a nd f alls t o t he g round w here i t r emains e dible u ntil i t

i s s poilt b y i nsects a nd d ecomposition.

H owever,

t he

n uts

s urvive

l onger a nd t he c ollecting s eason t hus e xtends u ntil a bout O ctober w hen r ain r ots t he n utshells.

M arula f ruits a re s uperabundant a nd a s ingle

m ature m arula t ree m ay y ield a s m any a s 9 1 0 00 f ruits

( Palmer & P itman

1 972:226). T he f ruit p ulp i s n ot o nly d elicious b ut c ontains f our t imes a s m uch v itamin C a s o range j uice ( Coates P algrave 1 977:458). E ven m ore n utritious t han t he f ruit i s t he n ut w hich c ontains 3 0,9% p rotein a nd 5 7,0% f at a nd 6 42 k ilocalories p er 1 00 g ( Lee 1 979:480). T he

l ength

o f

d isadvantage

t ime

w hich

t aken i s

t o

o nly

p rocess

f ruits o r n uts a re c ollected.

I h ave

b roken

f or

a fter

b eing

r oasted

e xtract w hole k ernels, t he

s hell

t he

n ut

T he

o bviously

a

f ound t hat t he s hells a re e asily

o ne

m inute b ut i t

a nd b roken k ernels n eed t o

f ragments.

i s

p artially o ffset b y t he e ase w ith w hich i s d ifficult

b e

s eparated

t o

f rom

k ernel c an b e e aten o n i ts o wn b ut B lack

p eople o ften m ix i t w ith l eafy v egetables o r m eat ( Fox & N orwood Y oung 1 982:80). T he ! Kung u se m arula k ernels i n t he s ame k inds o f r ecipes a s t he m ongongo ( Lee 1 979:482), t hat i s, w ith l eaves, m eat, o r r oasted r oots s uch a s w ild c ucumber ( Coccinia s pp.) a nd w ild p ea ( Vigna s pp.). B oth o f t hese r oots y ear-round ( Maguire A part

f rom

a re

w idespread

1 978:412, m arula,

i n

o ccurrence

o ther

f ruits

e thnographically r ipen i n a utumn a nd w inter i n f ruits s pp.)

i nclude a nd b uffalo

m onkey

a nd

a re

e dible

3 93).

o range

k nown

t o

b e

i mportant

b ushveld.

T hese

( Strychnos s pp.), w ild r aisin

( Grewia

t horn ( Ziziphus m ucronata).

2 09

t he

T he f ruits o f a

n umber

o f m onkey o range t rees, s uch a s S trychnos p ungens m adagascariensis, r ipen i n w inter ( Co tes P algrave 1 977:767-9) p ulp i s c onsidered a d elicacy b y t he T he c limate f aunal c omponent. s everal

( Lee 1 979:482).

a nd v egetation o f t he b ushveld d etermine p art o f i ts W hile m any o f t he a nimal s pecies a re c ommon t o

v egetation

( Tragelaphus

! Kung

a nd S . a nd t he

t ypes,

s trepsiceros)

i mpala

( Aepyceros m elampus),

a nd b lue w ildebeest

g reater k udu

( Connochaetes t aurinus)

p articularly a re a ssociated w ith b ushveld ( Kettlitz f ound o n s our g rassland. B oth b lue w ildebeest

1 962) a nd

a nd a re n ot i mpala a re

g regarious a nd h erds t end t o c ongregate d uring t he d ry s eason ( Dorst & D andelot 1 970:231, 2 36). T herefore, d uring t his s eason, h unting o f t hese a nimals m ay h ave b een e asier o r m ore s uccessful.

T he d ry s eason

m ay a lso h ave b een f avoured f or s naring o f s hy, n octurnal b rowsers s uch a s t he c ommon d uiker ( Sylvicapra g rimmia); t he ! Kung, f or e xample, o nly s nare i n t he d ry s eason b ecause r ain s poils t riggering m echanism o f

t he s narelines

( Lee

t he d elicate

1 979:208).

S PRING/SUMMER S UBSISTENCE S TRATEGY O N T HE H IGHVELD T he s loping

v egetation o f t he W itwatersrand a nd t he u ndulating c ountry d own t o t he s outhern f oothills o f t he M agaliesberg i s

c lassified 1 975:99). w inters

a s

p articularly t his

C entral a re

V ariation

p oor,

a cid

o f a nd

t he

B ankenveld

e ither

s tony

( Acocks

o r

s andy;

a re s everely f rosty a nd t hc v eld i s a w iry g rassland w hich i s

B ankenveld a t

t he

T he s oils s our i s

t ime a nd,

r oots,

v ery

i n

w inter

( Acocks

i nhospitable; a part

f ew

1 975:99).

I n

w inter

t hat

f oods

t his

t he

t ends t o m ove t o s weeter g rassland

f rom c orms o f G ladiolus s pp. a nd

p lant

c onstraints s uggest

g ame

a re

h ighveld

o btainable. r egion

s ome

T hese

w as

e dible n egative

u ndesirable

f or

w inter o ccupation. D uring t he w et

s eason,

h owever,

f resh g rasses a ttract

g ame a nd t he

f irst s pring r ains e ncourage t he a ppearance o f e dible m ushrooms. d uring

s pring

v isible s o g eophytes,

a nd

s ummer,

m any

g eophytic

t hat e dible c orms m ay b e c ollected r eadily. tring" ( Hypoxis s pp.) p redominate; " farmers - s

i s c ommon i n t he g rassland w hile H .

a rgentea

l ow-lying

( Mogg 1 975:22-4).

c orm, o n

d ark

c layey

m oist s oils

p opular among m odern h erdsmen,

s tony

a spect

g rassland, h illsides

w hich b ear d elicious m agaliesmontanum),

s emi-gregarious

g rows

S everal f airly h ardy s hrubs g row o n t he o f

t he

B ankenveld.

a pricot

i n

A nother e dible

t he f oot o f h ills w ith a s outhern

f ruits i n s ummer: w ild

i s

Among t hese H . r igidula

i s T ritonia n elsonii w hich

f requently a t

( Mogg 1 975:32).

n orth-facing

A lso

p lants b loom a nd b ecome

r ocky

Among t hese a re s hrubs

s tem f ruit,

( Landolphia

( Bequaertiodendron

c apensis)

a nd

m edlar

( Vangueria i nfausta). T he

s our

( Antidorcas w ildebeest c ommon

g rassland

o f

m arsupialis),

t he

B ankenveld

b lesbok

( Connochaetes g nou),

i n a ddition

t o o ther v egetation z ones.

w ith A ristida a nd

S chmidtia s pp.

e ven

t imes,

i n h istoric

t o

t he

t o

d orcas) s ome

s pringbok a nd

a nimal

t here a re s ome i ndications

t hey t ended t o m igrate i n l arge h erds

p lants

b lack s pecies

S pringbok p refer s weeter g rassveld

b ut

a dvantage o f a reas h aving f resh p astures I n a ddition

s upports

( Damaliscus

a nd

( Dorst & D andelot

a nimals

2 10

a lready

t hat, t o

t ake

1 970:248).

m entioned

a s

p otential

f ood

r esources,

t here

a re

y ear-round a vailability i n p erennial R iver.

T hese a quatic c reatures

( Varanus s p.)

a nd

f rogs.

a quatic

r ivers

c reatures w hich h ave

s uch

a s

t he

C rocodile

i nclude f ish, m ussels, m onitor

B arbels

( Clarias s pp.)

l izard

b reed d uring t he

w et

s eason w hen t hey f orm s hoals a nd m igrate i nto i nundated g rasslands t o s pawn ( Brandt 1 982:15). A t t his t ime o f y ear l arge n umbers o f C larias s pp. c an b e n etted. H owever, n o f ishing e quipment i s r equired i n t he d ry s eason w hen p ans a nd s mall s treams a re r educed t o m uddy h ollows; b arbels c an t hen b e d riven t o t he e dge o f a p ool a nd c aught b y h and.

A RCHAEOLOGICAL T ESTING O F T HE S UBSISTENCE S TRATEGY M ODEL I nitial

e xcavations h ave t aken p lace i n J ubilee S helter,

w hich i s

s ituated i n a k loof o n t he n orthern f ace o f t he M agaliesberg, e ast o f H artebeespoort D am. T he J ubilee S helter k loof i s a djacent t o a n arrow s trip o f B lack T urfveld ( dense, a nd

s hort b ushveld,

o ccurring o n b lack n oritic s oil)

w here t he n oritic T o d ate, e nd b ut

s oil i s r eplaced b y o ther s oil t ypes

6 m etre

a pproximately

i ncorporating

1

s quares

m .

h ave

m arula,

w hich g ives w ay t o s our b ushveld

b een

e xcavated

( Acocks t o

a

1 975).

d epth

o f

A t a d epth o f a bout 0 ,8 m t he H olocene d eposits

t here a ppears

t o

b e

a

c onsiderable

d epth

o f

P leistocene

d eposit r emaining b elow t he e xcavated o ccupation l evels. S ome p reliminary f aunal i dentifications h ave b een m ade, m ost o f t hese c oming f rom l ayers w hich I b elieve t o b e m ore r ecent t han 2 000 B P

( Units C ,

C ASH, R R,

B ,

L B,

G ,

B B).

S U,

L evels B M a nd R a re

t o b e l ate U pper P leistocene d eposits a nd B M c ontains w hich

f it

t ypologically

S mithfield". b ut

t he

k ind

o f

l arge

a ssemblage

t hought s crapers

c alled

L evels L a nd R L c ontain s egments a nd a dze-like

" Early s crapers

i t w ould b e p remature t o e stimate a d ate f or t hese l evels.

p ossible t hat a h iatus e xists b etween t hese l evels a nd t he l ater

o ccupation

d eposits.

i dentifications. a nd

i t

i s

S pecies

s ignificant

1

t hat

p ost-date

s pecies

2 000

w hile

p resent

B P.

t he p reliminary f aunal

t he b ushveld d iagnostic s pecies,

a re p resent n o p ositive i dentification

l ike s pringbok h as b een m ade.

w ide r ange o f

l ists

i dentification o f a ntelope w as m ade o n t eeth

i mpala a nd b lue w ildebeest, s pecies

T able

I t i s

o verlying,

T his

i n

m ay,

A p oint w orth m entioning i s t he

t o

e ight

s ome

u nits

e xtent,

t hat

o f t he

p robably

b e a q uestion o f

d ifferential p reservation o f b one b ut I t hink i t i s m ore l ikely t o

b e

t he r esult o f a b roadening o f t he r esource b ase. A lthough e ach o f

p lant

r emains

a re p oorly p reserved a t J ubilee S helter,

t he l evels s o f ar e xcavated h as

c arbonized s eeds.

M arula p redominates

c ontained s mall q uantities

n ot o ccur i n t he l ate P leistocene l evels. t erminal

P leistocene,

o ther

s eeds,

m ilkwood

F inally, s tone

s ome

( Mimusops

o f

i n

h ornfels a nd q uartz,

l atest

w hich a re s ummer

z eyheri), m ake

I m ention

a rtefacts

L ayer B M,

w hich i s p robably

c ontains Z iziphus m ucronata b ut n o m arula.

m ucronata a lso r eplaces m arula i n t he

t heir

l evels o f

l ocally

S helter. o btainable

t he s ite

Z .

w here

f ruits s uch a s T ransvaal r ed

f irst a ppearance.

t he r aw m aterials u sed f or t he J ubilee

o f

i n t he H olocene l evels b ut d oes

T hese i n

t he

m anufacture

o f

r aw m aterials i nclude M agaliesberg

s hale

b ands, a nd j aspilitic r ocks w hich h ave t heir o rigin i n t he c hert b ands o f t he D aspoortrand, s outh o f t he M agaliesberg. T hese j aspilitic

2 11

T able 1

P reliminary f aunal l ist f ror J ubilee Shelter illustrating bsence o f h ighveld t he p resense o f b ushveld s pecies a nd a s pecies.

E xcavated U nits

S pecies C 1C AS

1R R

I B 1L BI

G I

S U I

B IL B

1R L

1B M

1R I

h uman b aboon c arnivore h yrax

X

X

z ebra p ig/warthog

A

c ommon d uiker k lipspringer/ s teenbok r eedbuck i mpala b lue w ildebeest h artebeest i ndet. a lcelaphines

B oy.

1 ( small)

B oy.

2 ( small m edium) 3 ( medium) 4 ( large)

B oy. B oy.

x

1 1

x

x

x

3

2

3

3

3

3 1

1

2

1

2 2

1 2

2 1

2 1

2 2 1

2 1 2 1

1 2

2 3

2

h are p orcupine s quirrel b ird t ortoise m onitor l izard c rocodile b ullfrog f ish i ndet.freshw ater m ussel

B oy = B ovid x = p resence

2 12

r ocks a re c ommon P leistocene l evels.

i n t he H olocene d eposits b ut r are i n t he l ate A lthough t he p resence o f t he j aspilitic r ocks h as

n o s easonal i mplication, T he

h ypothetical

i t d oes c onfirm c ontact w ith t he h ighveld.

s ubsistence

s trategy I h ave d escribed m ay s how

t wo d eviations a t J ubilee S helter d uring t he l ast 2 0 t he

c omplexities

p aper.

I b elieve,

y ears,

b ut

o f c hanging s trategies a re b eyond t he s cope o f

t his

h owever,

00 0

t hat c hange f irst m ay b e r ecognized a t

t he

t ime w hen I ron A ge i mmigrations p robably i mpeded t he h unter-gatherers a ccess

t o

t heir

g athering

t raditional

s trategy

t o

h ave b een t he c onsequence o f c hange

m ay

b e

t hese

I ron A ge

g rassland,

a f act

o f

t he

i mmigrations.

S econdly,

1 980:242).

K alkbank

a nd

C ave

o f

b y

H earths

D uring t hese t imes o f a ltered e nvironments, c hanges

i n

f oragers s cheduled t heir c ollection o f a ddition

r eplaced

s upported a rchaeologically b y t he p resence o f

a re a lso l ikely t o h ave b een

I n

A daptation

t he T ransvaal b ushveld w as

s pringbok i n P leistocene d eposits a t ( Klein

a reas.

r ecognized w hen t he g rassland z ones m oved n orthwards.

D uring c ooler c limatic p hases, o pen

r esource

i nclude w ater r esources a nd s ummer f ruits m ay

t o J ubilee S helter,

K ruger C ave n ear R ustenburg,

t he

w ay

t hat

t here

p rehistoric

s easonal f oods. t here i s a nother S tone A ge s ite,

w hich i s

l ikely

t o

a dd

e normously

t o

i nformation o n t he r ange o f f oods e aten d uring p rehistoric t imes i n t he T ransvaal. K ruger C ave h as e xceptionally w ell-preserved p lant m aterial w hich i ncludes m arula a n3 w ild o range i n t he e arly H olocene l evels a nd s everal s pecies o f s ummer r ipening f ruits i n t he u pper l ayers ( Friede 1 974; M ason 1 974). T he g eographical p osition o f K ruger C ave, i n a n atural g ap i n t he m ountain w ith e asy a ccess t o t he n orth a nd s outh v alleys,

m akes

i t p ossible

t hat

t he s ite w ill c ontain a v ery

m ixed r ange o f b oth w et a nd d ry s eason f oods.

C ONCLUSION I n t his p aper

I h ave p roposed a

h ypothesis

s ubsistence s trategy o n t he h ighveld

( Bankenveld)

s ubsistence s trategy i n t he b ushveld. s trategy

w hich

( Bankenveld)

I

b elieve

T he

f or

a

s pring/summer

a nd a n a utumn/winter

s pring/summer

s ubsistence

t o b e a ppropriate f or t he s our

i s b ased o n s cheduling f or m igratory a nimal

g rasslands

s pecies

a nd

f or w et s eason f ruits a nd c orms. O n t he o ther h and, I b elieve t hat t he a utumn/winter s ubsistence s trategy m ay b e b ased p rimarily o n s cheduling

f or

t he

s easonal a vailability o f m arula i n t he b ushveld,

a lthough o ther f ruits a re a lso c ollected a nd a nimals s nared.

a p redictive h ypothesis, p resent,

t he

e xcavated

w hich I i ntend e vidence

o f

a nd

J ubilee S helter s upports

A t t he

T he p resence o f

c arbonized

a utumn a nd w inter f ruits p roves o ccupation o f

t he s helter

d uring t he d ry s eason; s pecies

h unted

f orm p art o f

t esting a rchaeologically.

f rom

m odel o f a b ushveld s ubsistence s trategy. r emains

a re

T hese s ubsistence s trategies a re n ot p roven b ut

c annot

e xclude

h owever, t he

t he n egative e vidence f or w et

s eason

p ossibility o f s ummer o ccupation o f

t he

s ite. N evertheless, t he o ccurrence i n J ubilee S helter o f j aspilitic r ocks d erived f rom t he D aspoortrand, s outh o f t he M agaliesberg, s hows t hat t he h unter-gatherers m ade u se o f t he g rassveld r egion. I t i s t herefore i n t he g rassveld r egion t hat I w ill f ocus t he n ext s tage o f m y h ypothesis t esting t hough i t i s o bvious t hat m ore d ata a re a lso r equired

f or

e ncampments a re

t he

b ushveld z one.

l ikely

t o

b e

I p redict

e phemeral

2 13

t hat,

a nd

i n t he g rasslands,

w idely

d ispersed,

a

s ituation m ade p ossible b y t emporary w et s eason p ans a nd p ools.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS M any p eople h ave a ssisted m y r esearch p roject a nd i t w ould b e i mpossible t o m ention t hem a ll b y n ame. H owever, I w ould l ike t o e xtend

e special

p reliminary S helter

t o

I .

P lug,

i dentifications

t hanks

o f

s ome

a nd t he l ate B .

T ransvaal f aunal

M useum,

r emains

f or m aking

f rom

J ubilee

M aguire, U niversity o f t he W itwatersrand,

h is a ssistance w ith t he c arbonized

s eeds.

I

h ave

b enefitted

f or f rom

d iscussions w ith R . J . M ason a nd R . S teel, U niversity o f t he W itwatersrand; t heir e ncouragement a nd c ooperation i s m uch a ppreciated. f or

t heir

I n a ddition, c ooperation

I t hank t he s taff o f t he f arm M agalieskloof

a nd

a lso

t he

m any

U niversity

o f

t he

W itwatersrand s tudents w ho h ave h elped w ith t he e xcavations. F inally, I w ould l ike t o t hank T . N . H uffman, T . M . E vers, M . O . V . T aylor a nd E . R obinson, U niversity o f t he W itwatersrand, f or t heir c omments o n t he f irst d raft o f t his p aper, a nd L . K retschmer a nd D . G elling f or t yping

t he

s uccessive d rafts.

T he r esearch p roject i s

f unded b y t he

H uman S ciences R esearch C ouncil.

R EFERENCES A COCKS,

J .

P . H .

S . A fr. B RANDT,

4 0.

F .

1 975.

V eld t ypes o f S outh A frica.

d e W .

1 982.

F auna & F lora 3 9: C OATES P ALGRAVE,

F OX,

F .

W .

K .

H .

1 974.

T rees 1 970.

o f

s outhern

A frica.

C ape

T own :

A f ield g uide t o t he l arger m ammals o f

C ollins.

N ORWOOD

J ohannesburg: F RIEDE,

S urv.

C larias -t he h yaena o f o ur r ivers a nd d ams.

1 977.

L ondon: &

b ot.

1 5-16.

S truik. D ORST, J . & D ANDELOT P . A frica.

M em.

( Second e dition).

Y OUNG,

M .

E .

1 982.

F ood

f rom

t he

v eld.

D elta B ooks. A pplication o f

C ave d eposit.

S . A fr. J .

t he f roth f lotation p rocess

S ci.

7 0:

H UGO, M . L . 1 979. D ie M agaliesberg. b ewaring e n b uitelugontspanning.

t o K ruger

3 75-6. -n m eester-plan v ir D eel I : U npubl. P h.D t hesis: U niversity

o f P otchefstroom. K ETTLITZ,

W .K.

1 962.

T he d istribution o f

s ome

o f

t he

l arger

g ame

m ammals i n t he T ransvaal. A nn. C ape P rov. M us. 2 . K LEIN, R . G . 1 980. E nvironmental a nd e cological i mplications o f l arge m ammals f rom U pper P leistocene a nd A frica. K RIGE,

E .

A nn. J .

B .

4 :

1 979.

P ress. M AGUIRE, B .

H olocene

s ites

i n

s outhern

23-283. 2 N ote o n t he P halaborwa a nd t heir m arula c omplex.

1 937.

B antu S tud. L EE, R .

S . A fr. M us.

8 1:

3 57-366.

T he

! Kung

1 978.

T he

S an. f ood

e astern S outh W est A frica.

C ambridge: p lants U npubl.

o f

C ambridge

t he

M .Sc.

U niversity

! Khu B ushmen o f n orth

t hesis:

U niversity

o f

t he W itwatersrand. MASON,

R .

J .

1 974.

L ater S tone A ge p lant r emains f rom K ruger C ave,

O lifantsnek, R ustenburg D istrict. M OGG,

A .

O .

D .

J ohannesburg: P ALMER,

E .

T own:

&

1 975.

I mportant

U niversity o f

P ITMAN,

N .

1 972.

S . A fr.

J .

S ci.

p lants

o f

7 0:

3 76.

S terkfontein.

t he W itwatersrand. T he t rees o f

B alkema.

2 14

s outhern A frica.

C ape

1 9.

A P ROFILE O F T HE I RuN A GE I N T HE K RUGER N ATIONAL P ARK,

S OUTH A FRICA

A . M eyer

I NTRODUCTION T he K ruger N ational P ark i s s ituated S outh I ts

o n

i ts e astern s ide b y M ozambique

o f 1 ).

t otal l ength f rom n orth t o s outh i s a l ittle m ore t han 3 50 k m,

a nd

a verage

b ordered

i n t he n orth-eastern p art ( Fig.

i ts

A frica,

w idth f rom w est t o e ast

o f a pproximately 1 9 45

i s a bout 6 0 k m ,

c overing a n a rea

5 28 h a.

A fter t he d eclaration s ubsequent t ermination o f

o f t he K ruger P ark i n 1 898 a nd t he h uman s ettlement w ithin i ts b orders, m any

y ears p assed b efore s cientific i nterest i n t he e vidence f or e arly i n t he r egion w as a roused a mong P arks B oard o fficials a rchaeologists. a rchaeological

T he k een i nterest o f a g ame r anger a nd e thnohistorical i nvestigation o f

M akahane i n t he P unda M aria a rea b y E loff a nd D e w as

f ollowed

b y

l ed t o t he t he r uins o f ( 1968).

T hat

a n e thno-archaeological p roject o n M asorini H ill i n

t he P halaborwa a rea f rom 1 974 t o 1 977 t he

V aal

m an a nd

e stablishment

o f

t he

( Eloff

1 976) w hich

r esulted

o pen

a ir m useum.

B y t hat

M asorini

i n t ime

a rcheological r esearch h ad d eveloped i nto a f ull s cale r egional s urvey o f t he P ark. T he r esearch w ill e ventually c oncentrate o n t he r econstruction o f

i ndividual c ultures a nd

t heir n atural e nvironments.

T HE NATURAL E NVIRONMENT T he K ruger P ark f alls w ithin t he l owveld e nvironment. v ary m ,

f rom l ess

m ost o f t he r egion l ying b etween 5 00 m a nd 2 00 m a bove

T he

w estern

E levations

t han 1 0 00 m a bove s ea l evel t o s omewhat m ore

p art o f

t han 1 00

s ea

l evel.

t he P ark i s c haracterized b y a r olling l andscape

d ominated b y a rchaean g ranites w ith p re-Karoo g abbro i ntrusions. s oils v ary f rom c oarse t o f ine f erisiallitic d eveloped s hallow s ands, c haracteristic f eatures o f

s oils a nd bar ns

T he

t o w eakly

l oams a nd c lays. T o t he e ast, t he t he P ark a re m ainly f latlands c onsisting o f

b asalts a nd s hale w ith w eakly d eveloped s hallow s oils a nd s mectic c lay s oils. T he L ebombo M ountain r ange w hich l ies a long t he e astern b order o f t he P ark c onsists o f r hyolite, d acite a nd l ithosoils. M ean s ummer t emperatures v ary f rom m ore t han 3 0°C i n t he n orth t o l ess t han 2 0°C i n

t he

s outh-west;

a nd

m ean

w inter

n t he n orth t o a pproximately 2 0°C i

t emperatures

v ary

1 0°C i n t he s outh-west.

r ainfall w hich o ccurs m ainly d uring s ummer,

v aries

f rom

T he a nnual

f rom 8 00 m m i n

t he

P unda M aria a nd P retoriuskop a reas t o 4 00 mm o ver m ost o f t he n orthern h alf o f t he P ark. D roughts a re n ot u ncommon. T he m ain r ivers i n t he P ark

f low

L impopo, t he

f rom

w est

t o

e ast

t he S hingwedzi a nd i ts

O lifants,

a nd

t he

t owards

t he

I ndian O cean,

t wo m ain t ributaries

S abie a nd t he C rocodile.

t he

n amely t he L etaba

a nd

T he m ost i mportant

c atchment a rea o f t hese r ivers i s t he e astern T ransvaal e scarpment, w hile t he s easonal t ributaries o f t he l owveld a lso a dd t o t heir f low. T he v egetation i s b roadly

c lassified

2 15

a s

s avanna.

M opane

v eld

i s

Y . R \ 3G E _

0 0 a -

PA Y .

k ilometres

P halaborwa

4 )

c a

2 16

c r ,

d ominant a reas.

i n

t he

n orth a nd m ixed s avanna i n t he c entral a nd s outhern

T he v egetation o f

c ommunities

w hich

h ave

( Gertenbach 1 983). a n

t he P ark,

h owever,

r ecently

b een c lassified i nto

T he w ell-known f auna o f

c onsists o f a v ariety

A bundant f rom

t he

t he d istribution p atterns

t o p articular t ypes o f n atural e nvironment.

t races o f h uman p resence i n t he K ruger P ark a rea,

S tone

A ge a nd

v ery m uch p art o f

t he I ron A ge,

t he g eneral

i ndicate

l andscape

o ver

d ating

t hat p eople h ave b een a

l ong

p eriod.

T he

a bundant f auna a nd f lora p rovided v ital s ubsistence r esources t o S tone A ge h unting a nd g athering c ommunities. O n t he o ther h and, h ot,

d ry

c limate

o f

l andscapes

t he P ark i s r epresented b y

i mpressive v ariety o f m ammalian s pecies,

o f w hich a re r elated

3 5

a nd

l imited w ater s ources

i n l arge a reas,

c oupled

w ith t he f requent o ccurrences o f h uman a nd

a nimal

m alaria,

f orm a h ostile e nvironment

a nthrax

w hich c hallenged d uring

a nd

n agana,

c ombined

t he e xistence o f

h istorical t imes,

t o

t raditional

d iseases

t he t he

s uch

a s

I ron A ge f arming s ystems

a nd u ndoubtedly a ffected e arlier

s ubsistence

p atterns a s w ell. T he a bundance o f I ron A ge s ettlements i n a n a pparently h ostile e nvironment m ay n eed t o b e e xplained i n t erms o f s ocio-political a nd e nvironmental p opulation

c onditions.

g rowth

S ocio-political

p ressure

a nd p olitical

c onditions,

s uch

m ore f avourable e nvironments m ust h ave c aused t he d ispersal o f i nto

l ess

f avourable

e nvironmental d epopulation a dapt

e nvironments.

c onditions o f

t heir s ubsistence

p robably

c ould

p articular

r esulted

F luctuating

h ave

l ed

r egions.

t o

p atterns

t he

t heir

p eople i n p ast

p opulation

a nd

T he c apability o f s ocieties

s ystems t o d ivergent o r c hanging

i n

a s

t ension a mong s ocieties i n

t o

e nvironments

v oluntary s ettling i n d ifferent n atural

e nvironments. T he i nvestigation o f i nvolves

t he

c orrect

t hese a spects o f

i dentification o f

t he l ocal I ron A ge o bviously s ocieties,

c ultures a nd t heir

d istribution p atterns. V arious m ethods o f c ulture i dentification s patial s trategies a re r equired f or t hese p urposes.

a nd

I RON A GE I DENTITY A ND D ISTRIBUTION K ey c hange

a spects o f a re

t he

s patial

s tudies a nd

i dentification

o f

t he r econstruction o f p articular

c ultural

s ocieties,

t heir

r espective c ultures o r i ndustries a s w ell a s t heir d istribution i n t ime a nd s pace a gainst t he b ackground o f t he n atural e nvironment. M ethods o f i dentification p roved t o b e b oth d ifficult a nd i mportant. E arly t ypology

I ron A ge r emains w ere m ainly i dentified i n t erms o f p ottery a nd

i dentification

s ettlement

c haracteristics.

U nfortunately,

t he

o f L ater I ron A ge r emains b y m eans o f p ottery t ypology

o ften p roved t o b e

m isleading.

S everal

h istorically

k nown

e thnic

g roups t ended t o d iscard m any o f t heir t raditional t raits, w hile a t t he s ame t ime a dopting f oreign c ultural t raits, s uch a s p ottery s tyles,

f rom n on-related n eighbouring o r r uling t ribes.

o r p olitical d omination o f o ne e thnic g roup b y i ntermarriage

among

d ifferent

e thnic

e xchange o f i deas r esulted i n c onfusing a nd

f oreign c ultural

g roups,

t raits.

t heir e thnic h istory,

a nother,

g roups

a nd

c ombinations

t he o f

T he c ultural l arge

s cale

c onsequent t raditional

T he l inguistic c lassification o f e thnic s ocio-political a nd

2 17

e conomical

s ystems

as well as the ethnic diversity of heterogeneous societies provide possible means of identification other than pottery typology. Sources of information that might be useful for the identification or characterizing of people or cultures can perhaps be summarized as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Pottery typology. Combinations of archaeologically determined cultural features such as settlement patterns, technology and economy. Language classification. Ethno-historical identity, based on genealogies of chiefs. Ethnographic identity, including non-material aspects of culture such as the social structuring of settlement patterns, religious customs and economic systems. Social identity, in the case of historically known heterogeneous populations with divergent historical origins and languages, but sharing a common socio-political or economic system.

GENERAL IRON AGE CHRONOLOGY OF THE KRUGER NATIONAL PARK Only a few radiocarbon dates of Iron Age sites are at present available. In the meantime, pottery typology and general site characteristics provide indications ?f the relative age of the Iron Age remains. The Early Iron Age is fairly well represented in the Kruger Park. Early Iron Age sites in the Kruger Park are situated on deep alluvial soils on the banks of the major rivers, often at the confluence of a river and one of its main tributaries. A single component site, containing pottery similar to the pottery from Silver Leaves near Tzaneen, occurs on the northern bank of the Letaba River. The Silver Leaves site and its pottery, as described by Klavwijk (1974), is dated to AD 250 (Hall & Vogel 1980). An analysis of the bone material by Plug (1982) shows that the inhabitants of the site obtained their meat mainly by hunting. At the confluence of the Limpopo and Levubu rivers in the north, road construction activities unearthed a concentration of bone and comb-stamped pottery. The pottery is similar to that from Early Iron Age sites in the south-east of Zimbabwe, dated to ea AD 800. The idea of comb-stamped decoration seemed to have spread to pottery makers as far south as the Letaba and Olifants rivers during the earlier and later phases of the Iron Age. The bone sample found on the Limpopo site was insufficient for identification purposes. Two sites on the banks of the Letaba River contain pits with quantities of bone as well as pottery which are typologically related to the material from Early Iron Age sites in the Soutpansberg. The two Letaba River sites have recently been dated to AD 790 (Pta-3491) and AD 830 (Pta-3478) respectively. Another related site, situated at the Olifants River, has been dated to AD 850 (Pta-3473). H. P. Prinsloo (pers. comm.), who has been investigating the Soutpansberg sites for the past decade, realized in 1974 that these sites are related to the Early Iron· Age sites of Dambwa and others in the Zambezi valley. T�e Soutpansberg sites, dated to between AD 330 and 640, indicate that in the west a southward migration of Early Iron Age

218

p eople r eached t he n orth-western T ransvaal d uring t he f ourth c entury A D. D escendants o f t hese S outpansbLrg p eople a pparently c ontinued a s outh-eastward d rift i nto t he L etaba R iver v alley a nd s ettled o n t he d eep

a lluvial

s oils w hich c haracterize

t he b anks o f

t he L etaba R iver

n ear t he L etaba r est c amp. S everal s ites o n t he r iver b anks i n t he s outhern h alf o f t he K ruger P ark c ontain p ottery s imilar t o t he m aterial f rom e lsewhere i n t he e astern T ransvaal, B roederstroom n ear P retoria a nd i n N atal. T hese s ites, i ndicating a n i nflux o f E arly I ron A ge p eople f rom t he e ast,

c an b e d ivided i nto

f irst

g roup i s

b y E vers

t wo r elated g roups.

t ypologically r elated t o

( 1974,

1 981),

E nkwazini

t hat

( Hall 1 980),

a nd B roederstroom ( Mason 1 981). b elong t o t he p eriod A D 3 00 t o 5 00.

T he

p ottery

f rom

t he

f rom E iland a s d escribed M zonjani

( Maggs

1 980)

T hese K ruger P ark s ites p robably O ne s ite f rom t he s econd g roup o f

K ruger P ark s ites h as r ecently b een d ated t o A D 7 40 ( Pta-3507). T he p ottery o f t he s econd g roup, a lthough t ypologically r elated t o t he f irst g roup, m ore c losely r esembles t he p ottery f rom L ydenburg, P laston a nd t o s ome e xtent l atter t hree

t he m aterial f rom K lingbeil.

f rom

t he

1 982)

a nd d ated f rom t he 4 th t o

T he

s ites h as b een d escribed b y E vers

A m ultitude o f L ater

m aterial

( 1977,

1 980,

t he 1 1th c entury A D.

I ron A ge s ites

h as

s o

f ar

b een

r ecorded,

d isplaying a v ariety o f s ettlement c haracteristics a nd p ottery s tyles. e ll k nown a nd r equire r esearch S ome o f t hese a re a t p resent n ot b efore t heir

a ny c onclusions w ith r egard

c o t he i dentity a nd l ife s tyles o f

I ron A ge c ommunities c an b e m ade.

h ave

b een

i nvestigated,

n amely

t he

T wo L ater I ron A ge P halaborwa

c omplexes

C omplex

a nd

t he

C rocodile R iver C omplex.

T HE P HALABORWA C OMPLEX ( Fig. S ites o n

t he

t hat b elong t o s lopes

o f

2 )

t he P halaborwa L ater

h ills

t hat

I ron A ge

C omplex

o ccur

a re s cattered a cross t he c ountryside

b etween t he O lifants R iver i n t he s outh, t he L etaba R iver i n n orth, L etaba r est c amp i n t he e ast a nd G ravelotte i n t he w est. t he K ruger P ark, e nvironments

t hese

w hich

s ettlements a re

a re

c lassified

r espectively b y t he N ational P arks B oard L andscape n o. a nd

t he

L etaba

8 i s

s ituated a s

i n

l andscapes

T he

t ypes 8

a nd

o f 1 0

( Gertenbach 1 983).

t he w atershed a rea b etween t he

R iver.

t wo n o

t he I n

O lifants

R iver

l andscape i s c haracterized b y a rchaean

g ranite a nd i solated h ills c onsisting o f

i ntrusive

s yenite

b elonging

t o t he P halaborwa I gneous C omplex. T he P halaborwa I ron A ge p eople s ettled o n t hese h ills s uch a s M asorini, S hikumbu a nd V hudogwa. T he s urface o f t he r olling l andscape c onsists o f c oarse f ersiallitic s ands a nd bar ns. T he c limate i s h ot a nd d ry. T he v egetation i s c lassified a s

P halaborwa

S able a ntelope ( Aepyceros

S andveld,

d ominated

b y b loubos

( Hippotragus n iger), b uffalo

m elampus),

z ebra

( Terminalia s ericea).

( Syncerus c affer),

( Equus b urchelli)

a nd o ther

i mpala

f auna a bound

i n t he a rea. L andscape n o. a nd

1 0 i ncludes

L ittle L etaba r ivers.

t he w estern d rainage a rea o f

b y w eakly d eveloped s hallow c alcareous s ands a nd l oams. f eature

o f

t he

a rea

i s

t he

L etaba

T he u nderlying a rchaean g ranite i s c overed t he

o ccurrence

2 19

o f

A

p rominent

i solated h ills

s uch a s


  

    















 












 

 



 























220

B iashishi a nd M acetse, o n w hich P halaborwa I ron A ge s ettlements a re f ound. T he c limate i s v ery h ot a nd d Ly. T he v egetation i s s parse a nd i s c lassified a s t he L etaba R ugged V eld. T here i s a l arge f aunal p opulation, o f w hich e lephant ( Loxodonta a fricana), b uffalo, z ebra, i mpala a nd g iraffe ( Giraffa c amelopardalis) a re s ome o f t he m ost i mportant s pecies. T he

P halaborwa

I ron

A ge

p eople s eem t o h ave a voided t he m opane

( Colophospermum m opane) w oodland ( landscape n o. 9 ) t o t he n orth o f P halaborwa S andveld, a s w ell a s t he O lifant R ugged V eld ( landscape 7 ) t o t he s outh, f or s ettlement p urposes. T heir s ettlements o n h ill s lopes a re c haracterized b y s tone w alled t erraces o n w hich

t he n o. t he t he

r emains o f h uts a nd i n s ome c ases s melting f urnaces a re p reserved. T he r emains o f n umerous s melting f urnaces w ith a b asically t riangular f orm o ccur o n l evel g round b elow t he s lope o f t he t errace w alls. I ron i mplements, g rindstones a nd g lass t rade-beads a re f ound i n q uantity o n t hese s ites. P ottery i s a lso c ommon. T ypologically, P halaborwa p ottery i s v ery s imilar t o t he c ontemporary V enda p ottery f urther n orth,

i ndicating c ultural i nfluence o f t he V enda.

E thno-historical e vidence p roves c onclusively t hat t he I ron

A ge

s ites

w ere

i nhabited

P halaborwa

b y t he p resent-day P halaborwa S otho

t ribe o f t he a rea. A ccording t o o ral t radition, t he P halaborwa o riginally m igrated f rom t he n orth, l ed b y a c ertain c hief M alatsi, a nd s ettled a t M apulaneng n ear B osbokrant i n t he e astern T ransvaal. E ventually t hey m oved t o t he P halaborwa a rea h aving d riven o ut t he o riginal S okane t ribe i nhabitants o f t he a rea. T he P halaborwa w ere i nitially a s mall g roup o f p eople w ithout c attle, a lthough s ome w ere s killed m etalworkers ( Du T oit 1 968) w ho s uccessfully e xploited t he m etal r esources o f t he P halaborwa I gneous C omplex. T hey d eveloped a h ighly l ucrative t rade w ith t he s urrounding t ribes. A ccording t o i nfluential

D u

t ribe

T oit d uring

( 1968) t he

t he

P halaborwa

1 8th c entury.

b ecame

a

f airly

B etween 1 790 a nd 1 860,

h owever, i nternal p olitical t ensions a nd l ocal m ilitary c onflicts a s w ell a s r aids b y t he Z ulu a nd S wazi f rom t he s outh d iminished t he p ower o f t he P halaborwa. A fter t he a ppearance o f f actory-made p roducts f rom w estern c ountries d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he 1 9th c entury, t he i ron i ndustry o f t he P halaborwa l ost i ts i mportance t o t he s urrounding t ribes, a nd t he c ornerstone o f t he P halaborwa e conomy w as w iped o ut. C onsequently, t hey c hanged t o a b asic c attle-herding a nd a gricultural e conomy. D ue t o t he f act t hat t he n atural e nvironment i s h ostile t o m ixed f arming, m any m embers o f t he t ribe d rifted a way t o m ore s uitable e nvironments w hich w ere i nhabited b y n eighbouring t ribes. T he n ature o f c ontact b etween t he P halaborwa t ribes m ight e xplain w hy t he P halaborwa c hose

a nd n eighbouring t o s ettle i n t he

P halaborwa a rea. A ccording t o K rige ( 1937) " . t he l ow-lying, u nhealthy b ushveld w hich t hey o ccupy i s a n a rea w here t he r ainfall i s u ncertain, c rops b eing g enerally p oor a nd s tarvation a n e ventuality t o w hich

t he

p eople h ave g rown a ccustomed."

K rige ( 1937) a lso m entions

t hat P halaborwa m ilitary e xpeditions a gainst t he L obedu i n t he w est a nd t heir h abit o f e ndeavouring t o r aise c rops i n L obedu c ountry m ight h ave b een a r esult o f f amine i n t heir o wn c ountry. P opulation p ressure i n m ore

f avourable

2 21

e nvironments

m ight

h ave

f orced t he P halaborwa t o m ove i nto l ess f avourable e nvironments w here t hey h ad t o r ely o n s killful m anipula_ion o f t he a vailable r esources. T hey o bviously s ettled i n t he P halaborwa a rea b ecause i t p rovided e asy a ccess

t o

r ich

m etal

o res

n eeded

b y

t heir

m etal-craftsmen.

I n

a ddition, t hey h ad t o m aintain s ufficient t rade r elationships w ith n eighbouring t ribes w ho p ractised m ixed f arming, i n o rder t o a cquire p rovisions i n e xchange f or

i ron h oes a nd o ther m etal i mplements

b y t he

i n t he e scarpment a rea a nd e lsewhere.

f arming c ommunities

n eeded

T he P halaborwa t echno-economic c omplex i s p robably s imilar t o t he M abhija p re-colonial i ndustry i n t he T ugela B asin i n N atal. M aggs ( 1982)

r egards

i ron-working

t he M abhija r emains a s s ites

k nown

s pecialist p roduction o f r elated t o e xchange.

s o

t he

f ar

s urplus

i n

i ron

l argest

N atal.

i mplements

( Fig.

b e

s tudied

i n

i solation.

c ommunities a re c losely r elated f rom

N guni

t he f rom

N atal

d istribution p atterns o f

T owards

C rocodile

t o a v ariety o f

e scarpment a rea i n t he w est i nto

t he K omati,

p opulations

w ere

t he

c hanged i n

o f t he

S waziland

b etween

r ole

d ensely

N sikazi

a nd

B arberton I n t his

i n p art

t he C rocodile R iver a nd i ts m ain t ributaries

i mportant

i n

t he

p opulated.

l ocal

T hese w ere

b etween W hite R iver a nd P retoriuskop, o f

m ovement

t he n orth. I ron

A rchaeological a nd h istorical e vidence i ndicate t hat r egions

e nvironments

A D 1 700 a s ubstantial p opulation o f S otho-speaking p eople

t he e astern T ransvaal, a n

n atural

C rocodile a nd S able R ivers.

t o h ave d eveloped i n t he e scarpment a rea

p layed

v alley

t o t he l owveld a nd t he

d ramatically

t he s outh a nd t he L ydenburg-Nelspruit a rea t o o f

c losely

R iver

T he n orthward

S waziland

t he e arlier S otho

a nd t he c atchment a reas o f

s eems

i s

T he s ettlement a nd s ubsistence o f

c oastal r egion a round M aputo i n t he e ast. t he

t here

3 )

T he p rehistory a nd e thnic h istory o f t he

r anging

o f t he

t rade w ith t he N atal h ighland f armers w ho o ffered c attle i n

T HE C ROCODILE R IVER C OMPLEX

c annot

c oncentration

A ccording t o h im,

t he

C rocodile

h istory.

l east

t hree

t he N sikazi R iver a rea

t he a rea a round r ivers,

A ge

a t

a nd

t he

c onfluence

t he r egion a round

K omatipoort. I t t he

i s e vident

t hat a t

l east

i n t he c ase o f

t he N sikazi R iver

a rea

n atural e nvironment m ust h ave a llowed a d ense p opulation b uild-up

d uring t he l ate 1 7th, 1 8th a nd 1 9th c enturies. T he N ational P arks B oard h as i dentified t he N sikazi r egion a long t he s outh-western b order o f t he K ruger P ark a s l andscape 1 , c omprising t he L owveld S our B ushveld o f P retoriuskop. T his a rea i s c haracterized b y a s trongly a ccentuated r olling l andscape. T he a rchaean g ranite a nd g neiss f ormations a re c overed b y f ersiallitic s oils, s mectic c lay s oils a nd s olonetzic c lay s oils.

T he

T he h eight a bove s ea r ainfall i s f airly h igh, r ange

s oils o n t he w atersheds

f rom 3 5oC i n s ummer

t o

1 0oC

b loubos

a nd

w atershed a rea t he c ontrast

t o

t he

b astard o pen

a cacia s avanna

P halaborwa

u nsuitable f or e lephant,

v ery

s andy.

i n w inter i n t he P retoriuskop a rea.

T he l andscape i s c haracterized b y t he L owveld b y

a re

l evel v aries f rom 5 50 t o 6 50 m . T he a nnual m r anging f rom 6 00 t o 1 0 00 m. T emperatures

c inerea).

f eatures

s our

a rea,

b uffalo,

S our B ushveld,

( Dichrostachys t he

t all

P retoriuskop

w ildebeest

2 22

d ominated I n

t he

g rasses.

I n

l andscape

( Connochaetes

s pp.)

i s a nd

2 23

z ebra.

T he

P retoriuskop

l andscape i s t he p rime h abitat o f r eedbuck

( Redunca a rundinum ),

k udu

( Ceratotherium s imum)

a nd s able a ntelope

A s

a

r esult o f

( Tragelaphus

s trepsiceros),

i n

t he

r hino

t he f airly h igh r ainfall a nd h igh t emperatures,

v ariety o f i nsects a nd a nimal p arasites e xist r esults

w hite

( Hippotragus n iger).

i n

t he

r egion.

a

T his

o ccurrence o f v arious e ndemic d iseases a mong c attle.

C attle r aised i n t he r egion a t

p resent

t end t o b e s mall

i n

s ize

w hen

m ature a s a r esult o f t he h igh t emperatures a nd t heir d iet w hich c onsists m ainly o f s our g rasses ( Bonsma 1 976). T he f act t hat t han

f or

t he N sikazi

c attle

k eeping

r egion i s m ore s uitable f or

a griculture

i s r eflected b y t he o ccurrence o f n umerous

g rindstones o n p ractically e very w atershed i n t he a rea. s catters o f p otsherds a nd m any o f m ust

t he s ites

h ave

N sikazi

i ndicate

e xisted

i n

t hat a l arge c oncentratior

t he N sikazi v alley.

u ndecorated

v essels

s imilar

t hose f ound a t v arious N atal L ater M aggs

( 1979).

P ottery

I ron A ge s ites

s imilar

t o

t he

s ettlements

d escribed

t he P ark.

a djacent

e vidence c learly i ndicates N sikazi a rea,

t o

H owever,

K ruger

t hat a s ubstantial

b y

H all

N sikazi

v alley

a nd

T he a rchaeological

p opulation

e xisted

i n

o r N atal N guni w ares.

t he e thnic h istory o f

o f

b ag

d ependent o n a n a gricultural e conomy a nd p ossessing

p ottery s imilar t o t he S wazi

m ajority

t he

b y

N sikazi P lain W are i s

p resently w idely u sed b y t he i nhabitants o f

t he

o f

t o t hose m ade b y t he S wazi a nd

B osbokrant

a rea

s parse

T he p ottery f ound o n t he

s ites b elongs t o a p lain-ware t radition c haracterized

s haped, a nd

H ere

t he p resence o f s mall s tone b urial-mounds o n

t he N sikazi v alley p roves

t he i nhabitants w ere S otho-speakers.

t hat

A t l east f our

t he S otho

t ribes o riginally s ettled i n t he a rea, n amely t he N gomane, t he P ai, t he P ulana a nd K utswe. T he l atter t hree a re c ollectively k nown a s t he E astern S otho. t he

A t a l ater

N sikazi v alley.

i nvaded

s tage

T hey a re

t wo T songa e thnic g roups

t he H langanu a nd N kuna.

t he a rea f rom t he s outh,

c entury,

r eplacing

m oved

i nto

T he S wazi,

s ettled i n t he v alley d uring t he

w ho 1 9th

t he S otho p opulation i n t he C rocodile v alley a rea

( Myburgh 1 949). A ccording t o M yburgh ( 1949) S otho

w ho

l ived

i n

t he

t he

r eaches o f t he N sikazi R iver. u Mlumati

( Lomati)

R iver

N gomane

p eople

o riginally

A t

c a

A D

1 700

t hey

s outh-east o f K omatipoort.

t o

t he

F rom t here

m oved

t hey

m oved t o t he uMgwenya ( Crocodile) R iver a t c a A D 1 750. c ontact w ith t he T songa t urned t he N gomane i nto T songa. b y t he S wazi f urther d ecreased T hey e ventually s pread i nto t he n atural e nvironment c an S avanna ( landscape n o. 1 7) ( landscape n o. Ngomane

2 9)

s ites

i n

b e t o

a rea

d escribed a s M arula a nd K nobthorn t he w est o f t he L ebombo M ountain r ange w ill

P ottery

f ound

o n

A ccording s uggests w ho

t hat

e scaped

t o

b y

p eople

a rea.

Z iervogel

( 1954)

t he h istory o f

t he E astern S otho

t hey a re r epresentatives o f t he e arly S otho o f S waziland f rom t he S wazi w hilst o thers w ere o verrun a nd c ompletely

a bsorbed b y t he n orthern

p resumably

a rchaeologically b e d escribed a s

N gwenya W are a nd h as b een i dentified a s S otho p ottery m ade w ho l ive i n t he , B osbokrant

P rolonged S ubjugation

t heir i nitial S otho c ultural i dentity. t he s outh-east o f t he K ruger P ark w here

( Gertenbach 1 983). t his

w ere

v icinity o f L ugogodo M ountain i n t he u pper

N atal.

S wazi I t

w hen i s

s aid

t he

l atter

t hat

t he P ai c ame f rom t he T ugela v alley

2 24

i nvaded

t he

c ountry

f rom

i n N atal. n orth

T hey w ere d isturbed b y o ther

w here

t ribes

a nd

m igrated

t hey w ere e ventually s ubjugated b y t he S wazi.

a l arge p ortion o f t he N sikazi v alley p opulation a re s peak m ostly S wazi. T he

t he

p eople

w ho

P ulana o riginally l ived i n t he B arberton a rea f rom w here

t hey

m oved t o a h ill n orth-east o f P retoriuskop t he h ill Z iervogel,

P ai

t o

A t p resent

( Ziervogel

1 954),

p robably

t hat i s a t p resent k nown a s S habeni. H ere, a ccording t o t hey w ere e xtremely s uccessful i n r aising g rain c rops.

W hen t he S wazi r aids i n t he a rea c ommenced, h owever, t he P ulana w ere c ompelled t o m ove a way a nd t he t ribe s plit i nto s everal s ections. K utswe o ral t ribal

t radition m entions

l eader.

t he n orthern Z iervogel

T hey m igrated

p arts

t he

o f

c ertain

T lou

S waziland

( Ziervogel

a s

t heir

1 954).

K utswe l ater m oved n orthwards,

p ressure b y t he a dvancing S wazi N sikazi v alley. o f

a

f irst

f rom t he w est a nd e ventually s ettled A ccording

i n t o

p robably a s a r esult o f

f rom t he s outh,

a nd

s ettled

i n

t he

T he t ribe e ventually b ecame i nfluential i n t he r egion

t he S abie R iver t o t he n orth o f P retoriuskop. A ccording t o o ral t radition,

t ribe

i n Z ululand,

T owards

f rom w here

t he e nd o f t he

s ettled

i n

1 978).

1 7th c entury t hey m oved t hrough

M ozambique

w here

T hey s ettled o n b oth

i ncluding 1 962).

t he N hlanganu w as o riginally a S waziland

a nd

t hey e ventually b ecame T songa ( Hartman s ides

o f

t he K ruger P ark a rea t o

S ome o f

N guni

t hey m oved n orthwards l ed b y M hlangana.

t he

L ebombo

t he n orth o f

t he N hlanganu p eople e ventually

m ountain

r ange

t he S able R iver

( Junod

j oined t he c ommunities

i n t he N sikazi v alley. T he

N kuna,

a N guni

t ribe a t N gome i n n orthern Z ululand, m oved t o

L ydenburg v ia t he e astern e scarpment a nd t hereafter m igrated d own i nto t he

l owveld,

i ncluding

( Djonga-speaking)

p eople.

i n

t hey

M ozambique,

M ozambique,

m oved

a way

t he

s urrounding

d eclaration o f d istrict,

t he

S otho

K ruger

t he

t hey

b ecame

T songa

1 9th c entury t ribal w ars

e ventually

i nvolved

t ribes

P ark,

t he

a nd

P retoriuskop a rea w here t hey b ecame w ith

w here

A s a r esult o f

i n

( Hartman N kuna

s ettled

m ilitary 1 978).

s ettled

i n

t he

c onflicts A fter

i n

t he

t he M hala

n orth o f t he S able R iver.

C ONCLUSION D uring

t he

E arly

I ron

A ge

c a

A D 4 00 t o

1 000,

m etal-producing

c ommunities

s ettled o n d eep a lluvial s oils o n t he b anks o f

r ivers

t he

i n

K ruger

b one s amples b y I . l arge

e xtent

s hows

N ational P ark.

P lug ( pers.

c omm.)

M ozambique,

t he K ruger P ark e nvironment

i ndicates

t hat

o n a h unting o rientated e conomy.

t hat c ommunities b elonging t o

N atal,

a rea

t he

m ajor

P reliminary i dentification o f t hey r elied

E vidence

t he E arly I ron

A ge

t o

c omplexes

Z imbabwe a nd n orth-western T ransvaal m igrated

a rea.

T he

w here

K ruger

t he

P ark

s eems

t o

b e

a bovementioned c omplexes

a

f rom p ottery

a

o f i nto

m arginal

t o s ome e xtent

o verlapped e ach o ther. B etween c a A D 1 000 a nd s parsely

s ettled

b y

1 500 t he K ruger

p eriod h ave n ot y et b een i dentified. h owever,

P ark

r egion

w as

e ither

I ron A ge p eople o r s ettlements b elonging t o

t he L ater I ron A ge

B etween c a

A D

1 500

a nd

t he

1 900,

i s c haracterized b y a d ramatic i ncrease o f

2 25

s ettlements

i n c ertain r egions

r egion

P halaborwa S otho

t he

u nsuitable h owever,

f or a nd

m ixed w ere

o f

t he K ruger P ark.

f arming.

a ble

t o

T hey

t rade

p roduced

T he

N sikazi

v alley

f or c attle-keeping d ue t all,

s our

s ufficient

w as

t o

i mplements,

t hem t o b ase a l arge

a pparently

t he e conomy o f

T he

t he N sikazi

t ribes,

l ater a lso

p art

o f

c omplexes

m ust

t ribes

v alley

c hanged

t ypology

a

P ark

g roups a nd N guni

t he

A frica

d ivisions o f

b ased

a s

s outh,

i dentity o f

l arge

a llow

t he

s oils,

s upported

b y

c onclusively t hat a griculture.

T he

s ome o f

t he L ater

a

I ron

e xtent b e b ased o n e thnic h istory.

r esult o f c ultural a nd

g roups.

o f

r epresented

l anguage,

s ocio-political

D uring t he L ater

I ron

A ge

t he

t he o verlapping e thnic

t he S otho

f rom

t he

w est,

t he

t he T songa f rom t he e ast a nd K arange a nd V enda

T he e astern T ransvaal l owveld w here,

t he

i s

o n

c learly w as a m arginal a rea w here

f rom t he n orth. S outh

T his

t heir c ultural i dentity i n t erms

e tc.

t heir c ultures

f rom

s parse t o

T he c limate a nd

S wazi a nd T songa e lements.

t he e thnic

d omination b y f oreign e thnic K ruger

w as

d ensely s uitable

c onsisting i nitially o f v arious S otho

i ncluded

t o

m ost v ery

i n t he l owveld a nd

e vidence w hich s hows

h eterogeneous,

T he d etermination o f

t he

f auna w as p robably t oo

h istorical

w as

b ut

f ar

w ould f avour a griculture.

a nd

p opulation

p ottery

b y

T he a rea w as n ot

r eliance o n a h unting e conomy.

a rchaeological

V arious

P ark.

t he p revalence o f d isease

g rassveld.

o n t he o ther h and,

A ge

m etal

s ubsistence e conomy o n h unting.

p opulated r egion i n t he K ruger t he

P halaborwa

f or f ood w ith n eighbouring t ribes.

N aturally h igh f aunal d ensities a llowed t heir

I n t he

t ribe s ettled i n a n e nvironment w hich w as

d uring

t he

p ast

i s

f ew

t he

o ne

c enturies,

S outh E astern B antu-speaking p eoples

r egion a ll

i n

t he m ain

c ame i nto d irect

c ontact w ith e ach o ther.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS A f or

s pecial w ord o f a ppreciation i s d ue t o

i nformation o n t he n atural e nvironments

a ssistance h is

d uring

v aluable

f ield

w ork ;

a ssistance;

d eterminations; A nthropology o f

a nd

M r J .

D r

J .

P rofessor

t he U niversity

J .

t he

V erhoef C .

B .

o f

t he N ational P arks B oard

i n

o f

K ruger

V ogel

H artman

P retoria,

P ark

a nd

t he P arks B oard f or o f

f or

t he D epartment h is

f or

r adiocarbon r ole

i n

o f t he

e thno-archaeological r esearch.

R EFERENCES B ONSMA,

J .

1 976.

S chaik. D U T OIT, A . P .

B osveldbome

1 968.

e n

w eistreke.

D ie p lek v an d ie m ateriele

B aPhalaborwa i n h ul k ultuur.

U npubl.

P retoria: s keppinge

D .Phil.

T hesis:

V an

v an

d ie

U niversity

o f S outh A frica. E LOFF,

J .

i n

F .

1 976.

S amevattende v erslag o or

d ie N ationale K rugerwildtuin v anaf

U npubl. R es. E LOFF,

J .

F .

E VERS,

T .

M .

R ep.

D ept A rchaeol.:

& D E VAAL,

T ransvaal

1 974.

J .

T hree

l owveld.

B .

1 969.

a rgeologiese

J ulie

M akahane. i ndustrial

U npubl.

M

26 2

t ot

n avorsing J ulie

1 976.

U niversity o f P retoria.

I ron A ge

W itwatersrand.

1 974

A

K oedoe 8 : s ites

T hesis:

i n

7 8-74. t he

U niversity

e astern o f

t he

E VERS, T . M . D istrict, B ull. 3 2: E VERS,

T .

1 977. P laston E arly e astern T ransvaal, S outh 1 70-178.

M .

1 980.

K lingbeil

e astern T ransvaal,

I ron A ge s ite, W hite R iver A frica. S . A fr. a rchaeol.

E arly

S outh A frica.

I ron

A ge s ites, L ydenburg,

S . A fr.

a rchaeol.

B ull.

3 5:

4 6-57. E VERS,

T . M .

1 981.

T he I ron A ge i n e astern T ransvaal,

S outh A frica.

I n : V OIGT, E . A ., e d. G uide t o a rchaeological s ites i n n orthern a nd e astern T ransvaal. P retoria: T ransvaal M useum. E VERS,

T . M .

1 982.

T ransvaal,

Excavations a t

S outh A frica.

G ERTENBACH, W . P . D . 1 983. K oedoe 2 6: 9 -121. H ALL,

M .

1 980.

H ALL, M .

& M AGGS,

Z ululand. H ALL,

L andscapes o f t he

E nkwazini,

A nn. N atal M us.

2 4:

T .

t he L ydenburg h eads

S . A fr. a rchaeol.

B ull.

K ruger

s ite,

3 7:

e astern

1 6-33.

N ational

P ark.

a n I ron A ge s ite o n t he Z ululand c oast.

9 7-109.

1 979.

N quabeni,

S . A fr. a rchaeol.

a

L ate

I ron

S oc. G oodwin S er.

3 :

A ge

s ite

J .

B .

1 978.

C hangaan-Tsonga

D ie v an

a dministratiefregte e n P h.D. J UNOD,

t hesis:

H .

A .

s amehang

i n

Mhala,

m et

d ie

p rivatereg v erwysing

p rosesregtelike

i n

1 59-176.

M . & V OGEL, J . C . 1 980. S ome r ecent r adiocarbon d ates s outhern A frica. J . A fr. H ist. 2 1: 4 31-455.

H ARTMAN,

t he

f unksionering.

v an n a

f rom d ie d ie

U npubl.

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1 962.

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N ew Y ork :

U niversity B ooks i nc. K LAPWIJK,

M .

1 974.

n orth-eastern 2 9:

A

p reliminary

T ransvaal,

r eport

S outh A frica.

o n

p ottery

S . A fr.

f rom

t he

a rchaeol. B ull.

1 9-23.

K RIGE, J . D . 1 937. T raditional o rigins a nd t ribal r elationships o f t he S otho o f t he n orthern T ransvaal. B antu S tud. 1 1: 3 21-356. K RIGE,

E .

J .

1 937.

Ann. N atal M us. M AGGS,

T .

1 982. J .

1 981.

T ransvaal, M YBURGH,

A .

2 4:

I . 1 982. M ahlangeni

S outh A frica. C .

2 5:

1 23-141.

E arly I ron A ge s ettlement a t B roederstroom 2 4/73, 1 949.

T he

S .

A fr. J . T ribes

S ci. o f

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7 7:

t he

4 01-415.

B arberton

D istrict.

P retoria 2 5.

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D ept. A rchaeozool.: Z IERVOGEL, D .

p re-colonial i ndustrial d evelopment i n t he

A nn. N atal M us.

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7 1-96.

M abhija:

T ugela B asin. MASON, R .

N ote o n t he P halaborwa a nd t heir m orula c omplex.

1 1: 3 57-367. M zonjani a nd t he b eginning o f t he I ron A ge i n N atal.

B antu S tud. M AGGS, T . 1 980.

1 954.

T ransvaal M us.

P retoria.

T he e astern S otho.

P retoria:

27 2

V an S chaik.

2 0.

M AN,

A NIMALS A ND S UBSISTENCE P ATTERNS D URING T HE

I RON A GE

I N T HE K RUGER N ATIONAL P ARK I na P lug

I NTRODUCTION T he A rchaeology D epartment c onducting P ark. b een

a n

S ince

o f

t he U niversity o f P retoria h as

e xtensive a rchaeological s urvey o f

t his

r ecorded

s urvey s tarted

f rom P afuri

b een

t he K ruger N ational

i n 1 977 a l arge n umber o f

s ites

i n t he n orth t o t he C rocodile R iver

h as

i n t he

s outh. D uring t he c ourse o f t his r econnaissance p rogramme s everal t est e xcavations h ave b een c arried o ut o n s ome o f t he m ore p romising s ites,

y ielding n ot o nly c ultural

s amples.

m aterial

b ut

T he D epartment o f A rchaeozoology a t

b ecome a ctively i nvolved i n t he a nalyses o f a rea.

T his

p aper

w ill

p reliminary

a nalyses

e xcavations

w ere

d eal

o f

o nly

s ome t est

a lso

u seful

f aunal

t he T ransvaal M useum h as t he

p ast

f auna

o f

t he

i n

g eneral t erms w ith t he r esults o f

o f

t he

a ssemblages.

e xcavations,

t he

A lthough

f aunal

s ufficiently l arge t o p rovide u seful i nformation. t otal b one s amples f rom e ach s ite d iscussed.

t he

s amples w ere

T able 1 l ists t he S pecies p resent a re

l isted i n T able 2 .

S HINGWEDZI D ISTRICT A l arge n umber o f s ites w as r ecorded i n t his d istrict, e xcavations w ere o nly c arried o ut o n t hree o f t hese s ites:

b ut t ext S h 1 4, S h

1 6 a nd S h 2 7. M aterial w as c ollected f rom s urface c oncentrations, o f

p its

a nd

e xcavated.

a

f ew

T he s ites

c omplete a re

p its

f airly

f illed

w ith

e xtensive

a nd

a nd

r emnants

b one a nd a sh w ere t he

s amples

w ere

c ollected f rom d ifferent p arts o f e ach s ite. C ursory

e xamination

o f

t he p ottery p laces

t hese s ites w ithin t he

p eriod o f t he L ater I ron A ge, i .e. b etween A D 1 500-1900, a lthough t he d ates r equire c onfirmation ( A. M eyer, p ers. c omm.). T he t hree s ites h ave m uch i n c ommon. k ilometres o n h igh, M opane

T hey a re s ituated w ithin a n a rea o f a f ew s quare s andy b anks o verlooking t he S hingwedzi R iver.

( Colophospermum m opane)

d ominates

t he v egetation w ith

r iverine

b ush o ccurring i n a n arrow s trip a long t he r iver. T he

f aunal

r emains

f rom S h 2 7 w ere l ess

t han t hose f rom t he o ther y oungest o f p robably n ot p atterns,

a s

t he s amples, r emains. m ade o f

f ragmented a nd w eathered

s uggesting t hat

t he t hree s ites e xamined. c ontemporary, t hey e xhibit

r iver

a lso a s

a

o nly p layed s ource

S h 2 7 m ay b e

t he

A lthough t he s ites w ere v ery s imilar s ubsistence

r eflected i n t he f aunal r emains. a nd h erding i s

G athering t he

t wo s ites,

r epresented

W ild a nimals d ominate b y

a

f ew

s heep/goat

a n i mportant r ole a nd m uch u se w as o f

a nimal

p rotein.

T he

s pecies

c omposition o f t he t hree s ites i s a lso v ery s imilar ( Table 2 ), a nd r eflects a g ame p opulation w hich w as m uch t he s ame a s t hat o f t oday.

2 28

T able 1

N umbers a nd m ass o f b one f rnm K ruger N ational P ark I ron A ge s ites : t otal b one s amples r ecovered f rom t est e xcavations.

S h 1 4

S h 1 6

S ite S h 2 7 M a 3 8

S keletal p art B ovid t eeth/

M a 4

L e 6

N umbers t ooth r ows

1 2

2 0

1 5

1 4

1 0

1 23

8 4 3 2 01

3 59 8 38

1 27 1 7 13

1 74 16 1

1 08 3 0

83 8 10 88

E namel f ragments S kull f ragments

3 2 1 0

5 7 3 1

3 2 3 1

1 50 1 08

1 9 6 6

3 76 6 78

V ertebra f ragments R ib f ragments M iscellaneous s keletal p arts B one f lakes

3 3 1 1

2 11 7 5

12 1 5 6

5 1 4 9

3 1 1 0

9 60 91 9

4 69 2 37

1 7 01 1 1 03

6 43 2 72

2 7 61 1 2 09

41 4 5 00

1 7 9 92 3 4 40

4 0 89

4 3 95

3 0 01

4 6 32

B ovid s keletal p arts O ther i dentified r emains

T otal

1 2 15 2 6 5 31

M ass ( g)

U nidentifiable r emains

3 4 00 2 1 90

1 4 0 40 2 0 8 30 1 4 3 20 3 3 55

9 10 4 8 65

1 5 20 2 4 3 60 1 6 20 5 2 2 90

T otal M ass

5 5 90

2 8 3 40 2 4

5 7 75

3 1 40 7 6 6 50

I dentifiable r emains

2 29

1 85

N o s pecies h as b een i dentified w hich i s

n ot

f ound

i n

t he

a rea

a t

p resent. F reshwater m ussels o f t he s pecies A spatharia w ahlbergi, A . p etersi a nd U nio c affer w ere c ollected i n l arge q uantities. O n S h 2 7 a p it w as

e xcavated

t hat

w as

f illed a lmost e xclusively w ith u nfragmented

v alves o f t hese m ussels, w hich a ccounted f or t he b ulk o f t he S h 2 7 s ample. I dentification o f t he A spatharia s pp. i s b ased o n t he c riteria f or m easuring t he c omplete s hells s uggested b y C onnolly ( 1939),

O berholzer

&

V an E eden

( 1967),

s hells a re d escribed a s A spatharia s pp. W ild a nimals c ontributed o ver d omestic

s tock

O ver 9 3% o f a ll

c ontributed

9 7%

o nly

i ndividuals

a nd A ppleton

( 1979).

B roken

o r U nio/Aspatharia. o f

t he

m eat

a pproximately 2 %

i dentified

a t

S h

1 4

s upply t o

w hereas

t he m eat d iet.

a nd

S h

2 7

w ere

g athered; f or S h 1 6 t he f igure i s c lose t o 5 3%. T his h igh p roportion w as d ue t o t he p resence o f l arge q uantities o f r iver m ussels w hich, h owever,

c ontributed l ess t han 1 ,5% o f

t he p rotein s upply.

M AHLANGENI D ISTRICT T he

s ites

r ecorded

i n

s ituated a long t he b anks o f T est

e xcavations

w ere

t he t he

c arried

s ituated o n t he w estern b ank o f j unction

w ith

M ahlangeni L etaba

d istrict a re a lmost a ll

R iver

a nd

o ut o n t wo o f t he

t he L etaba R iver,

i ts

S hipikane

s tream

P ottery

a ffinities

s uggest

M opane

T he

s pecies

p resent

r emains

( Table

r ecognized

i n

t he

p ositively

o r

f aunal

h unting d istance o f,

t he

t herefore

b e

H unting a ppears 4

M a

r emains

i mportant,

d omestic s tock,

w hich w as

o ccur

t hat o ther

a round,

a nimal

b ushpig t hese

s pecies o r w ithin

r emains

w ere

o nly a f ew b ones i n t he

o f

s heep/goat.

O ne

c an

l ittle o r n o r ole i n t he e conomy

t o h ave c ontributed

a s maller

s ample

s ome i mportant d ifferences

v ery

4 3% t o

y ielded

T he

d omestic s ample;

( A.

c ommunities i n w hich t o n ote

a rea.

e ither

N o

a ssume t hat h erding p layed

s upply. e xhibited

t he

s amples

t he

r eflect i nterest

1 600

f ragmented a nd s amples ( Table

M odern r ecords i ndicate t hat

n ear

s ites.

o f t he s ite.

s till

2 )

i s o f

i dentified f rom t he M a 3 8

I I s ize r ange c ould

B oy.

I t

w ere r ecorded f rom M a 3 8.

a nimals n o l onger o ccur i n

i ts

t hat M a 3 8 i s p robably a n E arly I ron

M eyer, p ers. c omm.). T he f aunal r emains w ere w eathered, r esulting i n r elatively s mall i dentifiable 1 ).

t o

d ominates

M a 4 a ppears t o b e y ounger b ut c ould p redate A D

h unting p layed a m ajor r ole.

M a 3 8 i s

c lose

a nd M a 4 l ies o n t he e astern b ank o f

t he S hibyeni s tream a lso c lose t o t he L etaba R iver. t he v egetation.

A ge s ite.

t ributaries.

t hese s ites.

t he b ulk o f t he m eat

t han M a 3 8 b ut n evertheless

f rom M a 3 8.

c ontributing

5 7%

p ractically a bsent

t o

W ild t he

a nimals

m eat

f rom M a

3 8,

s upply,

w ere b ut

c ontributed

t he p rotein s upply o f M a 4 .

T he

e vidence

i nteresting.

f or h erding o f b oth c attle a nd s heep/goat a t M a 4 i s

M a 4 a nd M a 3 8 a re s ituated i n m uch

t he

s ame

k ind

o f

e nvironment b ut a re p robably s eparated i n t ime b y a f ew h undred y ears. T his

t ime d ifference m ay e xplain t he d issimilarity b ut

p resence

o f

t setse f ly b elts a nd

g razing n eed t o b e

t he a bsence

g eneral s uitability o f

l ooked i nto.

2 30

o r

t he a rea f or

T able 2

K ruger N ational P ark I ron A ge s ites: n umber o f b ones i dentified p er s pecies o r s ize c lass a nd m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals r epresented. N umbers b efore t he s troke a re n umbers o f b ones; t hose f ollowing a re m inimum n umbers o f i ndividuals r epresented. N umbers i n p arenthesis i ndicate j uvenile b ones o r i ndividuals.

S PECIES

A chatina s p. ( land s nail) S uccinea s p. ( small s nail) s mall s nail L edoulxia m ozambicensis ( snail) C afferia c affra ( river m ussel) A spatharia w ahlbergi

S h 1 4

S h 1 6

9 9/13

6 5/15 1 /1 5 /2

S ITES S h 2 7 M a 3 8 6 2/11

M a 4

1 /1

L e 6 5 0/7 6 /6

3 /3 4 2/23

1 22/59

2 /3

4 89/260

( river m ussel) A spatharia p etersi

1 /1

( river m ussel) A spatharia s pp.

4 9 4 /1 5 5

U nio/Aspatharia C larias s p. ( barbel) f ish

2 521/? 1 /1 1 /1

A mphibia i ndet.

5 55/276

1 76/16 3 30/47 3 /1 7 /3

1 5/5 4 1/2 1 3/3 2 03/9

3 /1

1 1/3

1 /1

( frog/toad) C rocodilus n iloticus

4 /1

( crocodile) V aranus n iloticus n iloticus ( monitor l izard) V aranus s p. G eochelone p ardalis ( tortoise) C helonia i ndet.(tortoise) S truthio c amelus ( ostrich) A yes i ndet.(large) L agomorpha i ndet. ( hare)

3 /1

1 0/1

1 2/1

2 /1

3 /1 3 4/2

2 0/3 4 39/14 1 /1

6 0/6

4 8/2

1 4/2

5 /1 5 /1

1 /1

P edetes c apensis ( springhare) G erbillurus p aeba ( hairy f ooted g erbil) O tomys c f a ngoniensis

38/12 3 1 /1

1/1 1 5 /1 1 /1

( Angoni v lei r at) O tomys s p. ( vlei r at) H ystrix a fricaeaustralis ( porcupine) T hryonomys s winderianus ( greater c ane r at) R odentia i ndet.(large) ( medium) ( small) C anis a dustus j ackal) P anthera l eo

( side-striped

1 /1 4 /1 1 2(1)/2 1 /? 2 /1

1 /1

2 /?

1 /1 6 /1

( lion)

2 /1

2 31

S pecies

S h 1 4

F elidae i ndet. ( cat) C arnivora i ndet. ( large) ( medium) O rycteropus a fer ( antbear) L oxodonta a fricana ( African e lephant) E quus b urchellii ( Burchell's z ebra) D iceros b icornis ( black r hinoceros) H ippopotamus a mphibius ( hippopotamus) H ippopotamus/Diceros P hacochoerus a ethiopicus ( warthog) P otamochoerus p orcus ( bushpig) S uidae i ndet. ( pig) G iraffa c amelopardalis ( giraffe) A epyceros m elampus ( impala) C onnochaetes t aurinus ( blue w ildebeest) A lcelaphinae i ndet.

B oy.

I I(b)

B oy. I II B oy. I V M ammalia i ndet.

( large) ( small)

S h 2 7

M a 3 8

6 /2 4 /?

M a 4

L e 6

5 (1)/3(1) 6 /2

9 /1 1 8/2

4 1(2) / 3(1) 1 /1

3 0/5

4 1/4

6 /2

3 /1

14 /3

1 86(7) / 16(1) 1 9(1) / 2(1)

6 /1 4 /? 4 (2) / 2(1) 1 (1) / 1(1) 5 /? 5 6/2

7 /1

54 /2 2 /2

2 0/4

7 /3

7 /2

1 /1 5 /3

5 /2

5 /1

5 /2

4 1/6

3 /1

1 1/4

1 /1

O reotragus o reotragus ( klipspringer) R aphicerus c ampestris ( steenbok) S yncerus c affer ( African b uffalo) T aurotragus o ryx ( eland) T ragelaphus s trepsiceros ( greater k udu) B os t aurus ( domestic c attle) O vis a ries/Capra h ircus ( domestic s heep o r g oat) H ippotragus c f e quinus ( roan a ntelope) K obus e llipsiprymnus ( waterbuck) B oy. I ( see B rain 1 974) B oy. I I

S h 1 6

6 (3)/ 1 (1) 6 /2 3 /1

3 /1

1 /1 4 (1)/2(1)

2(1) 2 / 6(1) 2 /1 9 /1 4 /2 2 /2 1 /1

5 6(17) / 14(8) 8 /1 5 /2 5 /2

6 /2

1 1/?

8 /?

4 7(3) / 1(1) 3 2/?

5 /1

5 /3

1 9(7) 4 /2 / 3(2) 1 9/? 1 7(3) 1 9(1) / 3(1) / 4(1) 4 3(2)/?(1) 2 37(7) 7 0(2) 1 43(1) / 3? / 5(1) / 4(1) 9 (1)/?(1) 1 9(1) 1 9(2) 4 (1) / ?(?) / 4(1) / 2(1) 1 /1 3 /?

2 32

1 /1

1 6(2) / 1(1) 2 4/? 4 2(1) / 2(1) 3 9(1) 8 9(4) / 2(1) / 1(1) 4 3(5) 5 58/? / 4(1) 1 /11 6 4(2) / ?(?) 7 /? 1 /1 1 /1

M olluscs w ere c ollected a t b oth t hese c ontribute m uch t o t he d iet a nd w ere w uch l ess w ere o n t he S hingwedzi s ites.

s ites, b ut d id i mportant t han

n ot t hey

L ETABA D ISTRICT L e

6

L etaba

i s

s ituated o n t he s outh b ank o f

r est

c amp,

e xcavations w ere h eaps, p its a nd

a lso

i n

c arried s urface

r etrieved i s t he l argest o f

T he s pecies p resent,

p resent, a nd i mportant

l ist

t hose d iscussed s o f ar

( Table 2 )

i ncluding c attle

a ctivity,

v eld.

e ast o f

V arious

t est

o ut a t t he s ite w hich c ontains s mall a sh c oncentrations. T he t otal b one s ample

p robably a n E arly I ron A ge s ite

w as

t he L etaba R iver,

m opane-dominated

( A. M eyer,

( Table 1 ).

L e 6 i s

c omm.).

r eveals t hat a l arge v ariety o f a nimals

b ushpig,

a nd

p ers.

s ome

w hich d oes n ot o ccur i n t he a rea a t

s heep/goat.

a nd y ielded

H unting

t he b ulk o f

w as

t he

t he m eat s upply

A lthough d omestic s tock w as p resent

i t d id

t erms

G athering c ontributed 2 4,5% o f a ll

o f

a nimal p rotein ( 22,5%).

i dentified H owever,

i ndividuals f ishing

a nd

a nd

f ishing

n ot

w as

y ield

a lso

a

v ery

m ost

( 77,3%). m uch

s ource

o f

i n

f ood.

g athering t ogether c ontributed l ess t han 1 % t o

t he m eat d iet.

C ONCLUSIONS T he K ruger N ational P ark s ites

s tudied t hus

f ar

d iffer

g enerally

f rom m ost o ther T ransvaal I ron A ge s ites i n t hat h erding a ppears t o h ave b een o f m inor i mportance. T he E arly I ron A ge s ites i n t he L impopo

v alley

( Voigt

&

P lug

1 981),

c entral T ransvaal L ater I ron A ge 1 980a)

a nd

M apungubwe

s ites

o f

R ooikrans a nd R henosterkloof

F icus

( Voigt a nd

( Plug 1 980b),

L ater I ron A ge s ite o f W ildebeestfontein ( Plug 1 979) T ransvaal,

w ere

a ll

s ites

s ubsistence p atterns o f

i n

t he

s ites,

o nly

s ome

T he M ahlangeni s ite M a 4 a nd t he L etaba s ite L e 6 y ielded

d iseases b ut

t he

s outhern

s uch

a s

a nthrax

I t i s p ossible t hat

a nd n agana w ould h ave m ade k eeping

l ivestock a h azardous v enture i n t he n orthern a nd o ther p arts P ark,

( Plug

a s w ell a s

w here h erding p layed a v ital r ole i n t he

r emains o f c attle a s w ell a s t hose o f s heep/goat. s tock

K ekane

t he

t he c ommunities.

N o c attle r emains w ere f ound o n t he S hingwedzi s heep/goat.

1 983),

t he

T he s ites a re a ll

o f

t he

m atter o f c ultural p references s hould n ot b e i gnored. t oo l arge t o h ave b een t emporary h unting

s uggest o ccupation p eriods o f

c amps

a nd

s ome d uration.

D istribution p atterns o f t setse f ly i nfestations w ill h ave t o b e t aken i nto c onsideration t o h elp e xplain h erding p atterns. D uring 1 725

a n e xpedition o rganized b y t he D utch E ast I ndia C ompany v entured

f rom D elagoa

t o w ell w ithin t he s outhern b oundaries o f

t he p resent-day

K ruger N ational P ark. T he r eport o f t he e xpedition i ndicates b oth m alaria a nd n agana w ere a bsent a t t hat t ime ( Punt 1 958). t ravellers

e ncountered

c attle f or s laughtering, h azard

a t

t hat

t ime.

t hat T he

a d ensely p opulated a rea a nd w ere a ble t o b uy w hich s uggests N one

o f

t hat

t setse

f ly

w as

n ot

a

t he p arty c ontracted m alaria, b ut a

h undred y ears l ater, w hen L ouis T richardt a nd h is p eople c ame t hrough t he s ame a rea, t hey s uffered h eavily f rom m alaria a nd l ost t heir

2 33

l ivestock t o n agana. T he l ocal A fricans h ad n o c attle, b ut w ere a ble t o s how t he V oortrekkers t he r emai rs o f c attle k raals f rom t he t hen n ot t oo d istant p ast ( Punt 1 958). O verpopulation, o vergrazing a nd r esulting b ush e ncroachment c ould h ave b een i nstrumental i n t he a dvance a nd s pread o f c ontractions

a nd

b oth

d iseases.

e xpansions

o f

I t

i s

l ikely

p resent

t he

g razing

t he

S hingwedzi

I t

f or d omestic s tock.

t he

t he n orthern

T he s oils

s cale.

c oncentration o n h unting a nd g athering a t

A ge S hingwedzi

t hat

a round

a nd t he L etaba R ivers a re r ather p oor a nd a griculture

m ight n ot h ave b een p ractised o n a ny s ignificant e xplain

i s p ossible

a nd g eneral e nvironment o f

p art o f t he P ark a re u nsuitable

s imilar

t setse f ly b elts c ould h ave a ffected

s ettlement p atterns a nd e conomies p rior t o 1 725. f urther r esearch m ay r eveal s uch m ovements. A t

t hat

s ites.

T he p eople w ho

l ived a t

t he

T his

c ould

t he L ater

S hingwedzi

I ron s ites

m ade m uch u se o f r iver m ussels. T hese o ccur i n t he s and b anks o f t he r iver a nd w ould h ave b een e asy t o g ather, t hereby p roviding a p rofitable

a ddition

t he o ther h and, d istribution

t o

t he m enu.

T he M ahlangeni a nd L e 6 s ites, o n

c ontained f ew r emains o f r iver

m aps

o f

A spatharia s pp.

f ormer h as n ot y et b een r ecorded i n a ny t he L etaba R iver a nd & V an E eden 1 967).

m ussels.

a nd U nio

s p.

P resent-day

i ndicate t hat t he

s ignificant

q uantities

t hat U nio o ccurs a t o nly a f ew p laces I f a s imilar d istribution o ccurred

f rom

( Oberholzer

i n

t he

p ast,

t hen t he s carcity o f r iver m ussels i n t he d eposits c an b e e xplained i n t erms o f n atural d istribution a nd n ot o f h uman p reference. I t s eems h unters,

t hat

a nd

t he p eople w ho l ived o n

m ade e xtensive u se o f

m arks o n m any o f

t he b ones a ppear

s trong i mplements,

t he

s ites

w ere

e xcellent

t he g ame i n t he a rea.

t o h ave b een

m ade

b y

B utchering v ery

s harp,

s uggesting t hat m etal t ools w ere u sed.

A ll t he s ites d iscussed i n t his p aper a re s ituated i n m opane b ush a nd i t w ould b e i nteresting t o s ee w hether s ites f arther s outh, o utside

t he

m opane

a reas,

w ould

p resent

d ifferent

s ubsistence

p atterns.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS Iw ish t o t hank A . M eyer f or p roviding t he a nd

f or

h is

s amples

i nformation o n t he d istribution o f

f or

a nalysis

t he s ites.

I a m a lso

g rateful t o t he N ational P arks B oard f or t heir c o-operation a nd t heir f inancial s upport f or t he f aunal p roject. M y t hanks a lso g o t o E . W atson w ho a ssisted

i n t he m easuring o f

t he r iver m ussels a nd

s orting

o f s ome o f t he w aste b one.

R EFERENCES A PPLETON,

C .

1 979.

T he U nionacea

s outh-central A frica. B RAIN,

C . K .

1 974.

a ccumulations

A nn.

O BERHOLZER,

G .

A nn.

( Mollusca, L amellibranchiata)

A fr.

M us.

7 7:

S ome s uggested p rocedures f rom

s outhern

T ransvaal M us. 2 9: 1 -18. C ONNOLLY, M . 1 939. A m onographic M ollusca.

S .

S . A fr. M us.

& V AN E EDEN,

A frican

i n t he a nalysis o f b one

Q uaternary

s urvey o f S outh 3 3:

J . A .

o f

1 51-174. s ites.

A frican

A nn.

n on-marine

1 -660. 1 967.

2 34

T he f reshwater m olluscs o f

P LUG,

t he K ruger N ational P ark. K oedoe 1 0: 1 -42. I . 1 979. T he f aunal r emains f rom W ildebeestfontein.

a rchaeol. S oc. P LUG, I . 1 980a.

A ge s ites f rom t he M akapan V alley, D ept o f A rchaeozool. P LUG,

I .

1 980b.

R henosterkloof, U npubl. P UNT,

W . H .

T ransvaal. U npubl.

T he

f aunal

r emains

t wo I ron A ge s ites

f rom

f rom t he

t wo I ron

r es.

R ooikrans

c entral

R ep., a nd

T ransvaal.

r es. R ep., D ept A rchaeozool. T ransvaal Mus. J .

1 958.

D ie v erkenning v an d ie K rugerwildtuin d eur d ie 1 725.

K oedoe 1 :

V OIGT, E . A . 1 983. M apungubwe: a n a rchaeozoological o f a n I ron A ge c ommunity. T ransvaal M us. M onogr. E . A .

A fr.

T ransvaal M us.

H ollandse O os-Indiese K ompanje,

V OIGT,

S .

G oodwin S er. 3 : 1 30-132. T he f aunal r emains f rom F icus a nd K ekane,

& P LUG,

I .

1 981.

1 -18. i nterpretation 1 .

E arly I ron A ge h erders o f

v alley. U npubl. R ep. D ep. A rchaeozool. T ransvaal Mus.

2 35

t he L impopo

2 1.

S OTHO-TSWANA A ND MOLOKO S ETTLEMENT P ATTERNS A ND T HE B ANTU C ATTLE P ATTERN T . M .

E vers

I NTRODUCTION A t

t he 1 981 c onference o f

A rchaeologists

i n

t he

P retoria

S outhern

a nd

t he

A frican

A ssociation

s ubsequent

e xcursion

d iscussion w as d evoted t o I ron A ge s ettlement p atterns a nd r elationship t o a s tructural s patial m odel d evised b y A . K uper 1 982).

K uper's m odel w as a ccepted

r eservations

w ere

m ade

f or

N guni

c oncerning

e thnography

S otho-Tswana

o f m uch

t heir ( 1980,

b ut

s ome

e thnography

a nd

a rchaeology. H uffman ( 1982) h as s ince p ublished a s ummary o f K uper's m odel, a s t he B antu c attle p attern ( BCP), a nd a l ist o f s ites a nd I ron A ge c ultures w hich h e c lassifies a s t hese

a re

c onforming

S otho-Tswana a nd M oloko s ites.

t he B CP a pplies

t o

o f

t o

I ron A ge s ites b elieved

o f a bout 6 00 y ears

T ransvaal

( Mason

c entury.

1 974)

E vers

M aggs ( 1976),

( 1979),

( Evers

1 981,

1 983)

w ill

T he M oloko h as

a

t ime

f rom i ts e arliest d ates i n t he s outh-western r ecent

( 1962,

( 1972,

1 976a,

J ones

( 1978),

a nd H all

Among

u p t o a nd b eyond t he d ifaqane i n t he e arly 1 9th

C onsiderable

w orkers s uch a s M ason 1 980),

B CP.

L o h ave b een i nhabited b y a ncestors

t he p resent S otho-Tswana s peaking p eoples.

d epth

t he

t he S otho-Tswana a nd M oloko.

F or t he p urpose o f t his p aper ' Möloko r efer

t o

I n t his p aper I d etail h ow

w ork

1 967,

h as

1 968,

1 976b),

Evers

C ollett

b een d one o n t he M oloko b y

1 970,

1 971,

( 1973,

( 1979,

1 972,

1 975,

1 982a,

1 973,

1 974,

1 981), M arker & 1 982b),

T aylor

( 1981).

T HE S OTHO-TSWANA A ND T HE B ANTU C ATTLE P ATTERN I t

i s

i mportant

s tructural m odel, t he l ayout o f

t o

r ealise

t hat

w hich p urports t o

s ettlements.

t he B antu c attle p attern i s a

g enerate t he

r ules

I n a s tructural m odel i t

i s

w hich

g overn

t he u nderlying

r ules w hich a re t he f ocus o f r esearch r ather t han t he d etailed w ay i n w hich t he s tructure i s p resented. K uper ( 1982) p oints t his o ut c learly w hen h e s hows t hat B omvana, Z ulu, S wazi a nd X hosa a ll h ave l eft-female/right-male a nd b ack-sacred/front-profane o ppositions w hich g overn t he l ayout o f a re

t he h omestead

t hough t he

w ay

t hese

o ppositions

e xpressed c an b e v isualised i n a pparently d iametrically d ifferent

w ays.

T hese o ppositions a re p art

p resentation

o f

s tructure,

o f

t he

h e s uggests,

s tructure;

t he

m ode

o f

i s a n e thnic i dentity m arker.

A c ursory g lance a t N guni a nd S otho-Twana s ettlement l ayouts w ill s how c lear d ifferences d ifferences w ill N evertheless

t he

i n d etail b etween t hem ; o ther, t hough l ess o bvious, e ven b e a pparent b etween S otho-Tswana g roups. v ariability

i s

s till

a ll

g overned

b y

a s ingle

s tructural m odel. K uper's e thnography,

s patial m ost

m odel

r elied

p articularly

a lmost

S wazi

w ere a lso s hown t o c onform t o t he m odel

2 36

e xclusively

s ources.

o n

N guni

N atal a nd C ape N guni

t hough t here w ere

d ifferences

I n

d etail.

N evertheless K uper a lso

w ere l ikely t o c onform. w ithin

t he

w ider

s ocial,

p olitical a nd

h as e laborated i n h is b ook ( Kuper a nd

t he

S otho-Tswana

s howed b riefly t hat S otho-Tswana

K uper's s patial m odel h as

b oth

1 982)

b elong

t o

w here h e s hows

t o

b e

u nderstood

s ymbolic s ystems a nd t hat

t his h e

t he

N guni

t he s ame c ulture s ystem.

T he

s ystem h as s trongly i nterconnected c onceptions a bout t he r ole o f a ncestors i n a s pirit w orld, m en's p olitical r ole a nd t he i mportance o f c attle a s a m eans s tatus a nd p ower. S otho-Tswana

t o

a cquiring

s ettlement

w ives

a nd

p atterns

h ave

i llustrated i n v arying d etail b y a n umber H arries 1 929; P itje 1 950; B othma 1 962; J unod 1 929; K rige & K rige 1 943; M onnig S outh

S otho:

C asalis

1 859;

M abille

1 946, 1 952; W alton 1 948; D e J ager M ackenzie 1 871; W illoughby 1 905; P auw 1 960; i n

F ig.

M ason 1 973; 1 .

F rom

t abulated a gainst 1 982) o f

T able

1

( Table

N GUNI

N .SOTHO

1 905;

L aydevant

1 975).

1 931;

1 40)

r ating c attle b yre a nd

C attle b yre c ontaining e lite b urials j ust

o utside c attle b yre O uter a rc o f h ouses w ith t he p rincipal t he

c entral a rea a nd o ppot he m ain e ntrance

t he c entral c omplex

R anking o f o ther h uts a ccording t o s eniority r ight a nd l eft o f

A shton

B urchell 1 953, 1 955, T his

i s

1 824; 1 972;

s ummarized ( Huffman

1 ).

S OTHO L OWVELD

m en's c ourt

t o

a nd

S otho:

M onnig 1 967; L owveld S otho: 1 963; H ammond-Tooke 1 982;

1 964; T swana: S chapera 1 943,

C entral a rea i ncorpo-

s ite

( North

s ettlement p atterns o f S otho-Tswana g roups

F EATURES O F T HE B CP

h ouse u pslope o f

t hus

d escribed

t he N guni m odel b ased o n H uffman's s ummary

M odels o f

G rain-pits i n o r

b een a uthors

a nd

m odels f or e ach S otho-Tswana g roup c an b e

t he B antu c attle p attern

( Huffman 1 982:

o f

S chapera & R oberts

t hese,

d escendants

t he

p rincipal h ouse W ithin t he p rincipal h ouse l eft-female/ r ight-male d ichot omy a t r ight a ngles t o a f ront-secular/rears acred d istinction

2 37

S .SOTHO T SWANA

A

B

I I I

1

E l

l h i l

/ hill

‘1"

• • " h

•

•

iI s l in

%( 1 56 .

c our t

•

•

n

E : 1

0

0

C

°

0

D-

by re

b yre

0hut

p r inc ipa l \ U

cou r t

0

.

0

0

a THLAP ING

KG ATLA

C

I )

v i lage rs l

•

h ouseho ld

6

•

c h ie f • •

•

•

• •

v i lagers l

of ice 0

n c our t

• •

•

• •

b y re

c c our t

v

D ca lves p r inc ipa l h ouseho ld

V v

b Yre V

b ur ia ls

NG WAKETSE

SOTHO ( S)

, E

F

r ea r c our tyard f ron t c our tya rd

s l ee '

p r inc ipa l h ouseho ld

I l

. / -

0

b yre

k i tc h

c our t

c ourt b yre 0 p i t

P ED I

1

* r

o

mews h u t

F ig.

0

°

LOVEDU

S otho-Tswana m icro-settlement A -a fter P auw 1 960;

o rganization ( not t o s cale).

B -a fter S chapera

A shton

1 952;

D -a fter S chapera

1 950;

F -a fter d e J ager

2 38

1 964.

1 943;

1 972;

C -a fter

E -a fter P itje

( For c riticism s ee t ext.)

b ut

S uperficially t he S otho-Tswana a nd N guni p atterns l ook i dentical t here a re s ome d ifferences. T he c entral a rea i ncorporates t he

c attle

b yre

a nd m en's c ourt b ut

t he N guni t he b yre n ot

i n

b yre.

t he

i dentically o rganized.

b yre,

i s

t he m en's m eeting

i n

o ne

o f

i f

d isplaced t o o utside t he m ain e ntrance o f

t he

s everal

w ays.

d isplaced s ideways b ut b oth a re 1 931;

S chapera

c entral a nd 1 964).

f ound

A shton

i n t he c entral

1 946,

t he b yre d isplaced s ideways

( Schapera 1 943;

J ager

J ager's ( Fig.

1 943;

p lace

d isplaces

1 964)

( 1964) 1 F)

o r

1 952);

a rea

t he m en's

( Krige & K rige

A shton 1 946,

1 952;

t he b yre n ext

t o

i s n ot r ecorded b y o ther w orkers

T his m ay m ean t hat

t he

L obedu

s hould

( Laydevant c ourt c an b e

1 943;

c ourt

( P. D avison,

r ather

P auw

( Schapera

t he b e

D e J ager

t he e ntrance o f

P itje 1 950;

a pparently d ivorced f rom i t

p lacement o f

t he

T he b yre a nd m eeting p lace a re b oth

T he m en's m eeting p lace c an b e p laced c lose t o

t he b yre

A mong

p lace,

Among t he S otho-Tswana t he m en's m eeting

b yre

D e

i s n ot

i s a lways c entral a nd

1 960;

1 972).

L obedu

p ers.

c omm.).

p laced

w ith

V enda-Shona c omplex t han w ith t he S otho-Tswada. A mong S otho-Tswana i t i s n ot u nusual f or t he b yre t o b e a bsent f rom h omesteads.

K uper

( 1982)

S otho-Tswana r eflect d ecision-making

a rgues

t hat

t he s ome s ome

t he d ifference b etween N guni a nd

t he l atter's s hift

u nit b ut

D e

f or

t o

a

l arger-scale

t hat b oth a re v ariations o f

p olitical

t he s ame s patial

p attern. P . D avison ( pers. c omm.) s uggested t hat t hese d ifferences b etween N guni a nd S otho-Tswana m ay a lso r eflect m arriage r ules. T he m arriage o f a m an t o h is

f ather's

b rother's

d aughter

i s

f orbidden

a mong N guni, m aking m arriage t otally e xogamous, b ut i s p ermitted, d esirable,

a mong S otho-Tswana

( Kuper 1 982).

T he

f low

o f

e ven

c attle

i s

s eriously a ffected b y t hese r ules. T he

c entre-sides

d ichotomy

i s

v isible i n t he l ocation o f e lite

b urials i n t he b yre among a ll N guni a nd S otho-Tswana g roups. S otho-Tswana

s ocieties

I n

s ome

t he w omen a re b uried i n t he r ear c ourtyard o f

t he h ousehold ( Schapera 1 953; M onnig 1 967). N guni s tore g rain d ifferently f rom S otho-Tswana t hough t here i s a s tructural s imilarity i n t he w ay t hey t reat u nthreshed a nd t hreshed g rain. I n b oth c omplexes u nthreshed g rain i s s tored o n p latforms b ehind t he h ouses. T hreshed g rain i n N guni t he

b yre

( Kuper

t reated t his w ay a nd t he

b ack

o f

Among

s orghum h ouse

o f

Q uin 1 959).

Among

o ther

P edi

a nd o ther c ereals a re g enerally p laced i n

i n s torage h uts, t he

d ownslope

s ome P edi a nd t he L obedu s orghum i s

( Krige & K rige 1 943;

S otho-Tswana,

b askets o r b ins

s ociety i s p laced i n p its i n o r

1 982).

i n t he b ack c ourtyard,

( Burchell

1 824;

C asalis

o r i n p ots

1 859;

a t

Q uin 1 959;

M onnig 1 967). T he c entre-sides d ichotomy i s v isible i n m acro-settlement p atterns a s

w ell.

S chapera's p lan o f

c hief's w ard i s m ore o r t he o f

n obility h im .

( Fig.

2 )

s hows

t he

M embers

o f

w ho a re c losely r elated t o t he k ing l ive o n e ither s ide

C ommoner

c entre-side

t he w ards a t M ochudi

l ess c entral a nd b acks o n a h ill.

w ards

d ivision

i s

a re

l ocated

o utside

t hem.

s een a t N tshabeleng ( Fig.

2 )

A

s imilar

a nd among o ther

P edi ( Monnig 1 967). C lose k in o f t he c hief a re l ocated i n c lose p roximity t o t he c hief; m embers o f o ther r elated a nd u nrelated l ineages s urround t hese. A s imilar d istribution c an b e s een i n t he T hlaping s ettlement n ear T aung ( Pauw 1 960) L esotho

( Laydevant

h omesteads b ack 1 943; P auw 1 960;

1 931;

A shton

1 946,

a nd i n S otho s ettlements i n

1 952).

A lmost

a ll

o nto s teep s lopes ( e.g. L aydevant 1 931; B othma 1 962; M onnig 1 967; A shton 1 952).

2 39

c hiefs' S chapera

•

•

v

V 0 v v° e d • v 0 • eo * . •: vvc •v

NTSHABALENG ( afte r B o thma 1 962)

•

c D• 0•

•

c h ief 's c our t

•

•

00

h i ls l 0

•

•

• O

c h ie f 's

•e l

e t

i neage

•

•e 20 >.?, •• • • e . , ,

• •• v 0 • • vv •• • v

v

2

V u' V / u nre lated V .7 t o c h ie f T7

•V ' •

• V

l i neage s en ior t o 0 _ . c h ie f 0 0

0 V

O 0 v

•

V 0

0 0

\

V

V VV

V

e

v o

b

o o

o8 v

F ig.

2

S otho-Tswana m acro-settlement

2 40

o rganization ( not t o s cale).

N guni a pparently e mphasize t he r iYht-male/left-female

d istinction

w ithin t he h ouse m ore s trongly t han d o t he S otho-Tswana. H owever, h ints o f t his d istinction a re t o b e f ound i n t he s outh S otho ( Ashton 1 952). Among o ther g roups t his d istinction m ay j ust n ot h ave b een r ecorded o r m ay h ave b een a bandoned, p articularly a mong t he T swana s ince t heir c onversion t o C hristianity. T he f ront-secular/rear-sacred d istinction i s f ound i n N guni a nd S otho-Tswana b ut i s s ometimes e xpressed d ifferently. F or e xample, a mong t he N guni t he r ear p ortion o f t he h ut c ontains a p latform o n w hich p ots a nd o ther o bjects a re s tored a nd w hich i s r eserved a s s acred, a ssociated w ith a ncestors w ho a re p ropitiated t here a t n ight. A ccording t o W alton ( 1948:149) a nd A shton ( 1952:45) t he p latform a t t he r ear o f i mportant r itual s ignificance a mong s outhern S otho.

t he h ut h as v ery A shton ( 1952:116)

a lso r ecords t he p ouring o f b ile o f s acrificial a nimals o n t he f loor o f t he b ack o f t he h ut. Among P edi a nd T swana r ain m edicine i s k ept b ehind t he h ut i n t he r ear c outyard o f a c hief's p rincipal w ife ( Schapera 1 953; M onnig 1 967). T he c oncept o f f ront-secular/back-sacred t hus h olds. O n a m acro-settlement l evel b oth t he T swana ( Willoughby, q uoted i n K uper 1 982) a nd t he P edi ( Monnig 1 967) r ank w ards l eft a nd r ight o f t he c entral l ocation o f t he c hief's w ard. Among t he S outh S otho c ommoner w ards a re l ocated b ehind a nd a round t hat o f t he h eadman ( Ashton 1 946, 1 952). I t c an t herefore b e s een t hat t he S otho-Tswana d o c onform t o t he s ame B antu c attle p attern a s t he N guni t hough t here a re e thnocentric d ifferences b etween t he t wo s ocieties.

T HE M OLOKO A ND T HE B ANTU C ATTLE P ATTERN T hat t he M oloko i s a ncestral t o t he S otho-Tswana h as b een d emonstrated i n a n umber o f s tudies ( e.g. M aggs 1 976a, 1 976b; 1 968, 1 973; E vers 1 973, 1 981; C ollett 1 979, c ogently w ith r espect t o s tone-wall s ettlements.

a mply M ason

1 982b), a nd m ost T he c riteria u sed

i nclude c eramic s tyle a nd s ettlement p atterns. M aggs i n p articular h as b een d iligent i n s howing t he r elationship b etween S otho-Tswana s ettlement f rom m odern a nd h istorical s ources a nd M oloko s tone-wall s ettlements. M ason's M iddle I ron A ge s ites a ppear t o b elong t o t he e arly M oloko a nd, f rom h is d escription ( Mason 1 974), s uggest t hat t he s tone w alls o f l ate M oloko m erely t ake t he p lace o f w ooden f ences o f t he e arly p eriod. F or t his s tudy I d iscuss a s election o f s ites f rom t he

e astern

T ransvaal

e scarpment,

t he

s outhern

H ighveld

w estern T ransvaal. I t ry t o s how t hat M oloko s ettlement c onform t o t he B CP b oth o n m icro-a nd m acro-settlement s cales.

a nd t he l ayouts

O n a m icro-scale, M oloko s ettlements h ave a c entral a rea c omprising a c attle b yre a nd m en's c ourt. T hese a re r epresented b y t he c entral e nclosures f ound o n s tone-wall s ites. A t K lingbeil 2 530AB3 a nd a s ite o n B adfontein 1 14TJ c attle d ung w as f ound i n t he c entral e nclosure d emonstrating t he e xistence o f t he b yre i n t hat p osition. T he m en's c ourt w as p robably a t t he i nner e ntrance t o t he b yre. A t B uffelshoek 2 627CDI ( Taylor 1 979) ( Fig. 3 ) t here i s a s imilar g roup o f e nclosures i n t he c entre o f t he h omestead. H ere t he c entral e nclosure i s h uge a nd c attle w ere p robably k raaled i n s ubsidiary s maller e nclosures. T he c entral e nclosure m ay h ave s erved a s t he m en's c ourt. A lternatively, o r i n a ddition, s everal o f t he s ubsidiary e nclosures m ay h ave b een m en's c ourts a s S chapera ( 1972) s howed a t S erowe a nd M ochudi.

T aylor's

2 41

( 1979) p lan r eveals s ubsidiary

A

e g ranary b ase

e xcava ted h u ts r () '( ) \ .

4. .

e• , y ' , )‘ . 'i

b yres

3

,

2

. ...0

.. •. b ack

+

J • >j

h u t I t

‘ .0 . le° % )

%•

c ourt ?

BUFFELSHOEK 2 627CD 1 C

% .. 6' ..

N . ." ,0

a &&&&

2 627CD1 HUT Y

b ack

1

D

h u t r on

0

e9 b ack

p r inc iPa l h ouseho ld?

/ /- 1 u t t t h

A

N 1 I it /0

b yre

g ‘

, : P

f r on t

? cout r

OXF1

h ear ths

OXF 1 DWELL ING 2

E

F

0

' Phu t e

p rob hu a t b s l e0

cou r t

A D

1? ) () C1 C7 b yre

e " )

0 l A l,

0

4'

h u t .o ur t

KL IPR IV IERSBERG

F ig.

3

m idden

M oloko m icro-settlement A a nd B -a fter T aylor E -a fter M ason

K L INGBE IL 2 530AB3

o rganization ( not t o s cale).

1 9 79 ;

1 967.

2 42

C a nd D -a fter M aggs

1 976;

c entral e nclosures w ith e ither o ne o r t wo e ntrances. T he l atter m ay b e c ourts; t he f ormer m ay b e k raals. C entrally-placed e nclosures i nterpreted a s c attle b yres h ave O lifantspoort 1 974),

a nd

f rom s ites

H eidelberg

o ther

b een

w estern

i n t he O range F ree

( Taylor,

s ites n ear R ooiberg

t his ( Hall

r ecorded S tate

v olume). 1 981).

a t

T ransvaal s ites

K lipriviersberg, ( Mason 1 968,

( Maggs

1 976b)

1 973,

a nd

n ear

B urials i n b yres a re k nown f rom

S o f ar,

n o

g rain

p its

h ave

d iscovered i n c entral e nclosures w ith t he e xception o f B ambo w hich i s v ery l ate a nd b elongs t o t he n orthern T ransvaal

b een

2 329CD9C N debele

( Loubser 1 981). A ll

t hese

s ettlements h ave a n o uter a rc o f h uts.

c entre-side d ichotomy e xists

i n t he M oloko a s

i n t he

T hus

B CP.

t he

s ame

F rom

t he

e thnography i t i s c lear t hat t here i s n o d istinction i n h ouse s ize o r f eatures b etween p rincipal a nd o ther h uts. I t i s i ts l ocation o pposite t he c attle b yre o r h omestead e ntrance t hat m akes i t t he p rincipal h ut. M aggs's p lan o f O XFI ( Maggs 1 976a) a nd Mason's p lan o f K lipriviersberg p osition.

( Mason

1 968)

( Fig.

3 )

s how

h uts

t hat o ccupy t his

E xcavations h ave n ot b een s ufficiently e xtensive

e lsewhere

t o d eal w ith t his a spect. T his i s t rue t oo f or t he r anking o f h uts a ccording t o s eniority r ight a nd l eft o f t he s enior h ut. H owever, s omething

o f

t his a rrangement c an b e i nferred.

M onnig ( 1967)

s tates

t hat t he p osition o f t he e ntrance t o t he h ousehold i s i mportant; t he h ousehold i tself m ay b e d isplaced b ackwards a nd s ideways b ut m aintain t he e ntrance i n t he r ight p osition. B uffelshoek 2 627CDI

( Taylor

1 979)

T his a rrangement c an b e

( Fig.

3 )

i ndicating t hat

s een

a t

t he s ame o r

s imilar s ocial f orce w as o perating. W hile a m ale-right/female-left d ichotomy w ithin a h ouse 't o b e d emonstrated a rchaeologically, a nd b ack c an b e b ilobial

s een.

d wellings

a t

T his

i s

OXFI

( Maggs

m ost

c learly 1 976a),

B uffelshoek a nd H eidelberg ( Taylor 1 979, o f

h uts

a t

K lipriviersberg

( Mason

v isible a t

t his v olume)

1 968).

a

r ear

p rivate

c ourtyard,

a nd

t he

i n

T aylor's

y et

a nd

M aggs's s ites a t

t he p osition

T he o rganization o f

h ousehold i nto a f ront p ublic c ourt w ith c ooking a rea o r a nd

h as

a c lear d istinction b etween f ront

d ivision

k itchen

o f

t he h ut

t he h uts a t

B uffelshoek i nto f ront a nd b ack s ections p arallels d escriptions S otho-Tswana h uts v ery c losely. T he e mpirical e vidence

o f f or

s acred-back i s m ore d ifficult t o e stablish a s t he s acred o bjects a re p erishable - b ile o f s acrificial a nimals a nd m edicines o f p lant a nd a nimal p roducts p laced i n p ots b ehind t he h ut o f t he c hief's p rincipal w ife. i t

s eems

c lear t hat o n t he m icro-scale t hese M oloko s ites c onform t o t he O n a m acro-settlement s cale t he a rrangement o f h omesteads

I nsofar

a s

t he

a rchaeological

e vidence

B CP. i nto

v illages a nd t owns a lso d emonstrates a c ommon e xamples c ome f rom t he e astern T ransvaal v illages h ave b een m apped F ig.

4 a nd a re

p atterning. T he b est w here s everal c omplete

f rom a erial p hotographs.

l ocated a bout

n ear W aterval B oven. c omplex h omesteads

i s a vailable

5 0 km a part,

T wo a re

o ne a t L ydenburg,

o pen s pace

j ust o utside t he h omestead c omplex.

i s r emarkably s imilar ( Fig.

2 )

a nd

i n

I n b oth c ases t here a re c omparatively l arge a nd c lustered t owards t he c entre o f t he s ettlement,

a ssociated i n t he L ydenburg c ase w ith a c omplex o f c attle l arge

s hown

t he o ther

t o

c losely

d iscussed i n t he p revious

t he

v illage

r esembles

a t

t he

s ection.

2 43

I t

N tshabeleng s tructure c ould

b e

t racks

a nd a

T he a rrangement

o f

( Bothma

1 962)

t he T swana t own

a rgued

t hat

t he

F ig.

4

M oloko m acro—settlement T ransvaal

o rganization i n t he e astern

( not t o s cale).

2 44

c omplexity o f t he c entral a rea i ndicates t hat i t w as t he a rea o f p rimary s ettlement b y t he o riginal h eadman a nd h is r elatives. T he o ther c omplexes i n t he s ettlement w ould r epresent f ission w ithin t he o riginal h omestead a nd a lso t he p resence o f o ther w ards, r elated t he c hief's w ard o r n ot. N tshabeleng i s s tructured t his w ay.

t o

A n u nderstanding o f t he s ymbolic s tructure b ehind t he u se o f s pace i n a ny c ulture i s t he k ey t o u nderstanding t he d istribution o f s tructures, c hapter 7 ). t erms

o f

f eatures, o pen s paces, a rtefacts a nd r efuse ( Hodder 1 982: T he c lear c ontinuity b etween M oloko a nd S otho-Tswana i n s patial

p atterning

m eans

t hey

s hare

t he

s ame

s ymbolic

s tructure a nd t hat, t herefore, e thnoarchaeology c onducted o n S otho-Tswana s ites w ill b e d irectly r elevant t o i nterpreting M oloko s ites.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I t hank P . D avison, c ommenting

o n

d rafts

T . o f

N . H uffman,

L .

t his p aper,

W adley a nd

M .

T aylor

a nd M rs D . G elling f or

f or

t yping

i t.

R EFERENCES A SHTON,

E . H .

1 946.

T he s ocial s tructure o f

C omm. U niv. C ape T own. A SHTON, E .

H .

1 952.

S ch. A fr.

T he B asuto.

t he S outhern S otho

S tud.

L ondon:

( n.s.)

1 5:

w ard.

1 -33.

O xford U niversity P ress f or

t he I nternational A frican I nstitute. B OTHMA,

C . V .

1 962.

N orthern

N tshabeleng

T ransvaal

a nd D evel. E thnolog. B URCHELL, 2 . C ASALIS, C OLLETT,

W .

J .

1 824.

L ondon: E . 1 859. D .

P .

s ocial

S otho t ribe. P ubl.

4 8:

s tructure: R ep.

A

s tudy

o f

a

S . A fr. D ept B antu A dmin.

1 -94.

T ravels i n t he I nterior o f S outhern A frica V ol.

L ongman. L es B assoutos.

1 979.

P aris:

C . M eyueis.

T he a rchaeology o f

i n t he e astern T ransvaal.

t he s tone-walled s ettlements

U npubl. M .Sc.

T hesis:

U niversity

o f

t he W itwatersrand. C OLLETT,

D .

P .

1 982a.

s ettlements o f S ci.

7 8:

R uin

d istributions

t he E astern T ransvaal,

i n

t he

s tone-walled

S outh A frica.

S .

A fr.

J .

3 9-40.

C OLLETT, D . P . 1 982b. B adfontein v alley,

E xcavations o f s tone-walled r uin t ypes i n t he E astern T ransvaal, S outh A frica. S . A fr.

a rchaeol. B ull. D E J AGER,

E .

J .

3 7: 3 4-43. ettlement 1 964 . S

F ort H are P ap. E VERS,

T . M .

A frica.

S .

A fr.

T he

1 981. e d.

S otho-Tswana S . A fr. J . S . L .

t ribes. S outh

4: 4 87-488. C urr. Anthrop. 1 R ecent I ron A ge r esearch i n t he e astern T ransvaal,

G uide

o n

S ci.

1 981.

a rchaeol.

B ull.

3 0:

7 1-83.

I ron A ge i n t he E astern T ransvaal. t o a rchaeological 6 5-09.

e astern T ransvaal: E VERS, T . M . 1 983.

H ALL,

t he N guni a nd S otho

3 : ( 1) 1 9-32. I ron A ge r esearch i n t he E astern T ransvaal,

1 973.

E VERS, T . M . 1 975. S outh A frica. E VERS, T . M . E . A .,

t ypes o f

' Oori t he

7 9:

P retoria: o r

V OIGT

T ransvaal M useum.

' Moloko'?

e vidence o f

I n:

s ites i n t he n orthern a nd T he

o rigins

t he I ron A ge o f

o f

t he

t he T ransvaal.

2 61-264.

I ron A ge s equence a nd

2 45

s ettlement

i n

t he

R ooiberg,

T habazimbi a rea. W itwatersrand. H AMMOND-TOOKE,

W .

D .

1 982.

S otho w orldview . H ARRIES,

C .

L .

U npubl.

M .A.

U niversity

B oundaries a nd b elief:

J ohannesburg :

1 929.

T hesis,

o f

t he

t he s tructure o f a

W itwatersrand U niversity P ress.

T he l aws a nd c ustoms o f t he B apedi a nd c ognate

t ribes o f t he T ransvaal. J ohannesburg: H ortors. H ODDER, I . 1 982. S ymbols i n a ction : e thnarchaeological

s tudies

o f

m aterial c ulture. C ambridge: C ambridge U niversity P ress. H UFFMAN, T . N . 1 981. L eopards K opje a nd t he n ature o f t he I ron A ge i n B antu A frica.

U npubl.

P retoria,

1 981.

J une

p ap.

5 th C onf.

S th. A fr. A ssoc.

H UFFMAN, T . N . 1 982. A rchaeology a nd e thnohistory o f A ge. A nn. R ev. A nthrop. 1 1: 1 33-150. J ONES, P . 1 978. I ron A ge: S tud. J UNOD,

3 7:

H . A .

A rchaeol.

t he A frican I ron

A n a pproach t o s tone s ettlement t ypology o f t he s tone w alling o n t he K lip R iver 2 7o10 S 2 90 1 0 E.

L ate A fr.

8 3-97. L a s econde e cole d e c irconcision c hez l es

B akhaha

d u n ord d u T ransvaal. J l R . a nthrop. I nst. 5 9: 1 31-147. K RIGE, E . J . & K RIGE J . D . 1 943. T he r ealm o f a R ain Q ueen:

a s tory

o f K UPER,

1 929.

t he p attern o f L obedu s ociety. A .

1 980.

A frica 5 0:

C ape T own:

S ymbolic d imensions o f

J uta.

t he S outhern B antu

h omestead.

8 -23.

K UPER, A . 1 982. W ives f or C attle. L ondon: R outledge & K egan P aul. L AYDEVANT, L E R . P . J . 1 931. E tude s ur l a f amille e n B asutoland. J . S oc. A fr.

1 :

2 05-257.

L IVINGSTONE, D . 1 858. M issionary T ravels A frica. N ew Y ork: H arper & B ros. L OUBSER,

J . H . N .

U npubl. M .A. MABILLE,

H . E .

1 981.

J .

U niversity o f

S ci.

1 871.

II: I

i n

S outh

t he P ietersburg a rea.

t he W itwatersrand.

T he B asutos o f B asutoland.

A fr. A ssoc. A dv. MACKENZIE,

R esearches

N debele a rchaeology o f

T hesis:

1 905.

a nd

J t

M eeting

B r.

S .

1 58-194.

T en y ears n orth o f

t he O range R iver.

E dinburgh :

E dmonston & D ouglas. M AGGS,

T . M .

O 'C.

S outhern

1 972.

T swana

B ilobial d wellings: s ettlements

S . A fr.

a p ersistent f eature a rch.

o f

S oc. G oodwin S er.

1 :

5 4-64. MAGGS,

T . M .

O 'C.

H ighveld. M AGGS,

T .

1 976a.

M .

O 'C.

1 976b.

S outhern h ighveld, M ARKER,

M . E .

& E VERS,

e rosion

i n

a rchaeol. M ASON,

R .

J .

I ron

N atal M us. M em.

T . M .

1 976.

e astern

3 1:

c ommunities

o f

t he

S outhern

I ron A ge p atterns a nd S otho h istory o n t he

S outh A frica.

t he

B ull.

1 962.

A ge

2 . W ld A rchaeol. I ron

T ransvaal,

A ge

7 :

3 18-332.

s ettlement

S outh

A frica.

a nd

s oil

S .

A fr.

1 53-165.

T he p rehistory o f

t he

T ransvaal.

J ohannesburg:

W itwatersrand U niversity P ress. M ASON, R . J . 1 967. P rehistory a s a s cience o f c hange -n ew r esearch i n t he S outh A frican i nterior. U niv. W itwatersrand a rchaeol. R es. U nit o cc.

p ap.

1 :

1 -19.

MASON, R . J . 1 968. T ransvaal a nd N atal I ron A ge s ettlement r evealed b y a erial p hotography a nd e xcavation. A fr. S tud. 2 7: 1 67-180. M ASON,

R .

J .

1 970.

A rchaeology:

B antu s peaking p eople. M ASON, a nd

R .

J .

1 971.

h uman

6 : M ASON,

1 -111. R . J .

I nterp.

s ettlement 7 0:

o f

U niv.

1 972.

M elville

o f

K oppies

t he a rchaeology N ature

W itwatersrand a rchaeol. R es. U nit.

L ocational

m odels

2 46

o f

a ncestral

3 8-46.

P rehistoric m an i n J ohannesburg:

e cology

J ohannesburg.

p ermanent

P hoto.

T ransvaal

R eserve, o cc. I ron

p ap. A ge

s ettlements. I n : 8 71-885. L ondon: MASON, R .

J .

1 973.

A frica. M ASON,

R .

C LARKE, M ethuen.

I ron A ge

C urr. A nthrop. J .

1 974.

D .L.,

r esearch 1 4:

e d. i n

M odels t he

i n

W .

a rchaeology :

T ransvaal,

B ackground

t o

t he

T ransvaal

I ron A ge -new

d iscoveries a t O lifantspoort a nd B roederstroom. J l S . M in. M etall. M ASON,

R .

J .

7 4:

1 980.

A ge

A fr.

I nst.

2 11-216. U se o f a p ulsed

i nduction m eter a nd m agnetometer

f or l ocating b uried a rchaeological I ron

S outh

4 85-487.

s ite.

P art

1 .

m aterial

A rchaeology.

a t S .

K lipriviersberg A fr.

J .

S ci.

7 6:

3 17-8. M ASON, R . J . 1 981. E arly I ron A ge s ettlement a t B roederstroom T ransvaal, S outh A frica. S . A fr. J . S ci. 7 7: 4 01-16. M ONNIG,

H .

O .

1 963.

o rganisation. M ONNIG, H . 0 . 1 967. P AUW, B . A . 1 960. T hlaping o f P ITJE,

G .

M .

T he

A fr.

2 4/73,

s tructure o f L obedu s ocial a nd p olitical

S tud.

2 2:

4 9-64.

T he P edi. P retoria: V an S chalk S ome c hanges i n t he s ocial s tructure

t he T aung R eserve.

1 950.

A fr.

S tud.

1 9:

o f

t he

4 9-76.

T raditional s ystems o f m ale e ducation among P edi

a nd c ognate t ribes. P t Q UIN, P . J . 1 959. F oods

1 . A fr. S tud. a nd f eeding

9 : 5 3-76. h abits

t he

P edi.

J ohannesburg: W itwatersrand U niversity P ress. S CHAPERA, I . 1 943. N ative l and t enure i n B echuanaland.

A lice:

L ovedale P ress. S CHAPERA, I . 1 953.

T he

T swana.

L ondon:

o f

I nternational

A frican

I nstitute, E thnographic S urvey o f A frica. S CHAPERA,

I .

L ondon: S CHAPERA, I . S tud. S CHAPERA,

1 955.

3 1: I .

A h andbook o f T swana l aw a nd c ustom

F rank C ass. 1 972. T he s ocial s tructure o f

t he

T swana

( 2nd e d.). w ard.

A fr.

9 1-109. &R OBERTS,

S .

1 975.

R ampedi r evisited:

a nother

l ook a t

a K gatla w ard. A frica 4 5: 2 58-79. T AYLOR, M . O . V . 1 979. L ate I ron A ge s ettlements o n t he n orthern e dge o f

t he

V redefort

D ome.

U npubl. M .A. T hesis:

W itwatersrand. W ALTON, J . 1 948. S outh A frican p easant a rchitecture. S otho f olk b uilding. W ILLOUGHBY, W . C . 1 905. m eeting B r.

& S .

A fr.

A fr. S tud. 7 : 1 39-145. N otes o n t he t otemism o f A ssoc. A dv.

2 47

S ci.

I II:

U niversity o f P t

1 .

S outhern

t he B ecwana.

2 63-293.

t he

J t

2 2.

S OUTHERN T RANSVAAL S TONE W ALLED S ITES -A

S PATIAL C ONSIDERATION

M . 0 . V . T aylor

I NTRODUCTION T he a im o f t his p aper i s t o d raw a ttention t o i nformation w hich e xists i n t he l iterature b ut w hich m ay h ave b een u nder-emphasized i n t he d ebate o n t he a pplicability o f t he B antu C attle P attern m odel ( Kuper 1 980, 1 982) t o S otho-Tswana g roups. I n o rder t o a chieve t his a im, I w ill f irst d escribe t he s patial a ttributes o f a s ite, a rguably b uilt b y S otho s peakers. T his d escription i s b ased n ot o n e xcavation, b ut o n a s urvey o f a ll s urface f eatures. I t i s h oped t hat t his w ill p rovide a n e xample f or d iscussion i n t he l ight o f E vers's p aper ( 1984) o n M oloko s ettlement p atterns.

D ESCRIPTION O F T HE S ITE T he s ite, 2 628 C A1, i s o n t he w estern e nd o f a g roup o f f ive s ettlements a t t he f oot o f t he S uikerbosrand o n t he f arm S choongezicht 0 S ; 2 8 °0 9' E ), s ome 2 5 k m w est o f H eidelberg. F igure 1 6 4 ( 26 ° 3 s hows t he u tilization o f t hree d istinct z ones w ithin t he w alling c omplex. T he f irst i s t he p erimeter z one, w here l inked s emicircular w alls, a bout 1 m t hick a nd 1 ,5 m h igh ( where n ot c ollapsed) h ave b een b uilt. T he d istance a cross t he m outh o f t he s emicircle v aries b etween 3 m a nd 8 m . S ome s how a r eversed s emicircle o f s ingle-course f oundation w alling. S urface f inds i n t his v icinity i ncluded f ragments o f w all d aga a nd u pper a nd l ower g rindstones. T he l argest s emicircle i s u pslope o n t he e astern s ide o f t he s ettlement a nd p rovides t he s ole e xample o f a n o uter e ntrance. T he w alling o n t he s outh-western p erimeter i s u nlike t hat d escribed a bove, b ut i s m ore s inuous. T he s emicircles a re n ot a s c learly e mphasized. T he

c entral

z one

h as

f our

m ain j uxtaposed c ircles.

T hese a re

b uilt s o a s t o e nclose a f ifth, c entral, a rea, a ccess t o w hich i s g ained t hrough a p rincipal e ntrance t hat f aces t he l argest s emicircle. A ccess t o t he f our c ircles i s o nly p ossible f rom t his c entral a rea. T he w alls a re w ell b uilt a nd h ave n ot c ollapsed. A s a r esult, i t i s p ossible t o c omment o n c ertain f eatures, i dentified a s p latforms, i n F ig. 1 . A djacent t o t he p rincipal e ntrance, a nd a t t wo o ther p laces w here t he c ircles

j oin,

t he w alls h ave b een b uilt m uch w ider t han

t he

u sual 1 m . T he s urface a rea o f t hese p latforms i s c ompletely l evel, u nlike t he t ops o f t he w alls, a nd h as b een c overed w ith g ravel a nd n odules o f i mported s tone, q uite u nlike t he V entersdorp l ava u sed i n t he c onstruction o f t he w alls. I n e ach c ase i t i s p ossible t o c limb o nto

t he p latform u p a s teep,

n arrow w alkway.

T hat t his c onstruction

i s i ntentional, a nd n ot a f ortuitous b y-product o f t he c onjunction

o f

a djacent w alling, i s i ndicated b y t he a bsence o f p latforms a t t wo o ther p laces w here w alls j oin. A lthough q uite w ide, t he u pper s urfaces o f t he w alls a re u neven, w ith n o g ravel i nfill, a nd w alkways

2 48

F ig.

1

S ite 2 628 C A 1n ear Heidelberg,

2 49

T ransvaal.

a re a bsent. T he t hird z one t o h ave b een u tilized

l ies

b etween

t he

c entral

z one j ust d escribed a nd t he f irst p erimeter z one ( Fig. 1 ). H ere t hree q uite d istinct f eatures w ere f ound. T he f irst c omprises s mall c ircles,

2

m

i n

d iameter,

o f s ingle-course

f oundation s tones,

w ith a n e ntrance u sually f acing t he p erimeter l ines

o f

t he

s ame

t ype

s emicircles.

e ach

A rcs

o r

o f s tonework w ere c losely a ssociated.

T he

s econd f eature t ype i n t his i ntermediate z one c onsists o f c ircles a nd a rcs o f r ather r oughly b uilt w alling, n ot m ore t han 1 m h igh. F inally, c orbelled s tone h uts a re a lthough o ne o n t he w est s tands a lone.

a ssociated

w ith

t hese

w alls,

D ISCUSSION A s r eference w ill b e m ade i n t his i t i s n ecessary a t

t his p oint

s ection t o S otho/Tswana g roups,

t o s tate

2 628 C A1 w as b uilt b y S otho/Tswana.

t he r easons f or

a ssuming

t hat

I n t he f irst p lace i t i s s ituated

i n t he h istorically k nown S otho a rea.

S econdly,

t he

o verall

p attern

o f t he w alls m atches t hose o f o ther h ighveld s ites w hich h ave b een l inked w ith t he S otho ( Evers, t his v olume). T here s eems t o b e n o o ther g roup b uilding.

t han

t he S otho

t hat c ould h ave b een r esponsible

T urning t o a c onsideration o f t here

c an

b e

p erimeter,

n o

d oubt

s ince i t w as

g rindstones

t hat n ear

t he

m ain

b y

l ines

o f

d welling

s emicircles

w ere f ound o n t he s urface.

c ourtyard a nd i n a f ew p laces, i ndicated

t he s patial u tilization a t t he

f ront

a rea

t hat

f or

t he

2 628 C A1, w as o n t he

w all

d aga

a nd

T he s emicircles f ormed a r ear

v erandahs

f oundation w alling.

a nd

c ourtyards

w ere

T here a re s igns t hat

t wo

h uts w ere l ocated i n t he l argest s emicircle o n t he e astern u pslope s ide. T his i nterpretation i s f ully i n a ccordance w ith t he e xcavated e vidence f rom K lipriviersberg

( Mason

1 968),

t he

O range

F ree

S tate

s ites ( Maggs 1 976) a nd B uffelshoek ( Taylor 1 979), w hich s hare m any s patial e lements. I t c an a lso b e s een t hat " the p rincipal d welling i s u pslope

o f

t he

c entral c omplex" w alling

c entral ( Evers,

c an b e r elated

o ther.

T hey w ere m ost

a rea t his

t o

a nd o pposite v olume).

t he m ain e ntrance t o

T he

s mall

t he d welling h uts a s

l ikely

c ooking

a reas,

c ircles

o f

t he l ow

t hey u sually f ace e ach w ith

t he

f oundations

s upporting a w ind-break. T he

l arger

s tone-walled c ircles

c ertainly h oused s mall

s tock.

p revent

f rom e ntering.

l arge a nimals

i n t he

i ntermediate

z one a lmost

O ne h ad a l intelled e ntrance t hat w ould N o e vidence o f h ut c onstruction

w as s een o n t he s urface. T he a ssociation w ith c orbelled h uts s uggests t he p resence o f h erd-boys. T aken t ogether, t hese f actors s upport t he s uggested i nterpretation o f

t hese c ircles a s s mall

s uggested

f or K lipriviersberg.

b y

M ason

( 1968)

t he c entral c omplex w ould h ave k raaled t he c attle. o ver

1

m

w ide

a nd

a re

c arefully

s tock

k raals,

T he l arge c ircles T he e ntrances

a s i n a re

d esigned w ith n o s harp e dges o r

p rotrusions. O ne e xception h ad a l ow l intelled e ntrance. N o s urface f eatures, e xcept f or a s mall a sh m idden i n t he l argest n orthern c ircle, w ere r ecorded. F inally, g rain

t he p latforms

s torage c ontainers,

i n t he k raal w alls w ere p robably b ases a s

s uggested b y V an H oepen & H offman

2 50

f or

( 1935)

f or B uispoort a nd M ason ( 1968) f or K lipriviersberg. o n t hese p latforms w ould h ave b een o ut o f r each o f e asily a ccessible t o p eople b y m eans o f

t he

n arrow

a dvantages w ould h ave b een p rotection f rom d amp, I f

t his

i nterpretation i s c orrect,

i t

i s

o f

i nterest

t he h igh-status a rea a ssociated w ith c attle a nd w ould

a ccord w ith K uper's

a s a n e quivalent o f

t he g rain p its

t he n orth a nd e ast o f t his

( 1980,

w alkways. t o

p olitical

1 982) m odel,

o bserved

1 976;

a t

o ther

T aylor 1 979).

h ighveld

t hat n ear

a uthority.

a nd c ould b e o f

s een

s ites

t o

I t i s n ot p ossible t o c omment a t

s tage o n w hether g rain w as a lso s tored b ehind t he

b een

n ote

t he s ettlement,

i n t he c attle k raals

t he h ighveld.

O ther

t ermites a nd r odents.

g rain b ins w ere p robably l ocated i n t he c entre o f T his

C ontainers p laced t he c attle a nd y et

s ites

h uts,

a s

i n t he n ear v icinity

T his w ill b e i nvestigated a s p art

o f

a

h as

( Maggs f uture

e xcavation p rogramme.

R EFERENCES E VERS,

T .

M .

1 984.

S otho-Tswana a nd M oloko

t he B antu c attle p attern. D .M.,

W ILSON, M .L.

I n:

A frican

s ettlement p atterns a nd

M .J.,

& H UMPHREYS, A .J.B.,

A frican a rchaeology t oday. S outhern

H ALL,

P roceedings o f

A ssociation

A VERY,

e ds.

P aul. M AGGS, T . 1 976.

I ron

f or

A ge

A VERY, s outhern

t he C onference o f

t he

o f A rchaeologists, G aborone 1 983.

O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports. K UPER, A . 1 980. S ymbolic d imensions o f t he S outhern B antu A frica 5 0: 8 -23. K UPER, A . 1 982. W ives

G .,

F rontiers:

c attle.

c ommunities

H omestead.

L ondon:

R outledge a nd K egan

o f

S outhern

t he

H ighveld.

P ietermaritzburg: N atal M useum. M ASON, R . J . 1 968. T ransvaal a nd N atal I ron A ge s ettlement r evealed b y a erial p hotography a nd e xcavation. A fr. S tud. 2 7: 1 67-180. T AYLOR, o f

M .

0 . V .

t he

1 979.

V redefort

W itwatersrand. V AN H OEPEN, E . C . N .

L ate I ron A ge s ettlements o n t he n orthern e dge D ome.

U npubl. M .A.

& H OFFMAN,

A .

C .

T hesis:

1 935.

D ie

B uispoort e n B raklaagte,

n oordwes v an Z eerust.

n as. M us.

2 (1).

B loemfontein.

2 51

U niversity o f

t he

o orblyfsels

v an

A rgeolog. Navors.

2 3.

W HERE Y OU A RE T HE G IRLS G ATHER T O P LAY: T HE G REAT E NCLOSURE A T G REAT Z IMBABWE T homas N .

H uffman

G reat Z imbabwe w as a l arge s tone-walled A frican t own w hich f lourished b etween t he 1 3th a nd 1 5th c enturies A D a s t he c apital o f a S hona s tate. T he m ediaeval t own i s w ell-known t oday f or i ts m onumental a rchitecture, a nd o ne o f t he m ost i mpressive s tructures i s t he G reat E nclosure. T he o uter w all o f t his b uilding i ncorporates a n e stimated 9 00 0 00 b locks, 4 5 n ormal-sized h ouses w as

b uilt

t he e quivalent o f e nough b ricks

( Summers

i n t he f inest

1 965).

T he

b ack

s tyle o f m asonry -W hitty's

T he

s ize a nd g randeur o f

o r,

a lternatively,

t hat

a nd

g reat

t he n ational r itual c entre.

a reas

w ere

s ited

s hows

e lsewhere:

r esidence a nd r itual c entre w ere l ocated o n Z imbabwe H ill, g reat

w ife

o ccupied

t he

p attern

t hese s tone w alls h ave l ed t o t he b elief

i t w as

r esidential

c hevron

t he a bode o f t he k ing o r h is

r ecent s patial a nalysis b ased o n S hona e thnography r itual

m oreover,

( 1961) Q c oursing

-a nd t he b ack w all w as p rominently d ecorated w ith a o ver 8 0 m l ong.

t hat t he G reat E nclosure w as

t o c onstruct

p ortion,

w ife

H owever,

a

t hat

t hese

t he

r oyal

t he R uin i n t he l ower v alley ( Huffman

R enders

w hile

1 981). C onsequently,

a n ew

i nterpretation

o f

t he

G reat

E nclosure

i s

n eeded, o ne t hat n ot o nly c onsiders t he o bvious i mportance o f t he b uilding, b ut a lso i ts s pecific l ocation, i nternal a rrangement a nd a rtefactual

c ontent.

I

t hese t hree a spects a nd

f irst d evelop a n ew e xplanation t hat c overs

t hen e xtend i t t o o ther Z imbabwe s ettlements.

A l arge o pen s pace i n t he c entre o f G reat Z imbabwe a ssembly

a rea

a nd

m en's c ourt.

r esidence a nd a udience c hamber o f c lustered

a round

t he v alley.

t he

N orth o f t his c ourt t he

k ing,

w hile

s erved

t he

r oyal

f irst w ife's r esidence o n t he o pposite

T he G reat E nclosure i tself w as b uilt o n t he e dge

a rea

r eserved f or

( Fig.

1 ).

t he k ing's w ives,

a s

a n

l ay t he h illtop w ives s ide o f o f

t he

a n a lmost e xclusively f emale a rea

A m ain e ntrance o n t he w ives

s ide c ould

b e

r eached

f rom

t he r esidence o f t he g reat w ife v ia t he s tone-walled P lateau P assage. T he p rincipal e ntrance o n t he o ther s ide, h owever, c ould n ot h ave b een c onveniently I nstead, R idge

r eached f rom t he w ives'

R uins

t o

t he m en's c ourt.

o riented i n s uch a w ay t hat c ourt a nd T his

a rea w hen t he t own w as o ccupied.

t his w est e ntrance w as l inked b y t he l ong r ough w alls o f T he G reat E nclosure,

o ne s ide c ould b e r eached f rom

t he o ther f rom t he w ives'

a rea.

m ale-female

w as

o rientation

o rganization o f t he b uilding. a n o pen a rea w here t wo

i ntegrated

t he

t all m onoliths o nce s tood ( Fig.

( Bent

1 896:112;

H all

1 905a:252).

w as

m en's

w ith t he i nternal

T he m en's e ntrance l eads d irectly 2 ),

i nto

a nd a nother

m onolith a lso s tood i n f ront o f o r o n t he l arge s tepped p latform t he c onical t owers

t he

t herefore,

n ear

S imilar m onoliths

i n t he p alace o n t he h ill a re c alled t he h orns o f t he m ambo ( ruler)' ( the k ing d efends h is p eople w ith h is s pear -o r a rmy -a s a b ull

2 52

E 0 0 t o_

-41 411 4

--

i — / / / / /

4 4

.*Z s

::: :: : :: •• :.•:;

. 4 r

: : • : : * : : : : : : * : *. . :. • : :— : : : 1 : :+ z : 4 : (* c e : . . . .

• : , : * : : , : e

• ./ . : . •

c z.

> . : . . : : i

/ /

.

Z imbabwe.

0

0 _ ,

u z ‘ w

C4) 4 1 . * . : : : : : • : . : : Z s ' s ' . . :: : • : • : • : . • .N s ' : : • : • : • : • : • : • : s. : : • •: " ' : — : :•

: 4 5

/ /

• _ ,

2 53

F ig.

2

T he G reat E nclosure a t G reat Z imbabwe. S C = s acrificial c airn; p latform;

' P = p arallel p assage;

Y W = y oung w oman;

Y M = y oung m an;

M = m onolith a rea;

O M = o ld m an;

S P = s tepped p latform.

2 54

D P = d aga

O W = o ld w oman;

d efends h is h erd

w ith

h is

h orns),

a nd

t he

' horns

a re

s aid

t o

d esignate t he m ambo's p lace ( J. T hokozane, p ers. c omm.) T hese ' horns' s tand o n t he w all a bove t he e ntrance t hat m en w ould h ave m ost l ikely u sed

t o

r each

t he

k ing's

a udience

m onoliths i n b oth t he H ill R uin t herefore, p robably m ale s ymbols. T he

e ntrance

t o

c hamber

a nd

s ome o f

g rooves. t hem,

1 957:371),

a re

l argest

a s

i n

g rooves a re a lso

s everal

T hese g rooves c annot

s uch

t he

c luster

i n

i mpossible p ositions

c oncentrated

e xclusively

u sed

i n

t he

i n

s ide.

a re s olid.

s eparate m ale

t o

l ong,

j ambs b ecause R uin

P hillips

( Whitty

t o s erve t hat f unction. w ives'

T he

q uarters,

t he

a nd a g roove d esignates s ister

w ould

C onsequently,

m ost

t he

l ikely

t he g rooves a re

I n t he G reat E nclosure t he

f emale

t heme

b uilding ( Fig. B esides

I n c ontrast,

T herefore,

a nd

m ale-female

w as

w ith

g rooves

d oorways a nd o ther f eatures w hich w ould f irst b e a pproached

f rom t he w ives' s ide

s ide l eads

f eatures

r oyal

t o a ttend p rivate a udiences.

T he w ere,

t he

f emale a rea i n t own,

b est e xplained a s f emale s ymbols. e xist

t he c ourt. E nclosure

s imply b e d oor

d oorway i n t he H ill R uin w hich t he k ing's h ave

f rom G reat

t he G reat E nclosure o n t he w ives'

t he w ell-known p arallel p assage a nd t o v ertical

t he

a ll s uch

f eatures

o n

t he

m en's

t he G reat E nclosure n ot o nly i ncorporated e ntrances,

e xtended

l ike

t hroughout

t he

t he

H ill

e ntire

R uin, l ength

b ut o f

a t he

2 ).

t he e xaggerated m ale a nd f emale t heme,

o rganized a ccording t o a nother p rinciple.

t he G reat E nclosure

S hona p eople t ypically

p rescribe p ublic a nd p rofane a ctivities t o t he f ront o f a s tructure a nd h omestead, w hile t he b ack i s r eserved f or p rivate a nd s acred a ctivities. a t t he b ack o f

F or e xample,

a m an c ommunicates w ith h is a ncestor

s pirit

b ack o f t he k itchen, a nd p rivate g rain b ins a re k ept a t t he t he h omestead. I n t he G reat E nclosure a ll t he e ntrances a re

c lustered a t t he n orth-west e nd, a nd t he s outh-east e nd t he b ack. t han t he p rivate o r

a nd t herefore t his m ust b e t he f ront T he b ack w all i s n oticeably h igher

f ront, s o h igh t hat s eclusion m ust h ave b een i mportant, s acred a ctivities a re l ikely t o h ave t aken p lace h ere.

T he h igh b ack w all s hields a r elatively o pen s pace t hat, t o H all's

( 1905a)

r ecords,

a nd

a ccording

w as d evoid o f n ormal r esidential s tructures

o r d ebris. H all ( 1905a:267) u nearthed a n a lmost m etre-high d aga p latform i n t his a rea w hich w as c overed b y f ragments o f s oapstone b eams.

O ther a rtefacts

s uggest

t he

G reat

a ssortment o f h uman, i ncluding

w hat

i n

t he

g eneral

a nimal a nd a bstract

a ppears

t o

b e

a

e thnographic r ecord f or t his p art M onnig w ere

1 967:126) a ssociated

c oncentration w as

o f

v icinity

E nclosure's f unction.

g irls'

s tone

a nd

p regnant w oman.

o f

s trange f igurines w ith

o f

t his

p latform

E xcavators f ound a s trange

B antu

A frica

s uch a s

i nitiation

c lay

f igurines,

A ccording t o ( Richards

t he

1 945;

t hese i nside a s ettlement s chools.

t he f igurines h ere s uggests

T herefore,

t he

t hat t he G reat E nclosure

s uch a c entre. T he m ost a ppropriate m odel

w ell-known

V enda

D omba

f or o ur

S chool

p urpose

( Blacking

i s

1 969).

p rovided

b y

t he

T he V enda a re a n

a ppropriate s ource b ecause t hey a re d escendants o f t he Z imbabwe c ulture: t he V enda l anguage i s a r ecognized a malgamation o f S hona a nd S otho, R iver 1 977).

a nd s everal c lans a re k nown t o h ave l ived n orth o f t he L impopo i n Z imbabwe ( Stayt 1 931; V an W armelo 1 940; R alushai & G ray T he V enda t herefore

f orm a n e thnohistoric

2 55

c ontinuity,

n ot

a

s purious a nalogy, a nd t he D omba p rovides a r ich f ramework w ithin w hich t he a rtefacts, o rganization a nd l ocation o f t he G reat E nclosure c an b e i nterpreted. Among

t he

V enda,

e very

t hree

m arriageable a ge a re s upposed t o

g o

o r t o

f our t he

y ears

a ll

c hief's

( or

g irls

o f

h eadman's)

s ettlement f or a bout t welve m onths. F or p art o f t his t ime t hey s erve a s a l abour f orce, w orking, f or e xample, i n t he l eader's f ields, a nd t he r emainder o f

t he

s chool a re p ublic, c ourt.

t ime t hey a ttend t he s chool.

s uch a s

t he

' python d ance',

S ome a spects a re s ecret,

a bout p roper m oral b ehaviour, t aught

S ome a spects o f

a nd t ake p lace T hese

o f c eremony t hrough p hysical e xercise, r iddles, s hows t hat u se v arious f igurines a s p rops. l essons

o ften

t he

s uch a s e soteric f ormulae a nd l essons

s ex a nd e tiquette.

i n a s pecial e nclosure i nside t he r oyal w ives

T hese

t he

i n

l essons

a re

a rea b y m asters

p roverbs,

s ongs

a nd

r evolve a round f our s tatus c ategories w hich

u nderlie V enda a nd S hona s ocial o rganization: o ld a nd s enior m an; o ld a nd s enior w oman; y oung a nd j unior m an; a nd y oung a nd j unior w oman.

T hese s ame c ategories

( Tracy

1 934;

N ettleton

f orm t he b asis o f

1 983),

a nd

t he

S hona

d esigns

e lucidate t he m eaning o f a c luster o f s ymbols a t E nclosure. s maller f ront

T his

t ower, o f

c luster

c omprises

T he

m ale s ide o f

g iant c onical

t he b uilding,

d entelle

p attern,

c ontexts

s uggesting

c rocodiles

t he b ack o f

t he G reat

t he c elebrated c onical t ower, a

a

a nd

a n

a nd i t i s i nvariably r epresented b y a

t he t ower's s ummit w hich

o ccurs

a ssociation

1 983).

p articularly r evealing,

O ne

a nd

i n

s tatus

t ower i n t he G reat E nclosure i s o n t he

p attern

( Huffman

s tone

I n t he d ivining s ystem t he ' old m an'

p ersonifies w isdom a nd m aturity,

d ice

t he d ice h elp

t he c hevron d ecoration a nd t he b ands o f d ark

t he t wo t owers.

c rocodile.

d ivining

o n

b etween p osition

t hat

i s

t he

i s

o n

b ordered

b y

a

t he c entral h ill i n i mportant

i n

t he

k ing's

m en

H ill

a nd

R uin

p rivate

i s

a ncestor

s anctuary a t t he b ack o f h is a partment. T his a ncestor c ontext i s s ignificant b ecause S hona l eaders w ere l inked t o c rocodiles t hrough c ommon

a ssociations

w ith

A ccording t o l egend, o f

t he

w ater

S hona -c ame f rom t he

( Frobenius

n ation t his

t he

i s

a ncestor s pirit w orld a nd r ainmaking.

t he f irst m an a nd r ainmaker -the f ounding f ather

i n H aberland

s pirit w orld a t 1 973).

T he

t he d irect d escendant o f

i s p rimarily w hy t he V enda s ay

d eath

o f

a nimals

a a re

u nderneath.

c hief

( Van W armelo

a ssociated T hey,

a nd i n t he D omba

w ith

l ike

t hey

a s

' father'

t he

R ozvi

t he p ool h as

t he

1 940:35). d eep

d ried

a nd

t he

a s

h eadmen

t aken f rom t he

w hich

h ad

p ersonally

c aught

o n

t he

c onical

s tomach

o f

o f

1 913),

t he

w ater

c rocodiles w as F or e xample,

a

i n a d eep p ool

s ymbolically b ecoming a c rocodile i n p attern

w orld

( Hemans

a n ew c hief w as s upposed t o e at f ood

c ooked w ith t he s tones h e

o n

s pirit

c an b ring r ain

t o

u p'

C rocodiles a bove a ll o ther

p ools

r eferred

( a S hona g roup)

t he a nd

( Blacking 1 969). T his l ink b etween c hiefs a nd s ometimes m ade e xplicit d uring a c hief's i nstallation. among

o f

t his f irst m an a nd r ainmaker,

S hona c hiefs,

a re

t he b ottom o f a p ool o f

k ing

t he

t ower s hows,

t hat

c rocodile

( Bullock 1 927:289),

p rocess.

t hen,

m ale T he

' crocodile'

t he t ower s ymbolized

t he s enior m ale s tatus. T he d ivining t his

s econd s ystem.

s tatus,

a nd

m an' c rocodile.

c ategory,

' old

w oman',

p ersonifies

u nity

i n

t he

D ouble d esigns a re c arved o n t he d ice t o r epresent t he d esigns a re u sually s mall v ersions I t f ollows,

t hen,

t hat

2 56

o f

t he

' old

t he s mall c onical t ower o n t he

f emale

s ide o f

t he b uilding n ext

t o t he l arge

t ower

s ymbolized

t his

s tatus. ( If i t w as e ver d ecorated, t he p attern w as p robably a h erringbone b ecause t his i s t he d esign t hat m arks t he s tairway t o t he r esidence o f T he

t he k ing's

t hird

s ister,

c ategory,

t he s enior w oman.)

' young

m an',

m etaphorically a ssociated w ith s nakes. d istinguished

b y

c hevron o n t he i dentified

a

w all.

t he

y oung

w ith s everal ' male

v irility a nd

d ivining

d esign d ivided i nto t hree p arts,

o uter

w ith

p ersonifies O n t he

T his

m onoliths,

s ometimes u sed t o p ers. c omm.), a nd

d ouble

m an c ategory. b ut i t

c hevron

d ice

i t

i s i s

l ike t he d ouble c an

b e

f urther

N ot o nly i s i t a ssociated

i s a lso c alled

n handa,

r efer t o t he m ovement o f a s nake i t i s k nown a s t he s nake

a

w ord

( D. P . A brahams, o f f ertility'

( Blake-Thompson 1 954). C onsequently, t he d ouble c hevron d esign c an b e f irmly i dentified w ith t he t hird s tatus. T he f ourth s tatus, d esignated

b y

a n

' young w oman',

i ntertwined

p ersonifies

m otif.

T he

f ertility

a nd

c luster,

t he t wo p anels o f a lternating b lack a nd w hite b ands i n

o f

c onical

t he

t owers,

s triped d ecoration o n a

p robably s pecial

r epresent z ebra s tripes,

c lass

o f

i s

r emaining s ymbol i n t he

z oomorphic

f ront

l ike t he

v essels

m ade

t hroughout M ashonaland ( see f or e xample H all & N eal 1 904:155-157). I n p raise p oetry o f t he z ebra t otem, t he z ebra's b lack a nd w hite s tripes a re

r eferred

t o

s pecifically a s a n i ntertwined p attern,

t he w ay h usband a nd w ife l ie s o,

t his

wall

t ogether

p attern c ompletes

a lluding t o

( Hodza & F ortune 1 979:134);

a nd

t he q uartet o f a dult s tatuses.

A ll

f our s ymbols p robably p layed a p rominent r ole i n t he s chool Z imbabwe a s I n

t hey h ave d one i n t he D omba S chool o f

t he

p oetry,

p ast,

a ccording

t he r itual s ister o f

m arriageable 1 979:15-18). i mportant

g irls I ndeed,

t o

a t

G reat

t he V enda.

t he r ecent r esearch o n S hona p raise

t he c hief w as r esponsible f or i nstructing

i n p roper m oral b ehaviour ( Hodza & s ome S hona p raise p oetry s till a lludes

r ole o f t he c hief's

F ortune t o t he

s enior s ister:

Y ou h ave d one a k indness,

O ne o n w hom e veryone r elies;

W herever y ou g o t here i s a cclamation. A s ervice h as b een r endered,

L ady M oyo;

S oothing s hade t o t he w eanling; Where y ou a re t he g irls g ather t o p lay; ( Hodza & F ortune 1 979:248). T he s pirits o f p revious

s enior s isters w ere

t hanked f or t heir p ast

s uccess a nd i nvoked f or t heir c ontinuing i nfluence o n t he d aughters o f t he h istorical l ine. T his s piritual i mportance o f f ormer r itual s isters e xplains o ne o therwise p erplexing f eature i nside t he G reat E nclosure.

A

l arge

s tone

p latform

n ear

o riginally f ound c overed i n c attle b ones p robably

r eceived

a re a bout

t he

s acrifices

o nly

f emale

t o

( Hall

t he

t he s pirits o f

s pirits

w hich

f emale e ntrance w as

1 905a:270).

T he

t hese w omen,

w ould

b e

c airn

f or

t hey

h onoured

a nd

p ropitiated i n t his w ay. A nother d iscussed.

t ype O ne

o f

p latform,

t his

t ime

l arge s tepped p latform s tands

s tepped,

r emains

t o b e

i n f ront

o f

g iant

t he

c onical t ower ( Fig. 2 ), a nd t here a re a t l east t wo m ore i nside G reat E nclosure. S imilar p latforms a re a lso f ound t hroughout w ives'

a rea b ut,

a pparently,

n owhere e lse i n t he t own.

2 57

t he t he

T hese f eatures

2 58 L ocation o f s ites m entioned i n t he t ext.

r esemble t he p latform a t s tacked,

a nd s o

t he b ack o f n S hona k itchen

t hey m ay h ave b een u sed i n l essons

w ith t he h ousehold d uties o f m arried w omen. i s n ecessary b efore i n t erms o f D omba. W hat

e xplanatory

v alue

w ives

a rea b ecause o rientation o f

t hat

s ome

m ales

g rooves, v arious t he

f ar s hows

t hat

s orts,

t he D omba

a re

h owever,

t he b uilding,

p articipated

t he d omain o f

o n t he o ther h and,

i n

a nd s tatus

t he

I t

h as i t

s chool.

r eflects

T he

w omen. t he f act

m onoliths

a nd

s ymbols s erved a s e ducational p rops o f

a nd t he s acrificial c airn r eflects

s ister.

h ypothesis

i nterpretation :

o rientation, a rtefacts a nd w as s ited o n t he e dge o f t he

t he i nitiations w ere p art o f

f igurines

k ing's

r esearch,

t han a ny o ther p resent

e xplains t he G reat E nclosure's l ocation, s tatus s ymbols. T he G reat E nclosure T he

p ots

t hese p latforms c an b e s atisfactorily i nterpreted

I h ave p resented s o

g reater

M ore

w here

t hat w ere c oncerned

w ill

o nly

b e

t he r itual

a m atter o f

r ole

o f

t ime b efore

t he

s tepped p latforms a nd r emaining f eatures c an b e e xplained

w ithin

t he

D omba f ramework. I

n ow

t urn

t o

f our o ther Z imbabwe s ettlements

G reat E nclosure i s n ot u nique a nd o r

p redictive

p otential,

m ost c omplex e xample, K hami, w as

o f

t o e mphasize

t he D omba h ypothesis.

t he

p ower,

I b egin w ith t he

t he P assage R uin a t K hami.

n ear p resent-day B ulawayo

e stablished

t o s how t hat

t he e xplanatory

a fter

G reat

( Fig.

3 ),

w as a l arge

Z imbabwe's a bandonment

c entury.

T he t own p lan o f K hami i s m uch t he s ame

Z imbabwe

( Huffman 1 981),

a nd t he P assage R uin

t own

t hat

i n t he m id-15th

a s

t hat

o f

G reat

( Robinson 1 959) m atches

t he p osition o f t he G reat E nclosure. A l ong p assage e ntrance, s imilar t o t he P arallel P assage a t G reat Z imbabwe, f aces i n t owards t he w ives' a rea, w hile a n e ntrance o n t he o pposite s ide i s m arked b y o n

t he

r ight-hand s ide

( Fig.

m ale/female o rientation l ike Z ebra s tripes a t w oman'

s tatus,

w ith f eatures

4 ).

t hat o f

t he e ntrance

a nd t he o ther

T he P assage R uin,

t o

a

b uttress

t herefore,

h as a

t he G reat E nclosure. t he p assage

s ymbolize t he

' young

t hree s tatus c ategories c an b e i dentified

i nside t he b uilding.

A s hort w all a t

t he

e nd

o f

t he

p assage w as f ormerly d ecorated w ith a c heck p attern a bove a s paced h erringbone o n t he s ide f acing t he p assage, a nd a r ound p rojection f orms

t he

r ight-hand

e nd o n t he o ther s ide.

K hami i n e quivalent p ositions t o G reat Z imbabwe, i ncluding t he R obinson 1 959: s ymbol W hite

f or 1 903:

s tairway

p late X XII),

c rocodile p late I V, o n

t he

a nd t op)

s o

t hat o f t he d entelle d ecoration a t p ersonal s anctuary o f t he m ambo ( see t his

t hus

d esign

' old m an'.

o nce

m ambo's

C heck d esigns o ccur a t

s tood

a t

a ppears

t o

b e

a nother

A h erringbone d esign t he

t op

h ill,

a nd

t herefore

a ssociated w ith t he k ing's s ister,

t he

s enior

o f

t his

w oman,

t he

p attern a s

( see

f emale

a t

w as G reat

Z imbabwe. T he s paced h erringbone o n t he m iddle w all i n t he P assage R uin w as a d ouble d esign l ike t he t ypical p attern o n t he ' old w oman' d ivining d ice, a nd t herefore i t c an b e f irmly i dentified w ith t he s enior w oman s tatus.

T he r ound p rojection o n t he o ther

w all i s s omething l ike t he p lain, l eft-hand e nd. ' old m an/old w oman' T his l eaves m iddle w all i s

s ide

o f

t he

t he c onical t ower a nd c ontrasts s harply w ith T his o pposition w as m ost l ikely p art o f t he

c luster o f

s ymbols.

t he s ymbol f or ' young m an'.

A c heck d esign b ehind t he

i n a s imilar p osition t o t hat o f

2 59

t he c hevron

a t

G reat

F ig.

4

T he P assage R uin a t Khami.

2 60

Z imbabwe,

a nd

' young m an

r ows

o f

c hecks

d ivining d ice

c rocodiles

a nd

o r

( see

s nakes

d ots a re s ometimes c arved o n t he

T racy

c an

b e

1 934:

n o.

7 ).

i nterchanged

i n

F urthermore,

S hona

s ymbolism

( Nettleton 1 983), a nd s o i n t his c ontext t he c heck d esign p robably s ymbolized ' young m an', c ompleting t he q uartet o f s tatuses. D espite t he a pparent d ifferences E nclosure,

t he

D omba

i n

d ecoration

h ypothesis

a nd

s hape

f rom

s uccessfully i nterprets

t he

G reat

t he P assage

R uin a t K hami. K hami a nd G reat Z imbabwe w ere t he c apitals o f p owerful h ad

m any

f ollowers a nd w ives,

a ccordingly s ome s ettlements,

d istance

s uch

a nd t he g irls'

f rom

t he

T he M ajiri R uins

( Hall 1 905b)

G reat

a nd t he T ere R uins

Z imbabwe,

c ourts

a s M ajiri a nd T ere, a re

a nd

( Wieschhoff

s pace t hat c an b e i dentified a s

t he

i mmediate

S maller

km

s outh-east

o f

W hitty 1 959)

a re

( Fig. 3 ). O n t he t hese t wo s ettlements

I n b oth c ases t he n atural l eads u pslope t o a c entral o pen

t he m en's c ourt,

p robably l ived i n t he r aised,

( while f acing t he c omplex). t o

p alaces.

1 941;

3 70 k m t o t he n orth-east n ear p resent-day M toko b asis o f t heir s tone wall a nd c eramic s tyles,

l eaders

w ho

h ave a m ore c ompressed l ayout.

l ocated a bout 2 2

w ere c ontemporary w ith G reat Z imbabwe. a pproach t o t he s tone-walled a rea

k ings

i nitiation c entres w ere

a nd

t he

r espective

p restige e nclosure t o t he r ight

I n e ach c ase a r elatively l arge e nclosure

l eft c ontains c haracteristic f eatures o f t he G reat

E nclosure. C hevron d esigns d ecorate t he o uter w alls o f t hese e nclosures o n t he c ourt s ide, a nd b oth c ontain s tepped p latforms, a b uttress o r p rojection a nd t wo e ntrances.

A t

M ajiri

t he

e ntrance

f rom t he m en's c ourt l eads t hrough t he w all w ith t he c hevron d esign p ast a b uttress o n t he r ight-hand s ide a nd a s tepped p latform o n t he l eft

( Fig.

5 ).

p rojection, e ntrance

A t T ere t he c hevron w all a buts o nto a p rominent r ound

l ike t he o ne a t K hami,

n ear

t he

c ourt

( Fig.

a nd a s tepped p latform

6 ).

b orders

a n

A part f rom t he a rea c lose t o t he

m en's c ourt, t hese t wo e xamples c ontain f ewer s tone f eatures t han t he G reat E nclosure o r P assage R uin, a nd t he f ront o f t he T ere e xample i s f ree o f

s tone

w alls.

N evertheless,

t he

f unctions

o f

t hese

t wo

b uildings a re b est e xplained i n t erms o f D omba. E ven t ogether, K hami.

t hough t he i mportant b uildings a t M ajiri a nd T ere a re c lose t heir t own p lans a re s imilar t o t hat o f G reat Z imbabwe a nd I n

s ettlements w ith s omewhat d ifferent

l ayouts,

D hlo, w e s hould e xpect a D omba c entre w herever t he r oyal

s uch a s D hlo w ives'

a rea

w as l ocated. D hlo

D hlo,

n ear

p resent-day F ort R ixon,

w hich i s t hought t o h ave b een t he c apital o f 1 7th

a nd

r elatively p latforms

1 8th

c enturies

c lear: i n

t he

t he

( Beach h ighly

c entre

1 980).

r egion

T he l ayout o f

d ecorated

( White

w as a m edium-sized t own t he

c omplex

1 905) c onstitutes

d uring

t he

t his t own i s

o f

a rtificial

t he p alace;

t he

l arge o pen e nclosure t o t he w est w as t he c ourt; a nd t he r ough w alls t hat f orm a w ide a rc b ehind a nd b elow t he p alace e nclosed t he r esidences o f

t he r oyal w ives.

o f t he p alace l eads t o f irst w ife's a partment. Z imbabwe,

t o

a

l arge o val e nclosure a t

T he o nly o ther e ntrance t o f rom

t he

w ives'

G reat E nclosure, w ives'

q uarters.

A s econdary p assageway f rom

s ide,

t he

b ack

t he h ead o f t his w ives' a rea, a nd h ence t o t he A s tone l ane l eads f rom h ere, a s a t G reat t he b ack o f

t his o val c annot b ut

i nstead,

i s l inked t o

t he c ourt

S ignificantly,

b e

r eached

l ike t he m en's e ntrance t o t he b y

t he

o uter

t his m en's e ntrance

2 61

t he f emale a rea.

c onveniently w all

o f

t he

i s b ounded b y a

2 62

Majiri R uins.

2 63 T ere R uins.

f rom a p lan b y A .

r ound p rojection o n o ne s ide a nd a s tepped p latform o n t he o ther, l ike t he f eatures a t M ajiri a nd T ere. D espite t he v ery r ough w alling a nd l ack o f d ecoration,

t he

i nternal

l ocation a nd o rientation, T he

e xamples

f rom

K hami,

s trengthen t he D omba h ypothesis c an

b e

e xplained

i t

M ajiri, f or

a long w ith t he

T ere

a pplication

i nternal

f eatures

a nd

t o

E ach e xample

q uality.

t o a w ide v ariety o f b uildings

a lternative i nterpretation o f

t hese b uildings,

a nd D hlo D hlo s erve

t he G reat E nclosure.

D omba h ypothesis p ossesses g reat p redictive a ny

e nclosure's

f unctioned a s a D omba c entre.

b y t he s ame p rinciples o f o rganization e ven t hough

t hey d iffer i n s hape a nd s ize, c onsistent

f eatures,

s how t hat

s hows

p otential.

c ourt,

r eligious c entre o r f irst w ife's r esidence b e a scribed t o i nterpretations o f

t herefore,

t he

F urthermore,

t he G reat E nclosure m ust a lso c over

b ut i n n o c ase c an t he f unction o f a

o ther D omba c entres,

T his

t hat

p alace,

t hem.

T hese

h elp t o e liminate a ny s uch a lternative

t he G reat E nclosure a t G reat Z imbabwe.

S econdly, t he e xamples w ere d rawn f rom w idely s cattered p oints i n s pace a nd t ime a nd s how t hat t he g irls i nitiation s chools w ere a r egular

f eature

o f

Z imbabwe

s tates.

T hese s chools w ere w idespread

b ecause t hey w ere a n i ntegral p art o f t he p olitical s ystem. B esides p roviding a s ource o f l abour, t he i nstitution w as a n i mportant m eans o f c ontrolling m arriage, s chools

h ave

t he

b asis

o f

p olitical

a lliances.

S uch

a pparently n ot b een h eld i n Z imbabwe s ince t he c ollapse

o f t he S hona s tates, a nd t oday t raditional S hona i nstruct t heir g irls o n a n i ndividual b asis. L arge i nitiation s chools s till t ake p lace, h owever,

among

c entralized

p eople

i n

s outhern

c hieftainship,

s uch a s

A frica

w ho

h ave

t he P edi a nd V enda.

t he l ack o f s chools among t he S hona i n r ecent

m aintained C onsequently,

t imes s hould n ot b e s een

a s a c ultural c hange, b ut a s ocial c onsequence o f d ecentralization.

R EFERENCES B EACH, B ENT,

D .

N .

1 980.

P ress. J . T .

1 896.

T he S hona a nd Z imbabwe 9 00-1850. T he

r uined

L ongman, G reen. B LACKING, J . 1 969. S ongs, d ances, i nitiation s chools. P art I : D omba;

P art

4 :

T he

c ities

B ULLOCK,

C .

H ABERLAND,

U npubl.

g reat D omba s ong.

1 927. E .,

e d.

P aps N atl Mus. T he M ashona. 1 973.

M ashonaland.

M ambo L ondon:

m imes a nd s ymbolism o f V enda g irls' V husha; P art 2 : M ilayo; P art 3 :

6 9-118; 1 49-199; 2 15-266. B LAKE-THOMPSON 1 954. N otes o n Z imbabwe 1 946.

o f

G welo:

A fr.

c ollected

S tud.

b etween

2 8:

3 -35;

1 921

a nd

& M on. Z imbabwe.

C ape T own :

L eo F robenius

J uta.

1 873-1973.

W iesbaden:

F ranz

G reat Z imbabwe. L ondon : M ethuen. M ajiri R uins, M otirikoi ( M'telekwe) V alley.

P roc.

S teiner. H ALL, R . N . H ALL, R . N . H ALL,

1 905a. 1 905b.

R hod. s cient. A ss. R . N . & N EAL,

4 : 8 3-86. W . G . 1 904.

L ondon: M ethuen. H EMANS, H . N . 1 913. T he h istory, r eligion 8 5-112. H ODZA, A . &

o f

t he

F ORTUNE,

T he a ncient r uins o f R hodesia.

t he s ociology,

A benanzwa T ribe. G .

1 979.

S hona

C larendon P ress.

2 64

a nd

t he f olklore

P roc. R hod. p raise

s cient. A ss.

p oetry.

a nd 1 2:

O xford:

H UFFMAN, T . N . 1 981. S nakes a nd b irds: Z imbabwe. A fr. S tud. 4 0: 1 31-150. H UFFMAN,

T . N .

1 983.

P OSNANSKY, t own. M ONNIG,

H .

O .

1 967.

N ETTLETON, A .

C . E .

a nd

G reat

M .

&

Z imbabwe a nd

B ROKENSHAW,

T he P edi. 1 983.

S hona.

e xpressive s pace a t G reat

t he p olitics o f

D .,

e ds.

P retoria: P h.D.

I n :

V an S chaik.

T he t raditional w oodcarving

U npubl.

s pace.

T he i ndigenous A frican

t hesis:

o f

t he

U niversity

V enda o f

t he

o f

t he

W itwatersrand. R ALUSHAI, N . M . Ngona

N .

a nd

R hod. H ist. R ICHARDS, A .

& G RAY,

J . R .

1 977.

R uins a nd

t raditions

t he M bedzi among t he V enda o f t he n orthern T ransvaal.

I .

8 :

1 -11.

1 945.

P ottery i mages o f M busa u sed

a t

t he

C eremony o f t he B emba p eople o f N orthern R hodesia. S ci. 4 1: 4 44-458. R OBINSON, K . R . 1 959. K hami r uins. C ambridge: C ambridge

C hisungu S . A fr.

J .

U niversity

P ress. S TAYT, H . A . 1 931. T he B avenda. O xford: t he I nternational A frican I nstitute. S UMMERS, R .

F .

1 965.

Z imbabwe:

A

O xford U niversity P ress

R hodesian

m ystery.

C ape

f or

T own :

T homas N elson. T RACY, H . 1 934. " The B ones". NADA, 1 2: 2 3-26. VAN W ARMELO, N . J ., e d. 1 940. T he c opper m iners o f M essina a nd t he e arly h istory E thnol. P ubis. W HITE,

F .

1 903.

s cient. A ss. WHITE,

F .

1 905.

P roc. Rhod. W HITTY,

A .

o f 8 :

t he Z outpansberg. D ept o f N ative P retoria: G overnment P rinter.

O n

t he

1 :

K hami

r uins, n ear B ulawayo.

A ffairs

P roc. R hod.

1-18. 1

O bservations o n r ecent d iscoveries a t a ncient s cient. A ss.

1 957.

I n : C LARK „ P rehistory: W indus. W HITTY, A . 1 959. Mashonaland, 5 7-71. W HITTY, A . 1 961.

4 :

T he o rigins o f

t he s tone a rchitecture o f Z imbabwe.

J .D. & C OLE, S ., e ds. L ivingstone 1 955:

T hird P an-African C ongress o n 3 66-377. L ondon: C hatto &

A c lassification o f p rehistoric s tone S outhern

r uins.

1 4-20.

R hodesia.

A rchitectural s tyle a t

S .

A fr.

b uildings

a rchaeol.

Z imbabwe.

O cc.

B ull. P ap.

i n 4 4: n atl

M us. S thn Rhod. 3 : 2 89-305. W IESCHHOFF, H . A . 1 941. T he Z imbabwe-Monomotapa c ulture i n s outheast A frica.

G eneral

S eries

i n

Anthropology

G eorge B anta.

2 65

8 .

M enasha,

W isc.:

2 4.

A C ULTURAL I NTERPRETATION O F T HE F AUNAL A SSEMBLAGE F ROM KHAMI H ILL R UIN C arolyn T horp

I NTRODUCTION I nterpretations

o f

t he s pecies

c omposition o f

f aunal a ssemblages

f rom I ron A ge a rchaeological s ites i n s outhern A frica m ost o ften f ocus o n e vidence o f e conomic a ctivity, o nce a gencies o f d eposition o ther t han m an h ave b een d iscounted a nd e nvironmental

( Brain 1 974a;

f actors a re a ssumed

d etermine e conomic s trategies m iddens. H owever,

f or c ultural r ather

S hona s ociety s ome n gangas

1 978).

a s

e conomic

a ctivities a ssemblage

c ould

1 927).

d ivining

r easons.

I n f rom

d ice

t he

e conomic

( Gelfand

1 959).

a nd a nimal s kins

o f

r efuse

i nterpretation

f rom

i n

s uch

o f a f aunal

f rom a m idden.

T his p aper a rgues K hami

T he c oncentration

d istort

t o t he

u se a nimal b ones

b ones a re a lso u tilized i n t heir n ecklets, ( Bullock

o f

i n B antu-speaking s ociety

t han

( traditional h ealers)

b oth e dible a nd i nedible s pecies t heir d ress

S ociological

r eflected i n t he f aunal c ontent

c ertain s pecialized a ctivities

r equire a nimal b one

A nimal

V oigt

t o o perate i n v arying d egrees

H ill

R uin

t hat

t he p resence o f s ome o f

m idden,

i ncluding e dible o nes,

a ssociation w ith a n a rea o f

i ntensive

r itual

t he

s pecies

i n

t he

r esulted f rom t heir

a ctivity

p erformed

b y

i s m ainly s ituated o n t he w est b ank o f

t he

n gangas.

KHAMI H ILL C OMPLEX E XCAVATION T he K hami s ite

( Fig.

K hami R iver c lose t o o f

Z imbabwe

4 88/723).

s ite

1 )

t he p resent d am ( National n umber

- 2028:AB;

j ust a fter G reat Z imbabwe w as a bandoned. b een

1 973). m oved

d emonstrated

b etween

t he

I t h as b een a rgued t hat m any o f t here, a nd t hat t he s ettlement

T he m idden i n q uestion w as t he

H ill

C omplex

t hat

a ssociated w ith t he l iving a rea k ing

( Robinson

1 959:59-65;

p arallels t hat o f

S wart

( Beach 1 967),

C ontinuity i n c eramic ( Huffman 1 972;

s tyle G arlake

( Huffman 1 980).

f or e xcavation a fter a

i t

t hought

H uffman

S tate

t he p eople f rom G reat Z imbabwe l ayout s hould, t herefore, h ave

s elected

s howed

T orwa

( Sheppard a nd

t wo s ites

b een b ased o n t he s ame p attern a s Z imbabwe

o f

S urvey

1 (I), m ap r eference -202822PH

K hami w as p robably t he c apital o f t he

1 980). T he c omplex w as b uilt a round A D 1 450 h as

A rchaeological

w as

t he

s ite

t o h ave b een o ccupied 1 981).

I ts

s urvey

m ost c losely

l ocation

b y

t he

c losely

t he H ill C omplex m idden a t G reat Z imbabwe w hich

w as

e xcavated b y H odges d uring 1 971 a nd 1 972 ( Brain 1 974a). T he c ontents o f t he Z imbabwe m idden a re t herefore o f i nterest a s a c omparison w ith t hose o f t he K hami m idden d escribed i n t his p aper. T he

K hami

s ite w as e xcavated a t

2 66

t he e nd o f J uly a nd b eginning o f

F ig.

1

T he Khami

s ite,

s howing t he p osition o f s tone s tructures

( thick -b lack l ines)

a nd

1 979

2 67

e xcavation ( E).

A ugust

1 979.

A t rench 3 x 6 m ( Fig.

1 )

w as d ug

a longside

R obinson's

e arlier t rench ( Thorp, i n p rep.). S ix o f t he s even c eramic c lasses f ound w ere t ypical o f t he K hami p hase d efined b y R obinson ( 1959). O nly

o ne

s herd

o f L eopards K opje p hase p ottery w as

i dentified.

T he

d istribution o f t hese c lasses t hroughout t he l evels o f t he e xcavation c onfirmed t hat t he m idden w as f ormed d uring t he K hami p hase.

F AUNAL R EMAINS T he

t otal

b one

s ample

f ragments o f w hich 4 8 29

i ndividuals b elonging t o a t o n t he b asis o f l ikely

t o

f rom K hami H ill C omplex m idden w as 3 2

( 14,8%)

w ere i dentifiable.

l east

b een

u sed f or

5 91 1 41

2 3 d ifferent s pecies w ere i dentified

t eeth a nd s keletal

h ave

A m inimum o f

p arts

( Table

1 ).

S pecies

m ost

f ood a re l isted i n T able 2 w hich a lso

i ncludes t he c attle t eeth a nd o ther b ones e xcavated b y R obinson f rom E 23 s ite V .

( 1959)

W ORKED B ONE A

B oy

1

s ize

( Brain

1 974b)

b one

s haft

w ith o ne c hopped a nd

s moothed e nd c ame f rom s pit 1 ( Robinson's d ump) o f S ection A o f t he t rench. A m etapodial o f a s pringhare ( Pedetes c apensis) w ith a h ole b ored t hrough t he d istal e nd c ame f rom s pit 1 5 o f s ection A . M etapodials o f h are ( Lagomorpha i ndet.) w ith h oles b ored t hrough t he d istal e nds c ame f rom s pits 4 , 1 0

o f

s ection

B .

5 a nd 7 o f s ection A ,

A f ragment o f

b ored t hrough o ne e nd a nd d ecorated w ith a p lain c ame

f rom

d ump). t he

a nd s pits

3

a nd

s mall a nimal b one s haft w ith a h ole c arved

r aised

b and

s pit 3 o f s ection B ( this m ay a lso h ave b een i n R obinson's

F inally a t ortoise

( Kinixys b elliana)

p roximal e nd c ame f rom s pit

3 o f

h umerus

s ection A .

p erforated

a t

T able 3 l ists w orked

b ones e xcavated b y R obinson f rom E 23 s ite V .

D ISCUSSION A lthough

t he

K hami

H ill

m idden

w as

o riginally

s elected

f or

e xcavation a s a p ossible p arallel t o t he Z imbabwe H ill C omplex m idden, s triking d ifferences w ere f ound b etween t heir f aunal c omponents. A n o bvious

d ifference

s pecies f ound. o nly

1 2

a t

G reat

s pecies f ound e xcavation

b etween t he

t wo

f aunal s amples w as

A t K hami 2 0 s pecies w ere i dentified a s i s

Z imbabwe u nlikely

t echnique

( Table t o

s ince

h ave

b oth

4 ).

t he v ariety o f c ompared

w ith

T he v ariation i n n umber o f

r esulted

s amples

f rom

w ere

d ifferences

i n

s ieved a nd a ll b one

f ragments w ere r etained f rom b oth e xcavations. B rain A cropolis

( 1974a)

c oncluded t hat

t he v icinity o f Z imbabwe e stimate f or K hami i s r emains,

" the p aucity o f g ame r emains

i n

t he

K m idden c onfirmed t he s uspicion t hat w ildlife r esources i n w ere a ll a vailable

b ut b ut

e xhausted." N o p opulation t he a rea c overed b y t he h ut

a lthough s maller t han t he e quivalent a rea

n evertheless

c onsiderable

( Huffman 1 981).

H uffman

a t

Z imbabwe,

( pers.

c omm.)

w as h as

s uggested p opulation l evels o f 1 1 0 00 f or Z imbabwe a nd 7 0 00 f or K hami. A ccording t o R obinson ( 1959) a nd H uffman ( 1974) t he K hami a rea w as i nhabited t hroughout t he L eopards w hich

w ould

u ndoubtedly

K opje

p hase

c a

A D

h ave r esulted i n t he d epletion o f

2 68

1 000-1400 t he l ocal

T able 1

S pecies, s amples

e xcluding B ovidae,

S pecies

M NI

K inixys b elliana

( tortoise)

G eochelone p ardalis? ( tortoise) g uineafowl-sized b ird f rancolin-sized b ird A yes i ndet.

( wild d og)

H erpestes s anguineus m ongoose)

F ragments

1

1

1 3 3

1 2 1 1 1

1 5 1 4 7 1

1 29 1 1 8 3 2 4

1

2

1

L agomorpha i ndet. ( hare) P edetes c apensis ( springhare) c f R attus r attus ( black r at) R odentia i ndet. C anis s p. ( jackal) L ycaon p ictus

i dentified f rom K hami H ill

1

( slender 1

2

G enetta s p. ( genet) V iverra c ivetta ( civet) C rocuta c rocuta/Hyaena b runnea ( hyaena)

3 1

4 2

1

2

A cinonyx j ubatus ( cheetah) F ells l ibyca ( wild c at)

1 1

2 3

F ells s erval ( serval) P anthera l eo ( lion)

1 1

1 4

P anthera p ardus ( leopard) O rycteropus a fer ( antbear)

2 1

1 2 4

P rocaviidae i ndet. ( hyrax) E quus b urchelli ( Burchell's z ebra) P otamochoerus p orcus ( bushpig)

1 2 1 1

5 6 1 1

T otal

6 5

2 69

3 15

R uin

T able 2

M inimum n umber o f i ndividuals a nd b one f ragments r epresenting t he m ain f ood a nimals a t K hami H ill R uin s ite.

S pecies

M NI

F ragments

B os t aurus ( cattle)

6 6

3 967

O vis a ries/Capra h ircus ( sheep/goat)

1 5

3 51

S ub t otal a ll s tock

8 1

4 318

C helonia ( tortoise) g uineafowl-sized b ird f rancolin-sized b ird L agomorpha ( hare) P edetes c apensis ( spring-

2 4 3 1 6

5 2 3 1 2 1 39

h are) R attus r attus ( black r at) O rycteropus a fer ( antbear) P rocaviidae i ndet ( hyrax) E quus b urchelli ( Burchell's

1 7 1 1 3

1 1 4 0 4 6 6

1

1

1

1

z ebra) P otamochoerus p orcus p ig) O reotragus o reotragus

( bush( klip-

s pringer) R aphicerus c ampestris ( steenbok) S ylvicapra g rimmia ( common d uiker) B oy 1 m isc.

2 3 5

( small a nte-

l ope)

1 71

S ub-total a ll g ame

T otal

5 9

4 71

1 39

4 789

2 70

T able 3

W orked b one r ecovered b y R obinson f rom t he E 23 S ite V , K hami H ill R uin.

M useum I nventory N o.

S pecies

4 259/40

B ird

4 259/40

T ortoise

D escription

( guineafowl-size)

1 f emur p roximal

( perforated)

1 l eft h umerus ( perforated a t b oth e nds) 1 r ight h umerus ( perforated a t b oth e nds) 1 s mall b one s haft

4 257/38

( perforated, p olished o n b oth s ides) 4 258/39

1 b roken s mall b one s haft ( polished a t o ne e nd)

4 260/41

1 b one f ragment d ecoration)

4 260/41

1 s mall b one s haft ( perforated, p olished a t

( incised

b oth e nds) 4 261/48

1 4 v ery s mall b one s hafts ( polished a t b oth e nds)

4 338/-

1 s mall b one s haft ( perforated, p olished a t b oth e nds)

2 71

T able 4

L ist o f s pecies i dentified b y B rain ( 1974b) i n s amples f rom t he Z imbabwe H ill C omplex.

c attle s heep/goat d omestic d og d uiker, b ushbuck h yrax h are h ippopotamus l eopard w ild c at b ird, c f g uineaf owl b ird, c f E gyptian g oose

B os t aurus O vis a ries/Capra h ircus C anis f amiliaris S ylvicapra g rimmia T ragelaphus s criptus P rocavia c apensis o r H eterohyrax b rucei L epus s p. H ippopotamus a mphibius P anthera p ardus F ells l ibyca N umida m eleagris A lopochen a egyptiacus

2 72

g ame p opulation e ven b efore t he K hami C omplex w as r easons

i t

i s

e xplains

t he

u nlikely

v ariations

t hat

t he

b etween

h uman

t he

b uilt.

p opulation

g ame

F or

t hese

e lement

c omponents

o f

a lone

t he

t wo

m iddens. A

m ore

p lausible e xplanation f or

d iversity i n t he T he

t his d ifference

i s

t he p robable

t ypes o f a ctivities a ssociated w ith t he

t wo

m iddens.

h ill a t K hami f rom w hich t he m idden w as e xcavated n ot o nly h oused

t he k ing ( Robinson 1 959; H uffman 1 981) b ut w as a lso t he s ite o f r itual a ctivities. T he r itual a rea w as r eached t hrough a l ong c overed p assage w hich e nded i n a n u nderground c hamber ( hut c bl) f rom w hich i vory d ivining h akata a nd i vory l ions w ere e xcavated ( Robinson 1 959). A ccording t o H uffman

( 1981)

" the u nderground p assage a nd

t he

c hamber

w ere t he c onceptual t ransformation o f a c ave a nd t he e quivalent o f

t he

E astern

h as

E nclosure

a ssociated

t he

o f

t he

E astern

( Zimbabwe)

E nclosure

a ncestral s pirits a nd r ain. K hami

w as

c onnected

m ade w ith

b y t he

c hief

d ivination a nd a b elief H istorical

i nterpretation o f

( 1959).

a nd

H uffman

w ith r itual a ctivities c oncerning

A s imilar

R obinson

A cropolis."

h ut

c bl

a t

H e s aw i t a s a n a rea c losely

a ssociated

w ith

t ribal

c eremony,

i n t he a ncestral s pirits.

e vidence

e xists

f or

t he p resence o f n gangas

a ssociation w ith k ings o f S hona s tates.

i n c lose

T hey w ere d escribed b y C aiado

a s a dvisors t o t he M utapa ( Baxter & D a S ilva R egio 1 962:5) a nd b y D os S anto a s f riends o f K ing Q uiteue ( Theal 1 901:211-212). M any o f t he a rtefacts

f ound i n t he u nderground c hamber,

a nd t he b ones p erforated t raditional h ealer's

f or

s uspension,

f unctions.

I n f act,

e ntries d escribing b ored b one a rtefacts m odern

w itch-doctor's n ecklace".

s uch a s w ere

f rom h ut c bl

M aterial

t he k ing's l iving a rea o n t he h ill,

A lthough

b ored

b one

i s n ot

w ith

a

i nventory

r ead:

" Resemble

f rom t he H ill R uin m idden, f rom

h ut

c bl

a s

s upported t his v iew.

d oes o ccur o n a rchaeological s ites

n ot e asily i dentifiable a s b eing a ssociated t his

k eeping

s ome o f R obinson's

w hich w ould h ave b een a c onvenient d ump f or r efuse w ell a s

t he d ivining d ice

i n

w ith

r itual

i n a reas

a ctivities,

i ncompatible w ith t heir i dentification a s r itual o bjects.

T oday n gangas a re o ften f ound l iving i n o rdinary h ouses

w ithin

S hona

c ommunities. I n

a ddition t o

c omposition o f o f

n gangas.

t he p resence o f w orked b one a rtefacts,

t he K hami H ill m idden p robably r eflects I n o rder

t o t est

o f a n nganga's b one n ecklet t he

Q ueen

a nd s ome o f

h ut c bl a t K hami w ere s hown t o C hehura,

o f

Z imbabwe

C hairman

A ssociation

a nd

o f K .

a ctivities

t his h ypothesis, a 1 9th c entury e xample

t aken f rom t he e thnological c ollection

V ictoria M useum,

T reasurer

t he s pecies

t he

t he b ored b one a rtefacts

t hree p ractising n gangas

N ational T raditional H ealers Z imbabwe

M topa,

N ational

( N.

o f f rom

J ambaya,

A ssociation,

T raditional

J .

H ealers'

P resident o f Z imbabwe T rue S pirit M ediums

a nd n gangas A ssociation). S ome o f t he b ones o f t he n ecklet ( ET4126) w ere b ored f or s uspension, o thers w ere n aturally s uitable f or t hreading. A ll t hree n ganga i nformants c onfirmed t hat s uch b ones b e

o wned

M essrs

b y

J ambaya

p ossessed

a n n ganga a nd n ot b y a ny o rdinary p erson. a nd

n gangas

w orn b y t he n ganga.

C hehura, m ight

s tated

r equire

t hat

h ealing

o nly

s pirits

w hich

t he b ones o f c ertain a nimals t o b e

T hese b ones w ere o ften f rom l ess

2 73

w ould

Two n gangas,

c ommon

s pecies

o f a nimals. S ome o f t he b ones w ere s evered a cross t he s haft a nd t hey s tated t hat i f t he n ganga b lew i nto t he o pen e nd o f t he b one, h e c ould c ommunicate w ith t he s pirit o f t he a nimal c oncerned. n ganga, M r M topa, s aid t hat f ragments o f b one w ere c ut o ff t o

p atients a s m edicine.

A ll

t hree n gangas w ere a ble t o

T he t hird a nd g iven

i dentify t he

a ntbear ( Orycteropus a fer) c laws o n t he n ecklet ( ET 4 156). T hey s tressed t he s ignificance o f t his a nimal's n octurnal h abits i n i ts u se b y n gangas. I t w as i nteresting t o n ote t hat amongst t he l ess c ommon a nimal b ones f ound a ssemblage. A l arge n umber o f h yrax a nd K hami

H ill

R uin m idden

h are a nd f our h yraxes s ample.

( Table

w ere

h are 1 ).

r emains

a ntbear b ones w ere i n t he K hami f aunal

w ere

i dentified

i dentified

f rom

T his c ould b e e xplained b y t he

a

m uch

l arger

b oring,

l ike

n ecklet

( ET4156).

d istal

h umeri

s ome o f

t he b ones o n t he

I n s upport o f

e xcavated

i nventory n umber 4 0,

t his

f aunal

f act t hat t he d istal h umeri o f

h ares a nd h yraxes a re n aturally s uitable f or t hreading w ithout

f rom

A t Z imbabwe H ill C omplex o nly o ne

o n

a

n ecklet

1 9th c entury n ganga s

s uggestion,

o ne

o f

t he

h yrax

b y R obinson f rom E 23 s ite V ( Robinson 1 959;

m useum n umber 4 259)

s howed

p olish

w hich

c ould

h ave b een c aused b y r ubbing a gainst a n eighbouring b one o n t he n ecklet ( N. J . 2

W alker,

( 20,72%

p ers.

o f

c omm).

t he

T he p ercentages o f

m inimum n umber o f

t hese a nimals i n T able

i ndividuals,

4 ,26% o f

t he t otal

f ragment c ount)

a re t herefore p robably n ot a t rue r eflection o f

i mportance

f ood t o

a s

r esult p rimarily f rom n gangas"

a ctivities.

T he

h yrax

K hami

c ases

h as

b een

s how

d amage

t heir

t he i nhabitants o f t he H ill R uin o f K hami, b ut

i n

m any

c haracteristic o f c hewing b y h umans a nd C hehura s tated t hat

w hich

( Brain 1 981)

b ut

h umeri

f rom

d escribed M essrs

a s

J ambaya

t here w as n o r estriction o n t he e ating o f m eat

f rom e dible a nimals b efore u sing t heir b ones f or n ecklets. F orty-one m etapodials w hich h ad b een b ored w ere f ound b y R obinson i n h ut c bl 1 m useum n umber 135). I h ave m esomeles/adustus) T hree u nworked w ere

f ound i t

i dentified

u se a s

l east

t he K hami H ill R uin m idden

p endants

j ackal

( Table

( Canis

t wo i ndividuals.

j ackal m etapodials a nd a p roximal r adius

i n

a s

i nventory n umber 4 7,

t hem

m etapodials r epresenting a t

n ot e aten b y S hona p eople u sed,

f or

( Robinson 1 959:

o f

1 ).

a

j ackal

J ackal m eat

i s

t oday a nd a lthough t he s kins c ould h ave b een

i s m ost l ikely t hat

d iscarded f rom t he h illtop

t hese r emains r epresent a fter

t he

j ackal

s ome o f

m etapodials

t he w aste h ad

b een

s elected f or u se b y t he n gangas. T he

c ivet

( Felis l ybica), g enets

( Viverra l ion

( Genetta

s p.),

i n t he m idden a t K hami T ributes o f

s erval

a nd

( Felis

s erval), w ild c at

c heetah ( Acinonyx j ubatus),

t wo l eopards

( Panthera p ardus)

a re l ikely t o h ave b een u sed f or

t hree

r epresented

t heir

s kins.

t he s kins o f h unted l ion a nd l eopard t o c hiefs a re r ecoded

amonst t he B avenda n ganga

c ivetta),

( Panthera l eo),

d ress.

( Stayt

G elfand

S hona n ganga's c ostume,

1 931).

C at

( 1959)

s kins a re h owever a lso

u sed

i n

d escribes a c heetah s kin a s p art o f a

a nd B ullock

( 1927) m entions a n n ganga

d ressed

i n a l eopard s kin. B ullock a lso d escribes a " kilt o f c at s kins" w orn b y a d iviner n amed C hinyoka. O ne o f t hese i tems o f n ganga's d ress i n t he

e thnographic

c ollection

o f

t he Q ueen V ictoria M useum i s a s kirt

m ade o f g enet s kins w hich h ave b een c ut t o

g ive t he a ppearance o f

s triped

w aistband o f h yrax skins

( ET4284).

i dentified

K hami

f rom

t he

i nto s trips a nd

t hen

t wisted

t ails w hich w ere t hen s ewn o nto t he A lthough

s ample

2 74

a re

s ome a lso

o f

t he

s pecies

c onnected

w ith

c hieftainship,

t he w ild c at,

p robably u sed i n n ganga a vailable, s trips o f c attle a re

s ewn

t ogether

s imulating s triped c ollection

f orm

t ails.

s erval a nd t hree g enets w ere

t he c at s pecies,

d ark

a nd

V ictoria

t his

t he l arger Z imbabwe

l ight

M useum's

t ype o f s kirt

b ands t hus e thnographic

( ET6218).

f aunal s ample c ontained

n amely w ild c at

m ost

W hen s uch s kins a re n ot a nd g oat ( Capra h ircus) s kin

a lternate

T he Q ueen

i ncludes a n e xample o f

n oticeable t hat o f

t o

c ivet,

a ctivities. ( Bos t aurus)

( two i ndividuals)

I t

i s

o nly

t wo

a nd l eopard

( one

i ndividual). T he s maller b ovid w as

a lso

( Boy 1 )

o f t he p erforated b one a nd

c omponent o f

t he K hami H ill R uin

l ikely t o h ave r epresented m ore t han j ust

t he

H ill

t ubes d escribed b y R obinson ( 1959)

R uin m idden,

e xcavation ( P.3),

H owever,

t hey

i dentify w ith c ertainty b ecause

t hey w ere t oo

c ommon

g rimmia),

d uiker

( Sylvicapra

o reotragus) a nd s teenbok

w aste

t o

S ome o f

t he

k lipspringer

f rom

r emains

n ganga

f rom m y

d ifficult

f ragmented.

( Raphicerus c ampestris)

m ay a lso t herefore h ave b een

w ere

S ome

f rom h ut c bl

a s w ell a s o ne o f t he b ored b ones

w ere B oy 1 s ize.

m idden

f ood w aste.

( Oreotragus i n t he m idden

a ctivities.

S mall

b ovid h orn s heaths w ere p robably u tilised a s m edicine c ontainers s imilar t o t hose u sed b y M r C . Z inyemba, o ne o f t he p ractising n gangas.

A s

w ith

o ther

e dible

a nimals,

t he

m eat

o f

t he s mall

a ntelopes w as p robably c onsumed o n s ite s ince m ost s keletal p arts w ere r epresented.

C ONCLUSION T here

i s

c onvincing

s ample r epresent

e vidence

t hat e lements

i tems u sed i n nganga a ctivities.

i n t he K hami f aunal I t

i s p ossible

t o

s peculate w ith v arying d egrees o f c onfidence o n t he s pecies w hich w ere e ither w holly o r p artially d erived b ones c ame f rom s pecies p robably s mall b ovids t hat e dible.

P ierced

b ones

g enerally c onsidered. a ntbear

r emains

n gangas. f ar

t hese

a ctivities.

a lso

c ame

f rom

j ackal

a nd g enet

a lso

h ave

b een

d erived

t hat a re a nd

f rom r itual u se b y

t hese s pecies w ere e ither n ot f ound a t a ll,

f requent

P ierced

E thnographic e vidence i ndicates t hat h yrax

m ight

M ost o f

l ess

f rom

s uch a s t ortoise, s pringhare, h are a nd a re g enerally c onsidered t o h ave b een

i n t he Z imbabwe H ill C omplex m idden.

o r

w ere

S ince G reat

Z imbabwe h ad a l arger p opulation t han K hami, i t i s l ikely t hat t he v arious a ctivity a reas w ere a rranged o n a l arger s cale t here. W hereas a t Khami t he k ing's l iving a rea a nd t he r itual a rea w ere c lose e nough f or

r ubbish

f rom

b oth

s ites

Z imbabwe t his w as p robably n ot Z imbabwe H ill C omplex,

t o

b e d umped i n o ne m idden,

t he c ase.

a bove t he m idden a nalysed b y B rain

p robably s olely a l iving a rea f or t he m idden

t herefore

r esulted

i n

a n

a t G reat

T he W estern E nclosure o f t he

k ing.

T he

a ccumulation

( 1974a), w as

l ocation o f

o f

t his

m ostly d omestic

r ubbish. H uffman ( 1981) w hich

w as

e ntered

d escribed t he E astern E nclosure a t G reat t hrough

a

s unken

a ssociated w ith a ncestral s pirits. b e

l ocated

E nclosure, w as

i t

m ight

t hrow

I f

m ore

p assage,

a s

a

l ight

o n

p ast a ctivities

t he p assage a t K hami.

2 75

a rea

t he r efuse f rom t his a rea c ould

p articularly i n v iew o f H uffman's s uggestion t hat

t he e quivalent o f h ut c bl a nd

Z imbabwe,

r itual

i n t he

t his a rea

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I

t hank

M rs

S .

N duku

c onducting i nterviews

w ith

f or h er h elp a nd a dvice i n a rranging a nd t raditional

h ealers,

H uffman f or h is c omments o n a n e arly d raft o f

a nd

P rof.

T .

N .

t his p aper.

R EFERENCES B AXTER,

T .

W .

&

D A

S ILVA

P ortuguese i n M ozambique L isboa:

N ational

R EGIO, a nd

A rchives

A .,

e ds.

C entral

1 962. D ocuments o n t he

A frica

1 497-1840

8 :

5 .

o f Rhodesia a nd N yasaland C entro D e

E studos H istoricos U ltramarinos. B EACH, D . N . 1 980. T he S hona a nd Z imbabwe

9 00-1850.

G welo:

M ambo

P ress. B RAIN, C . K . 1 974a. a ccumulations

S ome s uggested p rocedures i n t he a nalysis o f b one f rom s outhern A frican Q uaternary s ites. A nn.

T ransvaal M us. B RAIN, C . K . 1 974b.

2 9:1-8. H uman f ood r emains

S . A fr. J . B RAIN,

C . K .

S ci.

7 0:

f rom t he I ron A ge a t Z imbabwe.

3 03-309.

he h unted? T he h unters o r t

1 981.

C hicago:

U niversity o f

C hicago P ress. B ULLOCK,

C .

i ndigenous n atives o f S outhern T he M ashona: 1 927. own: J uta. C ape T b G reat Z i m a w e . L ondon: T hames & H udson. S . G . 1 973. itual. C ape T own: J uta. 1 959. S hona r

Rhodesia. G ARLAKE,

P .

G ELFAND, M .

H UFFMAN, T . N . 1 3: H UFFMAN,

Rhod. H em.

1 974.

1 980.

A fr.

3 9:

S tud. T .

N .

Z imbabwe. R OBINSON, K . R .

T he L eopards K opje T radition.

J .

A fr.

H ist.

N atl M us. M on.

6 .

H UFFMAN, T . N . H UFFMAN,

T he r ise a nd f all o f Z imbabwe.

1 972.

3 53-366. T . N .

C eramics,

c lassification a nd I ron A ge

e ntities.

1 23-174.

1 981. A fr.

S nakes a nd b irds.

S tud.

1 959.

4 0:

E xpressive s pace a t G reat

1 -20.

K hami r uins.

C ambridge:

C ambridge

U niversity

P ress. S HEPPARD,

J .

m easurements

G . 1 11.

&

S WART

E .

R .

Radiocarbon 9 :

1 967.

Rhodesian

r adiocarbon

3 82-386.

S TAYT, H . A . 1 931. T he B avenda. O xford: O xford U niversity P ress. T HEAL, G . M ., e d. 1 901. R ecords o f S .E. A frica. V ol. 7 . C ape T own : G overnment o f t he C ape C olony. V OIGT, E . A . 1 978. T he f aunal r emains f rom G reefswald a s a r eflection o f I ron A ge e conomic a nd c ultural a ctivities. U npubl. M .A. T hesis:

U niversity o f P retoria.

2 76

2 5.

A S PATIAL A NALYSIS O F A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES F ROM Z IMBABWE P aul

Z imbabwe

i s

S inclair a nd H ans L undmark

f ortunate i n h aving a w ell-documented a rchaeological

s urvey w hich h as b een b uilt u p t his c entury b y a s eries o f d edicated a mateur a nd p rofessional a rchaeologists. A n umber o f c ompilations h ave b een m ade, n otably t hose o f S ummers i n

t he

s ites.

N ational

M useum

b y

R elatively l ittle u se,

r egistered f arming

d istributions

c ommunities

t o

i n

h as b een m ade

t he s ettlement p atterns o f

r elation

t o

t o

T he p resent p aper

t he

p otential

o f

i nformation

O ne p urpose o f o ur a nalysis

c urrent

s ituation

n ew l ines o f

p resent

e nvironment

a nd

i s

c ontained i s

t o

i n

F or

a ctual t he

r esources. ( 1958,

i ntended a s a n

1 967)

i llustration

t he a rchaeological

i llustrate g raphically

r esearch a nd t o p rovide a b asis

t he d efinition o f a

s ite

t he

f or s uggesting

i s n ot a lways

a nalysis r elies o n t he s ettlements, t he

f arming c ommunities o f

c lear a nd

p ottery s catters a nd

f ind s ites c urrently i ncluded i n t he Z imbabwe N ational S urvey.

t he

i nvestigation.

I n m ost s urveys t he

o f

t his o ccur i n t he w ork o f S ummers

s urvey.

i n

p repared

a nalyse

a nd G arlake o f

a nd t he m aps

h owever,

I mportant e xceptions ( 1978).

( 1960)

H epburn s howing t he c urrent r egister o f

A rchaeological

t he p eriod c a A D 3 00-1200 t he

a scription t o t raditions a nd f ad es p roposed b y C ooke e t a l. ( 1966) a nd H uffman ( 1971, 1 974a, 1 978b, 1 979) h as b een f ollowed. F or t hese p eriods s ites a re i s

i mportant

l argely d efined o n t he b asis o f c eramic

t o

n ote

n ecessarily r eflect G okomere,

Z iwa,

t he

t hat

t ypological d istinctions u sed

C oronation,

w ill o ccur w hen a d ifferent

t raits.

I t

t he m aps w hich r esult f rom o ur a nalysis e tc.

f acies.

t o

d efine

t he

I t i s p ossible t hat c hanges

t ypological m ethodology

i s

a pplied

( see

S inclair 1 983). F or t he l ater p eriods c a A D 1 250-1700 i nformation p ublished o n t he d istribution o f Z imbabwe s tone w all e nclosures b y G arlake ( 1970) h as b een u sed, w ith s ome a dditions t o i nclude r ecent f inds. O ne a im o f t he p resent a nalysis w as t o t est t he d ivisions o f t he Z imbabwe S tate o btained b y G arlake

( 1978)

Z imbabwe s ettlements. t hose b e

b ased o n t he

u sing T hiessen p olygons d rawn b etween m ajor

A c omparison o f

t he m aps

p resented

h ere

w ith

t ypological c lassification o f H uffman ( 1978a)

w ill

t he s ubject o f a f uture i nvestigation. M ethods

u sed

i n

t he

a nalysis

h ave

b een

d eveloped

U niversity b y o ne o f t he a uthors ( HL), w orking o n d istributions f rom O stergotland i n S weden ( Lundmark 1 982).

a t

Umea

B ronze A ge I t i s a

p oint p attern a nalysis i n t he s ense o f O rton ( 1982). B riefly, t he m ethod s earches f or c lusters w ithin a c onstellation o f p oints, u sing a m odified

f orm

o f

n eighbour d istance T he

r elative

n earest ( MNND)

d ensity o f

n eighbour

i s c alculated

a nalysis. f or

s ite d istributions

T he

m ean

n earest

t he w hole g roup o f p oints. i s c alculated b y c ounting

t he n umber o f s ites

t hat o ccur i n a s eries

e ach

c ircles a re i ncreased i n d iameter b y i ncrements o f

p oint.

0 ,5 MNND. r elative

T he

o f

c ircles

d rawn

a round

T his r esults i n t he D C urves w hich s how g raphically t he d ensity o f s ites a gainst d istance m easured i n k ilometres.

2 77

W ell-defined

t roughs

i n

t he

c urves

s how

t he d ifferent

l evels w ithin t he c onstellation o f p oints a nd p rovide

t he

c lustering a ppropriate

d iameters o f c ircles t o b e u sed i n c onstructing t he d ensity m aps. T he d ensity m aps, f or e xample c lustering l evel C l, a re d rawn b y c ounting t he n umber o f s ites i ncluded i n e venly s paced o verlapping c ircles o f d iameter C l

d rawn a cross

t he w hole s ite d istribution.

r epeated f or c lustering l evels C 2,

T he p rocess

i s

C 3 e tc.

O ne i mportant a spect o f t he m ethod w ith p articular r elevance f or a reas w here a rchaeological s urveys a re n ot a s d eveloped a s i n S weden ( ca 5 00 00 s ites) i s t hat l arge s cale c lusters, i f t hey e xist, w ill 0 b e d iscerned e ven o n t he b asis o f r elatively s canty d ata. I n t he a reas w here m ore d etailed s urveys h ave t aken p lace t he m icro-level c lusters w ill b e a pparent. A nother p oint o f i mportance i s t hat t he m ethod d oes n ot

-c reate -

c lusters w here n one e xist,

f or t hem a nd w ill p rovide a D C urve w ithout f or h omogeneous o r u nclear s ituations. S ite l ocations

f or

i t m erely s earches

c learly

t he f ollowing f acies

d efined

t roughs

f rom Z imbabwe w ere u sed i n

t he a nalysis: G okomere,

Z iwa;

Z hizo,

C oronation, M axton;

M usengesi

a nd I ngombe I lede;

4 ( Garlake

1 970);

G arlake

K hami

( 1970)).

( combination

I n

M ambo,

Z imbabwe S tyle 1 , o f

a ddition

S tyles

a vailable

B ambandyanalo a nd M apungubwe w ere a lso

G umanye, 5 ,

6

d ata

a nd

c omputer

p roduced p eriod

a t

t he

( Figs 2 -6).

U ppsala

D ata

i ncluded.

C entre.

o n

t he

o f

t herefore

s ettlement p atterns.

m aps i s

t hat o f

y ears),

w hich

s pace/time g ive

a n

s how

I BM

T welve m aps h ave b een

T he t ime f ramework f or e ach m ap d epends

t o h ave e xisted a nd t he m aps

f rom

S inoia,

o n

d uring w hich a c urrently r ecognized t ypological f acies

p icture

2 a nd

7

f rom

T he d ata w ere p rocessed w ith t he h elp o f T . W iktorin 3 70

H arare,

Z imbabwe S tyles

a

c omposite

t he

i s h eld

s pace/time

A u seful c oncept w hen e valuating t he

u nits

( square

e stimate

o f

k ilometres

t he

d egree

x

r adiocarbon

o f a rchaeological

r esolution o btained.

R ESULTS T he f irst a nd p erhaps m ost

s ignificant r esult o f

t he w ork i s

t hat

c lusters c an, i n f act, b e d iscerned w ith v arying d egrees o f c larity i n e ach o f t he d ata s ets i nvestigated. O scillations o ccur t hroughout t he D C urves a nd t hese a re r elatively m ore i mportant t he s mall-scale c a 3 0-50 km l evel t han a t t he ( Fig.

1 ).

C urve

1

t he c a 1 20 k m , T wo

f or i nterpretation a t l arger-scale l evels

s hows

t he p ossible e xistence o f l arge-scale g roupings a t

c a 2 35 km a nd c a 3 40 k m l evels b ut

n ot

v ery

c learly.

c lustering l evels c a 5 0 k m a nd c a 8 0 k m a re m ore d istinct.

C urve

2 s hows t wo l evels o f g rouping b ut t hese a re d ivided b y a l arge b uffer z one a nd d o n ot p rovide a v ery c lear p icture. H owever, d etail f rom Z hizo W est p rovides a nother f acies o f

l evel a t c a

t he K utama t raditon a nd I ngombe

g roupings a re a t

c a

1 60 km a nd

2 30

k m.

2 9

k m.

C urve

I lede, T he

s hows f irst

3 ,

f or

t he

t wo l arge-scale r epresents

t he

n orthern a nd s outhern g roup a s t wo s eparate e ntities a nd t he s econd s ubsumes b oth ( Fig. 4 :6). C urve 4 p resents a u nified a nd b alanced p icture.

C lear

c lusters

c an

b e

2 78

d iscerned a t

t he 4 7 k m a nd

1 55 k m

.7 300

2 60

10

I 4 00 KM

lI

E I 1

. 4

.

.I E I 2

1

L 1

4

t i

F ig.

1

D -Curves ( vertical a xis -r elative s ite d ensity, a xis - d istance i n k m). ( Gokomere a nd Z iwa). C oronation,

1 : 2 :

E arly I ron A ge p hase 1

E arly I ron A ge p hase 2 ( Zhizo a nd

otted l ine). Z hizo w est -. d

c omposite ( Gumanye - d otted l ine).

5 :

K hami.

2 79

h orizontal

4 :

3 :

L ate I ron A ge

Z imbabwe S tate.

l evels a nd p robably a lso a t c a 3 57 km. g rouping a t

C urve 5 a lso

s hows

a

m arked

t he c a 5 0 k m l evel a nd a nother a t c a 2 05 k m.

T he c lustering l evels a t m ost s ignificant r esults o f

c a 5 0 km s hown i n C urves 4 a nd 5 a re t he t he s eries. I n g eneral t he e arlier

p eriods d o s how c lustering, p articularly p icture i s l ess w ell d efined t han i t i s f or

a t l ow l evels, b ut t he t he m ore r ecent o nes.

T his d isparity m ay i ndicate t hat s everal d ifferent i ndependent g roups e xisted i n t he e arlier p eriods w ith a l ess u nified e conomic c onfiguration.

I t

i s

a lso

p robable

p eriods i s n ot a s c omplete a s

i t

i s

f or

t hat

t he s urvey o f

t he e arlier

t he l ater o nes a nd t hat

s tone

b uildings p rovide a m ore v isible m eans o f s ite d efinition t han c eramic a ssemblages. A ll t he l arge m aps h ave d ark s hading f or l and b elow c a 9 60m ( 3 0 00 f eet). I n a ddition s ome h ave l ight s hading i ndicating t he m ain m ining a reas o f S ummers F igure 2 :1 G okomere/Ziwa b ut

a

i llustrates f acies

d istribution. m ap

( 1969). t he

a nd,

c a

i n

T he d ifference

7 8

k m

c lustering

a ddition,

a n

l evel

o utline

o f

o f

i n s urveying a ctivity i s e vident

b asic p attern d oes

s eem t o b e e merging.

t he

t he S inoia i n t his

F igure 2 :2 s hows

t he c a 5 2 k m c lustering l evel f or w estern G okomere i n r elation t o m ining

a reas.

F igure 3 :3

i llustrates

t he

t he C oronation d istribution t o

t he n orth a nd t he Z hizo o ne i n t he s outh a t t he c a 7 5 km l evel. m ap

s hows

a

m ore

c oncentrated

r eflect d iffering i ntensities o f p attern.

F igure

3 :4

p icture

t han F ig.

T his c ould

i n

s ettlement

s urveying o r a c hange

p rovides

d etail

o f

T his

2 :1.

t he r elationship b etween

C oronation a nd M axton ( the C oronation d istribution i s s haded). a ppears

t o

h ave

b een

T here

a m ovement o ver t ime i nto t he c entral p lateau

a rea. F igure 3 :5 s hows t he 3 0 km c lustering l evel o f w estern Z hizo a nd a m ovement i nto t he m ining a reas. F igure 4 :6 i llustrates t he 5 0 k m l evel f or I lede f acies.

t he M ambo, G umanye, H arare, M usengezi a nd I ngombe T he f irst f our h ave b een s ubsumed u nder t he K utama

t radition a nd I ngombe H uffman

( 1978b).

I lede i s

c onsidered

t ypologically

d istinct

b y

T he f igure s hows a r emarkably b alanced p icture f or

t he n orthern r egion a nd t he p attern a ppears w ell e stablished. T he g ap b etween G umanye a nd H arare n eeds t o b e i nvestigated f urther. A t p resent t his

t he n orthern r egion a ppears d istinct

i s

r eflected

i n

F ig.

f rom

4 :7 w hich s hows

f urther f eature i llustrated i n F ig.

4 :6

i s

t he

t he

s outhern

a nd

t he c a 1 60 km l evel. d istribution

o f

A t he

S tyle 1 Z imbabwe s tone w all e nclosures. I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t heir s ituation i n r elation t o t he G umanye f acies a nd t o t he H arare a nd M usengesi f acies w here t he n orthernmost b uilding i s s ituated i n t he b uffer z one b etween t he t wo. I n g eneral, e xcept f or G umanye a nd t he

M apungubwe

a rea,

s tyle

1

b uildings

o ccur o n t he p eriphery o f

p opulation c oncentrations. F igure 4 :8 s hows d etail o f t he G umanye c a 2 0 k m a nd c a 3 0 km c lustering l evels. A p oint o f i nterest s hown i n t he m aps I t

i s

i s

t he p resence o f

d ifficult

" ambassador"

t o i nterpret

t hese

s ites

i n t he v arious

t hese c ould w ell b e u seful f oci o f f uture r esearch. o n

M apungubwe s ite d istributions

a ppears 3 :3.

i s a lso

t hroughout c lustering a ppears

t he l ater p hases. l evel

o f

T he l imited

i llustrated

i n t he 5 0

2 a nd 4 Z imbabwe s ettlements.

t o h ave b een a n e xpansion f rom t he s tyle 1

2 80

F ig.

i n t his p eriod r emains i mportant

F igure 5 :9 p rovides a v iew o f

t he s tyles

d ata

i ncluded o n t he m ap a nd t his

t o f ollow o n f rom t hat o f B ambandyanalo

T he s ettlement a rea e stablished

f acies.

f rom p resently a vailable d ata a nd

s ettlements.

k m

T here T he

F ig.

2

1 :

7 8 k m l evel;

Z = Z iwa;

pace—time u nits 1 44 x l o6 s

G = G okomere).

t ime u nits ( West G okomere).

2 81

2 :

5 2 k m l evel;

( S = S inoia; pace— 9 x l o6 s

F ig.

3

3 :

7 5 km l evel;

n ation; units

1 36.5 x 1 06 s pace—time units

Z = Z hizo).

4 :

( Maxton/Coi -onation).

s pace—time u nits

7 5 km l evel; 5 :

( West Z hizo).

2 82

( C = C oro—

1 4 x 1 06 s pace—time

3 0 km l evel;

1 0.5 x 1 06

o ccupation o f t he m ining a reas o f t he c entral p lateau i s p articularly m arked. A f urther p oint o f i nterest i s t hat t here d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a ny e lite s ettlements i n t he a reas o f c oncentrated W oolandale,

H arare

a nd

t he s outhern s ector a ssessments. ( 1978)

A t

a bout

M usengesi

w ill t his

s ettlement.

p rovide

a

g ood

T he c lear c lusters i n

b asis

f or

e nvironmental

s tage w e c an c onfirm t he p oint m ade b y G arlake

t he g eneral p reference

s hown f or

t he

i nterface

b etween

h ighlands a nd l owlands, b ut o n t he 5 0 km c luster l evel r ather t han f or i ndividual s ites. T he i mportance o f t he a rea a round G reat Z imbabwe i s a lso

w ell d emonstrated i n t he f igure.

c a 1 55 km c lustering l evel. a pparent

a s

i s

t he p redominance o f

( 1978)

a nd

a re

i ncluded

s triking c ompatability o f d ifferent

m ethodologies

s how t hat

t he

t he

s tate

t he s outhern s ector.

l ines a nd * s ymbols o n t he m ap r esult s tudy

F igure 5 :10 c orresponds

T he c ore a rea o f

i s

t o

t he

c learly

T he s traight

f rom G arlake's T hiessen

p olygon

h ere f or c omparative p urposes.

r esults

o f

t wo

a nalyses

i s r eassuring a nd m ost

i nteresting.

t he Z imbabwe S tate w as o rganized a s a t l east

s tructure a nd t herefore s atisfies

a

T he

u sing

v ery

T he m aps

t hree

t he a rchaeological c riteria

t ier

( Renfrew

1 977) f or a s tate i n e very s ense o f t he w ord. F igure 6 :11 i s a c ompilation o f G arlake's s tyle 5 , 6 a nd 7 b uildings. I t c an o nly b e h eld t o a pproximate t he e xtent o f t he T orwa S tate a nd m ight w ell i nclude

u nits

f rom t he R ozwi

S tate.

T he p icture i s,

c lear a nd w ell-defined c lusters a re a pparent a t i mmediate

o bservation

T his

i llustrates

s ome o f

t he

d angers

h istorical p rojections a bout t he Z imbabwe S tate b ased o n

1 6th a nd 1 7th c entury d ocumentary s ources. s chematic

A n

T he K hami S tate i s m uch s maller a nd o nly a I f a t hird t ier d id e xist t hen i t m ust h ave

b een a t a l evel b elow c a 3 0 km. i n

r ather

l evel.

c an b e m ade w hen t his m ap i s c ompared t o t hose

o f t he Z imbabwe S tate. t wo-tier o rganization. i nherent

h owever,

t he 5 0 km

f orm

a n

d ifferent a reas

i ndication o f

i n F ig.

6 :11

F igure

6 :12

p rovides

i n

t he c ontinuity o f o ccupation o f t he

a nd

a lso

s ome

o f

t he

c hanges

w hich

o ccurred. I n

g eneral,

t here

i s

n o

d oubt

t hat u neven s urvey c overage o f

Z imbabwe p lays a n i mportant p art i n d istorting t he s patial a nalysis, b ut t here i s a lso a d anger o f o ver-emphasizing t his f actor. T he e xistence o f c lusters s uch a s H arare a nd M usengesi i n F ig. b e

c onsidered

c ultures

i n

t erms o f

( Renfrew 1 977;

H uffman 1 980;

s outhern G okomere i s a r eflection o f s ettlement t hroughout ( Fig.

4 ).

t he

f irst

I t c an

s hould

H odder 1 982).

S ome t rends d o s eem t o b e e merging f or t he a ppear t o b e c learly d efined i n t he l ater o nes. t o a scertain w hether o r n ot

4 :6

t he c urrent d iscussions o n a rchaeological

e arlier p eriods a nd I t w ill b e i mportant

t he p attern e stablished f unction o f s urvey b ias p atterns. T he p attern

f or o r i s

w estern

a nd

a n a ccurate m aintained

m illennium u ntil t he p enetration o f M apungubwe

b e

n oted

i n

p assing

t hat

t he

c ontinuation

i n

s ettlement a rea f rom G okomere t o M ambo a nd G umanye i ndicates t he n ecessity o f r eappraising t he s harp t ypological a nd m icro-settlement d istinctions u nits. H arare w orth

i n

t erms

A nother p oint a nd G umanye. r emarking

p otentially p atterns s hows

t hat

o f

s imilarities

S ummers

t setse-infested. t hat

o f

l arger-scale c lustering

o f i nterest i n F ig. 4 i s t he d istance s eparating A gain, s urvey e mphasis i s i mportant b ut i t i s ( 1960) A

b rief

c onsidered

t his

c onsideration

a rea o f

a s

r ainfall

t he H arare a nd M usengesi c lusters a re c entered

o n

t he h igh r ainfall a reas w hile t he b ulk o f G umanye s ites a re c lose t o t he p lateau m argin i n e asy r each o f t he r esources o f t he p lateau a nd

2 83

F ig.

4

6 :

5 0 k m l evel;

I lede;

1 95 x 1 06 s pace—time units

Ha = H arare;

Musengezi.

S tyle

M a = Mambo;

1b uildings;

G u = G umanye;

M apungubwe a mbas;

l evel;

1 95 x 1 06 s pace—time units.

G umanye a mbas).

5 .88 x 1 06 s pace—time units.

2 84

Mu =

I ngombe I lede a nd H arare

a mbas;

l evels;

( II = I ngombe

8 :

7 :

1 60 k m

2 0 a nd 3 0 km

F ig.

5

9 :

5 0 k m l evel;

l evel;

5 8.5 x 1 06 s pace—time u nits.

pace—time u nits. 5 8.5 x 1 06 s

2 85

1 0:

1 55 k m

F ig.

6

1:

5 0 k m l evel;

Z = G reat Z imbabwe; 1 2:

2 0 x 1 06 s pace-time u nits ( K = K hami; l ight s hading = g old m ining r egion).

K hami s ummary ( dark s hade = n ew e lite a reas;

s hade = o ld e lite a reas e xpanding o r c onstant; d iminishing e lite a reas;

l ight

w hite =

s tippled = a bandoned e lite a reas).

2 86

p attern

e stablished

i n

G okomere

t he e nd o f t he Z imbabwe S tate. i nterpretation o f v arious c lusters

t iles a nd m aintained a t

l east u ntil

F uture w ork w ill e ntail m ore

d etailed

t he f igures a nd r elating t he a rea e ncompassed b y t he t o

e nvironmental

a nd

o ther

l ocational

p arameters

u sing c orrespondence a nalysis a nd m ulti-dimensional s caling. I t i s i ntended t o d evelop a g eneral m odel o f t he c ycle o f s tate f ormation o n t he

Z imbabwe

b ut o f

p lateau.

A t p resent

i ncreasing i ntensity,

i t a ppears

t hat s imilar p rocesses,

g ave r ise t o s ocial d ifferentiation f irst

i n t he L impopo V alley a nd l ater o n t he Z imbabwe P lateau. I t c ould w ell p rove t hat t he d emise o f M apungubwe a nd t he Z imbabwe S tate a nd t he

r ise

o f K hami,

w ere p art o f

t he R ozwi S tate a nd t he M utapa S tate i n t he n orth

t he s ame p rocess.

S ome c hanges i n t he m aps c an b e e xpected a fter a r eappraisal o f t he s ource m aterial a nd i nclusion o f l ocational d ata f rom n eighbouring c ountries. I t i s h oped t o b e a ble t o m ake t he c omputer p rogrammes f or s patial a nalysis a vailable t o Z imbabwean a rchaeologists i n o rder t o f acilitate t he n ecessary d ialogue b etween a nalytical m ethods d ata c ontained i n t he N ational A rchaeological S urvey.

a nd

t he

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS D ata

u sed i n t his a nalysis w ere c ollected d uring a s tudy v isit b y

m embers o f E duardo M ondlane U niversity t o a re

o wed

C hitepo, M useum,

t o

S incere

t hanks

f or h er e ncouragement a nd t o t he s taff o f t he Q ueen V ictoria H arare. T he S wedish A gency f or R esearch C o-operation w ith

D eveloping t hroughout T .

Z imbabwe.

t he t hen V ice-Minister o f E ducation o f Z imbabwe, M rs V .

C ountries h as p rovided g enerous f inancial s upport t he p roject. W e a lso w ould l ike t o t hank, i n p articular,

W iktorin

o f

U ppsala

U niversity

f or

h is

u nstinting

h elp

w ith

c omputing.

R EFERENCES C OOKE,

C .

K .,

S UMMERS, R .

r e-examined, 1 -11. G ARLAKE, P .

S .

1 1.

P art 1 970.

& R OBINSON K . R . T he I ron

P .

1 978.

4 79-494. H ODDER, I . 1 982. P ress. H UFFMAN, T . N .

P astoralism

T . N .

R hod. 6 . H UFFMAN, T . N .

a nd

1 971.

A g uide S . Rhod.

1 1:

Z imbabwe.

1 974a.

t o t he I ron A ge 4 :

R hodesian h istory ( Rhod).

4 95-513.

J .

A fr.

T h E

H ist.

2 1:

C ambridge U niversity

o f

M ashonaland.

O cc.

2 0-44.

T he L eopard's K opje T radition.

1 974b.

2 (17):

p reliminary a ssessment o f

J . A fr. H ist.

S ymbols i n A ction. C ambridge:

P ap. n atl M us. H UFFMAN,

1 966. A rnoldia

Rhodesian R uins -a

t heir s tyles a nd c hronology. G ARLAKE,

A ge.

l inguistic a ffinities o f

t he

M em.

n atl M us.

I ron

A ge

i n

R hodesia. A rnoldia 0hod). 7 ( 7): 1 -12. H UFFMAN, T . N . 1 978a. T he I ron A ge o f t he B uhwa d istrict, R hodesia. O cc. P ap. n atl M us. Rhod. A , 4 : 8 1-100. H UFFMAN, T . N . 1 978b. T he o rigins o f L eopard's c entury d ifaquane. H UFFMAN, H UFFMAN, A fr.

T . N .

1 979.

A rnoldia ( Rhod).

A frican o rigins.

T . N .

1 g80.

S tud.

3 9:

C eramics,

8 ( 23):

S . A fr. J .

k opje:

a n

1 1th

1 -23. S ci.

7 5:

2 33-237.

c lassification a nd I ron A ge e ntities

1 23-174.

2 87

L UNDMARK,

H .

1 982.

r emains

A nalysis o f

f rom

B ronze

s patial p atterning

A ge

O stergotland.

i n

a rchaeological

P aper

p resented

a t

T heoretical A rchaeology G roup C onference, U niversity o f D urham. O RTON,

C .

R .

1 982.

S tochastic p rocess a nd a rchaeological m echanism i n

s patial a nalysis. R ENFREW,

C .

1 977.

J .

a rchaeol.

S pace,

R OWLANDS, M .,

e ds.

t ime

S ci. a nd

9 :

1 -23.

p olity.

T he e volution o f

s ocial

I n :

F RIEDMAN,

s ystems.

J .

&

L ondon:

D uckworth. S INCLAIR,

P .

1 983.

a ssemblages. J os, S UMMERS,

m ethod

f or

R .

S UMMERS, R .

1 958. 1 960.

p hil.

I nyanga;

C ambridge:

C ongr.

P rehist.,

E nvironment

S oc.

1 04:

p rehistoric

T ransvaal. R .

t erritories.

M em.

i n S outhern

a nd c ulture

i n S outhern R hodesia

P roc.

2 66-292.

A rnoldia 1 969.

s ettlements

C ambridge U niversity P ress.

S UMMERS, R . 1 967. A rchaeological h istory o f t setse i nfestation S UMMERS,

a ssessing a nd c omparing c eramic 1 Xth P an A fr.

N igeria.

Rhodesia. Am.

A

P aper p resented a t

( Rhod). A ncient

n atl M us.

d istributions a nd i n Rhodesia a nd

3 ( 13):

1 -18.

m ining

i n

Rhod.

2 88

3 .

Rhodesia

a t entative t he N orthern a nd

a djacent

2 6.

M OBILITY A ND M IGRATION I N T RADITIONAL A FRICAN F ARMING A ND I RON A GE M ODELS P eta J ones

T he h oary o ld s tory o f

' Bantu s pread

I h ope I n eed n ot a pologise f ace o f e xpressed p reference c lear,

h owever,

I

i s

s till v ery m uch a live a nd

f or p ersisting w ith a v ersion o f i t f or

' local s tudies'.

s hould s ay a t

b ased o n p ottery t ypology a nd

t he o utset

l inguistics

i n t he

T o m ake m y p osition

t hat I f ind t he e vidence

u nsatisfactory.

t hey a re i nconclusive a nd a t w orst m isleading.

A gainst

A t

b est

t his w e h ave a

w ealth o f i nformation a bout t raditional m ethods o f A frican f arming t hat i s h ighly s uggestive o f t he c onstraints u nder w hich f armers m ust h ave o perated a t t he o utset j ust a s m uch a s l ater. T his i n t urn, t ogether w ith w hat w e k now o f m odern s ocieties, s uggests a p articular s ocial

h istory

q uestions

a re

w hich

m ay

r elevant

t o

a lso

i lluminate

o ur

v iews

a bout

w hat

t he s tudy o f p ottery a nd l inguistics.

T he

p urpose h ere, t hen, i s t o l ook a t t hose a spects o f t raditional f arming i n A frica t hat a re m ost s uggestive o f p atterns i n t he i nitial p eriod ( see a lso J ones

( 1983)).

C AUSES O F M OBILITY A part f rom t he m any s ocial r easons f or m oving t here a re t wo c onstant o nes w hich a ffect f armers i n A frica: s oil c onditions a nd d rought.

E ach

o ccurs

c ertainly

a nd,

b y e stablishing t he i nitial i mpetus f or a s trategy o f

p eriodic

m obility,

w ith

m ay

a

d ifferent

f acilitate

t he

r egularity d evelopment

b ut

j ust

a s

o f

t he

o ther

o r

f requently

r easons. S oil c onditions I n

A frica

o nly

v olcanic

s oils

a nd

a nnually

r eplenished a lluvia c an s upport a ny p rolonged u se, a nd t hese a re v ery r are i ndeed. A lmost e verywhere i n A frica a ll o ther s oils a re p oor b oth i n m ineral a nd o rganic n utrients a nd i n s tructure. T he s tructure f acilitates l eaching t hat r emoves t he n utrients, a nd t illage o f a ny k ind o nly a ggravates

t he s ituation.

t ropical f orests s imply m eans t he v egetation i tself,

n ot

T he h igh e nergy t urnover

t hat m ost o f

a nd

c onservative

T o a g reat e xtent b roadcasting

w here

t herefore,

( Tourte & M oomaw 1 977:298-9;

t hey d uplicated

s eed

t he

i n t he s oils.

T raditional A frican s ystems o f c ultivation h ad, c areful

o f

t he n utrients a re s tored i n

t o

b e

C olson 1 979).

t he e xisting e nvironments b y

s imply

p ossible a nd d ensely i nterplanting c rops o f

v arying h eight a nd s ize, a nd o f d ifferent g rowing s easons, w ithin t he l imits o f t he r ainfall. T his a lso i nsured a gainst u npredictable v ariation i n g rowing c onditions. M oreover, t his s trategy p rotected s oils f rom t he e ffects o f h eat a nd r ainfall a nd t o s ome e xtent, i f c arefully t imed, p roductivity 1 971:117). r eduction

e xcluded w eeds.

T his

l ast w as

i mportant

w as f ar m ore v aluable t han l and p roductivity

s ince l abour ( Ruthenberg

L abour n eeds m ay h ave i ncreased g eographically w ith t he i n t he m onths o f r ainfall, a s s oil f ertility i n a v ery

2 89

g eneral s ense a lso p aradoxically i ncrLased,

b ut

t he

r equirement

f or

l abour w as e verywhere h igh.

a sh,

S oils c an b e f urther i mproved b y u sing t erracing, t ermite m ounds, a nimal a nd h ousehold w aste a nd t he l ike, a nd u nder t raditional

s ystems o ften w ere s o H owever,

i mproved,

w ithin t he l imits o f

p reference n aturally w ent

t o

t hose s oils,

l abour a vailable.

g enerally

a lluvia,

t hat w ere m ost e asily w orked a s w ell a s b eing r easonably f ertile. B ut e ven t hese p ossessed l imited n utrition p otential, s upporting p erhaps o nly o ne f amily o n a bout t wo h ectares e ven i n t he m ost p roductive f irst s eason o f p lanting ( Peters r equire

1 950:71).

l ong r ecovery p eriods s ince

I n

a ddition,

t here a re

s uch

t oo f ew p lants

s oils

t hat c an

r estore s oil f ertility a nd t he g rowth c ycle w ith r estoration o f n utrients t o t he s oil, l argely t hrough t ermite a ctivity, i s v ery s low. T he i ntense r emoval o f v egetation o ver a s mall a rea f or r eplacement a nd c onsumption b y h umans f or o ne o r t wo y ears c ould, t herefore, s et t he w hole p rocess b ack b y a s m uch a s A ssuming t hat r ecovery

a fter

t he

a t

a ll

s oils

s ettlement.

t imes

o f

( Allan 1 967:30).

r equired

o ne y ear o f c ropping,

1 0 h a f or p ermanent l and

b etter

2 0 y ears

s ense

t o

f ifteen t o

s omewhat

t wenty.

s o f ifteen y ears m ight r educed y ields.

T he

t o a bandon f ields f or

I f

t his

t herefore,

e ach

s ettlement,

f amily

w ould

b etter

I n f act, u p t o a l imit,

s uffice,

i f f ields w ere

l arger

t he w eed

p opulation,

a nd

e ven

u nder t raditional s ystems, m ore u sual

r eason t han b ecause s oils

w ere

e xhausted.

b alanced a gainst w eeding.

t hen

r equired

a t

l east

i solation f rom o ther f amilies,

i nsects, a m enace

t he

a lthough t he y ield

o r

2 0

h a

f or p ermanent

a lternatively

f rom f ields, m ight b ecome u nacceptably g reat. A s t ermites, w hile h elping t o r egenerate t he s oil, a re a lso, o ther

m ake

l imit i s n ot n ecessarily r eached,

s ince e ach y ear o f p lanting i ncreases u nder c rowded c onditions i t w as, C learing w as,

I t

f or l onger c ropping p eriods,

t o

f or

f or

p reparing a w hole n ew s et o f f ields

a lso d ecreases, a llow

y ears

c ultivate a n o pened f ield f or t hree o r f our y ears

a nd t hen l eave i t f or r atio r educes

f ive

E ven i f o ne f amily c ould f arm i ts o wn

t he y ear,

e ach y ear w ould r equire a g reat d eal o f w ork. e conomic

o nly

e ach f amily w ould r equire a bout

t o A frican h abitation.

d istance

i t h appens, a long w ith

I t m ay t ake

t hem o nly

f ive y ears t o r ender w ood a nd t hatch i nadequate f or s upport a nd s helter, t hus c ausing p eople t o m ove a nd r ebuild. I f t he c ollapse o f t heir h ouses f orces

t hem t o m ove a pproximately e very f ive y ears p eople

m ay a s w ell l ive i n l arger g roups, o vercome a nd t he d istance g reat

d uring

t hat

f arming l arger a reas.

f rom f ields

t ime;

w ill

n ot

b ecome

I solation i s u nacceptably

a n o ptimum r atio o f c ultivation p eriod

t o

f allow p eriod w ill a lso b e m aintained. I t

i s c lear

s ettlement

t hat

a gainst

t here a re b alancing f actors h ere, f requency o f m ove.

t oo:

s ize

o f

T he l arger t he p opulation o f a

s ettlement, t he m ore d ifficult i t w ould b e t o m ove, b ut a lso t he m ore f requently w ould i t b e n ecessary. I f r esources w ere u niform o ver a l arge a rea w e g radually,

c ould

p icture

t he

f ield

a s n ew g ardens w ere o pened u p,

a rea

m oving

a nnually

a nd

o ldest o nes w ere a bandoned,

a nd i ntermediate o nes w ere s till b eing u sed,

b ut

t he v illage w ould

b e

m oved f urther a t l onger i ntervals. T he

w hole

d istributed,

p rocess

i s

s peeded

a nd h ere r esources o ther

2 90

u p

i f

r esources a re n ot e venly

t han s oil a lso b ecome o perative.

N o

d oubt

w ater

w ould

a lways

h ave

b een a p rime c onsideration,

w oodland w ould h ave b een n eeded f or b uilding m aterial a nd f uel, g reat

m any

w ild

T here n eeded, d omestic

b esides,

a nimals.

s ettlement

t o

b e

g ame

a nd/or

I n a ddition t o a ll T hese

b rowse

a nd

f actors w ould h ave p rovided

n ucleation;

e ven

I f

t he

d istance

t hat

b etween

p asture

t hese c onsiderations

t he

f urther

f or s oils

r easons

w hen m any s oil t ypes w ere i n u se,

t here w ould n ot h ave b een v ery m any o ptimal s ettlement

c ommunication

s ettlements

b etween t hem w as d ifficult,

w as

l ocalities.

s uch

t hat

d aily

t his w ould i n a ddition m ean

t hose w ho n eeded t o c ome t ogether i n d aily l ife w ould o ccupy

s ame

v illage.

p eople t hat

I t i s d ifficult

t his w ould i nvolve,

b elow,

b ut

t he

t o o btain a ny p recise i dea o f h ow m any I

s hould

t hink,

f or

r easons

g iven

t hat i t w ould b e n ot m uch b elow 5 00 p eople i ncluding c hildren,

i s p erhaps

e ven

a

p lants w ere r equired i n t he d iet a nd p harmacopoeia.

w ere n ot u niform. f or

b ut

a nd

1 00 f amilies,

f or a ll p urposes a t

i f s easonally f luctuating.

2 0 00 h a,

i f r esidence w ere

T his

a ny

t ime

o f

i mplies a l and u sage o f

y ear a round

p ermanent o r c ontinuously r otating i n

t he

s ame a rea. A s M aggs ( 1980:8) o bserved, o nly c ertain t ypes o f s oil s eemed t o b e p referred i n t he E arly I ron A ge, a nd i t w ould b e e ntirely r easonable s ense o f

t o

s uppose f or m ost p eriods t hat

' preferred f or f arming',

' suitable

s oils,

i n t he

w ere f ew a nd f ar b etween a nd d id n ot

o ccur i n p arcels o f 2 0 00 h a. R ather t han f ollowing a r otational p attern, o r o f ' leapfrogging' o ver e xhausted a reas i n a s eries o f s maller

m oves,

t hese

l arger

s ettlements w ould h ave h ad t o b e m oved

g reater d istances. D rought F or f armers, o f r ain; d roughts. p erhaps

d roughts a re a s m uch a m atter o f

o ne

r ainy s eason,

d istribution i n a ny y ear; p art

o f

t iming a s o f a

l ack

e ven t he h igh r ainfall a reas o f A frica s uffer f rom T here s eem t o b e t wo k inds o f d rought: s hort d roughts, o f

a

d ecade.

T he

( Tyson e t a l.

1 975:831),

r egions.

t he t wo t ypes,

O f

i n a ny y ear,

t hat a re d istinctly l imited i n t heir a real

a nd l ong d roughts

t hat c an l ast

t he

b etter

l atter h ave r ecently s hown s ome r egularity

a nd m ay b e p rincipally a f eature o f

t he d rier

l ong d roughts o ccur o ver w ider a reas b ut,

l imited s ections o f

t he

o verall

a rea

w ill

h ave

s ome

r elief. T here i s a lways s omewhere w ithin k nown s urroundings w here r elative p lenty m ay b e f ound. F urther, t he v ery r egularity o f t he p attern

w ill

h ave b rought

f amiliarity.

E xperience,

t herefore,

w ould

h ave l ed t o t he e stablishment o f c ontingency p lans. C learly n ot e veryone i n a g iven r egion c an

c onverge

o n

f avoured

s pots a nd e xpect t o b e s upported t hrough y ears o f d rought. L atecomers w ould h ave t o m ove f urther a field, p erhaps r evert t o h unting a nd g athering o r b ecome n omadic p astoralists f or a f ew y ears, a nd p erhaps, e ven, n ever r eturn t o c ultivation. P ossibly, w hen t hey d id, t hey m ight

b e v ery f ar f rom t heir o riginal h ome a reas.

L ong d roughts c an,

t herefore, a ccount f or t he m ovement o f f armers r ight b eyond a d rought r egion r egardless o f t he e xtent o f t hat r egion. T he d rier t he r egion i n g eneral t erms, a nd

o ral

t he m ore f requent a nd f arther

t raditions p rovide s trong s upport

p attern.

2 91

f or

t he m ovement.

H istory

t he d urability o f

t his

D EMOGRAPHY T he a im s o f ar h as b een t o

s how h ow m ovement a nd

e xpansion

c ould

t ake p lace, t here b eing n o a ssumption o f p opulation i ncrease o r e ven s ocial f ission. S ocial f ission, h owever, i s m ore o r l ess a n atural c orollary,

e ven w here n ot a c ause,

t rue o f m obility u nder s tress, p ractical

( historical

a s

o f m obility.

i n d roughts.

T his I t

e xamples n otwithstanding)

i s p articularly

i s

b asically

n ot

t o m ove i n g roups o f

5 00 o r s o u nder t hese c onditions. A part f rom t he s ubsistence p roblems p resented, i t i s s omething o f a u niversal t ruth, a nd c ertainly i n A frica, t hat s trangers a re m ainly w elcomed w hen t hey a re a lone, o r p ossibly w hen a ccompanied o nly b y c hildren. A w oman o r c hild a lone i s e ven m ore l ikely t o b e a ccepted. t his a s f usion, t oo. I n

t his

w ay

s ettlement

I t

i s

s izes

e ssential,

c an i ncrease.

q uestion o f n atural p opulation i ncrease. a nd

i t

s eems

a ccount

t ime

t o

q uestion

w e m ay h ave l ittle c lue a s

g rounds f or

a rguing

t hat,

i n

F irstly w e n eed a rea,

g athering c ould s upport h igher d ensities b e d ifficult,

h owever,

t oday l abour,

n ot

t o p rove

l and,

o ccupation o f b etter a rable P roduction g roup.

m ay

T here a re e ven

s avannas,

h unting

t han c ould f arming.

W e d o k now,

h owever,

l and n eed

n ot

m ean

a nd

I t w ould t hat

e ven

f arming.

g reater

T he

p roduction.

t o t he m inimum r equirements o f a

i n a ll l ikelihood,

f or l ong p eriods

a nimal

a nd c ultivation e specially w ould h ave p rovided o nly a s mall

p roportion o f

1

n on-farmers,

t he f actor t hat l imits

h ave b een e qual

A lmost e verywhere,

h usbandry

T able

n ot

t his.

i s a lways

t he

a ssumed

t o t ake i nto

i ncluding

A frican

s ee

T here r emains

t o t heir n umbers.

t he

t o

T his h as o ften b een

i t.

t he e xisting p opulations o f a n

a lthough

h owever,

t he l ivelihood o f

t he v arious p opulations i n a n a rea.

M odern d emographic f actors a lso p ossibly

a ffecting

A frican

3 0 00 y ears a go.

p opulations

F ERTILITY D EPRESSORS

M ORTALITY E NHANCERS

I nsufficient r egularity a nd amount o f m ilk f rom d omestic

C hildren a t e special r isk,

a nimals

o f t hose p rotected b y s icklemia g ene, t he m oiety

f rom m alaria i n p articular;

t o f acilitate w eaning

o f y oung c hildren,

t hus

p rolonging h uman l actation a nd

i nheriting t he t rait

d elaying s ubsequent c onceptions

b oth p arents u nlikely t o

f rom

s urvive

T here

w ere

o ther

f actors a s w ell.

b ased o n t he i nteraction o f i t

i s p erhaps u seful

S ince p opulation i ncrease

t wo c omponents,

f ertility

a nd

t o c onsider t hem s eparately i nsofar a s

i s

m ortality, t hey w ould

a ffect t he e arly p eriod. T able 1 l ists s ome r elevant p oints, a lthough i t s hould b e n oted t hat m any f actors i nteract a nd t hat, f or f armers, t he

b alance

d ominating

b etween f actor.

l abour B ecause

a nd m ost

n utritional d iseases

h umans, A frican p eople s how s ome a daptation t o

r eturn

m ight

b e

a

h ave e volved a long w ith t hose

t hey a re

e xposed

t o, i n t he f orm o f i mmunity o r r esistance, b ut i t i s d ifficult t o k now f or h ow l ong t his m ay h ave b een t rue. T hus, i f p opulation i ncrease t ook

p lace

a t

a ll,

i t

i s m ost

2 92

l ikely t o h ave b een s low,

a nd l east

l ikely t o h ave c oincided w ith t he i nitiation o f f arming. o scillation t hrough t ime i s t he m ost l ikely o f a ll.

S ome k ind o f

T YPES O F A SSOCIATION H unter-gatherers

u tilize

n etworks o f a ssociation a s a n i nsurance t he n eed i s c lear e nough. I n

a gainst d ifficulties a nd f or f armers A frica

t wo

t ypes

o f

g roup

a re

r equired,

a l ocal o ne

t o h elp w ith

f arming a nd a w idespread n etwork t o h elp w ith m oving. L ocal g roups a re r equired t o h elp c ope w ith t he n eed f or a l arge l abour f orce a t c ertain t imes o f t he y ear. G rowing s easons t end t o b e s horter w ith d istance f rom t he e quator. i ntensifies

t he

w ork,

i mportant w ith d istance b alanced,

h owever,

i t

c ould

f rom

t he

a s

h eat

l imitations o n l abour

i s

A s a s horter a rgued

g rowing

s eason

t hat t his b ecomes m ore

r ainforest.

s tress

i mposes a s horter w orking d ay. t ime

b e

T his

f actor

m ay

b e

i ncreases n earer t he e quator a nd

T he m ost e fficient w ay

o f

o vercoming

t hrough c o-operative w ork i n w hich t ime

a nd e nergy a re s cheduled. T raditional A frican w ork i nvolved

t han

m ore

t hreshing

a

c ooperative

a nd

p arties

c ouple

o f

s eem

d ozen

g enerally a dults,

n ot

t o

h ave

e xcept p erhaps

f or

h unting

d rives. T he l atter a re a lso cultural w ay o f l ife, s ince t hey a g -i

b e p art o f a n c onsidered t o f p est c ontrol a nd o ften t ook p lace d uring t he p rovided a f orm o

r ainy

s eason i n s pite o f t he f act t hat h unting i s m ore d ifficult t hen a nd o ther d uties w ere m ore p ressing. P est c ontrol a lso t ook t he f orm o f b ird-scaring,

t hereby

e ffectively

h ardest, t his w as p erhaps a ddition, t he c ollection p reparation,

e mploying

t he m ost o f w ater

c hildren;

i f

n ot t he

i ntensive w ork o f a ll. a nd f uel, a s w ell a s

w ere c onstantly n ecessary e ven i f

t he

t ime

a nd

I n f ood

e ffort

r equired t o d o s o v aried s easonally o r t emporally. T he

l arger

i ndividuals

c ommunity

s ize

o f

u pwards

o f

1 00 f amilies o r 5 00

s eems t o b e m ore c ommon i n A frica a nd p robably a llows

s ome d ivision o f

l abour a s w ell a s

f or l oss o f

t he l abour o f

t he

f or s ick,

p regnant a nd o ld. T he g rowing s eason w ould h ave b een t he t ime w hen d isease w as m ost r ife, n utrition l owest, a nd a lso, i f c onception w as m ore c ommon a t s eason,

t he

t he b eginning o f t ime

w hen

t he

b irths

m ore

w ere

r elaxed

a nd

s ociable

d ry

s imultaneously m ore c ommon a nd

r isky. I n c ontrast, e asier

a nd

d uring t he l ong d ry s eason

t his

t ravel

a lliances c ould b e a nd t raditionally w as e laborated. t he

a bsence

w ould

h ave

w ould h ave b een t he t ime w hen t he n etwork o f

o f

n eed,

w ould

b e

o ne

r esult

T rade,

o f t his,

b een s ocial

e ven

i n

a s a f orm o f

d eferred r eciprocity; b ut t here c ould b e o ther d istant n eeds s uch a s s pouses a nd d ry-season p astures f or s tock. T he p rime n eed f or a n i ndividual w ould h ave b een t o e nsure t hat w ho

w ere

o bliged

t o

p rovide

t here w ere g roups

h ospitality

a vailable

w hen r eal n eed a rose,

a s

d uring d roughts. I t w ould b e u nrealistic t o s uppose t hat e arly f arming g roups o nly i nteracted

w ith

e xpansion,

b ut

s ubsistence

o ther a

f arming

r ather

f oragers

s wift

a round,

g roups. ' refugee

T his

w as

d rift.

n o

i mperialist

I f

t here

w ere

t hey w ould h ave b een e ven m ore v aluable

2 93

a s f riends a nd a llies t here

w as

t han ' serfs',

i nterdependency.

r esources c ould b e

a ssumed

d ependent

t iming o f

h osts.

o n

t he

I n a ddition,

w hich s eems h ardly a ppropriate

T heir t o

w e m ust

k nowledge

b e

m ore

r ain,

o f

i f

l ocal t errain a nd

d etailed

a nd,

b eing

l ess

t hey w ould h ave b een m ore r eliable

a llow t he p ossibility t hat

m any

f irst f arming g roups w ere c losely r elated t o t he f oragers.

o f

I f,

t he

d uring

a l ong d rought, a f arming f amily h ad t aken t o n omadic p astoralism o r p ure f oraging a nd m oved a l ong d istance, w hen t hings i mproved a nd t hey w ere a ble t o c onsider f arming a gain, l arge e nough g roup t o d o t his.

t hey w ould n eed t o

d raw

f rom

a

M ODELS I f

t his

r easoning

h as

p robabilities a re a ccepted, f arming

g roups

a s

a ny

s ubstance,

m odelling m ust

b eing

o rganized

i n

s cheduling o f c onditions a nd r esources. a dapt 1 .

r apidly t o n ew a reas.

v ery f ast s pread o f

a nd

t ake

t he c onditions a nd a cccunt

r esponse T his

t o

w ould

o f

A frican

t he

a llow

n atural t hem

t o

I mportant c onsequences o f t his w ould b e:

i nitial,

a s w ell a s a ny n ew,

f orms o f

f arming

a nd/or i ts a ttributes; 2 .

s pread

w hich i s g eographically w ide a t a ll s tages, b ut f or a l ong

w hile n ot c ompletely f illing a ny p articular e nvironment; 3 .

m ulti-directional

m ovement,

l imited

o nly

b y

t he

l ocality

o f

s uitable s oils; 4 .

c ultural m ixing,

5 .

p hysical, I n

t he

i .e.

i ncluding l inguistic m ixing;

g enetic, m ixing.

i nitial

p eriod c ultural a nd g enetic t ypes a s d etected i n

f arming g roups w ould i dentity

b eing

b e

h eterogeneous,

d ominant,

a nd

w ith

b ecome

t he

l ocal

h omogeneous

a s

u ltimately f avouring t he i dentity o f p eople f rom t he f arming

o r

n ew

p eriod m ovement, p lace

t here.

f orm o ccurred e arlier. h aving s tarted

a rea

w here

t he

T his w ould b e b ecause o ver a

i n t hat a rea, w ould c ontinue

t o

t ake

T his r efers p articularly i n t he c ase o f l inguistic a nd

g enetic c ontributions. t he

i ndigenous t ime p assed,

e conomy

w ould

M aterial c ulture a ttributes

m ore

q uickly

b ecome

a nd,

r eplaced,

a t

o f

c ourse,

l east

i n t he

e nvironments w here f arming w as p ractised. A s m entioned a bove, w here O nly

s oils w hen

a ll

p opulation d iscount

w ere

t hese e nvironments w ould

m ost

t hese

e asily w orked, s oils

w ere

i nitially

b e

n ot n ecessarily m ost

s imultaneously

i ncrease b egin t o m anifest i tself,

t hose

f ertile.

o ccupied

m ight

a nd e ven t hen w e c annot

t he e ffect o f r ecruitment.

ANIMALS S o f ar a ddressed

t he a nd,

q uestion

O n t he o ther h and, a ccompanied

o f

l ivestock

e ven t hough m entioned, t here i s

f arming,

n o

t hough

w ith

p lentiful

b ut

f rom

t he

o ver a bout

1 2 00 m a .s.l.

r eason e xcept

n atural

t hat p resent d istributions o f p resence,

n ot

w hy

s tock

I w ould s uggest

u nlikely t o h ave p receded i t, a nd/or

h as

i nto

t setse f ly

( Ford

a re

s hould

t he m odel. n ot

h ave

a reas n o

o f

h igh

a ltitude

W e k now w ell e nough i ndicator

o f

p ast

t he f ly w e c an s pecify t hat a reas

1 971:5)

2 94

s pecifically

t hat i t w ould h ave b een

o pen g rassland.

h abits o f

b een

i s n ot n ecessary t o

a nd a lso a reas

l argely f ree o f

s hade w ould b e s afer f or s tock. T he n ecessary a ltitude i s h ardly c ontinuous s outh o f t he e quator, a nd e ven l ess s o a re n atural o pen g rasslands.

T he

s o-called

' corridor

b etween l akes T anganyika a nd

M alawi d id n ot i nitially l ead a nywhere u seful ( Keay 1 973:8). L ivestock c an b e m oved t hrough i ntervening a reas i n e xceptionally c old m onths o r l eafless m onths, o r

s o b efore

p roblem ;

a bout

s tock.

w hich a re u sually,

t he r ains b egin.

T hen,

i n A frica,

h owever,

t hree w aterless d ays w ould h ave

N ight

i s

a lso

a

t ime

s afe

t he h ot m onth

w ater w ould h ave b een a

f rom

b een

t he

t setse,

l imit

f or

t hough n ot

f rom

c arnivores, a nd t he d istance w hich c ould b e c overed i n o ne p robably

n ot

g reat.

M uch

w ould

d epend

o n

n ight

w as

w hat w as c onsidered a

t olerable l oss l evel. T he c omparatively l ow r ate o f i mmunity i n s outhern a nd E ast A frican c attle ( that i n s heep a nd g oats b eing l ess w ell k nown)

s uggests

t hat h umans m ay,

s trategies t o p revent e xposure o f f lies. e ach

t o t he b ites o f

t setse

S hade-free a reas w ithin r each o f w ater a re c reated b y f arming, v illage

b eing

i ts

o wn w oodland g lade.

t ransform t he w ider e nvironment; t o.

o ver a l ong p eriod, h ave d evised

t heir a nimals

O n

t he

o ther

h and,

i ndeed,

F armers d o n ot h ave t o

i t i s e asier

t setse i s a t hreat

f or

t o h umans,

t hem t oo.

n ot W here

v egetation c ommunities w ere r adically c hanged i t c ould b e r easoned t hat t his w as b oth a n atural p roduct o f f arming m ethods a nd a d eliberate s trategy, p ossibly f or r easons o f a nimal h usbandry. S mall s tock a re l ess

f requently a ttacked b y t setse a nd m ay b e m ore r esistant

t o n agana ( Murray e t

a l.

1 979:6).

t hrough t heir b rowsing h abits, A c ombination o f c ultivation, t herefore,

h ave

t otally s afe, w ork

w as

t he

g oats a nd

r esult

e nvironments

G oats

o f

m ore

f or c attle a nd s heep.

i nvolvement

i n i ron m anufacture,

l ess

t o

p ropose

a s

h ave

t he

q uality,

( Oates

1 956:84).

j udicious u se o f

c reating

a lmost e verywhere e xcluded

e asy

a lso

o f i mproving g rassland

f ire

c ould,

s uitable, b ut n ever U sing

a nimals

( Henson & N oel 1 979:173).

t hough h aving a

s imilar

f or H eavy

e ffect,

i s

a n a gent o f c hange o utside l imited a reas.

T hat s tock w ould h ave b een d esired s hould p erhaps b e e xpected; p articularly i n u ncertain e nvironments t hey h ave m any a dvantages o ver p lants.

O ne w ould,

l ocalities

t hat

t herefore,

w ere

m ost

e xpect

t hem t o a ccompany f arming i n t he

f requently

o r

d urably

o ccupied a nd/or

n aturally o pen. I t s hould a lso b e p ointed o ut t hat w ild a nimals w ould a lso b e a ffected. L arge a ntelope a nd b ushpigs a re a s s usceptible t o t setse a s a re c attle, t hough t oday t hey a re a pparently m ore r esistant t o n agana. W hether v egetation c hange o r r eduction i n t he f ly, o r b oth, w ere o perative, i s

t he f aunal c ommunity w ould s how s igns o f c hange.

n ot

o nly

c hanged

e nvironments

f arming-cum-pastoralism,

b ut,

p atterns

e videnced

m ay

e ven

b e

a lso c hanged b y

c ontact w ith f armers-cum-pastoralists,

t hat

T hus

w ould

h unting

i t

a ccompany

p atterns.

T hese

g roups g iving n o o ther s ign o f b ut

i t

w ould

b e

a

f orm

o f

c ontact a ll t he s ame.

C ONCLUSION A lthough

p ottery

a nd l anguage t ypologies p erhaps d o n ot

s upport,

o r o therwise,

b ecause

t hey

m odels

h ere,

i ndicate

t his

m ay

b e

T here i s n onetheless m uch a bout p ottery,

s ettlement a nd h uman p hysical

t he

E arly

I ron

b een

s uggested

t o a nswer t he s ame q uestions.

i n

n ot

t he

d esigned

t ype

h ave

o f

A ge,

a nd e ven m odern l anguages,

s upport a s cenario o f c onstant f ission a nd f usion ( Meyer

2 95

t hat d oes

1 984).

T here

i s a lso n o r eason c ongruent i n s pace o r

t o s uppose t hat i ron-working a nd f arming a re t ime. T he e nvironments a ssociated w ith E arly

I ron A ge p eople m ay n ot h ave b een t he

f irst o nes u sed b y f armers.

R EFERENCES A LLAN,

W .

1 967.

T he

A frican h usbandman ( revised e dn).

E dinburgh :

O liver & B oyd. C OLSON, E . 1 979. s elf-reliant F ORD,

J .

1 971.

s tudy o f H ENSON,

J .

I n g ood y ears a nd i n b ad: f ood s trategies s ocieties. J . a nthrop. R es. 3 5: 1 8-29.

T he r ole o f

t he

B .,

A frican

t setse

& N OEL, a nimal

t he

t rypanosomiases

f ly p roblem.

J .

C .

1 979.

i n A frican e cology:

O xford: A dv.

a

C larendon P ress.

I mmunology

t rypanosomiasis.

o f

a nd

v et.

p athogenesis

S ci.

o f

c omp. M ed.

2 3:

1 61-182. J ONES, P . A . 1 983. A n et c ast w ide: t he s ocial g eography o f i nitial a griculture a nd t he E arly I ron A ge i n s ubequatorial A frica. U npubl. K EAY, R .

W .

P h.D.

T hesis:

J .

1 973.

M .

0- C .

U niversity o f S heffield.

C hange i n A frican v egetation.

A fr. Res.

D oc.

1 :

5 -10. MAGGS,

T .

1 980.

P ongola R ivers: 1 -15. M EYER, A .

1 984.

P ark,

T he

A

p rofile

S outh A frica.

W ILSON,

M .L.

I ron A ge s equence

&

I n:

o f

H UMPHREYS,

A frican

O xford: O ATES,

A .

MURRAY,

1 956. Rhod.

M .,

C . M .

t he V aal a nd

J . A fr.

H ist.

2 1:

I ron A ge i n t he K ruger N ational

M .J.,

A VERY,

A .J.B.,

e ds.

G .,

A VERY,

F rontiers:

D .M.,

s outhern

P roceedings o f t he C onference o f

A ssociation

o f A rchaeologists,

t he

G aborone

1 983.

a p ossible w eapon i n t he c ontrol o f

t horn

B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

V .

bush.

L he

HALL,

A frican a rchaeology t oday. S outhern

s outh o f

s ome h istorical i mplications.

G oats a s a gric.

MORRISON,

1 979.

J . W .

5 3: I .,

6 8-85. M URRAY P .

T rypanotolerance -a

K .,

C LIFFORD D .

r eview.

W ld

J .

& T RAIL J .

a nim.

R ev.

3 1:

2 -12. P ETERS, D . U . 1 950. L and u sage i n S erenje D istrict; u sage a nd t he a gricultural s ystem o f t he Lala P lateau,

b eing a r eport

M azabuka, T own :

H .

1 971.

C larendon P ress. T OURTE, R & M OOMAW, J . a griculture a nd B .,

s ubmitted t o t he D irector o f Agriculture,

N orthern Rhodesia. Rhodes L ivingstone P apers

O xford U niversity P ress

RUTHENBERG,

e ds.

F arming C .

f or R hodes L ivingstone s ystems

1 977.

F ood c rops o f

S outh A frican r ainfall:

t he l owland

1 880 t o

8 17-833.

2 96

i n

t he

T raditional

t heir i mprovements.

O xford U niversity P ress. T YSON, P . D ., D YER T . G . J . & MAMETSE, 1 01:

a s urvey o f l and o f t he S erenje

I n :

M . N . 1 972.

t ropics. A frican

L EAKEY C .

t ropics:

1 9.

C ape

I nstitute. O xford:

s ystems A .

2 95-312.

o f

& W ILLS J . L ondon:

1 975.

S ecular c hanges

Q uat.

J l

R .

m et.

i n

S oc.

2 7.

T HE U SE O F S ITE S TRUCTURE T O I NFER S OCIAL A ND T ECHNOLOGICAL O RGANIZATION F ROM T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL R ECORD D ana O swald

I NTRODUCTION T he

p urpose o f

t his p aper i s

t hreefold.

F irst

i t

a t p roposed p rocessual r elationships b etween s ocial t echnological S econd,

o rganization,

i t i s r ecognized

a nd

t hat

i f

s ite

l ooks i n d etail

( see g lossary)

s tructure

( see

t hese r elationships h old

c omplex s ocieties p resent a s pecial p roblem i nterpretation. F inally, l ines o f r esearch t hat

f or m ay

a nd

g lossary). t rue,

t hen

a rchaeological o vercome t his

p roblem a re i ntroduced a nd r ecommendations f or f uture w ork a re m ade. T here

i s

n o

a rchaeological f acilities

d oubt

t hat

r ecord.

s ite

R epeated

a re f ound.

s tructure

i s

a ssociations

p atterned

o f

i n t he

s tructures

a nd

D ebris i s o ften c lustered i n d umps o r d iscrete

a reas r ather t han b eing s cattered e venly o r r andomly o ver a n e ntire s ite. T he p roblem l ies i n k nowing w hat t he p atterning m eans. T he g oal f or a rchaeologists i s t o b e a ble t o m ove f rom p atterning i n s ite s tructure t o d iscussions o f t he s ocial a nd t echnological o rganizations o f

p rehistoric

b ehaviour a ctivities, s tructure,

s ocieties.

r esults w hich a

i n i n

t urn

c omponent

( Binford 1 978a, 1 978b, i n e thnographic a nd

T his t he

g oal

c auses

o f

i s

r ealistic

s ystematic a

s patial

r egular

i f

o rganized

o rganization

p atterning

t he a rchaeological r ecord.

i n

o f s ite

O bservations

1 983; A nderson 1 980, 1 982) o f h uman b ehaviour m odern s ettings l ed t o t he i dea t hat p eople

o rganize t he s pace t hey u se i n r esponse t o s ets o f p roblems. T wo s ets o f p roblems t hat a re t aken i nto c onsideration w hen s pace i s a llocated t o a ctivities a re t he m echanical c haracteristics o f a ctivities a nd t he s ocio-technological c ontext o f a ctivities.

M ECHANICAL V ARIABLES M echanical v ariables e stablish t he b asic s patial r equirements f or e very t ask ( see g lossary). S ocio-technological f actors f urther i nfluence

a nd

m odify

t hese

b asic

s patial

n eeds,

b ut

t hey c annot

o verride t hem. M echanical f actors a re t he p rocedures a nd m aterials a ssociated w ith a ll a ctivities, a nd t hey c ross-cut a ll s ocial a nd e thnic a ffiliations f requency,

( Fig.

p eriodicity

1 ). a nd

T hey

a re

d uration;

t he

f ollowing:

r elative

b ulk

a ctivity

o f a ssociated

m aterials; f acility r equirements a nd n umber o f p articipants. A ll a ctivities h ave s cheduling p atterns t hat c an b e c haracterized b y t he f irst t hree v ariables, v alues a re a ssigned

f requency,

p eriodicity

a nd

d uration.

t o v ariations i n t hese v ariables,

W hen

t hen i nteraction

a mong t hem c an b e i magined a nd t ested. R elative v alues a re a ssigned t o t hese v ariables b y g iving h igher v alues f or f requent e pisodes, s horter p eriods b etween e pisodes a nd l onger d urations o f e ach e pisode. A ll

a ctivities

h ave

a

l ogistical

t hat

i s

s tructure,

c haracterized

i n a ddition t o t heir

s cheduling

p atterhs,

v ariables.

I ncreasingly h igher v alues a re a ssigned t o t hese v ariables

2 97

b y

t he

l ast

t hree

I NCREASING V ALUES O F a ct ivity f requency a ct ivity p er iodicity -scheduling a ctivity d urat ion b ulk o f a ssociated m ater ials f acility r equirements n umber o f p art ic ipants

A CTIVITY R EPEATED I N T HIS A REA ( use i ntensification i ncreased)

/ -

A CTIVITY N OT R EPEATED I N T HIS AEA ( use i ntensif icat ion d ecreased)

M ORE A CCUMULATION) O F D EBR IS

LESS A CCUMULATION O F D EBR IS

)

I NCREASED V ALUES O F s pat ial c onstraints ( externa l f actor ) f ac ility r equirements o pportunity f or s chedu le e mbedding D ECREASING V ALUES O F s pat ial r equirements b u lk o f a ssociated m ater ia ls

D ISPERSAL O F A CTIVITIES T O S EPERATE A REAS ( decreasing c oncentrat ion o f a ct ivit ies)

S UPERPOSITION O F U NRELATED A CTIVITIES I N O NE A REA ( increasing c oncentrat ion o f a ctivit ies)

S EGREGATION O F D EBRIS F ROM E ACH A CTIVITY \ , „_ INTO D ISCRETE L OCATIONS

M IXING O F D EBR IS F ROM U NRELATED A CTIVITIES I N O NE L OCATION

F IGURE 1 :

P r inc ip les o rgan izing s pace o ver a rea a nd t hrough t ime I

echan ica l I= m

v ar iab les c reat ing c ertain c ondit ions

=b ehaviors e xpected u nder t hose c ondit ions )= e xpectat ions f or s ite s tructure

2 98

; )

a s t he b ulk o f a ssociated m aterials g rows, f acility i ncreases, o r a s t he n umber V ariations i n t he v alues o f d etermine: 1 . 2 .

t hese s ix v ariables

c reate c onditions

t he s ize o f

t he a rea n eeded f or a n a ctivity;

w hether a n

a ctivity

w hether

m ore

d ifferent

l ocation;

t han o ne a ctivity

t imes

( Fig.

T hese c onditions c an b est b e l imitations.

F or

i nstance,

o f

e very

d ay,

u se

t he

s ame

l ocation

a t

o r w hether e ach a ctivity m ust

1 ). c haracterized i t

r elocate a n a ctivity t hat o ccurs p ortion

a nd c an

( schedule e mbedding)

h ave a d iscrete a rea

t hat

c an b e m obile o n a s ite o r w hether i t s hould

b e a llotted a p ermanent 3 .

a s t he d ependence u pon t he o f p articipants i ncreases.

i s

a s

t ime

s everal

t ime

a nd

c onsuming

l ogistical

f requently

t imes a d ay,

l asts

t o

a

l arge

a nd/or i nvolves n umerous p articipants.

B ulk

m aterials c reate l ogistical p roblems w henever t hey a re r elocated a s d o l arge n umbers o f p eople. F inally, w hen a n a ctivity i s h eavily d ependent u pon a f acility,

l ogistical p roblems a rise i f a ny

t he a ctivity a re l ocated t oo f ar a way f rom t he f acility. f ood p reparation i s o ften a llotted a o ccurs

f requently,

m aterials;

a nd i t

a nd

a t

p ermanent

r egular

l ocation

i ntervals;

i t

p arts

o f

F or e xample, b ecause

i nvolves

i t

b ulky

i s h eavily d ependent u pon f acilities.

T wo o r m ore u nrelated a ctivities a re m ore l ikely t o b e embedded i n t he

s ame

n ot

c onflict.

l ocation

w hen s pace i s

S patial

l imited a nd w hen t heir s chedules d o

l imitatiG

s

c an

o ccur

c onstrained b y f actors u nrelated t o t he a ctivities, o r n eed f or s helter f rom s un, v alues

a ssigned

d ecreases,

w ind,

r ain,

t o s patial c onstraint

o r

w here

s pace

s uch a s

t opography

c old.

i ncrease a s

T he

M echanical s urrounded

a ttributes a lso m ay b y u nlimited a rea.

a ctivities

a ll

h igh

s pace v alue.

c reate p ockets o f l imited s pace T his c an h appen w hen u nrelated

n eed t he s ame f acility s imultaneously.

o f c oncurrent t asks

r elative

t he a mount o f

s o t hat e xtremely r estricted s pace i s g iven a

i s

t ethered t o o ne f acility i ncreases,

A s

t he n umber

t he amount

o f

a vailable s pace p er a ctivity d ecreases, e ffectively r estricting s pace. I f o ne o r m ore o f t he a ctivities r equires a l arge a rea, t he o ther a ctivities

a re e ven m ore c rowded.

w ith o ne o r m ore o f

t he

T he a ssociation o f b ulky m aterials

a ctivities

m akes

t he

s ituation

e ven

m ore

a cute. V alues a re a ssigned t o f acility r equirements a nd b ulk i n t he s ame m anner a s b efore. A s t he amount o f s pace r equired f or a n a ctivity c ause,

i ncreases,

s o

d oes

i ts a ssigned v alue.

R egardless o f i ts

c onstrained s pace r esults i n a ctivities c ompeting f or a

f inite

a rea. S chedule e mbedding o ffers a s olution t o t he p roblem b y t iming t he p erformance o f c ompeting a ctivities s o t hat t hey d o n ot o verlap t emporally. H igher v alues a re a ssigned t o s cheduling o pportunities a s m ore a nd m ore a ctivity s chedules c an b e embedded. A s a n e xample, s leeping a nd e ating c an o ccur i n t he s ame p lace, i f t he a ssociated m aterials a re n ot b ulky, b ecause t heir s chedules d o n ot c onflict. I n o ther

w ords,

t he

t wo

a ctivities d o n ot m echanically i nterfere w ith

e ach o ther. M eeting t he m echanical r equirements o f a ny a ctivity t hrough o rganization o f s pace h as d irect i mplications f or s ite s tructure. r esult o f a p ermanent o ver

t ime

o f

a ll

l ocation f or a n t he

d ebris

a ctivity

a ssociated

i s

w ith

t he

t he T he

a ccumulation

t hat a ctivity.

A n

a ccumulation o f d ebris f rom m any e pisodes o f o ne a ctivity i s g oing t o b e m ore v isible a rchaeologically t han t he d ebris f rom a s ingle e pisode.

T he o ccurrence o f m ultiple

2 99

a ctivities

i n

o ne

p lace

w ill

r esult i n a m ixing o f p erformance o f a ctivities

d ebris f rom a ll o f t he a ctivities w hile t he i n s eparate a reas w ill r esult i n s patially

d iscrete a ccumulations o f d ebris t hat d iffer i n c ontent. a ctivity i s d ependent u pon a f acility, t hen t he r esulting d ebris

I f a n w ill

b e s patially a ssociated w ith t he f acility. S o

f ar

t hree

p roposals

h ave

b een m ade.

T he f irst i s

a ctivities h ave m echanical c haracteristics t hat s patial

n eeds.

T he

s econd

c onsideration w henever b asic n eeds a re n ot

t hat p eople t ake

( Binford

1 978a,

t hat a ll

t heir

b asic

t hese f actors i nto

t hey p erform a t ask. T he t hird i s r andom, c ontributing h eavily t o

p atterning i n s ite s tructure 1 980,

i s

d ictate

1 978b,

t hat t hese t he o bserved

1 983;

A nderson

1 982).

S OCIO-TECHNOLOGICAL V ARIABLES I t

i s p roposed t hat

s ocio-technological f actors l imit

t he w ays

i n

w hich s pace c an b e o rganized t o a ccommodate t he m echanical n eeds o f a n a ctivity.

T herefore,

r esult

a

i n

s tructure.

v ery

W hile

c hange

d ifferent

i n

a s ocio-technological v ariable m ay

u se

o f

s pace

a nd

b asic s patial n eeds e stablished b y t he m echanical c annot d isregard s patial

t hem o r o verride t hem.

o rganization

o rganization t he r ange

o f

o f

m echanical

a

i mposed

b y

: . he

s ocial

s olutions

u sed

t o

m itigate

l ook a t

t he

i mpact

o f

p roduce

a nd

o bservations

p atterns

t echnological

p roblems

t hat

a id

i n

o f

s patial

b y

t he

T here h as b een n o

i deas s ome

v isualizing

v ariables

t hat

o n

p resented a bout l imited s tudies h ow s ocial a nd

m echanical

o rganization

t hrough

p osed

s ocio-technological

t echnological o rganizations m ay i nteract w ith

t hey

t he l imitations o f

s ociety w ill b e v isible i n s ite s tructure

s pace u se t hat c ompares i n s cope t o t he m echanical v ariables. N evertheless, t here a re g eneral

s ite

r equirements,

T herefore,

f actors a ssociated w ith e very a ctivity.

s ystematic

a nd

c oncomitant

s ocio-technological f actors i nfluence a nd m odify t he

f actors

i nfluence

t o s ite

s tructure. T he r elative d ependence o f a s ingle a ctivity o n a f acility c an c ompletely c hanged b y a t echnological i nnovation.

F or e xample,

c are i n r ural a reas o f A frica i s d ecentralized a nd m ay o ccur a s l ong a p eople d epend u pon t raditional m edicine. m ove t o w estern m edical p ractices h as c entralized c linics

a nd

f acilities. h as a gain

h ospitals

b ecause o f

a nywhere

I n c ontrast, h ealth c are

t he i n

t he h igh i nvestment i n s pecialized

H owever, t he f urther i nnovation o f m obile h ealth u nits d ecentralized s ome t ypes o f h ealth c are. I n t his e xample

t echnological i nnovation i s s een a s l ocation

b e

h ealth

o f

a n

a ctive

a gent

a ffecting

t he

a n a ctivity b y a lternately i ncreasing a nd d ecreasing i ts

d ependency u pon s pecialized f acilities. S ocial v ariables c an a lso a ffect a ctivity ( Sahlins a nd

t he r elative c entralization o f

w ith r amifications f or s ite s tructure. 1 957)

s hare

t he

t hat w hen w omen i n a n e xtended f amily p ool c ooking,

t here

i s

o nly

o ne

a n

I t h as b een o bserved t heir

f ood

k itchen f or e veryone.

H owever, w hen e ach w oman i s s elf-sufficient, s he h as h er o wn k itchen. A lthough c ooking r emains t ethered t o a h earth i n e ach c ase, t he n umber a nd d istribution o f t he h earths d iffer. T he n umber o f p eople t o c o-ordinate c ooking t asks a t e ach h earth a lso v aries, a ffecting t he m echanical a spects o f f ood

3 00

p reparation.

t rying t hereby

F inally,

t he

a mount

o f d ebris a nd r edundancy i n d ebris c omposition a ssociated w ith

e ach h earth t ype v ary.

I n o ther w ords,

w ith t hese t wo s ituations

t he s ite s tructure

i s n ot e xpected

a ssociated

t o b e t he s ame.

S ocial a nd t echnological f actors a lso a ffect s patial o rganization w hen t hey c ontrol a ctivity s chedules. B rooks ( pers. c omm.) f ound t hat t he

e bb

a nd

d ifferent

f low

t asks

c ontrast,

t o

o f b e

B inford

d aily

l ife

p erformed

( 1978a)

i n

a

a round

o bserved

B ushman c amp a llowed m any

t he

a n

d omestic

E skimo

s cheduling c onflicts a nd a ctivity i nterference r esulted d iscrete

a ctivity a reas. w ere

t here

a ctivities;

a t

o ne

a nd

c ard

s nacking,

A r andom f actor w as

f unctional

n ature

t he

l eaving a t a ll h ours. r esponding

T here

p laying

i nstances.

o f

b ut r arely m ore

t ime.

s ocializing,

c raft-working,

i n

t han

w as

n o

t o a d omestic,

f ive

s leeping,

o ccurred

s ite,

r itualistic,

o r

s ix

c ycle o f

g ame-watching,

s imultaneously

i n

m any

i ntroduced i nto t he s cheduling b y t hat

I n a ddition,

m echanical

s patially

n ormal

i s,

o r

t he o ccurrence o f

t echnological

c onflicts

t he

p eople w ere a rriving a nd a ctivities

m ost d irectly t o t he n umber o f p eople p resent,

c onditions

I n

T he h unting s tand w as u sed f or a v ery s hort

t ime b y m ore t han 3 0 i ndividuals, p eople

h earth.

h unting s tand w here

c ycle.

w as

r ather t han U nder

t hese

a rose among t he a ctivities a nd t hey

w ere s patially s eparated w ith t he r esult

t hat

t he

a ssociated

d ebris

w as a lso s patially d iscrete. O ne f inal e xample l ooks a t a s ituation w here a ctivities

t hat w ould

n ormally i nterfere m echanically a re s cheduled s o t hat t hey c an a ll p erformed

i n t he s ame s pace.

I n t his c ase,

m odern s etting o f t wo e arly c hildhood t raining c entres. t he

r esearch

w as

b e

t he s tudy w as d one i n t he T he o bject o f

t o d etermine h ow p eople s patially a rranged n umerous

b ulky a nd n oisy a ctivities

t o

avoid

r esult w as v ery i nteresting. a ctivity h ad i ts o wn d iscrete k eeping

e ach

m echanical

i nterference.

T he

I n t he m ost i deal s etting, e very s pace. T herefore, i nterference w as

a voided

b y

H owever,

o n a n umber o f o ccasions b ulky a ctivities c rept o ut o f

a ctivity

s patially s eparated a nd l imited. t heir

b oundaries a nd i nterfered w ith c irculation p atterns i n t he r oom. I n t he o ther s ituations, t he c hildhood c entre s hared i ts s pace w ith a c hurch a nd i ts r elated f unctions. T his m eant d ismantling t he t raining c entre e very F riday a nd r eassembling i t m orning.

H owever,

t hey

a ctivities c onducted a ccomplished

i n

b y

r oom-dividers, o f

s till t he

b uilding

a nd,

a gain

m anaged

m ore

t o

i deal

s tackable

f or

c lass

o n

M onday

p articipate i n t he s ame

c ircumstances. f urniture

T his

a nd

w as

m oveable

m ore i mportantly, b y s pending a n i nordinate amount

t ime o n c leaning a nd m aintaining t he s pace s o t hat i t w ould b e f ree

o f

d ebris

t hat

w ould

m ake

t he

d iverse

a ctivities

m echanically

i ncompatible. M essy p rojects w ere r arely a llowed t o c arry o ver f rom d ay t o d ay a nd n ever f rom F riday t o M onday. A lthough t he c entres h ad a s imilar amount o f f loor a rea i n w hich t o o perate, o ther b ulky m aterials w ere u sed i n t he s econd c ase. t ime

f ewer b locks a nd T he amount o f

s pent m aintaining t he w ork s pace i n t he s econd c ase w as

c ritical f actor; I t i s a rgued c ircumstances, a vailable

i t w as

f ive

t imes

t hat t his t ype b e t hey s ocial,

s pace

f easible o ption i s ( Anderson 1 982).

l onger t han i n

t he m ost

f irst

c entre.

o f e ffort o nly h appens w hen t he n atural, o r t echnological, l imit

a nd p eople h ave n o c hoice. t o

t he

s eparate b ulky, F or i nstance,

m essy Y ellen

A n e asier b ut n ot a lways a nd n oisy a ctivities ( 1977) o bserved t hat

p it-roasting a nd s kin-drying w ere a lways s eparate f rom t he m ain o f

a ctivity

o n

B ushman

s ites.

3 01

A lthough

B ushmen

d o n ot

a reas

s eparate

d angerous o r d elicate t asks f rom t he g roup o r t heir c hildren ( Brooks, p ers. c omm.), E skimo m en o nly t alk o f t heir d esire f or a m en's h ouse w hen t hey w ant

t o b uild a c anoe o r e ngage i n a

s imilar

p roject

t hat

t akes a l ong t ime a nd w ith w hich t hey d o n ot w ant t he c hildren i nterfering. S uch p rojects w ould n ot b e w elcome i n t he w inter h ouse w here w omen a re

t rying t o c arry o ut a ll

t he d omestic c hores,

i t w ould b e i mpossible t o k eep

t he

c hildren

( Binford,

I n

o ther

p ers.

c omm.).

i nterference a lso h as d istracted

t han

s ocial o vertones;

f rom

w ords,

t he

s ome p eople

a nd w here

t he

p roject

p erception

a re

m ore

o f

e asily

A lthough

t his a dds a n ew d imension t o

t he

p roblem, i t d oes n ot n egate t he f act s eparate a ctivities t hey p erceive t o

t hat p eople t ry s patially i nterfere w ith o ne a nother.

t o

T here

a re

o thers.

a way

s everal

d ifferent

a ctivities

f urniture

a nd

r amifications f or s ite s tructure w hen s everal a re

p erformed

r oom-dividers

i n

o ne

p lace.

T he

m oveable

a nd l ack o f p ermanent f acilities

i n t he

s econd t raining c entre s uggest t hat t here i s g oing t o b e l ittle p ermanent e vidence o f a ctivities a nd a ssociated f acilities u nder s uch s patially c onstrained c onditions.

T he h eavy e mphasis o n c leaning

a rea

I t

r einforces

t his i mpression.

l iving i n t he s ame s tructure o utdoor d ebris,

a rea

T herefore, t he

s ocial

m any

f or a l ong p eriod o f

d iverse

a ctivities

i n o rder t o d ecrease t he

a ctivities. a nd

f or

s hould a lso b e n oted t ime

t he

t hat p eople

o r

u sing

a n

a lso r emove m uch o f t he

p ossibility

o f

i nterference

a mong

F or i nstance, N avajo w omen s weep t heir d irt f loors d aily. b oth t he l evel o f i ntens , _ u se

r elative a nd

p ermanence

t echnological

i mplications

f or

s ite

o f

a

t o w hich a n a rea i s s ubjected

u se a rea,

o rganization

s tructure.

o f

I n

a s e stablished b y t he

a

s ociety,

w ill

h ave

F igure 2 t he i nteractions o f

m echanical a nd s ocio-technological v ariables

t hat

c reate

s ituations

w here h eavy c leaning a nd m aintenance c an b e e xpected a re v isualized. T hese e xamples s uggest i nfluential a ctivity.

f actors

t hat

s ocial a nd t echnological v ariables a re

c onsidered

F urthermore,

b y

p eople

t hey i ndicate

w hen

t hey

p erform

a nd s ocio-technological v ariables a re t hought t o i nteract p atterning

i n

h ighlighted

s ite

t hat

i nvestigations

o f

s tructure.

h as

d irect

c omplex

d istribution o f d ebris a nd l ikely

t o

r eflect

I n a ddition, i mplications

s ocieties. a rtefacts

t he

a n

t he m anner i n w hich m echanical

f or

W hen o f

p roduce

t he

a rchaeological

g roups a re m obile,

v is-a-vis

p rocesses

t o

a m ajor f actor h as b een

f acilities t he

s ocio-technological f actors d etermining t he u se o f

t he

i s

m ore

m echanical

a nd

s pace

( see Y ellen's

m aps 1 977; B inford 1 978a). H owever, a s p eople b ecome m ore s edentary, t he i nteraction o f t he d etermining v ariables i s e xpected t o b e m ore c omplex

a nd

t he d istribution o f d ebris a nd a rtefacts m ay w ell b e t he

r esult o f c leaning a nd m aintenance e fforts. m echanical

r equirements

i s

r emoved,

u sed a s a b asis f or i nference?

W hen a ll

t he e vidence

o f

c an t he s ite s tructure s till b e

T he a nswer a ppears t o b e y es.

S OLVING T HE P ROBLEM F OR C OMPLEX S OCIETIES S everal a nthropological 1 957;

M urphy

&

s tudies

M urphy 1 974;

( Netting 1 965;

B asehart

b etween s ome t ypes o f s ocial a nd

U do

1 965;

S ahlins

1 973) d emonstrate c orrelations

t echnological

o rganization

a nd

t he

d istribution o f t he l arger a nd m ore p ermanent c omponents o f s ite s tructure, n amely h earths, p its a nd b uildings. B y l ooking a t t he p atterning

o f

t hese

c orrelations

3 02

i t

i s

p ossible t o v isualize

t he

I NCREASING V ALUES O F M echanical V ar iab les f ac ility r equirements p eop le p er a ct ivity o pportunit ies f or s chedule e mbedd ing S oc io-Techno log ica l V ar iab les d uration o f s ite o ccupation n umbers o f a ct ivit ies

H IGHER U SE I NTENSITY

(

P OTENTIAL F OR G REATER A CCUMULATION O F D EBR IS

P OTENTIAL F OR L ESS A CCUMULATION O F D EBRIS

: )

3

I NCREASING V ALUES O F M echanical V ar iab les b u lk a ssociated w ith a n a ct iv ity S oc io-Techno logical V ar iab les c irculat ion o f p eop le o r g oods a nt ic ipated l ength o f o ccupat ion d uration o f s ite o ccupat ion

H EAVY M AINTENANCE

L IGHT M A INTENANCE

( 77

M ORE D UMPS, L ESS D EBRIS A T A CTIVITY A REAS : S EGREGATION O F D EBR IS B Y S IZE

F IGURE 2 :

I

o

F EWER D UMPS, M ORE D EBR IS A T A CTIVITY A REAS : M ORE M IXING O F D EBR IS S IZES

P r incip les o rganizing c onstrained s pace

echan ical a nd s ocio-techno logica l v ar iab les c reating c ertain c ondit ions I= m =b ehaviors e xpected u nder t hose c ondit ions xpectations )= e

f or s ite s tructure

3 03

c onditions c omponents

u nder w hich s ocio-technological v ariables a nd t hese o f s ite s tructure i nter-relate. F or i nstance, i t a ppears

t hat v ariations p eople

a re

i n l abour o rganization,

b rought

t ogether

w ith v ariations i n s ite s hows

t he

v arious

w ays

i n

w hich

a nd s eparated i n a ctivities, c orrelate

s tructure.

A d etailed l ook

a t

t wo

e xamples

t hese c orrelations.

S ahlins

( 1957:449)

a rgued

t hat

" patterns

o f

l and

u se

w ere

n ecessary d etermining c onditions o f f amilial s tructure i n M oala".

H e

d escribed t wo p atterns o f l and u se a nd f amily s tructure. I n t he f irst c ase s patially d ispersed r esources w ere m anaged b y l arge e xtended f amilies a

t hat p ooled t heir l abour a nd r esources u nder t he d irection o f

s ingle

a uthority.

r esources

w ere

I n

t he

c ontrolled

s econd

c ase,

b y s maller,

s patially

a ggregated

i ndependent n uclear f amilies.

H is a rgument w as s imply t hat o ne p erson c ould n ot b e i n t wo p laces a t -e d s imultaneous o nce. I f s patially d ispersed r esources r equi , a ttention, t hen s everal p eople w ould h ave t o s hare t he w ork a nd p ool t he r esults i n o rder f or e ach p erson t o o btain s ome o f e ach r esource. T his p roblem d id n ot o ccur w hen r esources w ere a ggregated. T hus, v arying

l abour

s tructures.

r equirements

I nterestingly,

d ifferent

s ettlements.

c ompounds

o f

c ookhouse. s ymbol o f r esult

T he

c losely

r esulted

t he

t wo

n uclear

t o S ahlins

c o-operative e ffort.

w ith

T he

p atterning

c o-operative

i ndependent

g roups

g roups.

w ill

u nit,

c o-operation t hat

a s

w ell

v ery a t he

p ractical

t he i ndependent n uclear e ach

w ith

i ts

o wn

f rom

t hat

a ssociated

w ith

t he r epetition o f f acilities w ithin

o f a s

s hared

t hat s ite s tructure a ssociated

d iffer

I n a ddition,

a nd

a s w ell a s t he

r esidences,

s uggests

a v illage m ay b e a n i ndication h abitation

f amily

b uilt

t his s hared c ookhouse i s

I n c ontrast,

f amilies l ived i n d ispersed n uclear c ookhouse.

d isparate

r esidences,

( 1957)

t heir p ooled l abour a nd r esources,

o f

t he

s tructures

c o-operative e xtended f amilies l ived i n

g rouped

A ccording

i n

f amily

t he

r elative

h elping

t o

c ohesiveness

i dentify

t he

o f

t ype

a o f

i s o ccurring.

M urphy & M urphy

( 1974)

p ublished a

d etailed

M undurucu I ndians l ocated i n t he Amazon. r esource d istribution, s ocial o rganization, i mplications

d rawn

c onsiderably

m ore

l abour r equirements, a nd s ite s tructure. S ahlins - s

f rom g rist

f or

e thnography

o f

t he

I n t his s tudy t hey d iscussed p ost-marital r esidence, T heir s tudy s upports t he

( 1957)

w ork

t he r esearch m ill.

a nd

p rovides

T hey w ere o bserving

t he d ynamics o f c ulture c hange a mong t he M undurucu. T raditional s ubsistence f armers f rom t he s avanna w ere m igrating t o t he r iver v alleys i n o rder t o p articipate m ore a ctively i n t he r ubber-tapping t rade. T his m ove r esulted i n s evere d eviations f rom t he t raditional s ocial o rganization t hat w as b ased o n t he n eed f or a c o-operation

b eyond

e ven

t he

e xtended

f amily.

h igh

d egree

W hereas

o f

h unting,

f arming, a nd m anioc-processing n ecessitated s upra-family d ecision m aking a nd l abour g roups, r ubber-tapping n eeded o nly o ne p erson. P roduction s upplied b y g roup-labour o n t he s avanna w as a nd

d istributed

among

a ll

t he

v illagers,

b ut

j ointly

o wned

t he p roduction f rom

r ubber-tapping w as p rivately o wned a nd t he i tems i t p urchased w ere n ot s hared. T he d egree o f c o-operation i n t he s avanna v illages r esulted i n t he e ntire v illage m oving t o f resh l and t ogether a nd n ew s ettlement a s a u nit.

I n c ontrast,

i ndividuals w ho

t rade a s

W estern

i s-the n uclear f amily.

g oods

t raditional

v illages o f

i ndividuals, t he s avannas

3 04

b uilding

" Rubber-tapping i s a nd

t he

t he

t he w ork o f

c onsumption

u nit

o f

W hen t he d ecision t o l eave t he

i s m ade,

i t i s,

t herefore,

m ade

b y t he g roup i nvolved i n t he r ubber e conomy -a gain, t he f amily. T he m igration t o t he C ururu R iver t hen, w as n ot c arried o ut b y w hole v illages,

o r e ven b y e xtended f amilies, b ut r ather b y n uclear f amilies

a nd a s cattering o f n ear r elatives"

( Murphy & M urphy 1 974:183).

T hese r iver s ettlements g rew b y a ccretion, t he i nhabitants

s till h ad

f or t heir l ivelihood. m ove

t o

n ot b y p lan.

t o d epend u pon f arming,

T herefore,

f ishing,

H owever, a nd h unting

n uclear f amilies w ere o nly

a ble

t o

r ubber-tapping a reas a nd m aintain t heir i ndependence b ecause

o f c hanges i n t he s ubsistence r eplaced

b y

t echnology.

s olitary f ishing.

w ere r eplaced b y a

l abour

C o-operative

h unting

w as

T he f emale a gricultural l abour g roups

f orce

c omposed

o f

t he

n uclear

f amily,

i ncluding t he y oung c hildren. F inally, t he t ime c onsuming a spect o f p rocessing m anioc w as g reatly r educed b y a m echanical g rater, o perated i n t his c ase b y t he h usband. t echnological i nnovation, t he

t raditional

I n o ther w ords,

i t w as p ossible,

d ivision

o f

l abour,

t o

n ew-found

w ealth

a nd

i ndependence

t raditional s ocial o rganization a nd

o f

m ake t he n uclear f amily a

v iable p roduction u nit a s w ell a s a c onsumption t his

t hrough

a c hange i n b asic r esources a nd c ollapse

w as

c ost

o f

t he d estruction o f

u nit.

T he

t he

s ocial i nteraction t hat r einforced

t he i nterdependence a nd c o-operation w ithin t he s avanna v illage. T his

d ramatic

c ultural

a nd t he h ouse d esign. p lan,

w ith

a

r esidences.

h igh

a

d egree o f u niformity i n s tyle a nd s ize among t he

T here

i nteraction,

c hange i s m anifested i n b oth t he v illage

T he s avanna v illages w ere b uilt a ccording t o w ere

a lso

t he

a reas

o f

i ntra-village

s ocial

t he m anioc-processing s hed a nd m ultiple f amily r esidences

f or t he w omen, a nd m en's h ouse f or t he m en. T he r esidences t hemselves w ere u ndivided a nd a ctivities w ere d elegated t o a reas a ccording t o t ype, t o

t hat i s,

t he

t o s leeping a reas,

c ommunal

t o s torage a reas,

t o w ork a reas,

h earth s erving f our n uclear f amilies.

o r

I n c ontrast,

t he r iver v illages w ere c haracterized b y a r andom s cattering o f h ouses a nd

g ardens,

a nd a l ack o f i ntra-village a reas f or s ocializing.

T he

h ouses w ere m uch s maller a nd w ere d ivided i nto t wo s leeping r ooms w ith a t hird c ommunal r oom w ith a h earth. T he s pace w as o rganized s o t hat t wo n uclear f amilies s haring t he

h ouse

s leeping

t he h earth.

r oom

b ut

w ould

s hare

w ould

e ach

h ave

t heir

o wn

S ocializing b etween t he

s exes b ecame t he n orm. T he m ain a rea o f s ocial i nteraction b ecame t he c ook s hed a t t he b ack o f e very h ouse, w here n eighbours w ould d rop i n f or a n i nformal c hat.

I n s um,

t he d ramatic a nd v aried c hanges

s ocio-technological o rganization s haped T hese a nd

c orrelations

r aise

t he M oalans i solated c ases,

n umerous q uestions. o r d o c orrelations

b ehaviour a nd s ite s tructure e xist l iterature s uggests t ypes

t he

i n a ll

A re

t he M undurucu

b etween

s ocieties?

o rganized

A p erusal o f

s ubstantial c orrespondence

b etween

t he s ome

o f s ocio-technological o rganization a nd s ite s tructure i n o ther

s ocieties

( Draper

V ierra 1 982; I t

t here i s

i n

t he s ite s tructural p atterns.

i s

1 975;

P owell

K elley 1 982; p ossible

t o

1 980;

W ilk

1 981;

A dams

1 982;

A nderson &

B lomberg 1 983). c onjecture

a bout

t he

r elationships

among

s ocio-technological v ariables a nd s ite s tructure b y t rying t o e xplain t he a bove p atterning. F or i nstance, i f a s ocial o r t echnological v ariable d etermines n umber,

a ge,

s ex,

t he c omposition o f a l abour g roup,

i s a ffecting t he l ocation o f o f

t he

t hat

a nd s tatus o f p eople p erforming a n a ctivity,

m echanical

i s,

t hat a ctivity i n t he f ollowing w ays.

c haracteristics

3 05

o f

a n a ctivity i s

t he

t hen i t O ne

t he n umber o f

p articipants

i n t he a ctivity,

t herefore,

i ts s patial n eeds v ary a s

t he

n umber o f p articipants v aries. I n a ddition, l abour o rganization i s r esponsive t o t he s ocial a nd t echnological r equirements o f t he w hole s ociety.

G roup

c omposition

v aries w ith d ifferences i n s ocial r ules

b ecause i t i s t he s ocial r ules h elp

d etermine

t he

a nd

t echnological

c omposition o f

r equirements

t hat

t he l abour f orce a vailable f or a n

a ctivity. d ictates

I n t urn, g roup c omposition i s o ne o f t he f actors t hat w here a n a ctivity m ay b e p erformed; s ome a reas m ay b e s ex

s pecific,

s ome m ay b e s tatus s pecific,

a nd

s ome

m ay

b e

u sed

s ome m ay

b y e veryone.

b e

f amily

O ne w ould n ot e xpect

s pecific, t o f ind a

p ublic f acility l ocated i n a p rivate h ome. T hus t he v arying c ompositon o f l abour g roups i n a s ingle s ociety i nfluences t he n umber o f r edundant a ctivity a reas n eeded, t he

i nhabitants

w ill b e o ne a ctivity a rea, s eparate r edundant a reas,

a s w ell a s

t heir l ocation.

I f a ll

o f a s ite p articipate i n a n a ctivity t ogether, a s

i n t he c ommunal k itchen.

g roups r esult

I n

t here

c ontrast,

i n e ither s eparate r edundant a ctivity

o r t he embedded u se o f o ne a rea

b y

s everal

g roups.

A ll

o f

t hese v ariations w ill i nfluence p atterns o f s ite s tructure. I t

r emains

o rganizations i nfluence

t o

b e

s een

w hether o r n ot m ost s ocio-technological

i nfluence s ite s tructure a nd,

i t.

I f

i f s o,

w hy

a re t he i mplications f or a rchaeological i nference? u nderstand

a nd

h ow

t hey

t hese p atterns d o o ccur u nder m any c onditions,

t he p rocesses

I s i t p ossible

w hat t o

r elating t o c omponents o f s ite s tructure a nd

s uccessfully u se t hat u nderstanding t o

i nterpret

t he

a rchaeological

r ecord?

F UTURE R ESEARCH T he

o utlook i s v ery p romising f or

h owever,

t here a re

o nly

e nough

r elating s ocio-technological u nder s pecified c onditions. a nthropologists a bout

l inkages

t heir w ork,

f or

t o

b egin

A t p resent,

b uilding

a

t heory

v ariables t o p atterns o f s ite s tructure A lthough t he w ork o f c ultural

h as p rovided m aterial

t he p ossible

s tructure,

t he d istant f uture.

d ata

b etween

t hat p rovokes o ne i nto t hinking o rganized

b ehaviour

a nd

s ite

t he m ost p art, d oes n ot p rovide e nough s ite

s tructural d etail, a nd/or i t d oes n ot p otentially c ritical v ariables. F inally,

s ystematically m onitor t he a rchaeologists a re o bviously

i nterested i n c hange t hrough t ime, a p erspective t hat i s o ften m issing i n c ultural a nthropological r esearch. T his m eans a rchaeologists m ust i nitiate t heir own f ieldwork among s ocieties F ieldwork i s n eeded w ith

m obile

o f

v arying

c omplexity.

t he c omprehensive w ork a lready u nder w ay

h unter-gatherers

h unter-gatherers ( Hitchcock

t o e xpand

( Yellen

( Binford 1 982)

1 977),

s emi-sedentary

a nd r ecently-settled h unter-gatherers

1 982).

F uture s tudies m ust d iachronic. F irstly,

i nclude t wo e lements, t he s ynchronic a nd t hey m ust s ystematically i nvestigate

t he t he

r elationships b etween s ocio-technological o rganization a nd s ite s tructure u nder a s m any o bservable c onditions a s p ossible. S econdly s tudies m ust a lso i nvestigate t he w ay i n w hich c hange t hrough t ime u nder s pecified c onditions. S everal

s uggestions

i nstance, K ent c ultural

( 1983)

c omplexity

c an

d raws a nd

b e a

t he

m ade

g eneral

f or

t hese

r elationships

s ynchronic s tudies.

p arallel

b etween

F or

i ncreasing

i ncreasing i ncidence o f m onofunctional

3 06

a ctivity a reas. u nder

c loser

I s t his a v alid c orrelation, s crutiny?

I f

o r

w ill

i t

d isappear

t his c orrelation c an b e e stablished,

t hen

e fforts s hould b e m ade t o u nderstand t he n ature o f t he r elationship b etween t he t wo p henomena. T his m eans b eing a ble t o s tate t hat u nder s pecified c onditions o f c ultural c omplexity c ertain u ses o f s pace

c an

b e e xpected. A nother

a rea o f

i nterest i s

t he r igid r ules i mposed o n t he u se o f

s pace b y s ome s ocieties a nd t he i mplications f or s ite s tructure. F or e xample, w ork o n t his s ubject c ould b e i nitiated b y c omparing N avajo a nd N guni s pace u se. T here a re m any s ocio-technological p arallels b etween t he t wo g roups, b ut t he N guni h ave r igid r ules g overning t he u se o f s pace ( Raum 1 973) w hile t he N avajo h ave n ot ( Kent 1 983). B oth g roups d epend o n a m ixed a gricultural a nd h erding e conomy, ' l ive i n e xtended-family h omesteads, p ractise p olygamous m arriage, a ccumulate w ealth t hrough t heir l ivestock, a nd h old t heir r eligious c eremonies i n t heir h omesteads a nd r esidences. O n t he o ther h and, t he N avajo a re a c omparatively e galitarian s ociety, a re m atrilineal/matrilocal, a nd h ave a c ollapsed d ivision o f l abour i n c ontrast t o t he N guni w ho a re a h ighly r anked s ociety, a re p atrilineal/patrilocal, a nd h ave a v ery r igid d ivision o f l abour. T o w hat e xtent, i f a ny, a re t hese d ifferences i n s ocio-technological c ontrasting u se o f s pace a nd w hat a re

o rganization p roducing t he t he r amifications f or s ite

s tructure? R esearch

a lso n eeds t o c oncentrate o n s ocieties w here c omparisons

c an b e m ade b etween t wo o r m ore p atterns w ithin T his w ill i ncrease t he u nderstanding o f t he

t he s ame s ociety. p rocesses a ctive i n

c ulture c hange, t he r oles o f s ocio-technological o rganization, a nd t he c oncomitant s ite s tructures. M urphy & M urphy's ( 1974) w ork i s a n e xcellent e xample o f t his t ype o f r esearch,

a s i s

A dams's

w ork

w ith

t he H opi ( 1982). H e a lso f ound a c orrelation b etween d ifferences i n f amily s tructure a nd v ariations i n s ite s tructure, o n t he h ousehold l evel

a nd

v illage

l evel,

w hen

h e

l ooked a t a s ituation i nvolving

c ultural c hange. D iachronic s tudies w ill h elp a rchaeologists m onitor t he e ffect i nitial

s ite

s tructure

o n

o f

s ubsequent s patial o rganization a nd s ite

s tructure. C ontemporary e xperience i ndicates t hat t he b uilt e nvironment s ubstantially i nfluences s ubsequent a nd/or u nanticipated u se o f b uildings a nd o pen a reas. S ince m any a rchaeological s ites h ave m ultiple c ritical i ncludes t han t he h owever, s pans i s

c omponents a nd l ong o ccupational h istories, t his i s a c onsideration. I n f act, a s s oon a s t he a rchaeological r ecord c omplex s ocieties, t his c ondition b ecomes t he s tandard r ather e xception. D iachronic s tudies a re d ifficult t o u ndertake, b ecause t he o pportunity f or d irect o bservation o ver l ong t ime r are. H owever, a c ombination o f h istorical a rchaeology, o ral

t radition, i nterviews, a nd d irect o bservation i s a n a lternative. B inford's ( 1978a & b , 1 983) w ork w ith t he N unamiut i s a g ood e xample o f t his. H e h as o bserved t heir s patial b ehaviour ( 1978a), e xcavated h istorical s ites, a nd c ollected r elevant i nterview d ata a nd o ral t radition f or t hem ( 1978b, 1 983). M ore e ffort n eeds t o b e e xpended o n t his p roblem b ecause a c omplete u nderstanding o f r elationships b etween s ocio-technological o rganization a nd s ite s tructure w ill n ot o ccur u nless t here i s d iachronic r esearch. I n c onclusion,

i t h as b een a rgued t hat u nder m any

3 07

c onditions

t he

o rganized

u se

o f

s pace

p roblem-solving p rocess. s tructure

t o

d irectly

a ffects

H owever,

a rchaeologists

s ite s tructure t hrough a c annot

u se

s ite

i nfer h uman b ehaviour w ith c onfidence u ntil a c oncerted

e ffort i s m ade t o

b uild

t heories

e xplaining

r elationships

b etween

b ehaviour a nd s ite s tructure a nd t o t est t hem. T here i s n o d oubt t hat s patial s tudies h old a g reat d eal o f p romise f or i mproving a rchaeological g o.

i nterpretation,

b ut

t hey s till h ave a v ery l ong w ay t o

G LOSSARY 1 .

S ocial s tructure: b ehaviour,

w ith t he u se o f 2 .

T ask: E xample:

t he

s pace,

S ite s tructure: f acilities,

3 .

a ny s ocial o rganization o r r oles

i ncluding t he

r itual u se o f s pace,

t hat s tructure

t aboos a ssociated

s ymbolic o rganization o f s pace, s patial d istribution o f

e tc.

d ebris,

a rtefacts,

s tructures a nd s ites.

a n umber o f i nterrelated t asks t hat r esult i n a p rocess. t he p rocess o f m aking p ottery i nvolves a n umber o f

s eparate

t asks

s uch

a s

c ollecting

c lay,

f orming t he p ot,

1 982.

C ulture c hange a mong t he H opi a nd i ts

a nd

f iring i t.

R EFERENCES A DAMS,

E .

C .

i n t he b uilt e nvironment.

U npubl.

S ociety f or American A rchaeology, A NDERSON, D .

1 980.

P ap.

A NDERSON,

D . D .

l abor o f

C onditions l eading t o t he s tructural o rganization

1 982.

o r m ust I c lean m y r oom?

S pace u se a nd s ite s tructure. H aliksa'i

& V IERRA,

R .

1 :

1 982. R elations b etween s ite s tructure

a nd s ocial o rganization.

U npubl. P ap.

a nd

4 7th A nnual M eeting

t he S ociety f or American A rchaeology, M inneapolis, M innesota.

B ASEHART, H . W . a nd

1 973.

h omestead

1 2: 5 7-73. B INFORD, L . R . 4 3: B INFORD,

C ultivation

f orms

1 978a.

s tructures:

1 982.

1 : 5 -31. B INFORD, L . R . B .

C ent. D RAPER, P .

i ntensity,

p atterns, E thnology

T he a rchaeology o f p lace. I n

p ursuit L ondon:

o f

N ew Y ork :

J .

t he

a nd

s ite

Am. A ntiq. A cademic

a nthrop. A rchaeol.

p ast:

d ecoding

t he

T hames & H udson.

M obility a nd s edentism :

t he N avajo o f B lack M esa.

a rchaeol. I nvest. R es. P ap. 3 2: 1 975. ! Kung w omen: c onstrasts i n s exual e galitarianism i n

f oraging a nd s edentary c ontexts. a nthropology o f w omen. N ew Y ork : H ITCHCOCK, R . K . s trategies

1 982. a nd

I n:

P h.D. T hesis: B .

R EITER, R .R.,

e d. T oward a n

M onthly R eview P ress.

T he e thnoarchaeology o f

s edentism :

m obility

s ite s tructure among f oraging a nd f ood p roducing

p opulations i n t he e astern K alahari K .

b ehaviour

f rom a n E skimo h unting s tand.

N unamiut e thnoarchaeology.

1 983.

1 983.

s ettlement

t he M atengo o f T anzania.

D imensional a nalysis a nd

a rchaeological r ecord. B LOMBERG,

among

l earning

3 30-361. L . R . 1 978b.

P ress. B INFORD, L . R .

K ELLEY,

t he

M inneapolis, M innesota.

o f s pace w hen t hat s pace i s l imited: U npubl. m ss., o n f ile N atal Museum. A NDERSON,

r eflection

4 7th A nnual M eeting o f

D esert,

B otswana.

U npubl.

U niversity o f N ew M exico.

1 982.

E thnoarchaeology

3 08

o f

t he

B lack H at N avajos:

h istorical a nd a historical d eterminants a nthropol. R es. K ENT,

S .

1 983.

s tudy o f

3 8:

A nalysing

t he u se

o f

s ite

f eatures.

J .

4 5-74.

o f

a ctivity

s pace.

a reas:

a n e thnoarchaeological

A lbuquerque:

U niversity

o f

N ew

M exico P ress. MURPHY,

Y .

&

MURPHY,

R .

1 974.

W omen

o f

t he f orest.

N ew Y ork :

C olumbia U niversity P ress. N ETTING,

R .

M cC.

1 965.

a griculture. P OWELL,

S .

1 980.

e xample

H ousehold

T he K ofyar C ase.

f or

M aterial t he

c ulture

American

o rganization

A frica 3 5: a nd

a nd

b ehavior:

s outhwest.

i ntensive

4 22-429. U npubl.

a p rehistoric P h.D.

T hesis:

A rizona S tate U niversity. RAUM,

O .

F .

1 973.

t he Z ulu. S AHLINS,

M .

1 957.

Am. Anthrop. U DO,

R .

K .

R . R . among

1 981.

t aboos among

W alter d e T ruyter. t he e xtended f amily i n

M oala,

F iji.

49-62. 4 D isintegration o f n ucleated s ettlement

G eogr. R ev.

t he

f unctions o f a voidance a nd

N ew Y ork:

L and u se a nd 5 9:

1 965.

N igeria. W ILK,

T he s ocial

B erlin,

A griculture,

K ekchi

i n e astern

5. 5

M aya.

e cology Unpubl.

a nd P h.D.

d omestic

o rganization

T hesis:

U niversity o f

A rizona. Y ELLEN,

J . E .

1 977.

A rchaeological a pproaches

f or r econstructing t he p ast.

N ew Y ork:

3 09

t o

t he p resent:

A cademic P ress.

m odels

P ART TWO

L ITH IC T YPOLOGY AND ROCK ART : SUMMAR IES OF WORKSHOP D ISCUSS IONS

2 8.

N umerical c oding s cheme f or s outhern A frican S tone A ge w ith s pecial r eference t o t he L ater S tone A ge*

a rtefacts

J anette D eacon

T his

c lassification

w ith v ariations

f or a t

s tudies,

i n

b ut

d eliberately t he m aterial

t o

s cheme

l east

t his

c oded

r eduction

f ormal

i s

n ot a n ew o ne.

t he l ast

2 0

v ersion

s equence

t ool.

y ears i t

f rom

I n t he p ast

i n

i s

I t h as b een u sed L ater

s et

S tone

o ut

u nworked

t o

A ge

f ollow

n odule

o f

t his h as b een i mplicit

r aw

i n t he

s ubdivision o f a ssemblages i nto " waste", u tilized a nd f ormal t ools, b ut t he n umerical c ode, b ased o n t he p oint i n t he s equence a t w hich a p iece w as d iscarded, h elps c hanges

i n

a rtefact

v ariability

o f

c omparisons

s hould

t o

i solate a nd e valuate t he

m anufacture

a ssemblages b e

a t

d rawn

t hrough a n

t ime.

i nter- a nd

o nly

b etween

i mportance

I n

o f

c omparing t he

i ntra-site

a rtefacts

a t

t he c oding s ystem.

I t

l evel, t he s ame

h ierarchical l evel i n t he c oding s ystem. T ables o n

t wo

1 ,

s ets

2 ,

3 a nd 4 a re k eys

o f

d igits,

t o

i s

b ased

w ith t he f acility t o a dd m ore d igits o n t he

r ight h and s ide. T he f irst d igit i n t he f irst s et e stablishes t he m aterial o f w hich t he a rtefact i s m ade: s tone ( 0), p ottery ( 1), m etal ( 2), w ood/bark/reed/grass ( 3), l eather ( 4) a nd b one ( 5). T his s ummary i s c oncerned w ith s tone o nly. T he s econd d igit i dentifies t he s tage o f d iscard,

t hat

( manuport,

i s,

t he

" waste",

c ategory i n w hich t he a rtefact

u tilized

c ategory i s a s eries o f c lasses, f lakes,

a nd

t hese

c lasses

c omprises s ubdivisions i ntuitively r ecognized

p iece, f or

m ake

f ormal

e xample u p

c ores

( taken h ere

W ithin

a nd

t he s econd s et.

( sub-classes) o f t he d ifferences i n s hape

f ormal t ools, m ajor s ubdivisions

i s c lassified

t ool).

T he t hird s et

c lasses o r s ize.

a t

e ach

u nretouched

c ategory

b ased Amongst

o n t he

l evel

f or

c onvenience) a re m ade b etween f ormal t ools m ade b y f laking, a nd f ormal t ools m ade b y g rinding a nd p olishing. W ithin e ach c ategory, c lasses a re r ecognized f irst b y t he n ature o f t he r etouch a nd t he m orphology o f t he w orking e dge, s econdly b y s ize, a nd t hirdly b y t he p osition o f t he r etouch i n r elation t o t he s hape o f

*

E DITORIAL

N OTE:

T he

t ypology

t he p iece.

w orkshop,

c onvened b y L .

W adley,

f ocused o n t he d iscussion o f t his p aper w hich w as a bstracted f rom D eacon ( 1982). C opies w ere c irculated b efore t he w orkshop a nd p articipants w ere i nvited t o c onsider a nd d iscuss

t he c oding s cheme a s

i t h as b een a pplied t o s outhern A frican L ater S tone A ge a rtefacts. T he s cheme i s n ot r eproduced h ere i n f ull, b ut a n e xplanatory s ummary i s p rovided.

T his

i s

f ollowed b y s pecific c omments m ade b y m embers o f

t he w orkshop p anel a nd a g eneral s tatement ( by L . s hared v iews o f m any p articipants a re e xpressed.

3 11

W adley)

i n w hich t he

T he

s cheme

w as

d eveloped s pecifically t o m onitor c hange t hrough

t ime i n L ater S tone A ge a ssemblages f lexible

e nough

t o

a llow

t he

i n t he s outhern C ape,

b ut

i t

i s

i ncorporation o f m aterial f rom o ther

r egions a nd o ther t ime p eriods b ecause i t i s b ased o n b roadly d efined c ategories a nd c lasses. T he m ain c lasses o f f ormal t ools, a nd c ertainly t hose w hich s erved a s h afted b its, w hich

a re f unctionally s imilar a nd

g roup t ogether

a rtefacts

t he t ypological s cheme c an t hus b e

u sed t o t est h ypotheses o f s ite f unction. T he s tudy o f a ttributes w ithin c lasses, o n t he o ther h and, c an b e u sed t o e valuate s tylistic p atterns i n a rtefact p roduction i n t ime a nd s pace e ither b y t he

r elative

s elected p urely

f requencies

a ttributes. o n

m etric

o f

T he

c omparing

s ub-classes

o r

b y m etric a nalyses o f

c lassification

o f

a rtefact

a ttribute

s ystems

i s u neconomic a nd

a ssemblages t his

t ypology

r epresents a c ompromise b etween i ntuitive a nd m etrical a ttribute c lassification. A lthough a n i nfinite n umber o f t ypologies c an b e c onstructed, s cheme

t his

w hich

i s a g eneral-purpose

a nd

T he a dvantages o f a n umbering s ystem a re t hat b y

v ersatile

c lassification

h as b een w idely a pplied a nd i s e vidently e asily l earnt.

c omputer

a nd

t hat

i t

e xpresses

t he d ata c an

c learly

a nd

b e

s orted

s uccinctly

t he

r elationships b etween c ategories, c lasses a nd s ub-classes o f a rtefacts. I t d oes n ot s eek t o r eplace n ames w ith n umbers, b ut t o c odify

t he

s equence

h ierarchical s ubclasses. s olution

o f

p osition I t

t o

i s

c hoices o f

o ffered

a rtefact

a nd

t he f or

t hereby

v arious d iscussion

c lassification

t o

e stablish

c ategories, a nd

f or

n ot

t here

t he

c lasses a s

a re

t he

a nd f inal

u ndoubtedly

i nconsistencies a nd o missions. O nce t he c oncept o f a h ierarchical I

s ee

i t

a s

s imilarities t hrough

p roviding b etween

t ime

h ypothesis p osition

a nd

t hat i n

h ierarchy

s uch

s pace.

a s

t he

o f

r eduction s equence i s

f or a nd

s ignificance

c hanges h igh u p o n t he s cale s equence,

b asis

a ssemblages

t hrough

t he

t he

a

g roups

I t o f

a

i n

t he

( i.e.

c hoice

r elative

m ade

m aterials,

r ange o f s hould

f ormal b e

c ore

f requencies

s ub-types,

t ool c lasses,

i dentifiable

a nd

a ssemblages

b oth

b e a ssumed a s a w orking

c hange e arliest

i s

r elated

t o

i ts

t he t oolmaker. i n

t he

T hus

t oolmaking

l ower d own t he s cale a s, o f

f ormal

f or

t ool s ubclasses.

s hould t herefore b e i dentifiable

i n

s ize a nd s hape o f u ntrimmed f lakes a nd

w hereas c hanges a t

m ainly

a pplied,

d ifferences

o f p rimary f laking t echnique) m ay b e

C hanges a t t he l evel o f C omplexes r aw

m ay

o f

c hoices o pen t o

c onsidered m ore f undamental t han c hanges e xample,

e valuating

i n

t erms

o f

t he l evel

o f

P hases

f ormal t ool s ub-class

f requencies.

R EFERENCE D EACON, J . 1 982. T he L ater S tone A ge i n t he s outhern C ape, A frica. U npubl. P h.D. T hesis: U niversity o f C ape T own.

3 12

S outh

T able 1

K ey t o c oding s ystem f or m anuports

( 00).

M ANUPORTS a re c hunks o f r aw m aterial w hich h ave n ot b een k napped. T hey i nclude o chre a nd o ther c olouring m atter.

0-100 0

U nused c obbles o r l umps o f r ock b rought t o a s ite a s r aw m aterial

0 0-110

R aw m aterial l isted a bove t hat h as b een s tained w ith o chre

0 0-120

0 0-200

R aw m aterial l isted a bove t hat h as b een b urnt

O chre

0 0-210

U nmodified o chre

0 0-220

S moothed o chre

0 0-230

E ngraved o r n otched o chre

0 0-300

M icaceous s andstone

3 13

T able 2

W ASTE,

K ey t o c oding s ystem f or w aste

( 01)

o r t he u nretouched b y-products o f t ool m anufacture.

I ncludes p ieces t hat m ay h ave b een u sed, b ut s how n o u tilization d amage v isible t o t he n aked e ye. 0 1-100 C ores C hunks w ith o ne o r t wo n egative f lake s cars 0 1-110 0 1-120 C ore w ith t hree o r m ore n egative f lake s cars 0 1-121 I rregular c ore R adial c ore 0 1-122 0 1-123 0 1-124 0 1-125 0 1-126 0 1-200

P repared c ore B lade c ore B ladelet c ore F lat b ladelet c ore C ore b y-products

C ore r educed p ieces 0 1-210 C ore r ejuvenation f lakes 0 1-220 C hips, l ess t han 1 0 m m m aximum d imension 0 1-300 F lake o rigin 0 1-310 I rregular 0 1-311 B ladelet 0 1-312 C hunk o rigin 0 1-320 U nretouched f lakes w ith n o u tilization v isible

0 1-400

t o 0 1-410 0 1-411 0 1-420 0 1-421 0 1-430 0 1-431 0 1-440 0 1-441 0 1-450 0 1-460 0 1-461 0 1-470 0 1-471

t he n aked e ye I rregular, u nbroken b roken Q uadrilateral, u nbroken b roken C onvergent, p lain p latform , u nbroken b roken C onvergent,

f acetted p latform, u nbroken b roken

C onvergent, n o p latform, b roken B lade, u nbroken b roken B ladelet, u nbroken b roken

3 14

T able 3

K ey t o c oding s ystem f or u tilized p ieces

U TILIZED P IECES,

( 02)

o r a rtefacts w ith u tilization d amage v isible t o t he

n aked e ye. 0 2-100

N atural p ieces w ith u tilization. I f o chre-stained,

a dd ' 1

0 2-110 0 2-120

A nvils H ammerstones

0 2-130

L ower g rindstones

0 2-140

U pper g rindstones

o n r ight.

0 2-150

C ombination h ammerstones/upper g rindstones

0 2-160

M illed-edge p ebbles

0 2-170

S moothed

s late

' palettes -

C ores/chunks w ith u tilization d amage

0 2-200 0 2-210

H eavy e dge-flaked p ieces

0 2-220

P ieces

0 2-230

C hunks w ith u tilized m argins

e squillees

F lakes w ith u tilization d amage

0 2-300 0 2-310

D amage

t o c utting e dge

0 2-311

I rregular f lake

0 2-312

Q uadrilateral f lake

0 2-313

C onvergent f lake,

0 2-314

C onvergent

0 2-315

C onvergent f lake,

0 2-316

B lades

0 2-317

B ladelets

f lake,

0 2-320-327

S teep d amage

0 2-330-337

N otched e dges

p lain p latform f acetted p latform n o p latform

3 15

T able 4

K ey t o c oding s ystem f or f ormal t ools ( 03)

F ORMAL T OOLS m ostly m ade o n f lakes/small c hunks o n w hich r etouch h as d eliberately s haped t he w orking e dge.

0 3-100 0 3-110 0 3-111 0 3-112 0 3-113 0 3-114

S craper L arge s craper, m aximumdimension g reater t han 3 0 m m E nd s craper S ide s craper C ircular B acked

0 3-120 0 3-121

M edium s craper, 2 0 -30 m m S ub-types a s a bove

0 3-130

S mall s craper, m aximumdimension l ess t han 2 0 m m

0 3-131

0 3-200 0 3-210 0 3-211 0 3-212 0 3-213 0 3-214 0 3-215

S ub-types a s a bove

B acked t ool B acked b lade, l ength g reater than 2 5 m m S egment B acked b lade O bliquely t runcated b lade T ranchet I rregular b acked p iece

B acked m icroliths, l ength l ess 0 3-220 S egment 0 3-221 B acked b ladelet 0 3-222 D istal d iscard 0 3-222-1 B acked p oint 0 3-222-2 S egmented b acked b ladelet 0 3-222-3 P roximal d iscard 0 3-222-4 0 3-223 0 3-224 0 3-225 0 3-300 0 3-310 0 3-311 0 3-312 0 3-313 0 3-320 0 3-321 0 3-322 0 3-323

P etit t ranchet I rregular b acked p iece B roken b acked p iece S tep-flaked t ool A dze P ebble a dze O ne s ide r etouched B oth s ides r etouched S pokeshave O ne n otch T wo n otches M ore t han t wo n otches

3 16

t han 2 5,1 m m

T able 4

c ontinued

0 3-400 0 3-410 0 3-420 0 3-430 0 3-500

A wl B orer P oints*

0 3-510 0 3-511 0 3-512 0 3-513 0 3-514 0 3-520 0 3-511 0 3-512 0 3-513 0 3-600

U nifacial p oint R etouch a long o ne l ateral R etouch a long t wo l aterals W ith b asal t ang W ith n otched l aterals, e .g. o ak-leaf p oint B ifacial p oint* S tillbay p oint

( fully b ifacial)

P artly b ifacial p oint W ith b asal t ang B urin*

0 3-700 0 3-710 0 3-720 0 3-730

*

P ointed t ools R eamer

M iscellaneous r etouched p iece F lat i nvasive . r etouch S teep r etouch N otched r etouch

T hese c lasses a re f or u se w ith M iddle S tone A ge a ssemblages

3 17

2 9.

T YPOLOGIES F OR T HE S TONE AGE: R eporter:

A

B rooks.

L .

C OMMENTS B Y P ANEL M EMBERS W adley

I w ould l ike t o s ee a m ore c entral r ole f or

t he h ierarchical c lassification,

i ncluding

b oth

t he

t echnology i n

f orm

o f

b lank

( flake, c ore, c hunk, b lade e tc.) a nd t reatment o r f orm o f s triking p latform, i f p resent, o n a ll p ieces, n ot j ust r etouched f lakes. F or e xample,

i n

t he

D eacon s cheme a c ore i s c oded a s 0 1-100,

c ore a s 0 2-200 a nd a c ore s craper i s

n ot

s eparated

f rom

a u tilized t he

w hole

s craper c lass. S imilarly, a q uadrilateral f lake i s 0 1-420, w hile a u tilized q uadrilateral f lake i s 0 2-312. M any f ormal t ool c ategories i n t he s cheme h ave n ot h ad f lake o r b lank t ypes d istinguished. t he

s craper

' duckbill

c lass,

f or

e xample,

s crapers

a re

l umped

b lades a nd f lakes. f eature,

n ot

S ize

o r

i ncorporated

s crapers c lasses

t he

s ize

d ifference,

d istinction i s p ebbles,

b ut

t he

t echnological,

a wls

o n f lakes, S mall

s craper

c lass

t here

i llustrations

s uggest

w ith r eamers b eing

s crapers"

f eature

a re

a nd

a

s eparate

s cheme.

I n t his

i s p resented a s t hat

m ade

o n

t he p rimary c hunks

o r

F rom t he p oint o f

c ertain a dditional d istinctions s hould b e

" backed

s egments a re a p rominent

W ithin

f lakes, b e

a wls a nd b orers

a nd b orers o n b ladelets.

v iew o f t he L SA o f B otswana, c onsidered.

s hould

h ierarchical

s cheme t he d ifference b etween r eamers, a

o n

w ith s ame-size e nd-scrapers o n b oth

s ize

i nto

m ade

i n

o r

" double"

N gamiland.

s ignificant

o r

W ithin

" biconvex" t he

s mall

r egional d istinctions b etween

" thumbnail" s crapers, c ommon i n t he e astern a nd s outhern s ites, a nd s mall e nd-scrapers o n b lades, m ore c ommon i n N gamiland. I w ould a lso n ote t hat

b ladelets

B otswana,

a nd a t = Gi,

L .

J acobson.

a re

n umerous

i n

t he

H oJocene

i ndustries

o f

a re f ound g rouped t ogether.

L ocal

c ircumstances

w aste i n

m iscellaneous

m etrical

s tudies w here

c ategories.

s hould d ictate h ow o ne c lassifies T his

p articularly

a pplies

t o

t he p roblem u nder i nvestigation w ill d etermine

t he b est m ethod o f a nalysis. Exchanging n umbers f or n ames a s d one i n t he n umerical c oding s cheme a bove i s n ot a dvantageous, a nd i s l ikely t o c ause c onfusion. t he

s cheme

s o

A d etailed a ttribute a nalysis w ill n ot

a lready i n e xistence. f irst, a g eneral o ne a lready

e xists)

a nalysis)

A .

f it

i nto

i t d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave a ny a dvantages o ver s chemes T wo l evels o f s tone t ool a nalysis a re n eeded: f or c ommunication a mong a rchaeologists ( and t his

a nd,

s econdly,

a

m ore

d etailed

o ne

( attribute

t o b e u sed b y i ndividual a rchaeologists.

M azel.

I

q uestion t he v alue o f u sing a c lassification s cheme o f

t his n ature, a s I a m n ot s ure t hat i t t ool d istributions i n t ime a nd s pace.

i ncreases u nderstanding o f s tone I a m a lso n ot c onvinced t hat i t

e nables e asy e valuation o f c hanges a nd d ifferences. T he s cheme i tself i s u nnecessarily a nd u nrealistically e laborate. I s ee n o a dvantage t o d istinguishing i rregular o r

u nbroken)

s hape

o n

( broken o r u nbroken) o r q uadrilateral

( broken

a n u nretouched f lake w here n o u tilization i s

v isible. W e n eed t o a sk o urselves w hy w e s tudy s tone t ools a nd w hat w e e xpect o f t hem. I t i s a n e mpiricist h ope t hat c lassified d ata w ill

3 18

t hemselves p roduce r evelations.

J .

P arkington.

I

w ould

A h ierarchical s ystem s eems a s ensible o ne

a rgue

t hat

i n

h ierarchical r eduction d ecisions

t he

s equence

a bout w hat

s elected a nd f laking

f act

t ools

D eacon

b ut

i s

c oding

t o u se

s ystem

s equential.

b ut

i s n ot a

F or

e xample,

t o m ake a re t aken b efore r aw m aterials a re

p roceeds.

H owever,

r eduction

s equences

h ave

t heir u se o utside o f t ypologies a nd t he i dea s hould n ot b e a bandoned. A lthough t he s cheme w as d evised s pecifically t o e xamine c hange t hrough t ime,

I

f eel i t

i s n ot r eally p ossible o r d esirable t o s eparate t ime

a nd s pace w hen a ttempting c lassification.

T here i s

a

m ajor

p roblem

w hen w e t ry t o g et f rom a n u nderstanding o f t he r eduction s equence t o a n u nderstanding o f p rehistoric b ehaviour. A t ypological s cheme i s a " periscope

s cheme"

a nd

p ossibly

a rchaeologists n eed t o

t ake a m ore

d aring a pproach t o S tone A ge s tudies.

P . R obertshaw. m edium

a nd

I s uggest

t hat

a nd m icroliths m ay r educe t ests)

t he d ivision o f

s mall c ategories,

m ade

w ithin t he

d ivision

b etween

c lasses

i s

( and

I n E ast A frica,

l arge,

s tatistical

f or e xample,

2 5 mm w ould b e v alid.

t o b e m ade,

I f

I a

i t p ossibly c ould b e

f ound empirically w ithin e ach a ssemllage o r i ndustry. h ypothesis t hat c hanges a t i dentifiable i n r aw m aterials,

i nto

i nto b acked t ools

t he v alue o f m easurements t ool c lasses.

d oubt t hat a s eparation o f m icroliths a t s ize

s crapers

a nd t he b acked p ieces

I q uestion

t he l evel o f t he C omplex c ore s ub-types, s ize a nd

t he

s hould b e s hape o f

u ntrimmed f lakes a nd r ange o f f ormal t ool c lasses. W here a g roup h as a ccess t o d ifferent r aw m aterials a t d ifferent p laces ( perhaps a s t he r esult

o f

s easonal

m ovements)

t he f laking p roperties o f

r aw m aterials m ay a ffect

t he c ore

t he

I n a ddition,

u ntrimmed

f lakes.

t he v arious

s ub-types a nd t he s ize a nd s hape t he r ange o f f ormal

o f

t ool c lasses

m ay v ary b ecause o f d iffering a ctivities a nd d iscard p atterns.

G S ampson. i nstead

W e s hould n ot u se a s ingle s cheme f or a ll a reas b ut

u se

t ypology

T he a rchaeologist's s ubdivisions s imilarities

t o

s olve s pecific p roblems o f

m otives

s hould

s hould b e u sed. o r d ifferences

d ecide

w hether

f ine

o r

A rchaeologists n eed

t o g et b eyond

t he a pproach w hich a llows a t ypology t o p redetermine r esults, n eed

g ross

T o s ome e xtent t ypologies m ay e mphasize i n a ssemblages o r m ay d emonstrate

c ontinuous o r d iscontinuous c hange. a lso

s hould

s pecific a reas.

a t ypology d esigned t o d eal w ith s pecific i ssues.

b ut

t hey

A nother

p roblem o f a dopting a t ype l ist i s t hat i t t ends t o f orce a rtefacts i nto c ategories w here t hey m ay n ot n ecessarily b elong. T he D eacon t ypology c ould p ossibly b e e xtended t o e liminate p art o f t his p roblem : t he r eduction s equence c ould c onsider p ieces t hat " fall o ut" o f t he r etouched c ategories

a nd

r ecycling

I n

p rocess.

a lso t he

p ieces U nited

w hich S tates

h ave

g one

o f America,

t hrough

a

r eplication

s tudies o f o bsidian " gougers" a nd " wedges" ( outils e cailles) h ave a dvanced u nderstanding o f t hese a rtefacts. T he b ipolar c rushed p ieces a re p roduced b y k napping t he o bsidian c ore u ntil v irtually n othing l eft,

t he

c ore

s plits

a nd

a

d ouble c one i s f ormed.

e xperimentation i s o bviously i mportant p ut

a rtefacts

i nto

i f a rchaeologists a re g oing

c ategories s uch a s

" cores" o r

t o

" retouched t ools".

H owever,

r eplication s tudies a re

t ime

r equire

s pecialist r esearchers.

A f low c hart r ather

3 19

c onsuming

i s

T his k ind o f

a nd

e xpensive

a nd

t han a h ierarchy

m ay b e a b etter w ay o f t hinking a bout r eduction

s equences

a nd

w ould

m ake a llowances f or m istakes o r f ailures i n t ool m aking.

T . V olman. S ince t he r eduction s equence i s m ore o r l ess i mplicit i n m any c lassifications, t here a re a n umber o f g ood r easons f or m aking i t a p oint o f d eparture f or a g eneral c lassification s cheme w hich e mphasizes t echnical a nd m orphological p roperties o f s tone a rtefacts. H owever, t he p resent s cheme d oes n ot r eally c arry t hrough o n t he r eduction s equence, t hat i s, p resent a h ierarchy w ith r elevant p roperties n oted a t t he a ppropriate s tage. F or e xample, a fter a n i nitial d ivision o f f lakes v s c ores/chunks/manuports e tc. t here b e a m ultivariate b reakdown c onsidering s uch v ariables a s:

c ould

a ) b roken/unbroken b ) f lake/blade ( with s ub-categories b lade a nd b ladelet)/ i ndeterminate c ) i rregular/quadrilateral/convergent/indeterminate d )

i ndeterminate b utt/plain/faceted ( 72)/linear/cortex

( 2)/faceted

T hen s ubsequent m odifications s uch a s u tilization o r r etouch i nto v arious f ormal t ool t ypes c ould b e c onsidered. I a gree w ith m ost o f D eacon's f ormal t ool c ategories b ut t he t ypology o f p oints s eems l imited a nd u nsystematic. I h ?ve m any r eservations a bout t he " numerical c oding" a spect o f t he s cheme. T his m ay b e s uitable a s a b asis f or c omputer p rogramming b ut h ow p ractical i s i t i n c oding? T he c omplexity o f t he p roposed s cheme b rings a h ost o f p ractical p roblems: f rom t he w ay a rtefacts a re t o b e h andled i n t he l aboratory, t o c oding, t o e ntering d ata i nto a c omputer, t o s torage, m anipulation a nd o utput. T here i s a p ossiblity t hat n umerical c oding i s t oo c omplex a nd i s a lso p rone t o r ecording e rrors a t v arious l evels o f o peration.

N . W alker.

O ne p roblem i s d eciding t he c riteria t o u se f or e valuating

w hether t ool t ypes a re a t t he c orrect h ierarchical l evel. I s, f or e xample, a p etit t ranchet d istinct f rom a s egment o r i s i t a s ub-type o f s egments? T here i s r oom f or i mprovement i n t he d efinition o f t he p roposed c ategories, c lasses a nd p articularly t he s ubclasses w hich a t p resent a re b ased o n a f ew i ndustries f rom a r elatively s mall a rea. T he s cheme o rders r ather t han e valuates d ata. A s a r eduction s cheme i t i s s implistic i n t hat i t d oes

n ot

i dentify

p recisely

t he

r oute

t aken b y a n a rtefact, f or e xample, i t d oes n ot t ry t o l ink a r etouched f lake t o t he c ategory o f f lake i t w as w orked o n, o r t he t ype o f c ore f rom w hich i t w as s truck. N evertheless, i t d oes a ttempt t o r elate c omparable c ategories a nd i s s imilar t o m y o wn a pproach t owards d eveloping a s tructured t ypology f or t he L SA i n t he M atopos. W ith r egard t o f ormal t ools I h ave a ttempted t o g roup t hem i nto s tylistic a nd f unctional s ubclasses. O ne p roblem s eems t o b e d eciding h ow f ar t o e xtend t he h ierarchical d ivisions. F or e xample, I t hink t here i s m erit i n r ecognizing d ifferent f unctional l evels -scrapers, a dzes a nd c oncaves ( spokeshaves) a re m ore c losely r elated t o e ach o ther, i n t erms o f m anufacture a nd f unction ( they a re m aintenance t ools), t han t hey a re t o

b acked

t ools

( which

a re

p robably

e xtractive

t ools).

R ecognition o f t his m ight h elp a n u nderstanding o f h ow d ifferent p rehistoric p eople a llocated t ime a nd p lace t o d ifferent c ategories o f w ork. I nevitably i n a ny n ew o rientation, t here w ill b e i nconsistencies,

a nd o ne i n D eacon's s cheme i s t he o ccurrence o f w aste

3 20

i n t he r etouched t ools, n amely b acked d iscards. U nretouched/retouched a re t herefore p robably b etter t erms t han w aste/formal. P erhaps i t i s p ossible

t o

r eadjust

t he r eduction s equence, m icroburin

b ut

t echnique

i t

i s w orth n oting

t hat i n t he

M atopos

t he

w as

n ecessarily

b ecause

i t w as u nknown b ut b ecause i t w as

u se o n t he s mall n odules o f r aw m aterial a vailable.

n ot

u sed,

n ot

i mpractical

E ven

a part

t o

f rom

t his, t he d efinitions o f t he d ifferent s ub-classes o f b acked t ools a re d ifficult t o a pply i n t he M atopos w here t he d egree o f c urvature o f t he c hord i s l ess c onsistent S ize

s hould

t han t he o verall p lan o f

t he p iece.

b e u sed c autiously i n t he d efinition o f

s ub-classes:

i n t he t ypes c ited b y D eacon i t h as n ot b een s hown t o h ave a ny p recise s tylistic

o r

f unctional

t echnologist).

S ize

v alue

c an

b e

( i.e. u sed

a s

t o

s een

s how

b y

t he p rehistoric

s hifts

i n

n orms

o f

m anufacture b ut s hould t hen b e s een a s b eing a n a rbitrary d ivision o f t he t otal t ool p opulation. A s s uch i t i s a r esearch d ivision a nd n ot a

s ub-class,

a nd

i t

p rehistoric r eality. o f

c hoices

i s

t he

s ub-class

I am n ot s o s ure

n ecessarily

l essens

t he

a ssemblages i nto p hases o r c omplexes, a vailable

t o

t he

p rehistoric

w hich

i s b elieved t o h ave

t hat t he c oncept o f a h ierarchy d ifficulties

a s w e d o n ot

t echnologist.

o f

c lassifying

k now

F or

t he

o ptions

e xample,

r elated

g roups m ay h ave h ad d ifferent r aw m aterials a nd/or d ifferent r esources t o c hoose f rom. F urthermore, i t i s c lear t hat d ifferent t ask g roups a re

p ossible

l ower-scale v ariants. p hases.

i n

t he

L SA

a ssemblages

a nd

t han

p rovision p h,

. s,

P erhaps m ore c ritical i s w hat T hey

t herefore

a re

a re

s mall-scale

b ased

p rimarily

l argely

o n

w e

P hases

b e

m ean

s tone

t echnological

d ifferences.

m ust

m ade

f or

e ven

n amely a ctivity c omponents o r

m ight

b y

t ool

t erms,

c omplexes

a nd

d ifferences

a nd

i mplying

r epresent

l arge- or

f airly

c losely

r elated g roups o f p eople, a nd c omplexes a m ore r emote b ut c ommon a ncestry; h owever, i t i s p ossible t hat t here m ight b e s till h igher l evels o f a ssociation. r ecent

S an

C aution i s n eeded h ere,

h unter-gatherers

w hile t he a rtefacts

t hat

f or t he t ool

k its

o f

a re s imple a nd u niform o ver w ide a reas,

a rchaeologists

m ainly

d eal

w ith

c an

b e

e xpected t o h ave e ven l ess s tylistic i nvestment. W e m ust r ealise t hat t he i nventory i s o nly o ne o f s everal m eans o f e lucidating v ariability.

G ENERAL C OMMENTS T he

w orkshop

p articipants

c ontribution t owards s tone

c oncurred

t hat

J anette

D eacon's

t ool t ypologies h as b een s ubstantial.

T hey

w ere s imilarly a greed t hat t ypologies a re u seful t ools f or a rchaeologists a nd t hat c ommunication b etween r esearchers w ould b e a ssisted

i f

s tandardization c ould b e a chieved.

H owever,

i t w as a lso

f elt t hat u niformity s hould n ot b e a dopted a t t he e xpense o f m anageability. S everal m embers s uggested t hat t he D eacon s cheme i s n ot f lexible e nough t o i ncorporate N SA o r t his

w as

n ot

n ecessarily

a

E SA

d isadvantage

a ssemblages

b ut

t hat

a s a s cheme a llowing f or

d escription o f s uch v ariable a ssemblages t hrough t ime w ould b e u nduly c umbersome. T he g eneral c onsensus w as t hat t he s cheme i s o nly s uited t o L SA a ssemblages,

a nd

t hat p revious

i nformal u se o f

t he

s cheme

h as

b een l argely s atisfactory i n d iverse g eographical a reas. C . K . C ooke c ommented t hat h e f requently u sed t he e arlier D eacon c lassifications a nd f ound t hem c ommendable f or t he L SA o f Z imbabwe. t he s cheme f or e astern C ape s tudies w as a lso

3 21

T he u sefulness o f c onfirmed b y J .

B inneman. M any

p articipants

t hought

t hat

t ypologies s hould m ake u se o f r aw

m aterial i nformation a s r eplication s tudies s how r ock t ype t o b e r esponsible f or m uch a ssemblage v ariability. H owever, i ncorporating r aw m aterial p resents p ractical d ifficulties w hich p erhaps c an b e r esolved o nly t hrough s upplementary a ttribute a nalyses o f s tone a rtefacts. R eplication s tudies a lso s uggest t hat w ear a rtefacts c ould p rofitably b ecome p art o f t he s cheme i f

p atterns o n t his w as n ot

p recluded b y p ractical c onsiderations o f c ost

e xpenditure.

a nd

t ime

M icrowear i nterpretation c an, f urthermore, b e u sed t o t est D eacon's s uggestion t hat c lasses o f f ormal t ools g roup a rtefacts w hich a re f unctionally s imilar.

J .

B inneman ( 1984)

h as

s hown,

h ides;

D eacon's u se o f s eparate c lasses

h e

t hereby

v indicates

b eneficial a djuncts

R eplication s tudies,

t hen,

a re

f or

t hat

w hile

a dzes a nd s crapers.

s crapers

f or e xample,

a dzes a re w oodworking i mplements

s hould

p reparing

b e

s een

f or a s

t o t ypologies a lthough t hey a re m ore i mportantly a

t angible l ink b etween s tone t ools a nd h uman b ehaviour. T he g eneral o pinion w as t hat t he s tudy o f h uman b ehaviour i s t he m ain o bjective i n s tone a rtefact s tudies a nd t hat t ypologies h ave b een u seful i n o rdering s tone t ool a ssemblages c lasses

i nto d efined c ategories

a nd

t o e nable d ifferences a nd s imilarities t o b e c ompared a t b oth

i nter- a nd i ntra-site l evels. D eacon's

s cheme

h as

A lthough

c odified

s outhern A frican a rchaeologists

t he

i nconsistencies

w ere

n oted,

t ypology u sed a t p resent b y m ost

s tudying L ater S tone

A ge

a ssemblages

i nto a c oherent f ramework. M any o rdered

o f t he c ommentators, t he

s tone

a rtefact

h owever, d ata,

f elt t hat a lthough t he s cheme

i t

c ould

n ot

b e

u sed

a t

e xplanatory l evel. T he d ifficulty l ies i n i dentifying s ignificance o f t he o bserved c hanges i n t erms o f h uman b ehaviour, i n

d iscovering

c hanges

t ypological a nalysis. m akes

t his

a

u pon

m ay

n ot

b e

r eadily o bservable i n a

T he a bsence o f s uitable e thnographic

f ormidable

a ssemblages a nd i t b uilding

w hich

a nalogies

b arrier t o o ur u nderstanding o f s tone

i s a m oot p oint

w hether

t he e xisting t ypological

a n t he a nd

w e

c an

f ramework,

o vercome

t ool

i t

b y

o r w hether w e n eed

t o g enerate d ifferent m ethodologies a longside i t.

R EFERENCES B INNEMAN, J . 1 984. M apping a nd i nterpreting w ear i mplements: a c ase s tudy f rom B oomplaas C ave. A VERY,

G ., A VERY,

e ds.

F rontiers:

P roceedings o f o f

D . M .,

W ILSON, M . s outhern

&

A frican

H UMPHR T iS,

A .

A rchaeology

J .

B .,

t oday.

t he C onference o f t he S outhern A frican A ssociation

A rchaeologists,

G aborone

A rchaeological R eports. D EACON, J . 1 982. T he L ater S tone A ge A frica.

L .

t races o n s tone I n: H ALL, M . J .,

U npubl.

P h.D.

T hesis:

1 983. i n

t he

O xford: s outhern

C ape,

U niversity o f C ape T own.

3 22

B ritish S outh

3 0.

T HE R OCK A RT W ORKSHOP: R eporter:

I n

r ecent

r ock a rt

y ears

h ave

n arratives

o f

J .

D .

N ARRATIVE O R M ETAPHOR?

L ewis-Williams

t wo o pposing i nterpretations o f

e merged.

T he

d aily

h istoric

o r

d epictions o f a nimals;

o lder

t he n ewer

s ees

t he

s outhern A frican

a rt

a s

p rincipally

e vents a nd a esthetically p leasing

a pproach

a rgues

t hat

t he

a rt

i s

m ainly s ymbolic a nd a ssociated w ith t he w ork a nd h allucinations o f S an s hamans, m oderate,

o r m edicine m en. M any a rchaeologists h ave a dopted a i ntermediary p osition, a llowing t hat s ome o f t he a rt m ay b e

s ymbolic, b ut

e xactly h ow m uch i s

i ssue.

r elative

T he

m ain t opic f or d ebate i n t his I n t he f irst p art o f r egional

b asis,

s ymbolic h as

i mportance

w orkers

o f

b een

a

c ontroversial

t he t wo v iews w as

t herefore t he

s ymposium.

t he s ymposium t he p roblem w as a pproached o n a f rom d ifferent a reas b eing i nvited t o p resent

s pecific p aintings w hich t hey c onsidered s ymbolic a nd o thers w hich a ppear t o b e n arrative. N . W alker d ealt w ith t he r ock a rt o f Z imbabwe, A . M azel w ith t he D rakenqberg, L . S mits w ith L esotho, T . M aggs a nd A . M anhire w ith t he s outh ->estern C ape, a nd L . J acobson w ith N amibia.

V arious

t hemes a nd a greements e merged i n t his

i nitial

p art

o f t he d iscussion. N o

p articipant

w as

p repared

t o a ccept t hat a ll p aintings h ave a

s ymbolic o r m etaphorical f unction, a nd m ost s howed p hotographs o f p aintings t hey d eemed n on-symbolic. M azel, f or i nstance, s aid h e w as u nable t o r ead a m etaphorical m eaning i nto t hose p aintings w hich h istorical

e vents

l ike c attle r aids,

a nd f ishing s cenes,

t hough h e d id

s how

c lashes b etween g roups o f b owmen

a ccept

t hat

m any

p aintings

w ere

s ymbolic. H e a lso a rgued t hat i t w as d ifficult t o d iscern s ymbolic m eanings i n s uch d epictions a s a n a ntelope s uckling i ts y oung, b ut h e a llowed t hat o ther r esearchers m ay b e a ble t o d o s o. M anhire s howed s lides o f p aintings w hich, h e a rgued, s howed t hat t he S an o f t he s outh-western n arrow

C ape

v alleys.

h unted b y d riving a nimals i nto n ets T he

" nets

a re

n arrow,

s trung a cross

v ertical

b ands

o f

c ross-hatching a nd t he d isposition o f s ome a nimal p aintings s uggests t hey a re b eing d riven i nto t he ' nets'. T o s upport t his i nterpretation M anhire

p ointed

o ut

t echnology t o m ake i nstance,

b e

t hat t he S an m ade n et b ags a nd t herefore h ad t he

l arger,

s een

a s

m ention o f n et-hunting. i llustrated

o ther

h unting

n ets.

s upplementing

T he

S imilarly, M aggs p ointed

a spects o f

a rt

m ay,

i n

t his

t he e thnography w hich m akes n o o ut

t hat

t he

t he m aterial c ulture a nd e conomy o f

a rt t he

D rakensberg S an, s uch a s b ags, q uivers a nd s o f orth. S mits t hen s aid i t w as h ard b ut n ot i mpossible t o d iscern a m etaphorical e lement i n p aintings o f e conomic a ctivities;

h e c onsidered

h unting

a nd

f ishing

s cenes a s w ell a s n arrative p aintings f rom r ecent p eriods. A

r elated

t heme d eveloped b y s ome p articipants w as

s tudies s hould b e i ncorporated i nto c oncerns.

M azel

a rgued

i nformation c oded i nto i dentifiable

g roups

t raditional

t hat r ock a rt a rchaeological

t hat e ven s ymbolic p aintings m ay h ave o ther

t hem a nd o f

m ore

c ited

e land,

t he

r hebuck

3 23

d epiction

o f

a nd

c ranes.

b lue

s easonally S uch

i nformation c ould b e i ncluded i n h is e xploitation i n t he a rea. H e a rgued D rakensberg d uring s ummer, t ime o f b e, i t

t he y ear. T hus, a lso r eflects

s tudy o f L ater S tone A ge s easonal t hat, w hen t he S an w ere i n t he

t hey p ainted a nimals a s

t hey a ppear a t

t hat

w hatever t he s ymbolic c ontent o f t he a rt m ay i n d irect a nd i n i ndirect w ays t he s ort o f

e conomic a ctivity i n w hich a rchaeologists a re i nterested. A nother w ay o f b ringing r ock a rt A ge

a rchaeology

w as

t he w estern C ape. m ore e specially,

i nto

l ine w ith t raditional

S tone

i llustrated b y P arkington a nd M anhire's w ork i n

T hey a re p lotting a ll o ccurrences o f r ock a rt a nd, c ertain d istinctive g roupings a nd m otifs a s p art o f

t heir s patial a nalysis o f t he a rea. T hey e xpect r ock a rt w ill i nform t hem a bout m ovement s chedules, c hanges i n g roup s ize a nd t he l ocation o f s pecific e conomic a ctivities. I n e mphasizing t he n arrative e lement m any t hat

t he

a rt

o f

t he

D rakensberg,

d eveloped i n m ost d etail,

i s

i ndeed m ore s ymbolic a nd

t hat i nterpretation t han t he a rt o f, t o b e l ess d etailed a nd c omplex. p articipants

w ho

s uggested

s ay,

s usceptible

t o

t he w estern C ape w hich s eems

R egional

d ifferences

w orried

s ome

d oubted i f i nterpretations a pplicable i n o ne r egion

w ere r elevant i n

o thers.

c ontent

t he

b etween

p articipants

w here t he s ymbolic v iew h as b een

J acobson

e ngravings

e mphasized

a nd

t he

t he

d ifferences

i n

p aintings w hich a lso h ave

b roadly d ifferent r egional d istributions. O n t he o ther h and, w ere

s ymbolic,

a nd

i nterpretation. i llustrated

I n

a n

a ll p articipants a llowed M aggs

s aid

t here

p resenting

t his

a ntelope-headed

k ind

s erpent

f rom Z imbabwe w hich a ppear t o b e s imilar a nd

s uggested

t hat

s ome

p aintings

w as a d istinct s wing t o t his o f

p ainting,

W alker

a nd s everal o ther p aintings t o t hose i n

t he

D rakensberg

t hat p aintings m ay h ave b een a ssociated w ith a v ariety

o f r eligious e xperiences.

J acobson s aid

t hat

d epictions

a ssociated

w ith t rance p erformance w ere t o b e f ound i n N amibian r ock a rt a nd s howed s lides o f t he a nimal-headed f igure f rom t he " White L ady" s helter.

S mits,

t oo,

s uggested

t hat

m ost

o f t he L esotho a rt w as

p robably s ymbolic; h e d escribed a nd i llustrated p aintings w hich w ere d ifficult t o i nterpret l iterally. T here w as g eneral a greement t hat, i f b e

s uch c urious p aintings c an b e e xplained a t a ll, e xplained

t hey w ill

h ave

t o

b y c oncepts p reserved i n t he S an e thnography a nd n ot b y

e xotic e thnographic p arallels o r w estern c oncepts. T he c onsensus o f t he f irst p art o f t he s ymposium w as, t herefore, t hat, a lthough t he s ymbolic n ature o f m any p aintings w as n ow e stablished, a ppear o f

t here s till r emained a n i mportant r esidue w hich

t o b e s usceptible t o

s ymbolic i nterpretation.

d id

n ot

T he s econd p art

t he s ymposium s tarted w ith a r esponse

f rom D . L ewis-Williams w ho he a rt t o b e f ormerly b elieved t e thnography, p rincipally l iteral o r n arrative, b ut h is r eading o f S an im t o c hange e specially t he n ineteenth-century m aterial, h ad f orced h t he a rt i s h is v iew. H e n ow b elieves i t c an b e s hown t hat ctivities o f o verwhelmingly, p ossibly e ntirely, a ssociated w ith t he a a rt. B efore m edicine m en: i t i s t herefore e ssentially a s hamanistic f t he p oints d eveloping t his v iew L ewis-Williams r esponded t o s ome o b egan

b y

s aying

t hat

h e

r aised i n t he f irst p art o f O ne o f s ymbolic

t he c hief

t oo

h ad

t he s ymposium.

s tumbling b locks

i nterpretation i s

i n

t he

w ay

o f

c omprehensive

t he a pparently n arrative h unting,

3 24

f ishing,

f ighting

a nd

d omestic

L ewis-Williams

s cenes.

n oted t hat

I n

r eferring

h ighly p ublicized, p roportion o f t he a rt a nd, a ppear t o c ome f rom m ore r ecent p eriods. S o, t hat

t o

t hese

p aintings

t hey c omprise a c omparatively s mall,

t hough

a s M aggs a dded, t hey e ven i f i t w ere g ranted

t hese s cenes w ere r ecords o f e vents a nd n ot s ymbolic

i n a ny

w ay,

t he v ast b ulk o f t he a rt w ould r emain u nexplained. E ven t his a pparently r easonable c oncession t o t he n arrative v iewpoint d oes n ot, h owever,

s eem

t o

b e

j ustified.

I n q uestioning t he l iteral v iew o f

t hese s cenes L ewis-Williams c ited N atal

D rakensberg.

T he f irst,

t wo c elebrated

o ne o f

S an f leeing f rom m ounted m en w ho a re s hooting b etween t hese c ontention. h ow

d o

t wo g roups a re n umerous k now i t

v iew b e m ore

r eadily

a cceptable

t his

g roup

m an i n t he c haracteristic d ancing s ticks. B lood f alls

a t

t han

a

w ith

t here i s a

t he s hows

r ifles;

i nsisted

w as:

W hy s hould t hat v iew?

P robably

H e t her p ointed o ut

v ery

d istinctive

t hat

m edicine

b ending-forward p osture a nd h olding t wo f rom h is n ose s howing h e i s a m edicine

t he s outhern S an f requently b led f rom t he n ose w hen t hey e ntered

s uffering

e pistais.

T his a nd s imilar s cenes

m ay b e e xplained b y t he c oncept o f t hey c ould c ontrol

t he r ain,

' control':

u sed

t heir

t raditional

t herefore

d ances

s how

m en

m en

e ntered

t rance

i n

a n

a ttempt

t he w hite s ettlers.

n ot n ecessarily a r ecord o f a n e vent;

s o

a nd s ickness.

e e lement e ntered t heir l ives,

r ituals

i ncursions a nd d epredations o f

o f

f rom t he c ontact p eriod

t he m ovements o f g ame,

I t s eems t hat w hen t he n ew d isrupt ._ S an

t hem

s ymbolic

t rance a nd m any a pparently r ealistic d epictions

t hat

f rom

p resumably t he s ource o f

i s a r ecord o f a n a ctual e vent?

t he n arrative v iew i s e thnocentric.

i n t he t op r ight o f

m an;

c attle,

T he f irst q uestion o n w hich L ewis-Williams

y ou

b ecause

p aintings

t hose m entioned b y M azel,

t he

t o c ontrol t he

T his

p ainting

i s

i t m ay b e a s tatement

o f t he e fficacy o f a S an r eligious p ractice. C ertainly, t he m edicine m an s hows t hat t his s cene i s a ssociated i n s ome w ay w ith t rance p erformance a nd i s t herefore e xplicable b y t he t rance h ypothesis. N on-realistic e lements a re a lso s ometimes f ound i n t hose p aintings w hich h ave b een s een a s m erely a esthetically p leasing d epictions o f a nimals.

T o

w ell-known

i llustrate

p ainting

o f

D rakensberg a nd a rgued p recludes s ymbolic

t his a

t hat

p oint,

r hebuck

L ewis-Williams

h erd

t he b eauty o f

l ines a cross f urthermore,

i n

t his

c ase s hows

a

C ave,

s uch d epictions

i n

t he N atal

n o

w ay

t hat

p ainting.

I ndeed,

c lose

t he e land h ave n on-realistic r ed

t heir f aces, a s d o m any p aintings o f m edicine m en, a nd, t hat a m edicine m an i n a t ypical d ancing p osture h as b een

s uperimposed o n o ne o f h arness

s howed

B attle

i nterpretation a ny m ore t han s ymbolism i s r uled o ut

b y t he b eauty a nd d etail o f a M ichelangelo i nspection

f rom

t he r hebuck.

s upernatural

p ainting s eems

I n t he t rance d ance m edicine

p otency o ften n amed a fter a ntelope,

t o r elate a nimal s ymbols o f

t his p otency

t o

m en

a nd t his a t

l east

o ne m edicine m an. T ime d id n ot p ermit m ultiplication o f e xamples, b ut L ewis-Williams a rgued t hat e ven t he f ew d iscussed c alled i n q uestion t he u se o f t he a rt

a s

a n e thnographic r ecord b ecause w e c annot b e s ure w hether w hat

w e a re l ooking a t i s r eal o r i maginary.

T he o nly w ay t o

s ettle

t his

i s t o k now a bout i tems a nd p ractices f rom t he e thnography b eforehand, a nd t hen t o d etect t hem i n t he a rt. A t b est, t he a rt m ay t hus b e s aid t o i llustrate c ertain a spects o f t he o ther w ay r ound a nd

t he e thnography,

b ut o ne c annot a rgue

i nfer p ractices a nd t he u se o f

a rt. M anhire h ad, L ewis-Williams a rgued, a dopted r easoning. T he ' nets w hich M anhire i dentified a re

3 25

i tems

f rom

t he

t his e rroneous m ore p robably

p hosphenes, t he n eurologically f ormed h allucinations e xperienced i n t he e arly s tages o f t rance a nd e ven b y m igraine s ufferers. B ecause t hey a re a p roduct o f t he h uman n ervous s ystem, t hey h ave b een f ound i n s hamanistic a rt i n v arious p arts o f t he w orld. L ewis-Williams s howed o ther e xamples o f p hosphenes i n s outhern A frican a rt. H e a lso c ited a nother p ractice w hich h as b een i nferred f rom t he a rt: t he u se o f r ope b ridges b y D rakensberg S an. B ut t he c elebrated p ainting s howing s uch a ' bridge a lso h as m en b leeding f rom t he n ose, w omen c lapping a nd t rance-buck. W hatever t he ' bridge' m ay b e, t he c ontext i s t herefore t rance, a nd i t w ould b e d angerous t o i nterpret t he ' bridge' l iterally. L ewis-Williams c oncluded b y a rguing t hat ' symbolic i nterpretations' s hould n ot b e r estricted t o p aintings l ike t herianthropes a nd o ther n on-realistic f orms. T he w idely p ainted e land a nd r hebuck a re k nown t o h ave b een s ymbols o f t he s upernatural p otency e xploited b y m edicine m en, a nd m any s eemingly l iteral s cenes h ave e lements w hich c ast d oubt o n a p urely n arrative i nterpretation. I t i s n ot i n q uestion t hat t he S an h ad m edicine m en w ho e ntered t rance n or t hat t heir e xperience i s d epicted i n a t l east s ome p aintings. C ontinuing r esearch s uggests t hat f ar m ore o f t he a rt t han o riginally t hought i s r elated t o t rance e xperience a nd s ymbols.

a rt,

A fter t his e xposition o f t he m etaphorical o r s ymbolic v iew o f estion m embers o f t he p anel. t he m eeting w as i nvited t c -u

t he T he

d ebate w as l ively a nd c larification w as s ought o n a n umber o f p oints. P rominent a mongst t hese w as t he q uestion o f r egional d ifferentiation. L ewis-Williams p ointed o ut t hat t he t rance h pothesis d oes n ot d epend u pon s tyle o r a g iven r atio b etween c lasses o f s ubject m atter; i t i s t herefore i rrelevant t o a dduce s uch d ifferences i n a n a ttempt t o s how t he t rance h ypothesis i s i napplicable i n c ertain r egions. T he a rt i n a ll r egions h as d etails s uch a s t herianthropes, n asal b leeding, t he b ending-forward

p osture,

' infibulation', b uck-headed s erpents a nd s o

o n; t he a rtists a ll o ver s outhern A frica w ere t herefore p robably e xpressing a p an-San c ognitive s ystem ( albeit w ith l ocal v ariations), a c onclusion s upported b y s triking e thnographic s imilarities b etween w idely s eparated a reas. T he o ft-cited a nalogy b etween C hristian a rt a nd r ock a rt w as a lso e xplored d uring t he d iscussion. S ome p articipants t hought t hat d etails o f, f or e xample, d ress o r w eapons i n W estern a rt, c ould i ndicate t he p eriod a nd n ationality o f t he a rtist. M oreover, i t w as a rgued t hat i nformation a bout s uch m atters c an b e g leaned f rom p aintings n o m atter w hat t heir s ymbolic c ontent; s uch s tudies c oncentrate o n t he i conic a spects o f t he p aintings r ather t han o n t heir s ymbolic f unction. I t w as, h owever, p ointed o ut t hat w ithout s ome h istorical i nformation a nd, m ore i mportant, a n u nderstanding o f t he v ery n ature o f t he a rt

( which a spects a re

i conic

a nd

w hich

a re

n ot) v ery l ittle c ould b e c onfidently d erived f rom s uch s tudy. C ertainly, d etails s uch a s t he s ignificance o f b lue i n t he V irgin M ary's d ress c annot b e u nderstood w ithout r ecourse t o C hristian ' ethnography'. T he s ymbolic c onvention o f a ssociating b lue w ith t he V irgin M ary c ould e asily m islead s tudents l acking a n u nderstanding o f C hristian s ymbolism t o i nfer t hat w omen w ith y oung c hildren w ere, a t c ertain p eriods i n W estern h istory, r equired t o w ear b lue g arments. I n W estern a nd i n S an a rt w e m ust t herefore k now w hich a spects o f a p ainting

a re i conic a nd w hich a re s ymbolic b efore w e a ttempt t o i nfer

3 26

i nformation a bout

t he s ociety w hich p roduced

T he s ymposium s howed v iew

o f

a t

l east

t hat m ost p articipants

s ome r ock a rt,

i nformation ( material c ulture, f rom

t he

a rt.

t he a rt.

e cology a nd s o

F ew p articipants

f orth)

t he

c an

f elt t hese a pproaches

e xclusive, a nd m ost t hought t he t itle o f M etaphor", w as t herefore m isleading. w ill n o d oubt s how h ow a nd

a ccept

s ymbolic

b ut m any a lso b elieve o ther k inds o f b e

d erived

t o b e m utually

t he s ession, " Narrative o r F uture w ork a nd p ublications

t o w hat e xtent r esearchers w ill b e a ble

i ncorporate r ock a rt s tudies

i nto

t o

g eneral a rchaeological r esearch.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he

s ymposium

w as

o rganized a nd c haired b y J . E .

P arkington.

A

d raft o f t his r eport w as s ent t o a ll p articipants s o t hat t heir s uggestions f or i mproved r eportage c ould b e i ncluded. I t hank t hose w ho r esponded a nd a lso m y c olleagues i n t he D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity

o f

t he

W itwatersrand, w ho o ffered c onstructive c omments.

D enise G elling k indly t yped s uccessive d rafts.

3 27

P ART THREE

T HE F AUNAL WORKSHOP

3 1.

A GENCIES A ND N UMBERS: R eporter:

O ver

t he

p ast

d ecade

i ncreasingly a ware o f n ature

o f

t he

G raham A very

o r

s o

a ssemblages

t hey

i nterpretations

B ehrensmeyer & H ill

p alaeontologists

h ave

t he c omplex p rocesses w hich a ffect

b one

p alaeoecological

T HE F AUNAL W ORKSHOP

1 980;

G ifford

f actor i n h ominid s tudies

r ecover

b ased

o n

1 981).

( Brain 1 981;

a nd

t hem

t he

b ecome u ltimate

t herefore

( Voorhies

a ny 1 969;

T his h as b ecome a n i mportant

C lutton-Brock & G rigson

1 981),

b ut h as g enerally r eceived l ess a ttention f rom a rchaeologists. A rchaeological i nterpretations o f h uman b ehaviour r ely h eavily o n e vidence

d erived

f rom

: emains

f aunal

t here i s l ittle u nderstanding o f, t he

s amples

t hemselves

b ut, d espite r ecent w arnings,

o r i nterest

( Grayson

1 979;

i n,

t he

H aynes

r eliability

1 980;

o f

M orlan 1 980;

B inford 1 981). I n s outhern A frica H endey &

S inger

( 1965)

p ioneered

t aphonomic

s tudies o f a rchaeological m aterial w ith t heir d escriptions o f r emains f rom a djacent o ccurrences i n t he G amtoos R iver V alley. c ompared

a

a ctivity

f aunal

w ith

a ssemblage

o ne

a fricaeaustralis)

a nd

t hought

t o

f aunal T hey

h ave r esulted f rom h uman

a ccumulated

b y

a

d emonstrated

c haracteristic f eatures b y w hich

t hey c ould d istinguish t he t wo a gencies.

p orcupine

A t t he t ime,

( Hystrix

h owever,

t hey

d id n ot c onsider t he p ossibility t hat m ore t han o ne a gency c ould h ave b een r esponsible f or t he " human" a ccumulation. L ater r esearchers, n otably

B rain

( 1967a,

1 967b,

1 974,

1 980,

1 981)

a nd K lein

( 1980),

a ttempted t o c haracterize t he r esults o f h uman a ctivity a nd o ther a gencies a s r eflected b y f aunal s amples. M ore r ecently, h owever, a s m ore s outhern A frican a rchaeologists h ave b ecome i nterested i n s tudies,

a wareness

o f

t he

s tudies o f m odern b one a ccumulations S cott & K lein 1 982;

G . A very e t a l.

A rchaeozoologists,

a nd

o thers, t hat

a nalysts

t o

s outhern

( D.M.

A frica

A very

1 982;

B rain

1 981;

i n p ress).

i nformation a nd i t w as a pparent i n

f aunal

p roblems o f a gencies h as l ed t o p arallel

h ave t he g et

g ained m uch e xperience a nd t ime

w as

r ipe

t ogether f or t he

f or

f aunal

f irst

t ime t o

d iscuss t he c urrent s tatus o f t he s ub-discipline. P roblems o f a ccumulations a nd s ampling w ith s pecific r eference t o t he n eeds o f f aunal i nterpretation w ere m ajor i ssues n eeding t o b e n umber o f a rchaeozoologists w ere a pproached a nd w orkshop,

a gencies a nd n umbers,

w as

a dopted.

c onsidered. t he t heme o f

T welve

w ere r eceived a nd d istributed b efore t he c onference p articipants w ith a v iew t o r estricting t he w orkshop t o

A t he

c ontributions t o i nvited d iscussion.

H owever, i nterest i n t he w orkshop w as f ar g reater t han e xpected a nd s ome 7 0 p ersons a ttended. I n v iew o f t his t he f ormat w as c hanged t o e nable

p articipants

t o

g ive d elegates b ackground s ummaries o f

c ontributions.

T hereafter,

g eneral.

T en

o f

T horp

w as

A ge

( 24)

p roblems

d iscussion w as o pened t o

t he

t he c ontributions a ppear i n t his s ection;

t hen m oved

t o P art

d iscussed

t here;

1 s ince i t i s a lso r elevant t he

t heir

m eeting

i n

t hat o f t o

I ron

c ontribution o f B uchanan w hich

d iscussed t he u se o f k ilojoules a s a c omparative i ndex f or t he s tudy o f s hell m iddens w as e xcluded a s h is d iscussion o n t he q uantification

3 29

o f

s hellfish i s i ncluded i n B uchanan e t a l. A n

a lternative

t itle

f or

( 11)*.

t he w orkshop m ight h ave b een " ways o f

m inimizing m isinterpretation" a s B rain & G . T urner ( 33) c ommented. T his w as a c ommon t hread t hroughout t he w orkshop a nd c omes d own t o t he f act t hat, w ith i ncreasing s ophistication o f f aunal a nalysis, i t i s e ssential f or b oth e xcavators a nd i nterpreters t o a scertain t he n ature o f

t he s ample b eing a nalysed a nd

i n

d rawing

c onclusions a nd

t o b e c ertain o f

t he d ata

b ase

u sed

t o b e a ware o f t he p otential p roblems,

a s

D .M. A very ( 41) p ointed o ut. T here i s n o o ne-to-one r elationship b etween b ones a nd a nimal a ctivity. B iases c aused b y t he a ctivities o f d ifferent a gents c omplicate o f

h uman

e conomy

a nd

t he p icture a nd c an a ffect i nterpretations

t he

e nvironment.

T hackeray ( 35)

c onceptual f ramework i llustrating t he i nterrelationships t he b iotic a nd a biotic p rocesses t hrough w hich r eaching t he s tate o f t he e xcavated s ample, a nd r elationship o f

t he e xcavated s ample

f rom w hich i t w as d rawn. t he

t aphonomic

T urner

( 32)

s ample

a s

o f

c onsidering

d ata

e mbodied

i n

t he

A .

e xcavated

t he a ctivities o f p articular p redators a nd

s cavengers m ay b e e xamined i n r emains

o f

t he o riginal a nimal p opulation

w hich t ake p lace b etween t hese l evels.

g ave a n e xample o f h ow r esult

s ome

d ata p ass b efore w hich b ias t he

H e e mphasized t he i mportance o f

p rocesses

t he

t o

p rovided a

o f

o rder

t o

c omparison

w ith

p redators.

B oth G . Avery a nd B rain & G .

i dentify

t he

p redators

b y

p roduced b y t he k illing s trategies o f m odern T urner

( 33)

d iscussed

t he

) rmed p art o f a c omplex m osaic o f f act t hat p ast h uman a ctivity -i nteracting f aunal c omponents i n t he p alaeolandscape a nd t he f act t hat s uch

c omplexities

o ught

t o b e r evealed,

w here a nimals a nd p eople w ere l ikely r esults

i n

a n

p redators.

a ccumulation o f

T hey a lso d iscuss

t o

a s

i ndeed t hey a re,

c ongregate.

I n

i n a reas

t ime

t he p roblem o f

p artitioning

t races

t he a ctivity o f i ndividual a gents a nd e mphasize t he f act ambiguous m ulti-agent a ccumulations s hould n ot b e u sed a s a b asis r econstructing h uman e conomies i nteracted. B rain & G . T urner i dentification

o f

c ould r esult a ssociated

f rom w ith

o r t he f urther

t he

o f a nd

o f t hat f or

e nvironment w ith w hich t hey e xamined p roblems i n t he

e ach p otential b iotic a nd a biotic a gent.

( 34) p rovided e xamples r esource p artitioning

t his

t he p rey r emains o f a v ariety o f b one

G . Avery

t he t ypes o f b iased i nterpretation o f u tilization a s w ell a s s easonality t hat

u ncritical

a ssumption

" incontrovertible"

t hat

e vidence

f or

f aunal h uman

r emains a ctivity

n ecessarily r eflect h uman a ctivity. T his w as f urther e mphasized b y T horp ( 24) w ho p ointed o ut t hat, w hile a rchaeological i nterest m ost o ften f ocuses o n t he e vidence f or s ociological a nd e nvironmental f actors t hat a re a ssumed t o d etermine e conomic s trategies, t here a re c ases w here e conomic o f

c ultural

d eterminants

i nterpretations.

t he b ones

o perate

a nd

S he d emonstrated,

t hese

m ay

f or i nstance,

f rom t he K hami a ssemblage i ndicate r itualistic

d istort t hat

s ome

p ractices

s uch a s t hose o f t raditional h ealers i n B antu s ocieties w ho p ractise d ivination w ith b ones o f a nimals t hat a re e aten a s w ell a s o f t hose t hat

a re

n ot.

V oigt

( 36)

a lso d iscussed I ron A ge a ssemblages w hich

s he f eels a re l argely t he r esult o f h uman a ctivity. S he e mphasized t he n eed t o c onsider f actors s uch a s t he e ffects o f s ettlement p attern i n r elation t o a ctivity

a reas,

s ocial t he

o rganization, p resence

o r

t he a bsence

e xistence o f

d ogs,

o f

b utchering a nd f ood p reparation a nd l ength o f o ccupation.

* N umbers r efer t o C hapters

i n t his v olume

3 30

s pecialized

t he e ffects o f

C ontributions o n n umbers m inimum

n umber

( MNI)

i ntroduced t he p roblem o f t he m eaning

t his s tatistic o ver o ther m ethods r aised t he s ample s ize;

o f

e stimation.

A ll

s uch

e xtreme

f ragmentation

t hat

V oigt ( 36) a nd P lug ( 37) a re f amiliar b utchering t hey

d o

n ot c onsider

a pplication o f m ore s ophisticated q uantitative m ethods, d escribed

b y

A .

c ombination o f MNI

T urner

( 38),

t wo i ndices,

a re

j ustified.

m ethod a lso h as b een

s hortcomings.

e xcavated

s uch

e nough

t o

t he s ample.

a nd

t hat

t his

f ew I ron A ge s ites

i llustrate

v ariation i n t he d istribution o f b one o r t o e liminate t hat s uch v ariations a ffect

t he t hat

( NISP)

a lthough t hey a ccept

V oigt c ommented t hat

e xtensively

a s

T hey p refer t o u se a

n umber o f i dentified s pecimens

t o i llustrate r elative a bundances,

h ave

c ontributors

p oint t hat t he e fficiency o f a ny m ethod i s d ependent o n t he l arger t he s ample, t he g reater t he c onfidence t hat

c an b e g iven t o i nterpretations b ased o n i t. a rgued t hat i n t he s amples w ith w hich t hey c auses

o f

e stimates a nd t he a dvantages o r d isadvantages o f

t he

h orizontal p ossibility

P lug d emonstrated

t he p roblem

w ith a c omparison o f r esults o btained f rom q uantification o f f aunal s amples f rom a s eries o f p its o n a n I ron A ge s ite. A . T urner ( 38) d escribed a s tatistical m ethod f or e xtrapolating f rom r elative a bundances

i n t he e xcavated s ample t o t he k illed s ample f rom w hich i t

r esults a fter p assing t hrough v arious l evels o f a bstraction. t o

i nterpret

t he

a ctivities a nd f actors w hich t ransformed t he t he

d eposited

s ample

p reconditions:

k illed

a s d escribed b y T hackeray

a pproach i llustrates a n i mportant t wo

T his

i s

t ype o f k illing a ctivity a nd t herefore t he v arious

t hat

w hat

f ragmentation i s m inimal.

p opulation

( 35).

i nto

A lthough t his

n e o f r esearch i t i s r estricted b y i s

d eposited

i s

T hese r equirements a re,

r ecovered a nd h owever,

n ot

t hat o ften

m et i n I ron A ge a ssemblages, a ccording t o V oigt a nd P lug, a lthough t he m ethod m ay p otentially b e a pplicable t o s ome o f t he e arlier a ssemblages. ( MNI)

P oggenpoel

o f d ifferent

( 39)

d emonstrated

f ish s pecies

h ow

r elative a bundance

i s o ften b est r epresented b y d ifferent

b ody p arts. H e a lso s howed t hat d ifferences i n t he s izes o f i ndividuals a nd, t herefore, m eat y ield m ean t hat M NIs p rovide a m isleading

i ndex

o f

t he

r elative i mportance o f d ietary c omponents.

B uchanan f ollowed a s imilar c omparing t he y ields o f S .L.

H all

( 40)

l ine, u sing k ilojoules a s

t he s tandard f or

s hellfish s pecies a t a s eries o f s ites.

a sked

v arious

p ractical

q uestions

a bout

t he

s ampling o f s ites w ithin t he b ounds o f e conomy a nd l ogic a nd t he g enerally s mall s ize o f e xcavated s amples i n s outhern A frica. H e w as c oncerned a bout

t he

s ize

o f

s ample

w hich

w ould

b e

a dequate

q uantification a nd c omparison i n t he c ase o f l arge m icromammals. I n h er p aper o n s ampling b iases D .M. p rovided

p art

o f

t he

a nswer

f or

m ammals a nd A very ( 41)

f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f m icromammal

s tudies. S he e mphasized t he n eed f or l arger a nd m ore c omplete s amples i n o rder t o a llow m ore s ophisticated s tudy o f a spects o f p opulation s tructure a s a n a id t o e nvironmental r econstructions f ramework f or a rchaeological i nterpretation. A

f urther

c ontribution w as

a ccumulation a nd s ite f ormation,

t hat

p rovide

a

t he s tudy o f m odern p rocesses o f b one e mployed t o p rovide a d ata

b ase

f or

t he r ecognition a nd i nterpretation o f m ulti-agencies a nd o ther f actors a ffecting b one a ssemblages.

G . Avery ( 34)

u tilize

t he

t his

a ccumulators.

a pproach P oggenpoel

i n

( 39)

s tudy

o f

a nd B rain & G . T urner a vian

( 33)

a nd m ammalian b one

c onducted a n e xperiment o n t he

e ffects

o f c rushing o n t he c ranial p arts o f f ish s uch a s m ullet ( Mugilidae) w hich r evealed t hat t he b asioccipital, b eing h ighly r esistant t o

3 31

d estruction, p rovided a c omparative e lement p resence i n t he s amples o f o therwise " invisible" a lso

p ointed

o ut

s tudies o n B antu c omparable w ith

t he

u rgent

n eed

t o

t hat c ould r eveal t he s pecies. V oigt ( 36)

c onduct e thnoarchaeological

s ettlements b efore t hey c hange t oo m uch t o b e I ron A ge s ettlements. S uch s tudies w ould y ield

i nformation o n s patial d istribution, b one d isposal a nd d ispersal p ractices, b utchering p rocedures, a nd m ethods o f c ooking a nd t heir e ffect o n b ones. T here w ould a lso b e i nformation o n t he r ates o f a ccumulation o f m idden a nd k raal d eposits a nd a nimal h usbandry a nd i ts e nvironmental r equirements. I n t he d iscussion i t w as o f

m ultiple

a gents

i s

a mbiguities

t here i s n o n eed

c omplexity

o f

f aunal

i nterpretative

b asis

i nvestigations. o n

w hile

T he

m odern

t o b e

o f

w ill

o f

o f

l ead

m odern

r esearch.

a lways

R ecognition t o

a

m ore

b y

f urther f orm

o ut

t hat

a n h is

S an s ettlements h ad r evealed t hat h yaenas r emoved T his

i ntroduces a c onsiderable

l arger

a nimals.

o f I t

v arious

1 . 1

a gents.

w as

c lear

v ision

w orkshop w ould h ave g reatly e nhanced

b ias

i n

t he b ones o f s mall a nimals a nd t hat

a

a rchaeologists, w hile a ccepting t he a rguments p ut p rinciple, h ad n ot h ad t he o pportunity t o e xamine e xamples p roduced

t he

r eliable

s hould

p ointed

l eave

o f

c onduct

p rocesses

Y ellen

i dentification

p robably

t oo n egative.

r etention/preservation

f ragments

a lthough

w ill

a rchaeozoologists

s tudy

v irtually a ll v isible b ones. f avour

a nd

a ssemblages

i mportant e lement o f f uture s tudies

e mphasized t hat

d ifficult

o f

s uch

n umber

o f

f orward i n o f d amage

m aterial

t he u nderstanding a nd

a t

t he

e xperience

o f t hose u nfamiliar w ith s uch m aterial. B y

f ar

n umbers,

t he

m ost

l ively

p art

o f

t he d iscussion c entred a round

a s ubject a bout w hich m ore d elegates w ere f amiliar

a nd

w ere

a ble t o e xpress o pinions. S ome d elegates c learly h ad s trong o pinions o n t he u se o f i ndices s uch a s N ISP, MNIs a nd m ore s ophisticated m ethods o f e xtrapolation.

I t w as g enerally a greed, h owever,

h ad a p otential c ontribution a ssemblages,

p rovided

t he m ethods s elected i nterpretations

t o

m ake

t hat b asic w ere

b ased

t hat e ach

u nderstanding

f aunal

s ource d ata w ere p resented a nd

r elevant

o n t hem.

t owards t o

b oth

t he

s amples

t hat

a nd

t he

C ontributors w ere u nanimous i n t heir

c all f or l arger s amples w hich w ere m ore l ikely t o b e r epresentative o f p otential

v ariations

w ithin

t he a rea c overed b y a s ite.

T hey w ould

a lso p rovide a m ore a dequate b asis o n w hich t o a pply t he r esults o f s tudies o f m odern p rocesses a nd m ore s ophisticated s tatistical m ethods a imed a t i mproving t he r esolution o f i nterpretations. w hose

i nterests

w ere

s ampling, f elt t hat i nterested i n t he s trategies y ielded a ppeared

t o

t here w as n o n eed f or t his a rtefactual r emains t hat t han i n h uman

a ccept

S ome d elegates,

s pecifically d irected a t c ulture-stratigraphic

e conomies.

t he a rgument

t hat

a s t hey w ere m ore t heir c hosen s ampling

T he

m ajority

a lso a ffect t he i nterpretation o f a rtefactual s amples s ince e nvironmental b ackground, b ased o n f auna a nd o ther e lements, a n

e ssential

f ramework

f or

h owever,

i nadequate f aunal s amples

u nderstanding

c ould

a s ound i s o ften

c ulture-stratigraphic

p rocesses. O f

e qual

i mportance

t o

s ample

s ize w as

t he m aintenance o f a h igh

s tandard o f f ield r ecovery m ethods i n o rder t o p rovide d etail

c oncerning

p rovenance,

f eatures n ecessary f or a b etter u nderstanding o f m odern a rchaeozoologist

s eeks

t he

l evel

o f

a ssociation a nd c ondition o f f inds a nd

t o r esolve.

3 32

t he c omplexities

t he

R EFERENCES A VERY,

D .M.

1 982.

M icromammals a s

a n i nterpretation o f P rovince, A VERY,

G .,

S outh A frica.

A VERY,

D .M.,

Ann. a nd

P aper

A fr.

S oc.

S .

S emi-Arid Environments, B EHRENSMEYER,

A .K.

C hicago: B INFORD, B RAIN,

& H ILL,

L .R.

1 981.

S ta.

3 2:

C .K. C .K.

1 974.

C .K.

R .

i n p ress.

a t aphonomic

e ds . _

s tudy.

B one P oster

S WA/Namibia, J uly 1 983.

1 980.

F ossils

N ew Y ork :

i n

t he

m aking.

A cademic P ress.

f ood r emains a nd

f ossil b one a ssemblages. B one

w eathering

J .

S ci.

6 3:

t heir b earing o n t he S ci.

P ap. N amib

D es.

a nd

f rom

s outhern

2 9:

H ILL,

p roblem

o f

i n t he a nalysis

o f

b one

A frican

Q uaternary

b one

s ites.

A nn.

1 -8.

S ome

b one-collecting

t he

9 7-99.

S ome s uggested p rocedures

1 980.

&

A .P.,

S . A fr.

T ransvaal Mus.

A .K.

C ape

S ymposium o n t he Z oology o f A rid a nd

H ottentot

1 967b.

a ccumulations B RAIN,

s outhern

1 83-374.

1 -11.

p seudo-tools. B RAIN,

& L OUTIT,

j ackals,

S wakopmund,

B ones.

1 967a.

i nterpretation o f B RAIN,

S .G.

t he 8 5:

U niversity o f C hicago P ress.

C .K.

R es.

i n

S . A fr. M us.

B RAINE,

a ccumulation b y h yaenas Z ool.

p alaeoenvironmental i ndicators a nd

t he L ate Q uaternary

c riteria

a gencies A .P.,

i n

e ds.

f rom

t he

A frican c aves. F ossils

i n

r ecognition I n :

t he

o f

B EHRENSMEYER,

m aking.

C hicago:

University o f C hicago P ress. B RAIN,

C .K.

1 981.

T he h unters o r

t he h unted?

C hicago:

U niversity o f

C hicago P ress. C LUTTON-BROCK, 1 .

J .

& G RIGSON,

H unters

a nd

C .,

t heir

e ds.

1 983.

p rey.

A nimals a nd a rchaeology.

O xford:

B ritish A rchaeological

R eports. G IFFORD,

D .P.

1 981.

T aphonomy a nd p aleoecology:

a rchaeology's

s ister

d isciplines.

I n :

A dvances i n a rchaeological m ethod a nd Y ork:

2 :

1 979. M .B.,

1 99-237. G .

N ew Y ork :

1 980.

Q .B.

G amtoos

M .B.,

e d.

3 65-438.

N ew

A cademic P ress.

E vidence

& S INGER, R iver

2 06-213. K LEIN, R .G. 1 980. Age

4 :

Q uantification o f v ertebrate a rchaeofaunas. I n: e d. A dvances i n a rchaeological m ethod a nd t heory

R ecent m ammalian b ones. H ENDEY,

t heory

A cademic P ress.

G RAYSON, D .K. S CHIFFER, H AYNES,

a c ritical r eview o f S CHIFFER,

R .

o f c arnivore-gnawing o n P leistocene a nd P aleobiology 6 :

1 965.

v alley

T he

3 41-357.

f aunal

s helters.

S .

a ssemblages

A fr.

a rchaeol.

T he i nterpretation o f m ammalian f aunas

a rchaeological s ites,

w ith s pecial r eference

f rom

t he

B ull.

2 0:

f rom

t o s ites

S tone i n

t he

s outhern C ape P rovince, S outh A frica. I n: B EHRENSMEYER, A .K. & H ILL, A .P., e ds. F ossils i n t he m aking. C hicago: U niversity o f C hicago P ress. MORLAN, R .E. o f t he

1 980. T aphonomy a nd a rchaeology i n t he U pper P leistocene n orthern Yukon T erritory: a g limpse o f t he p eopling o f

t he N ew W orld.

N atl

M us.

C anada P ap. 9 4: 1 -398. S COTT, L . & K LEIN, R .G.

1 981.

f rom L ate H olocene d eposits S . A fr. M us. V OORHIES,

M .R.

8 6:

M ercury

S er.,

A rchaeol.

S urv.

A h yena-accumulated b one a ssemblage a t D eelpan,

O range F ree S tate.

A nn.

2 17-227.

1 969.

P liocene v ertebrate W yoming C ontr.

Man

T aphonomy a nd p opulation d ynamics o f a n e arly f auna,

t o G eol.

Knox

S pec.

P ap.

33 3

C ounty, 1 :

1 -69.

N ebraska.

U niv.

o f

3 2.

I DENTIFYING B ONE-ACCUMULATING AGENTS A .

T urner

I NTRODUCTION K lein

( 1982)

h as p roposed

t hat a h igh p roportion o f

j uveniles,

i n

b one s amples o f c ertain b ovid s pecies w ith o therwise a ttritional d eath a ssemblage

p rofiles,

s uggests

p rimary h ominid p redation.

t hat n on-hominid p redators t end

H e a rgues

t o c onsume y oung i ndividuals a nd

t heir

b ones v ery q uickly, m aking s uch c arcasses u navailable t o a s cavenging h ominid. A t s ites w here h ominids a nd o ther p redators a re p resent, a h igh

f requency

h ominids w ere

o f

j uvenile

p rey

t he m ajor h unters o f

r emains

K lein's a rgument o ffers a b asis a re

p resent

a nd t he

S hould

s uggest

f or i nterpretation

w e

l ow i n

p art

t hen a ssume

t hat

w hen

j uvenile p rey f requencies h igh.

j uvenile f requencies a re s ample?

w ould

t he

t hat s pecies.

o r

p erhaps

t he c onverse,

h ominids

B ut w hat i f

a ll

o f

t he

t he p rey

t hat t he h ominids w ere

i ndeed s cavenging t heir f ood, o r s hould w e c onclude t hat a gents o ther t han h ominids w ere r esponsible f r t he a ccumulation o f m ost, i f n ot a ll, o f s ingle

t he b one? I t i s a pparent t hat o ne d istribution m ay s upport a i nterpretation b ut t he o ther m ay s uggest a n umber o f

a lternatives. E xamination o f d amage p atterning o n i ndividual b ones m ay

i dentify

a n umber o f a ccumulating a gents, a nd t hus h elp t o r educe t he p ossible r ange o f i nterpretations, b ut I t end t o d oubt t hat e very b one, o r e ven m ost

b ones

i n

a n

a ssemblage, t his

w ill b e s o a scribable

v olume).

I

s hould

( G. A very t his

v olume;

B rain & T urner,

t herefore

d iscuss

t he p ossibilities o f a r ather b roader a pproach t o

o f a gent

i dentification.

l ike

t o

t he p roblem

A N E XAMPLE O F T HE P ROBLEM T he e xample e mployed h ere i s d rawn f rom a s eries b one

a ssemblages

d eposits

( Table

f rom B ritain.

i n

t he

e xtensive d amage s potted

o f D evensian ( last)

h yaenas,

a nd

l arge-mammal

i s

a ttested

a t

q uantities o f s tone a rtefacts, b ut a s trong i nvolvement o f s potted h yaenas ( Crocuta

a ccumulation f ully

o f

g laciation a ge c ave

H uman p resence a nd a ctivity

t hese s ites b y v arying c ase c an b e m ade f or t he c rocuta)

1 )

o f

t he

c onsistent t his

b ones.

w ith

s pecies

t hat

M any

b ones e xhibit

i nflicted

b y

m odern

i tself f orms a m ajor c omponent o f

e ach a ssemblage ( Turner 1 981a, 1 981b). T here i s e very i ndication t hat t hese a nimals w ere b reeding, l iving, e ating a nd d ying i n t he v icinity o f t he c aves. t han

t he

( Canis l upus). o f m ost o f T he s imply

A lso p resent,

h yaenas,

a re

a lthough i n

r emains

J uvenile r emains

o f

c onsiderably

l ions

l ower

( Panthera l eo)

f orm a l ow p roportion o f

n umbers

a nd w olves t he

s ample

t he u ngulate s pecies.

a rchaeozoologist c oncluding

t hat

c ould h umans

l eave w ere

34 3

t he

a nalysis

p resent

b ut

a t

t hat p oint,

p robably

n ot

r esponsible f or t he a ccumulation o f m uch o f t he b one. I f eel t hat s uch a c onclusion w ould, h owever, r eflect a n u nduly n arrow c oncept o f p alaeoecological i nformation. E ven i f t he b ones w ere l argely a ccumulated b y h yaenas, i t r emains p ossible t hat t hey s cavenged t he m aterial f rom t he k ills o f o ther p redators. T hese o ther p redators m ay w ell h ave i ncluded m an. F urthermore, m an a nd t he l arge p redators w ere p otential r ivals f or t he f ood a vailable, a nd i nformation a bove t he a ctivities o f c ompetitors c annot b e c onsidered i rrelevant

t o

t he

i nvestigation o f h uman b ehaviour. I t i s t herefore w orthwhile t o a sk w hether t he h yaenas w ere o btaining t heir f ood b y s cavenging o r b y h unting. T o d o t his w e n eed t o a sk s upplementary q uestions e mploying d istributions i n t he a ssemblage w hich a re l ikely t o p reserve t he k ind o f i nformation w e s eek, a nd t o l ook f or f eatures o f a k illed p opulation o f a nimals w hich m ay b e c orrelated w ith t he a ctivities o f p articular p redators o f s cavengers.

T able

1

N umbers a nd p roportions s amples o f h orse r emains S ource: a uthor.

C anine

I ncisor

S ite o r s ource

%

i i

S ED

P robability

p >0,5 0 ,05>p>0,046 p >0,1 0 ,05>p>0,01

5 1 0 1

1 4,29 1 0,00 6 ,41 1 0,42 2 ,00

2 4 9 7 3 8 6 4 9

8 5,71 9 0,00 9 3,59 8 9,58 9 8,00

0 ,39 1 ,99 1 ,10 2 ,48

8 7 1

1 0,26 8 ,33 1 4,29

7 0 7 7

8 9,74 9 1,67

1 ,01 1 ,56

E xpected K ing A rthur's C ave U phill C ave W ookey H ole C ave C oygan C ave

o f c anine a nd i ncisor t eeth i n f rom B ritish D evensian s ites.

4 1

K ent's C avern P in H ole C ave R obin H ood's C ave

6

p >0,1 p >0,1

8 5,71

L OOKING F OR P REDATOR-RELATED P ATTERNING O ne o f t he m ost c ommon o f t he p rey s pecies f ound a t t hese B ritish s ites i s h orse ( Equus s p.), w hich f alls w ithin t he s ize r ange o f p rey h unted b y m odern s potted h yaenas. A lthough t he p roportion o f j uvenile h orses i s g enerally l ow, w e c annot a pply K lein's c riterion o f j uvenile f requency t o t he q uestion o f h unting v ersus s cavenging b y h yaenas s ince w e w ould e xpect t hese a nimals t o d estroy t he b ones o f y oung i ndividuals i n e ither c ase. B ut w e c an l ook a t t he d istributions w ithin t he a dult h orse s amples a s a g uide t o t he o riginal p redator a nd i ts a ctivities. B ecause a dults w ould a ll p resent a s imilar o bstacle t o c omplete c onsumption, w e m ay e xpect k illing p atterns t o b e l argely p reserved. P ienaar

( 1969),

K ruuk

( 1972)

a nd

S challer

( 1972)

p resent d ata

w hich s uggest t hat l ions t ake r oughly e qual p roportions o f a dult m ale a nd f emale z ebras ( Equus b urchelli) w hile s potted h yaenas t ake a h igher p roportion o f f emales. T his v ariation r eflects d ifferences i n t he h unting t echniques o f t he t wo p redators a cting i n c onjunction w ith t he d efensive t actics o f t he z ebras.

3 35

S tallions d efend t hemselves

a nd

t heir h arems a gainst c ursorial h unters l ike t he s potted h yaena, e ncouraging t he p redator t o c oncentrate o n t he m ares a nd y oung. S ince t his

t actic

1 974),

i s

a

g eneral

f eature o f e quid s ocial b ehaviour

w e m ay r easonably e xpect

t hat

B ritish

D evensian

( Groves

h orses

w ere

h unted i n s imilar w ays. H orse s amples w hich r eflect d irect h yaena p redation s hould t herefore c ontain a p reponderance o f a dult f emales. M ale h orses C anines

a nd

t end t o

h ave

c anine

i ncisors a re o f

t eeth

s imilar s ize,

w hile

f emales

d o

n ot.

a nd t herefore l ikely t o b e

s ubject t o s imilar t aphonomic b iases. I f m ale a nd f emale a dult h orses a re e qually r epresented i n a f ossil a ssemblage, t hen e ach i ndividual s hould c ontribute

s ix u pper a nd s ix l ower i ncisors.

E ach m ale

s hould

a lso c ontribute t wo u pper a nd t wo l ower c anines. W e s hould t herefore e xpect r oughly f our c anine t eeth t o e very 2 4 i ncisors i n a b one a ssemblage d rawn a t r andom f rom e qual n umbers o f a dult m ale a nd f emale h orses. T able

1 s hows

i ncisors

a t

s exual p arity. s tandard

t he n umbers a nd p roportions

t he

B ritish s ites,

T he l ast

e rrors

t wo c olumns o f

C oygan

d iffer f rom p arity a t e xercise

r atios

t he f ive p ercent

c aution

i n

a rising

l evel o f s ignificance.

a ccepting

t hese

b y

t he m ore s amples

t humb, w e c an m ultiply e ach

p robability

t hen r eassess.

w e

t he

w hen

c onsider,

t he

A s a r ule o f

n umber

I n t hat e vent C oygan w ould

s how a s ignificant d ifference a t a ll t he o ther s ites,

b y

H owever

p robabilities

p ossibility o f d eviation s imply b y c hance.

c onsidered a nd B ut

t hese o bserved

a nd U phill s ites h ave c anine r atios w hich

c onsidering a n umber o f s amples: t he

t he t able s how t he

f or o f

t he p robability o f

g reater

a nd

f or

t he

m ust

c anines

b etween o bserved a nd e xpected c anine p roportions

e ach s ample a nd

w e

h orse

n umber

c hance.

O nly

o f

t ogether w ith t he e xpected r atio

o f

s amples

j ust f ail t o

f rom p arity a t t he s even p ercent

l evel.

t he r atio o f c anines t o i ncisors s hows n o

s ignificant d ifference, i mplying t hat t he h yaenas a re u nlikely t o h ave a ccumulated t he h orse r emains a s a r esult o f d irect h unting. C an

w e

g o

f urther

a nd

i dentify t he s ource o f

t he h orse k ills?

W olves a re a n i mprobable s ource s ince t hey t oo a re l ikely t o h ave p referred f emales. E quality o f h orse s exes d oes m atch w ith l ion p redation p atterns, H ere

w e

f ace

h owever.

t he

B ut

w hat

a ssess

t he a ssemblage

h eavy

b ias

f or h uman a ctivity.

t owards m ales,

f or

o f

s uch

h uman

a

d istribution.

h ardly c onstitute a t est

H ad t he

i nstance,

t hat h uman b ehavior w as i nvolved i f n ature

o f

k illing

p atterns?

p roblem o f h aving n o e xpectation a gainst w hich t o

o nly B ut

d eposits

s hown

a

t hen w e m ight h ave s uspected t he

a nomalous

i t m ust b e s tressed

b ecause

t hat w ould

f or h uman a ctivity i n t he

o f

a bsence

o f

a n

a

p riori e xpectation. T able

2 d isplays

a dult h orses a dequate

t he r esults o f e xamining t he a ge p rofiles o f

f rom t hree o f

i n

t he

h ope

p redator r esponsible. k ills

t he B ritish s ites w here s ample

t hat

t his

m ight

o f a dult S erengeti h eights

o f

M 3.

z ebras, T he

s ignificantly among t hemselves,

b y p lacing t he D evensian h orses

D evensian

a ssemblages

a nd n either d o t he

d iffer f rom t he p attern o f z ebra k ills, s ite

d uring

t he

y oung

i nto

t o t he z ebras o n t he b asis o f

t hrough l ion k ills a nd n atural m ortality. D evensian

w ere

t ell u s s omething a bout

C omparison i s m ade w ith n atural d eaths a nd l ion

w hat a re h oped t o b e s imilar a ge c lasses c rown

s izes

t he

d o

d eaths

n ot

d iffer

o f

z ebras

T he K ent's C avern h orses d o

w ith m ore b eing k illed a t

t he

m iddle a ge, b ut w hat a re w e t o m ake o f

3 36

T able

2

( a)

P ercentages o f a dult z ebras a nd h orses

f rom v arious s ites a nd s ources a s f rom

t he

B ritish

( b)

t he

i n u pper

t he v arious a ge p rofiles

m ax. f or

h orses

S erengeti z ebras o n

t he

b asis

t hird m olar s pecimens.

R esults o f a K olmogorov-Smirnov t est

r esult o f

T he

s ites h ave b een p laced i n a pproximately

t he s ame a ge c lasses a s o f c rown h eight

i n a ge c lasses

i ndicated.

s hown

i n

( a).

f or

s imilarity o f

F igures

a re

t he

t he c alculation:

c um.

nl+n2)/nl.n2 % d ifference 4 // (

e ach p air o f a ge p rofiles.

f rom K ent's C avern a nd t he S erengeti l ion

a re

l evel. S ources:

s amples

t herefore S erengeti

D evensian h orses:

( 1%)

s ignificantly z ebras:

T urner

a nd

1 ,95

t he

O nly

t he

1 ,63

l evels f or

1 ,36

k ills

( 5%),

S ignificance

f igure d erived a re

d ifferent

S challer

a t

( 1972:

( 0,1%). t he

t able 4 7);

( 1981b)

( a) A dult h orse a ge s tages 5

( tooth w ear)

1

2

3

4

S erengeti n atural d eaths

1 0%

5 %

4% 4

1 2%

1 5%

1 5%

4 1

S erengeti l ion k ills K ent's C avern

1 3% 2 %

8 % 7 %

2 5% 5 1%

1 4% 2 3%

1 7% 1 4%

2 3% 2 %

1 38 1 26

0 %

3 %

4 6%

1 4%

1 4%

2 3%

3 5

0 %

6 %

3 5%

2 4%

1 8%

1 8%

3 4

S ite o r s ource

6

T otal

M 3 w ear s tages W ookey H ole M 3 w ear s tages C oygan C ave M 3 w ear s tages

( b) S ite o r s ource

S erengeti

S erengeti

K ent's

W ookey

C oygan

N atural

L ion

C avern

H ole

C ave

S erengeti N atural S erengeti L ion K ent's C avern W ookey H ole

0 ,67 0 ,78

1 ,95

0 ,48

0 ,95

1 ,10

C oygan C ave

0 ,78

0 ,84

1 ,09

37 3

0 ,37

5 %

s uch a d ifference? T o w hat e xtent s hould w e e xpect s imilarity, g iven t he d ifferent e nvironmental c ircumstances w hich m ay w ell h ave r endered c ertain a ge g roups o f t he z ebras a nd h orses m ore o r l ess v ulnerable? O nce a gain w e m ay f ind i t d ifficult t o g o b eyond s aying t hat t he h yaenas a t m ost o f t he s ites s eem t o h ave b een s cavenging h orse r emains a nd t hat t hose r emains m ay h ave b een o btained f rom k ills m ade b y l ions. T hat i n i tself i s a s ignificant f inding, h owever, s ince, a s t he w ork o f K ruuk ( 1972) o n m odern s potted h yaenas s uggests, t he o pportunity t o s cavenge m ajor p roportions o f t heir f ood i mplies a r elatively e asy t ime f or h yaenas. S uch c ircumstances a lso s uggest t he a vailability o f c onsiderable q uantities o f f ood f or e ach a dult p redator, a nd s uch ' background' i nformation i s o f d irect r elevance t o a ny c onsideration o f h uman a ctivity. U nfortunately, i t i s n ot p ossible t o a ssess m odern s potted h yaena k ills o f z ebras a gainst t he e vidence

f rom

C oygan

w here t he h yaenas m ay h ave b een k illing h orses

t hemselves, s ince I h ave n o s uitable c omparative d ata o n h yaena a ge-related p redation. T he C oygan a ge s tructure d oes n ot d iffer s ignificantly f rom t hat a t o ther D evensian s ites, b ut t hen h orses m ay h ave b een e qually v ulnerable t o b oth p redators.

C ONCLUSION A s i s p erhaps a ppropriate a w orkshop d iscussion p aper, t he r esults o f t his a nalysis s how b oth t he p otential a nd t he p roblems. I nterpretations o f a ccumulation a ctivity m ust b e b ased o n c lear p rior s tatements o f t he e vidence t o b e e xpected i f t he a ssemblage r eflects t he w ork o f a g iven a gent. T his r equirement i s l argely m et i n t he c ase o f h yaena v ersus l ion p redation, b ut w ithout k nowing w hat k ill-patterns w ould b e p roduced b y h umans, o r w hat s pecific a dult a ge c lasses o f a h orse p opulation w ould b e p reyed u pon b y d ifferent p redators, i t i s d ifficult t o g o f urther. S uch d ifficulties s erve t o h ighlight a reas w here r esearch i s n eeded, a nd u ntil i t i s u ndertaken i t r emains l ikely t hat o nly v ery b road i nterpretations o f m ultiple-agent a ctivity w ill b e p ossible i n m any i nstances. C onsidered i n t he l ight o f p essimistic v iews o n t he a bility o f b one-damage s tudies t o s eparate a gents c learly, t his c onclusion s uggests t hat t he u nravelling o f s uch c omplex t aphonomic h istories r equires c onsiderable f urther w ork. M oreover, i t s eems l ikely t hat a ny

s uch

u nravelling

w ill

o nly

t ake

t he

f orm

o f

p robabilistic

s tatements.

R EFERENCES A VERY, G .

1 984.

S acred c ows o r

j ackal k itchens, h yaena

m iddens

a nd

b ird n ests: s ome i mplications o f m ulti-agent c ontributions t o a rchaeological a ccumulations. I n : H ALL, M .J., A VERY, G ., A VERY, D .M., W ILSON, M .L. & H UMPHREYS, A .J.B., e ds. F rontiers: s outhern A frican a rchaeology t oday. P roceedings o f a C onference o f t he S outhern A frican A ssociation o f A rchaeologists, G aborone 1 983. O xford:

B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

B RAIN, C .K. & T URNER, G . 1 984. P roblems i n i n u nravelling m ulti-agent i nvolvement i n b one a ccumulations. I n : H ALL, M .J., .J.B., e ds. A VERY, G ., A VERY, D .M., W ILSON, M .L. & H UMPHREYS, -- A F rontiers:

s outhern

A frican a rchaeology t oday. P roceedings o f a

38 3

C onference o f t he S outhern A frican A ssociation o f A rchaeologists, G aborone 1 983. O xford: B ritish A rchaeological R eports. G ROVES, C . 1 974. C harles. K LEIN,

R .

G .

H orses,

1 982.

A ge

a sses

a nd

( mortality)

z ebras.

L ondon:

p rofiles

a s

a

D avid m eans

& o f

d istinguishing h unted s pecies f rom s cavenged o nes i n S tone A ge a rchaeological s ites. P aleobiology 8 : 1 51-58. K RUUK, H .

1 972.

T he s potted

h yaena.

C hicago:

C hicago

U niversity

P ress. P IENAAR,

U .

d e

V .

1 969.

P redator-prey r elationships a mongst

l arge m ammals o f t he K ruger N ational P ark. S CHALLER,

G .

B .

1 972.

T he

S erengeti

l ion.

K oedoe 1 2: C hicago:

t he

1 08-76. C hicago

U niversity P ress. T URNER, A .

1 981a.

U npubl. P h.D.

T URNER, A .

1 981b.

P redation a nd p alaeolithic m an i n n orthern E ngland.

I n :

B ARKER,

England:

G .

W .

1 1-26.

W .

e d.,

T hesis:

U niversity o f S heffield.

P rehistoric

U niversity

P rehistory a nd A rchaeology.

3 39

o f

c ommunities S heffield:

i n

n orthern

D epartment

o f

3 3.

P ROBLEMS I N U NRAVELLING M ULTI-AGENT I NVOLVEMENT I N B ONE A CCUMULATIONS C . K .

B rain a nd G .

T urner

I NTRODUCTION R emains

o f

h uman

c ulture

a re

a ssociation w ith b one a ccumulations,

f requently

f ound

i n

a nd i t i s r easonable

t o

d irect s uspect

t hat s uch a ccumulations w ill c ontain c lues t o t he d iet a nd w ay o f l ife o f t he s ite o ccupants. H owever, m odern o bservations s how t hat m any b one

a ccumulations

r esult

f rom

c ollecting a gent, a nd s uggest t hat o f a rchaeological a ssemblages. a rchaeologists r ecognize

t his

t he

a ctivities

t his I t

i s l ikely t o b e e qually i s t herefore i mportant

p roblem,

a nd

o f

a void

m ore

t he

t han o ne t rue t hat

m istake

o f

i nterpreting h uman b ehaviour o n t he b asis o f p atterns i n m aterial t hat m ay b e p artly o r e ntirely t he r esult o f o ther p rocesses. I t w ould t herefore b e u seful i nvolvement c ollected

a nd o r

d ivide

m odified

a b y

i f

o ne c ould u nravel t his m ulti-agent

b one

a ccumulation

e ach

p otential

u p

i nto

a gent.

c omponents

U nfortunately,

a lthough a n umber o f a gents m ay l eave r elatively u nambiguous t races o f t heir a ctivities o n t he b ones, m any d o n ot. o f

t he

p roblems

a mbiguity,

a nd

t hat

c onfront

s uggests

w ays

T his p aper d iscusses

s ome

t he a nalyst w ho i s d ealing w ith t his

i n

w hich

m isinterpretations

m ay

b e

m inimized.

I DENTIFICATION O F P OTENTIAL B ONE-COLLECTING O R B ONE-MODIFYING A GENTS A n

o bvious

f irst

s tep

m odified b y e ach a gent

i s

i n

s eparating

c omponents

t o i dentify p otential a gents.

c ollected o r T his

c an

b e

d one i n t wo w ays: 1 .

by

r ecognizing

h earths,

d iagnostic

s tructures

( porcupine

g nawing-marks

c ollecting a gents 2 .

t races o f h ominid a ctivity

e tc);

s pecies-typical o r

c ut-marks

e tc);

( water t ransport e videnced b y

( artefacts,

b one-modifications t races o f a biotic s ediment

s tudies

e tc); b y i dentifying i n t he a ssemblage s pecific a nimal r emains, s uch a s t hose o f h ominids, c arnivores a nd p orcupines, w hose i nvolvement i n t he

a ccumulation

m ay t hen b e s uspected.

P leistocene s ite

s uch a s S wartkrans,

c ats

l eopards,

( lions,

( Crocuta s p.,

H .

s maller c anidae

E VALUATION

O F

T HE

b runnea, s uch a s

D inofelis

a nd

H yaenictis s p.

j ackals

I n t he c ase o f a n e arly

t he c arnivores w ould M egantereon), a nd

E uryboas

i nclude h yaenas s p.)

a nd

( Canis s p.).

C ONTRIBUTION O F E ACH P OTENTIAL A GENT T O T HE F INAL

B ONE A CCUMULATION A ny e ffort o ne

o r

t o a ttribute b one-assemblage c omponents

m ore

r ecognition.

a gents

m ust

f irst

s eek

t o

u nambiguous

T hese c riteria c an o nly b e e stablished f rom

3 40

t he w ork c riteria s tudies

o f f or o f

m odern t aphonomic p rocesses, b ut t hese s tudies m ust t hemselves a void t he t rap o f s implistic u niformitarianism ( Gifford 1 981). A gencies m ay b e u sefully c onsidered i n t wo c ategories,

a biotic a nd

b iotic. E ven t hough t he p alaeontologist a nd a rchaeozoologist a re u sually m ore i nterested i n t he l atter, c are m ust b e t aken t o r ule o ut t he

f ormer

i n a ny a nalysis.

W orkers m ust

t herefore b e

f amiliar w ith

a biotic a gents a nd p rocesses. D istinguishing a biotic a gents S piral f ractures, a nd

i mpact

s tepping,

d epression

h ave

e vidence f or h ominid a ctivity 1 980).

B rain

( 1967),

f laking, a t

s urface

v arious

( Bonnichsen 1 979;

H aynes & S tanford

s uch d amage p atterns m ay r esult

m ovements,

a nd u ngulate t rampling.

d istributions

( Hill

1 975;

S hipman 1 981).

B ehrensmeyer

c ollection

t ime.

a nd

B oaz

o f

c ritique o f

t he

( 1982)

f act

r esult

t he

a s

w ater

h as

t hat

a lso p ointed o ut c ould

o f

p ointed

i nterpretations o f

f rom G ifford

a ctivities

m aterial,

h ave

c ompaction a nd

& B ehrensmeyer 1 976;

a

t hat

m imic

p redator

C onsiderable a ttention s hould t herefore b e g iven c ontext

M orlan

( 1983)

B one o rientations o r s keletal p art

S uch c oncentrations

t reatment

1 979;

a nd H aynes

p rocesses o f b one c oncentration m ay p roduce a ssemblages l ong p eriods o f

p olishing

i dentified a s

f rom d eposit

t hat a ppear d eliberate m ay i n

t ransportation

b een

S tanford

( 1982)

s hown t hat

i ncisions,

t imes

t o

1 981;

a biotic r epresent

t he

c arcass

o r s cavenger.

t he

o ut b y B inford

s edimentary ( 1977)

i n h is

t he O lorgesailie s ite.

D istinguishing b iotic a gents S eparation o f d ifficult b y t he

h ominid

a nd

n on-hominid

a ctivities

i s

r endered

l ack o f u niformity i n t he t reatment o f b one b y m odern

h umans a nd b y t he p roblem o f e xtrapolating s uch b ehaviour

t o

M any

a ctivity

w orkers

h ave

s ought

c riteria

o f

h ominid

t he p ast. i n

a rchaeological d eposits, t hereby r isking c onsiderable c ircularity i n t heir a rguments. W hile i n l ate p eriod s ites i nterpretations o f h uman a ctivity m ay b e

i ndisputable,

i nvolved h ominids a t a ll I n

N orth

America

c olonization o f

e arlier p eriod a ssemblages m ay n ot

( Binford a ttempts

h ave

1 981). t o e stablish a n e arly d ate

t he N ew W orld h ave e xposed m any o f

f or h uman

t he p itfalls o f

a n

i nadequate l ogical b ase. O n t he b asis o f s upposed b one t ools s ites w ithout h uman r emains o r s tone a rtefacts, o r, w here e vidence f or s uch p oor

a ssociation

i s,

h ave

b een

( Bonnichsen 1 979; M orlan 1 980). t ools u sing m odern m aterials,

t aken

t o r epresent h uman a ctivity

R eplication o f t he p urported b one t ogether w ith f urther f inds o f s imilar

f ossil a ssemblages, h ave b een s aid t o c onstitute p roof o f t he a rgument t hat e vidence f or h uman a ctivity h as b een f ound. S uch f allacies h ave b een s everely a ttacked b y a n umber o f w orkers ( Binford 1 981; D umond 1 982). M any o f t he f eatures o f t hese a ssemblages f ind p recise p arallels i n d amage-patterning t hat

r esults

f rom n on-hominid

p redator

a ctivities p rocesses).

( often i n c onjunction w ith p ost-depositional a biotic T he m ost p romising l ine o f r esearch w ould s eem t o b e t he

a ttribution

o f d amage p atterns o n b ones

a gents t hrough d etailed e xamination o f m arks f rom

p roduced t ooth

t o t he a ctivities o f

t heir t races.

F or

s pecific

i nstance c ut

b y s tone t ools m ay p rove t o b e c onsistently s eparable

marks

o f

a

c arnivore

( Shipman

e ven i f h ominid p resence a t

a s ite i s

1 981)

w hen

e xamined

m icroscopically. B ut

3 41

i ndependently s upported

b y t his a nd o ther f orms o f e vidence, i t m ay s till p artition t he e ntire a ssemblage b etween a gents.

b e d ifficult t o H aynes ( 1983) w as

a ble t o d istinguish b etween m odern b ones d amaged b y b ears, l ions

i n

f eeding

d istinguishing t he a ctivities

o f

( Sutcliffe 1 970; B rain 1 981). i nhabit a s ite, o r i f o ne a gent b een

a ttacked

b y

c onsiderable.

w olves

a nd

e xperiments a nd c riteria h ave b een e stablished f or

a nother?

F urthermore,

h yaenas,

p orcupines

a nd

l eopards

B ut w hat i f a n umber o f t hese a nimals f urther d amages b ones t hat h ave f irst P roblems

o f

d istinction

a t m any e arly s ites

s uch

t hen

a s

b ecome

S wartkrans,

p otential b one a ccumulators e xisted t hat a re n ow e xtinct a nd w hose p atterns o f b one-modifying b ehaviour m ay b e d ifficult t o r econstruct. T o a ll t hese d ifficulties w e m ust a dd t he f act t hat m any a gents p roduce s imilar p atterns o f d amage ( Haynes & S tanford 1 982), b ecause b one b reaks

i n a g iven w ay f or a s imilar g iven s tress.

C arnivores m ay

s imply n ot l eave t ooth-marks o n t he m ajority o f f ragments, a nd i t m ay b e e xtremely d ifficult t o d istinguish t his k ind o f d ebris f rom t hat p roduced b y i mpact w ith a s tone t ool

( Haynes

1 980).

C ONCLUSION I f a gents o f a ccumulation o f m odern unambiguously

d istinguished,

g reat

e xamination o f f ossil a ssemblages. u nwarranted

a ssumptions,

a nd

f allacies i n t heir a rguments. e very

s pecimen

S pecimens t hat f eatures

o f

i n

a n

c an b e t he

b e

s hould

c an

b e

a scribed

s hould

b e

s eparated

a ssemblage

c annot

b e

n ot

m ake

a ware o f a nd avoid l ogical

i s p robably e rroneous

a ssemblage

s o a scribed

a ssemblages

F aunal a nalysts

s hould I t

b one

c aution m ust b e e xercised i n t he

c onsidered.

t o e xpect t hat t o

a n

o ut

a gent. a nd

O bviously

t he

a mbiguous

m ulti-agent a ccumulations c annot b e u sed a s a b asis f or r econstructing h uman e conomic b ehaviour. R EFERENCES B EHRENSMEYER,

A .K.

1 982.

T ime

r esolution

i n

f luvial v ertebrate

a ssemblages. P aleobiology 8 : 2 11-227. B INFORD, L .R. 1 977. O lorgesailie d eserves m ore t han t he r eview. R eview o f " Olorgesailie: a rchaeological M iddle P leistocene l ake b asin i n a nthrop. R es. 3 3: B INFORD, L . R . 1 981.

K enya"

b y

G .

u sual b ook s tudies o f a

L l.

I saac.

4 93-502. B ones. A ncient m en a nd m odern m yths.

J .

N ew Y ork :

A cademic P ress. B OAZ, N .T. & B EHRENSMEYER, A .K. 1 976. H ominid t aphonomy: t ransport o f h uman s keletal p arts i n a n a rtificial f luviatile e nvironment. Am . J . p hys. Anthrop. 4 5: 5 3-60. B ONNICHSEN, R . 1 979. P leistocene b one R efugium. 8 9. B RAIN, C .K.

1 967.

p seudo-tools. B RAIN,

C .K.

t echnology

N atl M us. M an M ercury S er. B one S .

1 981.

w eathering

A fr. J . T he

S ci.

h unters

i n

a rchaeol.

a nd

t he

t he

S urv.

B eringian C anada P ap.

p roblem

6 3:

9 7-99.

o r

t he h unted?

o f

b one

C hicago & L ondon:

U niversity o f C hicago P ress. D UMOND, D .E.

1 982. R eviews a nd b ook

a bstracts:

A merican A rctic a nd t he N ew W orld. G IFFORD,

D .P.

1 981.

a rchaeology's

T aphonomy a nd p aleocology:

s ister

d isciplines.

I n :

A dvances i n a rcheological m ethod a nd t heory

3 42

c olonization

Am. A ntiq.

4 7:

o f

t he

8 85-895.

a c ritical r eview o f S CHIFFER, 4 :

M .B.

3 65-438.

e d.

H AYNES,

G .

1 980.

E vidence o f

R ecent m ammalian b ones. H AYNES,

G .

1 983.

u ngulate 4 8: H AYNES,

c arnivore g nawing o n P leistocene a nd

P aleobiulogy 6 :

F requencies o f

l imb

b ones

s piral a nd

3 41-351. g reen-bone

f ractures

i n m odern s urface a ssemblages.

1 02-114. G .

a nd

S TANFORD,

C amelops

D .

1 982.

O n

t he

p ossible

b y e arly m an i n N orth America.

u tilization

P aper p resented a t

A nnual M eeting o f A laska A nthropological A ssociation, A laska. H ILL,

A .P.

1 975.

M ORLAN,

R .E.

1 980.

P leistocene S urv. S HIPMAN,

D .

P h.D T hesis: a nd

n orthern

U niversity o f L ondon.

a rchaeology

i n

Y ukon T erritory:

t he

U pper

a g limpse o f

N atl Mus. M an M ercury S er.

1 979.

L ife

h istory

o f

C ambridge, M ass.:

t he

a rchaeol.

T he

S elby

a nd

& S TANFORD, a nd

D .

e ds,

D utton

a n i ntroduction t o

s ites:

e vidence

t he H igh P lains.

P re-Llano

p ossibilities.

a f ossil:

H arvard U niversity P ress.

p ossible p re-Clovis o ccupation o f p aradoxes

F airbanks,

P ap.94.

1 981.

p alaeoecology. S TANFORD,

t he

t he N ew W orld.

C anada P .

U npubl.

T aphonomy

o f

p eopling o f

o f 1 982

T aphonomy o f c ontemporary a nd L ate C enozoic E ast

A frican v ertebrates.

R .

o n

Am. A ntiq.

c ultures

I n:

o f

W ashington, D .C.:

t he

f or

a

H UMPHREY, Americas:

A nthropological

S ociety o f W ashington. S UTCLIFFE, A .J.

1 970.

c ollector o f b ones.

S potted h yaena: N ature 2 27:

3 43

c rusher,

1 110-1113.

g nawer,

d igester

a nd

3 4.

S ACRED

C OWS

O R J ACKAL K ITCHENS,

H YAENA M IDDENS A ND B IRD N ESTS:

S OME I MPLICATIONS O F MULTI-AGENT C ONTRIBUTIONS T O A RCHAEOLOGICAL A CCUMULATIONS G raham A very

I n r ecent y ears i ncreasingly f actors

t o

i nvolved

a ssemblages

p alaeontologists

r ealize i n

( Behrensmeyer & H ill t han

t he

b efore

o ne a gent

i s

a nd

a rchaeologists

h ave

a ccumulation

p alaeoecological 1 980).

T his h as

a nd

p reservation

i nterpretations

o f

c an

t he

h abits

m ade

l ed t o t he r ealization t hat m ore

f requently i nvolved. o f

b one

b e

I n a dopting t his a pproach f or

m y o wn r esearch I am s tudying c omparative c ollections o f p rey a nd

c ome

t he i mportance o f u nderstanding t he c omplex

a vian a nd m ammalian b one a ccumulators,

r emains i ncluding

h umans, i n b oth o pen a nd s heltered s ituations. I n p articular I a m i nterested i n i nterspecific a ctivity s ince t his c an c omplicate w hat m ight o therwise b e a r easonably s imple p icture. A ttempts a re b eing m ade t o d etermine w hat, i f a ny, s pecific c haracteristics m ight b e u sed t o c haracterize t he a ctivities o f p articular a gencies o f a ccumulation. A t

t he

s ame

t ime

I

a m

l ooking a t

t heir e ffects o n a rchaeological

i nterpretation. P ast h uman a ctivity f ormed p art o f a c omplex m osaic o f b etween m any f aunal c omponents i n t he p alaeo-landscape.

i nteraction

T his s uggests

t hat t he c omplexities o f i nteraction s hould b e r evealed, a s t hey i ndeed a re, i n a reas w here a nimals i ncluding p eople a re l ikely t o c ongregate:

e ither a t w ater, u nder

a reas i n s helters

n atural h oles s uch a s a ssumed,

f or

t he

o ne s pecies w ill t ime

s hade,

i n t he o pen ( burrows)

i n

l iving

r ock s helters o r c aves).

l arger p redators a t

l east,

I t c an

b reeding

( burrows a nd

b e

r easonably

t hat a l ocality s uited t o

s uit o thers a t l east o n o ccasions

t his w ill r esult

a nd

o r i n r ocky a reas

a nd

t hat

t hrough

i n a c omplex b uild-up o f p rey r emains l eft b y a

v ariety o f b one a ccumulators. F or i nstance a b urrow d ug b y a n a ardvark ( Orycteropus a fer) c ould b e u tilized b y a n umber o f p redators a nd o ther b one a ccumulating j ackals a nd f oxes

H uman a ctivity c ould a lso d ifficult

t o

a nimals

s uch

( Canidae) a nd p orcupines

e nvisage

t ake p lace

a s

h yaenas

( Hyaenidae),

( Hystrix a fricaeaustralis).

i n t he

s ame

a rea.

I t

i s

t he s ame h appening i n n atural s helters

n ot

s uch a s

c aves o r r ock-shelters. I n a ddition, l arger p redators s uch a s h umans ( Homo s apiens), v arious c ats ( Felidae), d ogs ( Canidae) a nd h yaenas t ake a r ange o f t o

s ize

a nd

s pecies h abitat,

a nd,

s ame c an b e s een f or l arger s pecies

o f

t he

t op

o f

a vian

A ccipitridae,

w hich a ccumulate b ones. t he

r ange

i n s pite o f s ome

o f

t he

B athyergidae, V iverridae, ( Serpentes)

a s

a

n umber

T his

S ciuridae)

m onitor

t hat

i ncludes

3 44

a t

t here i s

m edium-sized

o f

a nd

t he

r odents

a nd

s maller

( Pedetidae, c arnivores

I t a lso i ncludes r eptiles,

l izards

o f

a nd d omesticated a nimals, b aboons ( Primates), h ares

s pecies

F elidae).

T he

S trigidae a nd C orvidae a ll o f

( Bovidae) m onkeys,

l arger

( Mustilidae, s nakes

s uch

t he l arger m ammalian p redators,

o verlap.

H ystricidae, a s

a ccording

A lthough t heir p rey i s s maller t han

n evertheless c onsiderable

a ll

p redators

F alconidae,

y oung o f l arger a ntelopes h edgehogs ( Erinaceus f rontalis) ( Leporidae),

s egregation

s how r emarkable o verlap i n p rey s pecies.

( Varanidae)

a nd

s uch

t ortoises

( Chelonia), w aterfowl a lso

a nd b irds

f requently

a griculturalists p articular h abits.

t aken f or a

b one

b y

o f

c entral

a nd

s pecies

a re

p astoralists

a nd

o f

t hese

p urposes.

w ill

T hus s ome p redators s uch a s

v ary

T he

c ontribution

a ccording t o

l ions

( Panthera

o f

l ocality a nd

l eo),

l eopards

c heetahs ( Acinonyx j ubatus), w ild d ogs ( Lycaon ( Canis m esomelas) ( inland), w hich d o n ot t ake f ood

e ating

a ccumulate b ones

( Phasianidae, N umididae), M any

h unter-gatherers,

v ariety

a ccumulators

( Panthera p ardus), p ictus) a nd j ackals t o

s uch a s g ame b irds

( Phoenicopteridae, A natidae).

o r

b reeding

a reas a re l ess l ikely

t han a re a ccumulators

s uch

a s

r egularly t o

h umans,

h yaenas

a nd

p orcupines. T hey a re, h owever, r esponsible f or r egularly c ontributing b ones t o t he l andscape a nd, i ndirectly, t o t he a ccumulations m ade b y s cavengers. o f

I n s uitable p laces

t hese p redators,

o f b ones T hus,

( Brain 1 981).

u nder

s uch

a ccumulations,

s uch a s

n otably l eopards,

c aves t he a ctivities o f

w ill r esult i n t he

T he s ame a pplies

t o a vian p redator/scavengers.

c onditions,

m ulti-agent

c ontributions

c onsequent

c omplexity,

a re

a nd

r ather t han e xception.

A t

s ome

a ccumulation t o

p robably

t he s ame t ime i t s hould b e n oted

b one

t he n orm t hat w hile

t here a re f ocal a reas f or a ccumulation, t hese s ame a reas m ight a lso p rovide p oints o f d ispersion w here s cavenging b y h yaenas, j ackals, d omesticated

d ogs,

( Canis

f amiliaris)

o r p orcupines

w here t here i s r efuse r emoval b y h umans. c ause

m ovement

o f

e lements,

a re

t akes p lace o r

T rade o r s haring,

a lso

f actors

w here

w hich b oth h umans

a re

r ecognize

t he

c oncerned. T he q uestion

i s

c ontributions o f c omponent. o f

w hich

a ssemblage

s hall

u nlikely t o c oincide t o b e m ade.

b e

a ble

w hich

m ost

s ufficiently t o a llow b etter

I t m ay b e p ossible i n t he e vent

t han

t hat

t o o ne a ccumulator.

a n

D amage

i s e asily r ecognized b ut t his a ctivity m ay b e f urther r emoved f rom t he p rimary a gency. B rown

( Hyaena b runnea) o ccur

a ccumulations a ppear

t o

i n a r epeated p attern,

a ccumulations.

b ear

c haracteristic

b oth i n t erms o f d amage

a nd i n t he p roportions o f b ody p arts p reserved. j ackal

t o

a nd b e a ble t o i solate t he h uman

s hows c haracteristics s pecific

c aused b y p orcupines s econdary o r e ven f eatures

w e

T he a nswer i s c omplex a nd d ependent o n m any f actors, a re

c rude e stimates

h yaena

w hether

i ndividual p redators

T he s ame

a pplies

t o

W hile c omparison r eveals o bvious d ifferences

i n t he a bility o f e ach s pecies t o d estroy s imilar b ones, t his p romise i s s hort-lived w hen m ulti-specific a ctivity a nd t he e ffects o f d ifferent-aged a nimals i s c onsidered.

I t

i s

l ikely t o b e d ifficult o r

i mpossible t o d istinguish b etween t he h andiwork o f a dult j ackals a nd h yaena p ups a nd t he v arious a dult/juvenile s cales o f o ther p redators s uch a s f oxes, c ats, m ongooses a nd d omestic d ogs. o bvious f or p rey a ssemblages o f o ne s pecies o r t herefore

b e

o verlapped

b y

C haracteristics s ize r ange c an

d ifferent h abits a nd a ge

g roups.

p unctate f ractures a nd o ther f racture p atterns, u sually t hought

S mall t o

b e

c haracteristic o f c hewing b y s mall c arnivores, a re i n f act r eplicated b y t he b ills a nd t alons o f b irds o f p rey. T hus, a lthough i t m ay b e p ossible

t o

n ot b e e asy, c onsistently. k nowledge a t s uch

a s

r ecognize T his t his

h abitat

m ay

s tage. a nd

f requency o f p rey t aken, a nd c omplexity a ssessing. T his r ock-shelters

s ome a gents,

o r

o r p erhaps e ven p ossible, b e

o nly

t he m ajor c ontributor, t o

i solate

b ecause

o f

e ach a

l ack

i t w ill

c ontribution o f d etailed

V ariability i n a ssemblages c aused b y f actors s eason, a nd,

w hich

a ffect

p erhaps m ost

t he

n ature,

i mportantly,

t he

s ize a nd o verlap

d ue t o m ulti-specific a ctivity i n s ites n eeds i s l ikely t o b e m ore i mportant i n c aves o r

w hich,because

t hey

3 45

a re

r elatively

r are a nd c onfined

s paces, a re l ikely t o e ncourage b one a ccumulation b y a v ariety o f a nimals o ver r easonably s hort t ime p eriods. I n t he o pen, a ctivity c entres a re s pace.

l ikely t o b e s eparated b ecause o f

E ven i n t his c ontext,

h owever,

a s w ater, c over, b urrows a nd s hade r esult i n c omplicated l ocalized b one a ccumulations, o ver l arge a reas. I mplications

t he g reater

o f

i s l ikely i n t he l onger t erm t o a ctivity f oci a nd t he f ormation o f

s uch a s a t E landsfontein,

f or

a mount

a vailability o f r esources s uch

a rchaeology o f

w hich

a re

d istributed

t he a bove p roblem c an b e s een i n

t he f ollowing e xamples o f t heir e ffect o n i nterpretations o f h uman e conomy. P rimarily, t hey r esult i n t he i nclusion o f r emains o f p rey t aken b y n on-human b one-accumulators. T his c auses b iases w hich c an h ave a n i mportant i mpact o n a nalyses o f t he r elative c ontribution o f d ifferent

d ietary

c omponents.

S imilarly

t here

a re

p roblems

i n

u nravelling t he e ffects o f s election b y h umans. A part f rom o ther c onsiderations, MNI v alues c annot s imply b e c onsidered a s w hole a nimals i n d ietary t erms w hen w e a re u ncertain o f t he o riginal i nput. T o g ive a n e xtreme c ase, o r

p art

w as

a w hale r ib m ight

o f a n a nimal c ontributed t o

b rought

i n

f or

t he

r epresent a

m anufacture

o f

a n

A lternatively a h yaena m ight h ave b rought i t o n t he p rey r emains o f b runnea)

c oastal s amples w ith

j ackals

l iving o n t he

j ackals

a s

l eft b y h umans u nless

s cavengers,

h umans,

b oth

c are i s

( Hyaena

f or a ffecting

T his i s e specially t he c ase

t aken.

h yaenas a nd j ackals

( Papio u rsinus)

a nd c an i ntroduce

t ake e xactly

j ackals.

f rom

B eing p redators a s w ell t he

T his

J ackals,

s ame

p rey

i ncludes

f ish,

f oxes,

h yaenas

t hem t o a s ite i n t heir s cats.

S tudies o n r esource u tilization a nd p artitioning n ormally I t i s

t aken,

t ake t he s ame p lant f oods a s a re t aken b y

c onsiderations o f s easonal e vidence r emains.

h ut.

a re n ot r eadily d istinguishable

a nd e ven s hellfish i n t he c ase o f b aboons

h yaenas

t heir p otential

f rom b eaches a nd t heir s urrounds a s w ould h umans. a nd

o r

R ecent w ork

t he d egree o f d amage t o b ones a nd s pecies

w hile c haracteristic i n c ontext, r efuse

a nd

a nimal

b ecause i t

a rtefact

t o t he s ite.

( Canis m esomelas)

c oast i ndicates

t o a c onsiderable d egree. w here

w hole

t he d iet, o r n othing,

i nclude

t hat c an b e g leaned f rom p reserved

t herefore e xtremely

i mportant

t o

e nsure

t hat

s uch

e vidence w as b rought i n b y h umans. M oreover, h umans p reserved m eat w hile j ackals a nd h yaenas ( and h umans, i f e arly t raveller a ccounts a re a ccepted), w hale

s cavenged

( Cetaceae)

p eriods

o f

u p

s eals

( Arctocephalus p usillus),

c arcases w hich h ad t o

l ain

s everal m onths.

s easonal d eterminations ( Parkington

1 972)

o r b irds t o a pparently

s ites b y e xtending

r otting

o n

a nd d olphin a nd t he

i n c ases w here u seful i ndicators

a re c oncerned.

S imilarly,

l arge a vian p redators, a nd C ape e agle o wl

f or

s uch a s

s eals

I ntroduction o f p rey s uch a s s eals

j ackals w ould t he p eriod

v errauxi)

b each

T his h as s erious i mplications f or

s uch

a lso w hen a s

a ffect h umans t he

( Bubo c apensis)

t he p icture b y e xploited t hem .

b lack

e agle

( Aquila

t ake a g reat q uantity o f

s mall m ammals s uch a s h yrax ( Procavia c apensis) a nd r ock h are ( Pronolagus s pp.) w hose r emains a ccumulate a t t he b ase o f n ests o r r oosts, o n l edges e asily

i n a nd a bove c aves a nd

i ncorporated

i nto d eposits.

s helters,

i n f act p rovide a m ore a cceptable a lternative h igh

f requencies

r emains

o f

d une

m ole

f rom w here

t hey a re

T he a ctivities o f C ape e agle o wls r at

i nterpretation

( Bathyergus

s uillus)

o f

i n t he D ie K elders M iddle S tone A ge l evels t han t hat o f

a ctivity o ffered b y K lein

( 1975).

3 46

t he

a nd h are h uman

H yaenas, j ackals a nd d omesticated d ogs a re w ell k nown s cavengers o f r efuse a round h uman h abitation a nd a re l ikely t o r emove b ones w hich m ight

o therwise

h ave

b een

p reserved

c haracteristic d amage p atterns. d etermine

t he

i dentity

o f

T he

i n

p roblem

a

m idden,

a t

t his

o r

t o

l evel

a dd

i s

t o

t he p rimary a ccumulator w hen e vidence h as

b een d istorted b y s econdary o r e ven t ertiary a nimal a ctivity o n b ones. E xamination

o f

b ones

f rom

p reviously

s tudied

a ssemblages

s uch a s

E landsfontein,

D uinefontein a nd K lasies R iver M outh ( Inskeep &

1 966;

1 975,

K lein

1 976,

1 978)

s how

t hat

u ncommon.

H uman b ones n eed n ot

s ignify

a ctivity.

H yaenas

p redators

m erely

t he

o ther

d eliberate c an

i ncorporate b ones i n a ccumulations,

p arts

o f

B rain

a nd

A frica

( 1981).

H endey

p roblems a re n ot b urial

o r

h uman

e ither c ause d eath o r

a s i s

w ell

r ecorded

f or

a nd h as b een d emonstrated f or A ustralopithecines b y

T his c ould a ccount

r emains f rom h ominid s ites, T he

s uch

p resence

o f

o strich

f or

t he f ragmented n ature o f m any o f

i ncluding E landsfontein. e ggshell

i s

n ot

s pecific

t o

h uman

a ctivity. H yaenas b ring e ggs b ack t o t heir d ens w here q uantities o f s hell m ay a ccumulate. A n umber o f p redators t ake t ortoises. T hese i nclude h yaenas, p redators s uch

j ackals, d omesticated d ogs a nd l ions. L arger a vian a s v ultures, e agles a nd c rows a lso d o s o, t he l atter

e specially b eing c apable o f t he

b ase

o f

i nto d eposits. f requency o f

a ccumulate

a t

f rom w hich t hey a re e asily i ncorporated

L arge a ccumulations o f t ortoise b ones a nd i ncreased o strich e ggshell i n c ertain l ayers o f c aves s uch a s

B yneskranskop 1 ( Parkington

t aking l arge n umbers w hich

r oosts o r n ests

( Schweitzer

1 981)

s hould

B ay

C ave

b e e xamined f rom t his p oint o f v iew.

&

W ilson

1 982)

a nd

E lands

K elp

g ulls ( Larus d ominicanus) a lso t ake t ortoises ( J. C ooper, p ers. c omm.). T his s pecies a lso h abitually d rops b ivalves o nto b eaches, l ittoral d unes a nd o ther s uitable s urfaces o pen

t hem

( Siegfried

s hells m ay

a ccumulate

b eaches

w here

w hite

1 977). o n

l ittoral

m ussels

e rroneous i nterpretations o f b ut r egular h uman r esource p otential ( Parkington

1 976;

s uch a s

s hell

m iddens

t o

I n t his m anner c onsiderable n umbers o f d unes,

e specially

( Donax s erra)

o ccur.

t his p henomenon a s

a long

s andy

T his c an l ead t o

t he r emnant

o f

s parse

a ctivity b etween r ocky s hores w hich o ffer m aximum a nd a re, t herefore, m ore h eavily e xploited B uchanan e t a l.

( 1806) o bservation o f

1 978).

T his a lso e xplains B arrow's

l ive m olluscs o n t he s urface

o f

t he

C ape

S t.

t he f act

t hat

B laize C ave m iddens. A

m ajor

a im

m ulti-specific c omplicate

o f

t his

i nterpretation

u sefulness o f q uestioned

p aper h as b een t o e mphasize

c ontributions a

a nd

n umber s hown

t o

o f o f

t o

b one

t hese k ey

o ffer

a ccumulations a ccumulations.

s ources

o f

c an

g reatly

T he

p otential

i nformation

h as

a lternative i nterpretations

b een

i n s ome

c ases. H aving r ecognized t his f act, i t i s t o b e h oped t hat t he c urrent t rend t owards s tudying m odern p rocesses o f b one a ccumulation w ill p rovide d ata w hereby t he v arious a gencies m ay b e r ecognized. I t m ust b e e mphasized, h owever, t hat i nterpretation o f m ulti-agency a ccumulations

i s

e xcavation o r b e g iven f rom

c ollection. C onsequently, c onsideration a lso n eeds t o t he s tart t o b oth p lanning a nd m ethods o f f ield

r ecording

e nsure

t o

p rovenance, f eatures.

d ifficult,

t hat

a ssociation M ore

f aunal s amples a re l arge a ccurate

s ampling

b ut

n ot

i mpossible,

s ufficient

a nd

e xtensive

i f

a reas e nough.

a lso

d etail

c ondition s hould T his

s upplies

3 47

o f

i s

a fter

r ecorded

p articular

b e e xcavated n ot

o nly

i nadequate

o f

f inds t o e nsure

a llows

f or

t he a nd t hat m ore

i nformation o n d istribution o f

b ones a nd f eatures o ver t he s ite w hich m ight b e e ssential t o h elp s ort o ut m ultiple a gencies. E xcavation o f s mall a reas s hould b e a t hing o f t he p ast. T he c omplexity o f a ccumulations i n t he d eposits o f c aves a nd

r ock-shelters

e xcavations. d emands p ast.

w ill

o nly

b e

O n t he o ther h and,

b roader

e xamination

I f w e f ail t o u nravel

a s e asily b e

u nderstood

t hrough

l arge-scale

t he g reater e xtent o f o pen s ites a lso

t han h as

g enerally b een a fforded

i n t he

t hese p roblems o ur s acred c ows m ight

j ust

j ackal k itchens, h yaena n dddens o r b ird n ests.

R EFERENCES B ARROW,

J .

1 806.

L ondon:

T .

T ravels

i nto

t he

i nterior o f s outhern A frica.

C adell & W . D avies.

B EHRENSMEYER, A .K. & H ILL, A . P ., e ds. 1 980. C hicago: U niversity o f C hicago P ress.

F ossils i n t he m aking.

B RAIN, C . K . 1 981. T he h unters o r t he h unted? o f C hicago P ress. B UCHANAN, W . F ., J .

M .,

HALL,

S . L .,

P ARKINGTON,

J .

H ENDERSON, E .

R .

R .

& H ENDEY,

b ones f rom

t he

Q .

B .

1 966.

E landsfontein

U niversity

J ., O LIVIER, A .,

& R OBERTSHAW , P . T .

s hell m iddens i n t he P aternoster a rea, A fr. a rchaeol. B ull. 3 3: 8 9-93. I NSKEEP,

C hicago:

P ETTIGREW,

1 978.

s outh-western

C oastal

C ape.

S .

A n i nteresting a ssociation o f

f ossil

s ite.

I n :

A ctes

d u

V

C ongres P an a fricain d e P rehistoire e t d e l 'Etude d u Q uaternaire: 1 09-124. K LEIN, R . G .

T enerife: M useo A rqueologica. 1 975. M iddle S tone A ge m an-animal r elations

A frica:

e vidence

S cience 1 90: K LEIN, R . G .

R .

G .

o f

D uinefontein

S outh

1 978.

" Cutting

K elders

a nd

K lasies

A p reliminary r eport o n t he

s ite

C ape P rovince, 1 2-20. K LEIN,

D ie

i n s outhern R iver M outh.

2 65-267.

1 976.

o pen-air

f rom

1 0"

A frica).

T he

f auna

A cheulian

s outhwestern

C ape

" Middle

2 ( Melkbosstrand, S .

A fr.

S tone

A ge"

s outh-western

a rchaeol.

B ull.

3 1:

a nd overall i nterpretation o f t he

s ite

a t

P rovince,

E landsfontein

S outh

A frica.

( Hopefleld),

Q uatern. R es.

1 0:

6 9-83. P ARKINGTON, J . E . A fr. S tud. P ARKINGTON,

1 972.

3 1:

J .

S easonal m obility i n

E .

1 976.

3 1:

L ate

S tone

A ge.

C oastal s ettlement b etween t he m ouths o f

t he B erg a nd O lifants r ivers, B ull.

t he

23-243. 2 C ape P rovince.

S .

A fr.

a rchaeol.

1 27-140.

P ARKINGTON, J . E . 1 981. T he e ffects o f e nvironmental c hange o n t he s cheduling o f v isits t o t he E lands B ay C ave, C ape P rovince, S .A. I n :

H ODDER,

p ast:

I ,

I SAAC,

G .

L .

s tudies i n h onour o f

& HAMMOND, N ., D avid

C larke:

e ds. P atterns o f t he 3 41-359.

C ambridge:

C ambridge U niversity P ress. S CHWEITZER,

F .

R .

&

W ILSON,

Q uaternary l iving s ite A frica. S IEGFRIED, A fr. J .

A nn. W . R . S ci.

i n

S . A fr. M us. 1 977. 7 3:

M . L . t he 8 8:

1 982. s outhern

B yneskranskop 1 : C ape

P rovince,

a l ate S outh

1 -203.

Mussel-dropping b ehaviour o f k elp g ulls.

3 37-341.

3 48

S .

3 5.

A C ONCEPTUAL F RAMEWORK I N F AUNAL A NALYSIS J .F. T hackeray

I NTRODUCTION A m ajor d ifficulty

c onfronting

r econstructing

a spects

i s

d istinguish

h ow

t o

p reservational

o r

a rchaeozoologists

i nterested

i n

o f p ast h uman b ehaviour o r p alaeoenvironments b etween

o ther

b ehavioural,

f actors

t hat

m ay

e nvironmental,

h ave

c ontributed

t o

p atterning o bserved i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. A m ethod w hereby o ne m ay t ry t o t ake t aphonomic b ias a s w ell a s e nvironmental a nd b ehavioural

f actors

( Thackeray

i nto

1 983).

I n

p roviding a c onceptual o f

a ccount

t his

h as

b rief

b een

r eport

d escribed I

e lsewhere

d escribe f our

f ramework w hereby o ne m ay a pproach t he

l evels, p roblem

t rying t o d istinguish b etween t he m any f acets t hat w ere r esponsible

f or p atterns o bserved i n a rchaeological d ata.

D EFINITION O F L EVELS A n a ssemblage o f f aunal m aterial r ecovered f rom a n s ite

a rchaeological

r epresents a s ample o f b one t hat h appens t o h ave b een p reserved,

a nd i s i tself a s ample d rawn f rom a p opulation t hat o nce e xisted i n p alaeoenvironment.

S uch

s amples

o f

w hich e ach s ample h as b een d erived, l evels a s L evel

d ata,

a

a nd t he p opulations f rom

c an b e c ategorized i n a s eries

o f

i ndicated b elow :

1 :

p opulations

t hat e xisted i n a p rehistoric e nvironment i n a

d efined a rea w ithin a s pecified t ime. L evel 2 :

a

a gents

c ollection o f b ones

t hat w as b rought

a nd

s ample

r epresents

a

t o a s ite b y

o f a nimals

v arious

t hat e xisted i n t he

e nvironment d uring t he s pecified p eriod. L evel 3 :

a c ollection o f b ones

b eing

a

s ubsample

o f

t hat

s urvived

t aphonomic

p rocesses,

t he s ample t hat f alls w ithin t he d omain o f

l evel 2 . L evel 4 :

t he s ample o f

s ubsample o f

b ones

l evel 3 t hat

e xcavated

f rom

a

s ite,

i s

i tself a s ubsample o f t he c ollection o f b ones

t o

t he s ite.

f or

e stablishing

a

" comprehensive

( 1973)

i s

a

a nd w hich

t hat w as

T hese f our l evels c orrespond t o t hose t hat C larke b asis

w hich

s urvived t aphonomic p rocesses,

b rought

u sed a s a

a rchaeological

g eneral

t heory". I h ave a dopted t hem h ere t o p rovide a t heoretical f ramework f or a rchaeozoology. T hey c an b e d escribed g enerally i n t erms o f t he v ariables T hus

a nd

p rocesses

t he v ariables

i nclude

n ot

o nly

t hat

t hat

f all w ithin t he d omain o f e ach l evel.

f all w ithin t he

d omain

t he r elative a bundance o f

e nvironment d uring a p articular t ime p eriod, t hat

i nfluenced

t he

o f

t he

f irst

l evel

s pecies o f a nimals i n a n b ut a lso c limatic f actors

d istribution a nd a bundance o f a nimal a s w ell a s

p la t s pecies.

B ehaviour p atterns o f h uman a nd a nimal p opulations a re

a lso

w ithin

i ncluded

t he

d omain

o f

l evel

1 .

I n

g eneral,

c onsidering v ariables a nd p rocesses a t

t his l evel,

w e

w ith

i nteracting

c omponents

f aunal

c ommunities

a nd

a ll

3 49

a re

w hen

c oncerned o f

a n

e nvironment i n a s pecified

t ime i nterval.

M aterial t hat w as b rought t o a s ite b y v arious a gents i s a lso a s ample o f e vidence r elating t o p rehistoric b ehaviour a nd p alaeoenvironments b ut w hich f alls w ithin t he d omain o f l evel 2 . V ariables a nd p rocesses t hat f all w ithin t he d omain o f t he t hird l evel i nclude t hose t hat c oncern m aterial t hat w as s ubjected t o p ost m ortem a s w ell a s p ost-depositional d amage, b ut w hich " survived t o b e r ecovered" ( Clarke 1 973). T he v ariables a nd p rocesses t hat f all w ithin t he d omain o f l evel 4 i nclude t hose t hat r elate t o t he m aterial e xcavated b y a n a rchaeologist. T he p atterns o bserved i n t he d ata o btained f rom a n a nalysis o f t he e xcavated m aterial w ill t o s ome e xtent, d epend o n t he s ampling s trategy c hosen b y t he a rchaeologist. A s s tated b y C larke

( 1973),

l evels g enerates " the p ost-depositional, r etrieval,

t he

r elationship

b etween

t he

f our

e ssential s et o f p re-depositional, a nalytical a nd i nterpretive m odels a nd

t heory w hich a ll a rchaeologists i ntuitively e mploy i n t he i nterpretive l eaps f rom t he e xcavated d ata t o t he w ritten r eport." T here a re n umerous e xamples i n t he a rchaeological a nd p alaeontological l iterature w here " intuitive, i nterpretive l eaps" h ave l ed t o c onclusions t hat m ay b e p artially c orrect i n t he a ssessment o f a vailable a rchaeological d ata, b ut w hich h ave f ailed t o r ecognise a lternative h ypotheses t hat m ight m ore a ccurately e xplain t he p rocesses r esponsible f or p atterns o bserved i n t he a rchaeological r ecord. T hus D art's ( 1957) i nterpretation t hat p atterning o bserved i n t he M akapansgat f aunal a ssemblage w as a r eflection o f a " sample" o f h ominid b ehaviour, i s a n i nstance w here t he o bserved p atterning ( level 4 ) h as b een i nterpreted d irectly i n t erms o f p rocesses w ithin t he d omain o f l evel 2 , w ithout c onsidering l evel 3 . T aphonomic p rocesses w ere h owever r ecognized b y B rain ( 1967). T he a ge d istribution o f t he e xtinct g iant b uffalo r epresented a t s ites i n t he s outhern C ape P rovince ( Klein 1 972, 1 974), i s a n e xample w here a p attern h as b een i nterpreted i n t erms o f p rocesses w ithin t he d omain o f l evel 2 , s pecifically i n t erms o f h ominid b ehaviour. H owever, a s r ecognized l ater b y K lein ( 1978), t he o bserved p atterns c ould a lso h ave r esulted f rom o ther f actors. O pportunistic p redation u pon y oung, w eak i ndividuals b y h ominids a nd/or c arnivores, a part f rom s cavenging b ehaviour, c ould h ave c ontributed t o t he p atterning o f t he a ge d istribution d ata o f g iant b uffalo ( Pelorovis a ntiquus) r epresented a t t hese s ites; i n o ther w ords, c omponents w ithin t he d omain o f l evel 2 m ust b e i dentified. I n t he c ase o f m olluscan s amples f rom t he s ame s ite ( Voigt 1 973, 1 982), c hanges i n t he f requency o f v arious t axa c ould b e i nterpreted i n t erms o f h uman s election, a lthough t he o bserved c hanges i n f requency c ould a lso b e a f unction o f e nvironmental p rocesses ( level 1 ) t hat i nfluenced t he a vailability o f m olluscan t axa. I n t erms o f t he f ramework o f t he f our l evels, o ne r ecognizes t hat t he a rchaeozoologist i s p rimarily i nterested i n p atterns a nd p rocesses t hat f all w ithin t he d omain o f l evel 1 . H owever, t he e vidence o n w hich t he b ehavioural a nd e nvironmental r econstructions a re b ased i s u sually d erived

f rom

m aterial

o btained

b y

e xcavating

p art

o f

s elected s ite, s uch e vidence f alling w ithin t he d omain o f l evel 4 . o rder t o s ay a nything a bout f actors w ithin t he d omain o f l evel 1 ,

a I n o n

t he b asis o f e vidence t hat f alls w ithin t he d omain o f l evel 4 , o ne c annot i gnore p rocesses t hat o perate w ithin t he d omains o f l evels 2

3 50

a nd 3 . C learly a m ethod i nterpretation o f f aunal r emains m ay f ormulate a nd v ariables t hat c ould a ssemblages. i nvolves

i s r equired f or t he a nalysis a nd f rom a rchaeological s ites, w hereby w e

t est h ypotheses t hat r elate t o a ll t he p otential d etermine t he p atterning o bserved i n f aunal

O ne a pproach d escribed e lsewhere

( Thackeray

t he u se o f m odels b ased i n p art o n s tudies o f

1 980,

m odern

1 983) f aunal

c ommunities.

R EFERENCES B RAIN,

C .K.

1 967.

H ottentot

i nterpretation o f

f ood r emains a nd t heir b earing o n t he

f ossil b one a ssemblages.

D es. R es. S ta. 3 2: 1 -11. C LARKE, D .L. 1 973. A rchaeology:

S cient.

t he l oss o f i nnocence.

P ap.

N amib

A ntiquity 4 7:

6 -18. D ART, R .A. 1 957. T he o steodontokeratic c ulture o f A ustralopithecus p rometheus. T ransvaal M us. M em. 1 0. K LEIN, R .G. 1 972. T he L ate Q uaternary m ammalian f auna o f N elson B ay C ave

( Cape

m egafaunal 1 35-42. K LEIN, R .G.

P rovince, e xtinctions

S outh

1 974. A p rovisional

m ammalian

e xtinctions

P rovince,

S outh A frica).

A frica):

i ts

i mplications

a nd e nvironmental c hange.

i n

s tatement t he

C ape

o n

f or

Q uat. R es.

t erminal

2 :

P leistocene

B iotic Z one ( southern C ape

S . A fr. a rchaeol. S oc. G oodwin

S er.

2 :

S tone A ge p redation o n l arge A frican b ovids.

J .

3 9-45. K LEIN,

R .G.

1 978.

a rchaeol. T HACKERAY,

S ci.

J .F.

f aunal

V OIGT,

E .A.

1 980.

w ith e xamples

i n i nterpreting

a rchaeological

f rom s outhern A frica.

a nimals a nd e xtinctions.

U npubl.

S . A fr. P h.D.

Y ale U niversity. 1 973.

M iddle

1 55-86.

N ew a pproaches

2 16-23. 1 983. M an,

M outh C aves. V OIGT, E .A. 1 982. T he

1 95-217.

a ssemblages

J . S ci. 7 6: T HACKERAY, J .F. T hesis:

5 :

S tone A ge m olluscan u tilization a t K lasies R iver

S . A fr. J . S ci. 6 9: 3 06-9. T he m olluscan f auna. I n: S tone

C hicago:

A ge

a t

S INGER, R .

&

W YMER,

J .

K lasies R iver M outh i n S outh A frica :

U niversity o f C hicago P ress.

3 51

3 6.

I RON AGE F AUNAL A NALYSIS -P ROBLEMS A ND P OSSIBILITIES E lizabeth V oigt

I NTRODUCTION T he a rchaeozoologist

i s

c onfronted i n

t he

f ield

a nd

l aboratory

w ith a ssemblages o f b ones w hich r equire a nalysis a nd i nterpretation. T here i s a w ide r ange o f m ethods c urrently i n u se. T he m ost i mportant f actor i s t o c hoose a s ystem w hich p rovides a s uitable d ata b ase f or i nterpretation o f t he m aterial o n w hatever l evel i s r equired. I n o rder

s uch a c hoice

t he a gents i nvolved i n t he a ccumulation

p rocess m ust b e i dentified a nd

t o

m ake

t he a nalyst m ust d ecide o n t he l evel o f

i nterpretation N umber o f

w hich

h e

I ndividuals

w ide-ranging

i s

( MNI)

s eeking.

I p refer t o c alculate M inimum

a s

p rovides

i nterpretations.

t his T his

p aper

o bjectives a nd f uture r esearch p lans r ather u sed.

E xperimentation

p roduce

r esults

a dequate

w ill t han

d efine

d ata

f or

s ome o f o ur

d efend

t he

m ethod

w ill s how w hether c hanges i n o ur m ethods w ill

w hich

w ill

a llow

f or

g reater

s cope

i n

o ur

i nterpretation.

D EFINING F AUNAL A SSEMBLAGES T he

f irst

s tep

i n

a ssessing

a nalytical

m ethods

i s

t o d efine

c learly t he t ypes o f s ites a nd c ollecting a gencies i nvolved. a ssemblage s uitable

c an

b e

m ethods

a ssemblages

i s

O nce

a n

i dentified i n t hese t erms o ne c an b egin t o s elect o f

a nalysis.

T he

b asic

d ivision

o f

f aunal

m ade a ccording t o w hether o r n ot t he a ccumulation w as

m ade b y h umans.

E xamples o f a ssemblages

m ade

b y

n on-human

a gents

w ould i nclude t hose r esulting f rom t he f ollowing: 1 . N atural p rocesses s uch a s t arpits o r w ater-logged d eposits. 2 .

M ammal

h oards,

e .g.

p orcupine

( Hystrix

a fricaeaustralis)

o r

c arnivore l airs. 3 .

Avian p rey r emains, b earded v ulture H ominid

c aves,

e .g.

a gents

e .g.

o wl p ellets a nd v ulture

( Gypaetus b arbartus m eridionalis) w ould

b e

( Aegypiidae)

r esponsible f or o ccupation d eposits

P leistocene o r H olocene h unter-gatherer s ites,

a round a nd w ithin s ettlements e .g.

o r

o ssuaries.

a nd

i n

t hose

I ron A ge v illage s ites.

t he a rchaeozoologist w ould b e s implified i f e ach o f T he t ask o f ssemblage a lways o ccurred i n a p ure f orm. T his, t he a bove t ypes o f a ften h appen, s o t hat i n m any s ites d ifferent t ypes d oes n ot o e s uperimposed o r i nterdigitated. T hus h uman o f a ssemblages m ay b nd owls m ay a ll u se t he s ame r ock s helter, a nd t he b eings, c arnivores a h owever,

ll t hree c haracteristics o f a d epositional b y t he

t ypes

o f

h istory

b lurred

a ssemblage o f

p roduced b y d ifferent c ollecting a gents h as f rom ( 1957)

w orkers,

t he

p ioneers

a nd B rain ( 1981).

i nfluences p roducing

o n

r esults

t hat

r eceived

m ay

b e

f urther

T he p alimpsest m uch

a ttention

i n t his f ield i n S outh A frica b eing D art

I n E urope

a ssemblages

t he s ite.

i s

o ften

t he

p ossibility

o f

n on-hominid

n ow r eceiving c loser a ttention a nd i s v ary

3 52

g reatly

f rom

t he

o riginal

i nterpretation

o f

a ssemblages.

a gents i nvolved w e h ave e ach

I n o rder

t o b e a ble t o i dentify t he

t o b e a ble t o d efine

t he

c haracteristics

o f

t ype o f b one a ssemblage b y r ecognizing t he d amage i nflicted o n a

b one b y t he a gent i nvolved, e .g. p orcupine a nd o ther c arnivore s cooping o ut o f c ancellous b one, a nd

r odent g nawing, h uman b utchering

d amage.

a t

I n d ealing w ith t he o ccupation d ebris o f a n I ron A ge s ite

w e

l east

l argely

b e s ure t hat w e a re

t he r esult o f r odents

i s

h uman

s tudying a n a ssemblage w hich i s

a ctivity,

c ommon

a nd

i mposed o n t he a ssemblage a re l imitations

a nd

o f

a lthough

n eeds

t o t he

b e

d amage

b y

e ffects

o f

s ocial

t he p ost-depositional h istory o f

l ast m ay i nclude l ater r e-occupation o f t he s ite, d igging

o f

p its,

o r

p loughing.

s hould t ake i nto a ccount t he r elation t o s ocial o rganization, a reas, t he

o n

t he

p attern

b utchering a nd p reparation o f a ffected b y l ength o f T he

s econd

i n

t his

s tep

b one

f ood.

t hat

c ultural

t he s ite.

d isturbance

b y

T his t he

e ffects o f s ettlement p atterns i n t he e xistence o f s pecialized a ctivity o f

t ime

a nd

a nd A lso

I n a n i deal s ituation t he a nalysis

t he p resence o r a bsence o f d omestic d ogs

e ffects

c arnivores

r ecognized a nd r ecorded.

c an

A ll

( Canis f amiliaris)

p reservation t hese

o f

f actors

a nd

m ethods o f a re

f urther

t he s ite w as o ccupied. e xercise

i s

t o

d efine

t he k ind o f

i nformation w hich w e c an r easonably e xpect f rom a p articular s ite. s uggest t hat w e a re d ealing w ith t wo a bundances a nd s pecific r epresentations. r esulting

f rom

e ither

m ain a pproaches -relative I n P leistocene s amples,

h ominid o r n on-hominid a gencies,

t he r elative

a bundance o f s pecies i s f requently a n a dequate l evel o f i nformation. I n m any c ases t he m aterial i s s ufficiently w ell p reserved t o a llow a h igh p roportion o f m aterial t o b e i dentified, s o t hat i t i s f easible t o t alk i n t erms o f n umbers o f f ragments b elonging t o p articular s pecies o r g roups.

H owever,

a s

s oon a s b utchering p ractices r esult i n

e xtreme f ragmentation o f m aterial, t he p ossibility o f i dentifying i ndividual s pecimens d ecreases s harply. M oreover, w hen w e a re w orking w ith

m ore f inite g roups

( the o ccupants o f a c ave o r a v illage s ite)

I

b elieve t hat w e s hould b e t rying t o i nterpret t he b ones i n t erms o f s pecific a ctivities o r i nteractions r ather t han j ust d ocumenting t he q uantities o f b one p resent.

o f

i nterpretive

w ork c annot b e d one w ith r elative a bundance c alculations

T he f act

t hat

t his k ind

i s o ne r eason

w hy w e p refer t o u se MNI c ounts w hen w orking w ith I ron A ge a ssemblages. T able 1 i llustrates s ome a spects o f t he p roblems o utlined a bove. f ormed

t he

T he d egree o f

b asis

f or

t his

f ragmentation

o f

t he

m aterial

t able i s r elatively u niform,

t hat

a lthough t he

p roportion o f t he s ample w hich i s n ot i dentifiable v aries f rom s ite t o s ite. T he t able d oes n ot t ake i nto c onsideration t he w aste c ategories o f s kull,

r ib a nd v ertebral

f ragments o r b one

f lakes.

T he

r elative

p roportions o f p ostcranial p arts a re i n m ost c ases v ery d ifferent t he MNI p roportions a nd f ew o f

t he p ostcranial r emains

a re

f rom

c omplete,

t hus r uling o ut t he p ossibility o f u tilizing a s ystem o f c alculation s uch a s t hat p roposed b y F ieller & T urner ( 1982). I b elieve t hat s tudies

l ies

i n

t he i mportance o f f aunal a nalysis f or I ron A ge i ts p otential f or f illing o ut t he b asic f ramework

nalysis. T he f auna p rovides d ata r elating t o p rovided b y p ottery a o f t he w ay o f l ife o f a g roup, i ncluding d ietary a spects

i mportant

p references a nd a ll

se o f b one f or m aking t ools a nd o rnaments. I n t he u w ork t he l imitations l isted a bove m ust b e t aken

i nterpretative

3 53

T able

1

R elative a bundances a nd I ron A ge a ssemblages

O vis/Capra P C/ M NI

S chroda:

K 2:

2 5

B os

t aurus

P C/ M NI

m inimum

n umber o f

i ndividuals

W ild B ovid

T otal % B one

P C/ M NI

b one

f lakes 2 -4 c m

7 85/74 3 611/204

3 68/50 2 147/155

4 3/15 1 68/62

8 364 1 23507

4 6,5 4 1,3

T S 2

7 51/61

9 09/62

1 58/15

2 5877

4 4,2

T S 3

6 10/78

5 95/50

7 6/18

8 116

M apungubwe: M ST/k8/2 M K1/11

P ont D rift 1 /2

i n

% u nident.

6 6,1

1 7,8 1 5,5

64 /3

5 /1

2 166

4 1,6

3 7,0

4 71/19

20/11 2

8 /2

4 605

1 8,8

3 6,3

1 356/92

5 86/40

3 53/33

4 2404

4 7,2

5 1,2

36/46 3

2 13/29

1 38/23

3 7961

7 0/71

C ommando K op

P C = p ostcranial f l = f lakes

3 54

6 3,9

i nto a ccount a nd a ll t he e ssential d ata p rovided i n e ach r eport s o t hat o ther w orkers c an, i f t hey w ish, u se t he d ata i n a lternative m ethods o f

i nterpretation.

S PATIAL D ISTRIBUTION O F B ONE O ne p roblem w ith w hich w e h ave t o c ontend w hen d ealing A ge

a ssemblages

i s

t he

l ikelihood

d istribution o f b one o n a s ite.

o f

w ith

I ron

v ariation i n t he h orizontal

V ery f ew I ron

A ge

s ites

h ave

b een

e xcavated e xtensively e nough t o i llustrate h orizontal v ariations o r e liminate s ample.

t he p ossibility W e h ave,

h owever,

s tructures o n t wo s ites h ave

n ot

m iddens, t o

y et

b een

r ather

t race

t hat

s lim ,

v ariations

a re

a ffecting

t o t he

b een a ble t o r elate h orizontal v ariation t o

i n t he n orthern T ransvaal

a ble

( Voigt 1 983:90).

W e

t o d etermine w hich b ones w ere d eposited o n

t han i n h uts a nd k raals.

t he d istribution o f

a s ite i s

s uch

T he l ikelihood o f b eing a ble

t he e lements o f a s ingle s keleton a cross

a lthough e thnological s tudies c an h elp s uggest a nswers

t o t his q uestion. P lug's w ork ( 1984) o n i ndividual p its o n a n I ron A ge s ite i n t he K ruger N ational P ark h ighlight t his p roblem. I b elieve t hat t he s tudy o f

t he h orizontal d istribution o f b one o n

s ites i s o ne o f o ur m ost i nteresting c hallenges i n t he f uture. I n o rder t o m eet i t s uccessfully w e n eed t o e nsure t hat a ll t he b one f rom a n

e xcavation

a s a re

t he

e xcavated

i s n ot o nly k ept b ut

p ottery b one

a nd

c an

o ther

o nly

b e

t hat

i t i s a s c arefully a nnotated

f inds.

A

u ndertaken

m eaningful w ithin

a nalysis

s uch

a

o f

r igorous

f ramework.

I NTERPRETATION A ND E THNO-ARCHAEOLOGY T here i s a n u rgent n eed t o e xamine s ome o f

t he p roblems

m entioned

a bove i n t he e thnological c ontext. W e a re f ortunate i n t hat I ron Age c ommunities c an s till b e f ound a nd s tudied. I n o rder t o s tudy t he p roblems o f s patial d istribution o f b one w e n eed d etailed e thnological s tudies o f s ettlement p atterns w hich i nclude i nformation o n m ethods o f b one d isposal a nd t he d ispersal p attern o f b ones f rom a s ingle a nimal w ithin a h omestead. W e h ave m inimal i nformation o n b utchering p rocedures

a nd

a lmost

n one

o n m ethods o f c ooking a nd i ts e ffect o n

b ones. N o i nformation i s a vailable o n t he r ate o f a ccumulation o f m iddens a nd k raal d eposits. A s mall f lock c an a ccumulate a s urprisingly d eep d eposit o f d ung i n a v ery s hort t ime, d epending o n k raaling m oved, d isused

p ractices.

T his r aises

t he q uestion o f h ow o ften k raals a re

a nd w hether o ld k raals a ssume a nother f unction. k raals

i n K waZulu a re

F or

i nstance

t oday o ften u sed f or p lanting c rops

( D.

O swald, p ers. c omm.). I t w ould b e u seful t o k now w hether t his i s a t raditional o r m odern p ractice. T hrough e thnological s tudies w e c an a ccumulate d ata o n a nimal h usbandry p ractices w hich m ay e nable u s t o d efine

I ron

A ge

d ifferent a reas. i dentification

h erd

a nd

f lock

s izes a nd c arrying c apacities f or

S uch s tudies w ill h ave o f a reas a ffected b y

t o b e l inked s tock d iseases

w ith t he a nd v eld

s uitability. R ecent d evelopments h ave i ncreased e thno-archaeological t echniques.

w ork

B ut i n o rder

b y t o

p eople o btain

3 55

t he p ossibility t rained m aximum

o f

s ystematic

i n e thnological f ield b enefit

f rom

s uch

a n

a ssociation w e m ust b e a ble q uestions o nto

t o b e a nswered.

t o d efine c learly o ur o wn p roblems a nd T hen w e c ad b egin t o

p ut

t he

f lesh

t he b ack

t he b ones.

R EFERENCES B RAIN,

C .

c ave D ART, R .

K .

1 981.

t aphonomy. A .

1 957.

N . R .

s amples. P LUG,

I .

P retoria: I .

J .

1 984.

A VERY,

& T URNER, a rchaeol.

M NI

G .,

F rontiers: G aborone o f

E .

A . a n

c ounts,

A VERY,

An i ntroduction t o o f

1 983. 1 983.

A ustralopithecus

T ransvaal Museum M emoir. A . S ci.

1 982. 9 :

p its

D .M.,

N umber e stimation i n v ertebrate

4 9-62. a nd

W ILSON,

f eatures. M .L.

I n:

H ALL,

& H UMPHREYS,

s outhern A frican a rchaeology t oday.

c onference o f V OIGT,

t he h unted?

U niversity o f C hicago P ress.

T he o steodontokeratic c ulture

p rometheus. F IELLER,

T he H unters o r C hicago:

M .J.,

A .J.B.,

e ds.

P roceedings o f

t he

t he s outhern A frican A ssociation o f A rchaeologists, O xford:

B ritish A rchaeological R eports S eries.

M apungubwe:

I ron Age c ommunity.

a n

a rchaeozoological

P retoria:

1 .

3 56

i nterpretation

T ransvaal M useum M onograph

3 7.

M NI C OUNTS,

P ITS A ND F EATURES

I na P lug

D uring

t he

p ast

t en y ears m uch h as b een w ritten o n q uantitative

a pplications i n a rchaeozoology. o f

i ndividuals

( MNI)

a s

T he v alidity o f u sing m inimum n umbers

e stimators o f

t he c omposition o f e ither t he

o riginal f auna o r t he s ample, h as c ome h eavily u nder f ire. C riticisms o f t he m ethod h ave b een p ut f orward b y C asteel ( 1977a, 1 977b), G rayson ( 1978),

T urner

( 1980),

B obrowski

( 1982),

F ieller & T urner

( 1982),

a nd

G ilbert & S inger ( 1982), t o n ame b ut a f ew. I t i s n ot w ithin t he s cope o f t his p aper t o d iscuss a ll t he c riticisms i n d etail; o nly t hose

t hat

h ave d irect b earing o n t he k ind o f a ssemblage t hat o ccurs

i n s outhern A frica w ill b e d iscussed. MNI t he

c ounts a re s econdary s tatistics i n t hat

a ctual

s ample.

n umber

N ISP

p reservation,

o f

c ounts

i dentified a re

n ot

t hey a re d erived

s pecimens

o nly

( NISP)

s ubject

t o

f rom

f rom a ny g iven s uch

a s

n atural a ttrition a nd o ther d epositional c onditions,

f actors

b ut

a lso t o s ite s ampling, e xcavation a nd r etrieval t echniques a nd, l ast b ut n ot l east, t he c ompetence a nd e xperience o f t he a rchaeozoologist. M ost

a rchaeozoologists

MNI c ounts.

S uch p roblems

g roups

c ontribute

c an

( skeletal c omplexity),

a re w ell a ware o f i nclude

t he

d ifferent

f act

n umbers

t he p roblems c oncerning t hat

o f

d ifferent

e lements

a nimal

t o a s ample

a f actor a lready r ecognized b y P erkins

( 1973).

A lso, i n s mall s amples, o ne t ends t o g et o ver-estimation o f MNI. o ne a ssumes t hat a ll f eatures o n a s ite a re c ontemporaneous c ombines t he s amples b efore c alculating t he r educed, b ut t he N ISP c ount o f c ourse s tays a djusted

MNI

c ount

r epresents

t he

i ndividuals i n t he s ample a t h and i n

M NI, t his l atter i s t he s ame. S uch a n

s mallest c ontrast

I f a nd

p ossible t o

t he

n umber

s um

o f

o f MN1S

c alculated f or s eparate f eatures. T he L etaba s ite L e 6 i s u sed a s a n e xample o f a c omplex s ite w ith m any p its w hich m ay o r m ay n ot h ave b een c ontemporaneous ( Table 1 ). T he r elationship b etween s ample s ize, N ISP a nd MNI c ounts i s w ell

i llustrated b y B obrowski

( 1982)

a nd

w ill

n ot b e d iscussed f urther. I f

MNI

a lternative? s ize

o f

c ounts

p resent

F ieller & T urner

a ncient p opulations

t echnique

t hat

e cological

h as

b een

p roblems

s o

m any

( 1982)

t hen

i s

t he

p ropose t hat e stimation

p roblems

o f

t he

s hould b e b ased o n t he c apture-recapture

s uccessfully

( Seber

1 973).

a pplied

H owever,

a

v ariety

o f

m akes

t his

m ethod

T he m ethod r equires w ell-preserved s amples w ith m ore o r

l ess c omplete b ones, A frican

t o

t he h eavily f ragmented

c ondition o f m any s outhern A frican f aunal s amples i mpractical.

w hat

c ontext.

s omething v irtually C orresponding

u nknown

l eft a nd r ight

l east s ome i ndividuals m ust b e p resent

i n

t he

f rom

t he

s outhern

s keletal p arts o f a t s ample

t o

o btain

a

u seful e stimate o f p opulation s ize. A lso, l eft a nd r ight p arts o f t he s ame i ndividual, w hen p resent i n t he s ample, m ust b e m atched w ith c ertainty;

p ossible

m atch,

a s u sed i n MNI c ounts,

w ould i nvalidate t he r esulting s tatistics.

3 57

i s n ot e nough a nd

T able

1

N umber o f i dentifiable s pecimens ( NISP), s um o f M NI c ounts b ased o n N SIP o f i ndividual f eatures ( MNI(a)) a nd a djusted M NI c ounts ( MNI(b)).

b ased

o n

s ummed

S PECIES P RESENT

N ISP

A chatina s p.

5 0

( land s nail)

S mall s nail

6

A spatharia s p.

( freshwater m ussel)

U nio/Aspatharia ( freshwater m ussel) C larias s p. ( barbel) f ish A mphibia i ndet.

( frog/toad)

C rocodilus n iloticus

( crocodile)

N SIP

f or

M NI(a)

t he

e ntire

M NI(b)

7

7

6

6

1 5

5

5

4 1 1 3

2 3

2 3

2 03

9

9

1 1

3

3

1

1

4

V aranus n iloticus n iloticus ( monitor l izard) V aranus

3

R eptilia i ndet i ndet.

3 38

( tortoise)

S truthio c amelus A yes.

1 2

s p. ( ostrich)

( large)

P edetes c apensis

1 1

2 1

1 2

1

1

5

1

1

1

1

1 1

( springhare)

1 3

1

G erbillurus p aeba ( hairy-footed g erbil) R odentia i ndet. P anthera l eo

5

( medium)

2

( lion)

F elidae i ndet.

( cat)

1 -

-

2

1

1

1

1

1

C arnivora i ndet.

( large)

3

2

-

C arnivora i ndet.

( medium)

2

2

-

O rycteropus a fer

( antbear)

2

1

1

E quus b urchellii

( i)

ebra) ( Burchell - s z D iceros b icornis ( black r hinoceros) H ippopotamus amphibius/ D iceros b icornis P hacochoerus a ethiopicus P otamochoerus p orcus

( warthog)

( bushpig)

S uidae i ndet. G iraffa c amelopardalis A epyceros m elampus C onnochaetes

( giraffe)

( impala)

1 86

2 3(2)

1 6(1)

1 9

5 (1)

2 (1)

4

2

-

4

2 (1)

2 (1)

1

1 (1)

1 (1)

5

1

-

5 6

6

2

4 1

8

6

1 1 6

4 3 (1)

4 1 (1)

t aurinus

( blue w ildebeest) A lcelaphinae i ndet.

3 58

s ite

T able 1

c ontd.

S PECIES P RESENT

N ISP

R aphicerus c ampestris S yncerus c affer

3

( steenbok)

( African b uffalo)

T aurotragus o ryx ( eland) B os t aurus ( domestic c attle)

M NI(a)

1

2 2

9 (1)

2 5 6

2 2 1(11)

M NI(b)

1 6(1) 1 14(8)

O vis a ries/Capra h ircus ( domestic s heep/goat) H ippotragus c f e quinus K obus e llipsiprymnus B oy. B oy.

( roan)

( waterbuck)

I I I

8

2

5 5

2 2

1 2 2

16 4 2

4 (1) 6 (1)

1(1) 2(1) 1(1)

B oy.

I I(b)

8 9

4 (1)

B oy.

I II

( cattle s ize)

3 5

1

B oy. B oy.

I II I II

( non-domestic) ( indeterminate)

B oy.

I V

6 6 4 57

3 2(1)

1 64

8(2)

M ammalia i ndet.

( large)

7

M ammalia i ndet.

( small)

1

N umber i n p arenthesis = n umber o f

2

j uvenile o r u nfused b ones

3 59

T able 2

S ize c m

L etaba L e 6 :

B ov.I

B ov.II/ I(b) I

0 -2 2 -3 3 -4 4 -5 5 -6 6 -7 7 -8 8 -9 9 -10 1 0-11 1-12 1 2-20

5 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 8 8 1 6 0 3 0 0 0 0 0

T OTAL

8

4 6

S izes o f l ong-bone f ragments

B oy. II I

2 1 6 1 4 3 0 2 0 1 8 1 9 6 6 8 1 3

1 43

B oy. E quid I V

O ther T otal l arge m ammal

0 3 1 4 1 2 7 3 3 5 1 1 2 4

0 3 3 5 1 0 3 5 1 2 1 3 0

0 0 0 2 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 2

5 5

3 6

9

ess t han 8 c m l ong. 8 4% l

3 60

1 7 4 0 4 0 5 1 4 5 2 6 3 1 1 3 9 1 0 6 9

2 97

%

5 ,7 1 3,5 1 3,5 1 7,2 1 5,3 8 ,7 1 0,4 4 ,4 3 ,0 3 ,4 2 ,0 3 ,0

A nother t he

s tatistically s ound m ethod w hich h as

t otal

N ISP

c ount

G ilbert & S inger

b een

p roposed

c orrected f cr t he c omplexity o f

( 1982)

u sed

t his

m ethod

i n

u ses

t he s keleton.

c omputer

s imulation

s tudies a nd f ound i t t o b e a r eliable e stimator. A gain, i n p ractice, l ocal s amples a re m uch t oo f ragmented a nd d ifferentially p reserved, s o t hat

t he N ISP p er s keleton i s d ifficult o r i mpossible t o e stimate. N ISP

c ounts

a re

s ubject

s keletal c omplexity b ut a lso s pecies.

T his

l ong-bone

t o

f ragments a re F rom

a re

o f

p reservation

f ragments

l ess

o f

a nd

t han

l ong-bone f ragments w ere a lmost a ll

i dentification t han

d egree

b etween

o ther

m ammal

t able i t b ecomes c lear t hat a lmost a ll

T his p reservation

f ragments o f

t he

d ue n ot o nly t o v ariation i n

l isted u nder v arious b ovid

t his

i dentifiable l ong-bones w ere l ength.

b ias

i s c learly i llustrated i n T able 2 w here a ll i dentified

s ize-classes. U nidentifiable

t o

p attern

l arge

i s

a nimals

t hat s mall s ize,

a s

h eavily t heir

8

( 91%)

i n

b ones,

t he

l ength.

u nder

b iased

a re m uch l ess l ikely

s imilar f ragments o f b one

c m

7 c m i n

a gainst

t he

w hen r educed

t o

b e

t o

i dentified

t hat w ere i nitially m uch s maller.

M uch o f t he m aterial f rom L e 6 ( which i s r elatively w ell-preserved w hen c ompared w ith t hat f rom o ther s ites i n t he K ruger N ational P ark) w as r etrieved f rom p its, l ittle

e ffect.

T he

w here w eathering a nd t rampling w ould h ave h ad f ragmentation

c an

b e

a ttributed

m ainly

t o

s uch

a s

b utchering p ractices. I n f aunal s amples M apungubwe

( Voigt

f rom o ther T ransvaal

1 983)

a nd

1 981), b ones o f d omestic o verwhelming e xtent.

a s

m ammals d oes

i s

t he

s ubsistence

M NI

c ount,

a

p attern r emains

W e a re w ell a ware o f a n

I n t he L e 6 s ample,

7 40 a s a gainst

b y f eature o r a s a c ombined

u ntil

a cceptable

A ge

s ites

( Voigt & P lug

a nimals d ominate t he N ISP s ample t o a n T his f act r emains c lear n o m atter w hat

q uantifying s ystem o ne u ses. w ild

I ron

t he L impopo v alley s ites

1 41

t he N ISP

c ount

f or d omestic a nimals,

p redominantly

h unting

f or

r eflecting,

s ociety.

T his

t he s ame w hether L e 6 i s e xamined f eature s ample.

t he p roblems c onnected w ith M NI

a lternative

m aterial c an b e p ut f orward i t

i s

c ounts,

b ut

f or d ealing w ith h ighly f ragmented g ood p ractice

t o c ontinue t o p rovide

N ISP c ounts t ogether w ith MNI c ounts w here p ossible, b ecause w hatever s ystems w ill i n f uture b ecome w idely a ccepted, t he b asis f or a ll c alculations w ill s till b e

t he N ISP c ounts.

R EFERENCES B OBROWSKI, P . a nalysis:

T . 1 982. A n e xamination o f C asteel's M NI b ehaviour a r eductionist a pproach. M idcontinental J . A rchaeol.

7 : 1 71-184. C ASTEEL, R . W . 1 977a.

C haracterization o f f aunal a ssemblages a nd t he

m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals d etermined

f rom

c ontinuing

J .

1 25-134. C ASTEEL, R . W . n umber

p roblems 1 977b. o f

s amples. G ILBERT, A .

J . J . S .

a rchaeology.

A c onsideration o f i ndividuals

c haracterization. F IELLER, N . R .

i n

O ssa 3 /4:

& T URNER A . a rchaeol. & S INGER,

i ndex :

p aired

t he b ehaviour o f a

e lements:

a rchaeol.

p roblem

S ci.

4 :

t he m inimum i n

f aunal

1 41-151.

1 982.

N umber e stimation

i n

v ertebrate

S ci. 9 : 4 9-62. B . H . 1 982. R eassessing z ooarchaeological

3 61

q uantification. G RAYSON, D . K . 1 978.

W ld A rchaeol. 1 4: 2 1-140. M inimum n umbers a nd s ample

f aunal a nalysis. P ERKINS,

D .

1 973.

r emains

f rom

Am. Antiq. A

4 3:

s ize

i n

v ertebrate

5 3-65.

c ritique o n t he m ethods o f q uantifying f aunal

a rchaeological

s ites.

D omestikations-forschung

u nd

I nternationales

i n

s ymposion

I n:

M ATOLCSI,

G eschichte B udapest

d er

1 971:

J .,

e d.

H austiere.

3 67-369.

K iado:

B udapest A kademiai. S EBER,

G .

A .

F .

p arameters. T URNER,

A .

1 980.

1 973.

E .

A .

G riffin.

M inimum n umber

f aunal a nalysis. V OIGT,

T he e stimation o f a nimal a bundance a nd r elated

L ondon:

1 983.

O ssa 7 :

e stimation o ffers m inimal

M apungubwe:

o f a n I ron A ge c ommunity.

i nsight

i n

1 99-201. a n a rchaeozoological i nterpretation

P retoria:

T ransvaal

Museum

M onograph

1 . V OIGT,

E .

v alley.

A .

& P LUG,

I .

U npubl. R ep.

1 981. H um.

E arly I ron A ge h erders o f S ci.

3 62

R es.

C ouncil,

t he L impopo

P retoria.

3 8.

B EHAVIOURAL I NFERENCES B ASED O N F REQUENCIES I N B ONE A SSEMBLAGES F ROM A RCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES A .

T urner

I NTRODUCTION W e

m ay d iscern t wo c omponents

b y a n a ssemblage o f b ones.

i n t he b ehavioural d ata r epresented

F irst

i s

t he s election o f a nimals

f rom t he

l iving p opulation t o f orm t he k illed p opulation. S econd i s t he s election a nd t reatment o f b ody p arts f rom t he k illed a nimals, e nding i n

t he

d eposition

o f a b one a ssemblage.

c oncerned w ith t he r econstruction o f f or

b ehavioural i nference.

F or c onvenience a nd t he

s hall a ssume t hat w hat i s d eposited i s d iscussed e lsewhere

( Turner 1 983)

A SSEMBLAGE Q UANTIFICATION : I t

i s

c lear

v arious

s keletal

s ignificant

e ffect

p opulation.

O nly

t he

b ecause

p arts

o f

u pon i n

p ossible

t o

f or a nalysis:

i nstances w here t his

a ctivities

c onstituting

s uch

b ones w ill,

h ave

t he

s econd o f

t he

a bundances

i n

t he

o riginal

k illed

t he c ase o f a s ingle a gent a cting i n a s imilar

c laim

i nstances,

I s o.

a n umber o f s pecies, w ill t end t o h ave a

i n t he k illed p opulation

a pproximate

c ongruence

a bundances i n t he b one a ssemblage a nd t he k illed i n

i s n ot

t hey i nvolve d ifferential t reatment

m anner o n t he e ntire r ange o f b ones b e

r ecovered

b asis

s ake o f b revity I

W HY W E C ANNOT S IMPLY C OUNT S PECIMENS

t hat

b ehavioural c omponent,

T his p resent d iscussion i s

t he k illed p opulation a s a

w ill

b etween

i t

r elative

p opulation.

E xcept

i t i s i nherently u nlikely t hat a ny g iven g roup o f

b y t he t ime o f d eposition i n t he g round,

p reserve

d etails

o f t he k illed p opulation i n a ny d irect m anner. I t i s t herefore e qually u nlikely t hat t he r econstruction o f b ehaviour w hich l ed t o t he f ormation

o f

t he d eposited s ample c an b e b ased u pon d irect c ounts o f

m aterial i n t hat b one

w eights,

s ample. f ragment

S uch c ounts,

w hether t hey t ake t he

n umbers

o ne o r o ther o f

e stimating m inimum n umbers o f o f

o r

i ndividuals,

t he e xcavated s ample w hich e xist

a re d escriptive

t he k illed p opulation f rom w hich t he s ample

T heir

f or

d escribing

v alidity o f e xtrapolation t o I n s hort, f or

t wo

a ctivity,

t he

s ample

i s

F irst,

a nd s econd,

s o

s tatistics

n ot

a t

w as

d rawn.

i ssue, b ut

t he

t he k illed p opulation i s q uestionable.

w e n eed t o k now s omething a bout

r easons.

o f

i n a n u nknown r elationship t o t he

p arameters o f v alue

f orm

t he m ethods f or

t he

k illed

p opulation

t hat w e m ay a ttempt t o i nterpret k illing

s o t hat w e c an b egin t o i nterpret

t he a ctivities

w hich t ransformed t he k illed p opulation i nto t he d eposited s ample.

E STIMATIONS B ASED O N A SSEMBLAGE D ISTRIBUTIONS F ortunately,

t here

i s

a

m ethod

a bundances

f rom t he d eposited s ample

t echnique

m akes

p airs o f b ones

u se o f

f or

e xtrapolating

t o t he k illed

r elative

p opulation.

T his

t he d istributions w ithin p otentially m atching

i n t he e xcavated/deposited s ample,

3 63

a nd

e stimates

t he

l ikely

s ize

o f

t he

k illed

d istribution w as d rawn. p otentially p airable r esults c ompared.

p opulation

s ize

f rom

w hich

T his e stimation m ay b e r epeated f or s keletal

e lements

s uch a s

a s o ne c an d iscern,

a

m any

a nd t he

I magine a p ile o f, s ay, l eft a nd r ight m andibles f rom 1 00 a nimals o f a s ingle s pecies. T here w ill b e 1 00 l eft a nd 1 00 r ight s pecimens. I f t he p ile i s t horoughly m ixed a nd w e d raw f rom i t a s ample o f p erhaps 5 0 m andibles, w e s hould e xpect t o g et r oughly e qual n umbers o f l eft a nd r ight b ones. M oreover, w e s hould e xpect t hat s ome o f t he l eft

a nd

r ight

h alves

w ould p air.

W e s hould

s ample a n umber o f p airs p lus a n umber o f

t herefore h ave i n o ur

u nmatched

l eft

a nd

r ight

b ones. T he o riginal p ile r epresents t he k illed p opulation, a nd t he d rawn s ample r epresents t he d eposited/excavated a ssemblage. I t hink o ne c an s ee i ntuitively t hat t he n umber o f p airings s hould i ncrease a s t he s ample s ize i ncreased, a nd t hat t he d istribution o f l eft, r ight a nd

p airs

d rawn.

s hould

r eflect

W e c an e xpress

p opulation

t he

p opulation f rom w hich t he s ample w as

t he r elationship b etween

m athematically,

k illed p opulation s ize.

a nd

T he

u se

t he

s ample

a nd

t he

t hat e xpression t o e stimate t he

m ethod

o f

d oing

s o

i s

p erhaps

b est

e xplained b y a n a nalogy. T he

a nalogy

i s

w ith

c apture-recapture

g ame c ensus

w here d istributions o f p reviously t agged a nimals a re n l

u sed

i n

a

t echniques,

c aught

s ample

t o e stimate t he l iving p opulation s ize o f a s pecies.

a nimals

a re

c aught,

t agged

a nd

r eleased;

n 2

T hus:

a nimals

a re

s ubsequently c aught a nd M o f t hese a nimals a re f ound t o b e t agged. I f N i s t he u nknown s ize o f t he l iving p opulation, t hen o ne w ould e xpect t hat M /n2 = n l/N I n

o ther

w ords,

( 1)

o ne w ould e xpect

t he p roportion o f

t agged a nimals

i n

t he s econd c aught s ample t o b e e qual ( or r oughly s o) t o t he p roportion o f t agged a nimals i n t he o verall p opulation. O ne c an t hen c alculate t he u nknown v alue o f N b y s imple

t ransposition :

N = n l.n2/M I n t he a nalogous c ase o f s een

t hus:

N

i s

t he

e xample g iven a bove.

( 2) t he b one a ssemblage t he

k illed

p opulation

T he n umber o f

l eft

p opulation m ay b e c onsidered a nalogous T he r ight b ones ( these

( R)

a nalogies

d rawn a re a nalogous m ay

e qually

w ell

r ight b ones w ill p air w ith s ome o f b ones

( P)

c apture.

a re

a nalogous

I n o ther w ords,

t o

b ones

T hen i t

F ormula

( 3) o f

q uantifies l eft,

r ight

l eft

a nd r ight b ones,

t he

a nd

t hese

r epresent

n 2 t he

p aired

i n t he s econd

t hose

a nimals,

i s e asily s een t hat ( 3)

t he

i ntuitive

a nd

p aired

e xpectation

b ones

p opulation s ize f rom w hich t he s ample i s d rawn. w hy t he h igher t he n umber o f p airs, i n r elation t o k illed p opulation.

f rom

T hen s ome o f

a nimals, M ,

N = L .R/P

d istribution

d rawn

t o t he s econd-stage s ample

m arked

b e

t agged s ample, n l.

b e r eversed).

t he l eft b ones,

t he

s ituation m ay

1 00 a nimals i n t he

( L)

t o t he f irst

t he p aired b ones

c aught" a t b oth s tages.

s ize,

t he l arger

w ill

t hat

t he

r eflect

t he

I t i s a lso e vident t he q uantity o f

t he s ample i s a s a p roportion o f

I n t he e vent o f n o p airs b eing f ound,

3 64

o ne u ses

t he t he

m athematical c onvention N = ( L+1) T he

a pplication

a ssemblage i s n ot s keletal

p art.

o f

( R+1)

( 4)

t his

l imited t o

t echnique

l eft

a nd

f or

t he

e stimates,

m ore

a nalysis o f a b one

s pecimens

o f

d etailed

t o

d iscussion o f

t he p ractical a spects o f

O ne m ay a lso c alculate

m aking

c omparable i n a m anner s imilar A

t he

a

g iven

A ny t wo e lements w hich a re p otentially p airable i n a n

i ndividual a nimal m ay b e e mployed. l imits

t o

r ight

i ts

a ny

t hat o f,

c onfidence

t wo

r esults

s ay,

t wo r adiocarbon d ates.

s tatistically

t he r ationale b ehind t his m ethod,

u se,

i s

g iven

b y

F ieller

&

a nd

T urner

( 1982). T he

v alue

o f

t he

t echnique

l ies n ot o nly i n t he e stimation o f

k illed p opulation s ize f or t he p airing e lements s elected. i s

a

m ethod

w hich r elies u pon r andom s election o f

e lement p airs s ensitive

f or a n a ccurate e stimate o f N ,

t o

b iasing

u nequal n umbers, o ther

e ffects.

w ith r espect

p airing c omponents

t o

o f

t he

d istributions. c ounts

o f

i n e ssence,

A s

s uch,

a gent

( 3)

t herefore

p opulation s ize, w ithin

t he

t echnique

i s

a lso

o f

l eft a nd r ight o r B iasing e ffects o f

b e

a

p reserved

r ecord

i n

o f

t he

t he a ssemblage

t hese b iases a re t he v ery r eason

w hy

s imple

i n t he a ssemblage a re a n i nadequate b asis f or t he

a nalysis o f a ctivities l eading t o F ormula

t o

i t

e ffects m ay i nclude

t he s ample s ize,

a ccumulating

e lements

t he

b iasing

( Fieller & T urner 1 982).

o ne s ort o r a nother a re l ikely, b ehaviour

T hese

B ecause

t he c omponents o f

p rovides

t he

b ut a lso a t ool f or

a ssemblage.

I n

f ormation

n ot

o f

t he

a ssemblage.

o nly a n e stimate o f

t he e xploration o f

t he k illed

d istributions

t he c ase o f a n a ssemblage t hat e xhibits

b ias,

t he e stimate o f N f or a ny g iven e lement p air m ay i n i tself b e o f

l ess

i mportance

t han

t he

d emonstration

o f

t hat b ias.

t herefore e xamine a ny e stimate i n r elation t o t he t he

O ne s hould

c onfidence

l imits,

s ample s ize a nd t he e quality o f d istribution b etween t he m atching

e lements

( Fieller & T urner 1 982).

A S UMMARY O F T HE V ALUE O F T HE M ETHOD 1 .

2 .

T he t echnique

p rovides a n e stimate o f

p opulation

f rom

e lements i s

l ikely t o h ave b een d rawn.

a ttached t o

t he e stimate.

T he

o f

s ize

w hich

t he

p airable e lements d ifferences

i n

k illed m ay

t he

s ize

o f

t he

k illed

t he o bserved d istribution o f a ny p airable

b e

e stimates

C onfidence

p opulation e stimated c ompared. w ill

l imits

m ay

b e

f or a s eries o f

S tatistically

s ignificant

r eveal d ifferential p rocesses o f

s election f or v arious p airs o f e lements, a nd m ay t hus i ndicate p rocesses o f c arcass t reatment b y a n a ccumulating a gent. F or e xample: g iven

s uppose

s pecies

i s

D oes t his r eflect e lement

l ikely

t hat i n a n a ssemblage t he n umber o f

f emora o f

a

s ubstantially g reater t han t he n umber o f h umeri. l ess s election a nd t o

u se

o f

h umeri

o r

i s

h ave b een m ore d amaged i n p rocessing?

c ounting t he b ones m ay n ot o ffer a n e asy a nswer t o

t his

t he

S imply

q uestion,

a lthough o ne w ould c onsider s upplementary d etails s uch a s b utchery m arks a nd d egree o f i f

t he

f ragmentation.

d istributions

d rawn f rom t he

B ut o ne r eally w ants

t o

k now

f or e ach b one t ype a re l ikely t o h ave b een

s ame n umber o f a nimals.

3 65

I f

t he e stimates

f or

t he

k illed p opulation s ize b ased o n e ach s keletal p art a re s imilar, t aking a ccount o f e stimate c onfidence l imits, t hen o ne m ight c onclude t hat t he o bserved d iscrepencies r esulted f rom d ifferential p rocessing. 3 .

B iases

i n

t he

p opulation

s election

w ill

b e

o f

t he

r eflected

i n

a ssemblage

i n

u nequal

t he

s ample h ave

f rom

t he

n umbers

o f

k illed t he

t wo

c omponents o f a ny p otential p air a nd i n w ide c onfidence l imits f or t he e stimate. T ogether w ith i nformation d erived u nder p oint 2 a bove,

s uch

b iases

p rocesses.

T he

o ffer

a nalyst

e vidence

t hen h as

s uch e vidence i n t he l ight o f o ther a ccumulating a gent. W hen o f

t aken

t ogether,

t hese

o f

d ifferential

t he o pportunity o f

s election

i nterpreting

i ndications o f a ctivity b y t he

t hree p oints s how t he p otential v alue

t he e stimation a pproach f or o ur u nderstanding o f b oth c omponents o f C riticisms o f

t he

a pproach ( Voigt 1 984; P lug 1 984), w hile c orrect i n p ointing t o d ifficulties e ncountered w hen d ealing w ith h ighly f ragmented b one,

b ehaviour

r epresented

b y

a n a ssemblage o f b ones.

t he a re

e ssentially a c ritique o f q uantification i tself i n s uch c ircumstances. A ll

m ethods

o f

e stimation a nd i nference a re s ubject

w hen b ased o n p oor s amples,

w hatever

t o d ifficulties

t he f ield o f s tudy.

T his p aper i s n ecessarily a s ummary o f t he t opic. d iscussion o f

t he e stimation t echnique p roposed,

b ackground a nd n ecessary F ieller

&

T urner

a pplications o f

c onditions

( 1982).

A

t he t echnique i s

f or

m ore

M ore

a pplication,

e xtensive

g iven b y T urner

d etailed

i ncluding t heoretical i s

e xamination

g iven o f

b y t he

( 1983).

R EFERENCES F IELLER, N . R . s amples. P LUG,

I .

J . J .

& T URNER, A . 1 982. N umber e stimation i n v ertebrate a rchaeol. S ci. 9 : 4 9-62.

1 984.

A VERY, e ds.

P roceedings o f o f

M NI

c ounts,

p its

a nd f eatures.

I n:

H ALL, M .

G ., A VERY, D . M ., W ILSON, M . L . & H UMPHREYS, A . F rontiers: s outhern A frican A rchaeology t he c onference o f

A rchaeologists,

G aborone

J .,

J . B ., t oday.

t he s outhern A frican A ssociation B ritish O xford: 1 983.

A rchaeological R eports. T URNER, A . a nd

1 983.

n f ossil bundances i T he q uantification o f r elative a 3: 3 T ransvaal M us. b one a ssemblages. A nn.

s ub-fossil

3 11-321. V OIGT, E . A . 1 984. p ossibilities. M .L.

a nd p roblems a nalysis I ron A ge f aunal I n: H ALL, M .J., A VERY, G ., A VERY, D .M., W ILSON,

& H UMPHREYS, -- A .J.B.,

A rchaeology t oday.

e ds.

P roceedings o f

F rontiers: s outhern A frican onference o f t he s outhern t he c

A frican A ssociation o f A rchaeologists, B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

3 66

G aborone

1 983.

O xford:

3 9.

T HE D ETERMINATION O F M INIMUM N UMBERS O F I NDIVIDUAL F ISH F ROM C OASTAL S ITES C .

A .

I N S OUTH A FRICA

P oggenpoel

I NTRODUCTION C oastal s ites t hese p art

p ose a nd

i n S outh A frica

g enerally

y ield

f ish

b ones,

a nd

p articular p roblems w hen i t c omes t o i dentifying t he b ody s pecies

p resent,

a nd

c alculating

m inimum

n umbers

o f

i ndividuals ( MNI). T he a im o f t his p aper i s t wofold: f irst t o s how t hat d ifferent s pecies a re o ften b est r epresented b y d ifferent b ody p arts a nd t hat t he h ighest f requencies a re n ot a lways d erived f rom c ounting p re-maxillae a nd d entaries; a nd s econdly t o s how t hat i n o rder t o u nderstand t he e conomy o f h unter-gatherers o ne m ust c alculate m eat y ield o f c ount

i n p rep.) a nd

t he d ifferent

i ndividuals. o n t he

s pecies

r epresented

D ata f rom N elson B ay C ave

s outhern C ape c oast,

S tofbergsfontein

a nd P aternoster,

( Robertshaw 1 977a,

C ape c oast w ill b e d iscussed

( Fig.

r ather

b ,

t han

( Klein 1 972;

1 979a,

m erely I nskeep,

D uiker

b ),

E iland

o n t he w estern

1 ).

C ALCULATING MNIs T he m ain p urpose o f m y p roject w as p rehistoric

h unter-fishers

a nd

I nitially b oth w ere b ased o n i dentify

b ones

t o

a nd d entary t o b e d iscovered,

s pecies

t he

m ost

h owever,

t o

t o i dentify c alculate

j aw p arts.

T his m ethod i s

l evel b ecause I h ave f ound r eliable

b ones

r epresented a nd

t hat MNIs s hould b e b ased o n t he

v ertebrae, i dentify.

a lthough T he

t aken

b y

f or

s till u sed

t o

t he p re-maxilla

i dentification.

I

t hat i n s ome c ases o ther b ody p arts w ere b etter

n umerous.

O f

s pecies

t he MNIs r epresented.

a xial t hey

a tlas

w hatever

b one

i s

m ost

s keleton t he m ost d urable a ppear t o b e t he a re

g enerally

d amaged

a nd u ltimate v ertebra c an,

a nd

d ifficult

h owever,

t o

b e u sed t o

e stablish M NI c ounts. T he f ish r emains f rom t he N elson B ay C ave c learly s how t hat i n a s ample t hat i ncludes i ndividuals o f l ess t han 1 7 c m i n l ength, 1

i llustrates

j aw b ones a re l ikely t o b e u nder-represented; t hat

a

h igher

M NI

i s o btained f rom t he

T able

i ncidence o f

a tlases.

T able 1

C omparison

o f m inimum

n umbers o f i ndividuals u nder

i n l ength f rom s elected

l ayers

i n N elson B ay C ave,

1 7

j aw b ones a nd a tlases. L ayer n o.

J aw b ones

A tlas

v ertebrae

2 5

8 5

1 73

2 7

1 30

3 71

4 2

1 251

2 024

4 3

1 240

1 580

3 67

c m

b ased o n

,--

3 68

O n a nalysis,

i t w as

f ound

t hat a t e ach o f

d ifferent b ody p art y ielded t he h ighest M NI. t he e ndopterygoid. H ottentot ( Pachymetopon s pecies

p ositively

i dentified

a nd

t he w est c oast

s ites

a

A t P aternoster t his w as b lochii) w as t he o nly

i t

w as

a ssumed

t hat

a ll

e ndopterygoids p resent b elonged t o t his s pecies. L eft a nd r ight e ndopterygoids o f c orresponding m easurements f rom a ny o ne l ayer w ere t aken a s r epresenting o ne i ndividual a nd u npaired l efts o r r ights a s s eparate i ndividuals. A n MNI o f 2 8 w as o btained o n j aw b ones. T his n umber w as i ncreased t o 7 2 i ndividuals, h owever, b y c ounting e ndopterygoids.

I n

t he

D uiker

h ottentots w as c alculated o n r ichardsoni)

o n

E iland

s ample

j awbones a nd

p arasphenoids.

A fter

1 0

a

m inimum

s outhern

o f

m ullet

1 9

( Liza

a ll b ody p arts w ere c ounted,

o toliths p rovided a n M NI o f 3 5 f or h ottentot; t he o toliths o f s outhern m ullet a re s o s mall t hat n one w ould h ave b een r etained b y t he 3 m m s ieves u sed. S tofbergsfontein y ielded A m inimum o f

6 4

w ere i dentified o n t he

m odern

b est.

j aw b ones,

a nnual

r esult I d ecided m ullet

t he l argest f ish s ample a nd m ore s pecies.

f ish w ere i dentified o n c atch

o f

t o c onduct

j aw b ones.

N o

s outhern m ullet

a lthough L angebaan L agoon y ields 6 0% t his

a n

s pecies.

e xperiment.

o f

I n o rder t o c heck t his A

n umber

o f

s outhern

s kulls w ere c rushed i n o rder t o d etermine w hich b ones s urvived R esults

b roken u p, b ut

s howed t hat

t he

j aw b ones o f t his s pecies w ere

t he b asioccipital w as

q uickly

s turdy a nd s urvived w ell.

I t w as

a lso f ound t o b e d istinct e nough t o p rovide r eliable i dentification o f t he

s pecies.

U se

o f

t his

b one s howed t hat,

3 35

i n f act,

s outhern

m ullet w ere r epresented. B asioccipitals h ave s ince b een

e xamined

i n

s amples

f rom

s ites

o ther t han t hose d iscussed a bove, a nd s imilar i ncreases i n n umbers o f s outhern m ullet h ave r esulted. A t E lands B ay C ave ( Parkington 1 981) t he

c ount w as

i ncreased f rom s ix i ndividuals t o 1 25 a nd a t N elson B ay

C ave ( Klein 1 972; I nskeep, i n p rep.) f rom t hree t o 4 65. L ikewise, a lthough, s outhern m ullet w ere n ot r epresented b y j aw b ones, a t S torms R iver M outh C ave ( Deacon 1 970), H out B ay C ave ( Buchanan 1 977), B yneskranskop C ave ( Schweitzer & W ilson 1 982), a nd D ie K elders C ave ( Schweitzer 1 979) i dentified

3 9,

1 9,

1 0,

( Poggenpoel & R obertshaw m ullet

a nd

o n b asioccipitals.

a re

n ot

s trongly s uggesting t hat p eople l iving a t

1 981)

r epresented

4

i ndividuals

r espectively

w ere

A t o ther s ites s uch a s S mitswinkel B ay a nd b y

R ooiels

e ither

i ndeed t hese f ish

( Smith

1 981)

s outhern

j aw b ones o r b asioccipitals, w ere

n ot

c aught

b y

t he

t hese s ites.

M EAT Y IELD A ND E CONOMIC I MPORTANCE T he t o

r elationship

b etween M NIs a nd t he a mount o f m eat c ontributed

t he d iet i s n ot d irect,

a nd

m eat

y ield.

m isleading i ndex o f

d ue t o d ifferences i n

U se

o f

M NIs

a lone

t he

r elative

c an,

i mportance

s ize

o f

t herefore, o f

d ietary

i ndividual p rovide

a

c omponents

( Avery 1 976). T he

o ccurrence

o f

r easonably

l arge n umbers o f h ottentot

P aternoster a nd D uiker E iland s amples m ade i t

p ossible

t o

i n t he

i nterpret

r emains o f t his s pecies i n t erms o f t he o riginal s ize a nd m eat w eight. T o p rovide t he c ontrol t he d iameters o f a tlases a nd b asioccipitals f rom

a

m odern

s ample

o f

1 16 h ottentot w ere m easured a nd e quated t o

3 69

T able 2

C omparison o f M NIs a nd e stimated m eat y ield o f t en s pecies B P.

a t

F amily/species

S eriola l alandi ( Cape y ellowtail)

3 000 -1500 B P M NI M eat ( kg)

5 000 -3000 B P M NI M eat ( kg)

6 88

3 784

5 4

2 97

1 64

3 28

9 1

1 64

2 30

2 10

3 45

3 45

( carpenter) 4 99 D iplodus s argus ( blacktail) 1 699 L ithognathus l ithognathus ( white s teenbras) 2 83

1 04

1 94

4 0

5 09

7 67

1 51

7 07

1 6

2 9

2 86

5 1

3 06

7 6

5 6

1 96

3 1

1 08

4 58

9 1

1 6

5 873

9 88

5 49

1 8

1 0236

6 968

2 369

1 321

P omatomus s altator ( elf) C oracinus c apensis ( galjoen) A rgyrozona a rgyrozona

R habdosargus g lobiceps ( red s teenbras) P etrus r upestris ( white s tumpnose) L iza r ichardsoni ( southern m ullet) C linidae ( klipfish)

T otal

s elected

N elson B ay C ave 5 000 -3000 B P a nd 3 000 -1500

3 70

3

m eat y ield. T he a rchaeological r emains w ere i nterpreted o n t he b asis o f t hese d ata. T he m ean s ize o f a tlases i n t he P aternoster s ample w as 4 ,2 m m, y ield o f

r epresenting a m ean f ork l ength o f o f

3 55

5 ,5 mm,

y ield

2,5 c m a nd a n a verage m eat 2

A t D uiker E iland t he a tlases h ad a l arger m ean s ize

r epresenting a m ean f ork l ength o f 3 2,0 c m

o f

5 20

i ndividuals t his

g . g .

T hus,

i n t he P aternoster s ample

s pecies

i n

P aternoster a nd

t he

t wo

s amples

t he t otal m eat i s

1 0

( Table 2 ). s uggest

R esults

( Clinidae) a re

a

f rom

f rom

i ndividuals a s

t he

H olocene

s amples

g reater

r epresented

d ated

e mphasis

o f

b eing 2 4 k g f rom

t han o ther

1 500

p laced

s pecies.

m ethod

o f

a nd

3 000

B P

o n c atching k lipfish

I n t otal,

5

8 73

k lipfish

i ndividuals o f 9 o ther s pecies.

y ields a re c ompared t he

a s s ignificant.

c ruder

l evels a t N elson B ay C ave

b etween

w as

o pposed t o 4 3 63

H owever, w hen t he m eat m eans

m eat

1 8 k g f rom D uiker E iland.

s pecies

t hat

m ean

c ontribution

v ery s imilar,

A s imilar r esult w as o btained u sing a s lightly e xamining

a nd

a lthough t here w ere m ore t han t wice a s m any

d ifference

i s

b y

n o

T he t otal n umber o f k lipfish r epresents 9 88 k g

o f m eat w hereas 6 88 y ellowtail ( Seriola l alandii) r epresent 3 7 84 k g. T his c learly d emonstrates t hat s pecies w ith t he h ighest MNI m ay n ot a lways h ave c ontributed

t he m ost

f ood.

C ONCLUSION T o e stablish a ccurate b ones

s hould

b e

MNIs

r etrieved

a nd

f rom

i dentifications t he

s ieves

a ll

d iagnostic

d uring e xcavation a nd

i ncluded i n t he a nalysis. I n a ddition, t o

s how

t he

t his

s tudy e mphasizes

r elative

i mportance

t hat M NIs a lone a re n ot

o f

d ifferent

i tems

e nough

i n t he d iet;

c alculation o f m eat y ield g ives a m ore r ealistic i ndication o f

t his.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I t hank W . J .

E .

F .

B uchanan, H .

P arkington,

a ccess t o t heir c ritical

P .

f ish s amples.

c omments

o n

J .

D eacon, R . R .

T . R obertshaw a nd t he

I nskeep, R .

t he l ate F . R .

G . Avery a nd J . E . p aper.

T .

S .

P arkington

R obey

G .

K lein,

S chweitzer f or

h elped

p rovided w ith

w ord

p rocessing.

R EFERENCES A VERY, G . 1 976. A s ystematic i nvestigation o f o pen s tation s hell m idden s ites a long t he s outh-western C ape c oast. U npubl. M .A. T hesis: U niversity o f C ape T own. B UCHANAN, W . F . 1 977. R escue d ig a t a L ate S tone A ge c ave, H out B ay, C ape

P rovince.

U npubl.

A rchaeology

A dditional

U niversity o f C ape T own. D EACON, H . J . 1 970. T wo s hell m idden o ccurrences N ational P ark, e cology o f K LEIN, R . 1 970

G .

C ape P rovince:

t he S trandlopers.

1 972.

S outh A frica).

K oedoe 1 3:

a t N elson B ay,

P alaeoecol. A fr.

3 71

t hrough

P lettenberg B ay 6 :

t he

T sitsikama

t he s tudy o f

t he

3 7-49.

P reliminary r eport o n t he J uly

e xcavations

i n

a c ontribution t o

P roject:

1 77-208.

S eptember

( Cape P rovince,

P ARKINGTON, J . E . 1 981. T he e ffects o f e nvironmental c hange o n t he s cheduling o f v isits t o t he E lands B ay C ave, C ape P rovince, S . A . I n :

H ODDER,

p ast:

I ,

I SAAC,

s tudies

i n

G .

L .

& HAMMOND,

N .,

h onour o f D avid C larke:

e ds.

P attern o f

3 41-359.

t he

C ambridge:

C ambridge U niversity P ress. P OGGENPOEL,

C .

&

R OBERTSHAW,

S mitswinkelbaai 3 6:

C ave,

P.

C ape

T .

1 981.

P eninsula.

T he

e xcavation

S . A fr.

a rchaeol.

o f B ull.

2 9-35.

R OBERTSHAW, C ape.

P .

T .

S .

A fr.

R OBERTSHAW,

P .

L agoon, R OBERTSHAW,

1 977a. T .

T .

1 979a.

p astoralism A frica.

i n

U npubl. P .

T .

D istrict, 1 -26. S CHWEITZER,

C ape

P aternoster,

1 0:

1 39-148.

f reshwater

f ishing

t he w estern C ape,

a nd S outh

U niversity o f C ambridge.

Excavations

a t

Ann.

E xcavations H olocene

W estern

i nvestigations a t L angebaan

A fr.

s ettlement,

T hesis:

S outh

6 3-73.

l ater p rehistory o f

P rovince.

t he

a t

3 2:

P alaeoecol.

C oastal

P h.D.

1 979.

A frica:

B ull.

A rchaeological

t he

1 979b.

F . R .

S outh

1 977b.

C ape P rovince. P .

R OBERTSHAW,

E xcavations

a rchaeol.

D uiker

C ape P rov.

a t

D ie

E iland, M il s.

K elders,

d eposits.

A nn.

V redenburg

( human S ci.) C ape S .

1 :

P rovince,

A fr.

M us.

1 :

a

7 8:

1 01-233. S CHWEITZER,

F .

R .

Q uaternary A frica. S MITH,

A .

B .

& W ILSON, M . l iving

Ann.

S .

s ite

A fr. M us.

1 981.

A n

1 982.

i n

t he

8: 8

B yneskranskop s outhern

a t R ooiels C ave,

B ull.

1 22-142.

C ape P rovince,

i nvestigation

s outh-western C ape.

3 72

L ate S outh

1 -203.

a rchaeological

d eposits 2 9:

L .

o f

H olocene

S . A fr.

a rchaeol.

4 0.

Q UESTIONS C ONCERNING F AUNAL S AMPLING S . L .

T his b rief c ontribution c oncerning

t he

T hese q uestions r elate s amples M ost m ay,

o f

f ormulation

t o

s everal

q uestions

f rom a rchaeological s ites.

t he

c ollection

o f

q uestions

t he

s ample

w as

p roblems

d rawn.

a re o bvious a nd a re b y n o m eans n ew.

o f g uide-lines c an b enefit

p roblems

a dequate

t he i nterpretation o f t he f aunal a ssemblage i n

p rovide a u seful s tarting p oint f or d iscussion,

w ho k now t he S ampling

a round

l iving p opulation f rom w hich

t hese

h owever,

s tructured

f aunal r emains

s pecifically

r ather t han t o

r elation t o t he

i s

s ampling o f

H all

i nvolved

r elated

i n

t o

t he

f rom t he e xperience o f w orkers

t he

b oth

T hey

a nd

s outhern

l arge

A frican

m ammal

a nd

c ontext.

m icrofaunal

a ssemblages a re c onsidered.

S AMPLING L ARGE MAMMAL R EMAINS T he s mall s ize o f t he

t he s amples o f

l arge m ammal r emains

m ain p roblem i n s outhern A frica.

s eems

t o

b e

T his h as a d irect e ffect o n t he

e xtent t o w hich t he s amples c an b e c ompared,

a t b oth a n i ntra-site a nd

a n i nter-site l evel s ince s mall s amples h ave l ittle u tility b eyond t he c ompilation o f p ointed

o ut

a

s pecies

t hat

l ist.

F urthermore,

s mall f aunal s amples

G rayson

( 1978)

h as

t end t o e xaggerate t he m inimum

n umber o f i ndividuals ( MNI) o f r are t axa a nd t herefore a ttempts t o i nterpret s pecies f requencies f rom s uch s amples s eem d angerous. O bviously,

a s s ample s ize i ncreases,

r elative

s pecies

f requency

c an

m ore s ecure s tatements c oncerning b e

m ade

a nd

m ore

m anipulation o f t he d ata c an b e u ndertaken, s uch p atterning i n t he a ge p rofiles o f i ndividual c onsideration i s r eliable

MNIs

t o d efine t o

e xcavations,

I n

v iew

t his

a dequate

s ample

w hich

f orm a d ependable u nit f or c omparison.

u seful t o k now w hether f ollowed.

a n

t here a re a ny g eneral g uide-lines o f

s ophisticated

a s s earching f or s pecies. T he m ain

t he g enerally s mall s cale o f

w ill

p rovide

I t w ould b e t hat

c an

b e

s outhern A frican

i s a n i mportant q uestion.

S AMPLING M ICROFAUNAL R EMAINS M icrofaunal r emains a re u sually a bundant

a nd

t herefore

s ampling

s eeks t o t ake o nly a p ortion o f t he a vailable r emains, t hereby k eeping t he w ork-load w ithin r easonable l imits. T his c onsideration a lso h as t o b e b alanced a gainst t he b est p rocedures

t he r epresentativeness o f

f or s eeking t his c ompromise?

t wo o ptions a re a vailable.

t he s ample.

W hat a re

I t w ould a ppear t hat

T he f irst c ould i nvolve t he r egulation a nd

g radual r efinement o f a s ampling i nvestigation w here t he s pecialist

s trategy o ver a m ultistage i nvolved c ould m ake p reliminary

a ssessments o f t he s amples a nd t hen, i f n ecessary, t he s cale o f t he e xcavation c ould b e a djusted. T he s econd o ption w ould b e t o i gnore t he s elective s ampling o f a m icrofaunal a ssemblage d uring e xcavation, a nd r etain t he m icrofaunal c omponent i n t oto, a long w ith a ll t he o ther i nformation

c ategories

b eing

s ampled,

3 73

a nd

t hen

s ub-sample

t he

m icrofauna i n t he l aboratory. T he a bove a re g eneral a pproaches, b ut i t i s o bviously u p t o t he s pecialist i nvolved t o g auge w hat t he m inimum s ize o f a m icrofaunal s ample s hould b e. I n t his r egard, t he q uestion o f h ow t his m inimum s ample i s d efined i s i ts

d efinition

f or

a

l arge m ammal s ample.

m ain q uestion r aised h ere i s h ow

c an

t he

n o

d ifferent

f rom

A s m entioned a bove,

r eliability

o f

a

t he

f aunal

s ample b e g auged?

R EFERENCE G RAYSON, D .K. 1 978. f aunal a nalysis.

M inimum n umbers a nd s ample s ize i n v ertebrate Am. A ntiq. 4 3: 5 3-65.

3 74

4 1.

S AMPLING P ROCEDURES A ND C AUTIONARY T ALES D . M . Avery

T he q uestion o f s ampling p rocedures a nd t heir i nherant b iases h as b een

d iscussed

p ointed o ut,

a rchaeological e mploying

a s m asse

a

r ecent

c hange

i ndividual i n

t he

y ears.

f rom

A s P ayne

r egarding

p alaeontological r econstruction

t he

s amples

i n t he c ourse o f

t o a scertain t he n ature o f s uggests

c ollecting r ecovery. i n

e n

d uring

b een

( 1972)

b ones

f rom

s pecimens

o f

t o

p rehistoric

T his h as n ecessitated a n i ncreasing s ophistication i n t he

a nalysis o f i mportant

h as

s ites

t hem

e conomies.

( 1975:7)

e xtensively

t here

t hat w orkers a re a ware o f

s mall m ammals a nd w ill E ven i f

t his

t he c ollection o f p roblem.

i t

h as

b ecome

t he p roblems

m ost P ayne

i nherent

i s c orrect p roblems w ill p robably s till f act

H owever,

t hat

i t

i n

t herefore e mploy s pecial m ethods o f

g ood s amples o f s mall a nimals.

t o b e a n a dvantage i n t he p otential

w hich

t he s ample b eing a nalysed.

e xcavators

e xist

T here m ay a ppear

a re

a ware

i s e qually p ossible t hat

o f

t he

t hey a re n ot

a ware o f t he e xact n ature o r e xtent o f t he p roblem ; t hey m ay b e u nder t he i mpression t hat t hey a re t aking a dequate c are a nd y et f requently b e m issing t he s maller s pecimens. I f

t he s mall s pecimens a re

m issed

t his

c an

h ave

a

n umber

o f

c onsequences. T he f irst, m ost o bvious, i s t hat t he o verall m inimum n umber o f i ndividuals r epresented w ill b e r educed, w hich i s a d istinct d isadvantage.

T his,

h owever,

h as m uch l ess s ignificance t han t he f act

t hat t he p roportions o f v arious s pecies c an b e s mall s pecies a re b eing s electively o mitted.

c hanged b ecause t he E rroneous c onclusions

w ill a lmost c ertainly b e r eached a bout t he p alaeoenvironment i f a ll o r m ost o f t he s mallest s hrews a nd m ice a re m issing a rtificially f rom t he s ample b eing i nterpreted.

T his

i s b ecause a n

e vidence o f t he s mall m ammal p roportions o f t he d ifferent I nterpretations

i nterpretation

o f

t he

c ommunity a s a u nit d epends u pon t he s pecies c omprising t hat c ommunity.

b ased u nwittingly o n p artial d ata w ill b e i nvalid a nd

c ertainly o f n o u se a s b ackground i nformation f or

t he

a rchaeologist.

I f o ne s pecies i s b eing s tudied t hen i t i s p ossible t hat t he m andibles o r m axillae w ill b e r etained b ut t hat t he l oose t eeth w ill n ot. A n e xample o f

t he c onsequences o f

t his

f ully t he n ature o f

t he p roblem.

a t

t hat

t he

b eginning

o nly

i s d iscussed b elow t o e xplain m ore

I t a

s hould,

s ample

h owever,

c arefully c ollected c ould p rovide t he e vidence c ertainly

n o

i ntention

o f

b e

p ointed

o ut

t hat h as b een e xceptionally t here

i s

s uggesting n egligence o n t he p art o f

d iscussed;

t he

e xcavators. A s f ar a s e ven

w ith

i rroratus) s ieve i n

a

t he p ractical a spects a re r elatively

l arge

a ppears

t hat

( Otomys

2

m m

s ieves

w as

s orted.

T he

r etained v ery f ew l oose t eeth w hereas m any m ore w ere r ecovered

f rom t he 2 m m s ieve. B oomplaas C ave i n B RL7),

i t

s uch a s t he v lei r at

i t i s n ecessary t o s ieve m aterial t hrough a 2 m m o r f iner o rder t o r etrieve i ndividual t eeth. T his b ecame a pparent

w hen t he m aterial f rom t he 3 m m a nd f ormer

c oncerned,

r odent

T his f act i s t he C ango V alley.

f or w hich u nsorted m aterial

i llustrated b y m aterial f rom I n t wo e arlier s amples ( LP a nd

f rom t he 2 m m s ieves w as

3 75

a vailable,

l oose t eeth c omprise 8 7% a nd 7 5% r espectively o f t he s amples. F or B L a nd B LD3, w here u nsorted m aterial w as n ot a vailable, t he p ositions w ere

r eversed

( Fig.

w et-sieving a nd

t his

1 ).

P ayne

( 1972)

h as

a dvocated

i s p articularly u seful w hen o ne i s

f ine m aterial w hich i s m ore r eadily i dentifiable o nce i t t ime

o r

l abour

p ossibilities f inds.

a re

f or

T he f irst

i n

s hort

s peeding i s

t o

s upply

u p

s ieving

a re

v ery

i s c lean.

a t

l east

I f t wo

t he p rocess o f c ollecting v ery s mall

s ieve a t rial amount o f m aterial t hrough

m s ieve ( wet-sieving i f w ater m t here a re s mall s pecimens t o b e a scertained

t here

t he u se o f

s orting

a

2

i s a vailable) t o d etermine w hether r etrieved. O nce t his h as b een

c an p roceeed a nd a ll m aterial r emaining i n t he 2

m m s ieve c an b e r eturned u nsorted

t o

t hat

t his m aterial;

t here w ill b e a v ast b ulk o f

t he l aboratory.

i nterested i n t he s mall s pecimens w ill

I t

i s n ot

m oreover,

l ikely

t he p erson

f requently p refer t o

s ort

t he

m aterial h imself o r h ave i t s orted u nder h is s upervision. I n

t he c ourse o f a n i nvestigation i nto

m olars

w ere

m easured. q uantities

m easured.

A t

f irst

y ears,

r ight

T hen i t w as r ealised t hat t here w ere o f l oose t eeth t hat s hould a lso b e m easured.

t hat,

i n f act,

t he

l ower

t hose c ontained i n m andibles w ere

o riginal p lan w as m erely t o i ncrease e merged

t he p opulation d ynamics o f

1 8 0 00

t he v lei r at a t B oomplaas d uring t he l ast

t he

s ize

o f

c onsiderable A lthough t he

t he

t wo s ub-samples w ere n ot

s amples,

i t

i nterchangeable;

w ithout b oth, t he s ample w ould c learly h ave b een c onsiderably m ore b iased t han i t p resumably s till i s. F igure 1 s hows t hat i n g eneral a h igher p roportion o f t eeth.

T eeth

P erhaps

y ounger

i ndividuals

o f o lder i ndividuals

t he m ost

i s

r epresented

b y

l oose

t ended t o r emain i n t he m andible.

l ikely e xplanation f or t his i s

t hat

t he m andibles

o f

t he o lder i ndividuals a re s tronger a nd l ess l ikely t o b reak t han t hose o f

t he y ounger i ndividuals.

a nd

t hat

i s

t hat

f alling o ut o f

t he

T here i s,

h owever,

a nother

p ossibility

t eeth o f y ounger i ndividuals a re m ore p rone t o

t heir s ockets.

T his i s

s uggested

b y

t he

f act

t hat

t here a re l arge n umbers o f m andibles f rom w hich t he t eeth a re m issing, a lthough t hey h ave n ot b een e xamined w ith t his h ypothesis i n m ind s ince i t i s n ot g ermane W hatever t hat

t he

t o t he p resent d iscussion.

r eason,

i t

i s q uite c lear,

t he p opulation s tructure o f

e xamines

e ither

t he

l oose

t he v lei

t eeth o r

a t l east

r at

i s

t he g eneral p attern w ill b e m ost

l arger p roportion. t he

a ccuracy

t hat i s, b een

I t

o f

t hen,

o f c ourse,

t he p roportions o f I t

i s

c lear

o ne

t o

T his

n on-loose

t eeth

i nfluenced b y w hichever f orms

t hat

b ecomes e ssential

t eeth i n o r o ut o f

t o b e s ure t hat a ll s pecimens

r ecovered.

i f

t he embedded t eeth a lone.

t rend i s c lear w hatever t he p roportions o f l oose b ut

i n t his c ase,

d ifferent

t he

t o d etermine t he m andible,

f rom a p articular d eposit

h ave

s ufficiently f ine s ieves m ust b e

u sed t o e nsure t he r etention o f a ll s pecimens o f t he s ize b eing e xamined. E xperiment w ould q uickly d etermine w hat s ize t hat w ould b e i n a ny p articular c ase. T able 1 a nd F ig. 1 i llustrate t he e xclusion o f l oose t eeth i n s amples. c ontingency t ests w ithin

a

s ite

( Table a re

c ases a ge c lass I i s w hereas a ge c lass I II s ub-sample. r epresenting

A s t he

e

1 )

e ffects o f i nclusion o r T he r esults o f c hi-square

s how q uite c learly

t hat

t he

s ub-samples

s ignificantly d ifferent i n a ge s tructure.

I n a ll

m ost h ighly r epresented i n t he l oose-teeth i s m ost h ighly r epresented i n t he embedded-teeth r esult a ge

o ne

m ight

d istribution

3 76

i nterpret o f

a

l iving

t he

f ormer

p opulation,

a s o r

C

e l

0

N C

Z

0

N C

C

Z

• •

—

C -

— —

• • •

f irst m olars

6

0 C O

2 "

C D

C D

N

C O

Zv i z

c C)

C D

Z

, 1 9 4

( , ) 0

C D

C O

_ 21 01

.1

.

C".

I .

0

0

3 77

e mbedded t eeth,

r

T able

1

R esults o f c ontingency t ests. t he n ull h ypothesis:

t hat

P s hows

t he

p robability

o f

t he s amples r epresent p opulations

w ith s imilar a ge s tructures. V alues o f P l ess t han 0 ,05 a re t aken t o s how t hat t he n ull h ypothesis i s n ot t rue. V ariation i n t he d egrees o f

f reedom ( df)

i s d ue

t hat n ot a ll a ge c lasses a re r epresented ( nl -e mbedded t eeth; n 2 -loose t eeth) X2

t o t he

i n a ll

d f

T otal s ample -between s ites L P a nd B RL7

2 3,92

6

, 001

B RL7 a nd B L

2 3,13

6

, 001

7 ,15

7

n•s•

L P a nd B RL7

1 4,51

6

, 05

B RL7 a nd B L

4 ,29

6

n .s.

1 0,18

7

n

1,84 1

6

n .s.

1 ,43

6

n .s.

1 ,97

5

n .s.

B L a nd B LD3 S ub-samples

( nl) -b etween s ites

B L a nd B LD3 S ub-samples L P a nd B RL7 B RL7 n l

. s.

( n2) -b etween s ites

a nd B L

B L a nd B LD3 S ub-samples -w ithin s ites L P n l a nd L P n 2

2,93 2

6

, 001

B RL7 n l a nd B RL7 n 2

3 8,03

6

, 001

B L n l a nd B L n 2

3 6,66

7

, 001

B LD3 n l a nd B LD3 n 2

2 6,15

7

, 001

3 78

f act

s amples.

c atastrophic a ge p rofile, a nd t he l atter a s a s ample r esulting f rom a ttritional m ortality ( Voorhies 1 969). T his c ould i n t urn h ave m ajor i mplications f or a ny f urther d eductions o ne C onversely,

t here

i s

n o

p atterns o f l ike

s ub-samples

f rom

l evels.

d ifferent

m ight

a ttempt

t o

m ake.

s ignificant d ifference i n a ge d istribution ( only l oose

A gain,

t eeth o r o nly e mbedded t eeth)

i n m ost c ases

t he d ifference i n a ge

d istribution p atterns o f t otal a vailable s amples f rom d ifferent l evels i s s ignificant ( Table 1 ). O nly e xamination o f c omplete s amples f rom a ll t he l evels i n q uestion w ill m ake i t p ossible t o d etermine d istribution h owever, s amples

i s

a pproximately t he s ame t hroughout.

t hat t his w ill p rove t o b e t he c ase s ince e ven t he s maller o f l oose t eeth f rom t he u pper t wo l evels, B L a nd B LD3, s how

t he s ame b asic p attern; i t i s t he r elatively l arger e mbedded t eeth t hat a ffects t he g eneral p attern. T his b e

w hether

I t s eems l ikely,

p roportion

o f

c autionary t ale s hould i ndicate t hat i t i s v ery n ecessary t o

c ertain

o f

p articular,

t he

d ata

i t m ay n ot

b ase

u sed

i n

m aking

c onclusions.

a lways b e i mmediately o bvious

t hat

I n

t wo s ets o f

d ata a re n ot l egitimately c omparable,

a nd t his i s s omething t hat n eeds

t o

i n t he p resent c ase,

b e c onsidered v ery c arefully.

A s

i t

i s o ften

p robable t hat s ome i nitial e xploratory e xercises w ill b e n ecessary c larify

t he

s ituation.

B oth e xcavators a nd i nterpreters n eed

a ware o f t he p otential p roblem,

t o

t o b e

o therwise b oth a re l abouring v ainly.

R EFERENCES P AYNE, S . 1 972. a rchaeological p rehistory: P AYNE,

S .

T .,

1 975. e d.

O n t he i nterpretation o f b one s amples f rom s ites. I n : H IGGS, E . S ., e d. P apers i n e conomic

6 65-81.

A rchaeozoological

H olland P ubl. C o. V OORHIES, M .R. 1 969. P liocene

C ambridge:

C ambridge U niversity P ress.

P artial r ecovery a nd s ample b ias. s tudies:

7 -17.

I n :

T aphonomy a nd p opulation d ynamics o f

v ertebrate f auna, K nox C ounty, N ebraska.

C ontrib. G eol.

C LASON,

Amsterdam :

S pec. P ap.

1 :1-69.

3 79

a n

U niv.

A .

N orth e arly W yoming